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REPORT

OF THE

SECOND MEETING

OF THE

AUSTRALASIAN ASSOCIATION

FOR THE

ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE

HELD AT
MELBOURNE, VICTORIA,
IN

JANUARY, 1890.

EDITED BY

W. BALDWIN SPENCER, M.A.

Published by the Association.

PERMANENT OFFICE OF THE ASSOCIATION:
THE ROYAL SOCIETY’S HOUSE, 5 ELIZABETH STREET,

SYDNEY.

CARLTON, MELBOURNE :

FF 3 ;
a : PRINTED BY FORD AND SON, DRUMMOND STREET.

Be he's. 7% } eh a er) ie ee Oe :
he aan , 1890.

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1 ereshavecis’’ taTweds > 5 sas ries we ee eee
ni PBANTS TWYESARIE Le Be OM ST Oe TATOO ati
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“— CONTENTS.

Objects and Rules of the Association :
Officers and Council and Members of Committees

Presidents and Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections
of the Association .

General Programme for the see

Extracts from the Minutes of the EE TS of the Geass Gan
mittee, 7th January

Extracts from the Minutes of the Mécting of ‘the Gilera ben
mittee, 14th January :

Committees of Investigation aoaninied at oe ‘Geneval Moone:
14th January, 1890 ves :

Special Committees

General Statement of sums which pane es paid on account of
grants for Scientific Purposes sg

Table showing Attendance and Receipts
Treasurer’s Account

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESSES.

Address by Baron von Mueller, K.C.M.G., F.R.S., M. and Ph.D.,
President of the Association ...

Address by Professor R. Threlfall, M.A., Exeeidet of Section lire

Address by Professor EH. H. einiaa M.A., D.Sc., President of
Section B :

Address by Professor F. W. Hathon: M. ‘a in, G. 8., C.M. Z. s. Eee
dent of Section C

Address by Professor A. P. Thomas, M. ACY F. ie S., Beseden of
Section D

Address by W. H. Miskin, Be F.E. S., ieegdent of Besehie E ..
Address by R. M. Johnston, Esq., F.L.S., President of Section F

Address by Hon. John Forrest, C.M.G., M.L.C., President of
Section G ...

Address by J. Ashburton mannedén: Bu 5 M. D., D. P. a Brodit
dent of Section H :

Address. by J. W. Agnew, aot MD., ME. C, Buehidbee of
SectionI... ,

Address by Professor W. H. Bectan, M. Inst.C. E., President of

Section J
y ¢ im aD
285 oe a 7

Xvill.

XViil.

Oe
Xxil.
XXii.

pevabie

XXiv.

100
110

160

163

185

197

iv;

REPORTS OF COMMITTEES.

Report of Committee No. 7. Census of Australasian Minerals

Report of Committee No. 14. The State and Progress of Chemical
Science in Australasia

Report of Committee No. 11. The Bibliggraphy of the ihustente
asian, Papuan and Polynesian Races ...

Report of Committee No. 3. Australasian Biological Station

Report of Committee No. 6. The Construction and Hygienic
Requirements of Places of Amusement in Sydney nes

Report of Committee No. 18. Australasian Geological Record
Report of Committee No. 9. Town Sanitation ..,

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTIONS.

Section A.

1. The Elastic Properties of Quartz Threads. By Professor
R. Threlfall, M.A., Professor of Eee University of
Sydney aaa ae

2. Cloud Onion atone. By W. W. Culcheth, M. Cabs

3. Some Remarks on the Teaching of Elementary Mathematies
and Physics. By Rev. W. L. Bowditch, M.A.

4. Note on the Eulerian Equations of Hydendynamrica, By
Alexander McAulay, M.A. 4: id

5. On the parte of Transit Technet By piss Kernot,
M.A., C.E ¥

6. Further ee Cues nan on Ate Laws of Molaealne Wena) By
W. Sutherland, M.A., B.Sc.

7. Remarks on the Arrangement of a Galvanometer. By E. F. 5
Love, M.A. . Re

8. Aids to Calculation. By J. J. Fenton

Section B.
. On an Application of Chemical Control to a es get
Business. By Ed. W. Enox

2. On the Gum of the wena -Tree. By J. H. Sion F.L. S.,
F.C.S.

3. Observations on ‘aie Grins yielded by ee Species of Coicin
opetalum “nt

4, On the Composition of iheeeees By Wm. HL Tapeh:
5. Note on the Estimation of Alkalies in eo chap Rocks. re

a

John Dennant, F.G.S., F.C.S.
6. Australian Meteorites. By Professor A. hisaneace: M. iat » E.R. s.

7. Notes on some Hot pee Waters. eet Professor A. Liversidge,
MALS BS. a. :

PAGE
203

283

293
354

356
357
693

379

381
383

385
387

388

. On the Purtécation of Certain Substances By Professor R.

Threlfall, M. Ae "Sem.

. Notes on the ‘Spec tra of hind fis Gaaainn: By J. B.

Kirkland, F.C. neers

. Note on the Prespitatio of Zine ia ee By J. B. maha,

F.G.S.

. On the ene Matter of ple Pre ey By ee

E. H. Rennie, M.A., D.Sc.

. On the Occurrence of Aisculin in Bursaria spinosa. By

Professor E. H. Rennie, M.A., D.Sc., and E. F. Turner

. On the Removal of Gold from Suspension and Solution by

Fungoid Growths. By Professor A. Liversidge, M.A., F.R.S

. Notes on an Examination of some Sand from Western

Australia. By A. H. Jackson, B.Sc., F.C.S.

. Notes on the New Silver Fields at Mount Zeehan, Tasmania.

By A. J. Taylor

Section C.

. Notes on the anew a Rocks of Omeo. Py A. W. Howitt,
F.G.S. -

. Chalk and Flints foes ites Salevia idlahad. By Beoteeoy uM,

Liversidge, M.A., F.R.S.

. The Plutonic and Metamorphic Rocks of mediaset! N.S. Ww.

By W. J. Clunies Ross, B.Sc. .

. Notes on the sdaacaiaiae of Quantaite, Maldon, AB ‘ives

Hornsby

. Notes on the Crystalline Bosks of Bothantes Victoria. By F.

Danvers Power, F'.G.S.

. On the Application of eres to Gealowioal Work. ny

J. H. Harvey

. On the Geological evils sua wikuke” Pitapeéts of thie

Thames Goldfield, New Zealand. By James Park, F.G.S.

. Coal: Its Origin and Process of Formation. By James Melvin

9. Notes on an Annelid Formation in te ik James

10.

Smith

Observations on the Tertiney neil Post- Tertiary doles of
South-Western Victoria. vik John Dennant, F.G.S.,
F.C.S. ca

. The Glacial Goubitiaatie of Vidhouih. By E. J. Dinu E.G. 8.
. Unification of the Geological Charts of Australia, Tasmania

and New Zealand. By Arthur Everett

. On the Thermal Springs of the EHinasleigh River, Queensland,

By Robt. L. Jack, F.G.S., F.R.G.S.

. Lencite and Nepheline Rocks of New South W. £64 By J.

Milne Curran

. Notes on the Cambrian ee of South Peon ee By Backs

Tate, F.G.S.

. A Correlation of the Coalfields of wie South Wales. By .

W.S. David, B.A., F.G.S. Ba ua

459

18.

19:

. Notes on Australian Caves. By James Stirling, F.G.S.
. Notes on the Carboniferous Rocks of the Pape a District.

By J. H. Bignell

. On the Desert Sandstone of Caateal ieateliae By Prot

Tate, F.G.S.

. The Physical Conditions aie hit the Chief Coal: Mesa

of Tasmanian and Victoria were Formed. By S. H. Wintle,
Jase

. The Silver Ores of the mea By G. H. Blakemore ;
. Granite: Its Place Among, and its Connection with the

Sedimentary and Igneous Rocks. By J. S. O. Tepper, F.L.S.

Section D.

. On some pom in the Morphology of Ee bicarinatus.

By J. 8. Hart, M.A., B.Sc.

. Notes on the Fertilisation of Ki Bee By . in Cheeseman,

F.L.S.

. Acclimatisation in intone By W. H. D. Le Sonat me
. On the Development of Chilobranchus hae Bi Professor

W. A. Haswell, M.A., D.Sc.

. Notes on the Muscular Fibres of Pevipatus By Becteter

W. A. Haswell, M.A., D.Sc.

. Descriptions of New Victorian Alge. By J. Bracebridge

Wilson, M.A..

. Notes on the fps of Houtman’s Anicinae By A. e

Campbell, F.L.S.

. A Complete Census of oH rae of Ga Grampians sa

Pyrenees. By D. Sullivan, F.L.S.

. Notes on the Known a ee a Fauna of Wnsagaie By

F. A. Skuse

. On the Experimental Gullination of the Mother- of- Pearl Shell.

By W. Saville-Kent, F.L.S., F.Z.S.

. On an Apparently New Type of Cestode Scolex. By ‘pata

W. A. Haswell, M.A., D.Sc.

2. The Claims of Arboriculture as a Benes in sap By

W. Brown

. Australian Lichenology. By Rev. B. R. M. “Withome.
. Diseases of Plants. By Mrs. Wm. Martin ...
. Demonstration of Pe ane Bacteria. =e Gada Rate,

Ph.D

. Note on Daviesia latifolia. By J. Bodisth, C. M. G.
. Notes on New and Rare iter on Victorian Haat By

H. T. Tisdall, F.L-.S.

Some Notes upon the Rarer Species of Tabanan! Bucalypte
By G. 8. Perrin

On the Publication of a Critical List of the lee sevalicke Flora
and Fauna. By C. T. Musson ... 50°

PAGE
466

466

467

467

469

469

558

Vil.

PAGE

20. Some Vegetable Food Stuffs of the Australian sbanisinas.
By J. H. Maiden, F.L.S. wey 1 «=: 508

21. Some Remarkable Agreements between euiies ea Wave
tural Practice. By W. Brown ... vse, O09

22. The Geographical Distribution of nae pds Frech: Water
Vertebrates in Victoria. By A. H. S. Lucas, M.A., B.Sc. 558

Section EE.
1. Some Physical Phenomena of the South Pacific Island. ee
Rev. Samuel Ella wes 559
2. Early Discovery, Exploration, tha Physical Geography | of
Australia. By A. C. Macdonald, F.R.G.S. 573
3. Australian Exploration. By P. G. Mueller . 3 573
4. Antarctic Exploration. au Commander Crawford Paseo, R. N,,
F.R.G.S. shad 573
5. On the Distribution of apa ote Sasi: on the Terrestrial
Globe. By J. J. Wild, Ph.D., F.R.G.S. : 574
6. Antarctic Whaling in the Old ele By J J. J. shiltinglaw,
V.P.R.G.S. Australasia 574
Section F.
1. Our Meat Supply. By H. H. Hayter, C.M.G. ee i? .57o
2. The Coming Census. By H. H. Hayter, C.M.G. ... oe DLO
3. Forestry: Its Scope and Application. By M.H. Clifford ... 585
4, A Reserve Industry as a eyed for Enforced Idleness. By
Wierd. Curry ty: vw. =: 08D
5. Settlement of an reaildeeiedh Popnbitied as the seal by means
of Small Holdings. By Hon. G. W. Cotton, M.L.C. stems O00
6. Fodder Plants and Grasses of Australia. ae Fred. aN
F.R.H.S. London eh 586
7. An Industrial Federal Debt. By J. J. eos E.G. 8. .. 596
8. Regulation of the Liquor Trade as a Means of oar een
Temperance. By J. B. Gregory iu 596
9. Co-operation: Distributive and Productive. By Ww. Nutall 596
10. Southern Whaling. By 8. W. Viney af ee so) MERLE
Section G.
1. Aborigines of Tasmania. By James Barnard She en On
2. Totems in Melanesia. By Rey. R. H. Codrington, D.S. eo. oul
3. The Ainus of North Japan. By Professor Odlum ... ae GIS
4. The Fountain of “The Mist”—a pocoloneen Myth. By
Rev. W. W. Gill, LL.D. itn tans 5 rea AOLG
5. Observations on the Hill pipes, of Navitt Ada By
Rev. A. J. Webb : ses +020

Viil.

PAGH
6. Some Beliefs and Customs of the New Britain NeME By
Rev. B. Danks ef ee, Rs,
7. The Aborigines of victoria: By Rev. J. Mathew, M. re Jeet Noe
8. The Genealogy of the Kings of Rarotonga and Mangaia, as
Illustrating the Colonisation of that Island and the roan
Group. By Rev. W. W. Gill, LL.D... 627
9. Note on the Use of the Gesture Language in ‘Australeee
Tribes. By A. W. Howitt ee 637
10. On Certain Mutilations Practised by Natives of He Viti
Islands. By Bolton 8S. Corney .. 646
11. The Marriage Laws of the ete “of North- Westen
Australia. By Hon. John Forrest, C.M.G. faa 653
12. The Genealogy of the Kings and Princes of Samoa. By Rev.
George Pratt ... aie = aa “uh Jf G00
13. New Britain Customs. By Rev. J. H. Rickard soe .. 664
14. The Papuan Race. By P. Wolff ... aN ane .. 664

15. The Physiological Basis of Morals. By A. Sutherland, M.A. 664

Section LT.

1. Sanitation in Schools. By F. A. Nyulasy, M.B., Ch.B. ts) \6Go
2. The Atiology of Typhoid Fever. By J. Jamieson, M.D. 247) 1065
8. Cool Houses. By J. W. Barrett, M.D. nae 678
4. Purification of Sewage. By J. M. Sah M. inet ©. E., sii

W. L. de Roberts, C.E. 679
5. Health Legislation in Victoria. By AGE: eT: 0 OSM
6. Duties of Sanitary Inspectors. By C. J. Eassie eae ft PROS
7. Household Sanitation. By G. Gordon, C.E. Lee eek aes
8. School Hygiene. By HE. G. Leger Erson, L.R.C.P. ... ne 690
9. Household Drainage: Its Principles. By A. M. Henderson, C. E 690

10. Facts and Figures relating to Vaccination. By A. J. Taylor 691
11. Preventive Inoculation against Animal Plagues. By O. Katz 692

12 Micro-Organisms and Hygiene. By A. Shields, M.D. scan ee

13. Cremation a Sanitary Necessity. By H. K. Rusden va) 692,

Report of Committee No. 9. Town Sanitation ... ae Bey 88)
Section L.

1. Artin Daily Life. By T. A. Sisley na 709

2. The Middle Verb in Latin. By Henry Belcher, M. ye LL. D. 715

Section J.

. Gas-Lighting and its Fittings. By A. U. Lewis, B.A. 6) Ls

Notes on Tests and Specifications of Cast and Wrought Iron.
By Professor Kernot, M.A., C.H. ni an von) ALG:

to

11.

12.

. Notes on the Subject of Town Wigan Pe William Parker, .

Assoc. M.Inst.C.E.

. Gauging of Rivers. By George Gordon, M. ‘tage Cc. EL
. Irrigation Works in Australia. How they may be made

Remuuerative. By W. W. Culcheth, M.Inst.C.E.

. The Laying out of Towns. By John Sulman, F.R.I.B.A.
. Illuminating Public Clocks. By Sydney Gibbons, F.C.S.
. Safety Appliances on Steam Boilers. By A. O. Sachse, C.E.

M.E., M.S.E., London, F.R.G.S.

. Compressed Air as a Mechanical Medium in the Evaporation

of Liquids. BS A. O. isiiiade C.E., M.E., M.S.E., London,
F.R.G.S., etc..

. Construction and Ree inane of Metallea eae By William

Bage, M.C.E.

Utilisation of Tidal Energy as a Continuous Motive ee
By I. Diamant, C.E. ..,

Development of Architecture a Dienrtion, IBY che)
Jarrett. Ast aah

OBJECTS AND RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.

OBJECTS.

THE Association has been founded upon the same lines as the
British Association, and its rules are practically the same. It
should be particularly noticed that this Association also “ contem-
plates no interference with the ground occupied by other insti-
tutions. Its objects are:—To give a stronger impulse and a
more systematic direction to scientific enquiry ; to promote the
intercourse of those who cultivate Science in different parts of
the British Empire, with one another and with foreign philoso-
phers; to obtain a more general attention to the objects of
Science, and a removal of any disadvantages of a public kind
which may impede its progess.”

RULES.

1. All persons who signify their intention of attending the
first Meeting shall be entitled to become original Members of the
Association, upon agreeing to conform to the Rules.

2. The Officers, Members of the Council, Fellows, and Members
of the Literary and Philosophical Societies publishing Transac-
tions or Journals in the British Empire, shall be entitled in like
manner to become Members of the Association. Persons not
belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the General
Committee, or Council, to become Life Members of the Associa-
tions, Annual Subscribers, or Associates for the year, subject to
the payment of the prescribed Subscription, and the approval of
a General Committee.

3. All members who have paid their Subscriptions (£1 per
annum) shall be entitled to receive the Publications of the
Associations gratis.

4. The Association shall meet for one week or longer. The
place of meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee
two years in advance.

5. There shall be a GENERAL CounciL, having the supreme
control, to be composed of Delegates from the different Colonies
or Colonial Scientific Societies. The number of Delegates from
each Society or Colony shall be proportionate to the number of

Xa.

Members from the particular Colony or Society —Subscribing or
otherwise—taking part in the proceedings (¢.e. after the prelim-
inary Meetings). Each Colony or Society shall be allowed to
nominate a Delegate for each one hundred of its Members.

6. There shall bea GENERAL CoMMITTEE consisting of Members
of the Council, Presidents, Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of
Sections, Contributors of Papers to the Association, and such
others as may be elected.

7. A Local Committee shall be appointed at the place of
meeting to make arrangements for the reception and entertain-
ment of the visitors, and to make preparations for the Business
of the General Meetings.

8. Sectional Committees shall be appointed for the following
Subjects :-—
Section A—Astronomy, Mathematics, Physics and Mechanics.
Section B—Chemistry and Mineralogy.
Section C—Geology and Paleontology.
Section D—Biology.
Section E—Geography.
Sxction F—Economic and Social Science and Statistics.
Section G—Anthropology.
Szecrion H—Sanitary Science and Hygiene.
Section I—Literature and Fine Arts.
Section J—Architecture and Engineering.

9. Ladies are eligible for Membership.

10. The rights and privileges of Membership shall be in the
main similar to those afforded by the British Association, sub-
ject to revision and alteration after the first Meeting of the
AUSTRALASIAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.

Xii.
OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1890.

President :
Baron von Muruurr, K.C.M.G., F.R.S., M. & Ph. D.

ia ;
His Excen.ntency Sir Rospertr G. C. Haminton, K.C.B., President of
the Royal Society of Tagneaeet

Professor Liverstpan, M.A., F.R.S., President of the Royal Society of
New South Wales.

Sir James Hecror, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S., Director of the New Zealand
Institute.

E. C. Stirurne, M.A., M.D., President of the Royal Society of South
Australia

W. Savitte Kent, F.L.S., F.Z.S., President of the Royal Society of
Queensland.

Professor Krrnot, M.A., C.E., President of the Royal Society wa Vic-
toria.

President-Clect :
Sir James Hector, K.C.M.G., F.R.S.

Zion, Treasurer :
H. C. Russexz, B.A., F.R.S., F.R.A:S.

Hon, Local Greasurer :
R. L. J. Exuery, C.M.G., F.B.S., F.R.A.S.

Sion. General Secretaries :

Professor Liversipcx, M.A., F.R.S., Permanent Hon. Secretary.
Professor W. Banpwin Spencer, M.A., Hon. Secretary for Victoria.

Hon, Loral Secretaries for other Colonies :

Professor Braae, M.A., Adelaide.

ALEXANDER Morton, F.L.8., Hobart.

Professor Parker, B.Sc., F.R.S., C.M.Z.S., Otago, New Zealand.
JOHN SHIRLEY, B.Sc., Brisbane.

Professor A. P. Taomas, M.A., F.L.S., Auckland, New Zealand.

Assistant Secretary for Victoria :

J. STEELE Roperrson, B.A.

xiii.

Ordinary Blembers of Council.

J. W. Barzert, M.D., F.R.C.S., Medical Society of Victoria.
Professor W. H. Brage, M.A., Royal Society of South Australia.

Captain E. E. Brerr, Royal Geographical Society of Australasia, New
South Wales Branch.

Hon. Dr. A. Campsrtt, Royal Geographical Society of Australasia,
South Australian Branch.

W. J. Conver, Victorian Institute of Surveyors.

R. L. J. Evurry, C.M.G., F.R.S., Royal Society of Victoria (Chairman).
G. Fiscuer, Engineering Association of New South Wales.

G. Gorpon, C.E., Victorian Engineers’ Association.

G. S. Grirritas, F.G.S., Royal Geographical Society of Australasia,
Victorian Branch.

H. W. Hammonp, Royal Geographical Society of Australasia, New South
Wales Branch.

Professor F. W. Hurron, Philosophical Institute, Canterbury, New
Zealand, and Otago Institute, New Zealand.

Wm. N. Jacaarp, Natural History Society, Rockhampton.

James Jamizson, M.D., Medical Students’ Society, Melbourne University.
Professor Kernot, M.A., C.E., President Royal Society of Victoria.

R. T. Lirron, F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Historical Society of Australasia.

A. H. 8S. Lucas, M.A., B.Sc., Field Naturalists’ Club of Victoria.

* Professor Masson, M.A., D.Sc., University Science Club, Melbourne.
C. Moorz, F.L.S., Royal Society of New South Wales.

K. L. Murray, Victorian Engineers’ Association.

A. D. Nexson, Engineering Association of New South Wales.

AuBreRT Purcuas, C.E., Victorian Institute of Architects.

J. P. Ryan, L.K.Q.C.P.I., Medical Society of Victoria.

H. C. Russewt, B.A., F.R.S., Royal Society of New South Wales.

A. O. Sacusz, C.E., Royal Geographical Society of Australasia, Victorian
Branch.

J. SHiruey, B.Sc., Royal Society of Queensland.
Duprey Le Sover, Zool. and Acclim. Society, Victoria.

Professor W. Batpwin Spencer, M.A., Royal Society of Victoria,
(Secretary).

J. W. SprinetrHorrs, M.D., Victorian Branch British Medical Society.
JAMES STIRLING, F.G.S., Geological Society of Australasia.

Professor ANDERSON Stuart. M.D., C.M., Royal Society of New South
Wales.

J. Surman, F.R.I.B.A., Royal Society of New South Wales.

R. O. THompson, Victorian Engineers’ Society.

C. A. Torr, M.A., LL.B., F.L.S., Field Naturalist’s Club, Victoria.
C. W. Dz Vis, M.A., Royal Society of Queensland.

Hon. W. A. E. Wust-Ersxinz, M.L.C., Zool. and Acclim. Society of
South Australia.

C. 8. Witx1nson, F.G.S., F.L.S., Royal Society of New South Wales.

Xiv.

Autlitor :
F. T. J. Dickson.

Publication Committee :

k. LL. J. Eutery, C.M.G., F.B.S.
Professor Masson, M.A., D.Sc.

G. S. Grirritus, F.R.G.S.

Professsor W. BALDWIN SPENCER, M.A.
W. SuTHERLAND, M.A.

Organisation Committee :

Professor ORmE Masson, M.A., D.Se.

K. L. Murray.

J. B. KirkKuanp, F.C.S.

Professor W. BaLtpwin Spencer, M.A. (Secretary).

Excursions Commitiec :

A. W. Howirt, F.G.S.

ALEXANDER SUTHERLAND, M.A.

©. A. ToPpPa MisAe. lili. Hlaess

JAMES STIRLING, F'.G.S.

Professor W. Banpwin Spencer, M.A. (Secretary).

Exhibits Committee :

G. S. Grirrirus, F.R.G.S.

A. O. Sacusz, C.E.

E. F. J. Lover, M.A.

A. Denpy, M.Sc.

J. Sriruine, F.G-S8. (Secretary).

xv.

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XVi,

GENERAL PROGRAMME FOR THE MEETING.

TursDAy, 7TH JANUARY.

11 a.m.—General Committee Meeting, in Meeting Room of Section F.
3 p.m.—Garden Party given by Baron von MuELLER at the University.
8 p.m.—Presidential Address in Town Hall.

WEDNESDAY, STH JANUARY.

10 a.m.—Sectional Committees meet in Section Rooms.
10.380 a.m. to 1 p.m.—Sections meet for Reading and Discussion of Papers.
10.80 a.m.—The following Presidential Addresses will be delivered :—
Section A.—Astronomy, Mathematics, Physics, and Mechanics, by
Professor THRELFALL, M.A.
Section C.—Geology and Paleontology, by Professor Hutton,
F.G.S.
Section F.—Economic and Social Science and Statistics, by R. M.
JOHNSTON, F..L.S.
Luncheon.—1 p.m. to 2 p.m.
2 p.m. to 4 p.m.—Sections meet for Reading and Discussion of Papers.
2 p.m.—The following Presidential Addresses will be delivered :—
Section B.—Chemistry and Mineralogy, by Professor Runnisz,
M.A., D.Sc.
Section D.—Biology, by Professor THomas, M.A.
3 p.m.—Visit to Newport Railway Works and to Botanical Gardens.
8 p.m.—Conversazione in the Town Hall, given by the Right Worshipful
the Mayor of Melbourne, MarrHew Lane, Esq.

THURSDAY, 9TH JANUARY.

10 a.m.—Sectional Committees meet.
10.30 a.m. to 1 p.m.—Sections meet for Reading and Discussion of Papers.
10.30 a.m.—The following Presidential Addresses will be delivered :—
Section E.—Geography, by W. H. Misxin, F.E.S.
Section G.—Anthropology, by Hon. Jonn Forrest, C.M.G.
Section ¥.—Architecture and Engineering, by Professor WARREN,
M.Inst.C.E.
Luncheon.—1 p.m. to 2 p.m.
2 p.m. to 4 p.m.—Sections meet for Reading and Discussion of Papers.
2 p.m.—The following Presidential Addresses will be delivered :—
Section H.— Sanitary Science and Hygiene, by ASHBURTON
THompson, M.D.
Section J—Literature and Fine Arts, by Hon. J. W. Acnuw, M.D.,
M.E.C.
2.20 p.m.—Visit to Royal Mint and Picture Gallery.
3.30 p.m.—Visit to Public Library and Picture Gallery..
4.30. p.m.—Visit to Works of Hydraulic Power Company.
8 p.m.—Invitation Concert, given by the Victorian Orchestra,

Fripay, 10TH JANUARY.

9.30 a.m.—Sectional Committees meet.
10 a.m. to 12 noon.—Sections meet for Reading and Discussion of Papers.
1 p.m.—Special train leaves Spencer Street, taking Members to the
Garden Party given by Sir Wituram and Lady CLARKE, at
Rupertswood, Sunbury.
5.45 p.m.—Train leaves Sunbury.

XVii.
SaTuRDAY, 11TH JANUARY.

10 a.m.—Sectional Committees meet.
10.30 a.m. to 1 p.m.—Sections meet for Reading and Discussion of
Papers.
Luncheon.—1 p.m. to 2 p.m.
2 p.m. to 3.30 p.m.—Sections meet for Reading and Discussion of Papers.
3 p.m.—Visit to Picture Gallery of Roprerr H. Kinnear, Esq.
4. p.m.—Visit to Tram Sheds.
8 p.m.—Special Concert in the Town Hall.

Monpay, 138rH JANUARY.

Excursion to Ballarat starts.
10 a.m.—Sectional Committees meet. ;
10.30 a.m. to 1 p.m.—Sections meet for Reading and Discussion of Papers.
Luncheon.—1 p.m. to 2 p.m.
2 p.m. to 3.30 p.m.—Sections meet for Reading and Discussion of
Papers, and Sectional work is brought to a close.
3.30 p.m.—Visit to Zoological Society’s Gardens, and to the Foundry of
Messrs. Langlands.
8 p.m.—Conversazione in University Grounds.

TuESDAY, 14TH JANUARY.

Excursion to Sandhurst starts.
11 a.m.—Meeting of General Committee to appoint Officers and make
arrangements for the next meeting to be held in New Zealand,
and to settle the place of the next following meeting.

WEDNESDAY, 15TH JANUARY.

Excursions start for Gippsland Lakes, Australian Alps, and the Black
Spur, as detailed in the trip-slips. Each of these will occupy four
days, the parties returning to Melbourne on Saturday, 18th January.
Leaders—Messrs. J. Stirling, A. Sutherland, and A. W. Howitt.

THURSDAY, 16TH JANUARY.

Excursion to Fern Tree Gully, returning to Melbourne the same day.
Leader—Mr. C. A. Topp.

XViil.

MEETING OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE, TUESDAY,
77TH JANUARY, 1890.

ExTRAcCTs FRoM THE MINUTES.

Mr. Evuery, C.M.G., F.R.S., in the chair. About twenty-five
members present.

The Minutes of the last meeting held in Sydney, on 3rd September,
1888, were taken as read.

Professor Liverstp@e presented the Balance-Sheet, showing the
receipts and expenditure in Sydney, during the year 1889, which was
received and adopted.

The arrangements made for the Melbourne Meeting were ratified, and
the thanks of the General Committee were unanimously accorded to
Professor W. BALDWIN SprNnceR for having by his untiring exertions
brought matters to such a successful issue.

Invitations were received from Auckland and Christchurch for the
Meeting of 1891. It was resolved on the motion of Professor Hutton
to hold the Meeting in Christchurch.

Professor Kmrnor proposed that the the Fourth Meeting should be
held in Adelaide, seconded by Professor RENNTE.

Mr. Barnarp proposed and Captain Pascor seconded a motion to hold
the Fourth Meeting in Tasmania. After some discussion it was resolved
to postpone the discussion until Saturday, the 11th.

Mr. W. SuTHERLAND moved—‘ That the asociation add to its sections
a Special one for the science of education, to be entitled ‘ Educational,’
and denoted by the letter K.” He thought educational enthusiam here
was more general than in the mother country, and it would be a wise
thing to have an educational section.

Professor TatE moved, as an amendment—“ That a representive from
each section be a committee to determine whether any, and what increase
or decrease, there shall be in the number of sections, and to report to
the General Meeting of Committee, to be held on Tuesday next.”

Mr. Tate’s amendment for the appointment of a committee to consider
the desirableness of extending or curtailing the number of sections was
put as a substantive motion, and was carried.

After some discussion the meeting adjourned until Sateen 11th
January, at 9.30 a.m.

MEETING OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE, WEDNESDAY,
14Tg - JANUARY, 1890.

EXTRACTS FROM THE MINUTES.

Mr. Evurry in the chair. About thirty-five members present.
The Minutes were taken as read and signed by the Chairman.

The following Reports of Committees of Investigation were presented,
received, and ordered to be published as far as funds would permit :—

No. 3.—Australasian Biological Station Committee.

XIX,
No. 7.—Australasian Mineral Census Committee.
No. 9.—Town Sanitation Committee.

No. 11.—Australasian and Polynesian Races Bibliography
Committee.

No. 13.—Australasian Geological Record Committee.

No. 14.—Progress of Chemical Science Committee.

Resolved,—On the motion of Rev. Lorimer. Fison, M.A., that the
services of Dr. J. Fraser of Sydney in connection with the Report of
Committee 11 be placed on record.

Payment of Accounts—Moved by Mr. Grirrirus, seconded by Mr.
Toepr, that authority be given to the Council to pay accounts.

Appointment of President for New Zealand Meeting.—Proposed by
Mr. F. Wrieat, seconded by H. H. Hayrer, that Sir James Hecror be
appointed President for the New Zealand Meeting. Carried unanimously.

Appointment of Secretary for New Zealand Meeting.—Proposed by Mr.
A. Morton, seconded by Dr. ALLAN CamPpBeELt that Professor Hurron be
appointed Secretary for New Zealand. Carried unanimously.

General Treasurer.—Proposed by Dr. ALLAN CAMPBELL seconded by
Professor ANDERSON Sruart, that Mr. H. C. Russze~n be appointed
' General Treasurer. Carried unanimously.

Local Secretaries —The following were elected :

Mr. A. Morron ae! .. Tasmania.

Mr. J. SHIRLEY i ... Queensland.
Mr. F. Weicut Ee ... South Australia.
Professor PARKER a ... Dunedin.
Professor THomas on ... Auckland;

Secretaries for Wellington, Napier and Nelson to be appointed by New
Zealand Council, Secretary for West Australia to be appointed on the
recommendation of Hon. Joun Forrest.

Professor Laurig gave notice of the following motion :—* That a New
Section be added under the head of Mental and Moral Science.”

It was decided on the motion of Mr. A. Morton to hold the Fourth
Meeting of the Association in Hobart, Tasmania.

Vote of Tnanks were unanimously passed to the following :—(1) Sir
William Clarke, (2) Mayor of Melbourne, (3) Mayor of Ballarat, (4)
Mayor of Sandhurst, (5) Council of School of Mines, Ballarat, (6) Council
of University of Melbourne, (7) Managing Committee of the Victorian
Orchestra, (8) Royal Society, (9) Musical Bodies, &c., who assisted at the
Concert, (10) Others who have extended hospitality to its members.

A Special Vote of Thanks was accorded to Messrs. G. B. PritcHarD,
T. S. Haut, T. S. Hart, J. S. Hart, A. W. Cratc,and W. Macainuivray,
in acknowledgment of the services rendered by them in connection with
the meeting.

A Vote of Thanks was passed in acknowledgment of the services of the
ex-President, Mr. H. C. Russewu.
b2

xx.

A Vote of Thanks was passed to Professor SPENCER in acknowledgment
of his services in connection with the Meeting.

A Vote of Thanks was passed to Mr. Exuery for his service in presiding
at the Meeting and acting as Chairman of the Local Council.

The following Committees were re-appointed :—

No. 1t1—Conditions of Labour Committee.

Committee ‘To inquire into the Question of the Condition of Labour,
with special reference to strikes, and to make suggestions for their
remedy ” :—Mr. W. Garuick, Major Goupsrein, Mr. H. H. Hayrsr,
Professor Knmrnot, Mr. H. K. Ruspen, Mr. H. C. Russeny, Mr. A. C.
WYLIE.

‘Secretary—Professor Elkington.

No. 2—Australasian Meteorology Commuttee.

Committee ‘To inquire into the present state of Meteorology in the
Australasian Colonies” :—Mr. R. L. J. Entery, Mr. W. SuTHERLAND,
Professor THRELFALL.

Secretary—Mr. H. C. Russell.

No. 3—Australasian Biological Station Committee.

Committee “To consider the Establishment and Endowment of a
Biological Station for Australasia’ :—Mr. A. Denpy, Mr. J. J. FLETCHER,
Mr. A. A.S. Lucas, Mr. MacGrunivray, Professor W. BALDWIN SPENCER,
Professor R. Tarr.

Secretary—Professor W. A. Haswell.

No. 4—Australasian Biological Bibliographical Committee.

Messrs. A. Dernpy, Mr. J. J. Furrcuer, Professor F. J. Parxnr,
Professor W. A. Haswett, Professor W. B. Spencer, Professor A. P.
Tuomas, Professor R. Tarn, Mr. C. A. Torr, Mr. H. Tryon, Mr. T.
WHITELEGGE, Dr. J. T. Wiuson, Dr. MacGiuuivray, Mr. J. BRACEBRIDGE
WILSON.

Secretary—Myr. A. H. S. Lucas.

No. 5—Protection of Native Birds and Mammals Committee.

Committee “'To consider and investigate the Protection of Native
Birds and Mammals”:—Mr. A. J. CAMPBELL, Professor W. A. HASWELL,
Mr. R. M. Jounston, Professor W. B. Spencer, Dr. Ramsay, Professor
k. Tats, Mr. H. Tryon, Colonel Leaae, Professor Tuomas, Mr. 8. Dixon,
Rev. J. J. HALLEY.

Secretary—Mr. A. Morton.

No. 6.—Hygienic Committee.

Committee “To consider certain points in the Construction and
Hygienic Requirements of Places of Amusement in Sydney”:—Mr. W. HE.
Rota, Dr. J. AsHpurToN THompson, Professor WARREN, Dr. WILSON.

Secretary—Mr. ¥. Sulman, Sydney.

XXi.

No. 8— Australasian Glacial Evidence Committee.

Committee “To investigate and report on Glacial Evidence in Aus-
tralasia”’:—Mr. H. Y. L. Brown, Mr. S. H. Cox, Sir James Hector,
Mr. R. L. Jack, Mr. W. H. Ranps, Mr. J. Stiruine, Professor Tate,
Mr. C. S. WILKINSON.

Secretary—Professor R. Tate.

No. ro—Australasian Seismological Committee.

Committee “To investigate and report upon the Seismological Pheno-
mena of Australasia’?:—Mr. A. Breas, Mr. R. L. J. Evuery, Sir JAMES
Hector, Mr. H. C. Russeuu, Professor THRELFALL, Mr. C. Topp.

Secretary—Sir Fames Hector.

No. 12—Antarctic Exploration Commtttee.

Committee “To consider the question of Antarctic Exploration ” :—
Mr. J. Baxnarp, Mr. R. L. J. Evuery, Hon. Jonn Forrest, Mr. G. 8.
GRIFFITHS, Baron von Mue.xer, Professor SPENCER, Professor STEPHENS.

Secretary—Myr. Ellery.

No. 13—Australasian Geological Record ‘Committee.

Committee “For Geological Record during the year”:—Mr. R.
ErueripgGs, Professor F. W. Hurron, Mr. R. L. Jack, Mr. R. M. Joun-
ston, Professor R. Tarr.

Secretary—Mr. ¥. Stirling.

The following new Committees were appointed :—

No. 15—Rust in Wheat Committee.

Committee “'T'o investigate the question of Rust in Wheat” :—Mr. J.
H. Maipen, Mr. D. McAupine, Mr. C. A. Topp, Mr. F. Wricut, with
power to add to their number.

Secretary—WMr. A. N. Pearson.

No. 16—Location and Laying-out of Towns Committee.

Committee to consider and report upon the Location and Laying-out
of Towns ” :—Mr. J. M. Coanz, Mr. A. W. Craven, Mr. A. M. HenpERson,
Professor Kernot, Professor WARREN.

Secretary—Mr. F. Sulman.

No. 17—Improvement of Museums as a Means of Popular
Education Committee.

Committee “ To consider and report upon the Improvement of Museunis
as a Means of Popular Education” :—Mr. C. W. Dr Vis, Professor
Horton, Professor McCoy, Mr. A. Morton, Dr. Ramsay, Dr. STIRLING,
Professor Homas. ;

Secretary—Professor Parker.

XXil.
No. 18—Fertilisation of Fig in Australasian Colonies Committee.

Committee “To investigate the Fertilisation of the Fig in the Aus-
tralasian Colonies” :—Mr. F. M. Batnry, Mr. C. Frencu, Baron von
Mvue user, Mr. A. S. Ourrr, Professor THomas.

Secretary—Mr. C. French.

No. 19—Unification. of Colours and Signs of Geological Maps
Committee.

Committee on “The Unification of Colours and Signs of Geological
‘Maps”:—Mr. H. Y. L. Brown, Sir JAmes Hector, Mr. R. L. Jack,
Mr. R. A. Murray, Mr. C. 8. WitKinson, Mr. Woopwarp.

Secretary—Professor Hutton.

Vo. 20—Present State of Knowledge of Australasian
Paleontology Committee.

Committee “To investigate and report upon the Present State of
Knowledge of Australasian Paleontology ” :—Sir James Hector, Mr. R.
M. Jounston, Professor McCoy, Professor TATE.

Secretary—Mr. R. Etheridge.

No. 21—Tides of Australia Committee.

Committee ‘To investigate and report upon the Tides of Australia ”’:
—Professor Braae, Professor LYLE.
Secretary—Mr. R. W. Chapman.

The following Special Committees were appointed :—

Moved by Professor ANDERSON Stuart and seconded by Mr. C. S&S.
WiLkinson—“ That the following form the Publication Committee :—
Messrs. ELLery, GRIFFITHS, W. SUTHERLAND, and Professors SPENCER
and Masson.”

Professor Masson moved and Professor Tarr seconded—* That a
Committee be appointed to draft a revised Code of Laws for the Associa-
tion, and report at the meeting in Christchurch, the Committee to
consist of the following :—The General Secretaries, Mr. EnueRy, Professor
Rennie, Mr. A. Morton, and the Mover; Professor SpeNcER to act as
convener.”

On the recommendation of Section B., it was resolved “That a Special
Committee consisting of the Presidents and Secretaries of Sections
B., C. and D. be appointed to formulate a scheme, whereby the assistance
of the Governments of the various colonies may be enlisted in procuring
material for Special Investigation. Professor RENNIE to be reporter.”

SYNOPSIS OF GRANTS OF MONEY APPROPRIATED TO SCIEN-
TIFIC PURPOSES BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE AT
THE MEETING IN 189

The names of the members who are entitled to call on the Treasurer
for the respective grants are prefixed.

[None. ]

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XXIV.

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INAUGURAL ADDRESS
By tHe PRESIDENT,

men FERDINAND VOM UULELER,

K.C.M.G., E°R.S., M.& Pu.D., ‘&c:

THE first duty, devolving on me at this auspicious gathering, is
to ‘offer on behalf of the present Council of the Australasian
Association, and not less from the depth of my own feelings to
all, assembled now, the very best of welcome. Patronised by the
noble representative of her Majesty, graced from exalted station
also by the first lady of the land, generously countenanced by
the Premier and the other members of the Ministry, extensively
sustained by Melbourne citizenship, and prominently supported
by the University, we enter on this second meeting of the
Association with every bright prospect. Indeed, our hopes are
raised still more by the success, achieved already in the eldest
metropolis, since, through the genius and circumspect assiduity
of the Sydney University Professor of Chemistry, the great
home movement became extended to these southern colonies.
Called unexpectedly for this year to the position, which mag-
nanimous impulses and unbounded generosity have assigned to
me, I must so far speak of myself, as to assure you, that this mark
of consideration will ever be valued by me beyond all expression ;
that I am conscious of having no claims to this high favour,
unless it be by scientific seniority in these colonies, and that I
will endeavour to fulfil those expectations, which are justly set on
leaderships in a grand festive concourse, such as we are now to
celebrate. Before proceeding, it is incumbent on me to express
my rejoicing at so large and so splendid an attendance at this
meeting, which is even encouraged by the genial smiles of so
many ladies ; and further, to offer my homage to the distinguished
office-bearers, to the kindful hosts and notably also to the
accomplished Secretary, through whose united perseverance,
graciousness and energy the hopeful aspect of the Melbourne
gathering is mainly due. My eminent predecessor, the Govern-
ment Astronomer of New South Wales, has in a powerful and
learned address sketched the origin and objects of the British
A

2 INAUGURAL ADDRESS.

Association for the Advancement of Science, the fifty-eighth
meeting of which was held in Newcastle during September
of last year. Thus the bearings and aspirations of these
science-musterings came anew before us here also from
the great British home, whose lead and aims we are anxious
to follow and to imitate even in these respects. Whoever
shared actively or even only passively in the engagements,
for which this extensive union has been established, whether
in Britain or on the continent of Europe or in America, must
have realised how much vitality is infused into science-
work by these Associations through whole communities, how
immensely inspiring the personal contact with leaders in pro-
gressive thought is to individual workers of all ranks and in all
clirections ; how plans are formed and problems submitted, other-
wise likely unattended to or left indefinitely postponed, and how
powerful and trusty an influence by this widely spreading and
annually refreshed organisation can be exercised on the public
mind, to speed progress, particularly of utilitarian tendency, in a
telling and in an impressive manner. Indeed, with the inaugura-
tion of this Association commenced a new era for science in these
dominions of the British Crown. It is to us a movement of
historic significance of its own. It falls to the share of the
greater gatherings, from which ours is an offspring, to review the
advance of science throughout its various branches in the older
seats of learning; I will therefore not attempt at the youthful
stage of the Association here, to lay before you any methodical
and connected accounts of more recent events on the walk of
knowledge, even should I thereby not anticipate, what my
honoured colleagues may wish to explain or record in the respec-
tive sections, over which they preside. Indeed, in these distant
locations it seems at present more important, to clear away some
scruples, which prevent recognition of our purposes, or to render
more fully known the wide accessibility, afforded for joming in
these periodic gatherings. The destination of this institution is a
far wider one, than may be supposed generally by our fellow
colonists. The word “science” seems in British communities
often to be understood, to apply to researches in the domain of
nature exclusively. The acceptance of the word in this sense
would exclude from our scope much of the best éc/at of what we
desire to accomplish, whereas really we here would wish to
embrace in our range of discussions and operations, whatever was
meant by the ancient word “scive” and hence “ scentia.” We
would extend this meaning as far as ever the rays of knowledge
can illuminate, as far as ever the power of thought can penetrate.
Social science, for which at the Exhibition of 1880 a congress
was held here, over which our erudite honorary Treasurer
presided, can merge readily now into sections of this Association.
Though we cannot expect every member, perhaps according to

INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 3

some European standard, to be engaged actively in pursuits of
discovery with a strict scientific bearmg, I feel sure to express
the feelings of all, whom professional positions or amateur-incli-
nation bring together on the path of knowledge, when I affirm,
that the Association joyously and gratefully welcomes all who
will cheer us in our aspirations, will listen to our discussions,
and will support us by that moral influence, which every educated
and thoughtful layman can bring to bear. Ours is a kind of
scientific federation full of soul. Every one can help. The
wide scope of the Association thus being rendered patent,
as well as the ease of access, it might next be asked by
the uninitiated, what are the more direct objects, what the
more immediate tendencies, what the final destinations of this
organisation, spread now also to a distant corner of the globe
like ours? As you might foretell, we accept on Australian soil
this movement—started by an illustrious sage of Edinburgh—in
all its bearings, hopes and responsibilities, with perhaps this one
preference, that, while we endeavour to follow the cosmopolitan
course, as adopted in the northern world, we would cherish some
predilection for maintaining a command over the fields of
indigenous work in these far southern regions, without any wish
however of monopoly, but with that patriotic sense, becoming to
us as residents in this particular portion of the British Empire.
Irrespective of carrying on original research, worthy of a country
of juvenile freshness, it is our duty more especially, to instil the
flow of information from so manifold sources near us in such
a manner, that new growth for further developments may
arise through that limpid course in all possible directions.
We should and could arouse anew aiso all those, who may
slacken, by example and by new inspirations. You can carry
a spirit of research into the family-homes; you will leave
in many an hospitable house, which opens its doors in a
year of choice to illustrious participators of these meetings,
many reminiscences not less pleasurable than profitable through
life. J shall not speak here of the living among leaders in
progressive knowledge, of those who yet are shining forth at the
British Association also; but I would wish to pay a word of
homage to the dead—to those, whom many of you have still met,
and on whose busts at solemn moments we would wish, if even in
thought only and passive pensiveness, to place also here a laurel
wreath. Thus, among Britons, such names come before our
memory as those of J. Herschel, James Ross, Faraday, McClure,
Sabine, W. Hooker, Lindley, Brewster, Wheatstone, Murchison,
Darwin, Speke, Carpenter, Lyell, Brodie, Gould, Livingstone,
Sedgwick, Berkeley, G. Bentham, Simpson, Proctor and a host
of other luminaries, reminding us likewise of an early Melbourne
University professor, who at a meeting of the British Associa-
tion about the middle of the century, was one of its principal
AQ

4 INAUGURAL ADDRESS.

secretaries. ‘To one meeting the greatest lustre was given by the
presidency of H.R.H. the Prince Consort. As there is a
brotherhood of all nationalities in science, it may be pardonable
when from my own bit of career I allude to some experiences of
forty-four years ago, while attending as an active member what
might be called the German Association for the Advancement of
Science. A flight of thought brings vividly before me again
such illustrious personages as Schleiden, one of the earliest
investigators of the living cellule; D’Alton, one of the founders
of embryology ; Langenbeck, the great and conservative surgical
operator and his long-renowned disciple, Esmarch. There were
also the Scandinavians Oersted, Forchammer and Steenstrup,
the one the main discoverer of electromagnetism, the other
eminent in northern geology, the third an early expounder of
alternative generation. It is as if I hear once more the voice
also of Kunze, the pteridologist ; of Rammelsberg, a leading
expert in analytic chemistry ; of Waitz, the horticultural mono-
grapher of the Ericez ; of Volger, one of the great authorities on
voleanoes; of Krauss, the zoologic Caffrarian explorer; of
Sonder, one of the authors of the Cape-flora, and of Schacht,
Roeper and Muenter, the eminent morphologists and physio-
logists; some of gay communicativeness, others of calmer
reservedness—all spreading knowledge in their own way, all
happy and elated among their scientific compeers, but also well
aware, that their coming together then might be an only one in
life! It is, as if I were brought once more face to face with
many a hero in science, nearly all now numbering with the dead ;
some of whom having attended the earliest meetings of the
British Association, and thus by their appearance, then grey,
among a multitude of junior investigators, linked together in a
most fascinating and exalting manner one generation with another
in science. A felicitation could then still be sent to Oken, the
founder. You can all enter into the feelings of Virchow, who at
the Berlin meeting of the German Association in 1886, while
unfolding to the 3000 members once more the roll-book of 1828.
There were the names of Humboldt, as President, of Berzelius,
Ehrenberg, Woehler, Rudolphi, Gauss, Weber, Johannes Mueller,
Mitscherlich, Rose, Magnus, of Oersted also, and of many
another scientific immortality, each either a founder of a branch
of science or a rearer of it into extensive vigour. Well may
Virchow have exclaimed, that it was as if life became infused
once more into the dead signatures! No doubt many assembled
now in this hall experienced similar emotions, when attending
meetings of the British Association, where they first of all, and
perhaps never again, saw individually some of the corypheans, of
whom they had ever so often heard and read, for whom they
cherished an unlimited veneration, and whose memory became
thus dearer still. Some of the younger members, now here

~

INAUGURAL ADDRESS, a

present, may yet be spared to participate as veterans in the
centenary celebrations of Sir David Brewster’s founding the
parent Association. To some extent and in a vivid manner we
shall be able, to measure the onward course of science here by the
periodicity of these gatherings from year to year, from decade to
decade. Much human faculty is always going to waste; let this
Association in its popularity collect all stray forces, especially as
here, on new grounds, the very novelty of research must stimulate
to more ardent action and keener emulation. Crude empiricism
gives way in all directions to scientific ruling ; the multitude is
awakening more and more to the importance of exact research ; a
tide has set in to carry knowledge with all accumulating
discoveries into every possible application; hence the rapid
strides of technic art and rural industries, particularly in young,
bustling communities. Yet commerce, as well as handicraft,
often still undervalues science-work, while daily benefiting from
it, though unseen, unrecognised and unregarded. But this
Union can make its influence felt through deliberations and
direct recommendations, and perhaps most powerfully so, because
its tendencies are so eminently practical and so unselfish. Much
in that direction are indeed our efforts, our aspirations, our
hopes! We can at measured intervals in this Association con-
nect researches with an extensiveness and universality such as
no other organisation can effect ; yet we do not enter into rivalry
with localised societies or institutions of learning ; contrarily, on
them we lean mainly for our mental sustenance.

The field of research is ever widening, but the horizon gets
clearer ; the objects of research become more multitudinous, but
the appliances for investigation are constantly enriched ; volumes
still more instructive supersede one another; methods more
facilitous are substituted for those of the past; incontestable
observations are daily increasing, the elaboration of systems and
records gets more completed, and thus endless difficulties become
removed, which beset the path of former workers ; by such means
an ever-accumulating science-fortune is rendered available without
individual freedom being impaired. Yet, while the network of
knowledge expands and the width of the meshes decreases, the
empty interstices between the threads are proportionately aug-
mented, though the fabric as a whole gains more firmness. The
greatest triumph of sciences consists in bringing them into the
fullest contact, somewhat in an Aristotelean and Plinian—or
speaking of our own epoch—in an Humboldtian spirit.

Discovery has its own rewards, and they are of the sublimest
kind. When, as far back as 1817, the founder of the British
Association perceived the endless displays of his kaleidoscope, and
beheld other before unthought-of marvels, he lifted in pious
admiration his eyes to heaven, well recognising that each playful
change in the picture or every other result from his optic apparatus

6 INAUGURAL ADDRESS.

was ruled as much by laws, universal and eternal, as the move-
ments in the planetary world. In recent days the great anatomic
Professor Hyrtl, after he saw his main work pass through eighteen
editions and through many translations, discourses still, though
blind, with youthful enthusiasm in classic Latin on the bearings of
medicine. Sir Richard Owen, at the venerable age of an octo-
genarian, evinces still with freshness of mind a keen and joyful
interest in comparative zoography, of which he is one of the main
originators. A coétanean of his through the century, George
Bentham, continued like Sir William Figen after four scores ee
years still brisk in descriptive taxonomy for the plants of the
world—engagements of severity, from which many a young
worker even would shrink ; the watching of discoveries in their
speciality were to them a never-ceasing fountain of delight, a
necessity for their intellectual existence.. When Haydn, the
predecessor of Mozart and Beethoven in composing symphonies,
heard with great splendour the performance of his oratorio, the
“Creation,” one of his last works, he burst into tears at the
passage, “It became light,” and uttered in deepest emotion the
words, “It is not from me, it is Divine inspiration.” The
vibrations of the Eiffel-tower, the new structure, doubly as high
as the Strassburg-spire, were attentively studied by Chevreul at
an age of his more than that of a centenarian.

Grand and true discoveries, such as may more and more also
here be effected, are not, like meteors, flashing brilliantly but
ephemerously across the sky ; they are like the discerning of new
stars of lasting radiancy; and there is one mighty incitation,
inasmuch as every achievement through progressive thought stamps
on it the name of the discoverer for all times, and as any single
new achievement may have numbers of others in its sequence.

Let it be instanced, what since Galvani’s time has been
brought about, until with lightning’s speed electric messages are
now dashing in all directions through the world. It would be
invidious to single out anyone connected with this glorious
progress for special praise, unless-the Nestor of electrology, who
in co-operation with Gauss fully fifty years ago issued the atlas
of terrestrial magnetism, and still some years earlier made one of
the first efforts to span electric wires over wide distances.

What long ago was surmised by Faraday, and later on through
calculations by Maxwell, has in the course of 1889 been proved
by Professor H. Hertz, of Karlsruhe, from real experiments, that
the action of the electric current on the medium, through which
it is carried, is the same as that produced by light ; further, that
the generation of both depends on the same laws, and that the
propulsion is effected at the same velocity. The objectionable
hypothesis of “action into distance,” which Weber already
wished to avoid with regard to gravitation, is overthrown by
these new demonstrations.

INAUGURAL ADDRESS, if

In recent days many surprising and momentous discoveries
were witnessed, but few can be alluded to here. Among those,
which have a practical and extensive bearing on daily require-
ments, some originated or were evolved through the genius of
Edison, from whom, as one yet in the prime of life, still other
inventions may be expected. Here I will refer only to that mode
of luminosity, which may be regarded as much cosmic as telluric,
and which now is brought within wide technical operation
through particularly disintegrated coal glowing in absolute
vacuum—not without some previous suggestions and experiments
by Sidot and Swan,

So also is it startling, to hear the human voice now with
telephonic celerity across a whole country, and hardly impaired in
intensity. Through the combination of Gray’s or Bell’s telephone,
with Edison’s phonograph, messages can be fixed—as you may
be aware—in writing ; while, by Hughes’s microphone, the sound
can be heard with extraordinary distinctness.

Nations are now rivalling to possess the largest telescope,
Melbourne still carrying the palm for the southern hemisphere.
Indeed, the great equatorial instrument here, with its four feet
mirror, is surpassed only by that of Lord Rosse, and equalled
only by that of Paris. Astronomy became lately in wondrous
details connected with astrophysics and astrophotography. The
astronomic department here, under our distinguished treasurer,
Colonel Ellery’s able administration, will extensively share also
in the now commencing international photographic charting of
the sidereal heavens. A gigantic refractor-telescope has been placed
in the clearest of air at one of the culminations, 4600 feet high, of
the Californian coast-range by a generous American mining
operator and amateur-astronomer, on whom fortune had smiled ;
and thus within the last year or two were revealed some empyrean
marvels, never beheld by mortal eye before ; the nebular ring in
Lyra presented quite new and complicated features, and additional
stars at or near the cyclic aggregations were discovered by the
astronomers of _Mount Hamilton, Professors Holden and
Schaeberle. Here may be alluded to only one other result of
these observers, attained under so exceptionally favourable cir-
cumstances within their celestial area, namely the elliptic nebula
of Draco, with its fulgent hydrogen and nitrogen, is now shown
to consist of coiled rings. New planetoids may thus also from
thence come within the range of vision, eight having been
observed from elsewhere on the northern heaven during 1888 and
at the beginning of 1889, thus bringing recorded numbers up to
283. The power, which would be exercised by very large tele-
scopes placed within the tropics at alpine elevations above the
frequent course of clouds in air so much rarified, may be beyond
all present imagination. More “about the comets, as supposed
meteor-swarms, which have entered the solar system,” might

8 INAUGURAL ADDRESS.

perhaps be learnt from’ such positions. Spectroscopic observa-
tions by Huggins, Secchi, Vogel, D’Arrest, Finlay, Wiedemann,
Schiparelli, Hasselberg and other philosophers lead to additional
explanations in this respect.

What photography, an art discovered within the lifetime of
many assembled here, in progressive scope may effect in future, is
as yet mere conjecture. The producing already, but not the
fixing as yet, of three of the principal colours within the present
processes of this glorious art holds out some hope, that its faithful
pictorial representations may become embellished yet by vividity
of colouration emanating directly and thus unerringly from
operative processes.

In a very different way other questions come before us.
Whether in the organic world a supposed involuntary tendency
of striving for higher development and further melioration,
whenever circumstances are favourable, arises from uncontrolled
impulses, so that nothing is left in a stationary distinctiveness !
Whether specific values for clear diagnosis and systematic fixity
have in the generality of cases been allotted with adequate scope?
Whether fertile hybridity is far more extensive, than we have
hitherto been led to suppose? Whether diversity in the physical
conditions of nature can explain the vaster development of
gigantic mammals and birds in the zoologic ages prior to the
present ? Whether forced accommodation or spontaneous adapta-
bility to altered circumstances of existence can change gradually
and even infinitely structural organisations and specific functions?
Whether crowding out, however overwhelming, can extend to
absolute annihilation in the free fields of nature, when undisturbed
by human action, or whether this combat for space and search
for nourishment is limited to mere repression? Whether among
specific organisations the most powerful always dominate to
the extensive suppression of others more numerous? Whether
organisms, which in the present creation-epoch became extinct by
the hand of man, could possibly ever be restored, by progressive
growth, even after many lengthened periods and with every
conduciveness for resuscitation? Whether our present means
for research are advanced enough, to distinguish all innate
peculiarities, with which distinct types in the organic world are
endowed? Whether, if all this could be answered in the aftirma-
tive, it would be sutiicient to account for the marvels of designs
in organic individuality connected with vital processes, as revealed
to us from the simplest and minutest to the most complex and
huge of living beings, all displaying perfection for their own
distinct purposes? Whether all our search for what is knowable
can ever lead to a worldly insight into the commencement of all
origination? Can we contribute from this Association, by
original unbiassed research here in new countries, towards the
answering these momentous questions 4

INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 9

The wider the climatic range, the greater the variability, so
that for studying specific limitations of organic beings we here are
placed in a more advantageous position, than those on whom the
first elaboration of Faunas and Floras devolved in the home-
countries. Whena phyto-paleontologist of first rank and life-long
experience, such as Goeppert, doubted whether from that branch
of knowledge much support could as yet be obtained for the
ascendance-doctrine, we are cautioned also so far, not to be over-
hasty in construing ideas and evolving theories with a view of
universal applications. The opposite views on organic develop-
ment, defended respectively by two such eminent among earlier
naturalists, as Cuvier and St. Hilaire, deserve profound considera-
tion even now-a-days. We are anywhere and anyhow only at the
threshold of the temple of truth, and might thus remain conscious
of some of the last humble words of even a Newton !

The dictum, supposed to be reliable, “ zatura non facit saltus,”
is not universally applicable, not even in paleontology, as demon-
strated by the three well-marked stages of the American horse.
One of the sublimest of poets, not foreign to natural science, must
have been persuaded of a Godly operation in nature, when he
wrote—

“Wohl erkundbar is das Wirken,
Unerforschlich bleibt die Kraft !”

The world would lose many of its charms to intellectual beholders,
if observers sink too much into materialistic explanations and
speculative reasonings. We all admire the sagacity, displayed by
great leaders in biology, to trace the building up of organic frames,
and to follow up observingly what is manifest in respective cycles
of vitality ; but can we adopt with the evidence attained all the
conclusions drawn therefrom? Let us deprecate extending theories
beyond what is warranted by trustworthy observations ; let us
avoid hazarding opinions unsupported by facts ; and above all let
us distinguish between what is within human grasp and what
must ever be concealed to the eyes of mortal beings !

The question has sometimes been raised, what is a billion ? but
an answer of calculative correctness has but seldom been given,
though in some thoughtlessness that enormity of numeric value
may be often enough rashly applied. Thus we hear spoken of
more than a billion tons of coal deposits in the Chinese province
of Shansi; and as the search through carboniferous areas has in
this colony also just passed into a momentous stage, it would be
well to remember, that in 1884 the actual output of coal came toa
total of 409 million tons, two-fifths of this from Britain. Froma
naturalist’s point of view, some fractional approach to the solution of
such questions might be arrived at perhaps, when the prodigiosity
of nature’s displays is considered in estimating, on the basis of some
calculation, the total number of spore-caselets on the fronds of
our hill-ferntree (Adlsophila australis) at 400 millions and that of

10 INAUGURAL ADDRESS.

the spores at 4000 millions ; when further it fairly can be assumed,
that a large tree of our silver-wattle may produce as a total from
its copious masses of flower-headlets 25 millions of tiny flowers,
800 millions of stamens, and 8000 millions of the compound
pollen-grains ; when a red-gum eucylaptus or a manna eucalyptus
may exhibit the twenty-fifth part of a billion of stomata in the
whole of its foliage.

Let us turn to another subject. Choice areas, not necessarily
very extensive, should be reserved in every great country for some
maintenance of the original vegetation, and therewith for the
preservation of animal life concomitant to peculiar plants. Where
the endemic riches are greatest, there also the danger is more
imminent of these being swept out of existence, unless timely
measures are adopted for the reservation of some sequestered spot,
to which rural occupations should never be allowed to have any
access with their disturbing influence on primeval harmonies.
Such spots should be proclaimed for all times the people’s inalien-
able property, and every inhabitant or visitor of the locality
should consider himself the co-preserver of such areas, so as to aid
in preventing accidental invasion or casual ignition or intentional
spoliation. Furthermore, to such places of security should he
transferred plants and animals of exceptional rarity occurring
near these seclusions. ‘¢ Floral commons,” thus established, would
soon be among the most attractive features, not only for pleasure
excursionists, but also for travellers from abroad, and would afford
future generations in various territories some idea of the wondrous
natural beauty of vegetable and animal life in its once unique
loveliness, pristine grace and unimpaired freedom. Measures
like these once initiated would earn enduring gratitude, and would
find imitation in all countries, and particularly in those, where
nature has scattered its floral gifts most prodigiously over the
territorial expanse. Under intelligent supervision such places,
through restricted concessions, might be made to yield a greater
income, than accruable through ordinary rural occupation. Who
would not plead in this cause? as our Field Naturalists’ Club has
indeed so fervently done already, More and more of rarities are
commencing to succumb and to be made unrestorable, and scarcely
a spot seems safe on the face of the globe against the defacing hand
of man! To the Great Auk no longer any existence was allowed
on the remotest hiding-place of Iceland, where the last poor pair
succumbed, while courageously defending their nest! Will any
remnant of the tribe of the gigantic birds, lingering yet in the
recesses of far southern latitudes, perhaps share the same fate ?
At this instance may be called into memory the touching verses
by the greatest of German poets, relating how the chamois is
driven by the relentless hunter to the utmost pinnacle of its
highland-home, and then the Alp-spirit of the legend sallies forth
with wrathful voice, ‘ Pause! why do you hurt my herd?’ Space
is left for all on earth!

INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 11

May also the forests be pleaded for here in this assembly ?

It should be a fixed plan in national economy anywhere, to
maintain masses of forest-vegetation near sources of rivers,
and to establish some broad arboreous bordering on streams,
where it does not extensively exist, as much calculated to reduce
sweeping water-volumes by soakage and mechanical retention.
For this purpose, nut-trees, cork-oaks, basket-willows and
other trees, prominently utilitarian, could be chosen. To what
reflections are you led, when a recent flood of the Mississippi
not only devastated the adjoining land in its course, but destroyed
also, through protracted submersion, much of the existing riparian
woods ; when property counting by millions of dollars is lost to a
Californian railway company through one single flood directly
traceable to destruction of forests; when two-thirds of the
inhabitants of the populous Connemaugh Valley perished by the
dam-disaster ; when so recently and so terrifically quite a million
of people were drowned in the floods of the Yellow River, and
another million of inhabitants died from starvation, epidemics
and other miseries as the sequence of such vast calamity.
Merely a small fraction of the monetary losses involved would
have sutticed to avert all this, if spent in well-regulated forestry.
The cooling of temperature in forests under ordinary circum-
stances means the reduction of much aqueous vapour to liquid
humidity, and further the local re-precipitation of gaseous moisture
in aqueous density, with proportionate lessening "of evaporation.
Each of “our friends, the trees,” is a factor, however small, in
this calculation.

It really it could be demonstrated, that forests exercise no
influence whatever on atmospheric precipitation, not even
through electricity,—an opinion lately advanced, but about
the correctness of which many do yet entertain the gravest
doubt—then still remains to be considered whether through
forests any country can obtain the fullest benefit from such
aerial downpours as do occur. In North-western America
the expression seems proverbial, “ Rain follows the plough.”
The principle in both cases would be the same. Though moisture
promotes spontaneous forest-growth, we are fortunately not by
its absence prevented, even in almost rainless zones, to clothe
bare tracts of country with an arborescent mantle of verdure.
Should some one in opulence desire to build up for himself one
of the most lasting of monuments, it would be by the bequest of
an isolated primeval forest, ever untouchable, for the free enjoy-
ment of the orderly portion of the public. The annual “ arbor-
day,” let us trust, will become universal as a legitimate holiday,
which will be looked forward to with delight, particularly by the
juveniles, who, with a life of hope before them, can await results
from pleasurable action and intelligent forethought. Celebrations
like these are not without a lesson. to the w vhole community.

12 INAUGURAL ADDRESS.

The increment to the wood-estate of Victoria would be now
already 200,000 trees annually, if some slight tending followed
the impulse of planting; even where trees naturally abound,
additions can be made by choices from abroad, as anyhow forest
culture should nowhere any longer be limited to maintenance
and increase of species possessed by the region, but should in
amplification be extended to whatever is best and perhaps avail-
able as superior from other lands.

Here, where, so to say, we live under eucalyptus-trees, we are
apt to undervalue their hygienic importance, or to discard them
altogether. Unfortunately also the multitude, notwithstanding
many efforts made, is not yet sufficiently informed on sanitary
measures ; thus a large proportion of the general public does not
even yet seem to recognise, that for plantations, such as were
with special forethought raised since the last thirty years around
this metropolis, pines were purposely chosen on account of the
salubrious effect of terebinthine antiseptic exhalations from these
particular trees—a momentous consideration, where hundreds of
thousands of inhabitants have already crowded closely together,
and where zymotic diseases are so frequent and often so severely
raging, not to speak of the esthetic aspect in a zone of evergreen
vegetation, where main-masses of trees with deciduous foliage are
out of harmony, while a six months’ spring prevails against as
much winter-time of colder regions; yet, for all that, what
thoughtful people have regarded as the vegetative pride of the
environs of Melbourne may be in danger of being sacrificed to
capricious tastes and transient fashions. Interplantations of
palms, bamboos, and other contrasting plants were long since
contemplated under the shelter of the pines, to relieve any
imaginary or real monotony produced by large masses of coni-
ferous trees, even where they were miscellaneously grouped. Now
to another topic.

If merely to a slight extent the treasures of nature have
been studied anywhere, with what enthusiasm are visited then
new regions in appreciative knowledge or detail conversedness.
The child even on its school-walks, the recreation-seeking pedes-
trian, the travelling tourist,—after some previous glimpses into
nature’s arcana—involuntarily sees more for rational and eleva-
ting enjoyment than the rest of the people, and that uncostly
too, and perhaps even with substantial profit.

In whatever direction our glances are cast on organic nature,
we perceive marvels of design from the mouse-sized monkey to
elephantine giants, living or extinct; from the smallest hum-
ming bird, half-a-dozen of them hardly weighing as much as an
ordinary letter, to the now byegone Moa of giraffe-tallness; from
the towering huge Athrotaxis (or Sequoia) cypress-pine of
California to mosses of almost invisible minuteness,—all perfect
in organisation for their own special purposes. But endless other

INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 13

considerations press on the trained observer, only one to be
touched on here. Can the time approximately be determined
when the Diptrodon stamped in gigantic paces our plains, and
when the Thylacoleon roared in pursuit of other marsupials, now
exterminated ?

One of the most remarkable of objects within the whole range
of biology is that of Symbiosis, the unexpectedly wide extent of
which through the empire of plants having lately been demon-
strated by Professor Beccari—the hospes not proving detrimental
or often not even injurious to the host. Professor Frank very
recently discovered that fungus-growth of quite peculiar kind at
the extreme ends of the root fibres in oaks, beeches and trees.
allied to them, mediates the nutrition of them as a necessity.
Could all this be merely casual? The Azolla, nourishing a micro-
scopic alge, is an example near to us, just as in other but similar
respects the native evergreen beech.

At the very time, when I left Europe, forty-two years ago, Count.
Suminski discovered, to the surprise of many of us, the antherid-
ous and archegonous organs on the minute prothallus of ferns ;
but whether and how genetic relation exists between the primordial]
and the subsequently-developed sporangious organs on fern-fronds
has never yet been traced or explained ; and this is all the more
mysterious as regards fern-trees, such as abound here, when years

‘intervene between the production of the prothallus and that of
the spore-bearing caselets. See further the vast significance of
what, at first thought, may appear a mere trifling matter.

A small fly (Lestophones tceryae) was not long ago noticed as
antagonistic to the coccid-insect Jcerya purchasi, by the very
observant Mr. Fraser Crawford, of Adelaide, though a closely
allied fly, Zastophonus monophiebi, infests mainly, if not exclusively,
another coccid, the Monophilebus crawford, as shown by Mr. F.
A. A. Skuse, so that even in introducing the particular Diptere
needed for subduing the Icerya very discriminative entomo-
logy must be brought to bear for coping with an evil of quite
dreadful dimensions in Californian orchards, not to speak of what
with the less powerful Coccinellides can be done. Thus the
Agricultural Department of Washington found it necessary to
send a professional entomologist purposely to Australia, in order
that the Lestophones be established also on the other side of the
Pacific Ocean, to restore thus far “‘the balance of nature;” just as.
in another remarkable instance the vines of the United States are
largely reared in Europe and elsewhere now for their immunity
to the Phylloxera vastatrix, which from America invaded other
countries. Perhaps this parasite could likewise be subdued by
other insects, such as would not attack the vines. If so, a question
would be solved involving almost the whole interest of rural
prosperity in many wide regions. So then a new special field is.
opened anywhere for entomologic observations, with a prospect.
held out of high substantial reward.

14 INAUGURAL ADDRESS.

The described species of living animals, according to a very
recent calculation by Drs. Krauss and Lamprecht, largely from
the works of Leunis and Bronn, reach in number one quarter of a
million! Of these are Mammals 2,300, Birds 11,200, Fishes
9,000, Mollusces 2,300, Insects 167,000 (with 80,000 Beetles).
But even in latest days these numbers became considerably aug-
mented, thus that of the Micro-Lepidoptera from this part of the
world by the strenuous researches of Meyrick.

The admissible species of described living plants number not
less than 200,000 now, as about 120,000 vasculares, taken in a
conservative sense, have been fairly well defined, and as Prof.
Saccardo has given in his large recent work alone 27,000 diagnoses
of fungaceous plants, so that the total number of supposed species
already to be dealt with in descriptive Biology cannot fall very
much short of half a million species. Mitten enumerated and
cliagnosticised, twenty years ago, already 1750 sorts of genuine
mosses for South-America ; the zealous and accomplished two
Vice-Presidents of the Biologic Section have, in spare hours,
atter their professional engagements, recorded respectively 400
species of seaweeds from the littoral regions off and near Port
Phillip, and 600 species of Polyzoa from the extratropic shores
of Australia, the polyzoic fauna merely of our great Bay here
being richer than either that of the British shores or that of the
Mediterranean Sea. Over 1000 species of Australian fishes are
contained in the Census, which we owe to the Hon. Sir William
McLeay, whom, to our regret, illness obliged to relinquish in the
Melbourne meeting the position, assigned to him as a veteran of
scientific prominence. Mr. Masters’s Catalogue of Australian
Beetles, largely from collections of the distinguished naturalist
just named, and commenced by his renowned uncle, comprises
7200 species; but since that was published considerable aug-
mentations have taken place. Indeed, thousands and thousands
of kinds of insects, particularly others than coleoptera, are
fluttering and buzzing as yet unrecognised, unclassified and
undescribed in Australian air, entomologists throughout Europe
and many elsewhere envying those here for the yet easy chances
of obtaining novelties.

Let as an instance of rarity of species be adduced the re-dis-
covery of Amansia mammillaris through some action of my own
within the last few months on the very isolated Abrolhos-rocks,
opposite Champion Bay, perhaps the only place of its existence,
from whence a solitary specimen of this oceanic alge, as one most
exquisite for delicate beauty, structural tenderness and lovely
coloration, was brought by Peron during Baudin’s expedition of
1802, and described in 1809 by the Caen Professor Lamoruoux,
thus tantalising phycologists all the while.

Irrespective of the seven descriptive volumes, mainly by the
incomparable Bentham, on the universal vegetation of Australia,

INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 15

special works on the flora of most of the Australian Colonies
are now provided, one for Queensland having been published by
Mr. Bailey some time ago, and one for South Australia having
been just issued by Professor Tate, who also brought geologic
and zoologic considerations to bear on the vegetation there.
Mr. C. Moore has furnished the manuscript for the Flora of New
South Wales, with a prospect of early promulgation in a special
volume. Sir Jas. Hooker’s Floras of New Zealand and of
Tasmania, quite gems, emanated already many years ago as
one of the results of Sir James Ross’s antarctic expedition.

Though limiting these remarks to achievements of later times,
T do not wish to pass the name of Robert. Brown, because not
only did he lay most extensively and firmly the basis for the
system of Australian vegetation, but it was he also, who took up
again morphology for plants, after the long interval since the
origination of that branch-science by Wolff, just when it was
resumed for animals by Doellinger.*

Through gradually increasing facilities for multiplication in
iconography now, so far as plants are concerned, about one-fifth
of the known species have become depictured. Of illustrated
monographies in vegetable natural history the most urgently
required is one on Characeae, an opus, which would be of local
interest in every part of the world, and particularly here, where
‘this group of waterweeds abounds.

In one particular respect splendid chances for facilitation or
acceleration of science-work are not rarely lost at opportune
moments, namely, to acquire extensive authentic collections, the
accumulation of which may have involved the sacrifices of recre-
ative ordinary pleasures through a whole life, the disbursement of
a private fortune and the main-absorption of a brilliant mind in
fixed research, whereby treasures may have been got together for
material valuation simply unpriceable. Nowhere applies this
more than in young colonies, where no opportunity should be
missed, whenever such may suddenly arise at long intervals, to
complete the working material from abroad by what may be
otherwise utterly unobtainable. The securing of the Linnean
collections, by the forethought of a British servant to his country,
is an Instance in point.

The gifted Secretary of the subsection for Music in our gather-

* A passage from the Address is here omitted, in which the names were given of
scientists, prominent in Australia during recent periods and mostly yet active in research ;
but it proved impossible within the precincts of a general discourse, however propitious
the moment, to allude to every one, who had attained celebrity in Australian scientific
life. A hope is entertained, that at future meetings of the Association full justice will be
done within the special sections to the merits of various and respective individual
discoverers, who constitute now already quite a multitude of scientific worthies also in
this part of the world. Two deviations from this course will be countenanced by all with
due homage—to note especially the superb Decades, largely also paleeontologic, issued
during the last 30 years by the veteran Professor of the Melbourne University—and to
bestow adequate recognition on the brilliant manner in which the first President of the
Australian Association maintains the fame of our eldest Observatory.

16 INAUGURAL ADDRESS.

ing is among those who endeavored to rouse a spirit for beautifying
our landscapes as well as our immediate surroundings. Biologists,
particularly, could add to the charms of vernal vegetation anywhere
by transferring for naturalisation from land to land, at all events,
the minutest of flowers, always innocent, such as here the neatest
Candolleas ; the snatching up and forwarding of a few grains of
seeds, and their being merely scattered on adequate soil in similar
climatic regions, would suffice. Peculiarity in the constitution of
the fruit enabled the Cocos-palm to transmigrate on its own accord
from its home in the Western Hemisphere to the shores of the
Eastern ; it requires other means for the French-bean and the
gourds to reach the East; for the last 300 years they were
consumed as a frequent table-food of supposed eastern origin ;
but now only has it been shown, by archaeologic researches into
the Incas-times, that they belong as indigenous to the western
world exclusively. This exemplifies how objects of almost daily
concerns can still afford means for original inquiry for almost
indefinite periods. The munificence of the learned President of
the section for Literature and Fine Arts has fostered also this
system of translocation, as shown last year by additional very
copious distribution of salmon-ova through Tasmanian streams.

Cassino for 1888 recorded 13,500 scientists as holding recog-
nised positions in various countries ; but the respective numbers
given seem adequate only for North America—thus far, nearly
5,000 names being given. This, however, shows the extra-
ordinary vividity displayed there for original inventive work,
and that very much of a practical kind.

Young Australia has placed hitherto already through its
science-societies about 130 volumes into the libraries of the
world, and that mostly during the latter half of the century ;
a freshness pervades these literary efforts, commensurate with the
ampler originality of sources in new countries. An enlightened
journalistic press accords here no less than elsewhere its generous
support to science. For the world as a whole mental faculty is
displayed, never without a scientific touch, in hundreds of
thousands of journals, in uncountable periodicals, and in an
endless number of spacious volumes. How is a view to be
maintained over this ever-increasing flood of literature, if even
for each of us in one or few directions only? At all events, in
greater works a resumé of their salient contents should never be
wanting, some summing up of the main-substance, some abridged
reference to novel elucidations. The idea of constructing an
universal linguistic medium of communication, at first promul-
gated by Leibnitz in 1666, has occupied the minds of many of the
learned ever since. Like numerical figures, chemical formulas
and musical notes, such a language is to be readable by each
nation in its own words, and the name Pasigraphy has been
chosen for it. Volapiik affords steps towards accomplishing this,

INAUGURAL ADDRESS. ie

but does not solve the problem. Can the principle of stenography
be drawn into use for this purpose? Classic languages, grandly
developed more than 2,000 years ago, continue to give an
antique firmness to Gaipenaipnal writing ; but, after all, England
has given its language to already one-fonr th of the world, a
language of powerful conciseness and flexible expressibility,
doubtless destined to become still more and more predominating
in the course of time.

There is one publication which concerns Australia much, but
is in its value here too scantily recognised—that of the Royal
Colonial Institute, a union much brought about by the thoughtful
activity of H.R.H. the Prince of Wales, and largely tending
through essays and discussions of leading colonists, to unite the
interests of the British Colonies with those of the great home-
country for more solidifying the Empire.

Chronologic writings exist for political but not for scientitic
events ; a volume of the Histor y of the British Association
would almost be equivalent to a connected record of discoveries
effected since its founding, as foreign achievements were never
lost sight of. A history of all universities from original local
archives would carry authentic and comprehensive records of all
sciences also into medieval remoteness, and yet could be held within
trenchant briefness—local extra-academic working not likely
being passed at the respective seats of universal knowledge. By
the co-operation of specialists the prominent points of still earlier
discoveries might be readily adduced quite into the dawn of
civilisation.

A new principle for facilitating scientific pursuits deserves to
be alluded to at this occasion on account of its wide applicability,
namely: to afford special convenience for original research in
distant countries, as thereby additional inducements are offered
for particular studies far abroad. A commencement thus far was
made by the establishment of the biologic station at Naples.
But to the Dutch belongs the credit of adopting ampler measures
in this direction, so far as to fit up local working rooms, and as to
lessen the expenditure for a lengthened stay of naturalists in
Java, one of the most attractive places, as you are aware, for
whoever wishes to study nature in its tropical grandeur. Several
leading scientists have availed themselves already of this induce-
ment; and Ceylon—still nearer to Europe—so as to be with
sufficient advantage within reach during the long annual profes-
sional vacations, is now also resorted to. If Australia could
follow this example, we would see oftener on our shores illustrious
strangers, who might wish to spend a scientific furlough rather
among widely different scenes in nature, and to roam among
a vast number of new objects, than to travel within much traversed
and scientifically more exhausted areas ; and they might perhaps
come accredited also as delegates to the Australian Association—

B

18 INAUGURAL ADDRESS.

should we not prefer to invite purposely year after year repre-
sentatives from the older seats of learning to gatherings here,
as suggested at the last Medical Congress. What a rich store of
recent professional experiences would be shed out before us, and
how would we, while offering Australian hospitalities, endeavour
to reciprocate from what could be obtained from here as scientifi-
cally novel. But this principle has still another bearing. In
Java, for instance, pulmonary consumption seems never to become
cleveloped. More than that, a fortnight’s steamer-voyage can
bring, at a moderate cost, the phthisic invalid from England to
Central America, for reaching, not too far inland, any chosen
elevations with light and pure air of easy respiration. The
mountain-regions of extra and intra-tropical Australia, as well as
some of the. elevated inland downs, come likewise eee this
hygienic scope, especially for sufferers from a home sutliciently near.

Turning to geography, let here the question be asked, as con-
cerning us most, how can Australian exploration be advanced ?
Talent, enthusiasm and experience are available at any moment
for the purpose. Our first historic century has passed ; will the
chronologic seculum also close, ere the blanks on the maps are
tilled up! Tf so, it would be almost a reproach ; and may I be
allowed to repeat what, in a geographic address, was said some
few months ago: “ The main work of Australian land- exploration
devolved on nine travellers only ; now space seems only left for
one more great explorer, to rank with the nine. Who will be the
tenth to carry off this last of honors, or will it be divided among
several less ambitious competitors?’ Well may the eagerness be
understood, to set the life on winning such a prize !

What a contrast, when we reflect that Pytheas reached the
Shetland Islands, his “Thule,” at the time of Alexander the
Great ; and yet, that it should require more than two thousand
years before Socotra became carefully explored, and thereby also
its unique floral treasures and other natural riches disclosed, this
having only been accomplished through action of the British
Association by Professor Bailey Balfour within the last few
years, though courses of navigation were close to that island
since grey antiquity, its endemic aloe-plant having been famed
already to the trading Fheenicians, but remaining through all
that time for science purposes utterly unknown.

Manifold attempts have been made, to map out the leading
features of the vegetation of various countries on series of charts,
and to treat the stationary fauna similarly; if this was done
from adequate material for every great region by united efforts
of those, locally best initiated, then might be constructed com-
paratively complete zoo- and phyto-geographic atlases for the
whole globe, and these would unfold at a glance the prominent
types in a more impressive and instructive manner than any
other. Co-operation is needed, to accomplish this, and more

INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 19

particularly so in Australia. Our biologists might devise some
feasible plan, to advance this subject from year to year at the
Association’s meeting.

Capt. Engelhardt Jérgensen’s singular enterprise, now under
progress, to sail in a lifeboat around the world, arose from ideas
encouraged and matured in this metropolis. The boat is decked,
divided into water-tight compartments, unsinkable, readily port-
able, never permanently upset, easily set going in accident, and
carries drinking water as ballast ; it has stood a furious sea near
the Bay of Biscay. We may thus expect the venturesome
mariner with his companion, to arrive in due time, whereby a
deed will be accomplished as daring and unique, as that of his
famous countryman, who lately crossed the south of Greenland.

Dr. Nansen is seemingly to receive munificent support from a
compatriot for an effort to approach by land the North-Pole
from Greenland ; this will likely prove the safest route, notwith-
standing immense hindrances, because on that line will at all
events be mostly a firm footing, and perhaps some game. If the
best is made of a full aretic summer with sailing sleighs, it
would be shown, to some extent at least, whether Greenland
extends in terrestrial continuity still much further than 83° N.,
while chances likely would accrue of wide views onward from
any high elevation. As one likely result, the northern limits
- of Greenland would at least be determined. At all events, it
has now been shown, that arctic altitudes up to 10,000 feet are
traversable.

Instances are too rare, considering the enormous private
wealth accumulated in innumerable cases, of calling explorers
into the field, such as in our days brought Agassiz to the
Amazon-river, Stanley, “the bravest of the brave” among
geographers, to Central Africa, Nordenskiold along the whole
coast of North Asia.

But Australia is not without its Maecenates! Of this you will
be reminded in the Wilson-Hall, in the Clarke and Wyselaskie
Institutions, connected with the Melbourne University, while in
the eldest city of Australia the main seat of science was endowed
by Challis’s princely munificence, and the Linnean Society is
sustained largely in a permanent home by the foremost of
Australian zoologists. In the metropolis, west of us, the
University owes some of its principal ramifications to the
Hughes and Elder bestowals. Ormond College and that of the
Artisans here tell their own tale, whereas a statue at the largest
library in the Southern Hemisphere commemorates what well
directed energy and untiring perseverance can individually bring
about. But let us think also of the liberal support, accorded by
successive enlightened Ministries and Parliaments, to early and
continued studies, without which high-mindedness many researches
here could not have reached their present extent.

B2

20 INAUGURAL ADDRESS.

Turning to antarctics so far as mere temperature is concerned,
that to be encountered on the southernmost tableland of ice, would
probably not be lower than that endured by Nansen at elevations
very lofty in Greenland, and the ascent of the ice-cliffs near Mount
Erebus, from convenient points of sloping shores, would likely also
not be more perilous, than the scaling of some ice-crests of the Cau-
casus by members of the Alpine Club last year. The project of
renewed south-polar exploration has been discussed in all its
bearings by the Antarctic Committee of the British Association,
as well as here. We are not even yet aware, to what circum-
stances the existence of the only deep gulf towards the South
Pole is traceable, whether to voleanic influences, or to terrestrial
configuration, or to what other causes. Can the increasing
pressure, exercised by the constantly enlarging height of the
contiguous immense southern ice-masses, induce perhaps volcanic
disturbances through the enormous weight? The breaking
away of the crust or melting away from beneath, where not on
firm land, seems quite out of proportion to the ever augmenting
ponderousness, resulting from all aqueous precipitations ever
there at once freezing, even at summer-time. What the effect of
mere gravitation may finally be on this land of ice without any
relieving open interjacent water-channels, concerns us even at
such distance here as physicists and also as mere inhabitants
very much indeed; and it is worthy of full discussions in our
meetings for years to come, particularly if data could be obtained
as to the ratio of increase of the ice. The extensive and so
patriotic Australian Natives’ Association likewise advocates re-
newed Antarctic disquisition; and surely these efforts will tend,
to maintain also the glorious maritime supremacy of the British
Nation, displayed formerly in the most distant of southern waters.
as much as elsewhere.

Now as to our own Alps. The circumspectness and energy of
the Council, aided by public and private liberality, has provided
enjoyments, some with us not previously realised. Among these
is a tour to our highlands. To most Australians and many of
the Europeans here a visit to our Alps, through the steam-
locomotive more and more coming within ready and easy reach,
will have the charms of novelty. Particularly in early or in late
hours you will likely behold a kind of airy ocean, surrounding
with gigantic waves, phantastic isles, formed by highland pinnacles.
visible above the sea of vapours, the sun’s rays illuminating the
calm or drifting clouds, resplendent in colorations of ever-changing
and indescribable magnificence. You will there be in the purest
of air of lightly respirable buoyancy. Whilst summer-heat
parched already the lowlands, you will have vernal flower-tields
of unique ever refreshed beauty, to wander over; close to this
may lie never-melting snow. In this, what I would call the
Australian Switzerland, pasture- and orchard-plots will soon be

INAUGURAL ADDRESS. AN

the homes of many new highlanders. You will be impressed
with the solemnity and almost awe of stillness away from the
haunts of man, feelings of human insignificance arising within
scenes of nature so incomparably grand; there man is drawing
nearer in his thoughts to the Divine Power ruling all.

Science nowhere can stand still! Linguistic science is not
foreign to this Association. Thus, then, time-hallowed expressions,
though some of them may have come as a glossarian inheritage

even from Pythagorean antiquity, and may have continued of
daily frequency, will have to give way to wordings in consonance
with progressive discoveries. “Organography, even in instances of
words, to which has been clung with tenacity since the Plinian
age, will have yet to undergo some changes for the sake of greater
accuracy in definiteness and more cleaimess in etymology. Com-
matation in more than one of current languages could be brought
better into accord with oscillations of “thought. The hyphen
might for fuller perspicuity be more drawn into use, and particu-
larly so in organic chemistry, which furnishes, even at the latest of
dates, words so unwieldy in reading, and so unpronounceable in
length, for its complex-compositions, that one single word may be
composed in unbroken array of as many as forty-five letters, not
unlike the extensiveness of construction in some Oriental languages ;
while contrarily, abbreviations to such an extent as “Salol” for
the new therapeutic chemical, ‘“ Salicylate of Phenol,” appear
equally deprecable. Speaking of ancient languages, it might
passingly here be noted, from researches of Professor Sayce, of
Oxford, in most recent days, that a brisk literary intercourse
existed in cuneate lettering between all the countries from the
Nile to the Euphrates during the fifteenth century before the
Christian era. This was shown by unearthing the ruins of the
vesidence-town of Amenophis the Fourth. Contrast with this the
still existing stoneage of the Australian Nomades! We here
cannot hope, to add much to what has been gathered already of
the languages of the Australian aborigines for some further
insight into the onward-march of the human races and the
history of their progress ; but such chances, as may still exist,
should not be lost for constructing further vocabularies, ere the
remnants of the last tribes are passing away, or abandon their
pristine languages, or forget their lore; what can still be secured
will be all the more valuable, because it will—at best—be so seanty.
Studies of this kind will become more significant, since a Vic-
torian divine, as a missionary in the New Hebrides, traces
the language there partly to Semitic origin. Indeed, linguistic
research assumes also here now such magnitude, that it might be
recommendable to constitute hereafter a division for “science of
languages” in the section for literature within this Association.
The moment seems an apt one, to pay some homage at this spot
also to the bearers of the gospel, who, in their inostentatious yet

22 INAUGURAL ADDRESS.

severe and perilous task, have to a vast extent gathered, fixed
and systematised the languages of savage tribes, doubtless
primarily in duties of holy call, but thereby collaterally affording
means for comparative linguistic studies and the philologic
subjects connected therewith. Indeed, the Bible is now trans-
lated into more than 300 languages or their diversified dialects.
What an incalculable treasure is stored up by these biblic
translations also in wordly aspects! Could the Association
possibly do some further good in insisting, that by the force
of logic, should be suppressed any defectiveness of thought in
much of commonplace conyersational and perhaps also literary
phraseology, ever without reflection reiterated. Some appella-
tions, vernacular or otherwise, are also here and there open to
improvement yet; thus, to quote only one familiar instance,
“‘Gumtrees,” professionally speaking, would apply here to the
Wattle-Acacias, not to the Eucalypts. For the advantage of
conversing in several languages, and simultaneously to have
disclosed the treasures of literature in originality, to learn
two, three or even four, is at early childhood hardly more
dificult than one, if facilities in family-life can be offered to the
youthful retentive mind. Even to orphan-children, provided for
by the State, this benefit could be extended, inasmuch as some
juvenile inmates of orphanages might be readily transferred from
the institution of one country to that of a neighbouring one
without any additional expenditure for support, and with this
philanthropic view, that nations, who unhappily nourish mutual
sentiments of asperity, would through the rising generation by
closer social contract draw nearer to. each other also as great
communities, would learn more to respect national character,
would recognise more individual worth of their adversaries,
would gradually be disabused of hostile prejudices, and would
abandon supposed or exaggerated notions of their neighbour's
faultfulness or enmity. This principle might perhaps be extended
to all classes, with domesticities sure to arise out of it with all
their happy influences.

It is most pleasing, to see assigned to the highly scientific art
of music so distinct a position at this gathering, the division, °
constituted for it, being moreover enhanced in importance through
a renowned composer being identified with it. At all periods
of human existence the soul found its sublimest expression
in harmonious tones. Emblematically the sacred Scripture
seizes on this mode of expression, as conveying to the utmost
the ideas of mental loftiness! By nearly a thousand symbols
vocal and instrumental sounds were fixed from almost mythologic
remoteness down to the olympian festivals; and well might
it be wished, that some records of those melodies were left,
enchanting as they were even at the dawn of mental culture,
to be deciphered or restored at this age. To judge from

INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 23

the poetry of ancient periods, the music must then already
have been pervaded by great depth and richness of feeling.
A magnificent piece of music surpasses even so far the
most splendid of poems, as its sounds are the eloquence of one
universal language. Among great operatic composers is one only,
with whom word and sound emanated from the same mind and
soul, and it is he also who never spent the sublimest of music on
inadequate themes; it is he who, with Meyerbeer, in utmost impres-
siveness gave to his musical effusions historic vividity, it is he who
thus far knew to profit from the incomparable Avon-bard. So
long as human suceptibilities exist for what is elevating, so long
will master-pieces of music, of poetry and indeed also of pictori ial
and plastic art be imperishable treasures, may they even have
come to us from the time even of the Iliad. If we think of the
names of the great masters, should then not also with some
thankfulness be a remembrance for those, who drew men of high
genius into their path or sustained them thereon? What would have
been the fate of Beethoven in 1808, had it not been for the aid of the
then Arch-Duke Rudolph, of Prince Lobkowitz and Count Kinski
at that turbulent time? What would have become of Schiller at
his protracted illness without the annuity spontaneously, in the
most delicate of terms, bestowed by the Danish Crown-Prince and
Count Schimmelpfenning , and that at a period when national and

private resources were alike absorbed to a vast extent, because all
~ Europe was in ar ms, not to speak of numerous other instances,
when genius was in danger to be extinguished by worldly narrow-
ness. The sunny sky Ma Australia seems to kindle a general love
for music, and ‘has called forth many a_ talent already, some
celebrating triumphs in the centres of European art, while a
youth of this city carried off there among numerous competitors
the Mozart-fellow ship. But distinctions (fon this our great land
have not only been earned in the glorious cause of music.

Photolithography, if not altogether it did arise in Victoria,
became universally adopted in the particular process, elaborated
here, and first explained before our Royal Society by one of
Liebig’ s disciples, who too early became alienated from this colony.
There also were first enunciated, however briefly, the views of the
author of the Unseen Universe on the effects of rays, emanating
from various substances ; and these early studies were follow ed
up by a long series of appertaining researches at the great Home
Observatory of Kew. Brennan’s torpedo is a Victorian achieve-
ment, recognised as highly important by the British Government,
and has proved lucrative to the constructor.

It is about a hundred years ago when Galvani led the know-
ledge of electricity into new courses for unforeboded vast influences
through the technic world ; when Goethe conceived the first and
far- reaching ideas of organic metamorphosis ; when Sir James
Smith established the first society of just pretensiveness for a

24 INAUGURAL ADDRESS.

special science ; when the second Jussieu constructed his natural
system of plants, perfect for all points but one, unless in details ;
when the elder Herschel erected his great telescope at Slough,
the discovery of the sixth and seventh satellites of Saturn being
among the earliest results obtained; when the elder Gaertner
founded carpology ; when the Danish Professor Otto Mueller
established in taxonomy the genus Bacillaria, he, even as a
physician, but little foreseeing, what solid basis he was gaining in
one direction for the future extension of pathology; when
Roxburgh settled in India, as the first to elucidate in a modern
sense the flora of an extensive region by independent extra-
- European researches; when Lavoisier published his Zvyazté de
Chimie as the earliest main-pillar of the present system of
chemistry, not long before he met his cruel fate ; when, amidst
other contemporaneous exploits, it fell to the share of Vancouver
to cast the first anchor in St. George’s Sound for vast extension
of the British dominions in this continent.

Australia, although one of the latest of original abodes of man,
may yet also be destined perhaps to be the eld of some of man-
kind’s greatest achievements. The Biblic words, Matthaeus :
‘6 Tiths good for us to be here; let us build edifices,” is signifi-
cantly applicable to advancing dwilized settlement through these
fortunate dominions.

We are to enter soon on the last decennium of this century,
that secular epoch, which to all human foresight will remain the
most expansive for discoveries in the world’s history, because it
would seem, that in most directions not equal opportunities can
re-arise for inventive foundation-research within the same space
of time. Shall we be in the proud position, that other ages will
say, ‘The nineteenth century has done its work for science
well?’ And what can yet be accomplished towards its verge
here and elsewhere? There will be some summing-up then of the
gain of human thoughts so far. Can the geographic chart of our
planet be finished by that time? Can the telegraph-wires be
connected throughout all countries? Can the outlines of the geo-
logic map of our globe be completed? Can the systematic records
of the faunas and floras be mainly brought everywhere to a close ?
Can an universal meteorology be evolved? Can chemistry ex-
haust then already the display of elementary substances and of
their principal coalescences? And can all this be helped on
locally by this Association, if even only to a small extent ?

When probably a decade hence this Union will inaugurally
reassemble in our metropolis, perhaps to witness then also again
another industrial fair of nations in commemoration of the linking
together of two centuries, many whom we are gladdened to see
yet among us will have passed away, resting under the sods ; but
though then you will see them no more, they—like earlier con-
temporaries of some of us—like Sturt, Mitchell, M. Stuart,

INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 25

Leichhardt, Gould, W. Sharpe, M‘Leay, Gunn, Milligan, Sprent,
Davy, Jukes, Haast, McKinlay, Clarke, Castleman, Tenison-
Woods, Scortechini will have left for future inspiration and due
gratitude many science-bequests of enduring value, gained largely
on Australian soil ; yet some loneliness of its own may perhaps
be felt through missing them, for which the contact with a
younger generation can perhaps not always fully compensate.

Individual life at best is but short; through “the advance-
ment of science” it can be prolonged, can be rendered capable of
much augmented achievement, can be made susceptible to multi-
plied enjoyments and much increased usefulness. We advance
towards a greater future ; what would we wish man’s destiny in
life to be? Can unprosperity be banished through ae a in-
dustrial productiveness? Can contentions be abolished by a
universal recognition of rights? Can savagedom early be made
to cease 4 Can finally each human being be educated to higher
and worthier ideals? Can atheism be inaddé to vanish ? Can
knowledge with its Baconian password bring its power to
bear, to accomplish these most transcendental of objects? Can
as interpreters of answers to such cosmopolitan questions all
bearers of science throughout the world unite in a mental
brotherhood ?

And now some few closing words. Though while coming
together in this Association we do not engage in_ political
discussions, yet in one aspect we might venture, to diverge from
the strict path, marked out for science-votaries—it is in this, to
foster also through ovr bonds the “union of the empire,” under
permanent British supremacy. ‘This must be the ardent wish of
every true subject of our gracious Sovereign. Thereto point the
grandest traditions, prominence in history, world-wide national
influence, immeasurable strength of the realm, irresistible patriotic
sentiments ; thereto also leads us veneration for the great home-
land, with its keen sense of justice, philanthropic clemency,
practical tendencies and indomitable energy. May the reflex rays
of that national greatness fall ever unobscured on us also here!
What are we, whether in science or in any other consideration,
without Britain in all its prototypic bearings and glory? Take
this away, sever us from this, then the best of impulses, the greater
confidence in our purposes, as well as our main guidance and
security, would be lost! And where would be our gratitude ?
Britain bestowed on us a whole continent, with oceanic
boundaries, within salubrious zones, exempt from autochthonic
complications, with resources uncountable—all as a free gift,
as an unencumbered patrimony. The solidity of a great empire
will also be a guarantee for the best-connected and most luminous
of science-progress in all dominions, over which its sceptre sways ;
it will ever signalise a power, by which knowledge and enlighten-
ment and indeed religious reverence also, will be carried

26 INAUGURAL ADDRESS,

with the widest permanency through the world not only for the
welfare of the greatest of nations, but also for the tranquillity
and happiness of all mankind !

“What guides man in his high pursuit,
Opens, illumes and cheers his way ?
Discerns immortals from the brute,
God’s image from the moulds of clay ?
°’Tis knowledge! and that to the soul
Is power, is liberty and peace ;
And, while celestial ages roll,
The light of knowledge shall increase |”

FRE SIDENTIAL ADDRESS. IN SEGTIO

(Astronomy, Mathematics, Physics and Mechanics).

THE PRESENT STATE OF ELECTRICAL KNOWLEDGE;

By RICHARD THRELFALL, M.A.,

Professor of Physics, University of Sydney.

A piscussion of the present state of electrical knowledge natu-
rally involves an apology. .It is not without a certain amount of
trepidation that I venture to address you on the most profound
of physical subjects, nor should I have done so unless it had been
suggested to me by the Secretary of the Association. Anyone
with any knowledge of the matter will, I think, bear me out
when I say that the difficulty of turning the results of mathe-
matical reasoning into a form in any way suitable for an address
is exceedingly grave, and should really be only attempted by
those who have a special knowledge, to which I in no way
pretend. I hope, however, that any account, however feeble,
will not be altogether useless, since the mathematical thicket
must have appeared impenetrable to many who would otherwise
have taken an interest in the subject. A knowledge of the
elementary facts of the subject will be assumed. Coming to
the point with all convenient speed, I will give a sketch of
Maxwell’s theory, because it has recently received what must be
regarded as a great deal of striking confirmation. I will then go
on to develop some of the arguments in favour of the theory, and
will finally try to bring it up to date with respect to several
points that have been more or less passed over in the genera]
discussion.

It is to Faraday that we owe the experimental foundation of
the theory, as well as the fundamental step of the theory
itself, the direction of attention to the properties of the space
surrounding charged or conducting bodies, rather than to the
bodies themselves. The ideas of Faraday were first put in a
precise manner by Maxwell, and then extended so as to give rise
to a theory of optics known as the electro-magnetic theory—one
of the most brilliant concepts of physical science. An immense
amount of detail was also added by Maxwell, both with respect to
phenomena falling clearly within the limits of the theory, and also
with respect to certain outstanding phenomena which were not so
clearly accounted for. The exact description of the theory of many

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION A.

y)
“

(oo)

of the instruments, and processes of electrical research was also first
given by Clerk Masel: The oldest and most familiar facts of
Binge science are those of the attraction of electrified bodies and
of magnets. Faraday pointed out that the action between such
Ties depends on the kind of substance surrounding them, and
gave precision to his ideas by his re-discovery of specific inductive

capacity, and of specific inductive magnetic capacity, or perme-
ability as we now call it. The question how does a magnet or
electrically charged body at a point A manage to act or produce
« force on another magnet or charged body situated somewhere
away, say at a point B? A similar question was asked by Newton
long ago with respect to gravitation, and in his letter to Bentley
he gives an answer which ‘T think worth quoting at length in spite
ot its being so well known: ‘ You sometimes speak of gravity as
essential and inherent to matter. Pray do not ascribe that notion
to me; for the cause of gravity is what I do not pretend to know,
and therefore would take more time to consider of it.” “It is
inconceivable that inanimate brute matter should, without the
mediation of something else which is not material, operate on and
affect other matter without mutual contact, as it must do if
gravitation in the sense of Epicurus be Batevelall and inherent in
it.” ‘That gravity should be innate, inherent, and essential to
matter, so that one body may act upon anotHer at a distance
through a vacuum, without the mediation of anything else, by
and through which their action may be conveyed from one to
another, is to me so great an absurdity that I believe no man who
has in philosophical matters a competent faculty of thinking can
ever fall into it. Gravity must be caused by an agent acting
constantly according to certain laws ; but whether this agent be
material or immaterial, I have left’ to the consideration of my
readers.”

Since Newton’s time evidence has accumulated. We have first
of all the phenomenon of the energy of light and heat which reaches
us from the sun. This energy is a real ‘thing, in fact it can be
bought and sold, and so I presume must be admitted to exist,
though similar considerations applied to gold or silver mines might
not necessarily have supreme weight. The question is, what ‘be-
comes of this energy between the eae when it leaves the sun and
the instant when it arrives at the surface of the earth. I premise
that it is admitted that Newton’s idea of the emanation of particles
is proved to be in non-accordance with the facts as far as we know
them, and that light really does take a fixed time—some eight
minutes to get from the sun to the earth. We must admit, also,
that the velocity ot light is practically the same between the sun
and the earth as it is at the earth’s surface, and moreover,
that it is the same at least as far as Jupiter. Since no
other differences have been detected in the light coming
from the other heavenly bodies, except those which we know

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION A. 29

do not influence the velocity in any experiments we _ haye
been able to make, we consider it likely that the velocity
of light is the same throughout the whole universe—which,
be it noted, is only known to us from the light which comes
to us from the stars. As a consequence, it seems fair to assume
that whatever the agent which—if we may use such a term—carries
the energy from Jupiter to the earth, it is the same as the agent
which carries it throughout space as we know it. That this
carrlage is not due to the actual motion of some substance we
may be certain, since we can assure ourselves that the stars are
visible in all directions at once, and it is unlikely that there
should be a convergence of anything from all points of space
towards our very insignificant earth. We will also note that the
velocity of light through transparent substances at the earth’s
surface is not the same as a rule as it is through air—while in
our so-called vacua, the velocity is very nearly the same as it is
through air. Turning to electric and magnetic action, we note
that the attractions and -repulsions we observe are not the same
in degree through all substances, but depend on the nature of
the substances, and finally in the induction of currents on one
another, where we have energy transferred from one circuit to
another—the circuits not being in any conducting connection—
we have evidence both as to the storing of energy in the space
surrounding the circuits, and the transferring of it from one
circuit to another depending on changes taking place in the cur-
rents themselves, and being independent of the nature of the
conductors in which the currents exist. And these facts lead us
to imagine that space is filled with something or other by and
through which the aforesaid actions take place. There may be
more than one kind of substance for all we know to the contrary,
but one at least there certainly must be. We are led to this
conclusion by reasoning based on the interpretation of our sen-
sations, and thus come to know of the existence of the ether—or
medium—as we shall call it, in a manner completely analogous to
the manner in which we know of the existence of matter. The
evidence in the latter case is rather more complete—as we have
an additional confirming sense, that of touch—to appeal to. The
point which I wish to make however, is that the evidence in both
cases 1s of the same kind, and open to exactly the same _ philoso-
phical criticism in one case as in the other. In what follows I
shall assume the action of a medium in order to account for
electrical and magnetical effects. This is the first great point in
Maxwell’s theory. We can reach the point at which we aim
most quickly by considering the case of a Leyden jar, or of any
condenser, whose plates we will suppose are separated by a layer
of dielectric which we will not further particularise. If we
electrify the plates of the condenser, a point will be reached
beyond which we cannot go, for a spark will take place between

30 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION A.

the plates, and the condenser will return more or less nearly to
its uncharged condition. Faraday found that when different
dielectrics are placed between the metallic plates of the con-
denser, the sparks occurring on discharge differ in intensity
according to the nature of the dielectric. A simple experiment
will also show that the energy appearing at discharge is stored in
the dielectric itself. Consequently we must admit that different
dielectrics will, under corresponding electrical circumstances,
store different amounts of energy. A vacuum seems to be a
dielectric and so the power of storing energy is equally possessed
by it, and that, by the way, to a degree hardly inferior to that
possessed by air and other gases. If the dielectric is a fluid like
benzene or turpentine, and one of the condenser-plates is fixed
while the other is hung from the arm of a balance, the plates
being charged to a given potential, we shall find that very
different sets of weights are necessary to overcome the corres-
ponding attraction in different dielectrics. Since the power of
preventing the passage of sparks is very different in different
media, we will suppose that our plates have an attachment
whereby the sparks are made always to occur in air. The
distances at which sparks will occur between surfaces of a given
form in air are practically proportional to a quantity perfectly
detined in the mathematical theory and called the electromotive
force.

Now, let us charge our condenser-plates and then connect
them by a wire; we shall find that the plates are discharged and
that the phenomena of a current, as it is called, are exhibited in
the wire during the discharge. If the wire encircles a magnetic
needle, for instance, the needle will be detlected ; or, if a volta-
meter be included, decomposition, say of water, will take place
in it. Before the discharge the dielectric is said to suffer
“polarisation,” or, as Maxwell called it, “ electric displacement.”
The former term is the better, because all that was meant by
Maxwell, at all events in his later work, was that the dielectric
suffered a vector or directed change of some sort; while the term
he used is apt to connote the actual transference of something—
an idea totally at variance with the theory. Since, as I said, a
vacuum acts as well, or nearly so, as anything else, we must
assume that the ether is the vehicle in which the polarisation
occurs, and that in dielectrics other than vacua the properties of
this ether are so modified as to account for the comparatively
slight differences of effect observed. The second point of
Maxwell’s theory is that the dielectric polarisation is precisely
proportional to the electromotive force. This is not all, however,
Maxwell made a further assumption, immensely facilitating
mathematical computation, and justified as we shall see by
the consistency of the results to which it leads, and by their
concordance with experiment. He supposed that the polarisation

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION A. 541

between the plates is not only proportional to the electric
intensity, but is numerically equal to the product of the electric
intensity by the factor 7a where K is the specitic inductive
capacity of the medium. In order to examine the nature of this
supposition, we will for a moment take up another point of view
and consider, as was formerly done, that there is a substance
called electricity, and that plates are electrified when this
substance is distributed over them. Maxwell’s assumption
amounts—in the language of this theory—to making the charge
on the plates exactly equal to the loss of electricity by the
dielectric, or, in other words, makes electricity incompressible.
This point is important, because it distinguishes Maxwell’s theory
from the theory of Helmholtz, and from other theories in which
the action of the medium is taken into account. Reverting to
the theory proper, let us see what Maxwell’s views are as to
discharge. The dielectric returns to its normal condition, and
we have a current in the wire, and, moreover, says Maxwell,
there is a falling back of the polarisation to its neutral state. If
we differentiate the polarisation with respect to time, we have a
quantity which may be expressed in words as the time rate of
change of the polarisation, and this, according to Maxwell, forms
a polarisation current, and produces just exactly similar magnetic
effects to the magnetic effects produced by the conduction current
in the wire. I say similar, for in any condenser discharge these
effects are on a much smaller scale. Thus during a discharge the
energy available to produce magnetic effects due to the rate of
change of polarisation in the dielectric will be about a thousand
million million million times less than the corresponding magnetic
energy of the current in the wire. Such small effects have
hitherto escaped direct detection, and the proof of their existence
must therefore, for the time being, remain indirect. There is such
a proof, however, and that of a most satisfactory character, as we
shall see when we consider the meaning of some recent experi-
ments, of first-rate importance, due to Hertz. I may mention
that I, as well as others, have calculated the possibility of obtaining
evidence of these polarisation currents—or rather, and this is the
essential point of the theory—of their magnetic action, and find
that, thanks to the properties of quartz threads, there is just a
possibility of their detection. The difficulty lies not so much in
obtaining evidence of the existence of the minute couple we should
have to observe, but in seperating the action we are in search of
from others due to real conduction in the dielectric or, most of
all, to small magnetic effects.

The real current, then, in Maxwell’s theory is made up of the
conduction current in the wire and the small current due to change
of polarisation in the dielectric. It will be observed that this
small current is to be taken into account in order to avoid dis-

32 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION A.

continuity in the cireuit—to close the circuit, as mathematicians
say—which is the very essence of Maxwell’s theory. Poynting
has recently shown that this theory requires us to imagine that
the energy stowed between the condenser-plates moves out into the
wire sideways, not through the armature-plates, as one would be
apt to fancy. The formal proof of this is obtained on mathe-
matical grounds based on certain consequences and further prin-
ciples adopted in the theory; but we can see in a kind of way
that it must be so. Imagine the conducting wires to be thick and
long, but interrupted at their middle point by a short wire of
high resistance. If the condenser is big enough the short wire
will get appreciably heated by the passage of the current through
it. Energy therefore has left the dielectric near the plates, and
has converged on the short wire—at least for the most part. That
very instructive experiment of the skeleton Leyden jar shows that
the energy there, at all events, is in the dielectric. Moreover, we
know that if we have a current in a wire energy is dissipated—while,
from experiments on the induction of electric currents, we know
that energy of current is stored to some extent in the dielectric.
And further, currents flow in wires either as if they had no inertia
—or are caused by “side” pull, not end thrust—and nobody has
yet detected anything like inertia in the phenomena of currents.
Moreover, we can show that energy stored in a dielectric which is
undergoing rapid variation is propogated outward without any
conductors at all, and consequently we are at least entitled to
admit that there is no inherent improbability in Poynting’s
deduction. It is verified of course, along with other results of
the theory, in many ways, and more particularly has formed the
subject of an experimental investigation by Hertz, the results of
which are confirmatory in a very definite and striking manner.
To render our ideas more precise it will be well to consider
here the meaning of the phrase “quantity of electricity” in the
light of the theory we are considering. To do this it is most
convenient to commence with the conception of lines and tubes
of force—an idea we owe in the first place to Faraday. The idea
is simplicity itself. A line of force is any line drawn in the
electric field in such a direction that a particle carrying a charge
of electricity will move along the line if free to do so. Since the
electric force at different points in the field will in general have
different values, the further stipulation is made that in mapping
a field we must draw lines in such a way that the number
crossing unit area at any point will be proportional to the
electrical force at that point. The lines are to be drawn close
together where the field is strong, and far apart where the field
is weak, and any small elementary space bounded as to its sides
by lines of force we shall call a tube of force. Now it follows
from the experiments of Faraday (and indeed these experiments
gave rise to the theory we are discussing) that every tube of

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION A. a3

force must start at a positively charged surface and end at a
negatively charged surface. A property of such tubes is that the
product of electric force by area of section is constant throughout
the tube. Now we may define unit quantity of electricity as the
electrification which causes the sum of the above products for all
the tubes drawn in connection with it to have the value
4-7. Looking at it in a different way, we may say that a tube
for which the above product is 4 7 is a unit tube and corresponds
to a unit amount of electrification. From what has been said,
however, it is clear that since a dielectric, such as sulphur say,
has rather more pronounced electrical properties than air, we
shall have rather to extend our definition if it is to fit the case of
a condenser, between whose plates there is a layer of sulphur as
well as a layer of air. The electric force must abruptly change
at the boundary of the media, and consequently what was a unit
tube in air will no longer remain a unit tube in sulphur. All
the tubes, however, will sutter alike, and since the forces, other
things being equal, depend on the specific inductive capacity of
the dielectric, we will amend our definition to the extent of
introducing the factor K, so that our unit tube must be one in
which the product area of section by electric force by specific
inductive capacity is equal to 4 z. Now the value of K for air
is taken nearly as 1, and consequently the amount of energy of
electrification required to set up a unit tube will really be a sort
of absolute measure of that electrical property, which, reckoned
with respect to a vacuum, is denoted by a value nearly unity.
Looking at it in another way, as it is important we should see
the matter clearly, let us suppose that two insulated particles
are immersed in a medium at unit distance apart, and electrified
till they exert unit force on one another. If we imagine the
particles held in position by elastic springs, and then displace the
air in which the particles have been immersed by benzene or any
other dielectric, the springs will be observed to relax, shewing
that the force is not so great as it was. If we wish to get the
springs back to their original state of strain we shall have to
work our electrical fnadhine again to increase the electrification.
Hence it is clear that the amount of electrification indicated
by one unit depends on the specific inductive capacity of the
medium in which the experiment is supposed to be made.
Returning to Poynting’s statement of the mode in which the
energy of a charged condenser gets into a wire, we see that it is
equivalent to the statement that the tubes of force move out
from the dielectric near the plates and converge on the wire
where they give off their energy. This, of course, involves what
may be called an assumption, namely, that energy is transferred
continuously, and is not destroyed at one point and re-created at
another. That this is really the case will be shown later on.
The next great principle of Maxwell’s theory refers to the
c

*)

J PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—-SECTION A.

induction of currents, and is really an extension of Faraday’s
law. It is that the line integral of the electric intensity round
any closed curve is equal to the rate of decrease of the total
magnetic induction through the curve. The line integral of
electric intensity taken round a conducting circuit is what we
are generally accustomed to call the picermmmnnive force acting in
the circuit. The above principle has been established in many
ways, in so far as it refers to conductors—but Maxwell supposes
that it is generally true, whether there be conductors in the
field or not. This amounts to saying that change of magnetic
induction can produce electric polarisation without the presence
of charged bodies at all, and moreover, states the amount of
pol: RIT which will be produced in any case. As a matter
of fact, the principle just enunciated is in a sense the converse of
the pr inciple of the magnetic action of polarisation currents, and
may be deduced from that principle by the method of Lagrange,
and so is not really an independent principle at all. Before we
go any further it will perhaps be as well to give some idea of
Maxwell’s views as to magnetism ; this is a subject which as far
as I know has not been much treated by reviewers. The first
fact which Maxwell always seems to have had before him—at all
events from the time he considered he discovered that the energy
of a magnetic field is kinetic—is that the energy in a magnetic
tield is due to a rotational motion of some kind around the lines
of magnetic force. This idea he obtained from a consideration of
the action of magnetic forces on a beam of polarised light. The
next point was to explain the action between magnets, and this
was accomplished by imagining a stress in the medium analogous
to the electric stress in a medium of unit specific inductive
capacity. In the case of a homogeneous isotropic solid or of
liquid which is non-magnetisable in the ordinary sense, the stress
1

is to amount to a hydrostatic pressure of H? across the

5
Oo TT

lines of force combined with a longitudinal tension of the same
amount along these lines, H being. the magnetic force. If the
substance Peach is permeated by the medium is magnetic, a
distinction arises between the magnetic force in the medium and
the force in the substance, and we have to take the magnetic
induction instead of the magnetic force. The expressions, too,
are complicated, but exact for any medium, magnetisable or not.
In some speculations as to the cause of the energy and stress in
the medium, Maxwell considers that the rotatory motion referred
to is due to the action of ether vortices and the stresses to their
centrifugal action. Electric currents produce magnetic action as
well as magnets, consequently we must imagine that current
action is probably the expression of ether Somte motion, if it be
admitted that magnetic action is so. Though it would be
improper to ignore the action of conductors to the extent that I

re

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION A. B15)

have done, it would be still more improper to ignore the action
of the material of magnets. Hopkinson has found that the
magnetisation of iron is so nearly destroyed by a trace of
manganese, that no hypothesis that we can frame of the distri-
bution of the manganese as such through the iron, will
account for the effect observed. Chemists will admit that in
manganese iron there is probably some combination between the
iron and manganese, and I think Hopkinson’s experiments prove
not only that such must be the case, but that an amount of
chemical combination, which may be described as very moderate,
will entirely alter the magnetic behaviour of the iron. Conse-
quently I think we may say that whatever be the cause of
magnetisation, assuming it to be an ether phenomenon—that
phenomenon is immensely influenced by small chemical change—
a change for which the ether usually gets little credit. Hopkin-
son’s experiments seem to force on us the conviction that if
magnetic phenomena depend on the ether, then at least in iron
the relation of the ether to the matter of the iron must be
extremely close. We are almost driven to think that magnetism
may be produced by some peculiar mode of motion of iron
molecules which is shared to only a slight extent by the
molecules of other materials. If we take this view, it seems
to follow that the particular mode of molecular motion which
‘enables the ether to give rise to magnetic effects must be very
nicely balanced since it takes so little to upset it.

We are now in a position to return to the final principle of
Maxwell’s theory, which may be stated in a theorem analogous
to that relating to the electromotive force produced by change
of magnetic induction. It is that “the line integral of the
magnetic intensity round any closed curve is equal to 4 7 times
the current through the curve.” It need hardly be pointed out
that this is experimentally true when the current is in a wire,
and indeed it is the principle on which dynamos are designed.
Maxwell’s extension amounts to assuming that it is also true,
when the current is due to change of electric induction. It is
obvious that there is a close reciprocal relation between this
principle and that last discussed, and this is exceedingly well
brought out by Poynting in his so-called modification of the
principle. As has been said, it follows from the theory in
general that the energy keeping a current going moves in
sideways. Part of this energy may be considered to be carried
by the tubes of electric induction, and an equal part by the
motion of the tubes of magnetic induction, which by the principle
just stated must accompany them. If we look on the tubes of
electric induction as being in motion, then the principle may be
stated as follows: Giving the name “magnetomotive force” to
the line integral of magnetic intensity in accordance with a
suggestion made by Bosanquet and adopted by Poynting, then

c2

36 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—-SECTION A.

‘‘ Whenever magnetomotive force is produced by change in the
electric field, or by motion of matter through the field, the
magnetomotive force per unit length is equal to 47 x the
number of tubes of electric induction cutting or cut by unit
length per second, the magnetomotive force tending to produce.
induction in the direction in which a right-handed screw would
move if turned round from the direction of the electric induction
towards the direction of motion of the unit length relatively to
the tubes of induction.” This in most cases may be simplified to
the less general statement that ‘‘The magnetomotive force round
any curve is equal to 4 + x number of tubes of electric induction
passing in or out through the curve per second.” <A certain
amount of experimental | verification has been given to this
principle by the well-known experiment of Rowland. The
experiment consisted in rotating a charged disc, and observing
that this produced the same effect as would have been produced
by an equivalent current.

From these principles Maxwell developes certain consequences.
which we will now discuss briefly. The first and most important
consequence is that an electromagnetic disturbance will be propa-
gated with a certain velocity through dielectrics, but will only be.
propagated in a secondary manner, so to speak, through conductors.
This comes about because (1) as has been shown the energy travels
through the dielectric, and (2) because, according to the views of
Faraday, a conductor is a body in which permanent electric
induction or polarisation is impossible. When an electromotive
force acts on a conductor we conceive it as first causing electric
induction ; the nature of a conductor, however, must be such
that it cannot support such a state permanently, and consequently
there is something equivalent to a yielding, the field becomes
discharged, and we have the phenomena of a current. Now the
magnetic effect of a current is, I think, generally imagined as
being in some way due to the process of yielding by the con-
ductor, at least it is so in a model suggested by Maxwell, and
elaborated by Oliver Lodge. It seems, however, that this view
is at least unnecessary. The essence of the theory is that in
dielectrics change of polarisation produces magnetic effects and
consequently by analogy it is to the alternate setting up and
breaking down of the field, or rather to the change of polarisation
accompanying it, that we ought to look for an explanation of the
magnetic action of the current. This involves, however, the
assumption that it is only during either the setting up or the
breaking down of the field that magnetic action is produced, so
that the breaking down can not be a mere reversal of the setting
up. It may be noted that to account for all the current magnetic
effects in this way involves making the specific inductive capacity
of conductors very high. A very instructive view of the pheno-
mena of conduction has been explained by J. J. Thomson. We

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION A. ae

may regard an apparently continuous phenomenon such as a
steady current. as being really discontinuous if the discontinuous
changes take place so rapidly that we are unable to follow them
in detail, For instance, imagine a charged sphere supported by
a fused quartz stand—fused quartz is by all odds the best insu-
lator in practice known to us. Let the sphere be placed close to
a plate connected to earth and let it be tested from time to time
by an infinitesimal proof plane. We know chiefly from German
researches that the dust particles in the air will under such
circumstances become the chief agents in discharging the sphere ;
they_are first, attracted to its surface, then charged, then repelled
to the earth plate, again attracted, Ans. so on.

However fast in practice we could work our proof plane, the fall
of potential of the sphere would appear regular—if it were possible,
however, to work the plane in a period less than the time elapsing
between the arrival of successive dust particles, we should find
that the phenomenon of discharge was really discontinuous. Ina
similar way our continuous steady current may, if it is convenient
to us and sanctioned by our general knowledge of what is likely
to happen, be regarded as the time average effect of the alternate
establishment and breaking down of the electric tield. On this
view our tubes conveying the electric and magnetic energy would
. also move by jumps, and if we had fine enough instruments we
could detect this intermittence. Let us imagine a Leyden jar
charged, and having terminals attached to its armatures. Let
the terminals be immersed in some substance whose electric
strength is infinite, so that we get no spark on joining the said
terminals. Then, possibly, an instrumental eye affected by inter-
mittency of electric state placed between the jar and the wire
might see a flash of light during the discharge of the jar, though
there would be no spark. Our eyes, however, do. not lend them-
selves to such experiments, because they are affected by states
differing as to sign, we must haye electric and magnetic forces
following each other alternately in opposite directions to produce
any effect. J do not know of any fundamental physiological
reason for this, though it is doubtless an advantage, so that we
might possibly find some animal whose sense organs would respond,
T he experiment is not possible, however, ee we are in practice
sure to get.a spark discharge, and then we may have changes of
electric state differing as_to sign. If we did not, it would
probably place the conductivity too low, the most promising sort
of conductivity would be that of a cubic centimeter of mercury.
I have however been assuming more information than has yet
been given, so that I will now return at once to the electro-
magnetic theory of light. I intend to adopt Poynting’s method
of calculating the velocity of electromagnetic disturbances. This
method is analogous to Rankin’s solution in the case of sound, and
proceeds from another consequence of the theory—that the energy

SECTION A.

38 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS

per unit volume of a field traversed by electromagnetic distur-
eae Suna et. . oe :
bances 1s +i if the intensities may be taken as uni-
8 xz 8 z
form through the small volume considered. Now, if the waves
pass on unchanged in form with uniform velocity, then the energy
in any part of the system may also be considered to pass on
unchanged with the same velocity. Let the velocity be V, then
the energy contained in a unit volume of cubical form with a face
in the wave front will all pass through that face in one V“ of a
second. Now the directions of the electric and magnetic intensi-
ties are by the principles of the theory at right angles to one
another in a homogeneous non-magnetisable medium, and the
direction of both must be normal to the direction of propagation,
both from what has been said as to the sideway motion of the
energy, and from a direct calculation by Maxwell (Vol. IT, p. 400).
Let us suppose that the direction of propogation is parallel to the
axes of z; the electric polarisation will be, say, up and down,
while the magnetic intensity is right and left. The rate at which

energy may move in a magnetic field has been shown from
‘ EVH

Maxwell’s equations to be ye ee second. This statement is a
T

précis of Poynting’s deduction, and is a possible solution whether
we are considering the energy of a wave motion or the passage of
the energy of a strained dielectric into a wire. The proof is to be
found in Poynting’s paper, Phil. Trans. 1884 ,; it is too long to
reproduce here, and, though sufticient for our purpose, has met
with criticism. The quantity of energy, therefore, which passes
out through the side of the cube in 1/V seconds must be ra

and this must be the whole energy of the cube: so we have

EH KE? H?
AO ATT eng f 8 7
pencicular to the direction of the polarisation, and hence containing
the magnetic intensity, we know by one of the principles of the
theory that the magnetomotive force round the face must be
equal to 4 7 x current through the face.

Now this may be written in terms of the distance from some
fixed plane along the direction of propagation, as a function of z
in fact, so the magneto-motive force round the face may be put

OY lew bie Alert iia! Se Aaa qv x 7@e&
ees while the current is ree so that — re =
sut since the displacement is propagated onward with velocity
V: after atime d¢ the displacement at any point will become
replaced by one which was at a distance dz or Vat behind, so

a— ai

aeé dot
that ae = -V —— substituting for above we! ret)

as at az

Taking a face of the cube ‘per-

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—-SECTION A. 39

duke

oe
oo]

Repeating the process for the line integral of electromotive force
round the perpendicular face of the cube by the corresponding
theorem, that this is equal to the decrease of magnetic induction
through the face, we obtain E = » VH. Multiplying these
values for E and H together, and dividing out by E H, we get
l= pK V? or V = 1/7 »p K. The energy cannot be propa-
gated faster than at this rate, which is its maximum velocity.
When the intensities are perpendicular to each other, as they
must be in a homogeneous isotropic non-magnetisable medium, if
light is an electro-magnetic disturbance this then must be its
velocity. Consequently, if we know the values of » and K, and
not their nominal values only, we can calculate the velocity of
light. The matter is perhaps best approached indirectly. Sup-
pose we adopt the electrostatic system of measurement, then if
the medium is air we have K = | and p = 1/v?, where v is the
ratio of the units, so that the velocity of light will, if the
hypothesis be correct, be equal to the number of electrostatic
units of electricity in one electro-magnetic unit. Without ex-
plaining in detail why » should = 1/v? one may get an idea very
simply. We have already seen that on the electrostatic system
the quantity of electrification chosen as unity depends on the
value of K. Again, in a precisely analagous manner we can
show that the same quantity on the electro-magnetic system will
depend on the quantity ». We should require merely to start
with lines of magnetic instead of lines of electric force. Since
the electro-magnetic unity of quantity is derived from the unit of
current, and this again defined from its action on a unit magnetic
pole, it is clear that the magnitude of the unit will depend on p
since the force does so. But the force will be greater the greater
the value of p, and hence the magnitude of the quantity of
electricity making up the unit will be inversely as p. If we
measure the same quantity of electricity electrostatically and
electro-magnetically, it is clear that the ratio of the two numbers
expressing the result of the measurement in terms of the respec-
tive units will involve » and K as product. Moreover, if the
dimensions of K and yp are ignored, as is done by Maxwell, the
resulting ratio will not be merely numerical, but will have the
dimensions of length” x Time” or, in other words, of some
power of a velocity or slowness according to the nature of the
quantity we select for comparison. In any case, if we measure
any electrical quantity, be it really quantity, capacity, current,
electromotive force or resistance, both electrostatically and mag-
netically, and compare the numerical values, we shall have a
number from which which we can calculate the ratio of the units.
This has been done by many observers, and it is found that the
number is really the same as it ought to be if the electro-magnetic

1G or H = KVE the function of the time being zero.

40 PRESIDEN'’S ADDRESS—SECTION A.

theory is true. In other words, the number expressing the ratio
of the units and involving length and time as dimensions is the
same as the velocity of light within the limits of experimental
error. It is, in fact, almost a question as to whether the velocity
of light can be got most accurately from direct measurement or
Pathe comparison of the units.

Turning now to the velocity of light in media, other than air,
we can obtain an expression for the velocity in terms of p-and K,
By the principles of the undulatory theory, and in certain cases
as the direct result of experiment, we consider that: the velocity
of light in any medium is inversely as the refractive index of the
medium. But the velocity on the electromagnetic theory is
inversely as the square root of the product of the specific induc-
tive capacity and the permeability. Consequently, if the theory
is true, the refractive index of any transparent substance should
be equal to y yp K. Now, for most transparent substances,
wis nearly the same as it is for air, and consequently the chief
part of the effect will depend on K. To a first approximation
we will write: Refractive index = root of specific inductive
capacity, and see how far this is borne out by experiment. It
turns out that for some substances, hydrocarbons for instance,
the equation is true, especially if we take the index by refraction
for very great wave lengths, but for others the agreement is not
so good. Again, it is clear that transmission can only take
place to a sensible extent through insulators—conductors must
be opaque. What are the facts? The facts are that while it is
generally true that conductors are opaque and insulators trans-
parent, it is not always so. Ebonite is an apparently good
example of an opaque insulator, and most electrolytes are ex-
amples of transparent conductors. These facts seem at first as if
they dealt the theory a severe blow, but I think we shall see that
this is not necessarily the case. Taking J. J. Thomson’s view of
the way in which conduction goes on, we may suppose that in a

conductor a certain time has to elapse after the field is estab-
lished before it is weakened to a certain fraction of its maximum
value. Now, the waves of light which chiefly affect the eye have
a period of about 10°7° seconds, consequently if with a given
electric force it takes longer than this to establish a field and
break it down, the conductor in which this occurs will behave as
an insulator for forces of a frequency greater than this. An
estimate of the frequency which the Slevtrie forces can have may
be made from the known specific conductivities, and such a
calculation has actually been made by J. J. Thomson. The
result seems to me entirely satisfactory, and the apparent dlis-
crepancy as to the opacity of some insulators and transparency of
some electrolytes need no longer trouble us. We are still, how-
ever, left partly in the dark as to the transparency of gold leaf,
which is possibly greater than it ought to be, even when we

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION A. 4]

estimate the rate of breaking down of the field that can occur in
it. With respect to the. deviation of the calculated index of
refraction from the true index, as in vegetable oils, it is fair to
observe that the value of K is measured by steady electric force,
or at all events for electric forces of periods much greater than
10-75 seconds. If we had means of estimating the value of K
for these rapid reversals, it is just, possible that all might turn
out right. Again, on the other hand, our knowledge of refrac-
tive index for so-called infinite wave length depends on some
assumption as to the relation between wave length and index of
refraction. Now the researches of Langley have lately given
what may be called an unexpected relation, for these qualities in
the case of rock-salt, and they at least warn us that any deduc-
tions based on formule derived from observations in the visible
or ultra-violet spectrum only must be received with great caution.
Again, the deviations from the law connecting refractive index
and specific inductive capacity all seem to be pretty much on
one side. K is greater than the square root of the refractive
index. In other words, the velocity calculated on the electro-
magnetic theory is too small for these exceptional cases. We must
remember, however, that the velocity given by V = 1/y » K
is a maximum velocity and only occurs when the medium is
‘practically unmagnetisable, and the polarisation in the direction
ot the electric force. If by any peculiar action of matter on
ether, either of these conditions is not fulfilled, which may well
be the case, we ought not to be surprised to tind such instances
ot less velocity as are afforded apparently by the vegetable oils.
Of course such excuse-making as this would be absurd unless we
had very real evidence in support of our theory—to use Maxwell’s
phrase, we may only have the first terms of the theory—and we
must admit that we are in fact brought round again to our old
question of the relation between matter and ether.

Since Maxwell’s time, however, a great deal of work has been
done, and the result of it all must be regarded as confirming the
theory in a very remarkable manner. The most important work
in this direction has been accomplished by Hertz, and we will
deal in the first instance with it. We shall then be in a better
position to discuss a variety of facts which allow us to discriminate
between Maxwell's and more general theories. The first sugges-
tion as to Leyden jar discharge being oscillatory under some
circumstances appears to have been made by Henry, in 1842, with
the object of explaining certain anomalies in the observed magne-
tisation of needles by the jar discharge. Faraday, also, in
discussing what happens in an open circuit under induction,
magines that on the removal of the electromotive force there is a
surging back of electricity in the wire. In 1847 Helmholtz
predicted, on theoretical grounds, that a Leyden jar discharge
through a circuit of small dissipation might be oscillatory in

42 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION A.

character. In 1858 this suggestion was worked out in all its
details by Sir Wiliam Thomson, and Feddersen Schiller and
others verified Sir William Thomson’s formule in cases where the
oscillations were not unmanageably rapid. From the point of
view which we have adopted, it does not require much imagination
to enable us to see that since the charge of a condenser corresponds
toadistribution of stress in the dielectric, that stress may be reversed
if discharge is very rapid, at all events if we regard the stress as
produced by a mechanism of any sort. This sort of guessing,
however, clearly is out of place unless we are prepared to grant
the mechanism something lke inertia. I do not know that we
ought to go so far, and consequently the above considerations are
only justified because they lead us to a known experimental result.
As a matter of fact, Sir William Thomson’s calculation was exceed-
ingly general, and only involved the principle of the conservation of
energy and known experimental electrical relations. The result
of the theory is simplicity itself. If the resistance in the discharge
circuit is greater than a certain quantity depending on the
capacity and selfinduction of the jar and circuit, the discharge
will not be oscillatory at all, but the plates will fall back to zero-
potential by jumps; in other words, the discharge will be
intermittent. It is not dificult to see the reason of this by
considering the induction tubes. When a discharge once begins,
the resistance of the spark-gap enormously diminishes, the slope
of electric and magnetic intensities in the neighbourhood gets very
big, and the corresponding flow of energy “inuan is propor ronal to
them enormously increases, consequently, that part of the field
gets discharged ; and if the resistance in the other part of the
circuit is sufficiently great, the discharge may have disappeared
and the dielectric healed up before sufticient energy has again
accumulated to break down the dielectric. If, on the other hand,
the resistance is below a certain critical value, the discharge will

4 x self-induction
capacity,

and when the circuit has exactly this resistance, the discharge will
be dead beat, as it is ordinarly assumed to be in the elementary
theory. We must recollect that as soon as the oscillations are
set up, both the self-induction and resistance of the circuit are
vastly different from what they are for steady currents. Lord
R: ayleigh has shown that as the frequency increases the resistance.
Ww ill, as a rule, increase, and the self-induction diminish. Returning
to our concept of tubes of electric induction, we must imagine that
at first the tubes coverge on the wire faster than they can be
broken up, and consequently produce a state of induction which
reverses the direction of the intensities ; and consequently of the
current, when a short time afterwards the tubes do actually move
in. This process may be repeated several times, or we may have.
an oscillatory discharge of several oscillations before equilibrium

be oscillatory. The critical resistance is

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS——-SECTION A. 433

is attained. The period of oscillation is fixed by the electro-
magnetic properties of the system, and is approximately—when

the resistance is very small—T = 2 7 + a/ a seconds, when L-

is selfinduction and C is capacity. This is the time that elapses.
between consecutive similar electric states. The full expression

% At OR? Awe:
is T=2 7 = C ~_ which is homogeneous. Consequently

oY

the frequency of a Leyden jar discharge comes to be f= a/ er

when the dissipation is small.

Now Land C asa rule are very small quantities, so that the
frequency is very high. At each oscillation, as has been said, we
have tubes of induction moving once backward and once forward
across the field. Now, there is nothing to prevent these tubes from
radiating into space—if we are dealing with a medium we shall
have an electro-magnetic disturbance which will continually pro-
pagate itself outward if there is no dissipation, and its velocity
will be comparable probably with the velocity of light. The wave
length will be the distance moved by the tubes during one
oscillation, and consequently will be given by dividing the velocity

») (3
by-the frequency, in fact A= ah Now the velocity is very high,

so that though the frequency is very great the waves may still be
extremely long. If we use Maxwell’s theory, then the velocity is.
actually given by 1/ pK as has already been pointed out, and
LC

pk

Clearly, then, a good way of testing Maxwell’s theory will be to
get oscillations, and then measure the wave length by the dis-
turbance propagated outward from them. The usual plan of esti-
mating wave lengths is to produce a state of stationary vibration,
and then measure the distance between nodes or planes of null
effect. The distance from one node to another is always half a wave
length, so that the measurement of the distance from node to node
gives us a wave length on multiplication by two. The usual way
of setting up a state of stationary vibration is to take advantage of
the principles by interference. Every musical instrument is an
illustration of this. The simplest way, of course, to set up a reflector
and get interference between direct and reflected waves. It
must always be borne in mind that no interference phenomena
are possible at all unless waves take some time, however
short it may be, to travel a finite distance, and consequently no
instantaneous propagation theory could lead us to expect to
observe this phenomenon. If, however, waves can be shown to
interfere, we know that they must be propagated with a finite

our expression of the wave length becomes A= 27

44 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION A.

velocity ; and this means they must occupy space for a finite
time. But waves involve the motion of energy, so that we must
admit that. energy can be located in space, and as a consequence
of this we are, I think, just as certainly led to imagine a
“plenum” of some kind as if we could touch it with our ‘hands,
or smell it with our noses, or taste it with our tongues. The
first deduction to be made from our interference exper iment then
is that space is filled with a medium of some kind—unless we
are prepared to admit that energy may exist fer se—which
amounts to filling space with an idea merely. Experiments of
the kind suggested have been actually performed by Hertz. In
order to get waves of a manageable length, Sir William Thomson’s
calculation shows that we must have the capacity and_ self-
induction of the circuit small. Hertz’s first discovery was the
means of getting this. Conductors were constructed either of
plates or cylinders and were made symmetrical about a certain
point. This point is the gap where the discharge occurs. To
take a real case. In a repetition of Hertz’s earlier experiments
by Trouton, a “vibrator” was used. consisting of two brass
plates about 40 cm. square. These plates were suspended by
silk threads, so that their plates were vertical and identical, and
their edges 60 cm. apart. From each plate there ran a stout
brass wire toward the other. Each wire carried a brass knob—
presumably four or five centimetres in diameter
between the knobs was about three millimetres, the terminals of
an induction coil were brought respectively to each plate and the
coil was set in action. At each break of the primary circuit of
the coil, one of the plates becomes positively the other negatively
Ghareed: As soon as the charging has progressed to a certain
point the dielectric breaks down between, the knobs and. a spark
occurs. If the resistance of the spark-path is not too great, we

have the condition necessary for the setting up of oscillations,
The frequency then depends on the self-induction and capacity of
the plates, as has been said several times, and is in general so
high that the connection of the plates through the coil becomes
of no moment, the immense “ impedance” of the coil making it
practically non-conducting for currents of this frequency. Some
attention has to be paid to the condition of the surfaces between
which the spark occurs. If the balls are not finely polished, or if
the negative one is illuminated by ultra-violet rays, the spark
will not be sudden enough, compared with the period of an
oscillation, to enable the oscillatory motion to become established.
Lenard and Wolf have lately shown that ultra-violet light causes
the knobs (especially when negatively charged) to give off dust
which is torn from thei surf: ing glow discharge

When everything is well arranged there is a series of straight,
bright, white sparks between the knobs at every discharge—very
recognisable after they have once been attended to. The next

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS-—SECTION A. AD

step is to find some means of detecting the electromagnetic waves.
which, according to our theory, are “propagated outwards from
the vibrator. ‘This Hertz accomplished by taking advantage of
a property borrowed from acoustics. It is well known that if
any vibrating system is subject to accelerating forces of the same
period as its own period of vibration, when vibrating freely, the
effect will be cumulative, and the system will be caused to
vibrate strongly, though any individual impulse might be quite
incapable of producing an observable effect. The same principle
may be extended to the action of electric oscillations on con-
ductors. We must have a “resonator” or conductor where
natural period of electrical oscillation calculated from Sir William
Thomson’s formule coincides with that of the vibrator. In
practice, the length of wire most appropriate to the resonator is
found by experiment. The wire is bent into a circle and the
ends brought close together by a fine screw attachment. If
electric forces act on such a resonator in such a way as_ to
produce a cumulative effect the electrical disturbance will
become sufficient to cause sparks to pass between the ends of
the wire. We have therefore both a means of setting up
disturbances of the required character and of detecting them
at a considerable distance away. <A vibrator of the dimensions
given above completes an oscillation in one-thirty-millionth of
« second, and if the disturbance is propagated with the velocity
of light will consequently yield waves of about ten meters wave
length. The resonator for such waves as these was found to
require two hundred and ten centimetres of No. 17 wire when
bent into a circle. Without going into many very interesting
questions as to the best relative positions of the planes of vibrator
and resonator it will be sufficient to state that in one position
of the resonator the most effective component is the electric,
and in the perpendicular position the most effective component
is the magnetic intensity. Perhaps the most important experi-
ment one may make with this apparatus is the demonstration of
nodes and loops between the vibrator and a large sheet-zinc
reflector. The length of the waves roughly confirms the theory
that the velocity of propagation is the velocity of light, while
the existence of loops and nodes demonstrates the truth of the
more important preliminary assumption as to the existence of a
medium. The apparatus itself may be modified and for some
purposes improved by using two cylinders tipped with balls for
the vibrator and placing them in the focus of a large parabolic
cylindrical mirror so as to render the electric rays parallel. The
receiver in this arrangement consists of a lengthy wire placed on
the focal line of another mirror and interrupted by a spark gap
in the usual manner. With this apparatus Hertz has imitated
most optical effects. He has shown that the ordinary laws of
reflexion of light are obeyed by these electric or “etheric ” waves,

46 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION A.

and by constructing a large prism of pitch has found the index
of refraction of that substance for long waves to which it is of
course transparent. These measurements are all in as close
accordance with Maxwell’s theory as could be expected, seeing
the cittculty there is in making exact measurements of the
position of so large a body as a resonator. It may be questioned
whether greater accuracy might not be obtained by the use of
Geissler tubes, coupled with some system of photography. These
tubes have already been successfully applied in Dr. Lodge’s
laboratory, and if it be permissible to prophesy wildly, we may
see in this observation the germ of a great future development.
Signalling, for instance, might be accomplished secretly by means
of a sort of electric ray flasher, the signals being invisible to
anyone not provided with a properly turned tube. An important
point in optical theory has been settled lately by the use of
Hertz’s apparatus in the hands of Fitzgerald and Trouton.,
Assuming the truth of the electro-magnetic “theory for a moment,
we have to answer the old question as to the relation of the planes
of the intensities to the plane of polarisation. The answer is
definite and decisive, and is to the effect that the magnetic inten-
sity is in the plane of polarisation, and the electric intensity as a
consequence in the perpendicular plane. Hertz, again, has himself
constructed a very interesting model of a tourmaline erystal by
means of wires stretched side by side on a frame. This may be
considered to form a system in two dimensions, with conductivity
along one axis, and much less conductivity in the perpendicular
direction, The behaviour of such a frame to Hertz’s polarised
rays is exactly equivalent to the action of a plate of tourmaline,
such as is generally sold for the purpose, on a beam of polarised
light. This suggests the apparently inevitable conclusion that
unless energy can be dissipated in some other way than by
conduction the crystals of tourmaline must have a one-sided con-
«luctivity. This action must take place in a manner depending on
the minute structure of the crystal, the variation of conductivities
along and perpendicular to the-axes of crystals as a whole being
a well-known and corresponding phenomenon. We turn now to
some very interesting experiments made by Hertz on the way in
which the velocity of propagation is influenced by the placing of
« wire in the field and applying the periodic electric forces to one
of its ends. For this purpose the flat plate apparatus previously
-described is furnished with an additional plate placed immediately
behind, and parallel to one of the flat plates in the original
apparatus. A wire is led out in front from this plate, and the
experiment consists in obtaining interference between the radia-
tion from the wire and the direct radiation from the plates ; as a
result of these experiments Hertz was led to believe that the
velocity of propagation is different in a wire from what it is in
space. Another, and perhaps a better way, is to measure directly

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS—SECTION A. AT

the wave length in a wire, as has been done by J. J. Thomson,
and compare this with the wave length in air. By this method
Thomson concludes that the velocity of propagation is the same
in both cases in direct contradiction to the results obtained by
Hertz. This is a point of considerable importance, as Maxwell’s
theory clearly indicates that the velocity should be the same in both
cases. Before we pursue the matter further, it will be convenient
hereto give some slight comparative account of the different theories
which are at our disposal if we abandon the theory of Maxwell.
We shall then be in a better position to estimate the value of the
evidence which is before us. Assuming that Hertz’s experiments
have placed the existence of a medium beyond doubt, we need not
devote any attention to those theories which depend on the
assumption of action at a distance, and take no notice of inter-
mediate effects. A good account will be found of them in a report
of the British Association, 1885, by Professor Thomson. There
are at least two theories besides Maxwell’s which claim our
attention ; both of them take the action of a medium into account.
One of them is due to Helmholtz, and the other—which is really
the most general theory that can be framed from the experimental
data—is due to J. J. Thomson. To come to the point at once,
Helmholtz’s theory differs from Maxwell’s in making a rather
more general assumption as to the relation between electric force
and dielectric polarisation than is made by Maxwell. This leads
to the polarisation currents being regarded as “incompressible,”
while in Maxwell’s theory it is the “total” current made up of
the conduction, and polarisation current which is mathematically
so. Among other results to which the theory leads is that in
some of the resonators used by Hertz, slight changes of capacity
—as by adding or cutting off tinfoil—should not make much
difference to the period, while the facts are that Hertz found that
considerable difference was thereby produced ; on no theory but
Maxwell’s is this accounted for. It may be mentioned that, as a
working theory, Helmholtz’s is far more complicated than Max-
well’s, so that unless it proved to possess any great superiority it
could not be so serviceable. The general theory due to J. J.
Thomson proceeds from the assumption that the dielectric polari-
sation currents are proportional to the rate of charge of electro-
motive force—we may say are equal to y times the electro-
motive force. Now, if 7=K/4 7 we have Maxwell’s theory, and
if 7=k K we have Helmholtz’s. The differences between this
theory and Maxwell’s are summed up by Thomson as follows :—
1, The existence of a normal wave in the general theory, but
not in Maxwell’s.
2. A difference in the velocity of propagation of the trans-
verse wave.
3. A difference in the relation between electric currents and
magnetic force.

48 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION A.

4. Forces arising from discontinuity in the currents (in the
general theory, but not in Maxwell’s).

We next turn to the means that have been discovered of dis-
criminating, experimentally, between the theories.

Let us take in order the points of difference that have been
enumerated above.

With respect to (1), all we can say is that in Hertz’s experi-
ments no trace of a normal wave has been discovered.

As to (2), I have already stated that as far as the limited
accuracy of the experiments can prove it, the velocity of propa-
gation is that which is or may be given by Maxwell’s theory.

With respect to (3), there is, I think, no direct evidence, and
forces indicated in (4) have not been observed, either through
dearth of experiment, imperfection of apparatus, or because they
do not exist. Several indirect means have been discovered by
Thomson of testing the theories. The first is that in the case of
a wire connected to the third plate of a vibrator system, the rate
of decay of the energy of the waves in the wire should, by
Maxwell’s theory, be nearly proportional to the specific resistance
of the wires when the frequency is high enough. An experiment
has been made by Thomson by which this is shown to be really
the case. On Helmholtz’s or the general theory, and with the
frequencies of vibration used, the conductivity should not have
made much difference. All the evidence therefore points in one
direction. There remains but the outstanding difference dis-
covered by Hertz in the wave length of the oscillations in wire
and in air. With respect to this Thomson has suggested what
may very likely turn out to be the cause of the discrepancy
between his observations and Hertz’s. It is that if the third
plate is accidentally displaced in any way during the course of
the experiments then there will probably result a change of
capacity, due to the presence of other conductors (say a wall)
which would account for the difference observed. To sum up, it
is perhaps not too much to say that the evidence in favour of
Maxwell’s theory is overwhelming, and that for the future it
must be our guide in all electrical investigation. I ought not to
leave this part of the subject without referring to the mathe-
matical work of Heaviside, who restates Maxwell’s theory, and
whose mathematical discoveries of the detailed behaviour of
electro-magnetic waves has far outrun any knowledge of them
deduced from experiment. The sideway motion of energy insisted
on by Poynting was also indicated on rather different grounds by
Heaviside. It remains for me to make some remarks concerning
the ultimate nature of the mechanism by which Maxwell’s
stresses are produced. The thing which, perhaps, strikes one
most strongly about the theory is that it offers no suggestion as
to the way in which electrification is brought about. Why
should the ether in the neighbourhood of a bit of sealing-wax

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION A. 49

that has been rubbed be brought into this curious polarised state?
Ought we to imagine that gravity is caused by ether stresses ?
The answer to this last question was given long ago, and is to
the effect that of course we can represent the actual state of
gravitation on the earth’s surface by a distribution of stresses,
but they would require to be very great, no less than a pressure
of 37,000 tons weight per square inch in a vertical direction,
combined with an equal tension in all horizontal directions—this
is about 3,000 times the breaking strength of steel. (Tait’s
“ Properties of Matter.”)

Before we push our enquiry as to the mechanism of electriti-
cation any further, it is necessary for us to glance rapidly at the
more prominent features of the relations generally summed up
under the title of electro-chemistry. Modern researches have
only served to strengthen Faraday’s position, that when a current
passes through an electrolyte the amount of decomposition
brought about is strictly and exactly proportional to the time
integral of the current. This quantity will for the future be
referred to as a “quantity of electricity,” and must not be
imagined in any way to connote that electricity is a substance—
or even that it is a state of motion of ether—though much might
be said for both of these views. If we extend the definition so
as to discriminate between those substances, which, under certain
circumstances, travel in the nominal direction of the current, and
those which travel in the reverse direction, we may say that
during electrolysis one ion carries a certain positive quantity of
electricity, while the other carries an equal negative quantity.
Adopting the ordinary atomic theory of chemistry, the results of
experiment may be summed up in the statement that all mono-
valent atoms require the same quantity of electricity to free
them on the electrodes, and the quantity of electricity required
to pass a divalent atom is twice the quantity required for a
monovalent atom ; for a trivalent atom, three times, and so on.
Further, I think it may be considered as established that the
apparent decomposition of an electrolyte into its ions by a current
is really merely a process of direction, and is not a real process
of decomposition. Taking the case of a solution of copper-
sulphate, for instance, it is probably not true to say that the ions
are forced apart by the current, or rather by the electric force,
but that continuous dissociation is a normal state of such a
solution, and that all the electric force does is to cause a con-
gregation of ions at the two electrodes. This conclusion is
deduced from the fact that electrolytes appear to obey Ohms’
law very exactly, which would be a very unlikely or even impos-
sible thing to happen if work were required to produce dissocia-
tion as well as to make the ions give up their charges. Some
philosophers have regarded the facts of electrolysis as showing
that there must be a real difference between a positive quantity

D

50 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION A.

of electricity and a negative quantity of electricity beyond the
difference of sign which is included in our definition. This idea
is familiar to everyone from the very terms “ positive electricity ”
and ‘negative electricity.” The phrase, ‘“ Positive Quantity of
Electricity” thus connotes much less than the by-no-means
equivalent phrase, “Quantity of Positive Electricity.” If the
latter phrase is legitimate, we must admit that we think we know
more about electricity than is actually the case. For instance, in
hydrogen chloride (possibly only in the presence of water), we
tind that the direction of motion of the hydrogen coincides with
the nominal direction of the current, or in our notation each
hydrogen atom carries a positive quantity of electricity. In
hydrogen sulphate the case is the same, and in silver chloride
and silver sulphate it is the silver which carries the positive
quantity. Thus, so far, all is well, and if we like to suppose that
silver carries positive electricity nothing can be said against it.
If we take the cases of Iodide of Potassium and Iodide of
Bromine however, we notice that in one case the iodine goes one
way, and that in the other it goes in the opposite way—conse-
quently if we talk of iodine carrying a positive charge in one
case, we must admit it carries a negative charge in the other.
The chemical theory of Berzelius was destroyed by this and
similar facts (not very many, by the way), but it need not
influence us with respect to the question in hand. The only
point we have to note is that the hypothesis of positive and
negative electricity at once forces us to make the additional
hypothesis that a given atom may sometimes carry one and
sometimes the other.

Now, from the extraordinary quantitative fixity of the charges,
it is very difficult to escape the impression that electrification,
regarded as a state of the ether, is a consequence of the same
cause, whatever it may be that conditions the distinction between
element and element. If there be anything in this view, it
becomes difficult to understand how iodine can sometimes carry
positive and sometimes negative electricity and be still iodine.
The view that free atoms (at least when they are ions) are asso-
ciated with an ether state which we call electrification has, I
consider, been somewhat strengthened recently by the researches |
of Ostwald. According to the Clausius-Williamson hypothesis
(which we have tacitly assumed above in order to account for
electrolytes obeying Ohm’s Law), every liquid is in a steady state of
dissociation. The influence which any such liquid—say a solution
of hydrochloric acid—has in bringing about such chemical change
as the inversion of sugar is supposed by Ostwald, on very strong
grounds, to depend on the amount of this dissociation. But on our
view of electrolytic conduction, the number of free ions must be
proportional to the conductivity, since it is only by them that
conduction takes place. Ostwald has shown experimentally that

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION A. 5]

when different acids are compared together the velocities of
reaction which they induce in the inversion of cane sugar are
proportional to their conductivities. Assuming that the Clausius-
Williamson hypothesis is established on grounds other than
electrolytic—and Ostwald gives strong reasons for this view—
then we are, I think, compelled by the resistance law to believe
that each atom is necessarily accompanied by that ether state
which we call electrification. Further, Helmholtz has shown that
it is only when these states or charges are given up at the elec-
trodes that any considerable proportion of the energy required for
electrolysis is required. Should we be justified, then, in giving
each atom its corresponding equivalent of tubes of induction? I
hold not. I conceive that it is only where the work has been
done—the work required to transfer (and probably modify)
the ether state from the atoms to the electrodes that we get
electrification as we know it. I prefer to think that a free atom
may possibly have properties much more analogous to those of
free ether than to those of matter as we know it. In other words,
a free atom does not carry a “ charge” at all, but something which
becomes a charge when it is transferred to an electrode. As a
wild speculation, is it the ‘free atoms” in a dielectric that are
“polarised” by electro-motive force, and is the “ vector change”
which we have called polarisation related simply to the average
position vector of the system? In order to illustrate some
consequences of this view, let us look a little more closely at such
a reaction as occurs when chloride of silver is electrolysed. This
is about the simplest case that can be found. According to my
view, we have atoms of chlorine and atoms of silver existing in
the fused salt. These atoms are not “free,” ze, before they can
be so free as to combine into molecules at the electrodes work has
to be done on them, resulting in the electrodes becoming charged.
The electral state of the wandering atoms is not at all the same as
the electral state of the anodes when they become charged. Neither
is it neutral, but it is such that by the application of work electri-
fication results. As to the manner of this I suppose nothing
can be said till we know the exact relation of free atoms to ether.
Whether to imagine that the energy is required to cause com-
bination of atoms—from the reactions of whose associated ether,
charge results—or whether the combination is merely an expres-
sion of the transference of the state to the electrodes by the
doing of work, I leave to the curious to discover. Suppose now
we start with silver or chlorine molecules, and force them to part
into atoms by methods other than electrical, the question arises
as to what the state of these atoms will be. Will it be the same
as when they are wandering in a fused mass of silver chloride ?
To bring them to that state there would be required (by the
transference of energy) to be exhibited somewhere the pheno-
mena of charge. If they finally reach that state, as I imagine
D2

52 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION A.

they must, then the phenomena of charge must appear. Let us
take two plates of platinum and place the silver or chlorine, or
even the chloride of silver, between the plates, and by some
means persuade the chloride to decompose into atoms of chlorine
and silver, or the molecules of silver into atoms of silver, or the
molecules of chlorine into atoms of chlorine. Then I consider
that if the layer of substance is thin, the platinum plates will be
found to be charged—if work has had to be done in forcing the
decomposition. In fact, just as in electrolysis, or by the appli-
cation of electric force atoms in the “third” state—if I may so
express it—cannot be got into molecules without producing the
phenomena of charge, so if once in molecules they cannot be
brought to “third” state atoms without suffering a defect of
something—which becomes sensible by the charging of the plates.
Let some silver chloride placed between platinum plates be elec-
trolysed into silver and chlorine, then small layers of these
substances (really free) will appear on the plates. Then remove
the undecomposed silver chloride entirely and bring the plates
together with pressure. Suppose that recombination into silver
chloride results from this pressure, Then between the time
when there were molecules of silver and molecules of chlorine,
and the time when there were molecules of silver chloride, there
will have been by all chemical experience atoms of silver and
atoms of chlorine. During this separation they will have (by the
application of external work) to undo from the electrodes what
was done during electrolysis—if one of the plates retained the
charge (say positive) which it got during electrolysis, that charge
will disappear. If the charge has been lost beforehand, then the
plate will appear negatively charged. A corresponding charge
will appear at the other elecrode. Both electrodes will thus be
charged. I was led to these speculations by attempting to find
an explanation of the ultimate course of the effects produced by
rubbing bodies together, or, in other words, the ultimate course
of action of a frictional electric machine. I was struck in the
first place by the fact that most substances, which we know from
hereditary experience, to lend themselves best to the construction
of electric machines are very complex molecularly. Probably
much more so than the general run of so-called chemical com-
pounds. Some, like sulphur, are capable of allotropic modifi-
cations ; some, like sealing wax, defy precise chemical description ;
some, like metals, are in a transition state of combination with
gases condensed on their surfaces; others, like silica, are in
unknown combination with water, as in quartz crystals—our old
friend “electrical amalgam” is as indefinite as most amalgams.
Fused quartz, I find, is not particularly easily electrified, but
even it must have its gas layer.

Now, there are many cases in chemistry of actual and undoubted
chemical change being brought about, directly or indirectly, by the

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION A. 53

application of pressure. Professor Liversidge, to whom I men-
tioned this matter, has informed me that dry alum and dry lead
acetate become liquid on rubbing together in a mortar ; hydrate of
chloral and camphor do the same. It is a question as to the
combination produced by strongly pressing together powdered
metals, or corresponding salts. I have made some experiments
on solid paraffine, and believe, though I desire to repeat the
experiments before being absolutely sure, that paraftine melting
normally at about 53° C, may be caused to begin to melt some
two degrees lower by having undergone intense pressure. The
melting point also seems to be less definite. Again, the electric
charges produced by compressing crystals are well known, and
since on this theory such charges are the sign of forced chemical
change, since the amount of charging occurring in any crystal is
associated with the relation of the compression to the crystallo-
graphic axes, it is suggested that the state of chemical combination
(of the higher order—generally called physical) is different along
different axes. Again, Strouhal and Barus have given good
reason for thinking that the molecular grouping of steel alters
under stress ; and, in fact, explain viscosity—after Maxwell—in
this manner. ‘Taking these and other facts into account, my
position is that if chemical change (including the reconstruction of
so-called ‘ physical compounds ”) is accompanied by the freeing of
atoms, even if they be afterwards combined in another way, only
this freeing, if requiring the expenditure of energy, will be accom-
panied by the phenomena of charge. Applying this reasoning, in
connection with Helmholtz’s important views as to “ boundary
layers” to the case of an ordinary frictional machine, I regard the
first electrification as due to actual chemical change occurring in
the boundary layers between the rubber and the glass plates.
This change need not be large. Thus I have calculated roughly
that if a large Holtz machine, which charged about ten jars to
such a potential in about a hundred seconds as would allow them
to givea spark two or three inches long, had been replaced by an
equivalent plate machine, with a layer of water vapour on the
plate surface, then an amount of decomposition corresponding to
about a millionth of a gramme per second would account for the
effects observed. I had no reason for taking a layer of water on
the glass surface, except to enable me to make a rough calculation.
Nothing can be better than a colloid like glass itself. A very
small surface change would account for all the results, especially
as it might undo itself while the machine was not working, and
particularly if it got reversed ; and would, I think, be so small as
to escape detection by a balance, or rather discrimination from
the effects of abrasion. That the glass surface gets more or less
changed is well known to everyone. I have ventured to put
forward these views—not because they are free from objections,
but because I think that the time has come for a beginning to be

54 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION A.

made in an enquiry as to this portion of the subject. I ought not
to close this address without drawing attention to the very
fruitful field for speculation as to the relation between ether and
matter indicated by Rowland’s experiment. Briefly, it seems to
me to indicate that the magnetic effects produced by a current in
an electrolyte have this analogy with the magnetic effects produced
by Rowland’s disc—that in both cases we must imagine some
“slip” to occur. It matters not whether the slip is produced
between the polarised ether-enwrapped atoms of the disc, or
whether it occurs at the boundary of atoms in the third state in
an electrolyte, where they are directed by other means into an
average path. This, however, is too big a subject to be dealt with
in such a sketchy manner ; and, as I have already taken up too
much time, I will close this address with the customary thanks
and apologies to the members of the section.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS IN SECTION B.

CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY.

By PROFESSOR E. H. RENNIE, M.A., D.Sc.

University of Adelaide.

In assuming the presidency of Section B of the Australasian
Association for the Advancement of Science, it is my first duty
to thank those who have done me the honour to elect me to the
office, and to say that it will be my earnest desire to deserve the
distinction by doing all in my power to forward the interests of
the sciences which this section represents. While thoroughly
appreciating the honour conferred upon me, I feel also a grave
sense of responsibility—a responsibility to say something which
may help to further the interests not only of this section, but
also of the Association, and, therefore, of Australasia.

The benefits to be derived from a meeting of this kind are
doubtless, in a large measure, those which arise from conversation
and social intercourse between men of like pursuits, and, in fact,
we are often twitted with the preponderance of the social
element. It will, however, be a great pity if those portions
of che proceedings devoted to pleasure and relaxation are allowed
to entirely eclipse the scientific objects of the gathering—if, in
fact, by means of papers and discussions, we do not get some
stimulus to more earnest work in the future.

In common with many others occupying somewhat similar
positions, I have felt considerable difficulty in choosing a subject
on which to address you. It has been customary in past years
in the British Association for sectional presidents to give a
general resumé of the more important researches and discoveries
of the year immediately preceding ; but, latterly, men in such
positions have found themselves obliged by the ever-increasing
rapidity of scientific discovery, and the consequent massing
together of material, either to choose some educational theme, or
to discourse on those aspects of the science to which they have
themselves devoted special attention.

Tt will, I think, be granted that to the members of our Asso-
ciation any aspects or results of our science which have special
reference to Australasia should be of peculiar interest, and I
propose therefore to-day, in the course of a very brief address,
first to inquire into some of the more important results which

56 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION B.

have been obtained by examination of Australasian products, and
then shortly to touch upon some of those great chemical questions
which are being more and more forced upon our notice by the
far-reaching generalisations to which they point.

There are, of course, two lines on which an inquiry as
regards Australasian products might proceed, viz., the purely
utilitarian and the purely scientific. If, in this address,
preference is given to the latter, it is not from any desire
to undervalue the former, but partly because I have elsewhere
given prominence to the importance of the application of
science to practice, and because, as I believe, the greatest
discoveries in chemical science in recent years, which have also
been of great practical importance, have not been the result
of accident, but the outcome of long and patient investigation
in realms of work at one time most unpromising as regards useful
issues, and, moreover, because one object of this Association,
as J understand it, is the prosecution of scientific knowledge for
its own sake, quite irrespective of the question whether it will
immediately yield payable results or not. The perpetual cry,
“Cut bono?’ which would never be uttered if those who make
use of it had any real idea of the history of the discoveries of the
past, is most discouraging to those of us who are endeavouring to
prosecute scientific work in these colonies, where it is exceedingly
difficult to rouse interest in anything which does not immediately
lead to material profit in one shape or another. May I not, in this
connection, take the opportunity of urging upon all scientific
teachers to use every endeavour to impress upon their students
the historical developments of such discoveries as I have
referred to ?

Entering now upon the consideration of the chemistry of plant
products, Iam sure you will, in the first place, joi with me in
paying a hearty tribute of praise to the very valuable preliminary
work which has been accomplished in the region of plant
chemistry by our President and his collaborateurs, and to that
more recent and most valuable bibliography of the subject
contained in the “ Useful Native Plants of Australia,” lately
compiled by Mr. Maiden, curator of the Technological Museum
of New South Wales.

Among the more important products, those obtained from the
“everlasting gum-tree ” first claim our attention. In a remarkable
series of researches carried out in the laboratory of the University
of Bonn, Wallach has succeeded in reducing to something like
order and system the confusion which has hitherto existed in our
knowledge of that class of hydrocarbons known as the terpenes,
and has revealed some most interesting facts about the relation-
ships of these substances to one another, especially with reference
to their optical properties. He has shown that some of these
substances exist in what may be termed pairs, one of each pair

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION B. 57

dextro-rotatory, the other levo-rotatory, in its effect on polarised
light. Thus he has found two pinenes, two phellandrenes, and
two limonenes, the only difference between the two members
of each pair being the effect on polarised light just referred to ;

but each set of two is characterised by the formation of
derivatives distinct from those of any other two, and also from
those of other hydrocarbons belonging to the terpene group. In
the case of the two limonenes, however, there is a_ special
and most peculiar characteristic. When simply mixed in equal
proportions these two hydrocarbons unite directly to form another
hydrocarbon, called dipentene, which is very different from either
of the originals. This reminds one, of course, of the relation-
ships between dextro and levo tartaric and racemic acids. There
is, however, this distinction, that dipentene differs much more
widely from the limonenes than does racemic acid from the tartaric
acids, and moreover, there seems to be at present no known means
of regenerating the original hydrocarbons from the product. My
object in referring to these researches, however, is to point out
that the oil of Eucalyptus amygdalina has supplied one of the
missing links in the chain of discovery, Wallach having found
that it contains levo-rotatory phellandrene (this is at present
the only source of this hydrocarbon), the dextro-rotatory variety
occurring in the oil of Phellandrium aquaticum, and also in the
oil of the bitter fennel in the south of France. The oil of
Eucalyptus globulus, on the other hand, contains no phellandrene,
but dextro-rotatory pinene, the two varieties of which are found in
turpentines from different sources. The common constituent of
both these oils is an oxygen containing liquid called cineol of
formula CyoH,,0, and boiling point about 176° C, which is the
chief constituent of oil of wormseed, oil of cajeput, and is also
found in oil of rosemary and other essential oils. This substance
is identical with the so-called ‘ Eucalyptol,” about the presence
or absence of which in oils produced by different tirms there has,
I understand, been a good deal of dispute. Wallach himself had
at first some difficulty in isolating this substance from the oil of
one of these (Eucalyptus amygdalina), apparently owing to the
presence of some disturbing impurity. The fact that it appears
to be more easily isolated from the oil of one variety than from
that of the other may probably have caused the dispute referred
to; at any rate there can be no doubt whatever of its presence
in considerable quantities in the oils from both the varieties
of eucalyptus I have named, and probably it exists in the
oils from other species also. It is a very interesting fact,
however, that there should be a considerable differenee
between the constituents of the oils from these two trees, and
there are indications of still wider differences between the
oils from other species. The oil from Lucalyptus Staigeriana,
for example, according to a report by Messrs. Schimmel and Co.,

58 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION B.

of Dresden, contains an oxygenated substance (a ketone
C,.H,,07) which imparts to it its pleasant lemon-like odour,
and several other species of eucalyptus yield oils of a similar
odour, probably due to the presence of similar substances.
References to these will be found in Mr. Maiden’s book, to which
T have already referred. It is obvious that there is still abundant
room for investigation in the direction indicated, an investigation
too which has the additional merit of possibly leading to
important practical results, some of the substances obtained
having been highly spoken of as perfumes, while some, we know,
possess considerable disinfecting power.

There are many other Australasian plants, besides the
eucalyptus, the leaves of which yield essential oils, but scarcely
any of these have received more than an imperfect examination,
and here again is a wide field for work.

I may mention also here that some years ago I succeeded in
getting a hydrocarbon, apparently a terpene of boiling point
156° C., from New Zealand kauri gum by passing steam over the
roughly-powdered gum heated in a copper vessel. It would be
interesting, perhaps, to re-examine this in the light of Wallach’s
researches, but up to the present time I have had no opportunity.

Leaving the essential oils, and passing to other classes of pro-
ducts, we find that Lucalyptus viminalts yields the well-known
“manna.” This has been lately shown by Tollens to contain over
50 per cent. of vaffinose, or melitose, one of the more recently
investigated, and from a scientific point of view, more interesting
sugars, containing as it does at least eighteen atoms of carbon,
and yielding a mixture of levulose and galactose on treatment
with dilute acids. I believe, though on this point Iam not quite
certain, that “manna” has also been found on other species of
eucalyptus ; if so, it would be well worth examining.

The alkaloids aftord us a field almost untouched, so far as exact
chemical investigation is concerned. So far as I know the only
substances belonging to this class, which have been at all care-
fully examined, are those to be found in the bark of <A/stonza
constricta and the “‘fituri.” Of the former several have been
isolated and partially described by different observers, but
especially by Hesse, who describes at least four; but all of them
need further examination, especially as some, at any rate, possess
very marked physiological activity. The alkaloid to which the
peculiar eftects of “ Azturi” are due has been isolated by Professor
Liversidge, who describes it as a volatile liquid possessing
characteristics closely allied to but distinct from those of nicotine.
and having the formula C,H,N. This also needs further
examination, but sufficient quantities of material are very difficult
to obtain, and I understand Professor Liversidge has not had an
opportunity to continue the investigation. There are numbers of
plants which seem to contain principles of more or less poisonous

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION B. 59

nature, notably two natives of New Zealand, the Coriaria
ruscifolia and Corynocarpus levigata. The former is said to be
excessively poisonous to sheep feeding upon it, and extraordinary
stories are told of the powerful physiological effects produced by
eating the nuts of the latter unless they are first pounded and
washed with water, a practice always observed by the natives.
Mr. Skey, who examined these nuts, states that he succeeded
in isolating a crystalline poisonous substance which, however,
appeared to him to be more closely related to the glucosides than
to the alkaloids.

It is scarcely necessary to say that the complete isolation and
thorough chemical investigation of physiologically active principles,
whether of the nature of alkaloids or not, is of the greatest im-
portance, if such principles are to be usefully applied to medicinal
purposes. The scientific world owes a debt of gratitude to Dr.
Bancroft, of Brisbane, for the valuable results he has obtained by
physiological experiments with a variety of Australian plants,
but the statement will bear repetition that from a chemical point
of view a great deal still remains to be done.

As an instance of a glucoside, we have the active principle of
Smilax glycyphylla, which is asserted by some to have considerable
medicinal value, but which has not yet, so faras Tam aware, been
tried medicinally in the pure state and in larger doses than can
be conveniently administered in the state of infusion. It isa
crystalline substance closely allied to phlorizin. By the action of
dilute acids it yields phloretin and isodulcite, the latter, I need
scarcely tell you, a substance of considerable interest and import-
ance in connection with the question of the constitution of the
sugars, and hitherto obtainable with difticulty from a few rare
sources.

Colouring matters are not wanting as products of the Aus-
tralasian flora, and many of these would, without doubt, yield
results of great interest, if not always of great practical import-
ance, were they subjected to close examination. You may be
interested in examining these specimens of colouring matters from
Drosera whittakeri, a South Australian species. These materials
are capable of being used as dyes, and appear to bear much the
same relationship to one of the methyl-naphthalenes as alizarin
and its congeners do to anthracene.

My attention has been recently drawn to the fluorescent
infusion yielded by the leaves of ABursaria spinosa ; the fluor-
escence proves, on examination, to be due to the presence of
considerable quantities of @sculin, which, you will remember, is
found in the horse-chesnut and, as is stated, in the root of one
other plant, the wild jasmine. This may prove to be an important
source of this substance, should it ever prove to be of practical
value.

60 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION B.

Many of our gums and resins would doubtless repay close
examination, and Mr. Maiden has done a great deal in collecting,
classifying, and partially examining a large number of them,
especially with reference to the quantities of tannin which they
contain, One of the most closely examined of the resins is that
obtained from the various species of Xanthorrhea, which was at
one time largely used as a source of picric acid. Its products of
distillation, under different conditions, have not been thoroughly
investigated, and might yield results of importance ; and besides,
the resin, originally examined by Stenhouse, appears to have been
the product of one species only.

A great deal more might be said on this part of my subject,
but I think I have said enough to show that there is still a wide
field open if we can only find workers, but herein lies the
difficulty. It has often occurred to me that outsiders may
wonder why, in this land of great advantages, and with such an
extensive field, there is not more original investigation. Why is
there not an abundance of scientific papers, on all sorts of
subjects, to be found in the proceedings of our scientific societies?
It is true there are plenty of papers dealing with matters of
Natural History, Geology, and kindred subjects, but very few
involving long, accurate, and painstaking investigation in other
branches of science. The reason is plain enough, viz., that those
who have the will have either not the time or the means. Those
of us who are most favourably situated as regards appliances have
our hands full with the teaching, organising, and all sorts of outside
work which is inevitable in colonies in a state of growth, and we
have not, as yet, numbers of advanced students, such as we find
in older countries, who are only too glad to be entrusted with
new lines of research. May we not hope that one effect of this
Association will be to so interest young and old alike in the
cause of scientific investigation, that such of the younger members
as have time and means will come to our aid, and such of the
older members as have sons, and can afford it, will endeavour to
give us a chance of showing what Australians can do in this
direction by sending us their sons to be trained in some branch
of scientific work. _

Besides this difficulty of obtaining hands to work, there is
often difficulty in obtaining material to work with; and here I
have a suggestion to make, which may, perhaps, commend itself
to you, and which, in case it is approved, will, I hope, be jtaken
up by this section at a later stage in our proceedings. It is the
custom in these colonies to apply to a paternal Government for
assistance in almost everything, and this meeting owes its hearty
thanks to the Government of Victoria for very valuable assistance
rendered. Now, there are in most of the colonies government
organisations which specially deal with matters bordering upon
purely scientific territory—geological, mineralogical, entomological,

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION B. 61

agricultural, and sanitary departments—not to mention others ;
and these departments have at their command men who could in
many cases, at very slight expense, collect from time to time
valuable material. Could it not be so managed that an indivi-
dual, or individuals, thoroughly capable of dealing with some
special investigation, and desirous of following it up, should
apply to this Association, or to a specially-appointed committee,
for assistance ; and might not such assistance take the form of
accrediting such individual or individuals to the government of
that colony from which he wishes to obtain material in such a
way that the authorities would be induced to take steps for
obtaining a supply of such material? In most cases the cost
involved would be very small. The plan seems to me to be
feasible, and it might, to some extent, prevent duplication of
work, for it would become generally known that certain persons
were carrying out such and such investigations. Of course,
such applications would need to be governed by regulations ;
but should the suggestion meet with your approval, it will be
easy to discuss the details at a later period.

If we enquire now what has been done in the region of
mineral chemistry (I am speaking, remember, chiefly from a
purely scientific point of view), we shall find, I think, that in
this department even less has been accomplished. It is true we
have a large number of analyses in official reports of one kind
and another, but these have, for the most part, been undertaken
and published purely from a commercial point of view, and there
has been very little careful and systematic analysis of the less
common and less useful minerals, of which many varieties are to
be found. So far as I have been able to ascertain there is
scarcely any record of the discovery of the rarer elements. The
only instance I have came across is the analysis of a sample of
monasite, which was examined by Mr. Dixon, of the Technical
College, N.S.W., and which he found to contain Cerium,
Lanthanum, Thorium, and Didymium. In one or two instances.
some of the less rare elements have been discovered ; for example,
Mr. Mingaye, at the first meeting of this Association, proved the
presence of considerable quantities of tellurium in some bismuth
ores from Captain’s Flat, N.S.W., and some years ago I
showed that the appearance of brilliant yellow, reddish, and green
colourations on white bricks made in the neighbourhood of Sydney
were due to the presence of vanadium. I have found small
quantities of vanadium widely distributed in many clays in the
neighbourhood of Sydney. But is it not, to say the least of it,
highly probable that in the large areas of mineral country which
exist In so many parts of Australasia there are waiting to be
found many minerals, possibly many new ones, containing either
considerable quantities of rare but already known substances, or
perhaps even new elements. That they have not been found I

62 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION B.

attribute to the fact that the search for minerals has been almost
entirely directed to the finding of gold or other payable metals.
We have heard a good deal of Broken Hill, perhaps there are
some listening to me who are fortunate or unfortunate enough to
know more about it than by mere hearsay, but it is scarcely to
be doubted that a careful scientific search for and examination
of minerals from the great silver field would yield results of great
interest. Professor Masson and Mr. Kirkland have, I under-
stand, examined a considerable number of zinc ores from that
district for gallium, but so far without success. I have roughly
examined the flue dust from the Dry Creek Smelting Works for
germanium, but so far without finding any, but these negative
results need not discourage us. You may be reminded in this
connection that the Government assayer of N.S.W. reports
the discovery of platinum, and probably therefore some of the
associated metals in some minerals from somewhere in the Broken
Hill region.

This department of chemical science—I mean the search for
new or imperfectly known elements—has acquired great interest
and importance in view of the great impulse recently given to the
study of the periodic law of Newlands and Mendeléeff by various
chemists in Europe and the brilliant researches of Crookes on the
nature of several of these so-called elements. It may not be out
of place before bringing this address to a conclusion to review
very briefly the more important results obtained in this direction
during the past few years, the questions involved being of all-
absorbing interest to both chemists and physicists. It is evident
that, whether justified by facts or not, there is a growing disbelief
in the elementary character of the so-called elements, and this
disbelief has arisen from results obtained in two different lines of
research, namely, a more thorough study of the periodic law, and
the spectroscopic investigations of Crookes and others.

One of the most important papers on the periodic law was that
read before the British Association at Aberdeen, in 1886, by
Carnelley. He brought out very clearly the analogies between
the elements so called when arranged according to the periodic
law and series of hydrocarbon radicles and their derivatives, and
showed that it is possible to build up a series of compounds of
two primary elements corresponding in many respects to the known
series of elements, and he advances the speculation that all of the
latter, except hydrogen, may be compounds of two substances,
one with atomic weight 20, and the other with atomic weight — 2,
the latter being identical with the e¢#er which exists all through
space and matter as the medium of transmission of heat and light.
Dr. Carnelley puts this forward merely as a speculation, and though
the idea of a substance with negative atomic weight may be to
others, as to myself, very difficult to grasp, there can be no doubt

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION B. 63

that his paper is a very valuable contribution to the study of the
causes underlying the periodic law.

By the adoption of a form of zigzag curve Emerson Reynolds
succeeded in indicating much more clearly than by the ordinary
tabular system, the relations and contrasts between the various
members of the different periods, bringing into prominence
especially the following noteworthy points :—(1) The possibility
that hydrogen is not the 77st member of Mendeléett’s first period,
but the Zas/—in other words, that there is still room for elements
of lighter atomic weight than hydrogen. (2) The possible non-
existence of Mendeléeff’s ninth period, which includes at present
only the metal Zrdium ; and (3) the interperiodic character of the
triplet groups Fe. Ni. Co., Rh. Ru. Pd., and Ir. Os. Pt.

Crookes, in his lecture on the ‘Genesis of the Elements,”
adopted a slightly modified form of the curve proposed by
Reynolds, and of it he says, ‘“‘The more I ponder over the
arrangement of this zigzag curve the more I become convinced
that he who fully grasps its meaning holds the key to unlock
some of the deepest mysteries of creation.” Using it as an illus-
tration, he sketches out a possible evolution of the substances known
to us as elements from an original or primordial matter, which he
calls protyle, and in this sketch he explains the possible formation
of such groups as the three triplets already referred to, and that
of the Cerium metals, the characteristics of which he has done so
much to elucidate. While on this subject of the graphic repre-
sentation of the periodic law, attention should be drawn to a
curious paper by the Rev. Dr. Haughton, read before the Royal
Irish Academy in 1888, in which, by a geometrical representation
of the law, he brings out some interesting and hitherto unnoticed
points, and indicates in a very graphic manner the isolation of
hydrogen and the points at which, in his opinion, there are still
to be found missing elements.

The other line of investigation, which has led to serious doubt
as to the accuracy of the hitherto generally accepted notions of
the nature of the so-called elements, is the purely experimental,
as developed by Crookes and others in researches on the rare-
earth metals. By long and tedious experiments Crookes has
succeeded in splitting up y¢trviuzm, for example, into several sub-
stances, which are, at any rate, spectroscopically distinct, but
which are so closely related chemically that they are indistinguish-
able by ordinary methods. He believes it will be possible to
obtain similar results with other substances, if only the right
methods can be found ; in fact, he has actually found indications
of the commencement of a like separation in other cases than that
of yttrium. Reasoning on these facts he has modified his views
as to the character of the elements, and is now inclined to regard
them, not as made up of a number of atoms of rigorously the same
weight, but as consisting of groups of atoms of which the mean

64 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION B.

atomic weight is practically constant, but which differ in weight
among themselves to a small but finite extent. This, in his view,
would be the natural consequence of the generation of the elements
from a primordial matter, and if I understand him aright, he
believes that in such groups as that of the cerium metals, and
others of which the members closely resemble one another, we
have traces remaining of an imperfect differentiation into the
distinct substances we have been accustomed to call elements.

In his Faraday lecture, delivered last year before tae Chemical
Society of London, Mendeléeff criticises somewhat severely these
views as to the character and origin of the elements. He objects
to the representation of the periodic law in the form of curves as
used by Reynolds, Crookes and Haughton, on the ground that a
curve as ordinarily used indicates a continuous and unbroken
series of points, and that, therefore, at any and every point of such
a curve, there should be a corresponding element—in other words,
this method of representation implies an infinite number of
elements—so at least I understand his objection. It would
appear, however, that this criticism is based upon a misconcep-
tion of the real object of these so-called curves, which, I take it,
are not intended to be understood in a purely mathematical sense,
but simply as graphic representations of the periodic law, which
enable us to see more clearly its prominent features. He points
out further that the analogy between the series of elements and
hydrocarbon radicles, worked out by Carnelley (though previously
indicated by Pelopidas) is weak in this respect, that whereas the
series of natural elements involves an increase of mass as we pass
from one member to another the series of hydrocarbon radicles
involves a decrease, and that therefore there is no true identity
of periodicity in the two cases. This statement, is of course,
involved in Carnelley’s assumption of a negative atomic weight.
As regards the existence of felium, an element supposed by
Lockyer to exist in the sun, he points out that no attention
is paid to the fact that the helium line is seen only in the
spectrum of the solar protuberances, nor to the fact that the same
line is wanting among the Fraunhofer lines of the solar spectrum,
and therefore does not answer to the fundamental conception of
spectrum analysis, and he further criticises other statements
regarding the alleged spectroscopic indications of the decompo-
sition of the elements. He does not, however, attempt to
controvert Crookes’ results, but says :—‘ From the foregoing
as well as from the failures of so many attempts at finding
in experiment and speculation a proof of the compound character
of the elements and of the existence of primordial matter, it is
evident, in my opinion, that this theory must be classed among
mere utopias.”

The supposition of Carnelley that the ether may be one of the
forms of the primordial matter has been already alluded. to.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION B. 65

Recent physical investigations have thrown wonderful light on
the nature and functions of the ether, for a simple account of
which I refer you'to that fascinating book by Professor Lodge,
entitled “Modern Views of Electricity.” In his preface to the
work he says “the evidence for (the existence of) ether is as
strong and direct as the evidence for (the existence of) air,” and
he regards it as “‘a perfectly continuous, subtle, incompressible
substance pervading all space, and penetrating between the
molecules of all ordinary matter, which are embedded in it and
connected with one another by its means.” If there be such an
all-permeating form of matter, does it not seem improbable that
this substance should exist separate, distinct and different from
all other forms of matter, and having no share in their compo-
sition? Is it not more likely that it forms an essential part of
all forms of matter known to us, and is it not possible that the
known effects of heat, light and electricity, for all of which this
ether is undoubtedly the means of transmission, are either due to,
or at least would be greatly aided by, its presence as a con-
stituent part of the matter upon which the effects are produced ?
You are doubtless well aware that Sir W. Thompson has
elaborated what is known as the vortex theory of matter, which
represents the atoms as vortex rings formed of the substance of
the ether, he having demonstrated that vortex motion is capable
of conferring upon a fluid such as the ether the necessary rigidity.
In speaking of this, Professor Lodge says:—‘“The atoms of
matter are not so much foreign particles imbedded in the all-
pervading ether, as portions of it differentiated off from the rest
by reason of their vortex motion, thus becoming virtually solid
particles, yet with no transition of substance: atoms indestruc-
tible and not able to be manufactured, not mere hard rigid
specks, but each composed of whirling ether—elastic, capable of
definite vibration, of free movement, of collision.”

Whatever opinions we may hold on these subjects, there is not
one of us but must feel, I think, that the scientific atmosphere
is pregnant with coming discoveries, though the boldest prophet
may well hesitate to predict what they will be. In a few years
chemistry, perhaps, will be reduced to a mere branch of the all-
embracing science of physics, to be studied by differential
equations and other mathematical processes yet to be invented.
Already it is becoming more and more necessary for scientific
chemists to be, not mere chemists, but also physicists and mathe-
maticians. Let those of us who are not able to plunge into the
more abstruse reasonings upon which some of the recently
obtained results depend, content ourselves with doing our utmost
to discover such new facts as lie within our reach, to aim at
generalising these facts as far as possible, and so add to that
storehouse of knowledge, by means of which those possessed of
greater powers of analytical investigation than ourselves may be

E

66 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION B.

able to elucidate the greater problems of nature: and let all of
us who are members of this Association strive to make it such an
influence in these colonies that Australasia may not be behind
the rest of the world in its eagerness for scientific investigation
and ambition to produce men who may rank among the great
discoverers of future years.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS IN SECTION
(Geology and Paleontology).
OSCILLATIONS OF THE EARTH’S SURFACE.

By F. W. HUTTON, M.A., F.G.8., C.M.Z.S.,

Professor of Geology, Canterbury College, University of New Zealand.

Tuar the surface of the earth has moved is, at the present day,
a part of common knowledge. Every one knows that high
mountains are built up of rocks which were once beneath the
sea, and that coal-beds, now so deeply buried, were formed on
the surface of the land. It is nearly, perhaps not quite, as well
known that these movements are still going on, some parts of
the world undergoing slow upheaval, others slow depression. It
has, however, only lately been discovered that, in addition to
these slow movements, comparatively rapid wave-like pulsations
of the land take place in Europe, in Japan, and probably in other
laces.

‘ It appears probable that the earth’s crust is in a constant state
of movement, some parts sinking, others rising. There may be
portions which are in equilibrium and stationary, but probably
these areas are small in comparison with those undergoing move-
ment. Oscillation is the normal condition of the surface,
immobility is the exception. Oscillations like these have doubt-
less been going on through all geological time, although with
varying intensity ; and the movements have sometimes continued
so long in one direction that we find places which have been
elevated five or six miles above the sea level, and we can also
prove that in places depression went on to the extent of six—
perhaps even eight or ten—amiles below the sea.

Professor G. H. Darwin has calculated that, if the earth be
as elastic as steel, a rise of one inch in the barometer over the
whole of Australia would indicate an increase of pressure
sufficient to depress the surface two or three inches, while the
tides of the Atlantic might cause a rise and fall in the neigh-
bouring land of five inches. To these changes may be due some
of the quicker pulsations ; others are annual, and appear to be
due to changes in temperature, while others are independent of
all meteorological causes.

The origin of these latter pulsations, as also of the slower
oscillations in level, has not yet been satisfactorily explained, and

E2

68 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION C.

as the object of this address is to place before you the present
state of our knowledge on this fundamental problem of geology,
it will be as well for me to commence by describing shortly the
principal facts connected with the movements—that is, the
principal phenomena which have to be explained.

PHENOMENA CONNECTED WITH THE MOVEMENTS.

When we examine those portions of land which have been
most elevated, we easily recognise two types-of structure. One
is the Plateau type, in which the sedimentary rocks are nearly
horizontal, and the only igneous rocks are overflows of basalt.
The other is the Mountain Range or Alpine type, in which we
find a granitic or gneissic core, surrounded by sedimentary rocks
which have been plicated, and sometimes pushed horizontally
over one another ; and here basalts are not commonly found in
the mountains, but often occur at a little distance from them.
The first of these types is evidently due to vertical uplift alone,
the second to vertical uplift accompanied by lateral pressure.
But the two types are connected by the Uinta and Park Ranges,
the former being only a flattened dome, the second a dome into
which granite and gneiss have been pushed, and the surrounding
sedimentary rocks plicated or placed nearly vertical. The Andes
forms another type of mountains, differing from the ordinary
Alpine type by the addition of volcanoes along the centre of the
range. The Caucasus is intermediate between the Alpine and
Andean types, the central peaks of Elburz and Kazbec being
extinct Andesitic volcanoes, surrounded by mountains of granite.
What is known as the Jura type appears to be found only
in mountains forming the outworks of a range on the Alpine
type, and is not an independent structure. The Park Range also
shows folds like the Jura.

Depression of rock masses has occurred on an enormous scale,
but we cannot examine the structure of the depressed rocks until
they have been re-elevated. They all appear, however, to belong
to one type, which corresponds to that of the plateau or regional
uplift. I am not aware of any reason for supposing that folding
of rocks ever took place with depression, or that any subsidences
were accompanied by lateral pressure. There are, however, many
reasons for thinking that neither elevation nor depression are
continuous movements, but that both are irregular, sometimes being
even reversed for short intervals, and thus giving rise to oscillations.

Plications are always connected with great thickness of the
plicated beds—that is, they never take place except after heavy
sedimentation : a fact first pointed out by Professor James Hall
of New York, and since confirmed in many parts of the world.
For example, the older Paleeozoic rocks are very thick in Britain,
and thin out easterly through southern Scandinavia, the Gulf of

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—-SECTION C. 69

Finland, and northern Russia. Before the Devonian period they
were much folded in Britain, but in Russia they remain horizontal
to the present day. In the Ural Mountains, however, they were
covered by heavy carboniferous deposits, and here they were
disturbed immediately after the Carboniferous period. In the
peninsula of India the Bijawan series is horizontal where thin,
and much folded where thick. The Star formation in Queensland
is only some 1200 feet thick in the Star gold-field, and is here
but little disturbed; while in the Hodgkinson and Palmer
gold-fields, where itis more than 21,000 feet thick, it is highly
inclined. In North America, the Paleozoic sediments of Virginia
and Pennsylvania in the east, and of Nevada in the west, are each
about 40,000 feet thick and much disturbed ; but between them,
in Colorado and the Mississippi valley, they get thin, and here
they are horizontal. So with the Mesozoic rocks in the same
region ; they also are only folded where they are thick. All the
contorted beds of mountain ranges are parts of thick deposits.
The elevation of the north-west Himalaya was preceded by the
deposition of 30,000 feet of strata, that of the Swiss Alps by
more than 30,000 feet, that of the Australian Alps by more
than 35,000 feet, and that of the Appalachians by 40,000 feet.

These examples are sufficient to show that only thick deposits
are folded, but it does not appear that the plications are propor-
tional to the thickness of the deposits, The folded Cretaceous
rocks on the east base of the Rocky Mountains are not more
than 12,000 feet thick, while the folded marine tertiaries of
California are said to be only 4000 to 5000 feet thick. On
the other hand the carbonaceous formations of New South
Wales are more than 11,000 feet thick and not folded. The
Gondwana system in the Raniganj coal-fields of India is 11,200
feet, and in the Satpura basin it is even 22,500 feet thick and
yet not folded. So also in North America, the tertiary beds
of the Wahsatch and Uinta districts are 12,400 feet, and the
conformable strata of the Colorado plateau are 10,000 to 15,000
feet and yet not plicated. Evidently plication does not necessarily
follow heavy sedimentation.

Another important point is that plication is not universal.
Some large regions of the earth’s surface have never been plicated
since Archean times. I have already mentioned the Gulf of
Finland. In Canada, Cambrian rocks, 2000 feet thick, lie hori-
zontally on contorted Archeans, The Arvali Range in Rajputana
is formed of plicated Archzean schists which have not since been
disturbed, for the Vindhyan system, which is of lower Paleozoic
age, is found in the neighbourhood in a nearly horizontal position ;
indeed the Vindhyan system is horizontal over the greater part
of the peninsula of India.

The action which has caused plication has constantly shifted
its position. As pointed out by J. D. Dana in 1846, a continent

70 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION CO.

shows a series of successive plicated bands with more or less
parallel trends. In eastern North America the Pre-Ordovician
folding of the Adironacks in New York was followed at the close
of the Ordovician by that of the Green Mountains in Vermont ;
and the Blue Mountains are older than the Alleghanies. In
western North America the Wahsatch Mountains, which are
contemporaneous with the Alleghanies, preceded the Sierra
Nevada, and these preceded the Californian coast ranges and
the Rocky Mountains. In Asia the Kuenlun Range, on the
northern side of the Thibetan plateau, preceded the Himalaya,
and these the sub-Himalaya. In South America, the mountains
of Brazil and Bolivia preceded the Andes. Even in Europe,
complicated though its structure be, the folded bands get younger
towards the south. Thus the region from central Britain in a
south-easterly direction to central Germany was folded between
the Silurian and Devonian; that from south Britain east
through northern France and Westphalia to south Russia,
between the Carboniferous and the Trias; central France and
central Germany between the Triassic and the Jurassic ; south
Germany between Jurassic and Cretaceous ; and Switzerland in
the Tertiary.

Since the commencement of the Palxozoie era few regions
are known to have been plicated more than once ; but central
Germany has been folded at least twice, although along different
lines ; and according to Professor Green, there were in South
Africa two periods of plication between the Devonian and Trias,
and each took the line of the Zwartebergen ; but since the Trias
this region has been undisturbed. Even in those regions, like
the Alps and Himalaya, which were plicated in the Tertiary era,
there appears to have been no previous plication of the district.
This opinion is opposed to statements usually found in text-books ;
but the difference is due to distinguishing simple regional uplifts
from those which were accompanied by plication. Regional
uplifts and subsequent depression have often preceded the
formation of a mountain range; but the true mountain uplift,
which is accompanied by the irruption of granite and the
contortion of the rocks, is seldom, if ever, repeated. The moun-
tain uplift, however, may not be simple; it may consist of two
or more periods of folding following closely after one another.
A few examples showing the differences as well as the resem-
blances between these kinds of uplifts are necessary to establish
my position.

In the Pyrenean Region disturbances, of which I cannot find
a sufficiently full account, took place between the Devonian and
Carboniferous periods, and were followed by subsidence and
sedimentation up to the middle of the Cretaceous, when a gentle
uplift took place without contortion. This was followed by a
second subsidence and sedimentation to the close of the Eocene.

lod

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION C. TL

Then came the main uplift, with folding of the rocks, and the
Pyrenees were formed. Slight depression occurred in the Miocene,
with upheaval at its close, the miocene beds being contorted in
the Lower Pyrenean Range at Corbiéres, but not elsewhere.
These are overlain uncomformably by horizontal pliocene beds.

Our first knowledge of Sz/7¢zerland is that during Permian
and early Triassic times volcanic outbursts took place, followed
by subsidence and deposition during the whole of the Mesozoic
and early Eocene periods. This subsidence was not continuous,
for, during the Mesozoic era, there were several oscillations in
level, but without contortion. The deposits have a thickness of
more than 30,000 feet, and include several masses of limestone
over a thousand feet thick, which are thought to be old coral
reefs. Upheaval, with plication, commenced towards the close
of the Eocene. In the Miocene a great mountain range existed,
with shallow seas both north and south of it. Subsidence again
took place, and deposits of sandstone and conglomerate accumu-
lated on the north side to a thickness of about 9000 feet. Then
came a second elevation of more than 5000 feet, with folding
during the Pliocene period, and sub-alpine Switzerland was
formed. This latter folding was not equal all round, but greatest
in the northern and central parts, the southern side being but
little affected. At the same time the Jura mountains were
raised. The rocks here are not contorted, but thrown into
great folds, steep on the Swiss side and decreasing towards the
French side, indicating that the thrust came from Switzerland.
For the most part the synclinal folds form valleys and the anti-
clinals form hills which must have risen up as surface swellings
from the ground ; and these swellings are supposed to have risen
so rapidly that they diverted the course of the Rhine and turned
it northward. Volcanic action, both north and south of Switzer-
land, commenced in the Miocene and declined in the Pliocene,
but there are no volcanoes in the mountain range itself.

The structure of the Himalaya Mountains is not so well known
as that of the Alps, but they contain a conformable series from
the Palozoic to the Cretaceous inclusive, indicating slow subsi-
dence and sedimentation. At the close of the Cretaceous period
elevation without contortion took place, accompanied by denu-
dation so extensive as to lay bare in places the paleozoic rocks.
At the same time the Deccan was flooded by enormous outflows
of basalt, which cover more than 200,000 sauare miles, and reach
occasionally a thickness of 6000 feet. Subsidence of the Hima-
layan region again took place, with the deposition of eocene beds
3000 to 5000 feet thick. Elevation with contortion followed,
and the central range of the Himalaya was formed. The rise,
however, was sufficiently slow to allow the Indus to retain its old
channel and cut a path through the new mountains. Extensive
denudation then occurred; valleys were carved out, and the

72 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION C.

pliocene Siwalik beds deposited to a thickness of from 5000 to
10,000 feet. Then, in the Pleistocene, came another upheaval,
contorting the pliocene beds and forming the sub-Himalaya ; a
range which runs along the south-west flank of the central
Himalaya from the Punjab to Assam, the crests of the two
ranges being about 125 miles apart. But these plications were
local, for the pliocene beds on the north-east side, in Thibet, are
not folded, but have been gently elevated. It is not supposed »
that the thickness of the Siwaliks shows the true vertical measure
at any one time, for deposition, disturbance, and erosion went on
together, so that in no place did they reach anything like 10,000
feet, from which it follows that rocks at the surface must have
been greatly disturbed. Notwithstanding the comparative
rapidity with which the sub-Himalaya were formed, the elevation
was so slow that it never exceeded the rate at which the rivers
flowing from the Central Himalaya cut down their beds; for
they all—the Sutlej, Ganges, Ghogra and others—still run in
their old valleys right across the crest of the sub-Himalaya.

In the western United States thick sediments were formed in
Utah and Nevada from the Cambrian to the Carboniferous
inclusive, reaching 30,000 feet in the Wahsatch district. At the
close of the Carboniferous, or during the Permian period, these
sediments were greatly plicated and elevated in the Basin Region,
the Wahsatch and Humboldt Ranges being formed. The Colo-
rado district to the east, in which not more than a thousand feet
of strata had been deposited, still continued to subside. During
the Triassic and Jurassic periods general depression took place,
with especially heavy sedimentation in Nevada, west of the
Humboldt Range. At the end of the Jurassic these beds were
contorted and elevated, the Sierra Nevada being formed. <At
the same time the Basin Region was elevated without folding,
while Colorado and Utah, east of the Wahsatch, where the
sediments were still less than 3000 feet, although they had been
accumulating from the Carboniferous period, still continued to
sink. In the Cretaceous a general subsidence of the whole
western continent took place, but the Basin Region was not
depressed beneath the sea. At the close of the Cretaceous,
general elevation began. In western Colorado and eastern Utah,
where subsidence had been continuous since the Carboniferous,
but only about 4000 feet of strata on an average had been
deposited, the surface was elevated without plication, except
locally on the east flanks of the Wahsatch, where the Cretaceous
alone was 11,000 to 13,000 feet thick. The Uinta Mountains
also rose some 4000 feet above the rest of the plateau, but their
rise was so slow that the Green River, which crossed a portion of
the uplifted area, kept its old channel, and cut down a gorge as
quickly as the land rose. In central Colorado, where the deposits
were between 8000 and 9000 feet thick, the Rocky Mountains

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION C. da

were formed ; extrusions of granite and gneiss took place, the
sedimentary rocks on the eastern side were placed vertically or
thrust into folds on the Jura type, while on the western side the
disturbance was small. In California, to the west of the Sierra
Nevada, where the sediments had been heavier, numerous foldings
took place, and the coast range was formed. The plateau region
of Colorado between the Wahsatch and Rocky Mountains, became
a vast fresh-water lake, the bottom of which appears to have
subsided while 5000 feet of fresh-water sediments were placed
upon it ; then the lake shrank and disappeared at the close of the
Eocene. General elevation re-commenced in the Miocene, the
floor of the old lake was thrown into long swellings, and volcanic
eruptions of a basic character took place on the margins of the
plateau, and on a still larger scale in California. This upward
movement ceased in the middle of the Pliocene, but commenced
again in the Pleistocene, and appears to be still going on. The
total elevation of the plateau region from the close of the Eocene
was no less than 20,000 feet, most of which occurred in the
Miocene. It was accompanied by a number of north and south
monoclinal folds and faults, which continued into the Pleistocene.
The erosion that accompanied this elevation is as much as 10,000
feet in places, and averages 5500 to 6000 feet. In the Uinta
Mountains, which were raised 4000 feet above the rest of the
plateau at the close of the Cretaceous, the erosion has been in
places over 18,000 feet.

The geological history of the western United States shows
clearly that the forces which contorted the Sierra Nevada and
coast ranges were not distinct from those which produced the
regional uplift, and it is in this very region that we find in the
Uinta and Rocky Mountains those intermediate types which I
have already mentioned. Fifty years ago C. Darwin came to a
similar conclusion from a study of the geology of South America,
and stated his belief that mountain chains were only subsidiary
and attendant operations on continental elevation; a view which
has since been lost sight of, but is now re-established by the
labours of American geologists.

The conclusions which can, I think, be fairly drawn from the
facts I have just narrated are :—

1. The plicated bands of the earth’s crust have been formed
along areas of previous heavy sedimentation, that is in geosyn-
clinals.

2. The formation of a geosynclinal is a very slow process,
extending through at least two geological periods.

3. The subsidence that accompanies the sedimentation is not
continuous, but is often broken by periods of elevation without
contortion, followed by depression.

4. The subsequent elevation with plication, and the formation
of what Dana calls a synclinorium, is comparatively rapid, com-

74 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION C.

prising less than a geological period ; nevertheless, the elevation is
often less rapid than the rate of river erosion.

5. Folding does not go on pari passu with sedimentation, but
the rocks in the geosynclinal remain uncontorted until the for-
mation of the synclinorium has commenced.

6. The formation of the synclinorium is usually followed by
subsidence of short duration, which is again followed by a regional
uplift with local plications of the newly deposited beds, generally
along one side only of the synclinorium.

7. Superficial rocks have been folded as well as deep-seated
ones, while flexures like those of the Jura and Uinta Mountains
are also local uprisings of the surface. Consequently, mountain
ranges of the Alpine type are not the cores of broad plateaux
exposed by denudation, as taught by Montlosier, but are uprisings
from the surface, as taught by Von Buch, and may or may not
be accompanied by regional uplifts.

8. Folding only takes place where the sediments are thick ;
nevertheless, very thick deposits are not in every case folded,
showing that great sedimentation does not cause plication
directly.

9. The forces which produce mountain ranges are only a modi-
fication of those which produce regional uplifts.

STATE OF THE INTERIOR OF THE EARTH.

It now becomes necessary to ascertain what is known about
the condition of the interior of the earth, on the surface of
which these movements take place ; for it is evident that, before
we can approach with confidence the question of causes, we must
know not only the facts connected with the oscillations of the
surface, but also what assumptions are allowable about the state
of the interior. Fortunately, this problem has been much simpli-
fied by the mathematical investigations of Sir W. Thomson,
Professor G. H. Darwin, and the Rev. O. Fisher, so that a short
history of opinion on the subject will place any one in a position
to judge for himself.

Leibnitz, in 1683, started the theory of an incandescent globe,
the interior of which was fluid, and re-acted on the cooled surface ;
and he was followed by Descartes, Bufton, Hutton, and Dolomieu.
But, in 1681, Bishop Burnet had maintained the opposite opinion,
viz., that the earth is a solid, cold, inert mass, the surface of .
which was at first dissolved in a watery menstruum, and had
gradually dried, the surplus water having been drawn off into
caverns in the interior,—a doctrine which was supported by
Woodward, Werner, De Luc, Pallas, De Saussure, and others.
The discussion was long and even personal, but the bishop’s side
so completely gained the day that, in 1811, Pinkerton said that
“the doctrine of a central heat seems to be universally aban-

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION C. 75
doned.” The theory was, however, revived by Laplace and by
Cordier, who, in his “ Essay on the Temperature of the Interior
of the Earth,” 1827, brought forward numerous reasons for
thinking that sufficient heat to melt rock must exist at no great
depth from the surface, and, consequently, that the earth consisted
of a solid crust surrounding a still melted interior. The reasoning
was supported by Fourier, and, although opposed by Poisson,
was rapidly accepted by geologists as the only explanation of
volcanoes, lateral movements of the crust, and subsidence of the
surface, all of which seemed to necessitate a yielding interior.

But this theory received a severe blow in 1839, when Mr.
W. Hopkins published the first of his “ Researches in Physical
Geology,” in which he maintained that the amount of precession
and nutation of the earth’s axis proved the earth to be either
solid or to have a solid crust not less than 800 miles thick. He
was supported in this by Archdeacon Pratt, and afterwards by
Sir W. Thomson ; but their conclusions were opposed by Professor
Hennessy in 1851, by M. Delaunay in 1868, and subsequently by
General Barnard and Professor Newcomb. In 1876 Sir W.
Thomson abandoned this argument altogether, and stated his
opinion that a perfectly fluid spheroid would have a precession
practically the same as that of a perfectly rigid one, and Professor
Darwin has shown that this is so.

A far more important objection to the theory that the interior
is fluid is the supposed absence of bodily tides. This subject was
discussed in the days of Laplace and Cordier, was again taken up
by Sir W. Thomson in 1863, and has since been supported by
Professor G. H. Darwin. Sir W. Thomson said that, if the
interior were fluid, the sun and moon would produce bodily tides,
which would raise and lower the solid crust, and thus reduce the
amount of the ocean tides. He calculated that if the earth was
as rigid as steel, it would yield about two-fifths, and if as rigid as
glass, more than three-fourths as much to the tide-producing
influences as if it was fluid; and as the latter amount could, he
thought, be easily observed if it occurred, he arrived at the con-
clusion that the earth must be more rigid than glass. Professor
Hennessy objected to this conclusion, and pointed out that the
conditions on which Sir W. Thomson’s calculations were based are
very different from the real ones. He said that if the fluid
interior passes gradually into the solid crust, as it probably does,
deformation of the shell may be very small, for the tidal energies
would be expended in pushing aside the half-liquid matter. He
also pointed out that, as the observed amount of precession is
about six seconds less than that calculated for a rigid globe, some
slight tidal deformation actually takes place. The Rey. O.
Fisher, also, in the second edition of his “‘ Physics of the Earth’s
Crust,” 1889, has suggested that if the liquid interior contains
gas in solution, the elasticity of the gas might compensate for

‘76 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—-SECTION C.

varying pressure caused by tidal action, and the resulting surface
movements might be small, or even nothing: there would
be a density tide only, which might be unable to move the
superjacent crust.

Sir W. Thomson had assumed in his investigations that the
interior of the earth is perfectly elastic, which is no doubt incor-
rect. Professor Darwin undertook the calculations on the sup-
position that it is viscous or elastico-viscous, and found that in
these cases the semi-diurnal hodily tides would lag so much
behind the ocean tides that the two could not be compared,
especially as the ocean tides are much affected by the distribution
of the land-masses, which would not be the case with bodily tides.
If an earth tide followed an ocean tide at a distance of less than
half an oscillation, the time of apparent high ocean tide would
be accelerated ; and if an earth tide followed at a greater distance
than half an oscillation, the time of apparent high water would
be retarded. But owing to the friction on the sea bottom and
the varying depth of the sea, neither the height nor the time of
actual high water at any place can be calculated from theory ;
and observations give only the time and height of apparent high
water, consequently, acceleration or retardation cannot be proved.

Sir W. Thomson always recognised the difficulties connected
with the semi-diurnal tides, but thought that the longer period
lunar fortnightly tide might be used for the purposes of obser-
vation, as with it the irregularities must be much less. He
calculated that at Iceland and at Teneriffe the fortnightly ocean
tides ought to be five inches if the earth be perfectly rigid, three
inches if as rigid as steel, and one inch if the rigidity be that of
glass. Subsequently, Professor Darwin found that the observed
fortnightly and monthly tides at various Indian and European
ports are about two-thirds of the calculated height, and, conse-
quently, he thought that this proves the effective rigidity of the
earth to be as great as that of steel. These results were obtained
by employing the Newtonian or equilibrium or tidal theory, which
supposes that each particle of the earth takes up the position of
equilibrium. But owing to their inertia they never have time
to do this completely, for the directions of the external attractions
are always changing, and Professor Darwin has lately found
that even the fortnightly oceanic tide could not be more than
one half the equilibrium height, so that the observed tides seem
to be actually greater than theory will account for. But,
according to Mr. Love, ‘‘the Tidal Committee of the British
Association appears to be still doubtful whether there really
is an appreciable fortnightly (oceanic) tide,’* and both Professor
Darwin and Sir W. Thomson have come to the conclusion
that the equilibrium theory cannot be used for the purposes of
calculation.

* Quoted by the Rey. O. Fisher.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS —SECTION ©. T7

Still later, Professor Darwin says that the lunar 19-yearly tide
is the only one by which we can hope to test the rigidity of the
earth. He calculates that this tide would give an oscillation of
1% inches at the poles, and about half that amount at the equator.
He endeavoured to ascertain whether this tide could be detected
in the observations made at Kurachi, but found that, if it existed
at all, it was completely masked by tides due to meteorological
causes. He concludes that “we must regard it as extremely
improbable that the 19-yearly tide will ever be detected,” and,
consequently, that ‘ the evaluation of the earth’s rigidity appears,
with present data, to be unattainable.”

In the second of Mr. Hopkins’ papers, already mentioned, he
arrived at the conclusion that the earth must at one time have
consisted of a solid crust, resting on an imperfectly fluid and
highly incandescent interior; but, in 1876, Sir W. Thomson
denied this, and said that if the interior were fluid the solid crust
must break up by its own weight and sink into it. This opinion
was based on the supposition that solid rock is more dense
than when melted; but experiments have since shown that this
is not always the case; and, in 1878, Sir W. Thomson, with
remarkable candour, abandoned this argument also. Professor
Hennessy has also pointed out that if the interior increases in
density downwards an outer crust could not sink into a lower
stratum, especially as in all probability it would be more or less
vesicular.

That the crust of the earth floats on a liquid substratum, and
is therefore in a state of hydrostatic equilibrium, was the opinion
of Cordier in 1827, and of Professor G. Belli, of Pavia, in 1850,
as it was also of both Sir J. Herschel and Sir G. Airy. The
latter, in 1855, showed that a continental plateau one hundred
miles broad and two miles high could not be supported by a solid
globe of the materials we know at the surface, and that, conse-
quently, it must float by what he called a root. The equilibrium
need not be exact, although it must be within the limits of
breakage of the rocks forming the plateau. Again, in 1878, he
said that the form of the earth was not such as would be taken
by a solid structure, but such as would be taken by a fluid mass
with solids floating on it. There is, however, an objection to the
idea that continents and mountains float by solid roots, which is
that, if the interior gets hotter the further we leave the surface
these solid roots would be pushed downward into hotter layers
and would melt. It may be that in mountain ranges this melting
below would be compensated by erosion above ; but this would
not apply to ancient plateaux like Canada and Scandinavia.

The question was again investigated by Professor Darwin in
1879. He says that if the earth had a figure of equilibrium
appropriate to rotation there would be no dry land, for the
surface of the solid would correspond with that of the ocean.

78 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION C.

As there is dry land on the surface, the interior must be ina
state of stress, and the materials composing it must be strong
enough to bear this stress. Ifin any particular place there is a
stress-difference, and no movement takes place, the materials
must be at least as strong as matter which would break with
that stress-difference, and he takes resistance to crushing as
indicating the strength of the material. The results of his calcu-
lations show that if the earth is solid it must be at least as strong
as strong granite ; if there is a crust a thousand miles thick, with
a gaseous inside, the crust must be stronger than granite ; while,
if the crust is only two or three hundred miles thick, then it
must be much stronger than granite. In these calculations the
earth is supposed to be a homogeneous incompressible elastic
sphere. If the elastic sphere be very compressible, the stress-
differences would not be so great. From this Professor Darwin
infers that the interior of the earth is composed of solid
substances stronger than granite, for he will not allow the only
alternative, viz., that it is fluid.

It seems, therefore, that the only valid argument for a solid
earth is that derived from the tides. But the forces concerned
with the production of the oceanic semi-diurnal fortnightly and
monthly tides are so complicated that the time of high water at
any place cannot be calculated with precision, and it is not
certain that any fortnightly and monthly tides exist. Neither
can the time of high earth-tide be predicted, and consequently
these tides cannot be used for estimating the rigidity of the
earth. With the semi-annual tides, and with those of still
longer period, it is thought that both oceanic and bodily tides
can be calculated ; but, unfortunately, these tides are so small
that they cannot be observed, so that here also the means of
ascertaining whether bodily tides exist are absent. It is how-
ever thought, rather vaguely, that if the interior were not very
rigid, the oceanic semi-diurnal tides would be much less than
they are. But this has not been demonstrated, and as the land
and the ocean would perform independent oscillations, it seems
probable that, even if the interior be fluid, the movements of
the land might be altogether hidden among the great irregularities
of the ocean tides. On the other hand, it is difficult to believe
that the highly-heated interior is more rigid than the cooled
crust, and if it is not more rigid than the crust it must be fluid,
for in no other way can the continents be sustained. It is also
impossible to believe that oscillations of several miles in
amplitude can take place on the surface of a rigid sphere; and
we shall see presently that these movements of the surface are
not caused by superficial stress-differences, but by plutonic action
going on in the interior, which seems to be quite incompatible
with a solid globe.

Another vague idea entertained by some geologists is that, if

ld

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION C. 79

the earth consisted of an immense mass of incandescent liquid,
covered by a shell only a few miles thick, this shell would have
no stability, and catastrophes of some sort would be common.
We are told that if there were a surging mass of molten lava
everywhere, not far beneath our feet, earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions would be far more frequent than they are. But why
should molten lava surge beneath a crust of rock twenty or
thirty miles thick? The difficulty is rather to discover causes
sufficiently powerful to explain the observed movements ; for the
largest bodily tide would be under two feet, and could not influence
much the position even of molten lava in a volcano like Stromboli,
for the friction on the sides of the pipe would reduce the move-
ment almost to nothing. So far as I can judge from published
opinion, the tendency of geological thought during the last twelve
years has been in the direction of the idea that the interior of
the earth is fluid. Deductive reasonings against that idea have
fallen one by one, while extended observation has more and more
confirmed the geological argument in favour of a motile interior,

Tt must be remembered that the one argument for solidity—
that of the tides—is an exceedingly complicated one, while the
arguments for fluidity are simple. If it should ultimately turn
out that the bodily tides are quite insignificant, or even absent,
it would not necessarily follow that the earth is solid. It would
be far more likely that the whole of the conditions of the tidal
problem had not been taken into consideration, than that
depressions of five or six miles in depth could take place on the
surface of a rigid solid body. It seems to be certain that the
present inequalities of the surface are far greater than can be
accounted for by the contraction through cooling of a solid globe ;
and if the interior was not solid when the first crust was formed,
it cannot be solid now.

Notwithstanding the opinions held by astronomers like Laplace,
Sir J. Herschel, Sir G. Airy, M. Delaunay, and Professor
Newcomb, some geologists have been so much impressed with
the arguments advanced in favour of a solid earth that they
have thought it necessary to frame some hypothesis which would
reconcile physical arguinents with geological facts. Mr. Hopkins’
hypothesis of the existence of subterranean lakes of molten rock
is one of these, which was at one time held to be probable by
many geologists, but is now universally abandoned. Another is
Sir W. Thomson’s suggestion that the earth may be a cold sphere,
around which a stratum of meteoric matter has accumulated,
heated to the temperature of fusion by collision with the earth.
Another hypothesis of the same character is the existence of a
thin fluid substratum between a solid nucleus and a solid crust.
This idea was originated by Mr. Poulett Scrope, and has been
advocated by Professor Shaler, Professor Le Conte, M. Roche,
and the Rev. O. Fisher. There are no special physical or

80 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS——-SECTION C.

geological reasons for thinking that a ¢/7zx fluid substratum exists,
although, if pressure be a very important agent in solidification,
the earth may have solidified both from the centre and from the
surface. Still, as we have to descend into the earth for nearly
half its radius before we arrive at the density which iron has at
the surface, we can with difficulty believe that the outer half is
solid, unless it be formed of materials less dense than iron, which
is very improbable. The hypothesis was originated to meet the
argument founded on the amount of the precession of the
equinoxes, and, as this objection to a fluid interior has been
withdrawn, the hypothesis of a ¢Azz fluid substratum will probably
be abandoned, for it affords but little help towards explaining the
supposed absence of bodily tides.

CAUSES OF THE OSCILLATIONS.

We are now prepared to examine the principal theories that
have been proposed to explain the movements of the surface. It
would not be necessary, even if it were possible, for me to
discuss them all. So long ago as 1834 Mr. Grenough, in his
presidential address to the Geological Society of London, said,
“the assigned causes of elevation are exceedingly various. One
author raises the bottom of the sea by earthquakes ; another by
subterraneous fire ; another by aqueous vapour; another by the
contact of water with the metallic bases of the earths and alkalis.
Heim ascribes it to gas, Playfair to expansive forces acting
from beneath, Necker de Saussure connects it with magnetism,
Wrede with a slow continuous change in the position of the
earth’s axis. Leslie figured to himself a stratum of concentrated
atmospheric air under the ocean, to be applied, I suppose, to
the same purpose” ; and since then others have been added to
the list, such as extravasation of water-substance and changes
in the velocity of the earth’s rotation.

Contraction Theory.—TVhe theory that has gained the greatest
celebrity is the one which attributes the movements of the
surface to the tangential pressures set up by a cooling and
contracting globe: a theory which, originating with Descartes
and Sir I. Newton, was revived in 1816 and 1827 by Cordier,
followed up by Elie de Beaumont and Constant Prevost in 1829,
and has since been advocated by Sedgwick, De la Beche, and
numerous other distinguished geologists. It supposes that the
earth consists of a shrinking nucleus surrounded by a solid
crust which, no longer contracting, is gradually left unsupported,
and periodically adjusts itself to the shrinking nucleus by folding
along bands which form mountain ranges.

This theory, so simple and so dramatic, was widely adopted
both in Europe and in America, but several objections were
brought forward in 1874 by Captain Dutton in the American

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION C. 81

Journal of Science, and, independently, by myself in the Geological
Magazine. It was pointed out that horizontal thrusts through
more than a hundred miles of rock were impossible ; that the
theory gave no explanation of tension in rocks, everything
being done by compression, while normal faults proved that
rocks nearly everywhere had undergone tension; that long
mountain chains with parallel foldings, such as actually exist,
could not be the result of a collapsing spherical shell, for that
would give rise to a network of small hills. It was also pointed
out that the theory failed altogether to explain continental
elevations, as well as the numerous oscillations in level that had
occurred in many parts of the world ; and, finally, that as the
cooling could not have penetrated more than two or three
hundred miles below the surface, the main body of the earth
was as hot as ever, so that there was no shrinking nucleus for
the crust to adjust itself to. Then, in 1881, the Rev. O. Fisher
calculated that, supposing the earth’s crust to have solidified
at a temperature of 7000° F., the elevations caused by subsequent
contraction would average eight or nine hundred feet; while
if the temperature of solidification was 4000° F., then the average
height of the elevations would be less than two hundred feet.
But the average height of the actual inequalities of the earth is
certainly not less than 9500 feet, so that they cannot be explained
as the result of contraction. Prevost, however, recognised that
the oceanic depressions could not be due to tangential thrust,
although he gave no clear explanation of them. Professor
J. D. Dana, in 1847, first put forward the idea that they were
due to unequal radial contraction during cooling, and in this he
was supported by Archdeacon Pratt and Mr. Robert Mallet.
There are, no doubt, geological reasons for thinking that the land
area has been increasing, and that the ocean bed has been
getting deeper since Paleozoic times; but in 1881 Mr. Fisher
calculated that the mean radial contraction could not have been
more than two miles, so that a differential contraction of three
miles, which is the average depth of the ocean, was not probable.

It was, however, reserved for Mr. Mellard Reade to give the
contraction theory its death blow. In his “ Origin of Mountain
Ranges,’ published in 1886, he pointed out that only a very
small depth of the crust was subject to compression, and that in
this thin layer the compression must be greatest at the surface
and diminish downwards untila level of no strain was reached.
below which the crust must be in a state of tension.

The reason for this is easy to see. If we suppose the earth
to commence cooling by radiation from a melted condition, it is
evident that the cooling will be most rapid at the surface, for
the greatest differences in temperature are there. This will
continue until the surface approaches the temperature due to
the radiation of heat from the sun, when the shell of greatest

F

82 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—-SECTION C.

cooling will sink slowly down below the surface. The shell of
greatest cooling will be the shell of greatest circumferential
contraction, and the amount of circumferential contraction will
diminish inwards and vanish at the level where no cooling is
taking place. The circumferential contraction will also diminish
outwards towards the surface, where also there will be no
circumferential contraction, owing to the mean surface tempera-
ture being kept constant by radiation from the sun. But radial
contraction would also be going on, and this would vary along
any one radius, being nothing at the level of no cooling and
greatest at the surface, where it is the sum of the whole radial
contraction. Now, as the radius is less than the circumference,
the mean rate of radial contraction is less than the mean rate of
circumferential contraction ; consequently, the shell of greatest
cooling, where circumferential contraction is at its maximum,
must be in a state of tension, while the surface, where radial
contraction is at its maximum, must be in a state of compression.
The crust will be formed by an outer shell of compression resting
on an inner shell of tension, the one passing gradually into the
other. The level where the one passes into the other will be
that Jevel where the radial and circumferential contractions are
equal. This is the level of no strain, outside of which the
compression gradually increases until it reaches its maximum at
the surface.

The subject has been taken up by Mr. C. Davison, Professor G.
Darwin, and the Rev. O. Fisher. On the supposition that the
rate of cooling varies as the square root of the time that has
elapsed since the consolidation of the globe, Mr. Davison
calculates that if the crust solidified at a temperature of about
7000° F., about 174,240 millions of years ago, the cooling would
have penetrated 400 miles into the interior, the level of greatest
cooling would be 72 miles, and the level of no strain five miles
below the surface. The supposed data are, however, far too
great, and Professor Darwin, taking the more reasonable assump-
tion that solidification took place 100 millions of years ago,
calculates the level of no strain at two miles deep. He also finds
that, in ten millions of years, 28} miles of rock on a great circle
would be crushed up—that is, rather more than one mile ina
thousand, Also, that 228,000 square miles would be piled up
on the top of the subjacent rocks—that is, a cone with a base
of 228,000 square miles and a height of two or, possibly, three
miles would be crushed. This would make, in ten millions of
years, a mountain chain about a half or a third the size of the
Himalaya, Evidently the results are much too small to account
for mountain building during the Cainozoic era.

Mr. Fisher, on the supposition that the present internal tem-
perature gradient is 1° F. in 51 feet, finds that, if the temperature
of soliditication was 7000° F., the level of no strain would be

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION C. 83

two miles, and the level of greatest cooling 54 miles below the
surface. The radial contraction would have been six miles, and
the mean height of the surface elevations formed by compression
would be 64 feet. But if the temperature of consolidation was
4000° F., the level of no strain would be three-quarters of a mile,
and the level of greatest cooling 31 miles below the surface.
The radial contraction would have been two miles, and the mean
height of the surface elevations only eight inches.

These calculations assume that the surface maintains a con-
stant temperature ; but as this temperature depends upon the
sun, and as astronomers assure us that the sun is cooling, the
surface of the earth must be cooling also; so that the level of no
strain must be less than the calculated distance—that is less
than two miles, probably less than one mile below the surface.

Four other objections can now be brought against the con-
traction theory. (1) It cannot explain the fact that rocks have
been depressed far below the level of no strain, and brought up
again. (2) It cannot explain the contortion of a series of beds far
thicker than the whole shell of compression. (3) The contortions
do not resemble those produced by a lateral thrust, which is
greatest on the surface and diminishes downwards. (4) The granitic
and gneissic cores of mountain ranges could not have been forced
up by so superficial a cause. Professor Claypole notices these
objections, and, curiously enough, supposes that the depth of the
level of no strain has been miscalculated. But this is not
possible. Two distinct lines of reasoning lead to the same result;
and, indeed, the contraction theory had been virtually slain by
Captain Dutton and Mr. Fisher before the existence of the level
of no strain was discovered. Professor Claypole argues that as
the centra of earthquakes are sometimes twelve miles or more
deep, therefore the level of no strain must be more than twelve
miles deep. This would be true, provided these earthquakes were
necessarily due to compression caused by contraction. But
tensile strains, which are relieved suddenly, are much more likely
to produce earthquakes than compressive strains, and consequently
the level of no strain lies probably above the earthquake region.

Mr. Davison has suggested a test by which the contraction
theory may be tried, although it is one difficult to apply. He
says that the depth of the level of no strain varies as the square
root of the time since consolidation, while compression varies
nearly inversely as the square root of the time, so that folding by
compression ought to have been much more rapid during the
early stages of the earth’s history than during the latter, and
the amount of rock folded in any given time ought to decrease
nearly in proportion as the square root of the time increases.
Satisfactory evidence to test this deduction is not, perhaps,
available at present, but the fact that there are extensive regions
of the earth’s surface which have never been folded since the

F2

84 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION C.

commencement of the Paleozoic era seems hardly consistent with
it, and I think that most geologists would allow that since the
close of the Jurassic period rock-folding has been quite as active
as during any former period of equal length. But however this
may be, the contraction theory is evidently inadequate to
explain the formation of geosynclinals and synclinoria, and it
cannot therefore be the true explanation of mountain ranges,
while it has always been thought incapable of explaining con-
tinental elevations. Indeed, its effects must be so insignificant
that they may be dismissed from our consideration ; for, except
in the deep ocean beds, they must be quite obliterated by
denudation and deposition.

Gradation Theory.—Another way in which the equilibrium of
the earth’s crust is disturbed is the removal of rock by wind or
running water, and its deposition in another place. The theory
which finds in this the explanation of surface movements may
be called, if we adopt Mr. W. M‘Gee’s terminology, the Gradation
Theory. The transterence of matter acts in two ways; first, by
altering the load on two portions of the earth’s crust, and
secondly, by changing the positions of the isogeothermal surfaces
in the earth, or, in other words, by altering the temperature of
portions of the interior. Although the Gradation Theory includes
the combined effects of both these reactions, it will be better to con-
sider each separately, and I will take first the alteration in load.

This idea was first broached by Sir J. Herschel in a letter to
Sir C. Lyell, writtenin 1836, but he did not support it by any
geological evidence. He says, supposing the earth’s crust to float
on a sea of lava the effect of transference of pressure brought
about in this way would be an extremely minute flexure of the
strata ; but, supposing the layer next below the crust to be partly
solid and partly fluid, composed of a mixture of solid rock, liquid
lava, and other masses in various degrees of viscidity and
mobility, great inequalities might subsist in the distribution of
pressure, and the consequence might be local disruptions of the
crust where weakest, and escape to the surface of lava. At
a later date, in his Physical Geography (1861), he speaks more
strongly in favour of the theory, and says that any amount of
pressure and relief which the geologist can possibly require to
work out his problems are available. The theory was supported
by Professor James Hall in 1859, and has been widely accepted
in America, as well as by several French geologists. In England
it was advocated by Dr. C. Ricketts in 1871, and lately the Rev.
O. Fisher and several others have written in its favour. In 1845
Sir C. Lyell added the idea that the depression of a convex
surface, like that of the earth, would produce foldings and
crumblings.

The principal evidence in favour of subsidence being caused by
deposition is the fact that, at the mouths of large rivers, the

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION C. 85

fluviatile deposits extend far below the sea level. Undoubtedly,
depression and sedimentation go on together here. The depres-
sion, however, is not always uniform, for, according to Sir C.
Lyell, there are unceasing fluctuations in the levels of those areas
into which running water is transporting sediment. It is also an
undoubted fact that many series of rocks, sometimes 10,000 or
even 26,000 feet thick, are made up entirely of shallow water
deposits ; but here also subsidence has not been continuous.

Captain Dutton says of the Colorado plateau, “the surface of
the plateau during Mesozoic times coincided very nearly with the
sea level, but was constantly oscillating from a little above to a
little below that level, and wice versa. On the whole, the region
appears to have subsided about as fast as the sediment accumu-
lated—thus preserving the surface nearly at a constant level.”
The same writer says that the tertiary fresh-water deposits round
the Uinta Mountains are 10,000 feet thick, and “that these beds
subsided by their gross weight as rapidly as they grew admits of
no shadow of doubt.” It is also very remarkable that depression
often takes place along the base of mountain chains just where
sedimentation has been most rapid.

On the other hand, the common occurrence of what is known
as the normal series of deposits shows that subsidence is often
more rapid than sedimentation, and is not, therefore, caused by
it. Also extensive subsidence has often occurred without any
great sedimentation. The mammalian fauna of Madagascar
proves that that island has been united to Africa since the
Cretaceous period, but the Mozambique Channel is now more
than 6000 feet deep. The isolation of many other continental
islands has, no doubt, been caused by subsidence without sedimen-
tation, and Mr. Mellard Reade points to the Mediterranean and
to the Gulf of Mexico as other examples.

Subsidence and sedimentation, no doubt, often proceed Aarz
passu; but, as subsidence can take place without sedimentation,
it seems probable that in some cases the sinking areas may have
determined the position of sedimentation; and if the rate of
sedimentation exceeded that of subsidence shallow water would
be constantly maintained. Also, depression has not always
followed loading. For example, the 4000 to 5000 feet of lava
in the Deccan did not depress the land below the sea. It may be
said that this outpouring of lava without subsidence was due to
the sinking of some neighbouring area in consequence of a loading
of still greater weight ; but there is no evidence to favour this
idea, and it cannot apply to the Sandwich Islands, which are more
than a thousand miles from any area of sedimentation. Neither
can it explain the rising of the bed of the Arctic Ocean, notwith-
standing the detritus brought into it by the great rivers of Siberia.

In 1865 Mr. T. F. Jamieson proposed to explain the con-
nection between glaciation and subsidence by the weight of the

86 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION €.

ice having caused depression, and its removal the subsequent
elevation of the land, and in this he was followed by Professor
Shaler, in 1874. M. Adhemar and Dr. Croll had previously
supposed that the mass of ice had attracted the water by gravi-
tation, but it has been clearly shown that the phenomena are far
too complicated to be explained by so simple a supposition, and,
indeed, do not accord with it. But neither is Mr. Jamieson’s
explanation in accord with the phenomena, for the subsidence did
not begin until the maximum development of the ice had passed
away, and the subsequent elevation was continued in spite of the
second phase of the glaciation, so that the supposed effect followed
long behind the supposed cause. In 1872 I suggested that these
movements might have been due to the slow sinking and subse-
quent rise of the isogeotherms, caused by the formation and
removal of the ice. Perhaps all three causes may have acted
together, but certainly the weight of the ice was not the sole
cause of submersion.

There is not much evidence in favour of elevation by unloading.
Captain Dutton says that those regions which have suffered the
greatest amount of denudation have been elevated most ; but this
might equally well be put the opposite way, viz. that those
regions which have been elevated the most have suffered the
greatest amount of denudation. Certainly, we cannot suppose
that mountains ever attained the height which they would now
have if the denuded portions were restored, so that no doubt
elevation has gone on with denudation; but the elevation must
have been more rapid than the denudation, or else there would be
no mountains at all; and elevation must have commenced before
any denudation took place; consequently, denudation cannot be
the only cause of elevation. The best case yet made out for
elevation by unloading is Mr. Gilbert’s account of Lake Bonne-
ville. This old Pleistocene lake was 200 by 150 miles in extent,
but has since dried up to the comparatively small dimensions of
the Salt Lake of Utah. The old lake margins are not Jevel now,
but arch up over the middle of the old lake, the crown of the
dome being some 200 feet higher than the base. Mr. Gilbert
says that the uprising of the old lake bottom was probably caused by
the drying up of the lake, and the unloading of a thousand feet of
water. If this is not the cause, the dome must be part of other
undulations which have not yet been noticed, although looked for.

On the other hand, elevation without unloading has taken
place during the Cainozoic era in many parts of the Atlantic
and Pacific Oceans, as well as along the northern coast of Siberia.
Indeed, if elevation was caused only by unloading no land would
be elevated more than a few feet above the sea—probably there
would never have been land at all. Depression also often
accompanies denudation. If it were not so, no land could sink
under the sea, and yet, undoubtedly, this has occurred many times.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION C. 87

If depression by loading be true, it is evident that the crust
must rest on a fluid which moves laterally, so that depression in
one place is compensated by elevation in another; and this was
clearly recognised by Sir J. Herschel, the originator of the
theory. That areas of elevation and of depression lie alongside
of each other was the opinion of C. Darwin, although he did not
suppose that the depression was caused by loading. Messrs.
Medlicott and Blandford have also pointed out that the great
plain or depression of the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra
is probably contemporaneous with the elevation of the sub-
Himalaya, but they also state that it is not nearly sufficient to
cause that elevation.

If the crust of the earth be floating in hydrostatic equilibrium
on a fluid interior, as seems probable, “then alterations in vertical
pressure, if sufficient, must produce movements ; and we should
remember that as these alterations act continuously in one
direction for long periods of time, on plastic materials, smaller
changes than we imagine may possibly bring about movements.
At the same time, it is certain that there are other and more
powerful hypogene agents at work causing oscillations of the
surface, and perhaps the formation of geosynclinals is the only
important movement that can be attributed to denudation and
deposition.

.We have next to consider the effect produced by changes in
temperature. Mr. Poulett Scrope has claimed to be the first to
originate, in 1825, the idea that sedimentation would give rise to
local increase in temperature ; but a perusal of his book, called
“Considerations on Volcanoes,” shows this to be a mistake. He
says that, as sedimentary rocks are worse conductors than crystal-
line rocks, the heat of the interior would accumulate in “a
subterranean mass of lava more rapidly than it can pass off to the
outside of the globe through the solid crust of over-lying rocks, in
consequence of their inferior density and conducting powers. It
is obvious,” he says, “that the caloric will be concentrated in the
lava and continually augment its temperature, particularly that
of the lower strata, which are the nearest to the source of
caloric.” He further thought that this increase of heat might
melt a portion of the crust, and in the later editions of his work
he says that the expansion of the surrounding unmelted rocks
would force up an axial wedge of molten granite, which, in its
turn, would give rise to horizontal compression and crushing.
But his concentration of caloric is by no means obvious, and he
does not make it clear how rocks, which are strongly compressed,
can add to their own compression by pushing up matter from
below. Indeed, the whole hypothesis appears to be impossible.

The second part of Mr. Babbage’s often-quoted letter to Dr.
Fitton, in 1834, explains his views on the elevation of continents
and mountain ranges by the expansion of rocks when heated.

88 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION C.

He says, “surfaces of equal temperature within the crust must
be continually changing their form and exposing thick beds near
the exterior to alternations of temperature. The expansion and
contraction of these strata will probably form rents, raise moun-
tain chains, and elevate even continents.” The letter is very
vague, but he evidently saw the impossibility of land being
elevated above the sea by this cause, unless the rise of the
isogeotherms was less rapid than sedimentation ; for he says,
“The whole expansion, however, may not take place until ong
after the filling up of the sea,” but he gives no reasons for this
opinion.

Sir J. Herschel, who thought of this theory independently of
Babbage, and enunciated it at the same time as his theory of
alteration in pressure, applies it to the elevation of continents
and to the formation of volcanoes, but says nothing about moun-
tain ranges. However, he states the theory very clearly. He
says: ‘ With equilibrium of temperature and pressure within the
earth, the interior isothermal strata will be spherical, but as they
approach the surface they will conform themselves to the configu-
ration of the solid portion. But when the concave bottom of
an ocean is filled by deposition it may become horizontal, or even
convex, and the isotherms will rise upwards. But if the deeper
strata be already at the melting point, its level will be raised,
and the new strata, water included, will be melted.” Lyell misin-
terpreted Babbage’s meaning, which is not very clear, and took
the expansion to be upwards only, in which case it appears to be
miserably inadequate to perform the work assigned to it ; but in
the anniversary address to the Geological Society of London, in
1859, Professor Phillips, speaking about the theory, said: “ If
we suppose a change of temperature of 100° F. to cause expansion
in a solid mass 500 miles across, this would occasion a change of
linear dimensions of above a quarter of a mile in limestone and
sandstone. If the pressure occasioned by this were relieved by
one vertical fault it must be 16 miles in height, if by one general
curve upwards it would have an elevation in the middle of about
8 miles. Though, in fact, neither of these assumptions as to the
form of the surface of relief can be adopted, they show how great
is the Jower of changing form and relative height generated by
changing temperature in rock masses.” In the same year
Professor James Hall pointed out that, as a matter of fact,
mountains had been formed only in areas of great sedimentation,
but although this evidence added immensely to the probability
of the theory, it nearly died out, until it was independently
supported in 1886 by M. Faye and Mr. Mellard Reade.

T will ask you to allow me to explain a little more precisely
what is supposed to take place in these thick sediments. If we
suppose the bottom of the sea to be at a temperature of zero, and
to be gradually covered up by deposits which attain a thickness

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION C. 89

of 50,000 feet, then the base of the new deposits will be gradually
warmed, by conduction of heat from below, to about 1000° F.
The temperature of the deposits would gradually diminish
upwards until it was zero at the new surface. Below the new
deposits the increase of temperature of the old surface would also
be 1000° F., and the increase for each layer downwards would
gradually diminish to nothing. Consequently, the level of fusion
would rise in the old crust nearly 50,000 feet, and the solid crust
would maintain, approximately, its old thickness. The expansion
caused by the heat, and, consequently, the internal stresses, would
be greatest in the old crust, while in the new deposits it would
diminish upwards to nothing. It is usually supposed that the heat
would expand all rocks except clay, which at first contracts as part
of the water is driven off; but it does not seem certain that such
would actually be the case with deeply buried rocks. It seems
quite possible that the expansion, which is not much more than
one inch in two and a half chains for every 100° F., may be well
within the limits of elasticity of the rocks, in which case
extension need not necessarily oceur. If, however, the heat be
sufficiently great to produce crystallisation, then the previously
non-crystalline rocks would probably become denser and contract,
and thus cause the surface to sink. This is the opinion of Dr.
Sterry Hunt, Professor Le Conte, Professor Lloyd Morgan, and
others ; consequently, it is far from certain that the rise of the
isogeotherms would produce elevation at all. Professor Le Conte
has suggested that the increasing heat in the newly laid down
rocks may give rise to chemical action, which would still more
increase the temperature ; but Dr. Sterry Hunt thinks that any
chemical processes which might be set up in the buried sediments
would absorb rather than generate heat.

Mr. Mellard Reade, who is the ablest exponent of this
theory, claims that an expansion would certainly take place quite
sufficient to account for mountain ranges. In his “Origin of
Mountain Ranges,” 1886, he says that if an area of 500 miles
long by 500 broad has its temperature raised by a mean of 1000°
F., the result would be an expansion of 52,135 cubic miles.
Now, this heating implies the deposition of more than 50,000
feet of sediment over the whole area, and does not take into
consideration any thinning out of the deposits towards the margin.
Either we must double the area of deposition or halve the effects
of expansion. Taking the latter as the more probable, we find
that the expansion would be sufficient to form a mountain range
500 miles long, 15,000 feet high, and about 28 miles broad at the
base, which is not a high nor a broad range for such exceptionally
heavy sedimentation ; and even this allows nothing for condensa-
tion produced by a temperature certainly sufficient to induce
crystallisation, nor for condensation produced by pressure, nor
for denudation during elevation, which would reduce the height

90 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION C.

by a third at least. Evidently expansion, in the form supposed
by Mr. Reade, is not capable of producing a large mountain
range. Indeed it is only by supposing the beds to arch up in a
dome, as suggested by Professor Phillips, and independently by
myself in 1872, that sufficient elevation can be attained. But this
implies that mountain ranges are the remnants of plateaux, which
I thought to be correct in 1872, but which has been amply disproved.

There are also many other phenomena connected with the
formation of mountain ranges which this theory fails to explain.
In the first place, we have seen that no folding took place in the
Alps and in the Himalaya, until the final upheaval began, which
shows, either that the heat does not expand the rocks in the way
supposed, or that the temperature does not rise until just before
the final uplift takes place. To me the former seems to be by
far the more probable, but Mr. Mellard Reade takes the latter
view. He says: ‘It is extremely probable that while the area
is subsiding, the isogeotherms are sinking also, and that the after
raising of temperature, or rising of the isogeotherms is an
extremely slow process.” In a later paper, “On Slickensides and
Normal Faults,” published in the Pro. Liverpool Geol. Soc.,
1888-9, which he kindly sent to me, Mr. Reade says: ‘So slowly
does internal heat escape by conduction through the present crust
of the globe, that the blanketing of sediments, such as we assume,
will not affect the temperature of the lower layers of the under
crust till long after the compression induced by expansion in the
upper layers of rock and in the sediments themselves, has com-
menced the work of mountain upheaval.” I must confess that I
do not understand either of these remarks, and both seem to me
to be opposed to the laws of thermotics. Certainly they demand
an explanation before they can be received as probable ; for, as
we now know, geosynclinals take two or more geological periods
to form, and it seems certain that the isogeotherms would rise
nearly as rapidly as the sediments.

The objection here noticed was urged by Mr. Hopkins in a
Report to the British Association in 1847, and, in my opinion, it
has never been fully met. He there says that Babbage’s theory
is inadmissible, because, if it were correct, elevation and not
depression ought to go with sedimentation ; and that deposition
is so slow that whenever it ceases, the isogeotherms would very
nearly have their proper position, so that expansion and deposi-
tion would cease together. In 1873, I attempted to show that.
sedimentation was, on the average, three times as rapid as the
rise of the isogeotherms ; but, although this might occasionally
be the case, I now think that it has been very unusual, and
cannot have occurred in large geosynclinals, especially during the
earlier geological periods.

Another difficulty is, that gentle oscillations, without folding,
have sometimes preceded the final uplift. If these elevations are

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS— SECTION C. oF

due to the expansion of heated rock, it is difficult to see how, by
the theory, they could have subsided again, for this subsidence
could only take place by a retreat of the isogeotherms, for which
no cause is assigned.

Another and last objection is that the existence in the Sat-
pura Basin in India, of sediments 22,500 feet thick, which have
never been plicated, proves that a rise in the isogeotherms is not
the direct cause of contortion, for if it were so, there would be
some proportion between thickness and amount of contortion.
This objection is, I think, fatal to the theory.

Eighteen years ago, having convinced myself that the con-
traction theory was quite incapable of performing the duties
ascribed to it, I advocated the gradation (or as I named it, the
Herschel-Babbage) theory, which I thought would afford a com-
plete explanation of the phenomena. But since then the survey
of North America has opened out to us a new geology quite
unlike that of Europe, and the surveys of Australasia and India
have supplied us with many important facts. Moreover, during
the last fifteen years the various theories have been discussed in
all their bearings by many able geologists, and I now see that
I was wrong in thinking that the gradation theory offered a
sufficient explanation. It is evident to me now that this theory,
although containing some truth, explains minor details only, and
does not touch the fundamental causes. As has been so well
stated by Mr. W. J. McGee, in the Geological Magazine for
November, 1888, it accounts for many of the consequent pro-
cesses, but not for any of the antecedent processes. It accounts
neither for regional elevation nor for subsidence; it gives no
sutiicient explanation of contortions, over-thrusts, and granitic
cores ; and it supplies no adequate machinery for causing alter-
nating oscillations of the surface.

Internal Changes in Temperature.—The contraction and grada-
tion theories, either separately or together, are evidently incapable
of explaining the facts. As Professor J. D. Dana has lately
shown, the deep sea troughs are not the result of superficial
causes, but of work going on in the interior of the globe, and
we are driven to look to changes in volume in masses of the
earth’s interior to explain the movements of the surface. Now,
changes in volume must be due either to changes in density
caused by changes in temperature, or to changes in the quantity
of matter at any particular place, caused by internal movements,
or, possibly, to a combination of both.

Hydrothermal metamorphism is sometimes cited as a cause
of increase of volume as well as of decrease of density in rocks ;
but there seems to be a fallacy here. A combination of water
with the minerals forming a rock will no doubt decrease the
density of that rock, but there will be no great increase of
volume. The metamorphosed rock will not occupy more space

‘99 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION C.

than the unmetamorphosed rock and the water did before. If
the water can penetrate to the minerals there is room for the
minerals to expand, and there will be no important increase
in bulk of the rock. Hydrothermal metamorphism has often
occurred in large masses of rock which show no signs of having
been under great stress, and, consequently, could not have exerted
great pressure on the surrounding rocks during the process.
Changes in density giving rise to changes in total bulk must be
due to changes in temperature, which may be brought about
either by mechanical or by chemical means.

The hypothesis of the mechanical origin of the heat has been
advocated by G. L. Vose, Professor Wurtz, and R. Mallet. The
idea is founded on the supposition that the contraction of the
earth by radiation furnishes the necessary energy, and it falls
with the contraction theory. No other mechanical theory
attempts to explain the origin of the movements, and there is
only one chemical theory, viz., the oxidation of a metallic nucleus
by the infiltration downwards of surface water.

This theory was originated by Sir Humphrey Davy in 1808, to
account for volcanoes, and, although he abandoned it in 1828, it
was ably supported by Dr. C. Daubeny. Sir H. De la Beche, in
1834, was also inclined to think that it might account for
oscillations of the surface, the subsequent radiation of the heat
causing depression. ‘For while,” he says, “intense heat was
developed by the combination of the oxygen of one charge of
water with the metallic base, no more water could approach the
lower body from above until the heat was sufficiently radiated
or conducted away, and therefore there would be no gradual and
continued expansion unchecked by contraction.” At the present
day this theory is almost universally abandoned, although it still
seems to be looked upon with a favourable eye by Professor
Judd. But we have no reason to suppose that unoxidised sodium
or potassium ever formed a portion of the earth since it had a
solid crust, and iron, which probably exists in the interior, would
not furnish the necessary heat by the decomposition of water.
Also, the whole of the present ocean would not oxidise a layer
more than two miles deep ; so that if oxidation has been the cause
of the movements, an enormous amount of water must have been
decomposed. But, as dry land was probably in existence in the
Archean era, and has certainly existed continuously since the
Silurian period, we cannot admit the disappearance of such a large
body of water.

Mr. Mellard Reade says: “It is not improbable that large
masses of the heated globe, far below our thirty-mile zone,
undergo slow changes which produce fluctuations of temperature
even in this super-heated zone.” Also, that ‘“‘ Chemical re-action
can hardly yet have ceased, considering the multifarious materials
of which the globe is composed, and chemical reaction may mean

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—-SECTION C. 93:

increase or diminution of bulk.” But, if these things are
probable, it must be possible to frame a hypothesis explaining
what the changes are and how they are brought about, which is
not done.

When we remember that as the earth cooled slowly from a
gaseous state, the materials composing it must have arranged
themselves according to their density, it would seem that, after
a liquid condition had been attained, convection .currents would
not be possible except on the surface from the poles to the
equator, and even these would cease as soon as a solid crust was
formed. Under these circumstances, the deeper parts of the
earth must be in a state of profound repose with all chemical
affinities, satisfied for the temperature and pressure, and disturbed
only by the attraction of the other heavenly bodies. It is then.
difficult to believe that any chemical reactions on a large scale are
taking place in the interior masses of the earth, and much more
difficult is it to suppose that such changes are alternating so as
sometimes to raise, sometimes to lower, the temperature in the
same place. At any rate, no one as yet has suggested any
reasonable explanation of such re-actions, and Dr. Sterry Hunt,
perhaps our highest authority on this point, says: “ The notion
of a subterranean combustion or fermentation as a source of heat
is to be rejected as irrational.”

Internal Movements.—We have still to consider the hypothesis
that oscillations of the surface are due to changes in the quantity
of matter at any particular place brought about by movements of
a fluid interior. Mr. C. Darwin, in 1838, said that the irruption
of melted rock into the mountains, which he thought to be a part
of continental elevation, was caused by some slow but great
change in the interior of the earth, which, however, he made no
attempt to explain. Humboldt thought that alterations in the
molten interior might cause displacements of mass which would
modify the shape of the earth. Professor J. Phillips, in 1855, also
thought that the interior of the earth was arranged in con-
centric layers of different densities, and that intestine movements
might cause displacements, the less dense portions accumulating
on some radii, the more dense on others. Those radii with a
surplus of less dense material would elongate, while those with
a surplus of more dense would shrink. Very small internal
changes, he remarks, would alter the length of a terrestrial radius
by 2000 or 3000 feet. In this way he explained the formation
of continental and oceanic areas. He thought that an acidic
magma, being the first to solidify, would segregate under what
are the continental areas, leaving the more basic lava in still
liquid lakes, the solid parts having a tendency to rise, the liquid
tosink. Professor Prestwich said, in 1888, that great continental
elevations and depressions are ‘due, possibly, to the slow trans-
ference from one area to another of a partially resisting plastic

94 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION C.

medium within confined limits.” And Mr. Fisher, who has quite
lately supported this theory, thinks that a thin liquid substratum
exists, which is hotter and therefore less dense under the oceanic
areas than under the continents, and as the substratum cannot
be in equilibrium when it is not of equal density at equal depths,
convection currents take place, the more heated material under
the oceans flowing towards the continental areas and descending
there, while new upward currents are started under the oceans.
The surface currents, he also thinks, tend to carry the crust
with them and thus compress it. The immediate cause of these
movements, he says, is the heat of the interior, but he makes no
attempt to explain why the liquid substratum under the oceans
should be constantly more highly heated than that under the
continents, and the hypothesis requires an unequal distribution
of temperature in the interior which does not appear to be
possible.

There is some independent evidence, although it is slight, to
show that internal movements do actually take place in the earth.
Professor Newcomb, from some observed irregularities in the
moon’s motion, infers that the rotational velocity of the earth
is not constant, but irregular, and he suggests as an explanation
the flow of a large mass of internal fluid from equatorial to polar
regions, and wice versa. Also, Captain F. G. Evans, in 1878,
stated his opinion that certain changes known to have taken
place in terrestrial magnetism are caused, not by any external
-agency, but by movements going on in the interior. Mr. Fisher
finds another reason in the thinness of the earth’s crust, which,
he says, probably does not much exceed 25 miles. He calculates
that if the fluid interior was quiescent the crust would have
attained a thickness of 25 miles in eleven millions of years, and
as a much longer time than that, he thinks, has elapsed since
solidification of the exterior took place, there must be some agent
at work preventing the crust from thickening. This agent he
holds to be convection currents, which, coming up from below,
‘melt off the inner layers.

But assuming that internal currents take place, we have at
present no adequate explanation of the cause. Professor Phillips’
-hypothesis gives no explanation of alternating movements, and
therefore does not recommend itself as a sufficient cause of oscil-
lations. The only possible efficient motor seems to me to be
bodily tides. Humboldt, in his ‘“ Cosmos,” quotes Ampere as
being of opinion that bodily tides must exercise considerable
force, and that it was difficult to conceive how the crust resisted
them. He also says that Poisson allowed the existence of bodily
tides, but regarded them as inconsiderable, “ as in the open sea
the effect hardly amounts to fifteen inches.” That some tidal
deformation must exist is also allowed by Professor Darwin, and
this tidal deformation will be greatest in the outer layers and

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION C. 95

diminish towards the centre, where it will vanish. It is hardly
possible that the crust is sufficiently strong or sufliciently elastic
to resist all outward movement ; far more likely it yields to the
pressure, and in that case it seems probable that, owing to
unequal yielding of the crust, slow currents might be set up in
the fluid layers immediately underlying it. The daily oscillations
of the pendulum observed by Professor Milne in Japan, and by
M. Plantamour on Lake Geneva, may, in fact, be due to tidal
pulsations.*

The short period semi-diurnal tides must cause confused
movements, if any, but the longer period lunar fortnightly and
19-yearly tides, as well as the solar semi-annual and annual
tides, would tend to produce steadier currents. However, the
effects of these bodily tides must be very small.

If internal currents really exist it seems probable that eleva-
tion and subsidence of the surface would follow on the principle
stated by Professor Phillips. If movements take place in an
internal fluid which increases in density downwards, the mean
density along any one radius would be variable, and, as the mass
along each radius would remain nearly constant, the length of
the radii would vary or would try to vary. Now, as the tempe-
rature of fusion, as well as the conductivity, is different in
different rocks the solid crust cannot have a uniform thickness ;
and as the strength or coherence of a rock is independent of both
those properties, the surface of the fluid interior must be opposed
by unequal resistances. This being so, suppose a slow current of
less dense and more superficial material to set from A to B, and
a deeper return current of denser matter, but of smaller volume,
to set from B to A, then there will be a tendency to elevate the
crust in the neighbourhood of B and to depress it in the neigh-
bourhood of A. If we further suppose that at some place in the
neighbourhood of B the crust was weaker than elsewhere, then
that part would be more elevated, and the current of superficial
molten matter would set to it. The position of this weak place
might have been determined by previous sedimentation having
raised the melting point in the old crust, while the newer
sediments were not so consolidated as the old ones, as suggested
by Dr. Sterry Hunt and Professor Dana. Or, as suggested by
Mr. Fisher, contraction of the lower sedimentary rocks by
metamorphism might have formed fissures into which the sub-
jacent molten rock could force its way. If the crust was
sufficiently strong to bear the strain, regional elevation would
take place, or a mountain range of the Uinta type might be
formed. But if the crust gave way the molten matter would be
forced into the fracture, would crush and contort the rocks on
each side, and a mountain range on the alpine type would be

* Since this address was delivered I have learnt that Mr. H. C. Russell has observed earth
pulsations in Sydney. (Vide Roy. Soc. N.S.W., vol. XIX., 1885, p. 51).

96 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—-SECTION C.

formed. Or, if the flow of material still continued towards the
same place, a mountain range on the Andean type would be the
result. It is possible that with an elastico-viscous crust capable
of taking a permanent set and a viscid interior, bodily tides
might produce forced oscillations of the surface very different in
character to the tides of a fluid body, and that slow movements
might continue long after the exciting cause had ceased. In
this way the irregularities in earth pulsations may possibly be
accounted for.

This is to some extent a return to the views of Dr. James
Hutton, but he and his followers conceived the breaking of the
crust to be followed by an impetuous rush of molten granite,
carrying everything before it, and forming a mountain chain at a
single stroke. But, in 1838, C. Darwin taught that mountain
chains were formed, not by one enormous overflow, but by a long
succession of small movements, each being due to the injection of
molten rock, which became solid during the intervals; and
this view of the injection of granite harmonises well with the
hypothesis that the injection is due, indirectly perhaps, to bodily
tides a few inches in height.

Mountain ranges are said to be of all ages, and this is true in a
sense, but not in the same sense that sediments are said to be of
all ages. Sedimentation is always going on in some part of the
globe : it is a continuous phenomenon, as also is oscillation of the
surface. But mountain building shows a kind of periodicity.
Mountains are produced at certain periods which alternate with
longer intervals of comparative repose, these intervals being of
unequal length. This has always been recognised by geologists,
and in the early days gave rise to the hypothesis of catastrophes.
When advancing knowledge showed the incorrectness of general
catastrophes, the uniformitarian doctrine came to be believed,
and the periodic movements of the crust were put down to the
shrinking of a cooling nucleus ; they were no longer catastrophes,
but paroxysms. This explanation disappears with the contraction
theory, but the fact of periodicity in certain earth movements
still remains, although the paroxysms are now regarded as relative
and not absolute or sudden. These periods of relative paroxysmic
movement by the theory now under discussion are due chiefly to
periodic weakenings of the crust in different places caused by the
accumulation of sediments, which thus allow the outflow of
currents of a fluid interior.

Sir H. De la Beche, in 1834, pointed out how the association
of granite with contorted rocks is so common that there must be
something connected with the former which has had an influence
on the latter. The injection of a large mass of molten matter
would, he said, produce a state of things favourable to contortion,
but if the intruding mass was more solid the conditions would be
still more favourable, and, he continued, we can readily conceive

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—-SECTION C. 97

that the sedimentary rocks of the Alps have been squeezed
laterally by the pressure on them of the gneiss and other rocks of
the central chain. The addition of C. Darwin’s hypothesis of a
series of small injections each, as a rule, hardening before the
next took place, makes this explanation still more probable, and
it also agrees with the fact that the thrust has always come from
the central and most disturbed districts, and not from the flanks.
Also, as we now know that granite is transformed into gneiss by
pressure, the occurrence of a gneissic zone surrounding the
granite and unconformable to the overlying sedimentary rocks is
accounted for without supposing the presence of Archzan rocks
wherever mountain uplifts have taken place.

Again, the common occurrence of granite in the central axis of
a mountain chain, and of basic volcanic rocks on one or both
flanks, cannot be accidental, and is partly explained by this
hypothesis, which supposes the withdrawal of the upper acidic
magma to the axis of the mountains, leaving the crust on the
flanks to rest upon more basic material. In the same way it
explains why the rocks brought up by oceanic volcanoes are
almost exclusively basic.

If the hypothesis be correct, it would follow that mountain
ranges need not have solid roots to support them, as supposed by
Sir G. Airy and Mr. Fisher. These roots may be liquid, and
held in their position by the curvature of the crust, although
constantly changing a little in volume and producing oscillations
of the surface. Fluid roots would account for all the phenomena
of the plumb-line and of the pendulum equally as well as solid
roots, but Mr. Fisher objects that if the molten magma rose up
into the base of the range the increase of underground tempera-
ture would be greater in mountainous regions instead of being,
as it is, less. But the form and position of the isogeotherms near
the surface is a very complicated matter, and certainly does not
rest upon this one point alone. Probably the less rapid increase
of underground temperature in mountains than in plains is due
to the far greater facilities for the downward percolation of
surface water in the former than in the latter regions; and this
seems to accord better with the fact that hot springs are com-
monly found in mountains.

Conclusion.—Professor J. D. Dana has lately shown that there
is a system in the feature-lines of the earth’s surface which is
world-wide in its scope ; and, since these feature-lines have been
developed with the progress of geological history, the system
must have had its foundation at the earth’s genesis, and has been
developed to full completion with its growth. Consequently, this
system cannot be due to superficial causes, but must come
primarily from systematic work within. Professor-G. H. Darwin
has attributed this systematic work to the moon, which, as the
crust of the earth solidified, raised wrinkles on its surface; and it

G

98 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—-SECTION C.

seems almost certain that it must In some way be due to the
attractions of the sun and moon, for no other reasonable hypo-
thesis can be suggested. No doubt the theory that oscillations of
the surface are due to internal movements set up by bodily tides
rests at present on no observational basis. But there are reasons
for thinking that such internal movements are possible, or even
probable ; and, if such movements do actually take place, the
theory gives a simple and fairly complete explanation of the
surface movements.

In both regional and mountain upheaval we find a very slow
subsidence followed by a comparatively rapid elevation, the
principal difference between them being that in a mountain
range granite has broken through the crust and the sedimentary
rocks have been metamorphosed and plicated, while in regional
upheaval there is no visible granite and the sedimentary rocks
have been stretched. These two types, it must be remembered,
are not isolated but connected by others, which thus afford
additional evidence of the unity of the elevatory force. If the
lateral pressure, the effects of which are plainly visible in
mountain ranges, is caused by expansion of the sedimentary
rocks, as the gradation theory supposes, then it must be quite
a different thing from the vertical pressure which causes regional
uplifts, and there is no reason why the two should so often
occur together. But if the lateral pressure be due to the irrup-
tion of granite, then the force which causes uplifts causes lateral
pressure as well. In other words, the only difference between
the two kinds of uplift is that in one the molten interior has
broken through the crust and contorted it, while in the other
case it has not done so.

The cause of the difference between the two kinds of uplift
seems to be the amount of previous sedimentation on the area.
If sedimentation has been very heavy the crust is, m some way,
so weakened that the granite breaks through. But if previous
sedimentation is not heavy the crust remains sufliciently strong
to resist breakage, and a series of oscillations may follow, until
at last the sediments attain the necessary thickness, the crust
is broken through and permanent elevation takes place. This
explains why regionai uplifts followed by subsidence have often
preceded the mountain uplift which terminates for a time the
series of oscillations. If it should be proved that areas of
elevation and depression always lie alongside one another, and if
this holds for ocean beds as well as for continents, it will go far
to prove the theory, for there is no other explanation but that
of internal movement.

I have thus tried to give you as complete an account as I can
of the present position of theory on this fundamental problem of
dynamical geology. You will notice that during the last fifty
years investigation has been more destructive than constructive,

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION C. 99

but progress has been made. Formidable obstacles have been
removed, and much new information has been gained. No doubt
the outlook is still foggy, but the horizon is clearing, and we may
hope that when we have fuller knowledge of the movements of
the crust we shall find a clear explanation of their cause. And
now, as I bring my address to a close, the thought will come that
you may say all this is mere speculation which can never be
verified, and not true science. I readily acknowledge the truth
of the criticism, but in my defence I will quote a passage from
Dr. Whewell’s ‘‘ Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences.” He says,
“Who can attend to the appearances which come under the
notice of the geologist,—strata regularly bedded, full of the
remains of animals such as now live in the depth of the ocean,
raised to the tops of mountains, broken, contorted, mixed with
rocks such as now flow from the mouths of volcanos,—who can
see phenomena like these and imagine that he best promotes the
progress of our knowledge of our earth’s history by noting down
the facts and abstaining from all inquiry whether these are really
proofs of past states of the earth and of subterraneous forces, or
merely an accidental imitation of the effects of such causes? In
this and similar cases, to proscribe the inquiry into causes would
be to annihilate the science.”

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS IN SECTION PD.

BIOLOGY.

By PROFESSOR A. P. W. THOMAS, M.A., F.L.8., F.G.S.

In the choice of the subject for a presidential address, much
latitude is allowed by precedent, and the arrangement is, no
doubt, an advantageous one from the point of view of the person
called upon to occupy a position which has its responsibilities as
well as its honours. An address from the president of one of our
sections may, it appears to me, take one of three directions: it
may deal with general topics, or review recent advances in that
science to which the section is devoted, or it may give a general
account of work to which the speaker has given special attention.

The growth of the biological sciences has been so great that.
even the barest review is impracticable in the compass of an
hour’s address, whilst the increase of specialisation is so great
that it can seldom happen that a worker’s own particular line of
study can be of much interest to all his hearers, whose labours
probably lie in very different directions. I have refrained, there-
fore, from choosing a subject suggested by my own research and
propose to speak to you on more general topics, and more particu-
larly on that part of the work of this Association which falls to
the share of those who attend in the section of Biology.

In the main object of the Association—the advancement of
science—all sections are interested alike, and in one of the chief
advantages of our meeting all share alike. Every scientific
worker needs to meet his fellows ; he is strengthened and stimu-
lated by talking to sympathetic minds on those subjects which
engross so large a portion of his intellectual life. If this need is
felt in England, how much more must it be felt in this new
Southern world, where the population is scattered, and where a
man may find himself many days’ travel from the possibility of
intercourse with those who follow the same branch of study. I
need not insist on this, for who has not felt the mental stimulus
of conversation, and been surprised at times with the clearness
and vigour with which ideas present themselves to the mind
whilst speaking to one who can give both sympathy and just
criticism ?

Further, there is presented in the meetings of this Association
an opportunity for workers in every department of knowledge to
discuss and arrive at conclusions on the important topics of the

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—-SECTION D. 101

day—conclusions which, as the united opinion of the Association,
may have their full weight in questions of public moment. As
Emerson has well said, it is agreed that in the sections of the
British Association more information is mutually and effectually
communicated in a few hours than in many months of ordinary
correspondence and the printing and transmission of ponderous
reports.

The general aim of: our Association is declared to be the
advancement of science. For this advancement many workers
are needed, and for this, as well as for other reasons, it will be
the duty of the Association to consider the place taken by science
in colonial education. Royal Commissions and leading men in
every department of human thought have recognised the necessity
of the introduction of a liberal measure of scientific knowledge
and training into our systems of education. Nevertheless, the
day when science will take its proper position as a means of
education appears to be far off. It is still a common thing for a
boy or girl to pass through their schooldays without any scientific
training ; it is still the usual thing for university degrees to be
granted to students who have no knowledge of the scientific
methods which have revolutionised modern thought and action.

Many causes combine to produce this state of matters—not only
vested interests and stubborn traditions, but also a lack of
teachers competent to give instruction in science, and some
uncertainty as to what subjects are to be taught, and how they
are to be taught.

It is alleged, further, that no time can be found in the school
curriculum for science. I remember only too well that in my
schooldays I spent some six months in tinkering at Latin verses
a cruel and barbarous waste of time. Fortunately, in many
schools this particular abuse has been removed, but subjects are
still retained whose only claims to their prominence are those of
fashion and tradition.

It is not my intention to enter into the question of the relative
merits of different branches of study, and still less to depreciate
the value of any subject in particular, but it is necessary to point
out constantly that in matters of education the choice must be
given to that which is most valuable : hence prominence must be
given to those studies which teach us how to conform our actions
to the laws of the world of nature in which we are placed. The
study of natural law is science, and it appears a remarkable
circumstance that the learning of these laws should occupy
so insignificant a portion of education.

It is clear that, if science-teaching is to be extended, the study
of science must form an integral part of the training of the
teacher. Let me give you an instance of. this, which has come
under my own observation. The mainstay of New Zealand, as
well as of the other Australian colonies, is unquestionably agri-

102 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION D.

culture. Being desirous of helping in the introduction of more
scientitic and, therefore, of truer and more economical methods of
cultivation than the primitive ones still so largely employed in
the colonies, it appeared to me that one measure which would
harmonise with the local conditions would be to offer prizes for
agricultural science, to be competed for in the public schools. I
found, however, that such a course would be useless. It was true
that teachers were allowed to take the subject as one of the class
subjects for the standard examinations, but the regulation was a
dead letter. I was informed that the subject could not possibly
be taught, because teachers could not be found who had any
acquaintance with it. The cause of this neglect of so important
a subject—one, too, which the Education Department had some
desire to encourage—was easily discovered. The regulation for
teacher’s certificates in New Zealand recognised a great,variety of
subjects, many of them of a highly ornamental character, including
Greek and Italian, but nowhere was the subject of agriculture, or
science applied to agriculture, recognised. And yet the subject
is one of fundamental importance, for a larger proportion of the
population has need of a knowledge of the principles of agricul-
tural science than of any other subject bearing upon human
industries.

So long as science is practically excluded from the examinations
for teachers’ certificates and degrees, so long will it be impossible
to introduce any real teaching of science into the schools. And
T would remark here that it is necessary that the habits of obser-
vation and inference from observation should be acquired whilst
the mind is young and still in a plastic condition. It is said that
one who desires to attain a complete mastery of the violin must
begin to practise whilst still little more than an infant, or other-
wise the joints and tendons of the hand stiffen so as to impede
the necessary freedom of action. So it is with the sciences which
deal with the observation of natural objects: the cultivation of the
power of observation must commence before the mind stiffens into
indifference from lack of use. The training of the future workers
of this Association should then begin whilst they are at school.

But the question is very far from being merely that of the
acquisition of workers by this Association, The advancement of
science is synonymous with human progress, and if the develop-
ment of scientific training will add afew recruits to those who
endeavour, by patient and laborious research, to penetrate further
into the secrets of nature, it will add far more to the army of
industrial workers who apply the knowledge already gained by
scientific workers to the advancement of the social and material
welfare of man.

There is one impediment to the progress of scientific education
in its early stages which this Association may do something to
overcome. If any time is given to science in schools, the subject

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION D. 103

chosen is usually chemistry, and it is taught as if each boy were
to be trained as an analytical chemist, whilst little attempt is
made to render the subject a real instrument of mental training.
Tt has always appeared to me that the science-teaching in schools
should be far less specialised, that it should cover a much wider
field, that it should, for instance, invariably include some know-
ledge of the physical properties of matter, and both of plant-life
and animal life. But I attach far more importance to the train-
ing to be derived from these subjects than to the actual know-
ledge of facts which may be gained. The British Association has
a committee appointed to consider the improvement of science-
teaching, and certain recommendations have recently been
published through the columns of Vat¢wre which, to a large extent,
follow the lines I have indicated, and these I would earnestly
recommend to your attention.

There is another educational subject about which I wish to
say a few words, namely, the development of Natural History
museums as educational institutions. It is a subject on which I
have had occasion to think and write for some years, and it is
one with which biologists are especially concerned, for a very
large proportion of the natural objects which are accumulated in
such museums are either plants or animals. It has always
appeared to me that a museum can be, and should be, made a
most powerful means of popular education ; but in going through
museums in many parts of the world, the feeling has again and
again been forced upon me that in this respect they are » failur es.
Ww alking around the well-stored courts and galleries which teem
with treasures from all quarters of the world, I have observed
the visitors. Perhaps they are standing before a case of tropical
birds, and you may think that to their imagination is presented
the tangled luxuriance of a tropical forest, the warm air filled
with the cries of the birds as they flit from tree to tree, or climb
along the branches in search of insects or fruit ; whilst in the
sunshine, amongst the flowers, the humming birds dart with flash
of crimson, sapphire and gold, now poised for a moment in front
of a flower, with the long bill inserted into its calyx in search of
honey, now with a gleam of brilliant colour away to seek food
elsewhere. The naturalist may see all this and much more, but the
ordinary visitor only sees rows of dead stuffed birds of various
colours and sizes, which appeal to his mind no more than the
stuffed birds you may see in a milliner’s shop. He does not even
know the names of the birds, for although there are labels with
the Latin names set out at full length, the Latin repels the
unaccustomed eye, and is therefore disregarded. It may be said,
perhaps, that museums are not for such people. My sympathies,
however, are altogether with these visitors. I believe that our
museums ought to provide for them in the first place, that they
ought to attract and instruct them.

104 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION D.

There are two reasons why museums achieve so little of the
good which may reasonably be expected from them. The first
reason is that it is assumed that the visitors have a considerable
knowledge of the objects exhibited. No mistake could be more
fatal. It is true that most visitors are acquainted with sundry
facts in natural history, but this knowledge goes a very little way
in collections arranged for the benefit of the specialist. The
ordinary visitor is not a trained zoologist, he is not familiar with
the objects exhibited, his powers of observation have probably
never been cultivated, and he is ignorant of the way in which
every point of structure in an animal corresponds with the use of
the part. Thus, he does not observe the differences between the
stout legs of the ostrich, used for running, the comparatively
slender legs of the stork, used for wading, and the short legs
with webbed toes of the swimming birds, for he does not know
that from the structure of an animal its habits of life may be
inferred. The birds stand in the museum on pieces of wood in
solemn rows, away from their natural surroundings, and there is
no descriptive label to give any indication ; all that the visitor can
learn is that the ostrich is called Struthio, and the stork Ciconia.
How much profit has he derived from his visit to the museum ?

The second reason why museums fail to effect their purpose is
that they do not present a true picture of nature or of the
working of natural laws. It has been abundantly shown by
modern research that there is the closest connection between any
organic being andits surroundings. The animal is a living being,
influenced at every moment by other living beings around it; by
its food supply ; by climatic and all other external conditions.
So the stuffed animal of the museum, removed from its natural
environment, does not truly represent the animal in life. What
is the real interest attached to an animal? Is it so many square
inches of brown fur? Is it not rather its life? And what
instruction is to be gathered from it? Is it not instructive as an
exemplification of the laws to which organic beings are subject ?

Tt is over 30 years since Darwin pointed out how important
and intimate were the relations of living beings to their environ-
ment. His teaching infused new life into the study of Biology
but the enthusiasm does not seem to have extended to museums.
One would think that the “ Origin of Species” had never entered
the doors of a museum. Most museums seem to be arranged
chiefly, though most inadequately, with regard to the wants of
the specialist, and the general public are scarcely thought of. But
they fail in providing for both classes, for a specialist’s museum
is about as much use to the general public as a Greek author is to
one who does not know the Greek alphabet. The specialist, too,
is badly provided for. He cannot study the objects as they stand
in the museum, locked up in glass cases, imperfectly visible and
inaccessible.

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—-SECTION D. 105

I believe, therefore, that museums, open to the general public,
should be arranged solely with reference to their wants. Such
museums will, however, be available to all, for the specialist will
be at home in the museum, however it be arranged. Two rules,
at least, it seems to me, should guide us in preparing the part of
the museum intended for the general public. (1) It must not be
assumed that the visitor possesses any knowledge of the objects
exhibited. The information should be conveyed by the arrange-
ment or grouping of the objects, and, where this is not possible, by
an ample system of descriptions written in plain English. (2) We
must represent an animal as a living being; and in such a way as
to illustrate the working of the laws of nature. To do this we
must endeavour to place it in surroundings resembling those in
which it naturally lives.

This subject of museum reform is no new-fangled ohne. Nearly
twenty-six years ago Gray drew the attention of the British
Association to the need of improvement in museums, and expressed
views which do not greatly differ from those expressed by Pro-
fessor Flower, as the president of the British Association, at the
meeting held last September at Newcastle. There is one point in
Professor Flower’s address which is especially noteworthy. He
says that “what a museum depends upon most for its success and
usefulness is not its buildings, not its cases, not even its speci-
mens, but its curator. He and his staff are the life and soul of
the institution, upon whom its whole value depends ; and yet in
many—I may say in most—of our institutions they are the last
to be thought of.”

If the public museum is to be a means of popular education, it
follows that its curators must be teachers of the people—that
they must possess the gift of popular exposition. The functions
of the curator of a museum are held by some to be those of a
caretaker, just sufficiently skilled to name and catalogue the objects
under his charge. But in the larger museums it is expected that
the curator will use the materials accumulated there for the
purpose of advancing knowledge. Now, it is generally believed
by those who have had opportunities for observation that the
combination of teaching with research in the professorial chairs
has led to the most successful results in European universities ;
and I venture to think that the endeavour to set forth and
illustrate the fundamental Jaws of nature by the arrangement and
description of a popular museum would be an actual assistance to
the curators in their work of research. Some progress is being
made in a few English museums, as at South Kensington, towards
improving their condition, but though the principle on which the
much-needed reform is to be carried out may be clear enough,
there is much to be done in working out the details of the scheme.
Though this work naturally falls to the curators, it is yet a work
of such magnitude, and one so obviously calculated to advance

106 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION D.

biological science, that I have not hesitated to bring the subject
forward for the consideration of this section.

Amongst the work in which this section is especially interested,
the study of the remarkable fauna and flora of Australasia must
take a prominent place. With the view of facilitating this work,
a committee has already been appointed to prepare a catalogue of
all scientific papers dealing with Australasian biology. A neces-
sary part of the work will consist in the collection and exami-
nation of all the living forms found within the Australasian area.
This task of cataloguing an enormous series of plants and animals
is, in many respects, an ungrateful one; it is one which is little
appreciated by the public, and at which even scientific workers
are sometimes inclined to scoff. Nevertheless, it is absolutely
necessary that it should be done, for we know not how soon the
knowledge of even the obscurest form may attain importance for
scientific or economic reasons. We owe, then, our truest thanks
to all those indefatigable workers who are content to devote their
lives or leisure to some special group of living beings, be they
beetles or diatoms.

Having thus acknowledged our indebtedness, we may, perhaps,
be allowed to point out some of the failings of specialisation. It:
may be freely granted that the vast acquisitions of modern
science render the evil of specialisation unavoidable—all who
desire to extend knowledge must take up this cross. In biology,
the rule, ‘“ Know a little of everything and all of something,” is as
safe a guide as in other pursuits ; but the specialist is apt, in his
enthusiasm, to lose touch with the workers in other fields, and to
disregard the advances made in his subject as a whole. It is
well to remind ourselves that the end of biological study is not
merely to name and describe new species. In the light of modern
science the species is but the expression of a passing stage of
development of a long line of descent—the real objects ot interest
are the individuals ; and the worker who takes the trouble to join
together species by the demonstration of the intermediate links is
more entitled to the gratitude of the world than the one
who founds a fresh species for every local variety. We have,
unfortunately, seen too much of the foundation of new species
on imperfect data, or even on single mutilated specimens. The
description of those superficial characters of the dead organism
by which it may be identified is but the beginning of the
biologist’s work, and one who rests content with this is like the
traveller who, setting forth on a long journey, stays at the first
inn on his road. The way may be long and difticult, but the end
of the journey is not here—the journey lies not /o this but.
through this, to the promised land of a more complete knowledge
of the laws of life.

To reach our end we require to study the organism as a living
entity, to study it in relation to its surroundings, to follow the

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION D. 107

long history of its race. The study of the life-history of the
organism is, therefore, one of great importance ;' and though it is
not work which can be hurried, but demands long and _ patient
observation, it is a task which is a satisfaction in itself, and is
fruitful in valuable results.

In addition to our special work, dealing with the extensive
fauna and flora of Australasia, we have the same fundamental
problems before us as our fellow-workers in the Northern Hemi-
sphere. We have introduced many of the familiar plants and
animals of Europe—too many, indeed, as witness the rabbits.
We have introduced, too, into our midst a large proportion of the
parasitic diseases of Europe. Is not Victoria known to scientific
students all over the world as the spot scourged beyond all other
spots in the world, save one, by the insidious Lchinococcus,
productive of hydatid disease? So, too, with reference to stock.
I once had occasion, in New Zealand, to examine the internal
parasitic diseases of sheep and in a single sheep found no fewer
than ten different kinds of parasites, all of them forms which
must have been introduced from Europe, for there are no
indigenous parasites to attack sheep.

Again, we have allowed many of the worst microbic diseases of
the old world to acclimatise themselves with us. We have
typhoid, scarlatina, diphtheria, consumption, and many another
disease. Of the ravages of the typhoid parasite I need hardly
speak, for will not this fell disease to-day claim and be allowed to
take its score of victims from this colony alone ?

There is still much work to be done with reference to these
injurious forms of life, but when we attain a fuller knowledge of
them we may hope at least to control their ravages, if not
actually to exterminate them.

During the last few years there has been a marked tendency
for the most able workers in biology to concentrate their atten-
tion upon questions of a fundamental character. The question
of the nature of life and the elementary properties of living
bodies have attracted the greatest interest, and though we are
still far from being able to answer the question, What is life ?
important advances have been made, sufticient to hold out ample
encouragement to renewed efforts. When the microscope was
appled to the study of animal and plant structure, it was found
that all, except the simplest elementary organisms, were composed
of vast numbers of units of structure to which the name of cells
was given. It was recognised that the essential part of the cell
was of a viscid material, neither solid nor fluid, colourless,
and having the general appearance of a dusty jelly, though
far from having the composition and properties of mere jelly.
To this living matter the term protoplasm was applied, and
for a long series of years it was deemed sufticient to refer all the
characters of living bodies to the properties of the protoplasm.

108 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION D.

Such reference to protoplasm was, however, no explanation, though
it was the first step towards an understanding of the problems of
living matter. For many years Max Schultze’s definition of
protoplasm was generally accepted. He regarded the protoplasm,
or cell-substance, as a homogeneous, glassy, and transparent sub-
stance, viscid, or of firmer consistence. The cell-substance
contained a nearly homogeneous nucleus of rounded form, which,
in turn, contained the nucleoli. The cell-substance was regarded
as separable only into the homogeneous groundmass or protoplasm
and the numerous imbedded granules.

Further research, however, aided partly by later improvements
in the microscope, has shown that the protoplasm is far from
being homogeneous; that it usually, if not always, possesses a
definite and complicated structure, being composed of two different
substances, not granules and «a homogeneous groundmass, but
threads or a network of fibres and intermediate substance. The
extraordinary changes which the network in the nucleus of the
cell undergoes during the process of multiplication have formed
the subject of a vast number of papers during the last decade. It
seems improbable that with this microscopic analysis we have
arrived at all the intricacies of the structure of living matter.
The advance of physiological study has shown the intimate
correspondence of structure with function, it has shown that
with every variation in the structure of an organ there is asso-
ciated a variation in the function or duty of that organ. Physio-
logical analysis has indeed gone further, and in many cases has
demonstrated a complexity of function which is greater than that
of visible structure. This structure of living matter is of no
ordinary interest to the biologist. We have in the microscopic
speck of protoplasm all the fundamental properties of the living
organism presented to us. Such a speck of protoplasm may
contain within itself all the potentialities of development of the
highest or lowest organism. It may develop in one direction into
a man, or in another into a worm, and we must assume that the
potentialities of development in the different cases are represented
materially by the structure and chemical composition of the
network and intermediate substance.

It is obvious enough that we are still but at the beginning of
our knowledge of life. There is a boundless field for generations
of workers, and we may look forward with confidence to many a
discovery to delight the human mind and to add to human health
and happiness, as well as to more material welfare. It is not
possible for all to be workers in the domain of the biological
sciences, but all alike will, as living beings, share in the benefits
of discoveries in the laws governing the world of life. It is on
these grounds that we can, as students of biology, nost surely
claim the sympathy of the general public, and will it not be well
for us to value and foster all friendliness towards our pursuits
which we receive from their hands ?

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—-SECTION D. 109:

And here, in concluding, I may be allowed to urge the impor-
tance of a wider diffusion of the knowledge of biological laws.
Tt is not enough that the laws of life and therefore of health and
harmony with nature should be known to a few biologists. The
whole population should live in conformity with those laws.
A wider diffusion of the knowledge resulting from biological
enquiries will be required to form the basis of an intelligent
public opinion. I do not refer here simply to questions of
sanitation, but to that wider range of problems taking cognisance
of all the relations of man as a living being to his environment and
including the rearing of a vigorous race, a system of mental
training which shall regard the physiological requirements of
mind, and the social relations of communities of men.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS IN SECTION E.
GEOGRAPHY.

By We Ha MISKENGS shy BS:

Ir was not without a certain degree of reluctance that I accepted
the honor and responsibility of the post of presiding over the
deliberations of Section E of this, the second Congress of the
Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science ; but
the desire to promote the views, as I understand them, of the
authorities to whom has been entrusted the direction of these
proceedings, 7.e., to secure the representation of each of the
various colonies in the presidential chairs of the several sections,
tempted me to overcome the scruple that otherwise prompted me,
from the consciousness of my own unfitness, to presume to take
the lead in the presence of so many gentlemen of far greater
experience and capacity. Having, however, committed myself to
the task, it behoves me to proceed to fulfil to the best of my
power the duties that devolve upon me as your President
upon this auspicious occasion, the first of which—a most pleasur-
able one—I take to be the offer of a hearty welcome to the
numerous assemblage here present, and my congratulations upon
the happy meeting of so many colleagues gathered together from
all parts of our great southern land—a felicitous augury, I
venture to express the hope, of future federation upon other and
more extended subjects—to deal with the particular branch of
science that has been deputed as our share of the proceedings of
the present Association meeting.

The pleasure which, however, we may derive from these
considerations is shadowed by the reflection of the cause that has
led to the occupancy of the chair by the present holder. You
will, of course, anticipate that I refer to the loss to the science of
Geography and to our deliberations to-day—the lamented decease
of one who has done so much in Australasia in the furtherance
of the cause we have at heart, and who would have so much
more worthily and efficiently under happier circumstances have
addressed you upon this occasion—the late Sir Edward Strick-
land. Reguiescat in pace. It is also my mournful duty to refer to
another heavy loss to the, alas, but too meagre ranks in this part
of the world of men who are able and willing to devote their
energies and talents to the pursuit of science—the late Rev. J.
E. Tenison-Woods, a fellow of the R. G. Society, and an hon.

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION E. 111

member of more than one of the branches of the Royal Geo-
graphical Society of Australasia, whose valuable life is a sacrifice
to disease contracted in the ardour of exploratory investigation
in the Malayan Peninsula and Northern Australia, too soon
following the fate of his friend and coadjutor in the same expe-
dition, the Rev. B. Scortechini, F.L.8., an ardent and accomp-
lished student in the field of botany, swelling the roll of immortal
names, martyrs to the cause of science and exploratory research,
typitied by memories of such names as Leichardt, Burke, Wills,
and many others—names to be handed down to the future
posterity of our country as household words, luminous as examples
of self-sacrifice in the cause of duty for future generations to
revere and emulate.

As the text of my inaugural address I have adopted, and I
think I could not have followed a more profitable course, the
form of a review of the progress of geographical research and
literature during the period that has elapsed since the last
assemblage of this Association, having regard primarily to our
own part of the world, and then more generally to that of the
world at large, viewing first the purely exploratory aspect as to
what has been accomplished, what is presently in progress, and
what may be anticipated in the future ; glancing cursorily at the
results that may reasonably be expected to follow scientifically,
educationally and commercially, and including the doings of other
kindred associations.

And here I may pause to remark that in dealing with the
matter that I address myself to, it is dithicult, nay, almost impos-
sible, to dilate at length upon such a subject without to some
extent traversing ground already exhaustively discussed in the
numerous addresses recently delivered to various cognate assem-
bles upon similar occasions to the present, and indeed, I fear,
without leaving some opening for a charge of plagiarism. It
would be superfluous on my part to attempt to enter into an
exposition of the meaning or object of the science of geography
or of its necessity or advantages. The first has been too
frequently expounded by abler hands, and the latter is surely
obvious to the meanest understanding. To repeat would be
wearisome and profitless.

EXPLORATORY.

The greatest achievement in the way of exploration and dis-
covery in our part of the world is unquestionably the triumphant
success of Sir Wm. McGregor’s expedition for the ascent of the
highest peak of the Owen Stanley range of mountains in S.E.
New Guinea, named by him Mount Victoria—a point hitherto
considered almost inaccessible—and the identifying and naming
other mountains in the immediate neighbourhood, with their

Hei, PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION E.

correct positions and the altitudes of their various peaks, and the
precise mapping of the country explored and observed by hin.
An excellent paper descriptive of this expedition, compiled from
Sir Wm. McGregor’s own notes and remarks, is communicated to
the Queensland Branch of the Royal Geographical Society of
Australasia by the indefatigable hon. secretary of that branch,
Mr. J. P. Thomson, and appears in its transactions, accompanied
by a well-executed map prepared in the Survey Department of
that colony from Sir William’s drawings.

The altitude of Mount Victoria is determined by Sir Wm.
McGregor to be 13,122 feet, and discloses at its summit an almost
Alpine character in its flora, representative specimens of which,
of great interest to science, have been submitted to the investiga-
tion of the learned Baron von Mueller, whose observations thereon
have been made public. Further discoveries of great interest and
importance in this almost unknown region may be looked for in
the future, through the indomitable energy and courage of his
Honour the Administrator of the Government of this the latest
acquisition to the empire.

Our German cousins, with their usual indefatigable zeal and
perseverance, have also not been idle in their part of this great
island, but have pushed exploration in all directions, advancing
toward a thorough knowledge of the physical character and
capabilities of their possession ; not, I regret to say, without the
consequent sacrifice of valuable health and life that exploration
in such latitudes demands of the pioneers of civilisation.

From South Australia exploration, assisted, I believe, financially
by Victorian contributions, has been pushed towards the centre
of the continent under the leadership of Mr. W. Tietkins, from
whose report, when available, much interesting and valuable
information may be expected. From New South Wales also an
expedition, under Mr. Arthur Vogan, has been sent westward,
no results of which, however, are yet to hand.

Tn Queensland a small party, led by Mr. A. Meston, subsidised
by the Government of that colony, gained the summit of Mount
Bellenden Kerr, alleged to have been hitherto untrodden by the
foot of the white man ; but beyond some zoological and botanical
discoveries, no great scientific interest attaches to this expedition,
if it can be so called.

The South Pacific Archipelago we must look to, surely in the
not very distant future, as a field for closer exploration, parti-
cularly from Australian sources ; for is it not obvious that the:
whole of these fertile islands, great with the possibilities of
commerce, and even possibly of settlement, known at present
only by the most superficial intercourse with their barbarous and
savage inhabitants through the merest trade skirmishing, if I
may use the term, and ephemeral missionary settlement, must
come within the jurisdiction and influence of the future great

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION E. 113

Australasian federation? Geographically, I say they naturally
connect with our continent, and I predict they must fall under
the sway of the power that is best able, by every natural and
material advantage, to bring them within the pale of and make
them amenable to the march of civilisation. Before turning
from our own immediate region, there is another, not very remote,
in which we are deeply concerned, and which must not be over-
looked. I refer to the Antarctic, a subject upon which a great
deal has been heard of lately, unfortunately with no practical
results at present, beyond the formulation of a scheme for
exploration and investigation—one in which our Victorian
friends have evinced especial interest. Apart from the utilitarian
aspect of Antarctic research, as applying to commercial geo-
graphy, questions will arise as to whether or not our climate is
influenced by the ice-bound regions of the south. It would be
illogical, while admitting the modifying influences of the warm
currents of the Gulf Stream upon the climate of Southern Europe
and other parts, to at the same time regard with indifference the
possible influence of the cold Antarctic polar drift currents upon
the climate of New Zealand, Tasmania, and the southern parts
of the Australian continent.

It is not a difficult matter, in terrestrial physics, to give an
estimate of the results brought about by the contact, or what
may be termed overlapping, of hot and cold currents ; and that
the necessary conditions of condensation are thus brought about
by the contact of cold Antarctic currents with the super-heated
equatorial currents of our continent, there can, I submit, be no
doubt. It therefore behoves us, as Australasians, apart from
the commercial considerations of the subject, which must, how-
ever, be considerable, to investigate these agencies, bearing as
they do so materially upon our climate, the conditions of which
so seriously influence our existence, and thus enable us to apply
the knowledge so gained to an endeavour, if possible, to ameliorate
to some extent the effects of recurring droughts which operate so
disastrously upon the welfare of our country.

Turning to the other regions of the globe, we find the greatest
energy and enterprise everywhere actively displayed, evidencing
the extent to which the value and importance of the closest and
most detailed investigation of the unknown or unsettled portions
are feverishly regarded, whether as presenting fields for scientific
discovery and possible colonisation for the ever-increasing surplus
population of the densely-peopled countries of Europe, or for
the expansion of commerce, daily increasing in keenness of
competition.

Upon the great continent of Africa, for so long the chief field,
as, alas! also the grave of so many illustrious heroes, of explora-
tion, the tide of exploratory investigation has, as usual, set
strongly. Foremost here are the wonderful exploits of that most

H

114 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION E.

intrepid explorer, Stanley, in the heart of Equatorial Africa,
especially in his recent expedition for the relief of Emin Pasha,
a history of which has to a certain point been already communi-
cated to the world ; and now that we have happily the knowledge
of his safe arrival within the bounds of civilisation, after sur-
mounting the difficulties, hardships, and perils of his adventurous
and protracted travel, we may, our minds being eased of the
anxiety and suspense of his long watched for appearance, patiently
await the further history of thrilling episodes and marvellous
discoveries that undoubtedly the great traveller will have to
disclose, varied and extensive enough, probably, to satisfy the
curiosity of the lovers of the new and wonderful as the cravings
of the seekers after scientific facts and data, equally with the
would-be pioneers of commercial enterprise.

Other recent expeditions, north and south of the equator, have
been successfully pursued respectively by Teleki and Arnot, and
very considerable and important additional knowledge of the
geography of those regions made known. Central South Africa
has been the scene of the exertions of Mr. F. C. Selous, while in
the north Mr. De Foucauld in the Atlas Mountains and Messrs.
Thorn and Harris in Morocco publish the result of their respec-
tive labours in the countries named.

In Upper Burmah considerable advance has been made in
topographical and cartographical investigation of the country,
principally in conjunction with military expeditions, all conducing
to a more thorough knowledge of this, one of the latest additions
to British dominions.

In Central Asia we find the Russians ever pushing their
advance towards the walls of China and the gates of India, first
by explorations, followed by military occupation, with the
unwearying, restless, but ever-progressing steps characteristic of
that mighty empire, a menace alike to our commercial prestige in
those regions as to the very bulwarks of defence of our Indian
possessions. An admirable essay, illustrating this subject, was
delivered at the recent meeting of the British Association of
Science on “Our Trade in Central Asia,” by the Hon. G. Curzon,
M.P. Proceeding north, we see the same Power exploring and
extending their knowledge of the unknown parts of Siberia, their
efforts in this direction considerably assisted by the enterprise of
a British subject, Captain Wiggins, who has successfully demon-
strated the feasibility of opening a trade-route into the heart of
that hitherto supposed inhospitable region, by the navigation of
the Obi and Yenisei rivers, disemboguing into the Arctic Ocean,
by availing of the proper but brief season during which those
generally frozen seas are temporarily open to the passage of
vessels, thus presenting a new field for commercial enterprise, of
vast importance to the maritime countries of Western Europe.
A very interesting veswmé of nautical exploratory research in this

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—-SECTION E. 115

particular direction, and general summary of results, is contained
in a communication by Prince Krapotkin to the Manchester
Guardian, appearing in the Home News of the 22nd November
last.

Dr. Nansen’s adventurous journey upon snow-shoes across the
ice-bound peninsula of Greenland is possibly familiar to most of
us, a truly perilous and heroic exploit, not, perhaps, affording
any great results beyond proving that this part of- Greenland is
an immense barren waste of snow and ice, although many
scientific facts and observations affecting glacial phenomena are
communicated by that gentleman from his experiences upon the
occasion. But as demonstrating what is capable of being
accomplished by a band of hardy and courageous men in con-
quering the obstacles of nature presented in its most grim and
forbidding aspect, this certainly ranks as one of the first achieve-
ments of the age.

I have thus briefly referred to a few of what appear to me the
most important recent events in the way of exploratory geography.
To attempt to give anything like a complete history of every
investigation of interest would occupy more time than I dare try
your patience with. Enough has, I think, been mentioned to
show how our fellow-workers in all parts of the world appreciate
the importance of the subject, and to stimulate us in this
southern world of ours to increased effort, and to prove ourselves
worthy of the race from which we have sprung—one that has
always been in the van of exploration and discovery—and
worthy inheritors of a land where so much still remains to be
accomplished in this direction.

CoMMERCIAL.

Whether regarded as the resulting effect of exploration and
discovery, or as the means of further and closer investigation, to
be followed by settlement and commerce, we cannot overlook the
close relationship that railways bear to the subject of geography,
at least to the interiors of countries, and the effect they must
necessarily have in the entire change of the aspect of the
countries they traverse. In these days of gigantic engineering
undertakings we are accustomed to be surprised at nothing.
Such reflections come to our minds when we contemplate the
projected scheme for the construction of a line of railway in the
‘Congo Free State in Central Africa by a company already incor-
porated, with a registered capital of £1,000,000 sterling, from a
point on the Congo River to Stanley Falls, a distance of 250
miles, beginning, passing through, and ending in a region
revelling in the very wildest state of nature, peopled by a race
of the most barbarous and untutored savages, and at present
lacking the merest approach to a step in civilisation—a wonderful

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116 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION E.

enterprise truly. What extraordinary developments will be the
result of this astounding temerity remains to be seen.

Another proposed undertaking of magnitude is the projected
line of railway across the continent of Asia by the Russians, to
bring them into direct connection with their possessions upon the
Pacific coast—also a mighty enterprise, but differing essentially
from that previously considered in having at least an objective
base and terminus. This is however, I think, but in its
inceptive stage, not having proceeded beyond the initiation of
preliminary survey. The effects of the construction by the
Russian Government of the Trans-Caspian line into the heart of
Central Asia has already produced most astounding results in the
knowledge of and development of those regions.

Amongst the South American States we find the extension of
railway construction being pressed with unprecedented activity,
there being estimated to be now no less than 17,000 miles in
existence, with a corresponding opening up and settlement of the
interior of the continent. While upon the subject of what comes
fittingly under the head of the commercial feature of my subject,
I may mention a very practical paper upon the immediate rela-
tion of commerce with geography, entitled “‘The Physical Basis
of Commercial Geography,” contributed by Dr. Hugh Robert
Mill to the late British Association meeting.

EDUCATIONAL.

The importance of the study of geography in educational estab-
lishments has been gradually, but surely, forcing its way upon
our countrymen, who have been hitherto behind other nations in
recognising its utility, nay, necessity. Lectureships in the Univer-
sities of Oxford and Cambridge have been for some little time
now established, and very satisfactory and encouraging results
have followed. The Royal Geographical Society, to further
encourage the prosecution of this important branch of learning,
offer their medals, scholarships, and prizes to the universities and
various training colleges, and these have been, during the past
year, extensively and keenly competed for.

For a thoroughly exhaustive treatment of this subject we have
but to refer to the able lecture upon ‘The Method Applied to
the Teaching of Geography in the School,” by Professor Laurie,
contained in the Scottish Geographical Magazine, 1886 ; and more
recently a valuable paper under a somewhat similar title
appeared in the Proceedings of the Queensland Branch of the
Royal Geographical Society of Australasia, 1888, by Mr. J. P.
Thomson, hon. secretary of that branch. I may appropriately
here, perhaps, with reference to an earlier remark as to the
advance made by other nations over our own in the matter of
educational geography, show how far we are in the rear generally

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION E. U7

in the study of Geography as a science. I cannot illustrate better
than by quoting some statistics ] have come across. They are
extracted from Professor Wagner’s Geographisches Jahrbuch as
follows :—

| |
SOCIETIES. MEMBERS. | REVENUE. | SERIALS.
| |

— 7

| France and her colonies... 29. 19,800 | £12,200 | 45 |

| Germany Jk 3ae 345 22. | 9,200 £4,600 Aisi

| Great Britain and Possessions 9 5,650 | £12,000 | 10 |
NoMENCLATURE.

A matter of considerable importance to geographical science
has been referred to in several quarters recently. It is with
respect to the application of names to newly-discovered natural
features and localities, and it is satisfactory to observe that a
unanimous consensus of opinion seems to prevail in all authorita-
tive sources that in every case the native name should, if possible
of being ascertained, be retained in preference to the much-to-be
deprecated practice, unfortunately but too common, of servilely
attaching complimentary and but too frequently utterly mean-
ingless ones, to the exclusion of already well-established and
generally appropriate native designations. As we are well aware,
there are few landmarks or waterways in our colonies but have
an appellation in the euphonious and poetic language of the unfor-
tunate race that are so speedily becoming extinct. Let us hope
that the strongly-expressed opinion upon this point will be regarded
by explorers in the future, and that, in this part of the globe at
any rate, the history of a human race, who must in the course of
avery short period be but a memory of the past, may be per-
petuated in a small degree by the scant justice of at least paying
respect to their right of nomenclature to possessions of which
they were forcibly deprived. .

The past year has been, as before observed, exceptionally
remarkable for the universal interest shown in the wide field of
geographical observation, and the unanimous and spontaneous
desire to promulgate the higher and broader order of knowledge
occupied by the more liberally interpreted problems of scientitic
geography. This common centre of organised effort, constituting
the event of the year, has been, of course, the great meeting in
Paris. Here, in the centre of activity of geographical science,
the ancient Geographical Society of Paris befittingly concentrated
all its co-workers from every part of the world, representing
nearly every kindred institution in existence, for the discussion of
the various important questions having relation to the science
of geography. This, the fourth International Congress of
Goegraphical Sciences, was opened by the veteran president,

118 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—-SECTION E.

M. Ferdinand de Lesseps, who, in the course of a brilliant address,
referring to the various questions for discussion, aptly remarked :
“Geography, as we understand it in the present age, is not only
the abstract knowledge of our globe ; it comprehends also the
complete relations of the earth and man, relations which we
endeavour to ameliorate. This is the scope of geography, and
we say with pride there is none grander.”

The deliberations of this Congress were occupied with numerous
scientific problems, and prominent amongst the divisions was the
subject of geography grouped in seven sections, embracing
amongst them the following subjects :—Geodesy, Hydrography,
Topography, Cartography, Meteorology and Climatology, Geology,
Medical Geography, Commercial and Statistical Geography,
History of Geography and Cartography, Teaching and Diffusion
of Geography, Voyages and Exploration, Ethnography, and
Anthropology. Special attention was also given to geographical
education, and details were formulated as to materials necessary
in teaching geography, such as the choice of books, cartographic
exercises, atlases, wall-maps, panoramas and reliefs ; while in.
group 6 (Voyages and Explorations) the rules for adoption by
explorers in naming their discoveries were fully discussed, and
resulted in the unanimous adoption of a resolution that “the
right of the explorer only begins when the country he is exploring
has no native inhabitants.”

The results of this Congress, which cannot fail to be of great
value in opening fresh channels to “scientific discussion which
may inspire but not divide,” and in throwing renewed light upon
obscure problems in which we are involved, will be looked forward
to with great interest by our organisations in Australasia.

In September last, the annual British Association of Science
meeting was held at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, at which no less than
2437 persons attended. The Geographical Section was strongly
represented, and numerous able and interesting papers were
contributed.

Finally, we may, I think, be pardoned for referring with a
sense of self-congratulation to the records of our own Society,
which has some time since, as an evidence of the interest in and
importance in which such organisations are held, been dis-
tinguished by the gracious permission of the Sovereign to add
the term “Royal” as a prefix to its title of the “Geographical
Society of Australasia,” the vocation of which is being steadily,
and I think I may add creditably, fulfilled through the efforts of
the several branches, all of which have successfully produced
volumes of proceedings that will, I think, bear favourable com-
parison with those of the older societies, in whose steps they seek
to worthily follow, displaying an amount of vitality under many
difficulties, having regard to the limited extent of the leisured
class of people in these busy working communities, that is highly
encouraging. ,

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION E. 119

And. now, in bringing my, I fear, rather rambling discourse to
a conclusion, [ would desire, while reiterating the importance of
the study generally of geography as a science, bearing in mind
that science as a brotherhood and as a subject for study recognises
no distinction of race or country, and no restriction of regions, to
impress upon you the plain duty that is incumbent upon all of us
who are possessed of the means and opportunity, as Australasians,
to do what is in the power of each of us, be it ever so small, to
contribute our mite to the record of geographical knowledge of
this our adopted land, either of facts observed, or the result of
reasoning on already ascertained data,remembering that geography
is a science happily defined as the “Science of Distributions,” and
as has been already before remarked, sufficiently comprehensive
to embrace the study of geology, zoology, botany, climatic and
meteorological conditions and phenomena, the commercial and
industrial possibilities of a country, and in fact everything affect-
ing the physical condition of the surface of our globe, and thus
assist in building up the destiny of what must in the future
assume the position of a mighty power, that will prove to be not
only a subject of pride to the grand old country from which it has
sprung, but which, retaining its veneration and affection for the
dear land in whose glorious history and traditions we still claim
a birthright, will have the privilege of being to it a source of
strength and possible support.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS IN SECTION F.

(Economic and Social Science and Statistics.)

OBSERVATIONS ON CURRENT SOCIAL AND
ECONOMIC PROBLEMS.

By ROBERT M. JOHNSTON, F.L.S:

Causes oF ExistiInNG Poverty AND MISERY.

Ir cannot be denied, in spite of the great accumulation of wealth
and the increased command over the forces of nature during the
present century, that there is still to be found much poverty and
distress, especially in large centres of population, and that much
of it is due to the unequal distribution of wealth ; and whether
we may or may not be able to point out a remedy, it is utterly
repugnant to the best feelings of human nature to sink into the
despair or apathy of many who say, “ Let alone ; whatever is is
best or worst, and cannot be helped.” Whatever errors the
Socialists and Communists are chargeable with, they must
be credited with warm aspirations for the amelioration and
improvement of suffering humanity, and are free from the charge
of indifference. The latter, however, are too emotional to
perceive the great difficulties of the problems which have always
engaged the deepest attention of earnest Social Economists, and
are too ready to advocate the introduction of their own pet
schemes, without having taken sufficient trouble either to test
their adequacy, or to fathom the true nature of fundamental
difficulties, which would in most cases be made vastly more
formidable by the various plans propounded by them for their
removal. Thus some, having been misled by the assumption that
all our evils are due to individual property right and unequal
distribution of wealth, employ all their ingenuity to show that all
existing evils are attributable to these, and to these alone.

Yet there are many other influences far more potent for evil,
which no scheme yet propounded by Political Economists,
Socialists, or Communists may wisely undervalue or ignore. Of
such are the following :—

(1.) The superabundant proportions of human beings in
existence who, free from restraint, are naturally
disposed to be idle, sensuous, and wicked; or who are
ignorant, foolish, and improvident.

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION F. 121

(2.) The difficulties of supplying other motives more adequate
than self-interest in effecting conformity to the
necessary social laws and virtues, and as a spur to
industry and useful application of powers.

(3.) The inequalities of different habitable portions of the
earth as regards productiveness, climate, disease,
density of population, and the difference of civilisation
and racial characteristics.

(4.) The periodic failure of food supply (famine), whether
due to seasonal influence, exhaustion of soil, violence,
wilful waste, or improvidence.

(5.) Effectual means for elimination from society of the more
pronounced forms of hereditary vice and madness,
which, if allowed to persist, would endanger society.

(6.) Absence of facilities for relieving the pressure of
population in over-peopled lands by migration.

(7.) Difficulties connected with free exchange of products
between different nations whose artisans and labourers
are living under different material and social con-
ditions, ¢.g., slave labour and free labour.

(8.) Difficulties in effecting adequate exchange of products
with other nations where, as in England, local foods,
products, and the raw materials for manufacture are
locally far below the level of requirement of an ever-
increasing population.

(9.) The want and misery brought upon the handicapped
and practically immobile breadwinner, whose special
skill, acquired by slow training during many years, is
no longer in demand, either from the sudden or gradual
transfer of an industry to a foreign centre, or from the
sudden or gradual adoption of a new mode of
production rendering his special skill obsolete.

(10.) Misery and want caused to particular divisions of
labour by the arbitrary disturbance of the proper
relative proportions of the community necessary to
fulfil with satisfaction the mutual exchange of service
and the necessary supply of the whole round of
wants.

(11.) Difficulties and dangers arising from local increase of
population, especially when foreign, thinly-populated
lands are forcibly closed to emigrants, as in the
experience of the Chinese.

(12.) The misery caused by war, strife, murder, accident,
painful disease, and preventible forms of death.

(13.) The terrible root dittculty connected with either (1)
decrease, (2) stationariness, or (3) rapid increase of
population.

(14.) The absolute limits of space requisite for the reception
and sustenance of man.

122 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION F.

The last two form the population difficulty ; in itself the chief
cause of human trouble.

Is tHe Poverty or THE Masses A NECESSARY CONCOMITANT OF
INCREASED ACCUMULATION OF WEALTH IN THE AGGREGATE ?

All observers are nearly agreed that the accumulation of
wealth and wealth-producing power have prodigiously increased
within the present century. Of this there can be little doubt.
Modern discoveries—as regards the properties of matter, the
discovery and development of new lands, the uses of steam,
electricity, and labour-saving inventions in every department of
social and industrial life—have enormously increased man’s
power over the forces of nature. With this immense gain of
power, vast continents of virgin forest and barren swamp
have become gardens of plenty. Rivers, mountains, and other
formidable obstacles to communication or distribution of products
have been bridged or pierced by railways, roads, and other
superior means of distribution ; and the wide ocean, connecting
far distant lands, now forms the easy and open highway of
magnificent steamers, which vie in regularity and speed with the
railway train in bringing to local markets daily supplies of the
fresh meat, fish, fruit, and cereals of lands many thousand miles
away. As a natural consequence, famines such as are known
to have been so common and so terrible in England in the
immediately preceding centuries are rendered an impossibility.

How is it, then, that we are again brought face to face with
the old terrible problems: ‘The Misery of the Masses,” ‘The
Labourer’s Struggle for Existence,” “The Growth of Poverty,”
‘The Increase of Pauperism and Crime?” If we can judge by
the popular literature of the day, the state of the masses in
Europe seems to be verging into as hopeless a condition as that
which existed prior to the introduction of our vaunted discoveries.

Indeed, one writer, who recently has been heard above all
other claimants for reform, confidently affirms that “it is true
wealth has been greatly increased, and that the average of
comfort, leisure, and refinement has been raised—but these gains
are not general. Jn them the lowest class do not share.” He
broadly insists that increase in poverty is the constant con-
comitant of increase in aggregate wealth, and that this constant
“association of poverty with progress is the great enigma of our
times.” Is it true, as this writer confidently affirms, that with
all the advantages which man has gained in his increased and
increasing command over the forces of nature, our present:
civilisation has by its customs and provisions barred the effectual
distribution of accumulated wealth, and the only eftect produced
is that of making the rich richer and the poor poorer ?

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION F. Zs

This cannot be answered effectively without some enquiry into
that form of wealth which constitutes man’s chief satisfactions.

Are these sufficient in the aggregate to suflice for all, if proper
means for effecting distribution were employed, supposing such
means were possible? Or is the aggregate supply of primary
wants insufficient to provide for ail needs, even were the most
thorough means devised for its distribution ?

Wants or Man.

The satisfaction of the wants of man is the mainspring of all
his activities. Wants are interminable. Some affect his very
existence, while others only concern his greater degree of comfort
or happiness. In all enquiries into matters deeply concerning
the existence and welfare of man it is well, therefore, to keep
these fundamental distinctions clearly in view; for not a few
of our misconceptions arise from a failure on the part of social
and political economists to establish a satisfactory classification
of wants according to their varying importance.

Broadly speaking, these may be divided into three great.
groups :—

(1.) Wants Essential to Life Itself.
(2.) Wants Essential to Comfort.
(3.) Luxurious Wants.

Whatever eccentricities may be exhibited by isolated
individuals at times, it is unmistakable that the intensity
of the struggle for wants among communities is determined by
the zaturve of the wants; and, invariably, so long as the reason
of man is preserved, the greater intensity of the struggle—
beginning with the most important—is in the order before given,
viz. :—

Wants essential to— :

(1.) Life.
(2.) Comfort.
(3.) Luxury.

Man can, and, unfortunately, the masses of men are often
obliged to, exist without the enjoyment of luxurious wants.
He may even be deprived of all wants beyond the frst group,
and still maintain a more or less extended life-struggle with
misery of some kind; but if the wants of the frst group be ever
so little curtailed below a certain minimum, he will speedily
perish miserably.

Preserve to man his life, and, if needs be, he will eagerly
exchange for its preservation all his comforts and luxuries.
Deny him life, and ali other forms of the Economist’s wealth of
exchange becomes to him as dross—absolutely valueless. It is
for many reasons necessary at this stage to confine attention to

5
those primary wants essential to life itself; and for greater

124 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION’ F.

clearness these may be restricted to that minimum of each great
want necessary to maintain the life of each person. The exact
minimum of these, whatever their form may be, depends upon
the energy destroyed by work, and upon the physical condition
of the labourers environment, and may be stated thus :—
The minimum to maintain existence of —
Food.
Shelter.
Rest.
Without a certain minimum of these, man, like all lving
organisms, must perish inevitably.

Division oF LABOUR—ADVANTAGES AND DEFECTS.

Division of labour necessary to produce necessary satisfactions,
and to distribute them in large civilised communities, undoubtedly
ensures greater skill, and prevents unnecessary waste of the
aggregate time and energy of the individuals. Were it not for
this provision, no country could sustain the life of large numbers.
This division of labour, however, rests upon the tacit under-
standing that energies in other directions than that of actually
producing food may constantly be exchanged for food and other
primary satisfactions. Individual societies, communities, and
nations are alike in this respect ; for no matter the skill, time,
and labour proffered or applied for or in the production of other
than primary satisfactions, it is necessary that they be constantly
exchangeable in sufficient amount to obtain at least that minimum
of primary needs from other persons or communities, who, under
this system, are supposed to produce a sufficient surplus for the
satisfaction of all other members of society not immediately
engaged in the production of primary wants. Were it not for
this understood assurance, the present civilisation—with special
centres of manufactures for the world at large, its defined local
division of labour and individual rights in large areas of land—
would be altogether impossible.

Among the conflicting opinions of Political Economists,
Socialists, and Communists, there is at any rate this one
fundamental point of agreement, viz., that by a proper division of
labour or services the sum total of human satisfactions are greatly
superior, and are enjoyed by vastly greater numbers than would
be possible to men were each to work in a state of isolation, and
each one obliged to attempt to create the whole round of his own
requirements. Let us take it for granted, then, that division of
services is a necessity ; but while so doing, let us bear in mind
that the greater satisfaction of wants in the aggregate may be
attained, and yet, owing to an imperfect scheme of distribution,
a sufficiency, nay, even the minimum of primary satisfaction
necessary to maintain life, may fail to reach many ; and hence it

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION F. ISAs:

may appear that much of the idleness, pauperism, crime, misery,
and death experienced in crowded centres is due to the defects
of distribution.

Let us therefore examine this root difticulty, free from the
clouds of irrelevant or less urgent considerations. Division of
labour without facilities for exchange may render a unit more
helpless in such a scheme than he would be in a savage state.
Much ingenuity and ability has been exercised by many writers
in showing to us, as Bastiat does, the glorious provisions of one
of the so-called social harmonies (Liberty alas Competition ) in
preventing monopoly, and in effecting the distribution of wealth.
And it may be at once conceded that human society does reap
all the advantages claimed on behalf of competition.

The question, however, is not—Does competition effect much
good? That may be readily conceded. But confining attention
to the minimum of primary wants alone—Do the combined
effects of division of services, competition, and modes of exchange
now existing provide for the Areservation of due proportions
between the different classes of services, so as to ensure the production
of primary needs in sutliciency for the wants of all; and are the
means of exchange sufficiently perfect to secure with more or
less certainty a due modicum of primary needs to all. In a word,
is the “all for each” as effectively complete as the “ each for all?”

If this latter provision be defective—and this unfortunately
seems too true—can the defects be removed? And if this be
impossible, can the evils be minimised to any extent? All
possessors of services must be enabled to secure primary wants,
or they perish. References to the wide distribution of wealth in
exchange or commercial va/we, or to standard prices or wages—
low or high—are utterly misleading. Without the power to
acquire, or the actual possession of a due provision of that portion
of exchange wealth—not necessarily possessing a high exchange
value—the whole aggregate of the remaining part of. the world’s
wealth in exchange fwould be worthless ; for it. would fail to
preserve the life of the man destitute of primary satisfactions.
This is the root difficulty ; and it is forcibly exemplified in the
first notable exchange recorded in sacred history between the
typical representative of the hunter of wild animals and the
more skilled and peaceful agriculturists :—

And Esau was a cunning hunter, a man of the field; and
Jacob was a plain man dwelling in tents. . . . And Jacob sold
pottage: and Esau came from the field and he was faint: And Esau
said to Jacob, Feed me, I pray thee, with that same red pottage, for I
am faint. . . . And Jacob said, Sell me this day thy birthright.
And Esau said, Behold I am at the point to die, and what profit shall
this birthright do to me? And Jacob said, Swear to me this day ;
and he sware unto him: and he sold his birthright unto Jacob. Then
Jacob gave Esau bread and pottage of lentiles; and he did eat and

drink, and rose up and went his way; thus Esau despised his birth-
right.—( Genesis xxv. 27-34.)

126 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION F.

It is fortunate for Esau that he had the power of effecting an
exchange, and that, notwithstanding the exorbitancy of the
seller’s terms, he had no hesitancy in exchanging (or despising,
as it is stated) the less needful satisfactions for the more pressing
or primary ; for in the trial of Job’s integrity and fortitude it is
affirmed, with truth, that skin for skin, all that a man hath will
he give for his life.

Unfortunately for the working-class breadwinner, his only
birthright is physical power and manual skill, and although
these are all he can offer for his life needs, he cannot always as a
competitor effect the necessary exchange ; and too often he, and
those depending upon him, travel the swift road to beggary and
death.

Thus there are still defects, whether remediable or otherwise,
in the present civilisation, so long as these fundamental neces-
sities of a power to exchange with primary satisfactions are
imperfect, ¢.g., certain divisions of human kind are not directly
engaged in producing primary needs for themselves. They are
mostly engaged merely in rendering more or less skilled services,
in return for tokens (money or other medium) understood to
have at least the power of effecting corresponding definite supplies
of primary wants. But this division has another difficulty.

The actual owner of the power (rich capitalist) to effect the
production of things which may be exchanged for a corresponding
quantity of primary needs, may in all likelihood be able to effect
such exchanges ; but the poor capitalist, the possessor of the
power of mere services, such as the navvy, the house servant, the
blacksmith, may often be unable to exchange his services towards
the production of these very things; and under such conditions,
as the needful exchange cannot be effected, the unemployed
wage-earner in the division of human labour must be supported
by drawing upon a more or less limited surplus previously
earned ; failing that, he must either borrow, take the risk of
violent means to secure primary wants, be fed by private or
public charity, or die of starvation.

This, then, is the problem of problems of the present day.
References to current high rates of wages, the low prices of
provisions, or the increasing aggregate value of wealth in
exchange, do not always disclose this skeleton in the social
cupboard. When the ship of society is barred into many more
or less water-tight compartments, the ship itself may not founder,
although one or two minor chambers be damaged and water-
logged, and their contents destroyed. If the larger and more
important chambers, however, be destroyed, the whole ship may
founder, and those who may effect escape may be small indeed.
This allegorical picture must not be pressed too hard. It may be
sufficient, however, to draw attention to a dangerous side of the
division of labour composition of modern society.

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION F. 127

But, says the the theorist : True, his services were shut out by
over-competition in that particular place or in that particular
occupation ; but if he only knew at that moment that by
transferring his services to other employments, or to the same
occupation in another place, the balance of service for service
would be adjusted, and the life of himself and his dependants
would be saved. Ah, if he only knew! But the possession of
knowledge is in itself practically a form of wealth, and that he
did not possess any more than he did the necessary capital to
acquire the necessary skill in the new occupation calling for
services, or in the necessary capital to transfer himself and his
household to a great distance where his own special skill was
then in demand. We may therefore summarise the difficulties
lying at the root of all social problems as follows :—

(1.) All breadwinners and their families, to maintain
existence, must possess primary satisfactions, whether
they can effect exchange of services or not.

(2.) Many breadwinners, whether due to lack of knowledge
or inability to change their occupations or locality,
cannot obtain employment, and therefore cannot
effect exchange.

(3) Such of the latter as by former misfortunes have been
deprived of every form of wealth in exchange, must
beg or steal from public or private resources, or die
of starvation.

Thus it is shown that one of the great economic harmonies in
competition, while it effects much good in distributing wealth and
breaking down monopolies and privileges, and in enlarging the
domain of community in the enjoyment’ of the gratuitous
products of nature and invention, also, as one of the mills of
God, directs its force terribly on the mere monopolists of bone
and muscle ; competition grinding them smaller and smaller as
its force is augmented by increasing numbers.

FuRTHER DIFFICULTIES CONNECTED WITH THE DIVISION OF
LAaBouR—ALLOCATION.

One of the most formidable difficulties connected with the
division of labour is al/ocation ; for it is evident that if, in the
technical training of the young, due regard be not paid to the
chances of finding employment in the service to which the future
breadwinner aspires, disaster or a disappointed life may be the
result. This, being a relative matter, applies to a small
community as well as to a large one. Few take into consideration
that there is a natural law in operation which as surely
determines the numbers required for each great class of employ-
ment as do the natural laws which locally determine the times
and relative heights of the tide. No social advancement by

128 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION F.

means of the higher education of the people can ever alter the
relative numbers of the various branches of human service ; and
should it be thought possible that the education of the masses
exerts any influence in the nature of its training in disturbing
the necessary proportions of each great group of services upon
which our lives and our civilisation depends, it would certainly
prove that the general spread of higher education was a curse and
not a blessing.

Services would never become a marketable commodity of value
in exchange if it were not for wants. Kinds of services,
therefore, must be exactly proportionate to kinds of wants. The
wants which demand the expenditure of the greater amount of
labour must necessarily absorb the greater amount of persons
requiring employment, without regard to their capacities, attain-
ments, or personal desires; and, so far as the mass of human
beings are concerned, there is no choice.

The great wants—food, clothing, and shelter—are by far the
greatest factors in the determination of the aggregate numbers
that must be employed if the wants are to be satisfied. The
same three great wants also determine the necessary amount and
proportions of capital, machinery, and land to be employed,
together with the necessary proportion of labourers for each
kind of occupation which, directly or indirectly, is somehow
utilised in the production of the said three great wants.

It is true the strict average proportions of the various classes
of labour machinery may not be found to be quite the same in
each country; but this does not affect the aggregate of all
countries. It is not absolutely necessary that the manufactures
and agricultural industries of any one country should preserve
the world’s strict average proportions to each other, so far as
that. one country is concerned, so long as it is free to make
necessary exchanges with other countries for disposing or making
good their respective local surpluses and deficiencies. Never-
theless, countries confined to the production of satisfactions for
their own wants, or, what is the same, the world as a whole, must
preserve the strict average proportion and quantity of labour and
machinery in the production of satisfactions for those three great
wants which are the mainsprings of all human activities and
efforts. It is necessary, therefore, to make a very wide net to
obtain approximate information with respect to the amount and
due proportions of all kinds of services employed in the production
of the whole round of wants of each country. It is unfortunate
that figures relating to the occupations of all countries are not
accessible; but reference to the ascertained occupations of
Australasia, United States of America, British India, and seven
principal States of Europe, embracing 433 millions of people,
and representing all climes and all forms of industry, afford a
basis wide enough to secure fairly accurate information.

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION F

1

»)

~

9

The figures contained in the following table of classified
occupation of these countries afford valuable information with
regard to the definite proportions of the division of labour
engaged in the production of supply of human wants :—

PROPORTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE

Persons ENGAGED IN THE SuppLy oF Human WANTS :—

OCCUPATIONS OF ALL

COUNTRY.

England, Wales ...
Scotland

Treland

United Kingdom...

Sic Colonies of
Australasia :—

Victoria
Queensland

South Australia ...
Western Australia
Tasmania ...

New Zealand

Total of six Colonies
of Australasia.

United States
Prussia
France
Austria
Belgium

India

TOTALS

| Breadwinners (Percentage). Geota AL. -
| Bo). >)
| | a
Dy hh} Buvklegs [1-5] 6 |-7 | 6-7 9 |8-9| 1-9 |S:
HOMES oa femmes Pri cl recy Tala cgay pe, a a en Oa ee =
az P hep!
ae : me lee ee a |e ee
lel tate elt | ea eel ea = = Se | jas
= — © ome ao | & j=) hey (ie Show (ees ee
fe oa = as ° = =] iS ie} | Fe sees yes ne
e2 |e 128) 2) Shele | =| 2 heise = janjZ®
Pp a evan siete |e eshte [ee eae eS ie
BS |Sials] sl Sle] a ons lea Is
| ey ele! al © |-a | {Ps
| (“18 |e a
| No.
26,094 | 2:4 | 69 | 3:7 | 24-5] 5°38] 42°8 100 | 2:29
3,735 | 2°6 | 4:7 | 35 | 24-4) 7:0) 42-2 | 100 | 2°33
5,174 | 3:8 | 82 | 1-4 | 133] 19-0) 45-7 100 | 2°15
ee al eee se a
35,008 | 2°7 | 7-0 | 3°3 | 23:0] 7°5| 43°5 Le | 2th eh tO | 25
Ra
i} |
| hed). een Ads
| |
862 | 1°6 | 4°5 | 41/188] 145) 435, 02) 0-6 08 54°5) 1-2) 55°7/ 100 | 2-24
213 | 1-4| 5°0 | 5°1 | 18°3| 15-7) 45-5) 01) 0-6 07 528) 1-0 53°8 100 | 2-16
{ ' |
| |
280 | 1-4 | 4-1 | 4-8 | 16°5| 126) 39-4) 0-3, 0-7 1-0 58:9) 0-7, 59°6| 100 | 2-47
| eens |
30 | 1°6 | 3-9 | 571 |,12°6| 16-1) 39-3) 0-3] 1-6, 1-9) 56-2) 2°6 58:8] 100) 2°43
| | }
116 | 1-5} 4°6 | 3°4 | 16:5] 169] 42-9| 05! 0-6 11) 55:5 0°5 56-0| 100 | 2-27
490 | 1°5 | 4-1 | 4°3 | 168) 11-2 37-9} 0-1) 0:6 0-7 60-7 0-7 61-4) 100 | 2-56
| —|— | — — — SEMATECH
1,991 | 1-5 | 4°4 | 4-4 | 17-7) 13-7] 41-7] 0-2 0-6 08) 566 0-9. 57°5| 100 | 2°35
ea
| |
50,155 | 1-8 | 6°3 | 3°6| 7-6 15-3 34-6! 2°83
27,279 | 2°1 | 3-2 | 3°3 | 13:0, 17-0 38-6 Bilbo: 2°54
| i
37,321 | 1:8 | 6°3 | 4-2 | 12-0, 18-0, 42°3 Ai 2:32
22,144 | 1-9 | 4-0 | 20| 100 280 45°9| .. h: 214
5,520 | 3°0| 9°0 | 4-4} 172) 146 482... | 2-04
.| 253,891 | 1°3 | U*1 | 1:4 | 14:6) 28-0 46-2) ... 213
fr iiotia, ea | Soli, (veal “(cls -|aeale..
-| 433,304 | 1-6 | 3°0 | 2°3|13°3 23-2) 43-4... 2°26

130 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION F.

From this table we learn that all people are divided into two
important groups, viz., breadwinners, representing about 44-2 per
cent. of all persons, and non-breadwinners or dependants, com-
posed mainly of wives and children, representing 55:8 per cent.
of the total populations. Thus it appears that the wants of all
must be provided by the service of less than half the total number
of those who consume wants. The’ proportions of the bread-
winners necessary to effect this service are as follows. That is
to say, for every 100 persons engaged in services of exchange
— there must be on the aggregate the following proportions
nearly :—

PERCENTAGE PROPORTION.

Agricultural and Pastoral services... ce . 52°56
Industrial services ,. Be 45 &. Ff Soo. SUF LL
Domestic services... » =. sett so ROS
Commercial services a Kee , Rac ha wore
Professional and other undefined services a Lote fines

otal. ane me sek ae me ... 1000

It will be seen that the simple services of the agriculturist and
herdsman are by far the most important (52-5 per cent.), and
that the next in importance are the industrial services, embracing
all artisans and labourers, representing 30-1 per cent. The
higher skilled workmen of this group only represent about 11 per
cent. of all services. As the balance of services—commercial and
professional—only amount to 10°6 per cent., it follows that of all
services required only 21:6 per cent. demand skill of a higher order ;
and that 78:4 per cent. represent agricultural and other labourers
and domestic servants, in respect of which skill of a high order is
not absolutely requisite.

It is largely due to the flooding of particular kinds of employ-
ment beyond the strict proportions which local wants demand that
inconvenience or distress is felt in young as well as old countries.
The numbers which can find entry into the higher industrial, the
commercial, and professional divisions cannot, without unhealthy
competition, be increased beyond the relative proportions which
these divisions must bear to the producing industries of
the particular country; and these dominating industries in
Australasia are agricultural, pastoral, and mining. Employment
in other divisions can only follow substantial increases in the three
industries named ; for manufacturing industries cannot alter their
present proportions independently, as in England, until such time
as they are able to manufacture for the markets of other countries
than the local one. This applies much more strongly to the
smaller division represented by unskilled labour (not agricultural),
and by the commercial and professional classes. These certainly

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION F. 131

may only increase according to their rigid proportion ; and this
must be determined by a previous increase in the fundamental
producing industries of the particular place.

The principal producing industries of the place may increase
irrespective of other local divisions (7.e., agricultural, pastoral, and
mining), as their products may find the necessary consumer in
foreign markets. Whatever influence, therefore, may bar the
progress of the dominating producing industries of the place
must also bar occupations in all other divisions of services.

It is clear from what has been stated that applicants for a
given kind of employment may often fail, not because there is no
room for more labour, but because the drection in which the
applicants have been trained, or in which they desire to be
employed, is out of harmony with the natural or local proportions
of that particular service necessary in the production of general
satisfactions.

From this cause arises much difficulty and distress. It largely
adds to the proportion of dependants, and consequently the direct
or indirect strain (7.e., support of friends, relatives, private and
public charities) upon the actual breadwinners. becomes oppressive.
I do not here touch upon artificial aids to local production in its
effects upon the alteration or disturbance of the relative propor-
tions of the division of services upon which such aid must have
an immediate effect, further than to remark that if the aid by
tariff duties or other means enables the local division at once to
cover the ground formerly supplied by foreign industry, it can
only do so either by increasing the machinery or the relative
proportion of numbers employed locally in the division of service
affected. The advantage or disadvantage of adopting such a
policy is hereafter discussed. It is sufficient for the present
purpose to show the possible effect it may exert upon local
employment alone.

SATISFACTION OF WANTS AND THEORY OF OBSTACLES
CONSIDERED.

Human satisfactions are enjoyed to the fullest extent with the
smallest expenditure of time and human energy in regions where
the natural sources of human satisfactions are vast and rich, and
under conditions where the fewest obstacles intervene between
actual producers and actual consumers. Extra time and labour,
often necessarily spent in mere distribution, are in themselves
obstacles, and directly tend to lessen the quota of satisfactions
which might be enjoyed by each individual. All conditions,
therefore, which necessitate the larger expenditure of time and
labour (such as extreme distance between the several kinds
of producers and manufacturers), as well as conditions which

12

132 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION F.

necessitate extra provision against loss or waste of satisfactions
produced or being produced (such as dangers from loss by storms,
inundations, fire, waste by war, civil strife, robbery, depredations
by wild animals, idle and useless dependants, plagues of parasites,
disease, etc.), curtail of necessity the amount of necessary
satisfaction which otherwise might be enjoyed by each useful
human unit. Obstacles, therefore, greatly reduce the amount of
human satisfactions so far as each individual is cencerned,
although in the aggregate this is not so easily comprehended.
Lowness of nominal prices is not a correct index of conditions
most favourable for the attainment of the greatest amount of
satisfactions with the smallest expenditure of time and human
energy : for it often happens that low prices may be caused by
excessive expenditure of human energy forced upon a struggling
producer, or by poverty due to forced idleness on the part rot a
large body of consumers. While it may often happen—as in
young colonies—that a high price is no index of a lower supply
of satisfactions, but rather of the smaller amount of obstacles
intervening between consumer and producer, and gratuitous
sources of nature, the smaller amount of enforced idleness on
the part of consumer giving him a greater purchasing power ;
and the greater advantage of the producer, due to similar
causes, enabling him to obtain all the most necessary round of
satisfactions with a smaller expenditure of time and labour. Mere
cheapness of satisfactions, therefore, is not a reliable index of
individual welfare. Purchasing power, as indicated by expendi-
ture of time and labour, is the only true index as between
countries differently circumstanced, and this purchasing power of
the consumer—unlike the unreliable nominal cost or wage—is
always in harmony with the amount of obstacles intervening
between the actual producers of satisfactions and the actual
consumers.

This method of determining the condition of different com-
munities will be better understood if we carefully investigate the
effect of obstacles more closely. As the factors are variable and
numerous, the only way to arrive at true conclusions is to
approach the question by the mathematical method : thus :—

Let N=Natural agents and products; or the gratuitous

forces of nature.

P = Productive power of human agencies, including skill
and energy, and skilled appliances.

O = Obstacles intervening between NP, or producer and
consumers.

C=Producers, dependants, distributors, etc., repre-
senting the living population ; or consumers.

Then NP—O
cane

= Represents the amount of the average satisfactions
provided for each individual.

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS-—SECTION F. 133

And NP+0O
ie

= Represents the nominal cost of satisfactions for
each individual on the average—or it may
fairly represent the amount of exertion or
energy expended by human energy.

Having stated the general effect of obstacles between direct
producer and consumer as minimising the actual supply of neces-
sary satisfactions to each consumer where the values of N and P
and C are constant, it follows inevitably that the amount of satis-
factions to each individual is in direct correspondence to the
amount of O; increasing with its decrease, and decreasing with
its increase. ;

The effect upon rice, however, is exactly the reverse of this,
as a definite amount of satisfactions increase in price in correspon-
dence with the increase in obstacles (OQ), and decrease
correspondingly with its decrease.

This law is not invalidated because in particular cases (1) price
is comparatively low when O is absolutely great, and conversely
(2), price is comparatively low when O is absolutely small; for
in every such case there must be corresponding dissimilarity in
the other elements to explain this effect, ze. -—

The effect (1) could only happen in cases where either N or P
is abnormally or relatively great, or C is comparatively small ;
and similarly the effect (2) could only happen in cases where
either N or P is abnormally or relatively small or C is com-
paratively great.

The failure to grasp these fundamental considerations is the
chief cause of the blunders in all reasonings connected with
questions related to the policy of different nations in respect of
artificial restrictions, hindrances, or facilities in the interchange
of foreign products.

To make this matter more clear, it may be advantageous in
demonstration to set forth a number of examples for the sake of
illustrating the important truths involved in the effects produced
where one or all the factors are different in value :—

(1.) Where soil, climate, or natural utilities are particularly
advantageous, the value of N is at its best or maxi-
mum = N”

(2.) Where skill and energy exist, and are employed to the
best advantage, the largest results are attained for
R= Pr

(3.) Where the smallest number of obstacles occur between
NP and GC, the largest amount of satisfactions fall to
the share of C = CO”

(4.) The most perfect: conditions favourable for effecting the
highest amount of satisfactions to each individual
consumer coincide with N™ P™ —Q"

C

134 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION F.

Or,
If we separate P™into labourers (L) and instruments (1), the
fruit of former efforts, saved from previous consumption, and
devoted by inventive skill and energy to more or less permanent
aids to L, we have a more perfect statement of (4) thus :—

N= ibe IE ==@5 ; oP
Cae Sa i Ce ) =The ideally best conditions for
ioe een the attainment of the highest
of satisfactions satisfactions of human wants
with the least expenditure of
human energy.

Understanding by m and 7 the indices of the maximum and
minimum of the various conditions, then it would logically follow
that the converse or worst possible conditions for attaining the
necessary satisfactions of human wants, involving also the
greatest expenditure of human energy, would be when the
equation becomes

(B) IN" (L?,.1)-OF
C= Ny

This being so, it also follows that this stage will be coincident
with conditions which favour the maximum of cost for each
satisfaction, thus :—

N: (ig I) Ie oO
@z
Similarly, the conditions favourable to the attainment of

minimum of lowest cost or price (P") would coincide with stage
A, thus’

Ss

=

ifn Cl mets
(OF

Reasoning from these premises, it is clear that the results 8 and
P, or their values, can never be satisfactorily known, unless we
can gauge the values of thcir respective co-efficients. That is,
we must know not merely what is the tendency of any one
factor, but we must also know the tendency of all factors affect-
ing the problem. Nay, more, if Political Economy is ever to be
dignified by the name of “The Sczence of Political Economy,” it
must not merely take cognisance of the tendency of every one of
these factors, but, like the skilled physicist, its disciples must not
tall of the “teachings” “or conclusions” drawn from them until
they are prepared to place approximate values against the
tendency of each factor, and then to strike a balance showing
the ultimate effects of the ever-varying combinations in ever-
varying localities.

The difticulty of the problem is no excuse for ignoring the
necessity for the adoption of this course. Hitherto, to a great

=p!

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION F. 135

extent, the subject has been governed by the more or less
plausible generalisations of mere literary men; and_ their
deserved fame and undoubted ability and skill as such have given
them a prestige in political matters to which they are not entitled
from a practical or scientific point of view. That they have
done good service in arousing and sustaining attention on such
important matters is readily admitted ; but further progress is
impossible so long as the inexact methods of the mere literary
athlete are employed. In future the progress of Political
Economy as a science depends upon demonstrations based upon
quantitative analysis, and not as heretofore upon authoritative
dogmas based upon the qualitative analysis of any ove factor of
the problem arbitrarily chosen from a compound or complex
equation.

It is obvious that we may concur with most of the writers on
Political Economy as to the general tendency of any one
influence ; but while this is so, it may not be a safe proceeding
to trust the effect of this one tendency—even admitting its
importance—as determining the ultimate conclusion ; for other
tendencies, minus or plus, must be reckoned with before any
reliable conclusion can be arrived at. Pathos and literary merit
are powerful adjuncts, no doubt, but in the solution of political
problems they are worse than useless where complete and exact
‘methods are eschewed,

THE Best Mopre For EFFectiInc THE H+iGHEsr QuoTa oF
SATISFACTIONS wWitH A Minimum or TROUBLE DEPENDS
Uron THE Locat VALUE AND ExTEeNT oF NATURAL
SOURCES OF SUPPLY.

The principal material satisfactions essential to the happiness
and cultured content of human life primarily depend upon
natural sources of supply, and that country whose natural sources
afford the greatest potential of elements which may be made to
contribute to the material satisfactions of cultured men, is also
the country wherein the greatest number of people may best
fulfil all those mutual services to each other which cover the
whole round of wants of an ideally happy community. The
essential natural conditions for the sustenance of a_highly-
cultured community, and permitting a natural, healthy expansion,
are :—

(1.) Large area covering all zones of climate favourable for
the production of all reasonable wants, and possessing
richly all the elements essential to production, such
as water, fertile soil, the varied mineral and vegetable
products, and such flocks and herds as most contribute
to the welfare of man.

136 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION F.

(2.) Division of labour—each division carefully apportioned
in relation to the probable amount of different satis-
factions required ; and each labourer in every division
carefully trained in that branch of work to which he
has been apportioned.

(3. The creation and maintenance of instruments which best
supplement man’s efforts in modifying and distributing
the products derived from natural sources, and so
enabling each unit to enjoy the maximum of desirable
satisfaction with that minimum of exertion which is
most conducive to the health and happiness of the
individual.

Now, if it were possible to find such a combination of favour-
able conditions, wherein all the wants of man could be completely
met, it follows that interchange with other countries, so far as
material needs are concerned, would not only be unnecessary but
disadvantageous.

It is true, on moral grounds, a nation enjoying the maximum
of satisfactions with a minimum of exertion or maximum of ease
might either reduce the amount of satisfactions or increase its
exertions for purposes of benevolence as directed towards a
country less favourably situated; but there would be no such
necessity on commercial grounds as laid down by the earlier’
economists, except upon the plea that we should buy in the
cheapest market. But this last plea, the favourite maxim of Free
Trade theorists, ignores many consequences of the most vital
importance.

First, the ideal state contemplated had already discovered and
achieved that final state of content or evd to which a people can
aspire to—that is, a maximum of desirable satisfactions combined
with a minimum of reasonable exertion. This being so, why
should they attempt to procure this end by another method untried
by them, seeing that they could not improve their condition in
this way, but might make it worse. But as this plea must be
discussed, let us see under such circumstances what it might
lead to.

Buy IN THE CHEAPEST MARKET.

In our ideally perfect state, let us for convenient reference call
it ‘ Euphrasia,” one of the fundamental conditions regulating
its well-being 1s, that all for each is considered of as great if not
greater importance as each for all.

The favourable natural conditions were experienced to be such
that the round of wants of all might be satisfactorily supplied
without demanding from any one group of its divisions of labour
more than forty-four hours of public Jabour per week. But it was
also carefully determined that although a certain aggregate of

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—-SECTION F. 137

labour when properly directed would affect this desirable end, a
corresponding or even a much greater amount of labour could not
produce the same result if the previously carefully arranged and
periodical regulation of the apportionment of labourers were
subsequently disturbed in an arbitrary way. Every arbitrary
disturbance of the proportion of labourers trained and originally
apportioned to a special work or function has the effect of
lowering the purchasing power of the section which was arbitrarily
increased, because it introduced either curtailment of employ-
ment, wrongful competition, over-production, or diminished
purchasing power within that particular section of the division
of labour ; and in the section from which they were arbitrarily
withdrawn, it either lessened the amount of aggregate satisfactions
required for all, or, if it have not that effect, it increases the
hours of labour of those within the division beyond the maximum
standard, without additional recompense for increased exertion.
Tf, however, the additional hours are rewarded by extra satis-
factions, it must be at the expense of the general consumers,
thus lessening their average of aggregate satisfactions.

The wrongful over-production is a direct loss to the whole
community so healthfully regulated by community of interests.

Oh, but your ideal Euphrasian forgets, says the Economist,
that the surplus of A division might by interchange with another
nation be made to restore the balance thus arbitrarily destroyed
by A recompensing through products needed in division B where
a deficiency was caused, This is true, but at best this course only
helps to restore the loss occasioned by the arbitrary disturbance
of the apportionment of the local Euphrasian division of services.
Nay, more, the loss occasioned could not be fully restored by az
equal exchange of labour and skill, for the exchange with the
distant foreign country involved a fresh expenditure of labour in
transfer and agencies of exchange—thus increasing the value of
O or obstacles—between producer and consumer, and so inevitably
lessening the quota of the essential material satisfactions to be
divided among consumers. It must be borne in mind that
Euphrasia is assumed to possess the maximum of favourable
natural resources—plus best art appliances—and, consequently,
the restoration of the destroyed equilibrium in Euphrasia could
only be effected by a skilled people, who of necessity were forced
to adapt themselves to circumstances by either being satisfied
with a lower requirement of wants than that enjoyed by the
Euphrasians, or by a similar standard of material satisfactions
gained at a much greater expenditure of labour.

For the sake of illustration, let us further examine this theory
of obstacles. It will readily be granted that where two producing
centres are situated at vastly different distances trom consuming
centres, that supply from the nearer producing centre can be
effected by a much smaller expenditure of labour than by the more

_ distant centre of production.

138 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION F.

Thus, if A be 8000 miles distant, and B 40 miles, it follows
that the extra Jabour and time consumed in carrying the extra.
7960 miles is a serious disadvantage. Men do not consume
distance. In itself it does not add a jot to the ultimate material
wants of man otherwise produced. Distribution is certainly a
necessity, but the smaller the need for distribution the larger the
produce to be divided, for it is obvious that the more machines
and human beings that are abstracted from direct production of
essential satisfactions, the smaller is the quantity falling to the
share of each consumer of wants. Thus, if 100 producers and 50
distributors provide the ideal quota of wants of an Euphrasian at
the maximum of eight hours per day—say 10 wants per day—
then the 100 producers must each have produced 15 wants, for
consumers include producers and non-producers, or producers and
distributors, and these number 150, and

VOOM PA
150

for each consumer, or, on the basis of exertion which lies at the
root of price or cost, we might put it that for the aggregate hours
of labour in producing and distributing each consumer was put in
the possession of 10 wants. Now, if we increase obstacles, we
cannot supply the same number of wants without individually
increasing the hours of labour. Thus, if the additional distance
involves the labour of 50 additional distributors, and if producer’
and consumer alike share the additional labour thrown upon
them, we have

=e)

200 x 8
150

Thus, to maintain the same share of wants as formerly, the

necessary increase of 50 non-producers or distributors involved

fully an extra two hours labour per day, or 25 per cent. extra

exertion on the part of all breadwinners. In like manner it may

be shown, if the amount of exertions per individual remain undis-

turbed, then the amount of wants formerly supplied to each
consumer must be lessened, thus :—

150 x 40

Sema =7°5 wants per consumer

Thus we have with the increased obstacles a diminution in the
satisfaction of wants equivalent to a reduction of 25 per cent.

In these simple illustrations the direct effects of increased
obstacles between producer and consumer are set forth in plain
terms, so far as interchange with a distant country affects the
conditions of a country circumstanced like our ideal Euphrasia.
To apply the argument involving obstacles to other countries not so
favourably conditioned as Euphrasia might favour the adoption
of interchange between two or more distant countries, as effecting

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION F. 139

improvement in the condition of consumers in each country ; but
this improvement could only reach the highest possible quota for
such a place where the exchanges are confined to the necessary
products, which are either naturally easily produced beyond local
needs, or in respect of products which are naturally deficient
within its own border. In such case, the exchange of the former
by exports would have to be met with a similar value of imports
of the latter. But even here the disadvantageous effects of
obstacles are not a whit lessened. The disadvantageous effects
of obstacles have to be endured so long as they do not outweigh
the advantages of the desired exchanges.

Nay, there is one form of want—Food—which no obstacle can
outweigh so long as the energies of the labourer in other directions
remain unexhausted. The unfortunate country so circumstanced
must of necessity effect exchanges with food conntries, or perish
as a community. Still more terrible is it for the masses of this
country if it should happen that it lacks the natural or raw
products upon whose manufacture the exchanges for the food of
other countries depends.

In such a case the friction of obstacles (distance) between (1)
producer of raw products (2), manufacturer, and (3), consumer,
attains its maximum, notwithstanding that science and skill may
have done, and are still doing, wonders by steam and other
contrivances on sea and land to minimise its lowering influence
on the amount of satisfactions proportionate to labour exerted.

The Economist may here exclaim: How does the Euphrasian
argument from obstacles reconcile itself with such a case as the
United Kingdom. He will no doubt proceed to show that no
nation on earth has carried the method of interchange with other
countries to so high a pitch as the United Kingdom. Her vessels
are found laden with the products of exchange in every important
harbour of every country.

Her aggregate wealth is the envy of nations, amounting to a
sum something approaching £1,300,000,000 as a yearly income.
Her external interchange trade amounts to 643 millions yearly,
362 millions being imports and 281 millions being exports. Her
annual value of real estate alone reaches £196,000,000. Surely,
he would continue confidently, this is the most complete vindica-
tion that could be given practically that the nation which has the
greatest amount of foreign interchange trade and, presumably,
the greatest amount of obstacles, is also the nation which, by her
great wealth, affords the greatest amount of satisfactions to divide
among her consumers.

The answer to this supposed objection certainly involves many
complex questions, but if may at once be aflirmed that it does not
in the slightest degree diminish the value of the argument fronr
obstacles as applied to Euphrasia. In making this affirmation, it
is not denied that the wealth of the United Kingdom in //e

140 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION F.

aggregate is unbounded, and no one can reflect’ upon her grand
achievements in science, wealth, and progress without admiration
and pride. The skill and energy of her people are marvellous,
and our admiration is not lessened, but increased, by the thought
that her vast resources and enormous interchange of trade have
been built up by her prodigious energy and industry in spite of
obstacles of every kind. Her skill, daring, and enterprise have
given her the command of important lands under every clime.
This skill and enterprise, however, could not within her own
borders increase, beyond a certain limit, the necessary supplies to
meet her rapidly growing needs, as regards food and clothing for
her people and raw products to supplement her needs for supplying
manufactures in exchange for prime necessaries, failing which
she could not support the lives of her people. It is necessity,
therefore, which inevitably forced her to direct her industries in
such a manner that her lack in food and other raw products at
home should be purchased by a surplus creation of manufactures.
Food, being one of the prime essentials to the life of each person,
must be secured in sufficient quantity, or the lives of her workers
cannot be sustained. A nation possessed of all other forms of
the world’s wealth of exchange could not preserve the lives of her
people if this one form of wealth—Food—be lacking or insufficient.
With such a nation—so unfavourably conditioned—her existence
depends upon her power to command supplies of the food of other
countries in exchange for such products as food-producing
countries may think it desirable to take from her.

The food-producing countries may carry on this exchange as a
matter of choice or preference; but with the food-requiring
country the exchange must be effected—on the best terms
possible—but if necessity presses hard, 7¢ must be effected upon any
terms forced upon her.

Fortunately for such a country, all lands capable of producing
large food supplies are not in the condition of our ideal Euphrasia,
and hence there is little danger of a stoppage of food exchanges
for manufactures so long as the food-producing country is tempted
by cheapness to buy those of the food-lacking country in prefer-
ence to making them for herself, or of buying them from a rival
manufacturing country on s/// more advantageous terms.

FREE TRADE.

A food-lacking country must therefore favour free interchange
of trade, for it is necessary to her existence. A country with
ample natural sources unutilised or partly utilised would only
sutter a temporary inconvenience by the cessation of imports of
foreign manufactures, and it is possible that this inconvenience,
which forced her to supply her own wants from sources and
agencies within her own borders, might result in increasing the

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—-SECTION F. 141

amount of satisfactions for each consumer with an expenditure
of a smaller amount of exertion on the part of each producer and
distributor.

AGGREGATE WEALTH AND INDIVIDUAL WEALTH.

But let us again return to the outward indices of the prosperity
of the United Kingdom. Admitting that she has great wealth
in the aggregate, it does not necessarily follow that the share of
satisfactions falling to the bulk of her people compares favourably
with countries whose aggregate wealth is comparatively small.
In point of fact, any aggregate respecting the wealth of a country
is a pure abstraction. It is as such enjoyed by noone. Itis the
share falling on the average to each individual which is the true
indication of real wealth, or of the satisfactions enjoyed by the
unit.

This is significantly demonstrated by contrasting two widely
differing countries in respeot of that abstract idea called national
wealth :—

Tasmania. United Kingdom.

Area ... se» £16:5778;000 ...2. 77:800;000°
Ditto per head of population .. 11413 ese) UD
Ageresate earnings of wages class 5,519,340 .-- 800,084,000
Working class breadwinners, esti-

mated : ... 61,326 ... 15,884,000
Wages ditto per head per year wy, £90 eo cao
Average hours employed per week 44 5g 50D
Wages per head per week . .. 84s. 6d. see pd Eesiih
Average wages per head per hour 9d. Piel en
Average cost of one quarter of

wheat ae 32s. 6d. ey HO28.60.
Equivalent of ditto in true pur-

chasing power, viz., hours’ labour 41° hours ,,. 92° hours

Thus it will be seen that, notwithstanding the imposing effect
of the vast aggregate wealth of labour in England, representing
over eight hundred million pounds sterling, the purchase of one
quarter of wheat—the staff of life—demands of her workmen
the expenditure of 92-° hours’ time in labour, whereas in Tas-
mania the same amount of satisfactions can be gained by the
expenditure of 41-° hours of labour ; that is, the English workman
would have to work, if work could be placed at his disposal (in
itself a greater difficulty), 123 per cent. more hours to attain the
same purchasing power possessed by the Tasmanian workman,
whose aggregate wealth only represents 0°69 per cent. of the
corresponding aggregate in England.

This clearly proves how misleading are the effects produced
by allowing the mind to dwell upon mere abstractions based
upon aggregates

142 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS

THe EFFECT OF STRIKES OR A RISE IN WAGES IN Foop-
Propucine AND Foop-LACKING CoUNTRIES.

But the difference in the purchasing power of the English
breadwinner is not the only disadvantage. Her purchasing
power is also not merely limited by the extent of the market
for her manufactures, but upon her success in underselling
foreign rivals who are also by necessity compelled to exchange
manufactures for the prime necessaries of raw products of food
and clothing ; and hence her success depends either upon her
superiority in skill and local appliances, or in cheapness or
extending the hours of labour. It is a necessity that a manufac-
turing country must produce cheaply, and necessity will force
her to attain this end by extending the hours of the labourer
without extra recompense, should other means fail her as a
competitor for the bread and raw products of food-producing
countries. Strikes and combinations among workmen are only
of value to them within very narrow limits. For let us suppose
that England’s supremacy as a manufacturing country depends
upon her present power to undersell rival countries to the extent
of 15 per cent., it would then follow that any xominal success
attaimed by the combined strikes of her workmen, thereby
improving their hours of labour or rates of wages to the extent
of, say, 16 to 20 per cent. would be altogether disastrous, for it
would destroy the competitive power of England as a manufacturer
for other countries than her own. But if England was thus shut
within herself there would probably be no employment whatever,
and no means of subsistence for perhaps 20 millions of her present
population of 38 millions. This would be a terrible result arising
out of the success of combined strikes among her manufacturing
workmen:

That an increase of the cost of her products to the extent of
what has been indicated is not a very improbable matter
springing from strikes has been foreshadowed by the recent
combination among English dock labourers, who succeeded in
having their rate of wages raised 2d. per Hotirs As the average
rate of workmen in Brgland is only 4-?°d, per hour, a general
increase of 13d. per hour would raise the cost of wages 35- vivper
cent. ; and as the price of labour is the chief item of cost in all
manufactures, it is not improbable that the ultimate cost of her
manufactures would be raised 20 per cent., thus cutting her off
from her previous advantage, which enabled her successfully to
outrival all other countries in supplying the external markets of
the world with manufactures.

In countries where food and raw products are or can be produced
far in excess of local requirements, the effect of prohibitive tariffs
in raising local prices would not have a similar effect. If the
cost of living would be xominally raised thereby, it would be

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION F. 145

exactly or nearly counterbalanced by a xominal increase in earnings
locally. Thus, for example, if the consumer had to pay 20 per
cent. extra for all articles of consumption, it is probable that
even this would not be disadvantageous ; for it is almost certain
that the true purchasing powers of labour—relative to staff of
life—would be very little altered, as the price of labour would
also tend to approach an increase of 20 per cent.

But there is one effect which this would have upon a food-
producing country, which would show a decided contrast with a
similar rise of wages in a manufacturing country such as England,
viz., it would draw to the former the manufacturing labourers
of manufacturing or densely-peopled centres; for instead of
cutting off sources of employment, as in England, it would of
necessity require her to import /adourers to produce those wants
locally, or a great portion of them, which formerly had been
supplied to her by the manufactures of external labour. That is,
broadly, its main effect would be to increase the local labour
market or widen the field for the employment of local labour.
At first this would also have the effect of diminishing the
aggregate extent of external commerce ; but it need hardly be
discussed, all things being fairly equal as regards natural sources,
that the supply of exchanges by home products, instead of by
foreign, is all in favour of diminution of obstacles, and therefore,
upon the whole, advantageous. . . . This problem has already
been worked out in the United States of America, and whatever
the ultimate effects may be when local. population approaches
too close to her limits of natural powers for producing food and
necessary raw materials for her own people, it is undoubted that
60 millions would not be profitably employed and well supported
if it were not for her policy of favouring the creation of her own
wants as far as possible by the energies of /ocal labourers.

It must be granted, however, that the policy which is advan-
tageous to a rich food and raw-producing country, such as
America, would be annihilation to a country such as England,
where the population by far exceeds her natural sources of supply
as regards food and other essential raw products.

A country so cireumstanced must maintain a Free Trade policy
or perish. With countries thinly populated, possessing illimitable
sources of natural wealth, including soil, climate, and all
conditions favourable for the production of food and raw products
in excess of local wants, it must inevitably follow that the
tendencies and influences arising from the desire to extend the
local field of employment must be in the direction of Protection, or
restrictions upon foreign trade. It is the conditions of the various
countries which determine means to ends.- In one country the
means 18 Protection, in the other Free Trade ; but the ezd in both
cases is the same, viz., the best available mode of supplying the
greatest amount of satisfactions to each individual (including local

144 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION F.

employment to the rising generation) with the least expenditure of
individual effort.

Tf Mr. Henry M. Hoyt, who has so ably defended the American
policy of Protection, had premised that he was referring solely to
countries rich in all natural sources—far surpassing the demands of
all possible local requirements-—we might agree with his ideal as
regards the policy to be pursued, viz:—-“‘The nearer we come
to organising and conducting our competing industries, as if we
were the only nation on the planet, the more we shall make, and
the more we shall divide among the makers. Let us, at least,
enter upon all the industries authorised by the nature of our
things. Thus we shall reach the greatest annual product of the
industry of the society.”

When, however, any country’s population fails or is unable to
cultivate 2°81 acres per head within her own borders, the policy
suggested by Mr. Hoyt must of necessity be abandoned in
favour of Free Trade. This necessity—involving the population
difficulty—is, however, an evil, and not an advantage to the
masses.

NatruraL Limits to THE NuMBERS ENGAGED IN VARIOUS
OccuUPATIONS.

Most writers on social problems tacitly assume that no other
considerations than those of Supply and Demand, or Competition
and Remuneration, need be taken into account when questions
relating to the numbers that may be employed in the various
branches of human industry are concerned. Indeed, so able an
exponent of the principles of Political Economy as Mr. Henry
Sidgwick assumes with confidence that the adjustment of the
apportionment of the employed in the various divisions of industry
is sufficiently determined by “rates of remuneration.” He states
(p. 182, Principles of Political Economy)—“ We assume that
labour and capital are modile, or capable of being attracted by a
higher rate of remuneration both from district to district and
from industry to industry, so that not merely are the wages paid
for the same quality in any one industry approximately the same,
but also, when the remuneration of labourers or capitalists in any
industry is known to be higher than that of labourer or capitalist
in some other industry entailing no more sacrifice or outlay and
requiring no scarcer qualifications, the difference tends to be
gradually reduced by the attractions which this higher remunera-
tion exercises on actual or prospective labourers or employers.”

There is not the faintest recognition here of natural limits to
or absolute necessity for employment in a given direction, irre-
spective of the aggregate intensity of energies expended or market
rates and prices. Neither does he recognise the universal truth
in matters animate and inanimate that mobility or movement in

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION F. 145

a new direction requires a fresh expenditure of force commen-
surate with the nature of the subject, the time occupied in
transition, and the friction to be overcome, due to inertia or
foreign resisting media. A physicist would never dream of
discussing the mobility of material substances in such a loose way.
He would first consider the mass or weight of the substance, the
distance and direction of movement, the rate of movement and
time, and the friction due to inertia or existing diversity of
movement, and from these he would compute the fresh demand
upon energy or force to execute the desired movement.

Because the Political Economist does not think, or does not
choose to think, that the transfer of a labourer or capitalist to a
new place or to a new kind of occupation involves a process
analogous to the movement of inanimate bodies, it is not the less
true. Take the case of a shoemaker reduced to a state of idle-
ness, or partial idleness, by competition among excessive numbers,
or some other cause locally or generally. We will suppose that
this workman has a family of five persons, including himself, to
provide for, in addition to his quota of expenditure required for
State purposes, such as General Government, Law, and Protection,
including Gaols, Military and Naval Defences, Police, Education,
Public Hospitals, Asylums, Support of Paupers, &c. It is obvious,
therefore, that when fairly employed in this branch of labour—
making boots and shoes—he is not merely rendering reciprocal
services to his countrymen, but he helps them to provide for such
expenditure as the requirements of the particular State demands.
The greater the effort or energy expended by him during the year,
the greater is the value of produce by him added to the common-
wealth in all these respects, in addition to the important part of
support of the four dependants specially related to him.

Under ordinary circumstances (excluding foreign interference,
and making due allowance for special skill) all branches of services
within a certain country are paid at rates of wages which are,
broadly speaking, correlative to effort or time expended, and,
consequently, so long as the rates of wages are locally proportionate
to definite efforts and skill, it matters not whether the average
rate per hour be nominally high or low, so long as expenditure is
also determined locally by such correlative conditions. Thus take
the following illustrations :—Suppose the price of bread is deter-
mined by a daily effort of 10 hours, and that all other services
are modified and constantly exchanged in prices which, whether
high or low, are also proportioned to the nominal price of, say,
the guarter of wheat. Under these circumstances, it would not
matter to the shoemaker whether the xomznal or money cost of
his wages was high or low, for it would have the same purchasing
power over the things which he required to satisfy the wants of
himself and family, besides the proportion required from him for
the service of the State Thus if the standard—the quarter of

J

146 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION F.

wheat—bore always the same relation to his remuneration of 10
hours’ labour, and to the various items of his expenditure, it
mattered not a whit to him whether the nominal money cost of
wheat was high or low. In Australia the average relation
between a breadwinner’s effort expended and a quarter of wheat
usually represents 44} hours’ labour, equal to 5} days’ labour
(S hours) nearly. If, therefore, the quarter of wheat and other
things (including expenditure) always bore a corresponding
relation to each other, as 445 hours’ common labour bears as the
equivalent to one quarter wheat, it follows of necessity that
nominal prices, whether high or low, would not increase or
decrease his receipts or expenditure, nor his average gains or
losses. Thus, so far, the various divisions of labour within any
one State would never be affected, in reciprocal interchanges with
each other, by alteration in the nominal cost of services, so long
as the alteration in cost was a general one within the State, and
governed by local natural conditions.

But a different result would follow, so far as the shoemaker is
concerned, if manufactures of boots and shoes were largely
introduced from a country where nominal money prices were
generally much lower, or where the average breadwinners of the
population—reduced to a perilous condition—were forced to
increase their expenditure of daily effort relative to the standard
of cost of one quarter of wheat to 89 hours, or 77% days’ labour
of 12 hours a day. The local shoemaker would not have the
advantage of distance and cost of transit,.as in the case of the
local quarryman or coal-miner; for shoes and boots can be
transferred long distances at a relatively small cost, and hence,
if not protected in some other way, the local shoemaker would be
unable to compete with the foreign low-paid worker. Not only
would he have to increase his efforts to the same extent as the
foreign competitor, but he would (were it not impossible) have to
exceed his efforts before he could drive the foreign competitor
from the field, and failing this; he would be reduced, perhaps, to
half-time employment at the foreign rate of wages, and, probably,
soon he and his family, overwhelmed with poverty, would become
local victims to competition ; and, instead of being a help to the
State, would become dependants upon the rest of the bread-
winners, thus increasing their State burdens.

It is usual with theorists to talk lightly of the modzlity of
labour under such circumstances, and to show that the local
shoemaker, finding himself unable to compete in his capacity as
shoemaker, would at once transfer his services to some other
branch of labour, where, it is supposed by theorists, that there is
always some providential provision. But all such writers do not
seem to be aware that, in a country where manufacturing
industries do not dominate, there is a tendency to narrow the
scope of operations, and to close more and more the doors of

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION F. 147

entrance to the remaining branches of active industries in
proportion to the number of local industries actually driven out
of existence by the influx of foreign manufactures. This is
undoubted, so far as local market is concerned. No one can
affirm, with reason, that an industry driven out does not
correspondingly delimit the demand upon the Jocal market.
Logically, therefore, the only direction in which our shoemaker
could maintain his existence as a breadwinner would be—(1) to
convert himself into a labourer in raw products, for which there
is still a profitable demand in /oreign markets ; (2) transport
himself and his family to a country where his particular services
are in demand; or (3) starve or become dependant paupers,
supported by the local State, already too heavily burdened by
poor rates, etc.

In theoretical discussion this case would be disposed of by
wordy wrangling or special pleading, indictment of the capacity
or lack of reasoning power of opponents, references to alleged
harmonies of competition and to dogmas and general conclusions
of various political economists of accepted authority. The usual
ruts of controversy may afford ample opportunities for theorists
to display literary skill, aided by the usual handy assortment of
stock illustrations. But, instead of a literary sham-fight, let the
theorist enter into the real difficulties by discussing the matter,
practically, with the distressed shoemaker. For this purpose we
will take a common incident in these colonies.

A deputation from the shoemakers, driven out of employment
by competition with cheap foreign manufactures.

(Shoemaker) spokesman for deputation.

(Theorist) representing the Government.

Shoemaker : On behalf of myself and my distressed fellow-
workmen and their families I have been asked to represent to the
Government the terrible distress into which we have fallen by the
influx of manufactures of boots and shoes from Europe, at such
low prices that we have not only been knocked off employment
by local manufacturers, who were unable to compete with foreign
houses, but we find that, as individual workmen, with such high
ruling rates in rent, clothing, and other necessaries, besides a
high local taxation, we are unable to earn enough to maintain
ourselves and families, even if we were able to get full employment
at the foreign selling prices.

Theorist: I sympathise deeply with your distress, but we
cannot interfere with the laws of free interchange. You must,
therefore, seek employment in some other way.

Shoemaker : But we cannot turn our hands to another trade,
and even if we tried, we would have to spend years as apprentices.
Even in our own trade we had, as young men, to spend three or
four years as apprentices, partly or wholly supported the while
by our parents. Now we have no such help. On the contrary

J2

148 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION F.

we are each burdened with the support of a family. Even if we
could manage for ourselves, what is to become of our families in
the meantime ?

Theorist: I admit this ditticulty, but is there not plenty of
work open to you in this country where you could turn your
labour to account, where no special skill is required, or, at any
rate, where bone and muscle is all that is necessary.

Shoemaker : True, in time some of us might obtain work as
labourers in the fields among farmers, or on public works or mines,
but the failure in our own industry in such a thinly-populated
country causes a depression in nearly all local occupations ;
for it must be admitted a considerable portion of the products of
other trades and industries have been directly affected by our
distress and our lessened consumption, due to lack of purchasing
power. Besides, I have been told by farmers that they have
themselves long struggled with adverse circumstances in com-
peting against more favoured agriculturists in America, who
are able to sell in European markets at prices which tend to
become lower year by year, and if a local market is not soon
established, many of them will have to give in. If other trades
are crushed by foreign competition as we have been, what hope
have the farmers of holding on, let alone the outlook for their
own children, where every branch of industry seems to be
already overstocked, even in this rich and extensive country
with a sparse population. In addition to what I have stated,
I am informed by those who have given much attention to
agriculture that there is only a limited amount of land where
agriculture might be successfully carried on ; but this form of
industry will not admit of the employment of more than 35
persons to the square mile of land in cultivation, and if this be
so, and if farmers cannot exchange products of the same kind
with each other, how can a local market become a possibility in
the absence of a local community of trades and manufacturers ?

Theorist : 1 admit that the home trader and home workman
may femporarily suffer loss from the competition of foreign traders
and workmen in the same branch of industry, but it must be
remembered that everyéhing will again be adjusted, because
capital is constantly exerting a tendency to smooth down any
temporary inequality in the profits of different trades. Even if
you suffer from foreign importations, the Government is not
bound to protect you; for there can be no right which has a
juster claim than that every individual of the community should
be freely permitted to obtain commodities where he can buy
them on the cheapest terms, and to sell them where he can
realise the highest price.

Shoemaker : It is easy for theorists to write such things. I
am unable to understand exactly what you mean by suffering a
temporary loss, or what the process may be which you euphoniously

Py

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION F. 149

term a tendency to smooth down any temporary inequality. I
and my fellow-workmen are now unemployed ; many of us, with
our families, are in great distress—without zustant employment

or relief from some source, many of us will die of starvation. We

have no means, and if we had we do not know where to go to
better our miserable condition. Do you mean, if many of us
succumb and die from want and misery, thereby thinning our
own ranks as competitors for the existing small field of employ-
ment still remaining, that this is the smoothing down process to
which we are referred for comfort? Good heavens, surely not
this? Remember that we are human beings, not machines. The
machine may stand idle for a time and “ive. Men cannot.
Friction in inanimate machinery means dissipation of power in
heat ; with men friction means distress, misery and death. Men
are not machines, and loose analogies based upon the laws of
physical processes cannot be grimly applied to men fighting for
life and exposed to suffering. You say that Government is not
bound to protect its own workmen, and that there can be no right
having a juster claim than that every individual should have the
most absolute freedom in buying in the cheapest market and
selling in the dearest, irrespective of any local claims of sympathy
or rational or racial ties of common interest. Such a commercial
Law, not Bond, cannot be consistent with the conditions which
necessitate the maintenance, defence and independence of indi-
vidual nationalities. To be logical, it would necessitate the
breaking down of all individual States, all individual race
conglomerations, and the fusing of all human elements into one
grand State of the world. Until that time arrives there must
of necessity be localised interests, governed by the same local
general condition, which maintain separate nationalities. All
the social organisations of the State, such as Railways, Roads,
Bridges, Harbours, Post and Telegraph, Schools, Defence and
Protection, Poor Laws, &c., can only be logically maintained
upon the admitted necessity of some common local rational
interest, having special concern for the general welfare of the
particular nation ; and these special local interests are so inter-
twined by so many bonds more precious than mere questions
regarding absolute cost of products in money, that it seems absurd
to say that the destruction or suffering of any of its members
are locally only of equal concern to a corresponding evil in a
foreign State similarly constituted. The necessary gravitation
and concentration, interests and sympathies around home and
fatherland are as natural as perspective in optics; the greatest
density must be near the centre of self, home and family,
becoming weaker and weaker as the related rings of friends,
relations, club, townsmen, nation, race are passed through, to the
thinner sympathies lying beyond, embracing humanity generally,
where foreign races and states are bound, and they themselves

150 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION F.

are related obversely to us in a similarly graduated series of
interests and sympathies. It is this grand gravitation of human
interests and sympathies which make possible ideas and forces
which make home, friend, and fatherland; and these, not
nominal cost of products, are the great factors which determine
the engergies and welfare of any community. Commercial laws
tend to destroy the heart of all ideas which centre in home and
fatherland, and if the nation is to live it must carefully guard
against their decrepitating influence. Their shuttle seems just
as ready to weave the shroud of a nation as to bind nations in
bonds of broader sympathies.

Dominating Wants DETERMINE OCCUPATIONS AND NECESSARILY
Propuce INEQUALITIES IN THE FoRM OF SERVICES.

Hitherto, in the writings of social reformers, the greater part
of the attention has been confined to the monopoly by the few of
the lands, houses, railways, and other instruments connected
with the production, security, and distribution of the necessary
wants of human beings. It is generally assumed that there is
abundance of primary wants for each one if the aggregate
products annually created were more equitably distributed. But
if the necessary primary satisfactions were annually produced in
sufficient quantity for the wants of all, it would go to prove the
curious and inexplicable circumstance that the present haphazard
training, and supply and demand, allocation of those who are
engaged, or who are being trained to engage, in the various
divisions of labour are in perfect harmony with conditions which
combine to effect that result, which might seem too formidable if
undertaken by the most absolute regulations of intelligent
prevision. The present supply of satisfactions is determined by
the estimates or combined action of self-interested producers. It
cannot be affirmed, on the basis of producers’ self-interest, that
wants are produced with the sole idea of providing the highest
quota of each satisfaction to each individual. At best they
favour the mnimum supply, as self-interest is best rewarded by
a keen demand—involying high prices—a result which would not
be attained if the maximum quota of satisfactions for each
individual was created. Of course, the absence of a perfect
scheme of combined prevision among producing competitors, and

the unforeseen variable effects springing from natural causes year’

by year, often produce abundance or superfluity, or over-
production, as it is termed ; but this is a result not premeditated,
and, although favourable to consumers for the time being, it is a
mere accident, causing a fall in prices, and is likely to be followed
by purposeful under-production during the succeeding period, in
order to produce a straitened market with a corresponding rise in
prices, and results in a certain reduction of the ideal quantity of

ne

~

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS —SECTION F. ite |

satisfactions falling to the lot of each consumer of the poorer
classes. But this tendency of se//cnterested producers striving to
produce wader the necessary requirement is just the very condition
for involving the poor in the continual battle with poverty and
want ; and all that can be said in favour of self-interest is, that
hitherto there has been no better method devised which would so
effectually serve the majority of human beings. Is it to be
wondered, then, that the /ess #¢ (happily a minority) in the struggle
for existence should at times cruelly feel pinching want, when
upon them must fall the evil of the barely-sufficing aggregate
scarcity, the ideal creation which the self-interested producers
strive for. It has been shown that the supply of wants is
at present alone roughly predetermined by the self-interested
calculations of producers, and that their aim is to extend the field
of production as far as they can in safety to themselves—and
that means as near an approach to a full supply as will ensure
good prices, involving a tight market, or scarcity. Consumers,
who desire abundance, do not determine the forthcoming supplies.
Producers’ interests, therefore, are antagonistic to any social ideal
which would bring the highest quota of necessary satisfactions
easily within the reach of all men. Therefore, so long as
producers’ self-interest rules supreme in the creation of necessary
products, so long must we expect the periodic suffering and
pinching of the lower stratum of the working classes. Bastiat
even is forced to admit that “antagonistic desires cannot at one
and the same time coincide with the general good.” “ As a
purchaser he desires abundance ; as a seller he desires scarcity.”
“The wishes and desires of the consumers are those which are in
harmony with the public interest.” Food, clothing, houses,
railways, steamboats, and the various machines of production are
almost wholly regulated in the interests of producers, compe-
tition alone preventing this interest from working in too great
antagonism to the interests of consumers. Nearly all bread-
winners, therefore, in detail defeat, to some extent, their own
ultimate interests as general consumers by regulating the produc-
tion of supplies upon a principle which is inimical to their
interests as consumers. Nor is this the only evil. All wages-
breadwinners must produce, or serve to produce, before they can
earn the right to share or consume the fruits of production. But
the xumbers of the employed depend almost wholly upon the se/f
interest of the large capitalist producers. It is not the interest of
large capitalist producers to provide the full quota of wage-
earning employment to a// breadwinners. The larger the number
of fully employed labourers the keener is the demand for products,
and indirectly this may have some influence upon certain
producers. But this indirect consideration is too feeble to interest
producers in any scheme for the general good which might be
directed to ensuring full employment to a// breadwinners. It is

152 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION F.

manifest, therefore, that in the present scheme of the division of
labour there are two ugly defects. /irs¢, there is no interest
intelligently organised to train and determine according to natural
proportions the occupations of the future breadwinners. — Second,
the only existing agency which determines the extent of employ-
ment is guided by a principle which has for its object neither the
supply of the highest quota of satisfactions to consumers nor the
more needful provision for securing employment for all bread-
winners. In the latter case, competition, instead of befriending
the wage-earner and dependants as consumers, operates all the
more harshly upon the larger number who are handicapped in
the race by aimless training, or no training, for the nature of
services that might possibly be otherwise open to some of them.

UvopiaAN SCHEMES OF SOCIALISTS.

It is not a matter of surprise, therefore, that the mass of wage-
earners should readily sympathise with every vague Utopian
scheme of the Socialists, which holds out, however faultily, some
promise or plan for dealing more effectually with the root
difficulties which affect them most nearly, viz., security of employ-
ment, protection from over-competition, shorter hours labour with
more adequate remuneration, redistribution of wealth, &e., &c.
But it is needless to point out that, before the redistribution of
the aggregate of all forms of existing wealth of exchange (so-
called) can be dealt with, it must be clear that this wealth consists
of such forms as might effectually satisfy all the primary wants and
comforts of human beings. That existing wealth in exchange, even
if equally distributed, would fulfil this most necessary provision
is a pureassumption. It has already been shown that a great part
of the existing nominal wealth of exchange largely owned by the
rich consists of the mere ¢oo/s and iustruments of production, and
that the real wealth appropriated as consumable wealth, or primary
satisfactions, is already more widely and evenly distributed than
is generally supposed. Even under the most thorough Socialistic
scheme this form of wealth would be far less generally distributed
than at present ; for, according to such a scheme, it would be
wholly reserved in the hands of the executive Government. It
is utterly misleading to reckon upon the existing wealth of
capitalists as a source for raising the quota of the real consumable
and primary satifactions. The only distribution possible in this
respect would be the empty idea of part-ownership. It is the
increase to necessary current productions designed for actual
consumption (material satisfactions) which alone can raise the
average standard of primary satisfactions, and so dispose of
material want, or poverty and distress. The question therefore
arises—Suppose that such a scheme were practicable, would the
producing energies of men be greater and more effective than

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—-SECTION F. 1955)

under the scheme of Competition, Liberty, Right of Inheritance,
Property Right, or Individualism as it is called? To be more
effective in one essential, it must utterly fail in the other. The
workers must be trained and allocated to specific occupations in
strict conformity to the amount and nature of the labour actually
required to produce the primary satisfactions and comforts
desired. Training for every specific occupation requires con-
siderable time, but for the occupation of skill a large amount of
time must be consumed in acquiring the necessary training,
irrespective of questions with regard to the unequal distribution
of capacity.

Now, on the basis of equality, it may be easy to divide
products; that according to actual needs is simple enough,
involving no insuperable difficulty. But what about the alloca-
tion to different employments? How can the easy, the refined,
and the skilled occupations be allocated on any scheme of
equality? The majority must, as heretofore, sweat at the hard
and dirty forms of labour ; but what power or what plan can be
devised which will enable any elective executive to doom once
and for ever the majority of learners and workers to the hard
and irksome occupations, and to fix the minority in the refined,
the easy and skilled services? Suppose it were for a time insti-
tuted, how long would the unfortunate majority be content to
submit to their lot before an irresistible cry for redistribution of
occupations arose; and if it arose, where is the force stronger
than the majority of freemen to preserve the break-down of the
social organisation necessary to produce the primary supply
wants according to individual needs? What compensation can
be given to the masses toiling in the more wearisome occupations?
Extra allowance of satisfactions cannot be thought of, for that
would destroy the coveted ideal of equality in the distribution
of satisfactions according to needs. Shorter hours cannot
be allowed without trenching upon equality of leisure. The
unequal distribution of natural capacity, and the time necessary
to acquire knowledge of more than one technical branch of skilled
employment make it impossible to share in turn for a time all
possible forms of labour. In short, the practical difficulties
standing in the way of eguadity in the allocation of employment
appear to be insuperable, and would most certainly, if there were
no other objection, destroy any social organisation on a /arye
scale which had been courageous enough to attempt it. Reference
to simple communities, as in America, following agriculture
pursuits mainly, and not of themselves fulfilling for themselves
the whole round of human wants, are utterly misleading. Such
small communities are composed of a peculiar, select class, who
voluntarily bind themselves to a more or less ascetic life, and all
such petty attempts tend to perish from lack of internal vitality.
With a large mixed body of men, embracing all occupations, and

154 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION F.

endowed with ordinary passions and desires, the results would be
chaotic and disastrous in the extreme. One effect, terrible to
contemplate, would seem to be inevitable, viz., that the indis-
criminate distribution of products among all men would destroy
the major source of savings at present so largely devoted to the
creation and maintenance of the powerful and costly auxiliary
aids to human labour, and the slight individual gain per head in
material satisfactions would only be of a very temporary character,
for it would soon be lost by the new impulse to the improvident
to rapidly increase their numbers.

WHAT WOULD BE THE PROBABLE EFFECT UPON SocIAL WELL-
BEING IF THE Masor Source oF SAVINGS WERE DESTROYED.

In another place it has been indicated that the mere “ two
hands,” or the unaided labour of man, would not only fail to
produce the average comforts and luxuries now enjoyed by nearly
all classes of men, but more calamitous still, they would fail to
produce the prime necessaries of life in sufficient quantity to
maintain the lives of the existing population. Defects in the
existing scheme of civilisation, some of which seem to be
ineradicable, may be truly charged yearly with the destruction
of thousands of valuable lives ; but were the present major source
of savings dissipated or destroyed by equality in share of earnings,
either by lowering the powers of production or by slightly raising
temporarily the average amount of satisfactions consumed or
enjoyed, the new conditions (equality of earnings) would be a
blight and a curse, for while the existing defects in distribution
may be the cause of the misery and destruction of thousands of
valuable lives, the eguality scheme would certainly entail the
misery and destruction of millions now living in a state of
comparative comfort. Many who fail to ponder over those root
difficulties may exclaim—How can you explain this paradox ?
Why should the fairer distribution of wealth (that according to
actual individual needs, without regard to inequalities of natural
powers, capacities or inheritance), raising the average comfort of
the majority and lowering the superfluous and luxurious satisfac-
tions of the minority, be productive of such disaster ?

The answer is plain enough. The power to effect large savings,
or to create the more costly auxiliaries of labour, depends mainly
upon the existence of specially favourable conditions.

(1.) The desire to accumulate or save can only become strong
enough to be effective when the stronger desires for primary
satisfactions are appeased.

(2.) Savings or accumulations, therefore, can never be
produced by labourers or others whose earnings do not exceed
the supply necessary to satisfy the three primary wants. The
majority of breadwinners are always in this “hand-to-mouth”

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION F. 155

condition, and rarely, of themselves, are able to contribute to the
maintenance and increase of machines and instruments to serve
as auxiliaries of production to future labour. They, however, in
their social relations, more than contribute the average share of
the future surplus workers, whose efforts must be proportionately
supplemented by capital and power-multiplying instruments if
they are to enjoy the same or a further improved condition.

Those workers whose earnings are suflicient to provide comforts
beyond the limits of bare prime necessaries may, however, by
self-denial in the satisfactions of comforts, lay by a small store of
savings which, in time, may swell into such valuable auxiliaries

_to earnings, that the self-denial in comforts hitherto may be
rewarded in the greater satisfaction in comfort in the future, and
even in adding considerably to the store of wealth, which may
be converted into the more permanent capitalised auxiliary
instruments of power, which will benefit the generation coming
after them.

Those, however, who contribute most largely to the creation of
the permanent instruments which add unknown power to the
efforts of hand labour, are chiefly those who either have inherited
these or similar creations from their ancestors, or who, by
extraordinary energy, skill, or self-denial, or all together—in the
earlier part of their lives—are now enabled, after satisfying the
three primary wants and comforts, to indulge the prevailing
passion of comfortable people, z.c., the accumulation of wealth or
power over wealth. This passion in itself is, at this stage,
undoubtedly a personal luxury ; but, unlike the luxuries which
are directed to greater fersonal consumption, it is fortunately
directed to that form of immaterial enjoyment which springs
from the knowledge that the owner possesses the power to direct
the mode or secure the best conditions in which wealth may be
further employed. Fortunately for the world at large, self-
interest at this stage converts into a virtue what otherwise would
be a vice ; for the passion to further secure luxury of power over
wealth, and to augment it, restricts personal indulgence in
further consuming the material fruits of labour and the material
gratuitous stores of nature, and runs parallel with that course
which favours increased production relative to numbers, involving
the improvement of the social and economic condition of all
labourers ; z.¢., the wealthy man or industrial chief does not, or
cannot, increase his own personal consumption of the materia/
fruits of labour, skill, enterprise, and the gratuitous gifts of
nature beyond a moderate standard. The unconsumed material
surplus by passion, self-interest, and even the better motives, is
necessarily devoted to multiplying and sustaining the inanimate,
costly, and powerful permanent aids to human productive power
which alone distinguishes civilised populous communities from
those of the miserable and bare-handed savage races, whose

156 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION F.

command of a continent of the richest land upon the globe is
too feeble to support in comfort a few insignificant wandering
tribes.

The broad conclusions to be drawn from the foregoing con-
siderations are :—That the social condition of mankind cannot
be improved, or even maintained, unless a considerable proportion
of the aggregate primary satisfactions produced be specially
devoted continuously to agencies set apart for the maintenance,
creation, discovery and improvement of such machines, tools,
instruments and skilled contrivances as promise to add most
effectually to man’s power in transforming the forces of nature
to the service of man. That the devotion of such a large propor-
tion of created products to such purposes, entailing such a tax
upon the aggregate store of Aresent satisfactions, for and upon
the individual share which otherwise might fall to each consumer,
can only be secured by society living under peculiarly favourable
conditions, such as has already been indicated. This involves
favourable natural conditions as regards extent and quality of
soil and climate ; maximum of skill and energy, tempered by the
reasonable maximum of allowance for leisure and rest ; division
of labour—each division carefully disciplined, apportioned, and
maintained in strict relation to the probable amount of the
different satisfactions and needs required, and each member of
the community in the dependant and under tutelary conditions—
carefully trained in strictly corresponding proportions to that
branch of work in which it has been predetermined that the
individual must in the future devote his life’s service; the
adoption of such regulations as will restrict the number of
consumers and dependants within reasonable limits—that is,
within the present limits of the producing powers of the society —
to provide a reasonable quota of satisfactions to each individual.
The last provision involves the great population difficulty.

PoPpuLaTION DIFFICULTIES, OR THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE.

Darwin (page 52, “Origin of Species”) has observed “ that
in a state of nature almost every full-grown plant annually
produces seed, and amongst animals there are few which do not
annually pair. Hence we may confidently assert that all plants
and animals are tending to increase at a geometrical ratio—that
all would rapidly stock every station in which they could anyhow
exist. And this geometrical tendency to increase must be checked
by destruction at some period of life,” and, as an inevitable
consequence, he goes on to add ‘‘ that each individual lives by a
struggle at some period of its life, that heavy destruction falls
either on the young or old during each generation, or at recurrent
intervals. Lighten any check, mitigate the destruction ever so
little, and the number of the species will almost instantaneously
increase to any amount.”

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION F. L5G

These considerations, when fully appreciated, form the founda-
tion of the problem of Malthus.*

TNcREASING NUMBERS.

Residents of new countries, with a scant population, and with
vast natural resources in the shape of unlimited areas of
unoccupied and unutilised virgin lands, longingly picture the
transformation of these areas into yellow cornfields, fruitful
gardens, verdant pasturage teeming with browsing cattle, busy
industrial centres crowded with the homes of industrious and
happy people.

Ah! little do they know of the never-failing, Nemesis which,
like a sleuth-hound, dogs the steps of an ever-increasing popula-
tion. Happy selectors of easily-acquired choice lands may
luxuriously grumble at the amount of their taxation, the Jow price
of mutton and corn, their bad roads, and the impossibility of
extending their operations in the production of corn and wool, so
long as the wages of farm and other labour are so high.

The professional and merchant class may reasonably grumble
at the scarcity of men and products which restricts their respec-
tive callings, and may impatiently rail against the slow progress
which the country is making in jofulation and the creation of
products. The few wealthy men of leisure may hanker after the
amusements and honours so common in thickly-crowded centres,
where the attractive ministry of cheap labour is but too common.

The comparative comfortable artisan or labourer, under such
favourable conditions, may 7x verbal or literary debate still wage
a lively dispute whether the irksome eight hours’ labour—or
weekly half-holiday—may not be further improved, and the rate
of wages further raised above the rates of over-peopled old countries,
* but he does not view with favour the fresh introduction of
labourers in zs own craft.

The consumers of the services of local dear labour may desire
the introduction of the surplus cheaper labour of Europe, and for
the sake of Protection may urge upon the Government the
necessity of extending the advantages of external Free Trade.
On the other hand, the protector of a local monopoly of
relatively high wages, or dearer local manufactures, may more
strenuously advocate the necessity of increasing the tariff on all
manufactures from other countries, especially on such as may be
produced locally. It will be seen, therefore, that in young
countries, as well as in the old, we have the battle of interests
still waged, if not so keen. The competitor or seller of services
cries for Protection ; and the user or consumer of services enlarges
upon the harmonies and advantages of universal Free Trade.

* An Essay on the Principle of Population. Malthus. (2 vols., London, 1826.)

158 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—-SECTION F.

Few recognise the truth that individual welfare depends less
upon the greatness of the aggregate wealth of a country than
upon the proportion which freedom from excessive competition
gives each individual over the local natural sources of utility.
including primary wants; and that the country possessing the
greatest aggregate of material wealth may, owing to the
competition of excessive numbers, present the spectacle of a
small privileged minority absorbing an unparalleled share of
luxurious wealth, while the masses are struggling for the barest
subsistence.

All other things being equal, it follows that in the country
where Nature’s gratuitous stores of wealth, as regards food and
other essential products, far exceeds the power of its inhabitants
to utilise, yet, notwithstanding the comparative insignificance of
its accumulated wealth in exchange, its inhabitants on the
average are individually happier, and enjoy a much larger share
of material comforts than the inhabitants of countries, however
great the aggregate wealth, but whose natural resources, as
regards food products, are far below the local requirements of its
teeming inhabitants.

Two nations, standing in this relation to each other, would
correspond to the relation of two iudividuals, where one is the
privileged capitalist or buyer, and the other the unprivileged
seller of labour service. In other words, the latter would be in
the position of the needy Esau in being forced to sell his whole
birthright to preserve his life; the former would occupy the
favourable position of Jacob, who had merely to part with a
portion of his surplus of primary wants (red pottage) to secure a
large augmentation to his wealth of pleonexia.

This, unfortunately, for many old centres of civilisation, is no
overdrawn statement—the creation of enthusiastic declamation or
sentimentality—for if we take one of the most vigorous countries
of Europe (England), with its untold wealth in the aggregate, and
compare it with the young colony of Victoria, we may readily
demonstrate the verity of what has been alleged.

Can A HIGHER CULTURE BE MAINTAINED IN ANY ONE COUNTRY
WirHout REGULATING Its INTERCOURSE WITH OTHER RACES
oF Men In A Lower PLANE oF CIVILISATION ?

There is still another difficulty to face, even if one enlightened
country, by providence, had succeeded in adapting the growth of
its population to the means of subsistence. And this difficulty
now presses hard upon the labourers of a higher civilisation open
by Free Trade to the competition of the labour market of a lower
or more degraded form of civilisation. The partial exclusion of
cheap Chinese labour from America and these colonies, may or
may not, have been in accord with the principle of Free Trade ;

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION F. 159

but it opens up a grave subject. For if a higher culture could
be enabled by provident moral or self-control to successfully
grapple and overcome the present enigmas of social science, how
is it possible that such a culture could be effectually preserved
if it were open to be disturbed by the cheap labour or the
starvation price products of other nations, who, by improvidence
and lack of moral control, were still sunk in the abyss of that
wretchedness which is due to over-population? In this aspect I
am humbly of opinion the doctrines of Free Trade and Protection
require further consideration ; and it is with the hope that the
reasonable discussion of such matters may shed fresh light upon
this and related problems that I have had the courage to
address you upon these old, well-worn, but hitherto insoluble
difficulties belonging to social and economic science.

One thought impresses me not a little. It is this—AlIl truths
that are painful are blindly and passionately resisted by the
majority, who also are ever prone to reward skill when it is
employed in opposing or obscuring what is hateful. It cannot
be hoped, therefore, that the warnings given with respect to the
danger that awaits us in the near future will be much heeded at
present. The world’s greatest intellects and genius are, for the
most part, supported in defending popular views; for it is not
found to be a difficult matter for men of greatest literary talent
and skill to show, where complications abound, that the true is
false and the false is true. Popular favour is a terrible task-
master, for she refuses bread to those who fail to work her
pleasure. I do not, therefore, undervalue the temptation which
ensnares the majority of able minds to continue the defence of
pleasant delusions, when these alone find a ready market of
exchange value. But the evil time draws too near for delusive
teaching. It is now necessary that those who see the rocks
ahead should speak out faithfully.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS IN SECTION G.

ANTHROPOLOGY.

By tHE Hon. JOHN FORRES'', C.M.G., M.L.C.

Ir seems to me that a few words on the condition of the
Australian aboriginal race will fittingly open our proceedings
on this important occasion, and if the very few words I have to
say will lead to some greater interest being taken in their
customs, manners and traditions, I will be greatly pleased.

The condition of the Australian aboriginal race when the
civilisation of the Old World was introduced to their island
continent is one of the most interesting subjects that can occupy
the thoughts of those who contemplate the history of the human
family scattered throughout the world.

There is no doubt but that Australia has been peopled for a
considerable time, and it is also certain that its original people
are much lower in the human order than any of their neigbours.

These facts being admitted, it becomes interesting to speculate
as to the causes which have acted upon these people and have led
them to follow the nomadic life in which they were found and in
which they now exist.

To find a people without any idea of cultivating the soil,
without any permanent dwellings, in many places without any
clothing, without any means of cooking, other than by roasting
in the ashes—and without any villages—was certainly an
extraordinary discovery, and must have astonished and puzzled
the early explorers of Australia. Dampier, who visited the
north-west coast of Australia in 1688 expresses his surprise
and disgust in these words:—‘“The inhabitants of this
country are the miserablest people in the world—the
Hottentots of the Cape of Good Hope, though a nasty people,
yet for wealth are gentlemen to these, who have no houses and
skin garments, sheep, poultry and fruits of the earth, ostrich
eggs, &c., as the Hottentots have; and, setting aside their
human shape, they differ but little from brutes—they have no
houses, but lie in the open air without any covering, the earth
being their bed and the heaven their canopy.”

One might have reasonably expected that in an immense
continent the people of the different portions might have been
found to differ largely in their customs and manners, and in

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION G. 161

their state of civilization, and that an altogether different state
of things would exist on the east coast from that existing on
the west coast, separated by more than 2000 miles. This, I
think, might have been reasonably expected ; but, strange to say,
the same habits, customs, and manners were found to exist
throughout this great continent. Although there were no
means of inter-communication, although the languages or dialects
were altogether different; although they were separated by
immense distances ; although no sympathy, or even knowledge
of one another existed, it is still a fact that they were found to
be the same people, with the same laws, customs, and manners,
and, to a very large extent, with the same ideas and traditions.

When it is considered that probably for many thousands of
years this continent has been peopled ; that even supposing they
originated from a few persons cast away on this island continent,
is it not marvellous that they should have retained their original
character, and, being subject to like conditions of soil and climate,
should now be found to be the same people in all important
respects !

In considering this question, one is lost in amazement. Why
has no superior genius arisen through the ages of the past to
instil into his people an ambition to rise from their servile and
degraded condition? Why has it not occurred to some one of
these people to build a permanent habitation to protect him from
the rain and the sun? Ihave myself often noticed that, in north-
west Australia, the natives have no covering by night or day,
and although skins of animals are abundant, they do not trouble
to make a rug, or even a cloak.

As no idea appears to have entered into the mind of the
Australian aboriginals to cultivate the soil, their whole attention
is given to securing game by hunting, and in this they are very
expert. All their implements are fashioned for this purpose, and
for self-defence. There seems to be very little, if any, inventive
genius among them ; and, seeing that nearly all their arts are
possessed equally by those on the whole coast line and by those
in the interior, it all points to the conclusion that the aboriginals
of Australia have come from a common stock, and that this stock
must have possessed the same customs, manners, and traditions
as are now possessed by their descendants, which have been
retained ever since, without any improvement or otherwise,
except in small and isolated instances.

There is probably no race of people which has done so litile
to leave behind it a record of its existence as the Australian
aboriginal race, and no race has been so little able to cope
with civilisation. After existing in their own savage state for an
immense time, an intercourse of about half a century with a
civilized race has been suflicient to almost remove them from the
face of the earth. Other peoples have suffered and have gradually

K

162 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION G.

given way and become extinct, or almost so, before the advance
of civilization, but in no case, I think, has the progress of
extinction been so rapid.

It seems, therefore, in reviewing the present position of the
aboriginal race of Australia, to be a great duty we owe to them
and to Australia, not only to try to preserve the race from
extinction, but also to preserve their history, laws, habits,
traditions, and language, as far as is possible, and there is still
sufficient time to do this as regards the interior of the continent.

I can only now, in these few words, urge upon all who have
the means and the opportunity to use every endeavour to collect
reliable information on this subject, for however unimportant
particular details may appear, they may eventually prove of great
value in dealing with the history of the aboriginal Australian
race,

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS IN SECTION #H.

(Sanitary Science and Hygiene).

ON THE PRACTICAL BASIS OF PREVENTIVE
MEDICINE.

By J. ASHBURTON THOMPSON, M.D., D.P.H.

WE are met for the advancement of science ; and in this section
for improvement in the branch of knowledge which teaches the
causation of disease, and the conditions ancillary to disease which
act by impairing functional efficiency. A sharp distinction is
thus drawn between the science and the art of sanitation. The
former regards the phenomena of life, and especially its duration,
under observed conditions; the latter devises the means, which
are sometimes political, sometimes mechanical, by which the
teachings of science may be put into practice, and the circum-
stances favourable to life be provided or preserved. And I choose
rather to say that our occupation is to learn the causes of disease
than to prevent them for reasons which, if they are trite, are yet
seldom enough mentioned to warrant me in recalling them. If it
be assumed that the prevention of all diseases is possible, and that
by preventing all diseases the average duration of life can be
extended until death by decay become the common course, it
needs no profound reflection to show that the change could be
but temporary, that the truce could but serve to reinforce the
destroyer. Probably the supposition is fallacious, since we are
in thrall to our ancestors; but, at all events, success in that
enterprise must ever involve failure.

If we pass from thought of disease as it affects mankind in
general, to consider some kinds of disease in relation to some
sections of mankind, however, it will at once appear that the
effort to abate them is natural, and may be successful. The
preventability of some diseases has now been demonstrated. Once
that knowledge gained, systematic effort to prevent them follows
of course. Self-preservation is an instinct ; what man desires
instinctively for himself civilised man desires strongly for others :
thus he not only avoids injury for himself, but he warns and
protects his fellows, although nothing of them be known to him
but their threatened existence. Now, in learning the causes of
some diseases we have also learned that their introduction to the
body is for the most part accidental in no unusual sense ; and,

K2

164 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION H.

practically, it is the accidental conjunction between specific causes
and susceptible organisms that we seek to prevent. We may,
therefore, speak as justly of vaccinating, or of isolating a case of
fever, to avoid accident—that is to say, to prevent communica-
tion of the cause of disease to persons unaware either of its
propinquity or of its quality—as we speak of fencing a revolving
shaft. It is thus inevitable that we should endeavour to prevent
some diseases ; all those, namely, which have been shown or in
the future may be shown to be preventable.

And such endeavour may be successful. Experience in
England is taken to show so much. By abatement of some
diseases a large number of deaths have in that country been
saved to persons chiefly between the ages of five and thirty-five
years ; and the average duration of life has been extended for
persons by as much as two years and a tenth. Thus the
diminution in deaths has brought about a numerical increase in
population. It may be contended that, by so many lives saved,
or by so inany years of life added, the productive power of the
nation has been increased. For reasons that will appear imme-
diately, it seems most likely that it has been increased, although
not to the full indicated extent ; but it has been questioned
whether such proximate increases will ultimately prove the
substantial advantage which at first sight they seem to be. It
has been said that disease attacks the weak, that by checking it
many of the weak who would have died must be preserved, that
these will survive to the reproductive ages, and will then either
reproduce their lke by intermarriage or, by union with the
strong, will at last lower the general standard of vitality, so
that the productive power of the nation will be diminished, and
its tendency become towards extinction. And perhaps the
following illustration might have been adduced in support of
that view :—It might perhaps have been suggested that the
natural terin of life is still set at three score years and ten, and
four score years is still regarded as an extension too seldom
enjoyable to be generally coveted, just because disease has been
left unrestrained during the last four thousand years, has steadily
weeded out the weaker, and has left the strong to reproduce
their like. In fact, it seems that there is at bottom much of
highest importance in the view mentioned ; but it is surely not
the whole truth. In the first place, the diseases whose abatement
has led to the saving of life in England which is represented by
an increase in the average duration of life of two years and a
tenth, are chiefly the specific contagious and the filth-diseases ;
and these are the diseases against which (in the main) preventive
medicine is thus far engaged. It is not to these alone, however,
that those who are of imperfect constitution succumb. If they
escape these they still have other chances, of which some important
ones are inherent to them, of extinction. But, secondly, the

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION H. 165

kinds of disease referred to do not kill all they attack ; while
they farther damage the constitutionally defective, and leave some
of them to attain to reproductive ages still less fit for reproduction
than they were born, they leave others in a damaged condition
who were born sound. And lastly, while they are not seen to
attack those of imperfect constitution alone, or even preferentially
in any marked proportion, they do seize preferentially upon those
who are weak merely from immaturity, and those who are
weakened and depressed temporarily ; while, when they become
epidemic, or when their causes are introduced to the body in
special ways, they seem to attack the weak and the strong
nearly indiscriminately. In short, although disease is inevitable,
all diseases are not so, and if we may not choose our mode of death,
yet we may exclude some modes. Weare rightly fixed, therefore,
to prevent some diseases—we obey both instinct and reason
therein ; and if the near limit of the attainable oblige us to set
our aim not very high, a measure of success both proximate and
remote is thereby rendered certain.

I began by mentioning the problems which Sanitary Science
seeks to elucidate: namely, the causation of disease, and the
nature of the conditions which impair function, diminish vital
efficiency, and so conduce to shorten the duration of life. The
investigation is made by experiment; the results are found by
induction. The experiment is performed without our active
intervention, or is unplanned, the corpus vile being any body of
men, and the conditions of experiment those under which they
happen to live; the record of observation is the register of the
facts of individual lives ; and when these individual observations
are accurate enough and numerous enough, they may be classified,
and the work of induction may be begun. The method of
collecting ‘the observations may be indicated under three heads :
first, enumeration of the people; secondly, record of their
individual fertility ; thirdly, record of the individual duration of
life among them. Under these are included many different
details; and the register must be so framed as to facilitate
combination of the several particulars into more or less broad
classes, and bring them into comparison with foods, with soils,
and with climates. Few enquiries are more complicated than
this, which seeks to estimate the vitality of nations ; for trust-
worthy conclusions can be drawn only trom the total phenomena,
all of which are inter-dependent, and influence all the rest ; and
perhaps few are more difficult, because many conditions which
modify the import of individual observations, and some that are
of wider effect, are but accidental, and alter from time to time.
The general lines upon which such an investigation is planned
should therefore be broad; and if this arrangement render
conclusion uncertain at first, it must be remembered that the
facts and their classification are both the more likely to be

166 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION H.

accurate, and that lapse of time is alone necessary to render
sound induction possible. And time—or what is in this case its
equivalent for many purposes, multiude of accurate individual
observations—is an indispensable condition. Impatience to arrive
speedily at some result is fatal to soundness, and is actually the
cause of much of the doubt with which the science of vital
statistics especially is regarded by the many. Undue haste
leads, on the one hand, to resort to calculation to supply the place
of facts for direct observation of which in sufficient number time
enough has not elapsed ; on the other to comparisons superficially
warrantable, but really between unlike things. These errors are
more than misleading ; they obstruct the truth.

Tf the lapse of long periods of time be necessary before the
observations alluded to can accumulate in sufficient number to
afford trustworthy indications of the vitality of a nation—to
furnish, by comparison with the conditions under which its people
live, indications of those habits and surroundings which are
inimical to prolonged life in a state of full efficiency, the record
which is at last to yield that information may be made to serve
an immediate purpose in the meantime, namely, detection of
some of those grosser conditions which result in marked or in
specific disease. If the number and ages of the people living
within defined areas are known; if the plan of record allow
smaller areas within those larger ones to be examined in the
detail of neighbourhoods, of streets, and at last of that ultimate
unit, the house ; if, while the machinery for ascertaining the
causes of death with reasonable accuracy is sufficient, the registra-
tion of deaths under causes be prompt and complete ; lastly, if
these particulars for every such district be recorded and analysed
under supervision of a professed sanitarian (who, it seems neces-
sary to add, must be of medical education), then the information
becomes immediately available to direct the efforts of sanitary
authorities, and to concentrate them upon those localities where
they may be most profitably made. To a full measure of this
immediate usefulness records of sickness are almost indispensable ;
for death is but a variable incident of disease, or, in other words,
current death-rates stand in no constant relation to sickness-rates.
Registration of sickness, however, has as yet been done nowhere,
I believe, on the national scale. But the register of illness from
some diseases is now in a way to be kept universally in England,
where it has already been kept for several years in many cities ;
and by the enlightened action taken in this province a year ago,
the registration of the zymotics is now universal in Victoria.

Having thus briefly indicated the kind of observation in which
scientific hygiene has its foundation, three points may be
distinguished as being of especial importance to us in Australia.
These are separate record and analysis of the general facts of life
regarding the native-born population, accurate and speedy informa-

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION H. 167

tion as to the eauses of death, and information from year to year
of the number, sex, and ages of the people by rough enumeration.
Without the first the modification in old races which changed
environment will inevitably, though very slowly, produce cannot
be watched ; without the second it is neither possible to observe
similar changes in the character of disease which may be expected,
nor to get early knowledge of the prevalence of such diseases as
are preventable, nor to discriminate between such as are adven-
titious (or easily preventable) and such as are bound up with the
more fixed conditions of life; while without the third it is
impossible to make just comparison either between the sanitary
state of this country and of others which may be considered in
general respects like it, nor between one part of this country and
another part, nor between separate districts within any one such
part. While the general particulars registered must be nearly
the same in all countries, these are points which in a new country
demand special attention ; they are vital to all the useful purposes,
both proximate and remote, to which such records may be put.
But if the laws under which statistical enquiry of this kind is
carried on in Australia be examined, it will be found that they
are either copied, or slightly altered, from the English law of
1837, except in one province, namely, in South Australia. We
have adopted that law which, framed as it was for another and
an old country, was a lawyer’s Act. Useful for some legal
purposes of great importance, it was defective in several respects
for that other purpose for which it was used—enquiry into the
conditions under which the people lived, and the vitality of the
nation. It contained no reference at all to the cause of death ;
although it amply sufficed the legal object of facilitating and
systematising registration of births and deaths for purposes
relating to property, it was little calculated to procure that prompt
and complete registration which is essential to observation of life.
Generally, it is under this law that we try to observe and to work
in Australia to-day. Secondly, although birth-place is a particular
required, by regulations having the force of law, to be recorded
in connection with the fact of death, in no province is that
separate analysis and comment accorded to native-born
decedents which it is important they should receive. Thirdly, we
have in similar fashion adopted the decennial census, without
regard for our special circumstances, and although the defects it
is universally admitted to show in old countries are scarcely a
tenth of the defects it has in new and growing countries. ‘These
three are points in which our present method of observation
requires speedy reform, for want of which, as it seems to me, the
elaborate returns annually made by our statists are far from
possessing a practical value commensurate with the labour
bestowed upon them.

Now, if our present methods of observation are thus defective,
it may be enquired how it happened that we adopted them ; and

168 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION H.

it seems worth wlile to attempt to answer this question. I
believe it happened for reasons incidental to the population of a
new country by emigrants from an old one. Perhaps this may
be illustrated by discussing a remark which fell recently from
that distinguished sanitarian, Sir Douglas Galton, K.C.B., F.R.5.,
in the course of an address he delivered before the Sanitary
Institute. He said: “In colonies sites abound that, with
ordinary prudence, might have been kept in a healthy condition,
but in which ignorance and carelessness have in some cases
produced, and in others may produce, conditions causing wide-
spread disease and death.” That remark has reference especially
to the filth-diseases, and to fever, which has its mode of spread
in conditions which would warrant the application to it of the
same epithet ; these are the distinctively preventable diseases, of
distinctively local diffusion; and we know very well that they
are among the most important of all the causes of death that
swell our mortality, about one-ninth of the total deaths in urban
districts being due to them alone. There is therefore something
in the criticism, something to warrant it ; but I venture to think
that more appears to be at first sight than will stand analysis.
Settlers do not enter into an inheritance. A hundred years ago
a thousand persons sat down upon these shores, who by natural
inwrease and by immigration have become three and a half
millioms to-day. That band when they landed began a struggle
for the bare neecessaries of life ; and when, after long years, they
had secured a measuit® of success, a similar struggle was under-
taken again and again qin distant parts of the continent by
oft-shoots from the originals society. When, at last, production
exceeded immediate requirennents, and some revenue became
available, it was spent upon tehose objects which are always
among the first needs of a community thus established—I mean
the maintenance of order and estaiblishment of communications.
These, and not sanitary measures, «are the prime conditions of
corporate life. But at all events sarleitation could not early secure
special attention in such a communitky, because the diseases most
directly amenable to it do not begin tto show themselves in recog-
nisable form until the aggregation cgf men upon comparatively
small areas has become considerable. 1: Prevalence of that class of
diseases is attendant upon city life, abud so constantly that, of a
people among whom that class of disea, ses 1s known to prevail, city
life may be predicated. But, it will be observed, by the time a
population has become urban, a certain organisation, or at least
certain habits of life, have been deviased or fallen into before the
danger referred to is felt, and have be?come more or less fixed and
difficult to alter by the time necedésity for alteration becomes
apparent. In themselves these constitiute an obstacle to the reforms
which are then seen to be required. .] That nearly, and in relation
to that one class of diseases that prevcisely, is where we find our-

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION H. 169

selves to-day. We have not so much to insist upon preventability
as to endeavour to reform rooted habits of life. Yet it may be
suggested that the danger should have been foreseen and guarded
against by suitable organisation, either at first or from. a very
early date of settlement. That, however, was impossible for still
other and all-sufficient reasons. Immigrants to a new land do
not often comprise many of the best-instructed in the mother
country ; but, whatever their quality, they can but bring with
them the knowledge which was current at the time of their
departure. Now, it is very easy to-day to speak of “ filth-
diseases,” and to point out the certain and easy methods of
preventing them ; but the knowledge which warrants the epithet
now applied to them has not long been established, and, above all,
has not long been current. It is but sixteen years since Sir John
Simon, K.C.B., F.R.8., found it expedient to recapitulate the
knowledge regarding their causation which had slowly accumulated
under his direction during the preceding twenty-five years, and to
present it ina formal report to the English Local Government
Board, of which he was at that time the medical officer. At so
late a date as that he found it expedient to write that remarkable
paper, to illustrate it with notable instances, and to enforce it
with all the arts of logic and of rhetoric ot which he is an
acknowledged master, for guidance of the chief administrative
body of that day in England. This was necessary in that country
which has led and leads the world both in scientific and in
executive sanitation, in 1874. But by that date the filth-diseases
had already become established amongst us, and were even
attracting our attention.

My first object in making that quotation was not to reply to
the opinion expressed in it. I wished to show that we have thus
far enjoyed all the advantages and all the disadvantages of
inheritance, in order to point out in relation to the present subject
(to which, however, the quotation is cognate) that we labour
under inherited disadvantages almost exclusively. We have
inherited a law for the registration of births and deaths which
was no sooner passed than it was seen to be defective in a most
important respect.* And we have inherited a habit of decennial
censuses. The decennial census has been again and again
condemned in England—in a country where population is not
only established, but to a large extent settled in districts and in
towns so old as to have become fixed in those conditions of
occupation which almost govern age-distribution. Even in such
a country decennial enumerations, when not supplemented by
annual rough enumerations under sex, age, Wc., have been found
to lead to remarkable error when their results have been used
together with deaths to gauge the sanitary condition of localities

* The omission of penalties fiom tle original Act was in most case; supplied upon its
acoption in Australia.

170 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION H.

in inter-censual years. Yet here in Australia, in a new country,
where the population is annually recruited by immigration, where,
to speak of one province alone, I have during the past few years
seen in one case about seven thousand, and in the other about
fifteen thousand, persons accumulate within two or three years
upon previously uninhabited areas, and where similar displace-
ments of population are common ; where in the eleven years, 1876
to 1886, the excess of arrivals over departures was more than
528,000, or more than one-sixth of the total population in the
latter year. Under these circumstances we adhere to the
decennial census, and strive to supply its defects in intervening
years by calculation. It is plain that this course must often
lead to serious error; and in point of fact it was found at the
census of 1881 that the enumerated population fell short of
the estimated population by more than 67,000 in Victoria,
and by nearly 30,000 in New South Wales, upon enumerated
totals of 862,346 and 751,468 respectively.* The death-rates
published in these provinces for 1881 (and _ proportionately
in former years) must have been considerably below the
truth, since they were calculated upon these exaggerated
estimates ; and in certain cities or localities they must have been
still more erroneous—here by excess, there by defect. False
impressions of the state of the public health must have been
given for that if for no other reasons.

But there are other reasons, and most important ones. We
have adopted the laws and organisation which, good or bad, were
devised to suit an old country. They are especially unsuited to
our circumstances. We inhabit a favoured land. If a com-
paratively small and scarcely inhabited area be excepted, there is
no malaria in Australia; and it is precisely the absence or
presence of malaria which distinguishes a healthy from an
unhealthy climate. he carnivora which in some other partly
occupied countries levy a heavy tax upon mankind and hinder
settlement are entirely wanting, while the reptiles, if they are
not for the most part harmless, are at all events of but small
practical consequence. And then the country, although conti-
nental in size, is separated from the rest of the world by wide
seas ; it presents great variety of climate, but extreme cold in no
part ; and it is so fertile that, while production has long been in
excess of local needs, the natural limit to increase is clearly
almost infinitely removed. Nor are special conditions less favour-
able to life. Ample food, varied and nutritious, is easily within
the reach of all; the terms of labour are uniformly reasonable ;
occupations and amusements are chiefly out-door ; the specitic
population is everywhere low, if some comparatively small areas
of the larger cities be excepted; and the general population is
youthtul.

* * Wealth and Progress of New South Wales, 188-9." Mr. T. A. Coghlan, Government
Statistician.

171

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION H.

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172 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION H.

of the greater part of the native-born population (who came, of
course, mainly from northern European countries) entirely
changed their conditions of life when they settled in Australia.
That ‘change of surroundings will at last produce changes in the
jose, habits, and modes of thought, which were , prevalent
in the old world among them. In the future characteristics will
inevitably develope, which may be properly called Australian, or
racial, But such changes are not made in a generation or two.
Such as may be observed in the earlier generations of the native-
born are not of the kind referred to—that is to say, are not
characteristic nor permanent. They are such as may be observed
in the individual long resident in an alien climate, and such as are
ready to disappear after return to the land of his forefathers. It
is most important that this slowly-approaching, this momentous
change, should be watched. But how does the case stand? Have
any steps at all been taken to observe and to record it? Does any
register exist from which its beginnings may be ascertained, and
its direction forecast ? The only way in which this could be done
would be by connecting the individual records of birth with the
corresponding records of death. But in no province, nor in all
the provinces (which together constitute but one country, and on
any reasonable plan of vital statistics would be dealt with as a
whole, as well as in parts distinguished by their geology and
their climate) is there the organisation which would warrant the
statement of which our politicians are fond, that ‘“ we assist at the
birth of a nation.” For want of the foresight which is the
characteristic of statesmanship, we do but stand by while a nation
evolves itself—a nation that may some day arouse to find its mode
of government unsuited to the altered customs, the altered habits
of thought, the altered views of morals, into which it has been
imperceptibly moulded by surroundings alien to the race from
which it sprang, and from which it took its laws.

And under the circumstances of life in Australia which I have
described, I venture to say that the manner in which many of
the particulars at present gathered are often dealt with is not
only useless but misleading. As we have taken the Acts from
the old world, so (though by no means necessarily) are we in the
habit of comparing the results they afford us with old-world
results. It seems to be forgotten, or at all events it is practically
overlooked, that death-rates have appreciable value only in relation
to various coincidental conditions—to race, feeding, climate,
density, as well as to many others. We never tire of comparing
our general death-rates with those of countries which differ from
ours in nearly every condition of life as widely as, on the same
globe, is well possible; and especially we refer our results to
English standards. If unlike things may be compared, that is
ine witable ; for English statistics are at once fuller and, with the
discount to which all such figures are liable, more accurate than

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION H. Led

those of any other country. But it is only like things that
suffer comparison ; and when from the contrast of unlike things
we draw conclusions eminently flattering to our own country—
we have the flattery for our pains. It is simply impossible,
under the general conditions described, that our death-rates for
provinces should approach those of older countries as a rule.
I wiil try to make this clear by giving an example of the
comparison between unlike things to which I allude, and I will
point out the extravagant lengths to which it may lead those who
indulge in it unreservedly ; and as I draw it from the annual
statistical report of one province among several, I beg that it may
be noticed that all such reports are liable to a measure of the
same criticism, although not to the same exactly. I choose this
instance, in fact, partly on account of the deservedly eminent
reputation of the Government Statist of Victoria (Mr. H. H.
Hayter, C.M.G.), who is officially responsible for it, and partly
because it is apter, rounder, and more suitable for quotation
than any other of the kind I have seen. Mr. Hayter says
(and he repeats the statement annually in several years) that ‘ it
has been held by high authority that in countries in which
the climate is healthy, hygiene properly attended to, and the
population in a normal condition as regards age, the ordinary
mortality incident to human nature would probably cause the
death-rate to be in the proportion of about 17 per 1000 persons
living ;” and he then goes on to point out that in the province
with which he is dealing that rate has been exceeded only seven
times in 27 years, and that the average death-rate over that long
series of years has been only 15.57 per 1000 persons living. What
inference must be drawn from that comparison, which seems to
show that in Victoria the “ ordinary mortality incident to human
nature” has somehow been eluded? What must the general
reader, what must the legislator, whose studies may chance not
to have included the subject of vital statistics, infer from it?
Must he not conclude that his province is in fact doing remarkably
well ; that it affords no scope for the operations of preventive
medicine, and wonder within himself what all the stir about
legislation for health means? But when I mention that the high
authority alluded to is no less a person than the late Dr. Farr,
C.B., F.R.S., it will be suspected that error has somewhere crept
in; and [ will explain it in order to introduce some remarks
touching the search for a health-standard with which to compare
our rates, to which, indeed, the present fallacy is at bottom due.
What Dr. Farr really said was this:—He had been examining
the mortality in 54 healthy districts of England, and had found
it to be 17 in the 1000 living, and he had compared it with the
mortality for all England, which he showed to be 22 in the 1000
living. Upon those local facts he ventured to base the following
generalisation of local application and use. He said: “It will

174 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION H.

not, therefore, be pitching the standard of health too high to
assert than any excess of mortality in English districts over 17
annual deaths per 1000 living is an excess not due to the mortality
incident to human nature, but to foreign causes to be repelled,
and by hygienic expedients conquered.” There is a wide
difference, it will be noted, between Dr. Farr’s cautious,
conditional statement, and the nett, positive terms of the quotation
I first made. But the point to which I now direct attention with
reference to the search for a health-standard for this country is
that Dr. Farr is careful to limit the application of his generalisa-
tion to England, to the observed facts of life among that particular
population living under the particular conditions presented by
that country. And, in fact, all health-standards must be drawn
from the very countries within which they are to be set up, unless
‘the comparisons made with them are to be delusive, misleading,
and obstructive to true progress.

In giving that example, I have shown that its logical conclusion
is a reductio ad absurdum. But a defence might be set up—
it might be said that want of correction for age explains the
alleged phenomenon. That would be sound as far as it goes,
although, of course, it would be destructive to the comparison
instituted. It is, however, far from being the only correction
needed, as may be easily shown from another part of the work,
where it is made, or rather allowed for. Mr. Hayter there uses
Mr. Sargent’s plan for eliminating the disturbing influence which
inequality in age-distribution has over such comparisons between
two different countries or cities. This consists in finding the
death-rates in the two places at the usual age-groups, and in
ascertaining the absolute number of deaths they would afford in
each place upon the supposition that an equal number of persons
were living in each at each age-period ; and then in striking a
rate upon each total hypothetical population with the two
absolute numbers of deaths. Mr. Sargent called this a method
-of ascertaining the specific mortality—Mr. Hayter prefers to call
it the ‘adjusted death-rate.” Its use appears to be in places
where the ages of the people are vow, to save the trouble of
redistributing one of the populations under ages to agree with
the other. Mr. Hayter compares in this manner the mortality
at age-groups (calculated mainly upon estimated numbers living
at ages) in Victoria with that in England; and the result is still
vastly in favour of the former. The general reader will, then,
get from this comparison confirmation of the opinion to which
the first led him—that there is in reality very little for sanitation
to do in his province. But what is the fact? It is that the
comparison is false. It is instituted between places which are
quite different in general respects, as I have already pointed out ;
but they are different in the following particulars especially,
which alone are fatal to the supposed parallel :—Victoria is a

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION H. WS,

province which carries an estimated number of 1,036,119 persons
{1887) on 88,000 square miles, of which 497,000 live in five
cities, the largest having a population of 391,000. England is a
country which carries 28 millions on 58,172 square miles, of
whom 9,244,099 live in 28 towns, of which the largest has a
population of 4} millions. This difference in density, and a
dozen other differences involved in it, render the comparison
misleading; and indeed a careful reader would find food for
reflection if he observed that, notwithstanding these flatteries, the
infantile death-rate of Melbourne and suburbs is (mean of 10
years 1878-87) 169-7, and higher by 17:7 in the 1000 than that
of London (mean of 10 years 1877-86, 152), although the latter
city carries more than ten times as many people on less than
half the area.*

I need not press these particular examples farther, having
chosen them, indeed, chiefly because Mr. Hayter’s eminence in
several branches of statistical enquiry goes far to render them
conclusive. After repeating, therefore, that all our statistical
reports are open to similar criticism, I just mention those of the
Registrar-General for Tasmania (Mr. Robert M. Johnston,
F.L.S.) I regard the labours of this gentleman with respect, and
all that I wish to say of them is this: he shows not only that he
is very well aware of all the points to which I am now in cursory
fashion drawing attention, but that while writing he has them
constantly in mind ; yet he falls, after all, into what I may call
the familiar error of the professed statist. He strives to supply
the place of observed facts, which are wanting, by allowance and
by calculation. Now, I do not contend that such methods are
unjustifiable or always profitless. Among statists they may
sometimes serve a useful purpose ; and indeed, were the facts
unascertainable, we might all of us have to be content with
cautious speculation, and we might derive from it that support
which is afforded by theory when facts begin to fail. But that
is not the present case: the facts are accessible, and their obser-
vation is in many respects a mere matter of suitable organisation.
That being so, I do not know but our statists are seriously in
error to amuse us with speculations which are largely of theoretical
bases, and which those unacquainted with statistics cannot
effectually scrutinise.

I just now called such errors the familiar errors of the professed
statist ; and they are not confined to the gentlemen who comment
on our records here. The Government Statistician of New South
Wales (Mr. T. A. Coghlan, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E.), reproduces in
his volume of ‘The Wealth and Progress of New South Wales”
for 1888-9 the mean after life-time at ages calculated for the
people of Queensland, New South Wales, and Victoria, taken

* London: seilicet, Registration London; now the “County of London (for adminis
trative purposes).”

176 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION H.

together, by Mr. A. F. Burridge, F.LA. Ihave not seen the
original paper, but the table is apparently constructed from the
deaths registered during the 12 years 1870 to 1881, and the census
enumerations of 1871 and 1881 (assisted in Queensland by the
enumeration of 1886), the age-distribution for intervening years
being calculated. With the aid of the result Mr. Coghlan, like
his conjréres, draws comparisons between the expectation of life
in these provinces of Australia and in other parts of the world,
which are very flattering to the former. But, without going to
the very bottom of the calculation, and there is much to be dug
up thence and anxiously scrutinised in all countries in which
decennial censuses are the rule, what is a life-table designed to
do? Is it not designed to ascertain the after life-time at ages of
a particular race living under particular conditions? The
possibility of constructing a life-table for a population which
increases by immigration as does that of Australia may well be
questioned ; but apart from that, of what value is such a table to
Australia, or to the world, from which the racial or national or
Australian element is absent, or in which it is present only in
unrecognisable form and inappreciable amount? Are not all
these coniparisons between unlike things, and all these methods
which use elaborate and hazardous calculations to supply the
place of observable but neglected facts, distinctively unscientific ?
Direct observation of the fact, patient accumulation of recorded
fact, self-restraint from speculation until the body of accumulated
fact is sufficient to warrant induction, and, last of all, zwduction
with aid of whatever mathematical formule may then seem useful
—these are the essential conditions of experimental enquiry. In
relation to vital statistics we neglect them at present, or make
little more than a show of observing them.

Having now indicated the quality of the results which our
modes of enumeration and registration furnish, and the practically
futile character of some of the calculations, comparisons, and
inferences which are based upon them, I proceed to touch upon
the second branch of the topic which I mentioned at first. This
is the use of the same set of observations (or of part of them) for
the immediate purposes of practical sanitation. And just as
record of the duration of life is the leading feature of the data
from which it is proposed to deduce the vitality of a nation, so
accurate record of the cause of death is the leading feature of the
register which is used to give direction to sanitary organisations.
But upon this essential point—accurate return of causes of death—
I need not speak ; most of us have already fully considered it in
relation to the organisation at present sanctioned by our Govern-
ments, and most of us are of opinion that the returns the latter
yields are in this respect seriously open to question. I therefore
merely insert in a note some facts which are sufficiently suggestive.

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS-——SECTION H. 177

In South Australia alone is a medical certificate of the cause of death
required by law in cases in which a medical man has been in attendance.
Elsewhere deputy or district registrars are instructed to enquire for the
name of the medical attendant, and, if possible, to get a certificate from
him; in some cases.the form of register prescribed in schedules to the
Act includes a column for this entry, in others it is required by regula-
tions made by the Registrar-General ; but when no medical man was in
attendance, any person qualified or required to give information touching
a death may assign a cause to it, and the Registrar is nowhere forbidden
to enter causes so assigned. In the second place, the official nosology of
the Royal College of Physicians was in one province used for the com-
_ pilation of a list to assist district registrars in their duty, and there
were included in it directions for dealing with causes of death which
might be assigned in popular terms. The following are a few of these,
taken almost at random :—‘‘ Cauliflower” is to be recorded under
Order VI., Class 8, 2 ; ‘‘cold, a vague term; was it bronchitis ? pneumonia ?
influenza ? if undefined, Order I., Class 1, 8;” “ collapse—what was the
cause? class accordingly ” (in these two instances it seems that the
District-Registrar, who has not seen the case, and who would not be
much the wiser if he had, is to ascertain and classify the cause of death,
after consultation with other unqualified persons); “ constriction of the
brain—bad ; Order VI., Class 1, 13;” “yellow fever (remittent fever),
Order I., Class 1, 15;” ‘shivering fit (ague ?) vague; Order I., Class 3,
2.’ This list was adopted in other provinces after its appearance in the
first. It therefore seems to have supplied a want, and to have served a
purpose. Thirdly, Registrars-General, under the older classification,
returned deaths from unspecified causes in the proportion of about less
than one per cent. to total deaths; and under the newer classification in
the proportion of from about 8 to 10 per cent. to total deaths (the
proportions, perhaps, having been nearly the same all along, but being
now more easily seen.) Finally, since “certified” and “uncertified ”
deaths are in no province discriminated in the abstracts (nor, I believe,
in the registers), there are no means of judging (unless the list quoted
be taken to supply them) whether the 8 or 10 per cent. mentioned really
include all the deaths which should, in a reasonably accurate sense, be
returned as due to unspecified causes.

In South Australia a medical certificate of the cause of death is not
only required in cases on which a medical man has been in attendance,
but the latter is compelled by law to furnish it. That the cause of death
should be ascertained in every case (as far as possible) by competent
observers is, of course, essential; but a law under which a class of the
people is compelled to render skilled or professional service to the rest
gratuitously, and under penalties for failure, is obviously and grossly
unjust. The Government of South Australia, on the one hand, neglects
to oblige its paid officers (the coroners), who are especially appointed by
it to ascertain the cause of death in doubtful or suspicious cases, to desist
from returning such futile verdicts as “death from natural causes ;’
and on the other, goes out of its way to enforce under penalties return
of the cause of death in cases to which no sort of suspicion attaches by
members of one class of the people governed to whom it stands in no
special relation whatever. The violation of liberty thus described is of
infinitely greater moment than the injury inflicted on the particular
class that in this case happens to suffer, and should be found of very
general interest, as it is of general, and of the highest, importance.

Annual rough enumeration of the people living within defined
areas of comparatively small size (which should be, of course,
merely subdivisions of larger defined districts), with registration

L

178 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION H.

of births, and of deaths under causes, within the same areas,
together with regular prompt return of the observations as the
are made to the chief medico-sanitary authority of the country
for analysis, is the life principle of practical hygiene. The more
preventable diseases are, if not of local origin, at all events of
local immediate causation ; the measures to prevent them must,
therefore, be of local application. Where this information is
wanting, whatever the administrative and executive sanitary
organisations may be, and whatever their possible efficiency, their
efforts must In many most important respects be without system,
diffused, wasteful, and must therefore yield results incommensurate
with their cost in money, in labour, and in thought. It is possible
to express the reason on which this statement rests in a sentence :
Deaths are never distributed equally over districts. Preventable
deaths occur where removable causes exist ; not elsewhere.

Now, there is not in any province—I judge from official
reports—the organisation here referred to ; the numbers of the
people are estimated from year to year; and this, which is a
hazardous process when applied to the population of a whole
province, becomes simply deceptive when applied to cities, and
especially to parts of cities; the sex and age-distribution are
brought on from the decennial census enumeration in a similar
way, and in districts, at all events, are therefore in realit
unknown ; and the record, imperfect as it is, is not dealt with
for purposes of local sanitation by the medical officer of any
authority.* I will illustrate the result of this want of practical
organisation—again a failure to refer to the fact, and so far a
lack of scientific method—by a concluding comparison ; it shows
that the work of central health authorities is done under
difficulties, or rather, not to mince the matter, for want of this
kind of direction exactly, remains practically fruitless in a most
fertile field. I choose for the test the proportion of deaths from
tilth-diseasest and enteric (or typhoid) fever, because it is now
notorious that if sanitation. can certainly do anything at all—
and it can do very much—at all events its first and easiest
successes are against that class of diseases. That is now a well-
established fact ; so that the efficiency of any sanitary organisa-
tion may be fair ly g gauged by the proportion of deaths that occur
among the people living under it from those diseases. M
comparison is, of course, between Victoria and New South Wales;
not only because those provinces are similar in population and
in many other respects, but because they differ distinctively in
the most important point—in sanitary law and organisation.
But the two provinces are not comparable as wholes, because
they carry a similar population on widely different areas. I
therefore select the metropolitan areas in each case; and that

* Dr. H. T. Whittell has for many years been Registrar-General for the province of
South Australia, and for some time President of the Central Board of Health as well.
j By filth-diseases, diarrhoea, dysentery, and cholera are intended.

4

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION H. 179

is the more suitable because the filth-diseases, &ec., are diseases
of urban life. The Melbourne metropolitan area is marked
off by a circle of ten miles’ radius described from the centre
of Melbourne. It includes 256 square miles,* and it carried
an estimated population of 391,546 persons in 1887. The Sydney
metropolitan area measures 256 square miles, and is of irregular
shape. It carried a population estimated at 350,866 in 1887.
From this statement, and on inspection, the two areas seem fairly
ona par as regards density, the people on both being chiefly
centered at one part, and for the rest scattered irregularly over
rural or quasi-rural districts. As to geological character, I am
informed by the Government Geologist of New South Wales (Mr.
W. C. Wilkinson), who has surveyed both areas, that as regards
permeability of soil and retentiveness it may be taken that there
is not much difference between the two ; but although Melbourne
stands on seven hills, these are but low, and of a conformation which
distinguishes them from that of a part of the Sydney area where
abrupt ridges abound. As to climate, in Melbourne the hot
season is shorter than in Sydney, and the cold season when it
comes is much colder. The yearly mean temperature (22 years)
is 57°:2 F. in the former, and 63° F. (29 years) in the latter ; the

-mean yearly rainfalls, 25-53 inches and 48:96; the mean yearly

number of days on which rain fell, 130 and 154. Melbourne is
near the sea on the south coast, Sydney near the sea on the fertile
east or Pacific coast ; the latitudes, 57° 49’ and 33° 5’ S. lat. All
the difference as regards influence of climate on the diarrheal
diseases is in Melbourne’s favour, and there is also an artificial
difference between the two which is of especial importance as
regards prevalence of fever. Melbourne has been supplied with
excellent water from a very early date, and its distribution by
pipes has more or less kept pace with the growth of population
and the extension of suburbs. Sydney, on the other hand, until
the third month of 1886, had but a scanty supply, drawn from a
source which was (during the years presently dealt with) befouled.
This imperfectly served the city (122,000 in 1885) and some
districts adjacent to it. As far as enteric fever goes there was,
therefore, during the period dealt with a very great advantage on
the side of Melbourne. Next as to sewerage. It may at first
sight be supposed that the city of Sydney (population 87,000 to
122,000, 1876-85) has in this respect an important advantage
over Melbourne, since it has for many years been sewered. But
these conduits are “imperfect sewers, constructed at different
times, in various fashions, running in many instances on
unrecorded and now forgotten lines, without ventilation, and
discharging into the tidal waters of the harbour.” Many

* The circle encloses a part of the bay.
7 See “A Record of the Sanitary State of New South Wales, on December 31st, 1887.”
Sydney, Charles Potter, Government Printer, by the present writer.

L2

180 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION H.

of them are in fact either natural channels covered over, or
made-drains which have been converted to the use of sewers ;
and, as the manner in which house connections are made
corresponds in point of defectiveness with the construction of
the channels mentioned, each must judge for himself whether
they are likely to be an advantage to the people using them, or
the reverse. On the other hand, Melbourne has no system of
sewers at all. Lastly, the age and sex distribution of the two
populations cannot be compared (except by estimate, which in
the case of any small area, at all events, is in my opinion more
properly called a guess); but the birth-rate and the rate of
natural increase are considerably higher in Sydney, and that, of
course, gives her an advantage over Melbourne. So that in this
comparison, while the two metropolitan areas are nearly on a
level as regards population, specific population, and geological
characteristic, Sydney has the general advantage of a higher
birth-rate ; Melbourne has the great advantage, as regards fever,
of a pure and copious water supply, and as regards diarrheal
diseases, that of a colder climate. The balance between them
may therefore be now struck. The difference as regards laws is
as follows :—

Victoria enjoys a very complete set of health statutes, the
earliest of which dates from 1865; it has a Public Health
Department, within which is a Board of Health not only well
known to be composed of earnest gentlemen, but having the
advantage of the sagacious advice of its permanent President,
Mr. A. P. Akehurst; and it has local medical officers of health
and local boards of health. New South Wales also has a Health
Department, within which is a Board of Health, which my
position precludes me from more than mentioning; but that
province as yet has not any health statute at all, and of special
laws relating to health has only a Quarantine Act, a Dairies
Supervision Act, and an Infectious Diseases Supervision Act,
which applies to small-pox alone. That board has statutory
powers under other Act whatsoever. So I describe closely
similar areas in two provinces, in one of which elaborate health
statutes, administered by able officers, are operative, while in the
other are (as regards the class of diseases especially referred to)
absolutely no legal powers at all. I repeat once again that if
executive sanitary organisation can do anything, it can reduce
the prevalence of fever and of filth diseases, and theretore—
unless there be something wanting—that class of diseases might
be expected to be rife in the Sydney area, but should be nearly
absent from the Melbourne area. I shall not be misunderstood,
I am sure, yet I will say distinctly that the question now under
examination is why these diseases, notoriously too prevalent
amongst us, continue to prevail ; and although the circumstances
detailed with regard to the two cities mentioned render their

181
finding the answer, I do not

in

ly useful i

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION H.
experience especia

conclude upon a comparison between them, but upon a general
province.

inference which has application to every urban district in every

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182 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION H.

In 1886 the Sydney water supply was modified ; a ‘mixture of pure
water with the foul was distributed. Inthe third quarter of 1887 the
foul service was finally discontinued. A water of great purity was
turned into existing mains, and, as it was at command far in excess of
the needs of all the population within reach of it, extension of the
service was thenceforward carried on with energy. The following table,
which deals with the time elapsed since the close of 1885, has been
obligingly furnished by the Government Statistician of New South
Wales (Mr. T. A. Coghlan). Thetime is too short to warrant expression
of opinion upon it in relation to water-supply ; but apart from that, the
fall it shows seems rather greater and more pronounced (on comparison
with similar rates for former years) in deaths from the diarrheal diseases
than in those from fever. This points to some other influence at work
as well as a supply of purer water, and the number of houses which
during the same years have been properly connected with new, good
sewers is not sufficient to constitute it. It is true, however, that during
these years especial efforts have been most strenuously made in many
municipal districts to abolish the once universal cesspit, and have been
most successful ; and this is an alteration which would tell against both
diseases. Were it possible to compare different districts of Sydney on
the lines indicated in the text, it might easily be judged to what extent
this abolition of cesspits has been effectual ; for there are some populous
districts formerly (or down to about four years ago) riddled with them,
which now have for all practical purposes none at all, while others have
remained in this respect quite neglected.

SYDNEY. MELBOURNE.
B a 8 FA bh 8 H fie = z |
Sigcrcd|e isa ltciae Ss |Sos| § | $e8
YEAR. se |2"8| 6 |s"2 | & | s=2) aegis
3 |#o2!] .-)eseil « | £32) .o oles
2 seal 8 eee S | Seen eee
ra Sem a 2S 2 RST a SS
= so aS = Se A go8
a Ans & jars BH ans s |aQrs
S| A r= A a |
1886 .| 299 9°22 | 469 |14°46 |] 294 7°91 | 642 | 17:27
1887 191 5°58 | 254 [10°33 |} 338 8°63 | 652 | 16°65
1888 182 5°07 | 429 |11°96 || 326 777 | 546 | 18:00
1889 209 5°58 | 465 |12°48 || 559 | 12°78 | 608 | 13:90

That is the comparison. I ask whether it shows any difference
in preventable mortality from the diseases named, such as might
fairly be expected under the different circumstances described ?
What is the reason? Is sanitation, after all, powerless? Far from
that. Not in Victoria and New South Wales alone, but in all
the provinces, the work of sanitation is being attempted in the
dark for want of precisely the kind of direction which might be,
but is not, got from a well-planned record of births and deaths.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—-SECTION H. 183

For this purpose of preventing diseases—and especially for
preventing those which prevail in special localities, whose spread
is in the main due to local faults—the facts regarding death are
useless when they are returned only for areas of large extent.
We sometimes see, to take an extreme instance, death-rates from
one or other cause of disease carefully struck upon the population
of whole provinces, and compared together. We see comparisons
drawn between the number of deaths from typhoid or from
phthisis, for example, in different provinces, a rate being struck
with the total estimated populations; and the results show that as
regards them, Queensland heads the list. Of course such a
comparison, if used as an indication of sanitary condition (and I
do not see any other object in making it), is false for several
reasons : as because typhoid fever is practically a disease of the first
three /ustra of adult life, and because new-comers to a neighbour-
hood or a country are its especial victims, while Queensland has
for long received a steady stream of youthful immigrants, whose
deaths (in such comparisons) are not distinguished from those of
the residents ; and similarly with phthisis.* But suppose such

BIRTHPLACE OF DECEASED. 1884. | 1885. isss. | 1887.
- Queensland re &: a Boe ieee, Bor 4) canto
|
Total Australia, Tasmania or ) a ae) a
New Zealand... ae 5 ah 65 sated alee
India and China... a Ro 15 13 LON Le |
Polynesia ... aS atk A BE 27 188 | 159
Other Countries ... Aes is: 236 | 234 244 | 220
Unspecified age sae aed Seen PaO) fee | 3
Total ae 5c oe 572 | 593 494, 441

comparisons were fair: considering that typhoid is a disease of
locality, of what practical use is a statement which represents it as
prevalent among 367,000 persons, occupying 700,000 square miles
of territory? Does it afford any other information at all than that
typhoid is there? Clearly not. But let another course be taken.
Let the locality of the deaths be known, and they would be seen
to occur in urban districts chiefly ; then in particular neighbour-
hoods of those districts; lastly in particular streets, and even
especially in particular houses in those streets ; and, armed with
this local knowledge, the sanitary authority could ascertain the
local cause, and fulfil the sole object of its creation by removing
it. And the case is not far different when rates are returned

* The Registrar-General for Queensland records the birthplace of all decedents from
phthisis, and with the following instructive results.

184 PRESIDENT’S ADDREES—SECTION H.

for whole cities, or even for municipal districts within them.
Such rates teach nothing of practical importance to the prevention
of disease.

Before accepting the invitation to occupy this chair with which
the Council of the Association honoured me, I considered whether
it were possible to indicate any particular work on which this
section might profitably labour at once for advancement of the
Science of Hygiene, and for the immediate benefit of the people
of this continent. After looking in several directions I thought
I descried one that stood forth pre-eminent. I have now striven
to point it out; but if I may say that, following the custom usual
on such occasions as this, I have indicated rather than described
it, if for that reason I have not entered into great detail, nor
spoken with complete fulness, J am aware in addition of very
many deficiencies, for which I ask indulgence. I have endeavoured
to say as much as will lead you to pursue the subject farther, and
more deeply. I have tried to suggest that, as matters stand, we
are not watching the growth of a race, but overlooking it for want
(among other things) of connecting our registers of birth with
our registers of death. And I have endeavoured to show that
our sanitary organisations in general are wasteful and fruitless
for want of the guide which annual rough-enumeration of the
people under sex, age, and rateable value of the houses they
respectively live in; return of causes of death by the medical
profession, and registration of them under medical supervision ;
analysis of that information by the central health authority, and
its frequent and speedy publication would furnish. J do not
know of any work in any department of science which is more
important to the welfare of the people of Australia, either for the
immediate purpose of preventing disease here and now, or for the
ultimate purposes of good government ; and I venture to conclude
by commending to your attention very earnestly the immediate
necessity which exists for reforming in many respects our present
methods of enumeration and of registration, and for procuring
these to be done under one universal law, and one uniform plan,
in every province of Australia.

4
“te
—_
-
#

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS IN SECTION ee »
a! RS b

pst & |
,

&
LITERATURE AND FINE ARTS.

By J. W. AGNEW, Esgq., M.D.

I AM conscious that many local members of this Association
could fill the Presidential chair of the Section of Literature and
Fine Arts much better than I can pretend to do. It is therefore
necessary to mention that those members are ineligible for
election, as the rules of the Association provide that no resident
of the colony in which a General Meeting takes place shall hold
the position of President. This rule alone has induced me, as a
representative of Tasmania, to take the chair, although it is
scarce necessary to say I feel deeply sensible of the honour of
having been elected to it.

In formally opening the section, I propose to offer but few
general remarks on the various subjects of which it takes
cognisance, as I desire more particularly to consider the present
condition and probable future development of these subjects in
Australasia. The first which presents itself is Literature, but
this alone, even if we regard only that of our own country,
presents so vast a field for comment that it is clearly impossible,
within the scope of a brief address, to do more than touch a very
few of its more salient points. At no period in history have
such floods of literature been poured forth for the instruction
and delight of a reading public as we see at present. To those
of us of an older generation it is marvellous to note the
amazing amount of sterling work, formerly from its high price
the heritage only of the few, which is now, owing to improve-
ments in the mechanical arts and other causes, brought virtually
within the reach of everyone. And it is not only in the supply
and accessibility of books for the multitude that improvement is
manifest ; the same advance has taken place in the general
excellence of literary work itself. History of all kinds, for
instance, has ceased to be a mere compilation of dates, and bald
and dry records of the more striking events of the time. Truth,
myth, and fable have been relegated to their proper spheres.
Evidence is more carefully weighed and sifted, and _ stricter
accuracy, the result of original research in national archives and
other collections freely thrown open to the enquiring student,
has been more generally secured. Being written, too, in a more
broad and philosophic spirit, and dealing with the inner life and
habits of the people, history has become a far more instructive
study, whilst the sidelights which are being continually thrown

186 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION I.

upon it by the increase of biographic and other literature add
more and more to its value. Its boundaries also have been
enlarged within comparatively recent times by the discovery
of ancient records of surpassing interest, which, being deciphered
by the acumen of Egyptian and Assyrian scholars, reveal to us
the wonderful story of great, powerful, and civilised nations long
buried in oblivion. And if the East has been compelled to give
up her secrets, may we not hope that the western world will also
be induced to do so, and that further researches in Central
America among those mysterious cities of a vanished and
forgotten race may result in the discovery of some key to their
numerous hieroglyphic inscriptions, and thus furnish yet another
fascinating chapter to the literature of the world. A hope may
also perhaps be entertained that in this age of research, discoveries
may even yet be made of a lost literature in the case of one of
Europe’s oldest civilisations. Our museums show many an
exquisite production of Etruscan art; it would therefore be
doubly interesting should some happy “find”—some Rosetta
stone—introduce us to the literature itself of old Etruria,
especially as, like its national art, this would probably afford
evidence of ancient Greek and Egyptian influences, and possibly
solve the mystery of their introduction. The literature of the
Press, within my own recollection, which dates back to a period
beyond half a century, wher 7%e Zimes itself boasted of but two.
leaves of modest dimensions, has made an enormous advance, that
of the leading papers—Australian, we may be proud to say, as
well as English—being now generally so excellent in tone and
literary finish as to leave little or nothing to be desired. To
this double excellence is due the admitted pre-eminence of the
English newspaper, while to the energy and ability with which it
is conducted may also be ascribed, among other matters, that com-
paratively recent development known as war correspondence.
This is undoubtedly a peculiar field for literary work, yet the
ubiquitous correspondent, animated with a fine courage and severe
sense of duty, never fails, under the most desperate circumstances
and exposed to all the deadly perils of war, to furnish us virtually
from day to day with graphic pictures, Homeric in personal
interest, of every passing incident of the campaign and battle-field.
Compare these brilliant productions with the staid official reports
of the same scenes and occurrences, and we realise how much we
owe to the daily press for giving us a new and stirring literature
of universal interest. The increase in periodic literature, teeming
as this does both with lighter works of imagination and with
weightiest matter by the foremost writers of the day, is a very
notable fact, whilst the favourable terms on which it is supplied
point, in a highly satisfactory manner, to an enormous demand
on the part of a vast, reading, and well-to-do public. I can here
only allude to the incessant issue of work of the severer type,
scientific, philosophic, classical, theological, critical, &e., which

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION I. 187

supplies the requirements of a large and learned section of the
community, and amply vindicates the science and scholarship of
the day ; but there is still another class of literature which, from
its general acceptance, may warrant a brief special notice. I
refer to the modern novel, which may truly be said to come upon
us not in single spies but in battalions. Many novels no doubt
are of little or no worth, yet in others, although no such trans-
cendant genius as a Scott, a Thackeray or a Dickens writes at
present, the amount of thoughtful and superior work which not
only adorns the tale but points a moral, is a distinctly increasing
quantity. Much of this work, too, has borne good fruit, as by
its means, even since Dickens wrote, abuses of various kinds
have been brought under the notice of an indignant public, with
the effect of securing beneficial reforms. This advance in general
tone and style affords a reason for the higher position now
occupied by the novel than was the case, with few exceptions, in
my early days, when its influence on the youthful mind was
regarded as so objectionable, that in my own instance at least,
which I presume was not exceptional, I was generally compelled
to secure the much coveted volume by means of a somewhat
questionable character, and snatch a fearful joy by devouring its
contents in secret. This improvement in a large proportion of
novels argues a healthier taste in a corresponding proportion of
the community, and this again is but the natural result of that
moral and material progress which is so generally evident. It
has no doubt been the complaint of centuries, and the great
Roman lyrist, from the frequency with which he is quoted, has
perhaps. something to answer for in this question, that the world
is retrograde rather than progressive. But facts alone surely
confute such a contention, for had every generation lived but to:
produce a successor worse than itself, it is clear that beings little
better than savages should now have possession of the earth.
Yet how different is the reality! Never has there been an age
in which active and intelligent philanthropy has been so
conspicuous, nor in which zeal, charity, self-denial, and even life
itself, have been so freely expended on so vast a scale and on so
many and such varied objects. It must certainly be admitted it
cannot yet be said that this is “the best of all possible worlds,”
nor that the present is superior in every respect to some past ages.
that can boast the possession of those shining lights in art and
literature which still glitter through the pages of history. But
our incalculable superiority to the past is manifest in the diffusion
of letters, not merely among the favoured few, but broad-cast
throughout the masses, and it is clear that the cultured intelli-
gence which is necessarily and increasingly the result, must prove
a most powerful factor in raising the general level of humanity
in the present, and in happily rendering a recurrence of “ Dark
Ages” impossible in the future. Yet, although the novel

188 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION I.

participates in this general advance, many worthy people still see
in it a snare, and regard it with but scant toleration. The
number of these objectors, however, steadily diminishes, and
lighter reading, even if it convey no particular lesson, when
pursued within due limits and as a relief from severer studies or
occupations, is now generally regarded as not only harmless in
itself, but as of actual benefit in lending an additional attraction
to the home circle. It may also be recollected that our novel
may prove in some distant future to be of historic value, in
affording an accurate picture of the inner life, manners and
customs of its age. We know something of ‘‘The glory that was
Greece, and the grandeur that was Rome,” but in addition to
what we can gather from plays and other writings, what would
we not give for such a full and accurate presentment as that
afforded by the novel, of the social life and everyday walk and
conversation of the people themselves? And here, as circum-
stances enable me to do so, I desire to couch a lance in behalf of
one of our most brilliant delineators of modern life and character,
George Eliot. In a public lecture delivered here not long ago,
dealing in a very kind and appreciative spirit with George Eliot’s
writings, it was said that on reading her biography by Mr. Cross,
the impression received was to the effect that almost all of the
authoress was in her works, and that little or nothing was left
for the friends of her social circle. If this be the case, I have
good reason to say the biography, unwittingly no doubt by its
author, conveys a very faulty impression. A few years ago I had
the pleasure of knowing a personal friend of George Eliot, a man
of exceptional culture and acquirements. He always spoke to
me in most glowing terms of the social gifts and graces of the
great authoress, of her amazing and charming power of ready
sympathy, of her quick intuitive perception, clear judgment,
and admirable common sense. With one expression in regard
to her more serious conversation I was particularly struck—
“Tn fact,” he said, “when walking and talking with her I always
felt as if I walked and talked with Plato.” In connection with
this supposititious failure of George Eliot as a social unit, a
suggestion was also hazarded on the occasion already alluded
to, that it may even be well we know so little of the social life
of Shakespeare, as it was possible he may there have shown no
indications of his genius, nor have risen above mediocrity. But
when we see that George Eliot’s supposed deficiencies were
actually non-existent, this allusion to her case can have no weight.
And when we consider the peculiar brilliancy and exuberance of
Shakespeare’s imagination, and take into account not only the
admiration and respect, but the warm affection with which he is
spoken of by such a learned and caustic writer as Ben Jonson, it
is impossible, I think, to fancy he was not endowed with the
fullest share of all those bright and genial gifts that enliven and

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION I. 189:

sweeten social intercourse. Had there been a marked deficiency
in this respect, it would have been so phenomenal in his case, that
Jonson would surely have referred to it rather than to a matter
of such small comparative interest as his friend’s imperfect
knowledge of Latin and Greek. But to come nearer home, it
may be asked, What of the future of Australasian literature ?
Obviously the time has not yet arrived for the production by
writers of Australian birth, of work requiring long literary
apprenticeship, original research and learned leisure, but it may
confidently be said our literature of a lighter character, whether
periodic or otherwise, already indicates a very great amount of
native ability. The weekly press, though dealing more largely
with English fiction, affords a certain amount of publicity,
encouragement, and training to native writers, several of whom
have in consequence been enabled to undertake work of a more
ambitious or permanent character. We have, for instance, seen
of late that a novel by a former well-known contributor to the
Australasian has had a wide acceptance even at home, and as its
gifted authoress, “‘Tasma,” resided in Tasmania from childhood,
her book, which treats largely of local scenes and subjects, may
truly be regarded as indigenous. The same may be said of other
recent works by Rolf Boldrewood—a pseudonym familiar to
readers of the local press—which from their wealth of startling
incident, brilliant descriptive power and true local colouring, have
secured a very large amount of public favour. Other native
writers too, I have reason to know, are coming to the front. An
authoress of world-wide repute at home, Mrs. Humphry Ward, is
a native of Tasmania, but having left that colony at an early
age, cannot be claimed as an Australian writer, nor do I think
that other than home influences are visible in her works. Several
novels, thoroughly Australian in scope and character, have been
written locally, or from local experience, though not by native
writers. Among the best known are: ‘Geoffrey Hamlyn,” “ His
Natural Life,” and “The Broad Arrow,” all of which are likely
to live, as they present well-drawn and interesting pictures of
scenes peculiar to a past phase of colonial life. And as in prose
so also in poetry, Australian influences have already inspired
some admirable work, though for the most part the writers have
been born and nurtured under other skies. Among these a
foremost place will readily be accorded to Adam Lindsay
Gordon, whose brilliant lyric and descriptive poems, many of
them redolent of bush life, have taken a firm hold on the public
mind, and will be long and deservedly held in appreciative
memory. Some of them, indeed, will no doubt take permanent
place in our national literature. A peculiar interest, at the
same time, due to what is known of his unfortunate life
and chequered career, attaches to much that Gordon wrote.
Chivalrous feeling, refined taste, scholarship, and the true spirit

190 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION I.

of poetry are distinctly evident, but indications are not
wanting that deep regret for what he had lost, and for what he
ought to have been, was a frequent experience, and that he
accepted his existing position only in a spirit of gloomy resigna-
tion—a condition which we know unhappily developed at last
into despair. The somewhat complex philosophy of a character
generous and unselfish in one phase, almost reckless in another,
yet withal capable of attracting in a remarkable degree both
sympathy and regard, is perhaps slightly shadowed forth in his
own lines, which, under the circumstances of the writer, are not
without pathos—
Question not, but live and labour
Till yon goal be won,
Helping every feeble neighbour,
Seeking help from none :
Life is mostly froth and bubble,
Two things stand like stone—
KINDNESS in another’s trouble,
COURAGE in your own.

It must be admitted, however, that a large portion of Gordon’s
verse is inspired by English scenes, sentiment, and associa-
tions, and the same may be said of that of another poet,
who is nevertheless to be considered in some degree as
Australian, his best work having been done in the land of
his adoption. I refer to Brunton Stephens. For sustained
power, wealth of polished language, and felicity of diction,
his longest poem, ‘‘Convict Once,” stands, I think, alone in
Australasian poetic literature. Local influences may be seen
in such allusions as—
Out on the gem-pointed Cross and the glittering pomp of Orion
Flaming in measureless azure, the coronal jewels of God,

but many of his minor pieces are far more thoroughly Australian
in subject, while several are characterised by a happy vein of
humour not dissimilar to that of Calverley. Comparisons, I
believe, have been made between his merits as a poet and those
of Gordon. None of Gordon’s verse, I think, equals “ Convict
Once” in fine sustained power, but English literature affords
many proofs that the briefest emanations of genius, if they
worthily appeal to human sentiment and feeling, frequently
secure an enduring fame and popularity denied to apparently
grander and more ambitious efforts. | Brief and imperfect as this
notice of our poets must necessarily be, mention must be made of
one whom Australia can wholly claim as a son, namely, Henry
Kendall. Imbued with a passionate love for the land of his
birth, intensely sympathetic with the poetry of nature, especially
perhaps in her wilder and weirder aspects, and wifted with
uncommon power of vivid description, Kendall, on his first
appearance as an author, was quickly recognised as a true
Australian poet. His name indeed soon became known at home,

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION I. 191

and inan English magazine, I think the 4tene@um a most compli-
mentary notice was given of his poems, the reviewer even quoting
several of them at length. It is singular that in a recent (1886)
local edition of the poet’s works, none of these pieces selected for
favourable comment are included. In one of them I was much
struck by the graphic rendering, in the space of a single line, of a
moonlight effect,
A white sail glimmers out at sea—a vessel walking in her sleep.

The mystic and dreamy picture here so well presented is very
characteristic of some moods of the writer. But although Kendall
has secured for himself a permanent place on the roll of
Australia’s poets, it is a subject for regret that his life was not
further prolonged, and under circumstances more favourable for
poetic work, for excellent as this is, the brilliant productions of
his earlier years gave promise, I think, of something even still
more so. The amount of.published poetry by other writers in
Australasia is very considerable, as is evidenced by the large, and
apparently exhaustive, collection on the shelves of the Public
Library of this city. Before leaving this subject, I may observe
it is a matter for congratulation that our future poets and
dramatists must always have an equal and common share with
their English brethren in that peerless exemplar already alluded
to of all that is greatest and best in literature—Shakespeare ; of
whom indeed many an enthusiastic student would probably
venture to go even so far as to say :—
Quo nihil majus meliusve terris

Fata donavere, bonique Divi,
Nec dabunt.

It may, in fact, be a question if English writers have not in this
respect an exclusive privilege. Other nations certainly have our
poet in their own vernacular, but when we know how well-nigh
impossible it is to give in a strange tongue a perfect reflex of any
supreme poetry, with all the subtle cadence and music of the
words first married by the poet himself to his imaginings, it is
clear that any attempt to render the finer issues of Shakespeare
by a translation must practically end in failure. It may be
noted, too, that the very perfection of our great dramatist not
only renders him virtually impossible to the translator, but has
- probably the peculiar effect of preventing him from being even
the founder of a school, as it has been well observed by an
English writer: “If Shakespeare founded no school, that is
because no school of Shakespeare is possible. It is only the
artist whose perfections are not unapproachable who can found a
school.” Here it may not be out of place to refer to an article in
the Contemporary Review, of October, 1889, which must go far to
convince even the most stubborn sceptic of the real personality
of Shakespeare. The argument that the writer whom we know
by that name could not, owing to defective scholarship, have

192 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION I.

painted such scenes from ancient history as those given in his
plays is proved to be utterly untenable, as it is shown that by
available translations and other means a sufficient knowledge of
any character in whom he was interested could easily have been
acquired by Shakespeare. The wonderful alchemy of his own
unrivalled creative genius did all the rest in transmuting those
pale phantoms of Greek, Roman, or Egyptian story into living,
speaking realities of like feelings and passions as ourselves. On
the whole, the clear and satisfactory conviction left by the article
is that the name of Shakespeare is rightly associated with his
plays, and that it will therefore continue to burn as brightly in
the future as it has done in the past, unaffected by fanciful and
mysterious theories of Baconian or any other authorship. I may
add, one special responsibility must always rest with our future
writers, namely, that of preserving inviolate the priceless heritage
of their mother-tongue. History has shown that “a corrupt and
decaying language is an infallible sign of a corrupt and decaying
civilisation,” but fortunately as yet there is no indication of such
decay in either our language or nation. As to the latter, we
shall, no doubt, agree with the patriotic declaration of Lord
Beaconsfield when he says: “I refuse to accept the theory of
British decadence ; England is capable of forming, not losing,
empires.” Neither in the former are symptoms of decay
perceptible. In fact, when fairly used, the language has never
hitherto exhibited a higher state of development, and has there-
fore never been more worthy of a jealous care. But as a boon
when common property runs the risk of not being sufficiently
appreciated and guarded, it may not be out of place to cite the
opinion, not of an English and possibly prejudiced, but of a great
foreign authority on the grandeur of our language. In a treatise
read before the Berlin Academy by the late renowned German
scholar and philologist, Jacob Ludwig Grimm, the following
passage (translated) occurs:—‘“It (the English language)
possesses through its abundance of free medial tones, which may
be learnt indeed, but which no rules can teach, a power of expres-
sion such as perhaps has never been attained by any other human
tongue. Its altogether intellectual and singularly happy founda-
tions and developments have arisen from a surprising alliance
between the two noblest languages of antiquity, the German and
the Romanesaue, the relations of which to each other is well
known to be such that the former supplies the material founda-
tion, the latter the abstract notions. Yes, truly may the English
language with good reason call itself a universal language, and it
seems chosen, like its people, to rule in future times to a still
greater degree in all corners of the earth. In richness, sound
reason and flexibility, no modern tongue can be compared to it,
not even the German, which must strengthen many a weakness
and shake off many encumbrances before it can take rank with

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION I. 193

the English.” And on this subject the responsibilities of our
American cousins are well expressed in the words or song of the
poet :—

Beyond the vague Atlantic deep,

Far as the farthest prairies sweep,

Where mountain wastes the sense appal,

Where burns the radiant Western fall,

One duty les on old and young—

With filial piety to guard,

As on its greenest native sward,

The glory of the English tongue!

Although literature other than that now referred to lies rather
outside the present notice, I may observe that much of a most
valuable character has been locally written, including, amongst
other matter, narratives of early explorations, complete histories
of several of the colonies, accounts of the aborigines, elaborate
treatises on local geology and on various branches of natural
history. For learned and exhaustive contributions to the
botanical section of the last-named subject, I am sure there is no
one whom this Association will more delight to honour than our
learned and distinguished President, Baron Sir Ferdinand von
Mueller, whose long and brilliant labours in connection with the
special subject with which his name must be for ever associated,
have secured for him both fame and honours in the old world,
and, locally, have made not merely his own province but all
Australasia his debtor.

Passing from Literature to the second division of our section,
a brief allusion may be expected to that which in its highest
expression reaches perhaps to the very ideal of art, namely,
Sculpture. In this, resident artists of home or foreign nationality
have done much; but although a practical taste for it is already
dawning in our midst, I am not aware that our youth have
accomplished any original work requiring special mention. Nor
is this strange. Much expenditure of time and means, with
access to necessary models, are required for the attainment of
proficiency in this difficult art, whilst rewards are precarious, as
those whose means might enable them to afford encouragement to
its higher efforts may prefer, for the present at least, to go to the
great studios of the old world, where choice is so varied and so
excellent, rather than limit themselves to the comparatively small
field for selection afforded by the colonies.

For Drawing in all its branches a marked amount of native
talent exists. Great facilities for study of the art are afforded
by several of the colonies. In Victoria the sum of one thousand
pounds is given yearly to the Art School in connection with the
National Gallery, which itself obtains the very liberal annual
grant of about seven thousand pounds. An additional impetus
is given to the study of painting by the establishment of a
Travelling Scholarship (of £150 per annum), tenable for three

M

194 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION I.

years, under the condition that the holder shall send back to the
colony in each of the first two years a copy of some recognised
painting by one of the old masters, and at the close of the third
year an original one by himself. The present holder of this
valuable prize, Mr. Longstaff, had shown great promise before
proceeding to Europe ; “but the. tirst picture sent back, ‘“ The
Entombment of Christ” (Titian) indicates a marked advance, due
no doubt in great measure to careful study of the works of those
dead Sovereigns of Art “who still rule our spirits from their urns.”
Other Australian artists are making surprising progress in the
home studios, one or more of their pictures, including one from
the artist just named, having been honoured by admission
to the Paris Salon. Locally, the names of the Tasmanian
artists, Piguenit and Dowling (the latter not long deceased),
are well known. In flower painting, the truly exquisite
productions of Mrs. Rowan’s pencil are deservedly appreciated,
and ‘have found a fame” far beyond the range of the
Australias, while the flora of Tasmania has worthy local
exponents in Miss Hall and other native artists. The superior
work of many home artists, either permanently or temporarily
resident in our midst, claims public admiration at annual
exhibitions, and finds a place in many a choice private collection ;
but special notice of this lies, of course, beyond the scope
of these remarks. As Architectural Drawing, however, comes
under this head, I should be glad to draw attention briefly to
some instances of its practical application, which I venture to
think indicate a violation of certain elementary canons of the
art itself. We are authoritatively told by writers on the subject
that ornamentation, when in the form of architectural features,
should point to some practical purpose, or give the idea of utility
as 1ts very raison @étre. Pillars or Caryatides, for instance,
when introduced merely as ornaments, should seem to support
something, which, of course, must bear a due proportion to its
supports. So also in the case of a balustrade or parapet. This
no doubt is a very effective and impesing ornament along the
sky-line, but as the essential and primary purpose of a balustrade
or parapet must be to give protection to persons behind it, it is
clear this idea should always be practically carried out by
making the flanking walls at least to correspond with it in
height ; otherwise the raised front, unsupported, or but partially
so, is visibly unfit for its essential function, and thus becomes a
palpable sham and pretentious delusion. Yet in innumerable
instances in every direction, owing to the absence of art to
conceal art, we see this sham front rearing its painfully absurd
elevation, and proclaiming itself to be a mere excrescence on the
building, and not, as it should seem to be, a useful and integral
portion of it. In some cases this inartistic front may have
been designed with the idea that neighbouring buildings would

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION I. 195

eventually conceal the sham, but, as a rule, no such excuse or
explanation is possible. Gable ends, again, are designed which
would be artistic, were any apparent use assigned to them; but
when this is absent, the structure itself becomes a visible pretence,
and therefore false in art. In connection with this subject
generally, it may be remarked, it is fortunate that the study of
drawing and design should be so congenial to Australian taste, as
in the future it must become a matter not merely of private but
of national importance. From absence of the artistic element,
the mother country, to within a recent period, suffered severely
in the markets of the world in her competition with other nations
more advanced in art-culture. But the cause of this commercial
failure was recognised at last, and, owing to their beauty of design
and ornamentation, combined with perfect workmanship, the
fabrics of England, whether textile, fictile, or otherwise, are now
rapidly assuming that high position to which they are so well
entitled. In glass manufacture, indeed, England already outstrips
all competitors, even her old rivals of Venice and Bohemia.

The remaining but not least important subject of the section is
Music. It must be admitted that the genial environments and
conditions of Australasian life are in some way peculiarly
propitious to the development and cultivation of taste for the
Fine Arts, because as in painting, so also in music, the outlook is
all its most ardent votary could desire. We know that at home
this delightful art has made astonishing progress within compara-
tively recent times. Probably the enthusiastic and judicious
encouragement given to it by the Royal Family has contributed
much to this advance, but the widespread culture of music
throughout all classes must be due in part to increased pecuniary
means and material prosperity, and partly also to the general
education of the day rendering the masses more susceptible and
more appreciative of all finer influences. Be this as it may, it
can safely be affirmed that these colonies, in their devotion to
music, are in no way behind the mother country, if they do not
in fact even surpass her. Australian artists indeed have gained
European distinction in both instrumental and vocal music. In
the former, we learn that Johann Kruse, of Victoria, has more
than fulfilled the brilliant promise of his youth, having already
achieved that high position foreshadowed for him by endowments
of no common order, whilst his young and gifted compatriot,
Ernest Hutchinson, is steadily following in his footsteps, with
every prospect of eventually securing for himself an equal meed
of fame and of reflecting equal credit on the land of his birth.
The attainments of Florence Menk-Meyer, pianiste and composer,
are too well recognised by the public to require any very special
mention. In vocal music, another daughter of Victoria, Madame
Melba, has actually taken rank with the greatest singers of the
day, having been acclaimed by enthusiastic audiences a queen of

M2

196 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION I.

song on the operatic stage of the capitals both of France and
England. And from this bright category, to which additions no
doubt can be made by other members of the Association, the
names of Amy Sherwin, the sweet singer of Tasmania, and of
Alice Rees, so well known to Australian audiences, cannot be
omitted. But although it is pleasant to contemplate these
phenomenal cases as bright particular stars, the extraordinary
love of the art which permeates the entire community presents a
still more pleasing and satisfactory feature for observation,
indicating as it does the pervading presence of that refinement
which is so desirable an element of national character. Were
visible proof required of this universal passion for music, we
have only to look around, not only on private society, but on the
great and apparently insatiable audiences which never fail
to crowd+our numerous and brilliantly conducted oratorios,
liedertafels, operas and similar performances. The recent
establishment, too, in Melbourne of a National Orchestra, under
the management of one of the foremost English professors of
music, is a noteworthy circumstance, as the local influence of
such foundations on the music of the future can scarcely be
over estimated.

In respect to Literature and Art generally, one other matter
may be referred to. In biographies of eminent self-made men we
meet with many cases in which, although success was eventually
attained, the first efforts of genius were all but blighted by
adverse circumstances. So infinitely narrow indeed has been the
line between success and failure, it is safe to conclude that in
many an instance these efforts have been altogether crushed, and
the world consequently left so much the poorer by the loss of what
might have been. It is pleasant, therefore, to think that in these
favoured countries the education which is common to all cannot
fail to discover and develop genius wherever it may lie hidden,
and that neither “ Poverty’s unconquerable bar,” nor other
adverse influence, will keep in obscurity anyone gifted with
exceptional abilities.

In fine, in these early days of Australasia’s existence we may
perhaps, with little stretch of imagination, regard the present
generation of standing at the fountain-head of a great and
enlightened nation. And if, without neglect of other and possibly
sterner duties, we can, by means of such associations as this and
otherwise, contribute to that fountain some tincture, some element
calculated to still further promote and strengthen in the national
character of the future that love of Literature and Art which
refines manners, removes vulgar asperities, and makes life better
worth living, then I think we shall be performing a duty clearly
required of us, and shal] be casting bread upon the waters, to be
found haply after many days, if not by ourselves, at least by our
successors,

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS IN SECTION Je

ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE.

By W. H. WARREN, Wa.Scu., M. Inst. C.E., Lonpon, M. Soc. C.E.,
AMERICA,

Challis Professor of Civil and Mechanical Engineering,
University of Sydney.

In the first place, I have to offer you my sincere thanks for the
honour you have done me in electing me as your President ; and,
in accordance with a custom long established, it becomes my duty
and my privilege to address you on one of the many subjects
included in this important section. The material welfare and
progress of the civilised world depends largely on the labours of
engineers.

If we consider the work which has been accomplished during
the last 50 years in connection with the arts and manufactures,
in the construction, equipment, and safe navigation of ocean
steamers, both for the navy and mercantile marine, the various
works and appliances for defensive and offensive operations, the
construction of docks and harbours, and the improvement of
tidal rivers, railways, water supply and sewerage of cities and
towns, electricity, mining—in fact, in all those cases,in which
the great sources of power in nature have been directed and
controlled for the wants and conveniences of mankind, it must be
admitted that engineering holds its own in the beneficent
influence it exerts on the well-being of humanity.

Now, since the progress and development of engineering in the
future will depend upon the character, knowledge, and ability of
those men whose privilege it will be to carry on the work which
has already become such an important factor in the history of the
19th century, it is clear that the education of our future engineers
is a matter of momentous interest to the whole civilised world, and
I have therefore chosen this theme as the subject of my address.

If we consider the various operations in the process of con-
struction of large engineering works, and endeavour to ascertain
what kinds of knowledge are necessary for the engineer to
possess, whose special duty it is to design and carry out such
work, we shall then be in a position to decide in what manner the
particular knowledge referred to can be best obtained. Take,
for example, the construction and working of railways. The
railway civil engineer should understand the various conditions
and circumstances in connection with the location of the railway,

198 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION J.

so that the returns obtainable from the traftic will bear the best:
possible proportion to the interest on the capital invested,
added to the working expenses. He should also possess a
thorough knowledge of surveying as applied to railways, and
be able to prepare the working plans and sections of the
line, showing necessary works, such as grades, curves, embank-
ments, cuttings, tunnels, culverts, viaducts, and bridges. He
should be able to design these works in detail, as well
as the permanent way, including the switches, crossings,
signals, and the various appliances which are necessary in order
to ensure that the traftic may be carried over the line in a safe
and economical manner. He should also be able to design the
roadside and terminal stations to meet the requirements of the
goods and passenger traffic. The railway mechanical engineer
should be thoroughly acquainted with the design, manufacture,
and repairs of locomotive engines and rolling stock, including
the special appliances and machinery which are necessary for
the economical performance of this class of work.

In a similar manner, we might detail the order of operations
in connection with the construction of roads, sewerage works,
water supply, harbour and dock works—z.e., we should have, in
the first place, the preliminary surveys, in order to decide the
location of the works, and afterwards the design, construction,
and maintenance of the works in question.

In Mechanical Engineering we have a complex matter to deal
with, and one which is daily becoming more comprehensive in
character ; but it is clear that every mechanical engineer should
possess a thorough knowledge of the chief constructive processes
which are used in the manufacture of engines and machinery,
and of the various natural forces and agents, such as heat,
electricity, steam, air, and water. Do we provide efficiently for
the acquisition of the knowledge referred to by merely articling
a young man to an engineer, without having first educated him
to understand the various works with which he is brought in
contact? The whole civilised world has answered in the negative
in establishing special engineering colleges all over Europe,
America, and England, or engineering. schools and departments
in connection with existing universities.

Hence, you may be certain that the carefully drawn up and
complete schemes of scientific and technical education, the result
of the thought and discussion which has been devoted to the
subject in Europe and America, and which is becoming daily more
recognised in England, is the best course for us to adopt here in the
colonies. That it is to some extent recognised in the colonies is
shown by the establishment of engineering schools in connection
with the universities of Sydney and Melbourne, and that the
system has already been successful is proved by the number of
important positions held by engineering graduates of both
universities,

———

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION J. 199

It was owing to a full appreciation of these facts that Mr.
Bruce Smith, the present Minister for Public Works (New South
Wales), in a recent minute, has restricted the purely professional
appointments in the department over which he presides to
graduates in engineering of the University of Sydney, instead of
continuing the cadet system, which is acknowledged by the chief
public officers to be most unsatisfactory. Mr. Bruce Smith’s
action in this matter is worthy of imitation, and I sincerely
recommend it to the Government of Victoria with reference to
the engineering graduates of the Melbourne University. ;

I may mention here, for the benefit of the Railway Com-
missioners of the various colonies, and the directors of companies
where engineering knowledge and skill are required, that the
properly-trained colonial engineer possesses many advantages over
his English brother in designing and carrying out civil engineering
works in the colonies. He understands better the nature of the
materials of construction with which he has to deal; he has
obtained his professional training in connection with works which
have been constructed under conditions and circumstances which
are essentially different from those existing in England. He is
generally a much better surveyor, and I consider him to be equal
in every other respect. In Mechanical Engineering, on the other
hand, the engineer trained in England has an advantage, in
consequence of the larger works and more complete machinery
with with he is brought i in contact.

I will now briefly describe the course of engineering education
provided at the University of Sydney.

Candidates for the degree of Bachelor of Engineering must, in
the first place, pass the Senior Public Examination, or an exami-
nation equivalent to the Senior Public Examination, in the
following subjects, viz., Latin and one of the three languages,
Greek, French, German, and three of the following: subjects, viz.,
Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry, Trigonometry, Elementary
Surveying and Astronomy, Theoretical and Applied Mechanics,
unless they have previously passed the first year of the Arts
course. During the first year, the candidates are required to
attend the courses of instruction and pass the examinations in the
following subjects :—

1. Chemistry, Inorganic (with two terms laboratory practice).
2. Descriptive Geometry and Drawing.

3. Mathematics.

4. Mechanics.

5, Physies.

6. Physiography.

In the second year the candidates are required to attend the
courses of instruction and pass the examinations in the following
subjects :—

1. Applied 1 tee hiiaios (with laboratory practice).
2. Geology.

200 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION J.

3. Mechanical Drawing.

4, Mathematics.

5. Physics (with one term laboratory practice).
6. Surveying.

In the third year candidates are required to attend the
courses of instruction and pass the examinations in the following
subjects :—

1. Drawing and Design.
2. Materials and Structures (with laboratory practice).
3. Mathematics, and one of the following :—

A. Civil Engineering and Architecture.

B. Mechanical Engineering and Machine Design.

Every candidate is required to prepare and submit to the
Board of Examiners an original set of working drawings and
specifications of machinery or works.

In Mining Engineering, the candidates are required to attend
(in addition to the foregoing), a more complete course in Chemistry
and Metallurgy ; also a course in Mineralogy and Mining. It is
proposed to add a Department of Architecture as soon as funds
are available. The object of the entrance examination is to
ensure that the student has received a good general education,
and that he is capable of profiting by the professional courses
of instruction which he is subsequently to attend. The chief
feature in the courses of instruction is the attention paid to
practical instruction in the various laboratories. The Physical
and Chemical Laboratories have been specially designed for their
work, and are equipped in a most complete manner with every
modern appliance for teaching Physics and Chemistry. The
Mechanical Laboratory, which is under my own direction, is at
present not all that could be desired, but it is proposed to make
considerable alterations and additions, which, when completed,
will place it on a level with any similar laboratory in England.
At present we possess a testing machine similar to the one in the
Melbourne University, which is capable of testing in tension,
compression, torsion, cross-breaking, we., up to 100,000 pounds ;
five lathes, drilling, planing, and shaping machines, driven by a
pair of engines with overhead shafting. The engines are fitted
up with apparatus for making complete tests of power developed,
including Crosby and Richards’ indicators, Elhott’s tachometer
and revolution counter, and an Appold brake dynamometer.
There is also a vertical boiler, fitted with tanks and gauges for
making experiments on evaporative efliciency. It is proposed
to provide for experimental work of a complete character in
connection with cement, friction and lost work in machinery,
hydraulics, &e., and to add a hydraulic accumulator to the
testing machine.

Up to the present, a considerable number of specimens have
been tested (for each of which an autographic stress-strain diagram

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION J. 201

has been produced, in addition to the ordinary records of the
tests), including 1,500 specimens of Australian timbers, which
have been tested in tension, compression, cross-breaking and
shearing, both for strength and elasticity. A variety of models,
made to scale, of timber trusses and compound beams; 300 blocks
of concrete of various proportions and ages; a series of experi-
ments on the adhesion of cement mortar to bricks; a number
of experiments on the crushing resistance of sewer pipes, bricks,
stone, and asphalt ; also a number of experiments on the tensile
strength of iron, steel, bronzes, &c., chiefly used in Government
works. In all these experiments the students take part.

A student having completed a course such as this is in a
position to commence his practical duties—if a civil engineer, in
the drawing office, and afterwards on the works in progress of
construction; if a mechanical engineer, first in the workshops
and afterwards in the drawing office—and generally he will make
decided progress in acquiring a knowledge of all those practical
details which will daily come under his notice. Having received
a complete scientific training in the underlying principles of his
profession, and having acquired the habit of thinking accurately,
he will be able to observe, analyse, and classify the various
operations in the process of construction of the works he is
engaged upon. A good student will be anxious to extend his
experience in every possible way, and will study closely the
engineering practice on works other than those he is engaged
upon ; and, in general, he will acquire more valuable practical
experience in three years after the completion of his theoretical
studies than could possibly be obtained in a lifetime without such
preliminary training.

The advantages of a training such as the one I have referred
to is more conspicuous when it is attempted to design works
where no previous examples of a similar character are available.
Here an engineer who is deficient in scientific training may
endanger life and property, and is almost certain to incur
unnecessary expense.

Again, it will be at once conceded that an engineer, if he is
to progress with the times, must diligently study the various
professional journals and the proceedings of our principal
engineering societies, in order that he may be acquainted with
the works ‘of other engineers in the special branch in which he is
interested; but unless he has received a training such as the one
referred to he cannot derive one half of the real benefit obtainable.
For example, he cannot follow completely the various papers in
connection with the steam and gas engine without a sound
knowledge of thermodynamics ; neither can he follow the
development of engineering practice in bridge-building unless he
thoroughly understands the scientific basis of that practice.

iS)

02 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION J.

In Electrical Engineering the necessity for scientific training is
so clear that I need not refer to it, only to point out that every
electrical engineer, besides posessing as sound knowledge of
physical science, should be a good mechanical engineer. I am
aware of the fact that many of the leading members of the
profession have not received such a complete scientific training as
the one I have referred to. 2

These may be divided into two classes. On the one hand we
have men who have succeeded by their knowledge of processes
and their practical knowledge of materials, tact in business
matters, capacity to organise and manage workmen ; and in such
cases the real engineering knowledge and ability is supplied by a
partner or assistant, who has generally acquired that knowledge
in the manner indicated.

On the other hand, we have had men who have been inde-
fatigable students, bent above all things on self-improvement,
whose labours were actuated by a spirit as truth-loving and with
a zeal as keen as that of any of the purely scientific investigators.
I refer to such men as John Smeaton, born in 1724; James
Watt, born in 1736; Thomas Telford, born in 1757; John
Rennie, Sir. William Fairbairn, George and Robert Stevenson,
Dr. Roebuck, Muschet, Nielson, Sir Charles William Siemens,
Sydney Thomas Gilchrist, Sir Joseph Whitworth, and others.
The time at my disposal for this address will not permit me to
give even a brief account of their lives ; but you will find a most
interesting account of some of their labours in Smiles’ “ Lives of
the Engineers.” We still hear in the colonies the terms “theory”
and “practice” grossly misapplied. For instance, Mr. A is
designated a theorist, while Mr. B is said to. be a thoroughly
practical man. We have also heard it stated ‘that one ounce of
practice is worth a pound of theory.” And, on the other hand,
the late Sir John Anderson, Superintendent of the Arsenal at
Woolwich, said, with reference to this subject, ‘‘ that one ounce
of theory thoroughly understood was worth any amount of
practice which was not based upon scientific principles.” Now,
it is clear to everyone that if you require todo a thing which you
have not done before, and which probably no one else has done
before, you must first of all think out carefully how you are to do
it before you can commence.

So, also, an engineer, if he wishes to design a structure of an
original type, or which differs in its dimensions, or loads which it
has to carry, forces which may be brought to bear upon it, or in
any other respect from existing structures, he must first carefully
think out and design the structure, taking into account all the
conditions and circumstances which govern the case, before he
can finally build the structure.

IT have mentioned the case of a structure, but the same course
should be followed with regard to machinery—the one part is

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION J. 205

theory, the other practice; e¢tiex is incomplete without the other,
and an accurate knowledge of Jo¢/ is essential to the successful
completion of the work. Then how can the one be antagonistic
to the other ?

The late Professor Rankine, in his admirable dissertation on
the ‘“‘ Harmony of Theory and Practice in Mechanics,” traces the:
origin of the opposition of theory to practice to the ancient Greeks.
He says :—‘‘Their notions were generally pervaded by a great
fallacy, which attained its complete and most mischievous
development amongst the medieval schoolmen, the remains of
whose influence can be traced even at the present day.” It arose,
in the first instance, from the imperfections of a theory which was
unable to explain ordinary natural phenomena, and was not
recognised as false until the time of Newton, when the science of
mechanics became better understood.

Again : “ This prejudice, as I have stated, is not to be found
at the present day in the form of a definite and avowed principle ;
it is to be traced only in its pernicious effects in the progress
both of speculative science and of practice, and sometimes
in a sort of tacit influence which it exerts upon the forms
of expressions of writers who have assuredly no intention of
perpetuating a delusion.”

A great deal has been written during the last few years on
Technical Education, and the subiect is an important one in the
colonies ; but I think considerable misconception has arisen both
here and in England. The articles of Sir Lyon Playfair, Lord
Armstrong, and those in the leading professional journals show
an apparent want of unanimity, which could only have arisen, in
my opinion, from a misunderstanding. In speaking of technical
education, as applied to engineering, it is necessary to state
exactly what we mean.

In carrying out engineering works, a great number of artisans
areemployed. We have pattern-makers, moulders, fitters, turners,
smiths, boiler-makers, and others. I have a great respect for the
hand-skill of the artisan, and for the intelligence which directs
it ; but I think you will agree with me that it is neither desirable
nor expedient for any but the most distinguished of the artisan
class to go through a course of training as complete as that
which I have shown to be necessary for engineers. There is a
wide difference between the education necessary for the engineer,
whose function it is to work with his brain, and that of the
artisan, who works with his hands. A knowledge of drawing,
physics, chemistry, mathematics, and mechanics, supplemented by
laboratory demonstrations and workshop practice, of such a
character as to enable an artisan or an apprentice to understand
the scientific principles which underlie their respective trades,
will, in my opinion, completely meet their requirements so far as
the engineering trades are concerned; and such instruction is

204 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION J.

provided in the Sydney Technical College and in the Working
Men’s College, Melbourne.

I submit, however, to the Governments of New South Wales
and Victoria the desirability of establishing scholarships for the
most distinguished students of these colleges, in order that they
may complete their education by attending the Engineering and
Science courses at their own university.

It is the function of the technical colleges (such as those in
Sydney and Melbourne) to deal with the technical education of
the artisans, and for the universities to deal with the professions.
Both are equally important, and each should be encouraged by
government and other endowments, in order to enable it to do its
especial work efficiently ; and the two should be united in such a
manner that they will work harmoniously together.

The time at my disposal will not allow me to do more than
briefly refer to the professional training of architects.

I submit, however, for the consideration of the architectural
profession the following question, viz., Is the present system of
pupilage satisfactory, under which a young man, fresh from
school and without any special training, enters the office of an
architect, where he generally remains as a pupil for five years ?
I am convinced if a young man, after leaving school, were to go
through a similar course of training to that recommended for
engineers, modified in order to meet the requirements of the
architects, that not only might his period of pupilage be reduced
to three years, but that he would be (other things being equal) a
much better architect at the end of that time than he would be
by spending the same time under the present system.

I do not think the day is far distant when we shall have
complete courses of instruction in Architecture at our universities,
and Chairs of Architecture established.

The progress of science has generally been responded to by that
of invention—an engineer has frequently merely to acquire
certain scientific facts and principles in order to perceive their
application. The recent practical applications of electricity have
followed closely upon the discovery of the natural laws upon
which these applications depend.

Improvements in metallurgical operations and a greater know-
ledge of the alloys of metals have given rise to a more extensive
use of these metals; and those of us who have lived long enough
in the colonies to appreciate the magnitude of their resources and
their future development can see in every direction unlimited
scope and opportunities for the inventive faculties, skill, and
energy of the engineer.

Let us, therefore, realise the necessity of training our sons who
choose to become the future engineers of Australia in such a
manner as to enable them to perform, in a satisfactory manner,
the important duties which will be entrusted to them.

REPORT OF COMMITTEE No. 7.

Mineral Census of Australasia.

MEMBERS OF CoMMITTEE:—Mr. A. W. CuARKE, Sir JAMES HEcTOR,
Mr. RB. L. Jack, Mr. E. B. Linpon, Professor Masson, Mr. O. R. Ruz,

Mr. W. Sxey, Mr. C. 8. Witxrnson, Professor LIversipGE (Secretary).

The Report includes the following Colonies :—New South Wales,
South Australia, Queensland, and New Zealand.

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MINERALS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

Nore.— ! After the name of a Mineral signifies that it is rare.
!! That it is common.
'!! That it is in workable quantity.

This Census of the Minerals of New South Wales is not intended to be
a complete one, but to supplement the list contained in the “ Minerals of
New South Wales,” by A. Liversidge, F.R.S., published in 1888. (L.) is
a symbol meaning ‘‘ Liversidge, Roy. Soc., N.S.W., 1888.”

Atum.—Crossing Place, Oaky Creek, 4 miles from Cobbadah ! !,
shales highly aluminous, and would answer well for
manufacture of alum; (Stutchbury’s Report, Ist July,
1853, p. 8).

ANGLESITE.—Severn River !, with galena and mispickel; New
Lewis Ponds Silver Mine, near Orange !!, with
cerussite and silver ores; (Geo. Sur., Dept. of Mines,
Sydney).

Antimony (NaAtIvE)—Nambucca !; (Geo. Sur., Dept. of Mines,
Sydney). Native antimony occurs in calcite with gold,

blende, mispickel, &e., at the New Reform Gold Mine,
Lucknow (L.).

BaRKLYITE |The opaque more or less magenta coloured
variety of ruby known as barklyite, has been sent me
for identification by Mr. D. A. Porter from New
England. This had previously been found at Two Mile
Flat, Cudgegong (L.).

Barytes.—Braidwood District, massive, containing galena ;
Pudman’s Creek, Rye Park, Burrowa District; Hume-
wood, near Yass!!!; (Geo. Sur., Dept. of Mines,
Sydney).

BisMUTHINITE.—Nimitybelle, in quarte; Kingsgate, near Glen
Innes, with native bismuth ; (Geo. Sur., Dept. of Mines,
Sydney).

BismuTHItTEe.—Molong !!, in felspathic lodestuff ; (Geo. Sur., Dept.
of Mines, Sydney).

CaLAMINE.—Broken Hill Silver Mine !!, associated with man-
ganite, cerussite, &c., and silver ores; Castleray Pro-
prietary Silver Mine, near Deepwater ; (Geo. Sur., Dept.
of Mines, Sydney).

208 MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.

CassITeERITE.—Broken Dam, Mandamah! !, alluvial and lode;
Jindabyne, Cooma District !!, lode; near Tumut !},
alluvial with gold; Tarago!, alluvial; Barrier Ranges! ! !,
in granite dykes traversing slates and schists ; Bombala
District (Tin Fields of New South Wales). Carri Moun-
tain, 10 miles south-west from Long Flat Station,
and Long Flat Station, Macleay River, associated with
gold, zircons, topaz, &c.; (Geo. Sur., Dept. of Mines,
Sydney). A very finely divided tin-stone occurs
in elvan at Bellandean, Tentertield, and might
easily be overlooked by miners who are only used
to the ordinary appearance of tinstone as it occurs in
New South Wales, since this form, from its grey colour
and finely divided condition, is liable to escape recog-
nition. Associated with it are occasional scales of
glistening pearly white gilbertite mica (L.).

CrrussiteE.— Barrier Range Silver Field !! !, New Lewis Ponds
Silver Mine, Mount Costigan Silver Mine, Tuena,
Wallah Wallah Silver Mine, Pudmann’s Creek, near
Yass, Mount Stewart Silver Mine, Denisontown ;
common in the silver lodes of the colony; (Geo. Sur.,
Dept. of Mines, Sydney).

CuessyLite.—New Mount Hope Copper Mine, Lachlan District,
Girilambone, Barrier Ranges, Nymagee ; common in
copper lodes of the colony ; (Geo. Sur., Dept. of Mines,
Sydney).

Curomitge.—Bingera!!!, near Tumut! !, in serpentine; (Geo.
Sur., Dept. of Mines, Sydney).

CrnnaBar.—Near Bingera !, loose water-worn pebbles on
surface; near Scone, reported in lodestuff and loose
pebble from surface; (Geo. Sur., Dept. of Mines, Sydney).

CoBaLt SESQUI-OXIDE.—Boro, in concretionary manganese
oxide.
Assay: Sesqui-oxide of cobalt... 5°79
ms 5, nickel... J-37
(Ann. Rept, Dept. of Mines, 1887, p. 46.)

Copper, Native.—Broken Hill Mines!!, associated with
native silver in lead ores and quartz; Shellharbour, in
grains disseminated through diorite; Bulli (an out-
crop), Newington (diamond-drill bore), Heathcote
(diamond-drill bore), Holt Sutherland (diamond-drill
bore*), in tuffaceous shales at a depth of 1728ft. 1lin.,
and out of a total thickness of 71ft. three feet showed
native copper more or less freely. The rock is a dark

% See David on Cupriferous Tuffs.—Aus. Assoc. for Adv. of Science.. Vol. I., p. 275.

MINERALS OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 209

purplish-black or greenish-purple tufaceous shale, and
contains scales of native copper from one-twentieth to
one-quarter of an inch in longest diameter, averaging
one-tenth and about one-fortieth thick. Their prevailing
shape is circular, more or less. The following analysis
was made by Mr. J. C. H. Mingaye, analyst and.

assayer, Dept. of Mines, Sydney :— Ay \ iC A /
Combined moisture 5:32 hy»w¢ ett p
Moisture 3-38 /. eee ud 4
Silica aortas ee See
Alumina 24-2] L{e@RaRYVisco
Oxide of iron 7°34 a ae
Metallic mee Me “oe 08 \, . yao
Lime : a apt 1:10 e eA PF yy
Magnesia... 2°36 NG @ bh”

Two large assays were minele for gold and silver, and
neither Ae these metals found present. See also Jour.
Roy. Soc. N.S. W., p. 215, 1880.

CovELLINE.—This mineral occurs with redruthite, the copper
sub-sulphid Cu,S and other sulphur ores of copper
at Cobar and other copper mines in New South
Wales (L.).

Cuprite.—Broken Hill Mines, associated with silver ores ;
common in copper lodes of the colony ; (Geo. Sur., Dept.
of Mines, Sydney).

Empouite.—Barrier Ranges Silver Field !!!, New Lewis Ponds
Silver Mine, near Orange ! !, Captain’s Flat !, Molonglo |},
Billagoe, Cobar District |; (Geo. Sur. , Dept. of Mines,
Sydney),

Eryturite. — Hydrated arseniate of cobalt obtained by
Mr. J. A. McKillop, near Carcoar, where it
occurs in association with cobaltine, molybdenite, &c.
The erythrite is present in groups of silky radiating
acicular crystals of a beautiful peach colour. Also in
globular and uniform masses, and in incrustations
which present a remarkable pearly pink lustre on the
freshly fractured surfaces. It is clearly an oxidation
product of the cobaltine which accompanies it. (L.).

Fiuorspar.—Allah Mine, Purnamoota, with galena ; Pheasant’s
Creek, New England ; Pye’s Creek, near Bolivia, with
mispickel; Seaforth Mine, Severn River, near Emma-
ville ; (Geo. Sur., Dept. of Mines, Sydney).

GAHNITE—Zine spinel—A lavender coloured specimen was sent
me for identification ten or twelve years ago,
but without locality. Mr. D. A. Porter also sent me
a specimen of this mineral from near Tenterfield for

N

210 MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.

identification in 1885, and another from Tingha in
1887, so that the mineral probably occurs in several
localities (L.).

GARNET (Rubicelle and Almandine),—Barrier Ranges, in schist
and detritus, also in quartz obtained by diamond drill
bore at Broken Hill; Monaro, with sapphires; (Geo.
Sur, Dept. of Mines, Sydney).

Garnets (so-called Australian rubies).—Silverton. Analysis :

Silica A: i iis oe HOM aa
‘Alumna: 002: eee occ)!
Protoxide of iron (FeO) re 335)
Peroxide of iron (Fe: Os ) ss hu) pel
Protoxide of manganese (MnO)... 2°14
Oxide of neon ae sa peal
Lime Ke «a voce, opti
Magnesia... ses see 2 Dall
99°69

S.G. 3°887 to 4:32 (Ann. Rept., Dept. Mines, 1888, p. 53).
Garnets occur in the New England district, on the
borders of Queensland. These are the ordinary red
garnets (iron-alumina garnet), but like those found in
Queensland have been mistaken jor rubies. The
Bohemian garnet, magnesia alumina garnet, is said to
occur in large quantities near Maryland Creek, Co.
Buller (L).

Giaucopot.—Three-quarters of a mile south-easterly from Carcoar
Railway Station, with erythrite, molydenite, and thin
films of an apple-green to dark-green mineral, determined
by Mr. J. C. H. Mingaye, F.C.S., to be annabergite. The
ore, as far as at present proved, consists of a succession
of lens-shaped bunches. The deposit of cobalt appears
to have been formed in a line of fissure, which, for
some distance, followed the line of junction of the
diorite with the slate, and was probably directly due to
the intrusion of the diorite, being formed either by the
thrust of its upheaval, or by the contraction consequent
upon the cooling of the mass of igneous rock. Towards
its north-east end this fissure was partly filled by a
dyke of fine-grained diorite, closely resembling the
chlorite slate, which it has penetrated. The cobalt ore
was then concentrated into the irregular hollows along
this line of fissure by some process of segregation, for
its intimate admixture with the dyke rock is difficult of
explanation on any other hypothesis. Analysis made in
the Department of Mines Laboratory by Mr. J. C. H.
Mingaye, F.C.S. :—

MINERALS OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 2A)

Nox, il.
Moisture... B33 ted 120
Metallic arsenic Pi ve” 51:810
» cobalt ao mee, 10447
» nickel iA ah 590
iron ha ss, L860
», Manganese ... ome nil
CaO ahs es un i
MgO 3 he eon 480
Gold Bre: ae ... trace
Silver : ate .. ee
Sulphur r? 1-520
‘(Insol. in acids) gangue sapyae OTS
99-905
Specific gravity, 5°430.
No. 2
Moisture ... da P21 80
Metallic arsenic oe MES DUO
3» cobalt Bol horsa0™
» nickel a bo 390
2 tron nee he 15-78
Alumina... by ny a ULES
Manganese... ce ie nil
CaO are re a ral!
MgO Me Bs si “22
Sulphur... ne - 11-24
Gangue_.... a sencubaae
99-66

* Co, O; = 19°457

Traces of gold, copper, and antimony.
Authority: See T. W. E. David’s Report, Ann. Rept.;
Dept. Mines, Sydney, 1888, p. 175.

GoLp-—Gold occurs at the New Reform Gold Mine, Lucknow,
in calcite as the vein stuff, and in association
with native antimony, mispickel, zinc blende, pyrites,
and silver-bearing galena. The vein apparently
runs through diorite and serpentine. Some of the
serpentine is of the foliated variety known as
marmolite, and in places a little asbestos is present,
especially at the deeper levels. The native antimony is
present in places in considerable quantity, and came in
first at about 350 feet. The gold is very pale in
colour and of a greenish tint, and occurs in the form

n2

PAY MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.

of very thin films and strings, which follow the cracks
in the calcite and junctions of the crystals rather than.
the cleavage planes of the crystals. The calcite cleaves
well, is white, but shows iron stains in parts (L.)

GRAPHITE.—Undercliff, between Wilson’s Downfall and River-
tree, New England; Analyses, Dept. of Mines
Laboratory, 1888 :—

Moisture (at red heat) a ie Oi
Silica ae ae ote eee
‘Alumina, | .. ee 22) PSS
Oxide of iron oe 1? trace
Lime roe {ie ‘96
Magnesia... Ls st Fda
Carbon See oe ... 46°28
99-90
Moisture? <*.c. oie RY ioe
Carbon K. J 34:40
Gangue {os te iste LOS
100-00 |
See also “ Minerals of N.S.W.,” Liversidge, p. 121. The ;

graphite mined at the Undercliff Station looks of very
good quality when rubbed and polished, but on 7
breaking the nodules open they are seen to contain a .
good deal of earthy matter, one nodule examined for
me by Dr. G. 8. Mackenzie in the university chemical
laboratory was found to contain only 30 per cent. of
carbon, hence for most commercial purposes the graphite
would require purifying before it could be used. Asso-
ciated with the graphite are rolled pebbles of quartz
and rock erystal (L.).

Kao in ! ! !.—Shaking Bog, near Tumut; Analysis, Dept. of
Mines Laboratory, 1888 :—

Moisture at 100 C er ae 6°10
Combined moisture... ae LOANS
Silica bret: ae see LAG
Alumina Ss a sts, OR ae
Oxide of iron Nh minute trace
Lime nee ae oe Die,
Magnesia... => ... . UPBce
Alkalies, ete. td wet RS

100-00

MINERALS OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 213

Levcire.—(1) Byrock, were: Cowper, (T. W. E. David and
W. Anderson); (2) El Capitan, County Cambelego, in
a basaltic lava Hee (See Records Geol. Sur. N. S.
Wales, vol. i. part We) Analyses :

. (ye (3)
Silica mu . 4643 47°31
Alumina ¥, 090. alasbh
Oxide of iron (Fe, Os yo 15-04 14-56
Lime (CaO) . Pg Nina fei rigor
Magnesia (MgO) Ld. (iahi74 2°28
Potash (K, O) ve il lGs98s 6-14
Soda (Na, QO)... , “D1 98
Phosphor ic Anhydr ide

oy Sa = yy 2°31

99°84 100-21
Specific gravity of mineral 2-890 2-910
(Ann, Rept. Dept. of Mines, 1887, p. 177.)

Matacuite.—New Mount Hope, Nymagee, Great Barrier Copper
Mine, Gorilambone; common in copper lodes of the
colony ; (Geo. Sur., Dept. Mines, Sydney).

Manaanire.—Bendemeer ! ! !, Glanmire, near Bathurst !! !, Bogan
District, Molong ; (Geo. Sur., Dept. of Mines, Sydney).

Marmouite—This foliated variety of serpentine occurs with
massive serpentine on Jones’ Creek, Gundagai (L.).

Mo.tyspENItTe.—Found with cobaltine and erythrite at Carcoar
in fairly well deve loped platy crystals (L.).

Monranite.*—Molongo, near Captain’s Flat. (1) Pale greenish
yellow variety. This mineral encrusts the tetradymite,
and does not show any crystalline structure. Green
tints are observable wherever the particles of half-
decomposed tetradymite become abundant, the green
being due to the steel-grey tetradymite showing through
the yellow coating of montanite. (2) Ferruginous dark-
brownish red variety. This variety occurs in cubical
pseudomorphs, single or aggregated, and about yinch
in diameter. The colour is dark brownish red, excepting
on thin edges, where the mineral is semi-translucent and
of a deep claret colour. Analysis of a few broken
pieces of the cubes (b) about 2 grammes in weight,
though they were not thoroughly free from tetrady-
mite :—

* See Mingaye and David on Tellurium in N.S.W. ores.—<Aust. Assoc. for Advancement of
Science, Vol. I., p. 116.

214

MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.

Bismuth oxide (Bi; O; ) =) 5OHS
Tellurium oxide (TeO; ) meme 6)
Tron oxide (Fe: O, ... » ny wane
Water ... ie was, 9a ORS
Gangue (silica) ee chet oy

90°6n

OutvinE.—Uralla, Bulli ; eommon in basaltic rocks of the colony ;

(Geo. Sur., Dept. of Mines, Sydney).

Opat.—Precious—Albert District !!!, in cretaceous sandstone

opal silica filling cavities from which fossils have been
removed, very suitable for inlaying work, matrix takes
a good polish ; (Geo. Sur., Dept., of Mines, Sydney).

OpaL.—Common—The Battery, Lachlan River, green ; Moulder’s

Paddock, Orange, greenish ; Gundagai, green and white ;
(Geo. Sur., Dept. of Mines, Sydney).

PLaTINUM.—Beach sands between Clarence and Tweed Rivers—! !,

in basaltic detritus, and associated with gold; one-
and-a-half miles south of Evan’s Creek, Richmond River
Heads, from beach sand; Broken Hill, in ochreous
felspathic lodestuff—yielding loz. 9dwts. 9 grs. per
ton ; Bogan district, in alluvial wash with gold ; about
60 miles N.W. of Parkes ; Mittagong District, from gold
and diamond workings eight miles from Mittagong ;
(Geo. Sur., Dept. of Mines, Sydney).

PLATINUM, OsmiuM, AND Irtpium—Associated with gold, are

found on the head waters of the Bogan and Lachlan
rivers, north-east of Condobolin. I am informed by
Mr. Harding, of Grafton, that gold, platinum, and
osmi-iridium occur in the sea sands at Jamba, Clarence
Heads, and generally in the north ends of the bays and
reaches along the New South Wales coast. The
“platinum ” consists principally of osmium and iridium,
and contains only about 30per cent. of platinum; hence
it is only worth a few shillings an ounce (L.).

Piumpaco Ciay.—Mudgee ; (Dept. of Mines Laboratory, 1888).

PREHNITE.

PYROMORPHITE.

This zeolite has been found in the basalt at the
Prospect reservoir. Some imperfect and small crystals
were also sent to me by Mr. D. A. Porter for identifica-
tion, who had obtained them from serpentine in New
England in 1887. The sp. grs. of two specimens from
New England were 2°89 and 2:90 (L.); Wollongong
(Geo. Sur., Dept. of Mines, Sydney).

Broken Hill Silver Mines ! !, with carbonate of
lead and zinc ; Burrowa, near Braidwood ; (Geo. Sur.,

Dept. of Mines, Sydney).

a

MINERALS OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 215:

PyRRHOTINE—The Revd. J. Milne Curran reports the presence
of this mineral at Cobar in the massive condition (L.).

REDRUTHITE.—Cobar, Bingera.

Satt—Ellalong !, Scone !, Mittagong District !, as an efflorescence
in sheltered caves ; : (Geo. Sur. Dept. of Mines, Sydney).

ScuHEeeLitrE—Cordillera Hill Silver Mine, near Tuena! !,
associated with stolzite, cerussite, and silver ores ; (Geo.
Sur., Dept. of Mines, Sydney).

SrperiteE-—Some fairly good crystals of this mineral have
been found at the Cobar Copper Mines (L.).

Sitver (NativE)—Broken Hill Silver Lodes, Barrier Range ! !,
New Lewis Ponds Silver Mine, near Orange !, Sunny
Corner Mitchell !, White Rock Silver Mine, Fairfield,
New England! ; (Geo. Sur., Dept. of Mines, Sydney).

Leaf silver occurs on schist at Sunny Corner.

Crystallised silver on silver chloride is found at Lewis Ponds.

The Revd. J. Milne Curran states that he has found
silver in scales on redruthite at the Cobar Copper
Mine (L.).

Sitver CHLoRIDE—Occurs at Silverton in fairly well-formed
branching groups of crystals. All the New South
Wales silver chloride specimens which I have examined
so far contain iodine, some only traces, but others a
fair percentage (I.).

SranniteE—Mr. Theodore Ranft states that he found this mineral
in the Ottery Lode, Tent Hill, New England (L.).

STEPHANITE—Sunny Corner, Mitchell.

th of Cobar, small nodules of magnesian
limestone ; strong traces (under 1 p.c.) of strontium
detected ; (Geo. Sur. Dept. of Mines, Sydney.) (See
also Liversidge, ‘‘ Minerals of N.S.W.,” p. 160, analysis
of strontium bearing limestone, Minumurra Creek,
N.S. W).

SuLpHuR (NativE)—From a reef on the range which divides the
head waters of the Catler and Coodraddigbee Rivers, in
small cavities in quartz, associated with iron pyrites ;
(Geo. Sur., Dept. of Mines, Sydney).

TEeTRADYMITE*—Molongo near Captain’s Flat, in granular
crystalline masses of a steel-grey colour and bright
metallic lustre. Under the microscope the crystals are
seen to have a very perfect basal cleavage, over one

* See Mingaye and David on Tellurium in N.3.W. ores, Aus. Assce. for Adv. of Science,
MOL Ep. LLG:

216 MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.

hundred laminx being visible in one crystal within the
space of 1-20th inch. Most of the crystals appear to be

tabular.
Metallic bismuth Oe 4 09566
Tellurium... ae cst ORO
Selenium i = Be. nil
Sulphur ts in) vee) (4°02
Tron ie is oe A2D\ sy
Silica Be deh x “40 {

98:18
Topaz—Water-worn crystals and fragments occur in Serubb
My s

Gully, New England District, some are of fair size,
clear, free from flaws, and would cut very well (L.).

WaveLiite.—Near Gundagai; (Geo. Sur., Dept. of Mines
Sydney).

Wittemire.—Temora District; (Geo. Sur., Dept. of Mines,
Sydney).

Wotrenite.—Broken Hill Silver Mines, with cerussite and
calamine ; (Geo. Sur., Dept. of Mines, Sydney).

* These two elements are no doubt impurities, it being found difficult to detach the
mineral from the matrix.

aa

MINERALS OF SOUTH c(AUSTRABIA.,

Bylaw. CLOUD, HEC. BeCeS.

Asseciate of the Royal Schcol of Mines, London.

AUTHORITIES QUOTED:

Tuos. Burr, Deputy Surveyor-General
y

in the year 1846 sat Sap ... written Burr.
H. Y. L. Brown nt ay .... written Brown.
Tc Croup aon ae Be .. written Cloud, or T.C.C.
G. GoypeER, Jun., Government Assayer written Goyder.
A. R. C. Srnwyn ... written Selwyn.
Prof. R. Tar, University, A lelaide written Tate.
Go. H. F. ULRicH “ ... written Ulrich.

The marks placed after the name of the minerals have the following
significance :—!, that the mineral is rare: !!, that it is common, ! ! !, that
zt occurs in workable quantity. Varieties are ‘indicated by ‘bate:

ALBITE !

Oolabidnie Creek, near Franklin Harbour, in veins
in the metamorphic rocks there exposed (T.C.C.) ;
forms the chief constituent of the granites of the
above-named district (T. C. C.).

ALLOPHANE !—In the form of a blue deposit in the miocene
rocks of the south-east (J. E. T. Woods.).

AmpuHIBoLe !! (Hornblende)—Various localities on Yorke’s
Peninsula, also at Tanunda Creek, Angaston, and in
district round about Franklin Harbour, Mount Craw-
ford (T. C.C.); Tungkillo (Tate).

Asbestos—New Mecklenburg, Tungkillo, Angaston (T. C. C.);
Lobethal Mine (Tate); near Mengo Town (Selwyn) ;
Mount Barker, Belvidere Range (Burr).

Actinolite—Wallaroo Bay (T.C.C.); Yudanamutana Mine
(Ulrich); Lyndoch Valley, Flaxman Valley, near
Strathalbyn (Burr).

ANGLEsitE !—Wilpena Pound, both massive and in the form
of small crystals (T. C. C.).

ANKERITE! Gill’s Bluff, near Mount Lyndhurst (Brown) ;

Wallaroo Mine (T.C.C.). Analysis by T. C. Cloud
of specimen from Wallaroo Mine :—

218 MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.

FeCO; ae ae «2, R268
MnCoO, coe sec ae 2-08
CaCO; stele soe aieta AoC
Meco, HL! ( Lo (QAT6

100-09

ANNABERGITE ! (Nickel Ochre)—Gill’s Bluff, Mount Lyndhurst
(Tate) ; Mount Ogilvie (Goyder).

Apatite !—Wallaroo and Kurilla Mines, as isolated crystals
embedded in yellow copper ore (T. C. C.).

ARAGONITE—Wallaroo Mine, associated with native copper and
chalcocite (T.C.C.); Armagh, near Clare, in form
of long, prismatic crystals (T.C.C.); Blinman Mine,
Oratunga Mine (Ulrich).

ARSENOPYRITE ! (Mispickel)—Glen Bar Mine, near Strathalbyn,
Talisker Mine, between Victor Harbour and Encounter
Bay (T.C.C.)3 two miles east of Woodside Gold Mine
(Brown).

ATACAMITE !—This mineral is found in every copper mine on
Yorke’s Peninsula, and splendid crystals, several inches
in length, have been obtained from the New Cornwall
Mine (T.C.C.); Yudanamutana, Daly Mine (T. C. C.) ;
Rhondda Mine, in the form of pseudomorphs after
cuprite (T.C.C.); Kapunda Mine (Burr) ; Nuccaleena
Mine, Mount Lyndhurst (Ulrich); Mount Norwest,
Kingston Copper Mines (Brown). Analysis by Cloud
of specimen from Wallaroo Mine :—

Copper ... 13°73
Chlorine 15:38
Cupric oxide 55-91
Water . & ne 13:51 (by diff.)
Insoluble silicious residue ... 1:47
100-00
Azurite!!! (Blue carbonate of copper) — Occurs very

generally in the copper lodes of the colony, with the
exception of those on Yorke’s Peninsula, where it is only
rarely met with (T.C.C.); Moonta Mine, Wallaroo
Mine, Burra Burra Mine, Kapunda Mine, Blinman
Mine, Yudanamutana Mine, &e., &e., near Franklin
Harbour, and various localities on the west coast of
Spencer’s Gulf (T.C C.); Daly Mine, Stanley Mine,
Mount Bold Mine, Cherry Gardens, near Adelaide
(Brown). ;

MINERALS OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 219

Barite ! !—Wheal Coglin Mine, Rapid Bay, at Apoinga, also at
the Burra Burra, Great Gladstone, and Rhondda
Mines (T. C.C.); Emu Flat Copper Mine (A. R. C.
Selwyn) ; Blinman Mine (G. H. F. Ulrich): of frequent
occurrence, associated with copper ores, in the northern
and ceutral portions of South Australia (Cloud).

Beryt !— Mount Crawford, various colours (T. C. C.).
Aguamarine— Mount Crawford (T. C. C.).
Beryl—Barossa Range (Burr).

Biotire (Mica) !—Of frequent occurrence in the mines on
Yorke’s Peninsula (T.C.C.) ; Williamstown (Selwyn).
Analysis of specimen from Yelta Mine by T.C. C.

Silica ... oi ah 40:28
Magnesia J. we 17°38
Alumina aa ye 11°30
Ferric oxide LEE Hh 5:24
Ferrous oxide... sd. 11°65
Manganous oxide a 0°30
Thies 2 ey ed 0°82
Potash es age 8°56
Soda =. Be ce 1:64
Water’... 44 £83, 1-95
Fluorine od: oF trace

99-12

Specific gravity, 2-9; colour, dark greenish black.

BismutH ! (Narive)—Balhannah Mine, Murninnie Mine, about
20 miles north of Franklin Harbour (T. C. C.).

Bismuruire !—Balhannah Mine, associated with native gold
and chalcopyrite (T.C.C.); Stanley Mine (Ulrich) ;
New Era Mine, with gold (Brown); Teetulpa Gold-
field, at the ‘“Tronclad” Mine (Brown); Murninnie
Mine, Mount McDonnell, N. T. (T. C.C.).

BIsMUTHINITE ! —Balhannah Mine, Mount McDonnell, N. T.
(T.C.C.); New Era Gold Mine, Forest Range Gold Mine
(Goyder) ; near Blinman (Goyder).

Bornite !!! (Purple Copper Ore)—Massive at several of the
copper mines of the colony, generally associated with
chalcopyrite. The most notable locality is the Moonta
Mine (T.C.C.); Lady Alice Mine, Barossa Mine, Burra
Burra Mine, Try Again Mine (T. C. C.); Kapunda Mine
(Burr); Mount Searle (Brown); near the Peake, Central
Australia, in the quartz veins in the metamorphic rocks
(Tate). Analysis of a specimen of massive bornite from

——

i)
bo
=)

MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.

the Moonta Mine, by Cloud, yielded the following

result <==
if TI. HWE
Copper — 59°84 6200 61°87
Tron aM PE FS P25 OS
Sulphur pal 94°95 25°85 1 26700
Insoluble silicious
residue “is 4:03

100:55 100:00 100-00
Column IJ. shows the composition of the specimen after

deducting the insoluble residue, and column III. is the percentage
composition calculated from the formula 9Cu, 8, 2Fe. 8;

CaucitE ! ! !— Wallaroo Mine, finely crystallised (T. C. C.);
Yudanamutana Mine (T. C. C.) ; Blinman Mine (Ulrich);
Mounts Parry and Playfair, Central Australia (Tate) ;
Cape Jervis, in stalactitic form (Tate); New Mecklen-
burg, near Lyndoch, massive and in scalenohedrons
(Tate); near the Peake, Central Australia, in quartz
veins in metamorphic rock (Tate); as a _ cellular
caleereous tufa forming the top crust of the Mouna
Springs, at the Peake, Central Australia (Tate) ;
Mount Crawford, Ardrossan, Rapid Bay, Mount Gam-
bier, Point Curtis, Macclesfield, Mattawarrangala, in
largely crystalline masses (T. C. C.); Whyte-Yarcowie,
black, largely crystalline, in a vein in a dark coloured
slate (Tate); colour due to contained organic matter
(Tate) ; Cape Borda (T.C.C.) ; Barrossa Range, Flinders
Range, Mount Lofty Range, Rapid Bay, Crystal Brook,
Rivoli Bay, on plains near Mount Hawdon (Burr).

Leeland spar — Angaston (T. C. C.); Kapunda (T. C. C.);
Franklin Harbour: in thin veins in metamorphic rocks
(EGC).

CAssITERITE ! ! !—No authentic specimen has been found in the
southern part of this province, but it occurs in the
Northern Territory on the McKinlay River, Mount
Wells, &e. (F.C.C.); Howley Creek, Twelve Mile
Camp (Goyder).

CrLEstTIrE !—In the form of radiated crystalline nodules in clay ;
Hundred of Wallaroo (Cloud).

CrrussITE ! !—Glen Osmond : massive in stone quarries (T. C. C.) ;
western side of Spencer's Gulf: crystallized with
phosgenite (T. C. C.); Beltana Mine: lining druses
(Ulrich); Strathalbyn Mine (L. Seeger); Avondale
Lead Mine (Brown).

CHaALCANTHITE ! (Copper Sulphate)—Wallaroo Mine, Murtooroo
Mine, near Cockburn (T.C.C.).

MINERALS OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA. yA

CuHacoociTe ! ! ! (Redruthite)—The massive variety is of frequent
occurrence in the copper mines of Yorke’s Peninsula,
fine specimens being obtained from the Moonta Mine
(T. C.C.); Kapunda Mine, Montacute Mine, Burra
Burra Mines, Mount Barker (Burr).

CHALCOPYRITE !!! (Copper Pyrites)——Is of pretty general
occurrence in the lower parts of the copper lodes of the
province (T.C.C.); Wallaroo Mine, crystallized (T.C.C.);
Moonta Mine (T. C.C.); near the Peak, Central
Australia, in quartz veins in the metamorphic rock
(Tate); Montacute Mine, and all lodes in its vicinity,
Rapid Bay, Flaxman Valley, Hutt River, and various
other places (Burr). Analyses of specimens from
Moonta Mine, by Cloud :—

Copper 34:21 34:04 34°57
Tron 3 pore molcl4 Abeba
Sulphur .. 3916 3434 34:90
Insoluble siliciou

residue rf ds C-a0' - 0-6o

100-52 100-15 100-00

Column I. is the analysis of the untarnished variety, and
column II. that of the “peacock ore,” column III. shows the

theoretical composition of pyrite deduced from the formula
Cu. 8, FeS,, Fes.

Curysocouia ! ! !—Burra Burra Mine, associated with azurite
and malachite (T. C. C.); Wallaroo Mines, Kurilla
Mine, Mount Gunson Mine, about 80 miles N.N.W. of
Port Augusta (T.C.C.); Nuccaleena Mine, Yudana-
mutana, Mount Lyndhurst (Ulrich); Mount Barker
Mine (Burr).

CHRYSOLITE !

Olivine — Mount Schanck (J. E. T. Woods); Mount

Gambier, extensively in the volcanic lavas (J. E. T.
Woods).

Hyalosiderite — Mount Schanck, in the basalt (J. E. T.
Woods).
Coau!
Lignite— Murray Flat (Brown); Pedinga, near Fowlers
Bay, Leigh’s Creek (Brown).
CoBattitTE ! (Cobalt Glance)—Glen Bar Mine: asso
Mispickel (L. Seeger).
Copiapite—Alice Springs (Goyder).

bo

929 MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.

Copper! ! (NativE)—This species is represented in great variety
of forms in the upper parts of the lodes of the Wallaroo
and Moonta mining districts of Yorke’s Peninsula. Some
specimens exhibit well-defined though distorted crystals,
and some very fine examples of the arborescent form
have also been found. At the Sliding Rock Mine it
occurs disseminated in grains of varying size. It is also
found at Angaston, and to greater or less extent in
several of the other copper-bearing lodes of the colony

(T. C.C.).

Cove.uitE ! (Indigo Copper Ore)—Fine specimens in the massive
form are obtained chiefly from the southern part of the
mining district of Yorke’s Peninsula. An impure
variety, black in colour, is not unfrequently found,
especially in the northern part of the same. district
(T. C. C.) ; Kapunda Mine (Burr).

Crocrpotire ! (Blue Asbestus)—Wirrawilka Mine (Ulrich).

Cupritrt!!!—This mineral is of very general occurrence in the

: upper portions of the copper lodes of this colony, most
frequently in the massive form, but finely crystallized
specimens have been obtained from the following
localities :__Moonta Mine, Spring Creek Mine, Kapunda
Mine, Burra Burra Mine (T.C.C.); near Rhondda
Mine, north of Port Augusta, crystals converted into
atacamite (T. C. C.); Burra Burra Mine, crystals
more or less converted into malachite (T. C. C.)

Chalcotrichite—A specimen of this variety of cuprite has
been met with in this province, precise locality
unknown, occurring in groups of small acicular crystals
with native copper (T. C. C.); Mount Barker Mine
(Burr).

CyanirE !—Nuriootpa, in quartz (T.C.C.); near Menge Town,
Mount Crawford (Selwyn).

Dramonp !—Echunga (Cloud); the largest specimen of which I
am aware weighed before cutting 5} carats, its present
weight being 233 carats. It is cut in the form of a
brilliant, and is of a sherry-yellow colour. It is now in
the Adelaide Museum.

DIoprasE !

Appialina Mine (Selwyn).

Dotomire ! !—Victoria Creek, Williamstown (Selwyn); Mount
Gambier, associated with limestone (J. E. T. Woods) ;
Belvidere Range, Barossa Range, Rapid Bay, and near
Mount Barker (Burr).

Pearl Spar—At Rapid Bay and N.E. of Adelaide (Burr).
Dolomite — From Central Australia, as a pseudomorph

(T. C..C.).

MINERALS OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 223

Eprmote !—Barossa Range (Burr); Yudanamutana Mine (Ulrich).

Eryturite! (Cobalt Bloomn)—Glen Bar Mine (T.C.C.); near
Blinman, crystallized in needles (T. C.C.); Mount
Ogilvie (Goyder).

Friuortite! (Fluor Spar)—Parramatta Mine and Moonta Mine
on Yorke’s Peninsula (T. C. C.) ; 3; on the Field River,
between Reynella and the coast, in a silicious limestone
of Pre-silurian age (Tate) ; ; at Parara; near Ardrossan,
Yorke’s Peninsula, in Lower Silurian limestone (Tate) ;
Kapunda Mine (Burr).

GALENITE !!!—Wallaroo Mine, both crystallized and massive
(T.C.C.); Waukaringa (Tate); Talisker Mine, Glen
Osmond Mine, Blmman Mine (Ulrich); Kangarilla
Mine, Avondale Mine, Mount Bold Mine, Two-in-the-
Bush Mine, Mount Searle (Brown); Winininnie
(Goyder) ; Rapid Bay, Lyndoch Valley, 20 miles east
of Mount Barker (Burr); North Rhine, near Norman-
ville, near Yudenamutana (T.C.C.); Glen Osmond
stone quarries, on the Oalnina station, about 150 miles
north-east of the Burra, and the Murray Flats. The
foregoing are perhaps the most noticeable of numerous
localities (T. C. C.)

Garner !! !—Kanmantoo, red crystals in white tale (T.C.C.);
Bundaleer, black garnet (T. C. C.); Monarto, garnet
rock (T. C. C.) ; Wadiaatihi in the Hundred of Flaw ker,
iron garnet in granite rocks (T. C. C.); Belv idere
Range, near Mount Barker, red garnet (Burr).

Cinnamon Stone—Belvidere Range (Brown).

Almanaite (Noble Garnet)—MacDonnell Ranges, Northern
Territory, in the form of rolled pebbles in the creeks
(T.C.C.) Analysis by Dr. Rennie of specimens of
noble garnet from Hale River, MacDonnell Ranges :—

Silica ... ine hi 38°48
Alumina sof be 27:09
Ferrous oxide... ih 26°28
time= bad a 1:99
Magnesia 34 be 4-2)
Manganese side. . 355;

98°39

GERSDORFFITE— Mount Ogilvie (Goyder).
GILLINGITE !—Government Farm, near Bellair (Goyder).

GLAuconrre !—In the limestone rocks of the Aldinga Clifts
and the Bunda Cliffs of the Great Aeetralian Bight
(Tate).

224

MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.

Goxtp, Narive! ! !—The geological distribution of gold in South

Australia is restricted to the Pre-silurian, certain gravels
of the Miocene period, and to drifts of later age. In
the first it occurs disseminated in veins of quartz; in
the second and third cases as alluvial gold (Tate) ;
the following are some of the localities in which gold
has been found in one or other of the conditions named
above :—Onkaparinga River, South Para River, Torrens
River, in sand (T.C.C.); Bremer Range, Barossa
Range, Nairne, Woodside, Strathalbyn, Mount Barker,
Clarendon, Noarlunga, Currency Creek, Mount Pleasant,
Jupiter Creek, Echunga (T.C.C.) ; Ulooloo, Waukaringa,
Bigg’s Flat, near Echunga ; Balhannah Mine, associated
with native bismuth and bismuthinite ; Teetulpa, Mount
Ogilvie, Lady Alice Mine, with bornite; Moonta
Mine, with bornite (T.C.C.); Bird-in-the-hand Mine,
Echunga Mine, Fountain Head Mine ; Kangaroo Mine,
near Oakbank, in psilomelane; Mount Victoria, with
copper ore; Yudanamutana, Mount Wells, N. T., Old
Blackfellow’s Reef, N. T. (Brown). In the Northern
Territory gold is widely distributed over that portion of
Arnheim Land occupied by metamorphic rocks. The
fields extend from the River Stapleton to the Driffield.
The chief centres of gold-reeting are the Howley, Twelve
Mile, McKinlay, Union, and Pine Creek (Tate).

GRAPHITE !—Warrow, County Flinders, and one or two places on

Gypsum !

west coast of Spencer's Gulf (T. C. C.); Mount Charles
(G. Francis) ; Mount Torrens (C. Thomas) ; Belvidere
Range, and about 23 miles N.E. of Adelaide (T. Burr);
Blanchewater (Professor R. Tate) ; Hundred of Koppio
(Government Geologist, H. Y. L. Brown).

!!_Selenite is frequently met with in the form of
isolated lenticular-shaped crystals, imbedded in the
mud of the salt lakes, notably those of Southern Yorke’s
Peninsula. It also occurs massive in the salt lakes
(Cloud) ; Wailaroo Mine, Hummocks Range, Kanyacka,
Kapunda, near Point Riley, Yorke’s Peninsula, on the
Wirryalpa Run, Central Australia, Stuart’s Range,
Central Australia: satin spar (T.C.C.); Lady Alice
Mine (Tate); cliffs of River Murray (Tate) ; near the
Springs at The Peak, Central Australia, with red
ochre (Tate); N.E. shores of Lake Alexandrina, in
curious rock form, composed of slightly coherent grains
(Tate); Beltana Mine, in veins (Ulrich); Brighton
(Burr) ; Burra Burra Mine, with malachite (T. C. C.) ;
near Kadina, in form of fine powder like flour, under
the microscope each grain shows as a distinct crystal

MINERALS OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 225

(T. C.C.); Nichols’ Nob (Brown); Nonning, Gawler
Ranges (Brown).

Hamatite !!! (Micaceous Hematite)—Angaston, Port Lincoln,

near Inglewood, Yudanamutana Mine and Paramatta

Mine, Yorke’s Peninsula, Ulooloo, Hundred of Hallett,

Mount Jagged, Pewsey Vale, Bugle Ranges (T. C. C.) :

The Peake, Central Australia, Tennant Creek, Central

Australia, in the quartz veins running through the

metamorphic rocks (Tate); Blinman Mine, in druses
| in close proximity to the copper deposits (Ulrich).

Compact Columnar (Red Heematite)—near Port Lincoln ;
Wallaroo Mine, Barossa Range, Angaston, and
numerous other places (T.C.C.); Eudunda, Tennant
Creek, and neighbourhood of The Peake, Central Aus-
tralia (Tate).

Red Ochre—Parachilna (T. C.C.); vicinity of The Peake,
Central Australia (Tate); between Avondale Lead
Mine and Lesley’s Well, near Mount Victoria, Ethindna
Hill, Quorn, between Tooth’s Nob and Passmore Range

(Brown).

Martite (sub-species)—Carey’s Gully, Mount Lofty, in the
form of octahedral crystals imbedded in micaceous
hematite (T. C. C.).

~ Haire!!! (Common Salt)—Occurs in beds near to and on the
shores of the various salt lakes in the colony (Cloud) ;
cliffs of -the River Murray, in the form of an
efflorescence (Tate).

Ha .oysiTe !—Near Mount Morgan (Goyder).

Hya.ite(Wood Opal)—Munno Para Hills, near Smithfield (Tate);
Mulligan Springs (Brown) ; Nairne (T. C. C.).

Iron, (Native) !—The only specimen of native iron which has
been found, or at least scientifically made known, up to
the present time, is in the form of a mass of meteoric
iron obtained in the Gawler Ranges in November, 1875.
The form is bounded by a series of more or less concave
and irregularly-shaped planes. The surface is, for the
most part, coated with a somewhat shining, dark brown
oxide of iron. This meteorite consists of metallic iron,
and contains a small proportion of nickel. It weighs
326877 grains, or 7lbs. 340z. As originally found
it was a trifle heavier, a small piece having been broken
off by the finder, and the long chisel mark to the right hand
on the top shows where an attempt was made to cut off
a larger piece. The locality and circumstances attending
the discovery of the meteorite are thus described by

)

bo
bo
for)

MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.

Mr. James Martlew :—“‘I found the stone on the flat
in a mallee scrub about half-a-mile from the northern
toot of the range, being distant four miles south of Yardea
Station. It was about 15 inches under the surface, and
was surrounded for about 3 feet by limestone broken
into small pieces. All around this there was from 4 to
8 inches of soil covering the limestone ” (T..C. C.).

J AMESONITE !—Aclare Mine (T. C. C.).

KAo.uinite ! ! !—All varities of this mineral are to be found in
the colony, while ordinary clays, consisting of kaolinite
more or less intimately mixed with impurities, are
abundant. The following are a few of the many
localities for the pure white kaolin :—Wallaroo Mining
District, Tanunda, Ardrossan, Hummock’s Range,
Teatree Gully, near Charlotte Waters, Central Aus-
tralia (T.C. C.); Port Vincent (Tate). The following
are the results of the analyses of two specimens of white
kaolin dried at 100° C by T.C.C., A from near
Wallaroo, B from Teatree Gully, the former comprising
an aggregation of pearly scales easily seen under the
microscope with a low power :—

A B
Alumina dae ie POLLS . “Doraw
Silica met we 4000. Jono
Magnesia... dct. D0 “Tz
Lime sae s£1.¢ trace 1:39
Ferric oxide ... cer, wats 1:31
Titanic acid ... ag 1-62
Alkalies a en FS erg 1:48
Loss on ignition (water) 13°31 9°95

100°87 100°46
In A the alkalies, being chiefly soda, are calculated as
such ; in B they were principally potass, and are so
calculated.

LaAzuLitE !—near Mowarto, in small veins in granite (T. C. C.).

Limonite ! ! ! (Brown Heematite)—Near Montacute Copper Mine,
Rapid Bay, Mount Barker (Burr); Nichol’s Nob,
Koonamore Station, Mount Coffin (Brown) ; Angaston,
Waukaringa, Blinman Mine, Nunjibbie, Yorke’s Penin-
sula, Sixth Creek, near Inglewood, Macclesfield,
Hindmarsh Valley, near Kanmantoo, Nuccaleena Mine
and numerous other localities in the province (T. C. C.) ;
near Mount Lyndhurst it occurs in the form of
pentagonal dodacahedral crystals, pseudomorphs after
pyrite (T.C.C.); Eudunda, near Mount Pleasant, in

MINERALS OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 227

auriferous quartz veins (Tate). Analysis of a specimen
from Hindmarsh Valley, by Wallace, of Glasgow :—

Ferric oxide o.:, VO =tbron, sol 72
Magnanic oxide .. trace
Magnesia ee ol)
Lime ... eae ea ered
Phosphoric acid .... 1:20
Sulphuric acid ... 0°42
Alumina ee, owe
Bealices pects Peek vere!
Water (combined) 10°91
Moisture Joos Sees
100-00

Limonite pseudomorphs after pyrite, occur in the
form of isolated and grouped cubical crystals in
various parts of Central Australia, and near Lake
Eyre it is very plentiful on the surface. It is also
found in cubes at Mount Margaret and Blinman
(T.C.C.); cubes also occur on the surface 8 miles
north of the Peake, under Mount Kingston, Central
Australia (Tate); also near Yunta Station (T.C.C.).

MaenesitE!!—Flinders Range, near Port Pirie, more or less

weathered masses (‘I C.C.); northern part of the
Hundred of Cunningham, scattered about in medium-
sized masses on hills of crystalline lime-stone (T. C. C.) ;
banks of Oolabidnie Creek in the Hundred of Playford
(T. C. C.); Blinman (T.C. C.); Mount Lofty and Barossa
Ranges (Burr).

Macnerite!!!—Near Mount Jagged, Mount Lofty (T.C. C.);

Mount Torrens, Mount Victoria (Brown); Winninnie
(Goyder); The Peake, Central Australia, Hundred of
Cunningham (Tate); crystalised and massive varieties are
of very general occurrence from Cape Jervis to Black
Rock Hill (Burr). The following analysis of a sample of
ore from Mount Lofty is by Wallace, of Glasgow :—

Ferric oxide... a ROGUE ante o
Ferrous oxide ... . 5°66 \ AE Se
Manganic oxide is 20
Sulphur ands ous 20
Iron,combined with sulphur +18
Phosphoric acid jee ‘05
Alumina, &ec. ... se et to
Magnesia i aed
Silica 92
100-00

228 MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.

Matacuite ! ! !—Rhondda Mine, in acicular crystals ; Wallaroo
Mine, in brown iron ore; Yudanamutana Mine, in
the so-called “red jasper rock”; North of Port
Augusta, in nodular and lenticular-shaped masses,
with a radiated crystalline structure (T.C.C.);
Kapunda Mine, Burra Burra Mine (T. C. C.) ; near
Beltana, in perfectly round nodules, about three-
quarters of an inch in diameter, on and near the surface
(T. C. C.); near The Peake, Central Australia, in the
quartz veins in the metamorphic rock (Tate); Mount
Barker, Montacute Mine, Rapid Bay, Wakefield, . near
the Horseshoe on the Onkaparinga (Burr); Daly Mine,
Stanley Mine, Mount Lyndhurst, Nichol’s Nob, Tarlton’s
Nob, Mount Victoria, between Temple Bar and
Blinman, between Avondale and Lesley’s Well (Brown) ;
Mount Wells, Northern Territory (Goyder).

MaAnGANITE ! ! !—Near Gordon, between Quorn and Hawker: in
large quantities (T. C. C.) Oxides of manganese of
various composition occur in the Port Lincoln district,
at Wonna Pandappa Dam and at various localities in
Central Australia. Burr reports manganese ores at
Rapid Bay, Myponga, Noarlunga, River Light, Borossa
Range and Mount Bryan.

Marearite !—Woodside (Brown).

MENACCANITE !

Limenite—V ictoria Creek, Williamstown (Selwyn. )

Mo.LyppeniteE !—Yelta Mine, Moonta Mine, Wallaroo Mine,
Kurilla and other mines in the same district (T. ©. C.) ;
near Franklin Harbour, in gneiss (Tate).

Muscovire ! ! ! (common mica)—Of frequent occurrence in the
granite rocks. The following localities may be specially
noted:— Mount Pleasant, Williamstown, Barossa
Ranges, Mount Crawford (T.C.C.); Macdonnell Ranges,
in very large plates (Tate) ; River Gawler, Valley of the
Nixon, Yunkalilla (Burr).

Mysorin ! (sub-species)— Yudanamutana Mine, with crystallised
malachite in red opal rock (T. C. C.).

Opax ! ! Precious opal—Innamincka (Tate).
Girasol—Near Arkaba (T. C. C.).

Common opal—Angaston, Mount Crawford, all varieties of
colour (T. C. C.); Nuriootpa (T. C. C.); Yudananmutana,
enclosing a fine network of oxide of iron (T. C. C.) ;
Kelly’s Well, 30 miles south of Tennant’s Creek, vicinity
of the Peake (Tate); Flaxman Valley, Belvidere Range
(Burr).

MINERALS OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 229

OrrtHoc3AsE ! !—Generally distributed, well crystallised specimens
occur at Angaston (T. C. C.) ; Wallaroo Mine, Angaston,
Ardrossan ; Wallaroo, massive and crystalline (T. C. C.);
Barossa Range, east of Mount Barker (Burr).

PENNINITE !—Near Beltana (T. C. C.).

PHOSGENITE ! (Plumbic chloro-carbonate)—This mineral, asso-
ciated with cerussite, has been obtained from the west
coast of Spencer’s Gulf, the exact locality being unknown
(T. C. C.) ; Glen Osmond Lead Mines (Burr).

PistoMEsITE !—Balhannah Mine (T.0.C.); Nuccaleena (Tate).
Analysis by Cloud of specimen from Balhannah Mine :—

Hardness, 3°5 ; specific gravity, 3:5.

Ferrous oxide ese oso
Magnesia... we we3- 2008
Manganous oxide ds Rc ae Oe
Carbonie acid oe ... 43°52
99-98
PSILOMELANE.—Sleaford Bay, Port Lincoln, Elder’s Nob (G. A.
Goyder).
Pyrite!!! (Iron pyrites)—This species is to be found in most

of the lodes of the Yorke’s Peninsula mining district
(T. C.C.); Wallaroo Mine and Parramatta Mine, in
finely-crystallised specimens, exhibiting the form of the
pentagonal dodacahedron (T.C.C.); Rapid Bay, En-
counter. Bay, Montacute Mine, Bundaleer, Talisker
Mine, and in the various ranges (Burr) ; Bird-in-hand
Mine, Echunga, Queen Gold Mine, Kingston Mine,
Snowtown, Waukaringa, Yudanamutana (Brown) ; this
mineral also occurs in a stalactitic form at the Wallaroo

Mine (T. C. C.).

PyrotusitE !—Near Wallaro Mines, both massive and stalactitic
(T. C. C.) ; Wonna Pandappa Dam (Tate); Waukaringa,
impure variety (Tate); Tintara (Brown); Central
Australia, on the surface (T. C. C.); Penang (T. C.C.).

PyYROMORPHITE !—Massive specimens of this mineral have been
obtained from the west coast of Spencer’s Gulf, the
exact locality being uncertain. Ina private communica-
tion J. E. T. Woods mentions that he has found
phosphate of lead at the Strathalbyn Mine (T.C.C.) ;
Avondale Mine, Hahndorf (Brown).

Pyrope.—Mount Babbage (Brown) ; Hamilton Creek (Brown).

PyrOxENE ! (Augite)—Mount Schank (Tate); Mount Gambier
(Burr.)

Coccolite—Mount Gambier (Burr).

230 MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.

Smaragdite—W oodside (Brown).

Quartz !! Rock Crystal—Various parts of the colony, among
which the following may be named:—Yorke’s
Peninsula, Angaston, Green’s Plains, Highbury, Barossa
Range, Emu Flat, near Clare, Lyndoch Valley, Coonato
(T. C. C.); Williamstown, Morialta, Tanunda Creek,
Pekina (Tate) ; Central Australia, notably near Lake
Hope and Charlotte Water, in the form of rolled
pebbles of clear rock crystal (T. C. C.) ; Encounter Bay,
Montacute Mine, Flaxman Valley, Mount Barker,
Belvidere Range (Burr).

Amethystine guartz—Wallaroo Mine and near Point Riley,
Yorke’s Peninsula (T. C. C.).

Rose guartz—Hundred of Cunningham (T. C. C.); near
Montacute Mine (Burr).

Smoky guartz—Wallaroo Mine, Angaston, Mount Crawford
(T. C. C.).; Belvidere Range (Burr).

Milky quartz—Wallaroo Mine and other places (T. C. C.) ;
Peake, Central Australia (Tate).

Bronse-coloured crystals (the colour due to a thin coating of
ferric oxide) occur at the Stanley Mine (T. C. C.).

Chalcedony—Redruth, Wallaroo Mine, Angaston, North
Para, near Gawler (T. C. C.) ; Peake, Central Australia,
mouth of Onkaparinga River in miocene cliffs,
Ardrossan, as fossil casts (Tate); Flaxman Valley,
Mount Barker, Barossa Range, near Kapunda Mine
(Burr) ; Blanchewater (Brown).

Carnelian— Stuart’s Creek, Central Australia (Tate).

Fleliotrope—Stuart’s Creek, Central Australia (Tate).

Agate—Stuart’s Creek, near Charlotte Water, near Catherine
Telegraph Station, and various places in Central Aus-
tralia and Northern Territory—in the form of pebbles
(T. C.C.); Flaxman Valley (Burr); Innamincka
(Brown).

Silicious sinter—Angaston (T. C. C.); Barossa Range, Mount
Barker (Burr).

Flint— In the older tertiary rocks of Mount Gambier,
MacDonnell Bay and Bunda Cliffs (Tate); Eucla, in
the limestone cliffs (Brown).

Hornstone—Crinnis Mine (T. C. C.); Barossa Range,
Flaxman Valley (Burr).

Jasper—Stuart Range, Greenock, Ardrossan, Burra Range
(T. C. C.) ; Angaston, near the Peake (Tate) ; Barossa
Range, Belvidere Range (Burr) ; Innamincka (Brown).

MINERALS OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 231

Lydian Stone—Innamincka (Brown).
Plasma—Near Mount Morgan (Goyder).
Ruoponite—Elder’s Nob (G. A. Goyder).

Rutive ! !—lLyndoch, Collingrove, Tanunda Creek; Mount
Crawford, near Encounter Bay, in the form of fair-sized
erystals (T. C. C.); near Balhannah, with quartz sand
(T. C. C.); Angaston (T. C. C.) ; Echunga, near Oonata
Water (Brown); near Victor Harbour, with feldspar
and quartz (Goyder).

SERPENTINE !—Mount Crawford (T. C. C.).

SiperItTE !—Crinnis Mine (Selwyn); Oratunga Mine (Ulrich) ;
Eudunda (Tate); Karkulto Mine (T. C. C.); Rapid
Bay, Barossa Range, Mount Lofty Range, and various
other places (Burr); near Blinman (Brown.) Analysis
by T. C. Cloud of a specimen from the Karkulto Mine,
in the form of a largely crystalline mass of a brownish-
grey colour ; hardness, 3:5; and specific gravity, 3-9 :—

Ferrous oxide oF Sera eras:
Manganous oxide Bae sigan elt OO
Magnesia... we ey eel
Carbonic acid (by difference) ... 39°38

100-00

SitveR—Although silver occurs in considerable quantities in
some of the lead ores of the colony, so far as I am aware,
no isolated species containing this metal as an essential
constituent has yet been discovered (T. C. C.).

SMALTITE—Mount Ogilvie (Goyder).

SPHALERITE !!! (Zinc Blende)—Wallaroo Mine, Aclare Mine,
between Point Pearce and Coxney Point, Yorke’s
Peninsula (T. C. C.); Two-in-the-bush Gold Mine
(Brown); North Rhine (Tate) ; Wheal Ellen Mine, in
large quantities (L. Seeger).

STavuRo.iTE !—Angaston (T. C. C.); Mount Barker (Goyder).

SteatiTE—New Mecklenberg (Tate).

StisnireE—Aclare Mine (Goyder).

STILPNOMELANE !—Near Oakbank, with gold (Brown).

Sutpuur !—Echunga, in quartz, associated with pyrite (Cloud) ;
near Montacute Copper Mine, in quartz, associated
with pyrite (Burr); Wheal Ellen Mine, associated
with sphalerite and galenite (L. Seeger).

Tatc ! !—Flanks of the Kaiserstuhl (Tate); near Menge Town,
Mount Crawford (Selwyn); Belvidere Range, River

232 : MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.

Hutt, Lyndoch Valley (Burr); Yorke’s Peninsula,
Barossa Range, Kanmantoo (T. C. C.).

TrranitE (Sphene) !—Mount Barker (Tate).

Topaz !—Near Blanchewater, and elsewhere near Lake Eyre, in
Central Australia ; in the form of rolled pebbles, white
and pale green in color.

TouRMALINE ! !—Moonta Mine, Parramatta Mine, Mount Craw-
ford, Angaston, Ardrossan (T. C. C.) ; Mount Boothby,
Barrow’s Creek, and neighbourhood of The Peake, in
Central Australia (Tate) ; Valley of the Nixon, Barossa
Range, Encounter Bay, Rapid Bay (Burr).

Rubellite.—V alley of the Nixon (Burr).

ULLMANNITE !—Gill’s Bluff, Mount Lyndhurst (T. C. C.).

Vivianite !—Angaston, massive (T.C.C.); near Mount Rufus,
near Strathalbyn, earthy (Burr).

Wan (Asbolite)—W ooltana (Brown).

Wotrramite ! — Onkaparinga, massive (G. Francis); near
Royston Head, Southern Yorke’s Peninsula (Tate).

Wu FenitE! (Molybdate of Lead)—Mount Lyndhurst, crystallised

in double tetragonal pyramids (T. C. C.); Avondale
Mine, near Farina (Brown).

MINERALS OF QUEENSLAND.

! after the name of a mineral, or before a locality signifies that it is rare ;

!! that itis common; !!! that it is in workable quantity.
CG, a ... vA. W.. CLARKE.
D. oe ... RK. DAarnrReEe.
G. ; fo A Oa GREGORY.
Ale : R. L. Jack.
L. abe .. H. B. Linpon.
M. or A.G.M.... A. Grpp MartTranp.
R. “ea .. W. H. Ranps.
Cxln Epes .... Report of Examiners on Minerals in Colonial
and Indian Exhibition, by A. W. CLARKE.
CatC. Tail: ... Catalogue of Minerals in C.I. E.
@. Mac: .. Queensland Museum Catalogue.
a. f. Lt ... gold-ffeld.
Noves.

This list has been compiled by the Queensland members of Committee
No. 7 (who constituted themselves a sub-committee, of which Mr. R. L.
Jack acted as Secretary), with the co-operation of Mr. A. Gibb Maitland,
of the Geological Survey of Queensland, and other gentlemen whose
names are appended to the information furnished by them.

Most of the localities named will be found in the 16-mile map
published by the Lands Department.

Rock-forming minerals, as such, have been purposely omitted, except
in cases where some peculiarity in their mode of occurrence required to
be pointed out.

The occurrence of certain common minerals, e.g. Quartz and Calcite, is
only noted in such cases as present features of scientific or economic
importance.

To enumerate every locality where gold is found would be an endless

task. The list includes the chief gold fields, with a reference to their
geological characteristics, and a few cases in which the metalgoccurs
under specially noteworthy circumstances.
' Occasionally the occurrence of a mineral at a certain place is referred
to by two or three observers, each of whom has something different to
record regarding the mineral or the conditions under which it occurs.
Mere duplicate observations have been struck out by the Secretary in
editing the list.

It may be said that the prominence given to a mineral is not always
proportionate to its importance. Unfortunately the amount of informa-
tion to hand regarding minerals bears no ratio to their scientific or
economic value.

The list is necessarily incomplete, but if the emendation of the
“Census” is to be from year to year the care of a Committee of the
Association, the present list, it is hoped, will form a useful basis for
future operations.

A. W. CLARKE, Charters Towers, >
E. B. LINDON, Brisbane, ) Queensland
ROBERT L. JACK, Townsville, ( Sub-Committee.
WILLIAM H. RANDS, Maryborough, J

234 MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.

ActTINOLITE—Cloncurry !, on calcite (Q.M.C.); Mount Perry
district !!!, actinolite rock, and as green radiating
crystal in actinolite rock (R.); Charters Towers !, in
“Day Dawn Extended” quartz reef (J.), also in
country rock (syenite) of ‘ North Australian Block,”
(C.).

Acate—Agate Creek, Etheridge! !, in large quantities (L.) ;
Burnett district !!, over a wide area (N. Bartley) ;
Narrango district ! ! (R.) ; Mount Toussaint and Mount
Macedon !!, in geodes in epidote rock (J.); Agate
Creek, Gilbert !! !, occurring “in thousands of tons ”
in river gravels (4J.).

AmMALGAM— Kilkivan, in hard dark quartzose rock (R.).

Amertuyst—Logan River ! (R.); Upper Coomera, Albert district
(R.) ; Cloncurry (Upper Camp 2) !, in alluvial (C.).

ANALCIME—Strathmore Creek and Bowen River ! !, in geodes in
epidote rock (J.).

ANGLESITE—Silver Hill Mine, Mount Albion !, transparent
pyramidal crystals (J.); at all the silver-lead mines,
especially Argentine, Dry River, and Mount Albion ! ! !,
argentiferous, enveloping argentiferous galena, and
apparently derived from its decomposition (J.).

ARGENTITE—Cumnor Lease, Silverfield, Tinaroo district—“ It
is probable that in argentiferous galena from here,
assaying 1400oz. silver to the ton, a good deal of this.
silver is distributed through the galena in the form of
free sulphide” (C. I. E.); Emu Plains, Bowen River,
intimately mixed with cuprite and tenorite, especially
the latter, the mixed ore containing 2299o0z. silver per
ton (J.).

He meeroreMicnnt Wheeler, 18 miles from Rockhampton ! !, in
serpentine (D.) and (C.) ; Cloncurry !, in “ The Contra ”
copper lode; near Gympie !, in serpentine (R.) ;
Gympie !, with quartz in reefs (R.); Woodonga ! !,
Glastonbury, Wide Bay district, in serpentine (R.) ;
Mount Alma, Charters Towers ! !, in diorite rock, the
vein cropping out at surface from 4in. to 5in. thick (C.)
—perfectly white and silky in part, but bulk stony :
silky portion lost no weight on treatment with warm
hydrochloric acid, and was unaltered by blow-pipe or
Bunsen flame (C.).

AspouitE—Kilkivan, in a lode running nearly N. and S. in
light-coloured serpentine, occurs sometimes in solid
veins, sometimes in large botryoidal masses, but gene-
rally running in an irregular manner through the

MINERALS OF QUEENSLAND. 235

gangue (R.), [Analyses: undressed ore, Co 7:50 per
cent., Ni 2°12 per cent., (K. T. Staiger) ; fair sample of
lode, Co 7:50 per cent., Ni 2-25 per cent., Mn 18-00 per
cent., (K. T. Staiger) ; surface ore, Co 2°75 per cent.,
Ni 2:25 per cent., Mn 65-00 per cent. (W. Vivian and
Sons, Swansea).]; Kilkivan !!!, believed to be from
lode referred to by (R.) ; “specimens of asbolite from
same locality in Queensland Museum, where it is termed
cobaltiferous wad, have the following assays appended :
—Cobalt 22-207 per cent., nickel 3-510 per cent, iron
29:130 per cent., manganese 2°360 per cent., copper
0:103 per cent. (Cat. C.J. E.); Mountain Home !, in
copper lode, associated with green carbonate of copper,
ferruginous red oxide of copper, pyrolusite and garnets
(J.).

AtTAcAmiITE—Mount Perry district (Q. M. C.) ; Cloncurry, pseudo-
morphous after cuprite (Q. M. C.).

AzuritE—Great Kennedy Copper Mine ! ! !, in rhombic prisms
and pyramids and in radiating botryoidal masses in a
large lode (J.) ; Keelbottom Copper Mine ! !, in quartz
veins in porphyrite country (J.); Contra Lode, Clon-
curry !, in large copper lode in diorite country (J.) ;
Pumpkin Gully, Cloncurry !!, in ferruginous cup of
copper lode (J.) ; Great Australian Copper Mine, Clon-
curry ! !, in large lode with cuprite, native copper and
malachite (J.); Ironclad Mine, Watsonville !!, with
cassiterite and malachite (J.) ; Clan Ronald, Eureka
Creek, Tinaroo ! !, with malachite and cassiterite, from
20 feet below surface (C.); Mount Garnet, Tinaroo.
district ! !, with malachite (C.) ; Peak Downs Copper
Mine !, near Clermont, not so common as malachite
(L.) ; Mount Perry district !, with other copper ores (L.);
Mount Orange Copper Mine, Nebo, accompanying mala-
chite, hematite and black oxide of copper (W. J. C.
Adrian) ; Pine Vale, 25 miles S.W. of Mackay ! !,
massive in reefs, also as alteration product of copper
pyrites, associated with quartz, zinc-blende, malachite,
galena and quartz (M.).

Barytes—Three miles from Mary River along Kilkivan Road ! ! !,
as a large vein (R.) ; near Miva, Wide Bay ! ! (G.) ; 30
miles west of Milo Station, near Adavale ! !, also
Maxwelton, near Hughenden !, as radiated nodules in
shales of the Rolling Downs (cretaceous) formation (J.).

BismutH—Narrango !, in auriferous lode in a matrix of steatite
(L.) ; Mount Biggenden, Degilbo, Wide Bay district ! ! !,
(R.) ; Stanthorpe, in tin-wash (Q. M.C.); Pumpkin
Gully, Cloncurry !!, in auriferous drift (J.); Mary.

bo
eo
for)

MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.

Douglas Reef, Cloncurry !!, associated with quartz,
limonite and gold (J.); Herberton Tin Mines !, in
Home Rule, Herbertina and other mines, associated
with cassiterite (J.).

BismutH Ox1pE—Mount Shamrock, Wide Bay district, veins of
oxide of bismuth are exceptionally rich in gold (R.),
assaying 62 per cent. of bismuth and 2520z. of gold
(Mr. Hamilton, reported by R.).

BIsMUTHINITE—Mount Shamrock !, in fine acicular crystals (R.) ;
Mount Biggenden ! !(R.) ; Coolgarra, Tinaroo ! ! !, with
native bismuth in lode in granite (C.) ; Gilbert River ! },
in lode (J.) ; Great Britain Mine, Coolgarra ! !, in lode
associated with cassiterite, galena and sphalerite (J.) ;
Southern Tin Mine, Irvinebank ! !, in lode associated
with cassiterite (J.).

sISMUTHITE—Cloncurry !, containing visible gold (Q. M.C.) ;
Sellheim !!, in lodes (L.), containing a good deal of
copper and iron and probably derived from decom-
position of Wittichenite (J.); Mount Biggenden,
Degilbo !! !(R.); Mount Shamrock ! !, (R.) ; Coolgarra,
Tinaroo !, alluvial associated with cassiterite (C.) ; Perey
River ! ! !, in gullies worked for alluvial gold, containing
over 72 per cent of metallic bismuth (W. M. Mowbray) ;
Percy River !!!, in alluvial gravels (J.).—[ Analyses,
Bi 72°61, COs 12:77, iron oxide 12°80, sand, mica,
&e. 1:82, sp. gr. 64 (K. T. Staiger); Kangaroo
Hill ! !, in alluvial gravels (J.); Head of Severn
River ! !, in alluvial gravels (J.).

BornitE—Blue Mountains near Eton !, associated with tenorite
and cuprite (J.); Mount Perry district ! !, associated
with other copper ores, sometimes in steatite, (R.) ;
Cloncurry ! ! (Q. M. C.).

S0URNONITE—Mount Albion! ! !, argentiferous: “The recent
discovery of bournonite at Mount Albion proves to be
more important the more fully the deposit is opened up.
It is calculated that there is in sight at the present
time fully 2000 tons of black ore, which at £60 per ton
amounts to the encouraging total of £120,000. As the
copper, antimony, &c., in the ore pays all expenses,
this means that the whole £120,000 is clear profit.—
(Herberton Advertiser, June, 1889).

‘CACOXENItTE— Watts’ Selection, Logan district !, on limonite (R.).
CatcirE—Sellheim River ! ! !, large veins in shale and sandstone
country (Gympie Beds), (J.); Hector Claim, Ravens-
woop ! !, on hanging wall of auriferous quartz reef, 85
feet from surface (C.); Markham’s Claim, Ravens-

MINERALS OF QUEENSLAND. 2a

wood !!, associated with galena from 120 feet from
surface (C); Ravenswood ! !, on foot-wall of a lode
carrying chalcopyrite, sphalerite, iron pyrites, mispickel
with gold and quartz (C.); Golden Bar, Rosewood,
Rockhampton, with auriferous quartz 86 feet from
surface (C.); Advance Reef, Norton Goldtield, Glad-
stone ! !, with iron pyrites and sphalerite from 180 feet.
The same vien occurs in the adjacent claims on this line
of reef, sometimes the calcite vain is on the hanging,
less often on the foot-wall of the reef (C.): some of
this calcite is nearly transparent, one small piece was
sufficiently clear to exhibit double refraction. The
calcite vein is about 3” thick; Gympie Goldfield ! },.
with auriferous quartz and iron pyrites: ‘The manner
in which the crystals of quartz, calespar and pyrites cut
into each other and are indented by the gold which is
in other parts moulded to the angles of the crystals,
shows that they were all deposited at the same period ;
while the lime, taking the form of calespar, indicates
that the deposition was at a low temperature”
(A. C. Gregory); Victory Lease, Charters Towers !',
in pellucid crystals in fissures and vughs in the walls of
the lode or reef : these crystals are so grouped together
that only one set of facets is perfect. These facets are
eurved. Three of them grouped round the principal
axis and termining in a point form the only part of the
crystals that are visible among the whole sample raised,
(C.); Victory Lease, Charters Towers !!, in opaque
rhombohedral crystals, on auriferous quartz (C.) ;
Gympie ! !, with quartz associated with gold and gold-
bearing sulphides (L.); Kilkivan !!, with quartz and
auriferous and argentiferous sulphides (L.); Glenlyon,
near Stanthorpe ! !, large beds of limestone containing
caverns with stalactites and stalagmites (L.) ;
Warwick ! !, black and white limestone (C.); analysis.

by (C.):
WHITE BLACK

Moisture ... = 1:10 1:29
Carbonic acid oO 43-05
Lime 54:66 54:72

3
Peroxide of iron gxtyh O35 0:37
Magnesia Sy HOrLs
Insoluble residue il
100°93 100-95;
Potosi claim, Tinaroo district !!!, limestone used as a
flux for silver-lead ores (C.) ; analysis by (C.) :

238 MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.

Moisture va 1:07
Carbonate of lime me +. 69588
Silica ‘ ae 2-41
Peroxide of iron aig Be 0-78
Carbonate of magnesia seit) Ong
100:56 ;

Gladstone ! !, white and coloured marbles (R.), (Q. M. C);
in very many auriferous reefs! !, a common form of
gangue (L.); Toowoomba district !!, in cavities in

basalt (L.).

\CASSITERITE—Stanthorpe district |! !, stream tin in drifts, gene-
rally in small water-worn crystals, with a large proportion
of the ruby and amber varieties, sometimes together
with water-worn gold (J.), as crystals in quartz reefs,
and in dykes of greisen in granite country (J.);
Pascoe River ! ! !, as stream tin ore (L.) ; Mount Spur-
geon !! !, principally stream tin (J.) ; Kangaroo Hills !! 1,
stream and lode tin (J.); associated with bismuth
(Pears) ; samples of the pannned-off ore contain abso-
lutely white water-worn grains of tin oxide (10-15mm.
diameter). Awby and améer tin also occur (C.) ; Running

Creek, Star River! ! !, stream tin, associated with
garnet and topaz (J.); Granite Creek, Palmer Gold-
field !!!, as stream tin associated with gold, latter

having been derived from the slates which abut on the
western banks of the creek, while the granitic eastern
banks supplied the tin (Sellheim) ; Cannibal Creek ! ! },
stream and lode tin, the latter in large quartz reefs
in slate and greywacke country (J.); Annan and
Bloomfield ! ! !, stream and lode tin, the latter associated
with quartz, tourmaline, hornblende, and wolfram,—prin-
cipal mines are Mount Leswell, Lion’s Den, Mount
Amos, Mount Romeo (J.); Mount Leswell, Cooktown ! ! 1,
with tourmaline crystals, under the microscope the
panned-off ore is mainly honey-yellow, with a little
opaque black tin and a little rudy tin, the tourmaline
is of a greyish blue and markedly pleochroic parallel
to principal axis (C.) ; a specimen of schorl and tin ore
assayed 55 per cent. of metallic tin (L.); Mount Amos,
Cooktown ! ! !, with tourmaline crystals, under the micro-
scope the cassiterite appears to be mainly transparent
and of amber or honey-yellow colour, the tourmalines
are greyish-blue and strongly pleochroic, parallel to
principal axis (C.); Lion’s Den, Cooktown, ! ! !, with
tourmaline crystals, microscopic examination reveals
nothing of interest (C.), some of these Cooktown tin

MINERALS OF QUEENSLAND. 239

ores are rich, we having had samples of }-cwt. assaying
30°25 per cent. metallic tin, while, on the other hand, some
samples have only yielded 5 per cent. metal on assay
(Coane and Clarke) ; he Bloomfield River, Cooktown !!!,
grey very water-worn stream tin ore, a boulder from
this river, exhibited in the Colonial and Indian Exhi-
bition (1886), was nearly pure tin-stone (cassiterite),
and weighed 82lbs. (C.); Rose of England, Eureka
Creek, Tinaroo ! ! !, associated with fluor spar, quartz,
and iron pyrites (C.); Clan Ronald, Eureka Creek,
Tinaroo ! ! !, with azurite and malachite, 20 feet
from surface (C.); Lass of Gowrie, Eureka Creek,
Tinaroo ! ! !, with white mica, 60 feet from surface (Cy;
Black Rock, Eureka Creek, Tinaroo ! ! !, with red
hematite, 70 feet from surface (C ) ; Lancewood Creek,
9 miles from Brooklands Head Station !!!; Etheridge
Goldfield ! ! ! (Hodgkinson); Krombit, Port Curtis
district !, water-worn crystals in creek (R.) ; Christmas
Eve, Irvine Bank, Tinaroo! ! !, with quartz, the two
minerals occurring in alternate layers, about 15 times
in 1”, the whole having a pink cast (C.); General
Gordon Tin Mine, &c., Thompson’s Creek ! ! !, in lodes
(J.); Return Creek !!!, lode and stream (J.); Emu
Creek !!!, lode (J.); Halpin’s Creek !!!, lode and
stream (J.) ; Pinnacle Creek, near Thompson’s Creek ! ! |,
stream (J.) ; Oakey Creek, near Thompson’s Creek ! ! !,
stream (J.) ; Bachelor’s Reef, Eidsvold !, in auriferous
quartz reef, associated with tourmaline (R.); Dry
River !!!, stream (J.); Aunitt or Nettles Creek ! ! !,
stream (J.); Rudd Creek !!!, stream (J.); California
Gully, near Herberton ! ! !, lode and stream (J.) ;
Irvinebank ! ! !, in lodes in sedimentary rock, in Great
Southern the cassiterite is associated with arsenical
pyrites, native bismuth, stibnite, kc. (J.); Walsh
River !!!, very fine crystals of tin ore disseminated
through a chloritic matrix in lodes which coincide with
the bedding of the country rock (pebbly grits), (J.) ;
Gordon Mine, Glenhinedale ! ! !, the ore impregnating
a country rock of hard, fine-grained, silicious, and
talcose sandstone (J.); Koorboora, Tate River ! ! fu
lode (J.) ; Watsonville !!!, in lodes in a country rock
of shales and greywackes, associated in Ironclad Mine
with copper pyrites and copper carbonates (J.) ; Spinifex
Creek, near Herberton !!!, as stream tin (J.); Her-
berton !!!, in leads below the basalt and in recent
stream beds (J.); rarely in “elvan dykes”; at
“Three Star” Mine, &c., in dykes of quartzose chlorite,
and quartzose serpentine, and in chlorite rock-country,

240

MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.

rock quartz-porphyry (J.), sometimes associated with
chlorite, orthoclase, Rea ite schorl, wolfram, garnet and
topaz (L.); W atsonville 1! 1, in dykes of quartzose
chlorite, and quartzose serpentine in a country rock of
quartz-porphyry (J.); Eureka Creek ! ! !, lode (J.);
The Tate River, 60 miles from Herberton, Tinaroo ! ! !,
stream (C.); Tornado, Newellton, Tinaroo !!!, with
kaolin, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, mispickel, galena and
quartz (C.) ; Bolton’s Folly, Watsonville, Tinaroo ! ! |,
with garnets, 30 feet from surface, in green chlorite (C.);
Return Creek, Coolgarra, aroo ! i !, as stream tin:
“T have seen nearly (300 grains short) 2lbs. of coarse
tin washed out of a dish full of dirt” (C.); Creesus
Claim, Tinaroo !!!, with fluor spar crystals from 80ft.
level (C.) ; Denny’s Claim, near Watsonville ! ! !, with
bright red hematite (C.); Bonnie Dundee, Coolgarra,
Tinaroo !! !, in red chlorite with wolfram and mica (C.) ;
Pinnacle Lease, Gregory’s Gully, Tinaroo!!!, with a
light pink orthoclase and quartz crystals (C.) ; Adven-
ture Claim, Tinaroo !!!, with kaolin and quartz (C.) ;
Cosmopolitan, Tinaroo ! ! !, with kaolin and quartz (C.).

CrerussitrE—Argentine Silver Field !!!, argentiferous in upper

levels of argentiferous galena lodes (J.); Flagstone
Creek, Bowen district ; with decomposing galena (L.) ;
Lawn Hill ! !, in galena lode (J.) ; Scrubby Creek, Broad
Sound ! !, argentiferous in lode (J.) ; Star of the South
Gold Mine, Ravenswood !, in auriferous quartz reef (J.) ;
Ravenswood Silver Field!!! argentiferous, in argenti-
ferous galena lodes (J.) ; Curlew, about 12 miles south
of Charters Towers ! !, associated with galena, gold,
quartz, malachite, chrysocolla and pyromorphite (C.) ; ‘
Dry River Silver Field!!! argentiferous, in argenti-
ferous galena lodes (J.); Rainbow Claim, Newellton,
Tinaroo !!, with galena and quartz in very perfect
crystals and macles (C.); First Shot Claim, Coolgarra,
Tinaroo !, with hematite and galena (C.); Mount
Garnet, Tinaroo!, in minute crystals with copper
stained quartz and galena, very much decomposed (C.) ;
Mount Albion Silver Field ! !'! argentiferous, in argen-
tiferous galena lodes (J.); Sellheim Silver Field! ! !
argentiferous, in argentiferous galena lodes (J.).

CuapasitE— Main Range, below Toowoomba !, lining cavities in

basalt (L.); Darling Downs, Toowoomba !, lining
cavities in basalt (A. C. Gregory): a sample submitted
to me by Mr. Gregory contained 21°76 per cent
water (C.).

MINERALS OF QUEENSLAND. 241.

CuaLcepony—Clermont Plains ! !, in basalt (R.); Mount
Toussaint and Mount Macedon ! !, in geodes in epidote
rock (J.) ; Westwood ! in geodes in basalt (J.).

CHALCOPYRITE—Tinaroo district !!, associated with marcasite,
galena, mispickel, and sphalerite (J.); Mount Perry
district |!!! generally auriferous, lodes in granite and
schistose country, often associated with bornite (L.) ;
Copperfield, Clermont, Peak Downs ! !, accompanying
iron pyrites (L.); Ravenswood ! ! auriferous with iron
pyrites (L.); Charters Towers ! ! associated with iron
pyrites and galena (C.); Carnarvon Castle Claim,
Blackfellow’s Gully, Rockhampton!!! auriferous in
quartz and calcite (L.), assays from 2 to 5 oz. gold per
ton (L.); Mount Morgan (London), Extended Croco-
dile Goldfield!!! readily decomposing, slightly auri-
ferous (L.); Yabba Station between Nanango and
Gympie ! ! !, lode, auriferous (L.): assays from 5dwts.
to 440z. of gold per ton (L.); Mount Orange Copper
Mine, Nebo ! !, lode (L.); Pine Vale, Merani, Mackay
! !, with bornite in quartz, lode in granite country (L.) ;
Pine Vale, 25 miles south-west of Mackay ! ! ! occurs in
quartz reef in small veins and isolated masses, showing
often a beautiful iridesence on the surface, associated
with malachite, azurite, and tetrahedrite (A. G. M.) ;
Kangaroo Mine, Crocodile Goldfield, 3 miles from
Mount Morgan Mine!!! in quartz lode, auriferous
(L.) ; Copper pyrites occurs !! associated with pyrites
and mispickel, more or less plentifully in the majority
of the auriferous reefs of Queensland (J.).

CuatyBitE—Normanby Goldfield (Bowen) ! !, in Glengarry Reef
and others (J.); Cloncurry: Goldfield ! ! (J.); Mount
Perry district !, associated with iron pyrites, calena and
sphalerite (R.).

Curert—Brookfield, Brisbane (Q. M.C.) ; Springsure (Q. M. C.).

Curomite—Near Ipswich ! !, in serpentine (C.) ; Mount Wheeler,
Rockhampton ! !, in serpentine (D.) ; Kilkivan!, in ser-
pentine (R.); Pine Mountain ! !, (G.); Gladstone dis-
trict !!, in serpentine (D.) ; Cawarral ! !, in serpentine
Cs):

Curysocotta—Burdekin River, near Mount Keelbottom !, in
lode in quartz, porphyry country (J.); Curlew, about
twelve miles south of Charters Towers !, with galena,
malachite, gold, quartz and pyromorphite (C.); Towns-
ville Road, near Dalrymple, with native copper and
malachite (J.).

CurysoTitEF—Mount Coora !, in serpentine (R.).
) Pp

243 MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.

CINNABAR—Kilkivan ! !, in limestone, also with tetrahedrite (L.),
{Analysis by (C.) of limestone containing cinnabar, the
cinnabar being determined by the use of Sonstadt’s
solution :—Carbonate of lime, 50°83 per cent., carbonate
of iron 26:00 per cent, silica 15°13 per cent., sulphide
of mercury 7°01 per cent., total 98-97]; Manumbar,
Brisbane River ! !, reported by Mr. 8. L. Hester ;
Kilkivan district ! ! !, in lodes, country rock, micaceous,
chlorite and serpentinous schists, also conglomerates,
sandstones and _ shales, 70 tons treated, yielded
6000lbs of mercury (R.).

Coat—/Vo/e.— Although a complete list of coal seams with their
analyses hardly comes within the scope of a “ Mineral
Census,” a list is given of localities where coal is, or has
been, profitably worked.)—Burrum !!!, the coalfield
appears to be intermediate in age between the Bowen
River Field (Carbonifero-Permian) and the Ipswich
(Jurassic?) (J.); Ipswich! !!, the coalfield is the
equivalent of the Clarence River beds of New South
Wales (Jurassic ?) (J.) ; Clifton !! !, part of the Ipswich
coaltield (J.) ; Jimbour!!!, part of the Ipswich coal-
tield (J.); Cooktown, Townsville, Bowen River, Nebo,
MacKenzie River, Dawson River ! ! !, coal of Carboni-
fero-Permian age extending over wide areas, but not
worked (J.); Styx and St. Lawrance !!!, Coal seams
(Burrum beds) now being opened up (J.).

Copper (Native)—Peak Downs ! !, with quartz (Salmon) ; Mount
Perry district !!(R.); Alliance Mine, Morinish, Rock-
hampton ! !, in auriferous quartz, the whole being
crushed together and yielding loz. of gold per ton
(L.) ; Gympie !, in amygdaloidal volcanic rock (R.) ;
Keelbottom Copper Mine!!, in quartz veins in
porphyrite country (J.); Mount Leyshon, 17 miles
south of Charters Towers !, in fine microscopic octa-
hedral crystals, grouped together among decomposing
felspars, kaolin, hematite, &c., the volcanic ash described
by R. L. Jack, Gov. Geol., in his report on Mount
Leyshon (C.); Peak Downs !, in fine threads per-
meating quartz, so as to render it difficult to powder
(Salmon); Great Australian Copper Mine, Clon-
curry !!!, with cuprite in large lodes (J.) ; Cloncurry !!1,
altering to cuprite (L.); Argylla Copper Mine, Leichardt
River ! !, in large lode with cuprite and malachite (J.) ;
Dugald River!!, in large lode with cuprite and
malachite (J.); No. 1 Copper Selection, Dugald
River ! !, forming veins through cuprite (J.) ; Cottais’
Tin Mine, Herberton !, on joint planes of an intrusive

MINERALS OF QUEENSLAND. 243

amphibolic rock (J.); Kirk River, near Ravenswood },
in an auriferous reef (J.); Burdekin River, near
Mount Jxeelbottom!!, in lode in quartz porphyry
country (J.).

Coprpras—lIronclad Mine, Herberton, crystallises from water

trickling from the mine associated with blue vitriol,
ratio between the copper and iron in these mixed
sulphates is very variable, some crystals being deep
blue, and consequently rich in copper, while others are
a pale green and poor in copper (C.).

CuprirE—Great Australian Copper Mine, Cloncurry ! ! !, in large

Tile

lode with native copper, tenorite, azurite and mala-
chite (J.) ; No. 1 Copper Selection, Dugald River ! ! !,
in large lode, with malachite and native copper, the
cuprite very fine, and much of it is of the ~wéy variety
(J.); Cloncurry Copper Smelting Co.’s Mines, Clon-
curry !!, very fine crystals associated with hematite,
some 3-inch in diameter, being combinations of the
cube with the pentagonal dodecahedron, the most
minute microscopic crystals exhibiting the same com-
bination of forms (Sheatfe) ; Contra Lode, Cloncurry !! },
in large lode in diorite country, with malachite and
azurite (J.); Pumpkin Gully, Cloncurry !! in cap of
large lode (J.); Homeward Bound, Cloncurry !!, in
lode, with malachite and azurite (auriferous), (J.) ;
Copper Mines at Duck and Malbon Creeks, Cloncurry
!!!, in lodes (J.); Chillagoe !!!, large copper lodes
(cuprite ?), (Moffat); two miles north of Great Aus-
tralian Copper Mine, Cloncurry ! ! !, group of lodes (J.);
Argylla Copper Mine !!!, in large lode with native
copper and malachite (J.); Leichardt River ! ! !, Cru-
sader and other lodes (J.); Dugald River, 45 miles
north-west of Cloncurry !!, with native copper, calcite
and melaconite (Sheaffe); Great Kennedy Copper
Mine !!!, in a large lode with azurite and malachite
(J.); Moreton Island ! ! (Q.M.C.); Mount Perry
district !!!, associated with other copper ores (L.) ;
Texas, Stanthorpe district !!!, with other copper ores
(Gunn); Blue Mountains, near Eton!! (J.); Emu
Plains, Bowen River ! ! (J.).

Ore—A brick red or earthy variety of cuprite generally
containing peroxide of iron, the term is little used,
but is convenient for a variety of cuprite very
common in Queensland (J.); Great Kennedy Copper
mine! !, in a large lode with azurite, malachite and
cuprite (J.); Copper Mines at Duck Creek, Clon-
curry !!,in lode No. 9; near Tierrawomba, Mackay },
P2

244 MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.

in cap of lode, with malachite (J.) ; Gregory River !, in
a quartz reef with malachite (J.); Cloncurry Copper
Smelting Co.’s Mines, Cloncurry !!!, associated with
hematite and minute crystals of cuprite (Sheaffe).

Cyanosite—Mount Morgan (London) Extended Mine, Crocodile
Goldfield ! !, on chalcopyrite (L.).

DiamonpD—Yandina !, Tabragalba !, (I have been informed that
diamonds have been found in these localities, but cannot
vouch for the accuracy of the information), (J.) ; Gilbert
River !;—Mr. Warden Samwell in Report of the Dept.
of Mines for 1883 says: It is stated in the prospectus of
a gold mining company, that a ‘diamond of the first
water” from the Gilbert, was in possession of “one of
the earliest Commissioners.” I am informed that Mr.
T. R. Hackett is referred to. The same prospectus quotes
Mr. W. O. Hodgkinson, late Minister for Mines, as
having written :—‘“If similarity of strata, associated
mineralogical deposits and general characteristics,
argues anything, Agate Creek holds out inducements
for a vigorous search for the king of gems ” (J.)

Fiuorite—Creesus Claim, Tinaroo !, with cassiterite in small
cubical crystals (C.); Rose of England, Eureka Creek,
Tinaroo !, with cassiterite, quartz and iron pyrites,
crystals octahedral and cubical (C.); Herberton Tin
Mines ! !, with cassiterite in lodes (J.); Irvinebank
Tin Mines ! !, with cassiterite Wc., (J.).

FrencH CuHA.k (Steatite)—Mount Morgan ! ! (J.).

GALENA—Etheridge Goldfield !, in auriferous reefs with pyrites,
arsenical pyrites, copper pyrites and sphalerite (J.) ;
Hodgkinson Goldfield !, in auriferous reefs (J.) ; Gilbert
River !!!, argentiferous, in large lodes (Mowbray) ;
Mount Garnet, Tinaroo district ! !, cupriferous, decom-
posing (C.) ; Black Bull, Hodgkinson, with visible gold
(C.) ; Ravenswood Goldfield ! !, in auriferous reefs, with
pyrites, arsenical pyrites, copper pyrites, sphalerite, dc.
(J.); Mount Albion Silver Field ! ! !, argentiferous, in
lodes associated with anglesite, cerussite, cerargyrite, dc.
(J.); Chillagoe!!!, very large out-crop of lead ore
(galena?) Girofla Mine (J. Moffatt); Degilbo!!},
argentiferous, in lodes, with gold, arsenical pyrites and
sphalerite (R.) ; Eidsvold Goldfield !, with pyrites (R.) ;
Norton Goldtield ! with gold, pyrites, sphalerite, quartz
and calcite (R.) ; Yarrol !! !, in lode, poor in silver (R.);
Norton Goldfield ! !, lode in granite (R.) ; Gympie ! !,
with free gold (R.); Eungalla, Broken River, North
Kennedy !!!, in crystals, also massive in reef with

MINERALS OF QUEENSLAND. 245

quartz, galena, carbonate of zinc and iron pyrites, very
argentiferous (M.); Flagstone Creek, Bowen district
!!!, ina lode having an out-crop composed mostly of
wolfram and quartz, assays 76 oz. of silver per ton (Id);
Yarrol, Burnett district ! ! (L.) ; near Merani, Mackay
district !, in small veins in granite (L.) ; Potosi Lode,
Mount Perry district ! !, associated with iron and copper
pyrites and a little sphalerite in a gangue of quartz
and barytes (R.); Allendale Lode, Chowey Creek,
Wide Bay district ! ! !, with iron pyrites, mispickel and
sphalerite, assaying 39oz. of silver and loz. of gold to
the ton (R.); Argentine Silver Field ! ! !, argentiferous,
in numerous lodes (J.); Sellheim Silver Field ! ! !,
argentiferous, in lodes associated with sphalerite and
pyrites (J.); Pyramid Lease, Sellheim !! !, argentiferous,
with sphalerite. [Analyses, zinc 34-23 per cent., lead
42°01 per cent., sulphur 22-80 per cent., iron 1:11 per
cent., total, 100:15 (C.); Charters Towers Goldfield !
with pyrites in auriferous reefs (J.); Charters Towers !,
nearly always occurring with calcite and sphalerite in
the auriferous quartz on this field (C.) ; Curlew, about
12 miles south of Charters Towers !, with cerussite,
gold, quartz, malachite, pyromorphite, chrysocolla (C. ye:
Silver King Tin Mine, Herberton !, with cassiterite (J.) ;
Northcote ! !, argentiferous (Towner) ; Return Creek ! !,
silver lodes (argentiferous galena?), (J.); Lawn Hill
!! |, argentiferous, in large lode (J.) ; Coen River, south
!!, argentiferous, in small lode (J.); Croydon Gold-
field !, in auriferous reefs with pyrites, sphalerite and

graphite (J.); Koh-i-noor, Tinaroo !!!, with mispickel
and sphalerite (C.); Tornado Claim, Silverfield,
Tinaroo district!!! with iron pyrites and sphalerite

(C.), assay silver loz. 2dwts. per ton (L.). [ Analyses,
zine 13-42 per cent., copper 5:10 per cent., lead 6-06 per
cent., arsenic 11-99 per cent., iron 29-06 per cent.,
sulphur 32°74 per cent., silica 2-11 per cent., total,
100-48 (C.) ; Dry River !!! argentiferous, with pyrites,
marcasite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, anglesite, cerussite
and malachite (J.); Target Mine, N ewelltown, Tin-
aroo ! ! !, the lode is much decomposed, the galena can
be picked out in nodules as big as a cricket ball, on
cracking open these nodules, a zoned structure is seen
consisting of carbonate of sulphate and oxide of lead in
concentric layers, with perhaps a nucleus of clean fresh
galena. In other cases the decomposition is complete
and there is no trace of nucleus. I have seen such
nodules in other galena lodes throughout the Tinaroo
district, but they always occur in the lodes above

246 MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.

water level (C.) ; Silverfield, Tinaroo !!! similar to the
Target Mine galenas described above (C.) ; Ravenswood
Silver Field ! ! ! argentiferous, in lodes, associated with
cerussite, sphalerite, stibnite, pyrites, Xe. (J.).

Garnet—Eungella Goldfield ! !, with wolfram and iron glance in
large lode in granite country (J.); Pyropfe, Running
Creek, Star River ! !, in tin wash, associated with topaz
(J.); Coen River Diggings ! !, in auriferous wash-dirt.
(J.); Cloncurry !! (G.); west of Mount Eurie, Clon-
curry ! (J.); Mountain Home !, in copper lode, in
ferruginous red oxide of copper, associated with green
carbonate of copper, asbolite and pyrolusite (J.) ;
Bolton’s Folly Tin Mine, Watsonville ! !, in chlorite
rock, with cassiterite (J.); Woolgar Goldfield ! !, in
auriferous wash-dirt (J.); Bolton’s Folly, Watson-
ville ! !, in green chlorite rock, imbedded so softly as to
be removable by tapping the specimens smartly with a
hammer, when the garnets drop out, with cassiterite (C.).

Gotp—Etheridge g.f.!!!, in quartz reefs with calcite, iron
pyrites, copper pyrites, arsenical pyrites, sphalerite and
galena, mainly in granite country, but at Goldsmith’s
in schist and slate country (J.); Woolgar g. f.! !!, in
quartz reefs, under conditions similar to those of the
Gilbert Goldfield (J.) ; Gilbert g. f. !!!,in quartz reefs
in slates, shales and metamorphic mica schists of supposed
Lower Silurian age, penetrated by numerous dykes of
elvanite, diorite, hornblende rocks, &c.,—‘ Where
these dykes penetrate slates payable gold is usually
obtained” (D.); Hodgkinson g. f.!!!, in quartz reefs
in highly inclined shales and sandstones (J.),
sometimes accompanied by galena and iron and
copper pyrites (L); Palmer g.f.!!!, in reefs in highly
inclined shales and sandstones, also alluvial gold (J.) ;
Coen g.f.!!!, reef and alluvial gold, the gold being
much alloyed with silver (J.); Croydon g.f.! ! !, in
quartz with oxide of iron, native silver and cerargyrite
(L.); in reefs in a country rock partly granitic and
partly metamorphic (J.); Pikedale ! !, in lodes with
copper pyrites (J.); Jimnag.f. ! ! !, reefs in granite
country and in alluvial drifts (A.); Gooroomjum g. f.
!!!,in alluvial drifts (A.); Black Snake !!!, in reefs
in micaceous porphyry country, with iron, copper and
arsenical pyrites, argentiferons galena and stibnite (R.);
Kilkivan g.f. ! ! !-—“The country around Kilkivan
consists entirely of metamorphic rocks, such as serpen-
tine and hornblende and micaceous schists. All the
reefs found in the district occur in these rocks. From

MINERALS OF QUEENSLAND. QAT

the Rise and Shine Reef very good specimens of gold
were obtained in the upper part; lower down the stone
changes to a mundic consisting greatly of zinc-blende,
with some iron pyrites and a little galena.” . . “ Most
of the work at Kilkivan has been the driving of tunnels
in a sheet of white porphyry which occurs in the face
of a range running north and south. There are no
defined reefs at all in the porphyry, but only minute
veins of quartz, with oxides of iron and manganese.
Where the manganese di-oxide occurs, the veins are the
richest in gold. In some parts of the porphyry these
veins are very numerous, and the veins are very patchy.
Where these patches occur, however, the whole of the
mass will pay to crush” (R.) ; Kilkivan ! !, associated
with oxide of manganese in a white felspar (R.) ;
Gympie g.f.!!!, in reefs traversing grey shales, black
pyritous shales, greywackes, sandstones, grits, and
conglomerates of Carbonifero-Permian age, the richest
deposits of gold occur where the reefs intersect the
pyritous black shales (J.); No. 1 N. Lucknow Mine,
Gympie !, associated with asbestos (R.); Brovinia g. f.
!!!, in reefs (J.); Hidsvold g.f. !!!, in reefs in granite
country, with galena, pyrites, arsenical pyrites and
stibnite (R.) ; Mount Shamrock g.f.!!!, im lodes con-
taining quartz, hematite and bismuth oxide,—‘ The
gold appears to be especially associated with the bismuth,
for the veins of oxide of bismuth are exceptionally rich.
A small sample of the oxide assayed by Mr. Hamilton
contined 62 per cent. of metallic bismuth and 252oz.
of gold per ton of the material” (R.); Mount Sham-
roek !, in molybdenite (L.); Old Chowey Reefs, Wide
Bay ! !, in molybdenite in quartz (R.) ; Crocodile g. f.!!!,
reefs partly in granite and syenite country and partly
in slates, greywackes, grits, and conglomerates inter-
sected by diorite dykes (J.) ; Rosewood g. f. ! ! !, Golden
Bar Reef, of calespar, with chlorite in pockets and
coating calcite crystals, occasionally a good deal of
quartz, some very rich specimens of gold in calcspar,
the reef occurs in a diorite dyke for the most part
altered to chlorite—Caledonian Reef, quartz with patches
and pockets of chlorite, country rock altered sand-
stone (J.); Blackfellow’ Gully !!! (J.); New Zealand
Gully !!!, North Star Mine, in porphyry country (J.) ;
Last Chance Reef, gold disseminated through a mass of
chloride of silver (D.); Cawarral!!!, in serpentine
country, also alluvial gold (J.); Canoona g. f.!! 1,
‘‘when (in alluvial workings) found with the matrix
attached, matrix was serpentine” (R.); Mount

48

MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.

Morgan ! ! !,Finely disseminated throughout a deposit
varying from red and brown hematite to a frothy,
spongy, cellular silicious sinter, risimg into a mountain
mass through a country rock of quartzites, hardened
sandstones. greywackes and shales of Carbonifero-
Permian age. I believe the deposit to be due to a
geyser, but different explanations have been offered by
Messrs. Macdonald, Cameron, Ranft and _ others.
The gold is extracted by chlorination. The gold is of
remarkable purity, assaying, according to Dr. Leibins,
99°7 per cent., worth £4 4s. 8d. per ounce (J.); Norton
g. ft. !!1!, reefs in an erupted boss of grey granite passing
into syenite and porphyry, and intersected by dykes of
diorite, dolerite and porphyry, reefs containing, besides
gold, pyrites, arsenical pyrites, sphalerite, galena,
stibnite, quartz and calcite, gold is extracted by
chlorination (R.); Cania g. f. !!!, in reefs of quartz and
calcite, and in alluvium, country rock sandstone, slate
and limestone, probably Carbonifero-Permian (R.) ;
Raglan g. f. !!!, reefs and alluvial, country rock slates,
hardened sandstones or quartzites with occasional
conglomerates and limestones, probably of the age of the
Gympie beds (Carbonifero-Permian), (R.); Calliope
g. f. !!!, reefs and alluvial, country rock chiefly altered
slates with limestone and marble, intersected by dykes
and patches of serpentine, diorite and porphyry (R.) ;
Mount Britten g.f.!!1!, reefs, partly in diorite and
partly in grey and black shales and sandstone of the
“Gympie” series (Carbonifero-Permian), alluvial gold
in large nuggets, with hardly any fine gold (J.);
Yatton g.f.!!!, in reefs in diorite country, intersected
by dykes of silicated felstone, the gangue-stuff (gene-
rally composed of fragments of diorite) is veined with
calcite and decomposed concretionary carbonate of lime,
while occasional aggregations of siderite and decomposed
orthoclase are met with, some of the stone, composed of
mixed quartz and reddish ferruginous carbonate of
lime shows gold very freely, the gold is flaky, like gold-
leaf (J.); Kroombit g.f.!!!, alluvial gold in Recent
and Post Tertiary (?) drifts (R.) ; Peak Downs g. f.!!},
reefs in crumpled and fissured metamorphic schists,
slates, &c., of supposed Lower Silurian age (D.), alluvial
gold from recent drifts, also from deep leads covered by
basalt, and supposed by Daintree to be Miocene, alluvial
gold also in a drift of Carbonifero-Permian age (R.) ;
Normanby g. f., near Bowen !!!, reefs and alluvial,
country rock, a porphyry consisting of quartz, black
mica (sparsely) and schorl passing into greywacke,

MINERALS OF QUEENSLAND. 249

much pyrites below water level (J.); Marengo g.f.!!
in reefs, country rock essentially a white granite in
which the mica is sometimes supplemented and
occasionally replaced by hornblende, frequent bosses of
intrusive felspar-prophyry, and _ occasional small
areas of gneiss, mica schist, shales and _ grey-
wackes, gold in reefs associated with quartz, calcite,
malachite, pyrites and chalcopyrites (J.); Cape
River g. f. !!1, filiform, in threads and _hairs,
which, under the microscope, resemble in a marked
degree, the roots of fine grass, and in the matted mass
small particles of opaque iron-stained quartz are observ-
able. As much as 53 oz. at a time have been melted
into a bar by us, the bar which weighed 520z. ldwt.
6gr., assayed £3 16s. 10d. per oz. (Coane and Clarke) ;
alloyed with a large proportion of silver, &c, and often
takes a peculiar form, combining a thread-like structure
with a semi-crystalline surface, which is technically
known among Queensland diggers as ‘ spider-leg” gold
(D.); in reef in metamorphic schist country, also in
recent alluvium and older fragmentary drifts, supposed
to be Pliocene (D),—[ Analysis by Mr. Richard Smith,
of the School of Mines, London:—Gold 89-920, silver
9-688, copper 0-128, lead 0-026, iron 0-070, total 99°832];
Paddy’s Gully, Cape River ! !, alluvial (D.), [Analysis
by Mr. Richard Smith, School of Mines, London :—
gold 92-800, silver 6:°774, copper 0:048, lead 0-048,
bismuth traces, iron 0-014, total 99-684]; Charters
Towers g. f. ! ! !, throughout the goldfield, generally
associated with galena, sphalerite, calcite, and quartz and
iron pyrites (C.) ; the principal mines in a granitic area
inand around the town, others in a country rock of
quartzites, greywackes, slates and shales, field also yield-
ing asmall and annualy decreasing proportion of alluvial
gold (J.); Curlew, about 12 miles south of Charters
Towers ! ! !, associated with cerussite, quartz, pyromor-
phite, chrysocolla, malachite and galena(C.); Ravenswood
g. f. !, free gold in galena, in cerussite and in limonite
(L.) ; Ravenswood ! ! !, in reefs associated with quartz,
iron, copper and _ arsenical pyrites, sphalerite,
galena, &c., country rock, grey syenitic granite, a fair
proportion of alluvial gold also obtained (J.) ;
Mulgrave g. f.!!!, in reefs in a country rock of grey-
wacke, slate and quartzite (J.); Russell Terraces ! ! },
alluvial, in old high-level terraces, probably Tertiary (J.) ;
Cloncurry g. f. !, in schorl, in malachite, in limonite, in
sandstone, in malachite and cuprite, in carbonate of
bismuth (L.), in reefs among highly-inclined slates,

250 MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.

quartzites, and greywackes, with quartz, calcite and side-
rite, and in some cases with limonite, some reefs below the
water level highly charged with pyrites, also in alluvial
drifts with native bismuth and bismuthite, the alluvial
gold generally coated with iron peroxide, gold mostly in
large nuggets (J.); Reid’s Creek, 4 miles south-east of
Mount Perry ! ! !, in reefs in granite country, associated
with iron pyrites, arsenical pyrites, spahlerite and
galena (R.) ; Boolboonda ! ! !, in reefs in gneiss country
(R.); Molangul!!!, in reefs and alluvial (R.) ; Nor-
manby (Wide Bay)! ! !, in reefs and alluvial (R.) ;
Lucky Valley ! ! !, in alluvial drifts (A.) ; Lucky Valley,
Duffer Gully !, imbedded in “small, bright, foliated,
metallic plates with scales of tellurium ” (A.) ; McKinlay
g.f.!!!, reefs and alluvial, country rock, gneiss and
mica and tale schists,—‘‘The associated minerals are
gold and copper, the presence of ‘dykes’ of intrusive
material seeming to be the chief cause of mineralisation ”
(D.); Enoggera Ranges, Brisbane !, in quartz (L.)

GrapHitE—Mount Bopple ! ! !, in micaceous granite (C.) ;
Gympie ! !, with gold on “slickensides” (L.); Cape
Upstart !!, (J.); Croydon Goldfield!!! common
throughout the field (B.).

Gypsum—Near Mount Albion, Tinaroo ! !, cropping out at

surface (C.); Victory Lease, Charters Towers !,
pellucid crystals in vughs in auriferous quartz reef,
(C.); between Fanning Old Station, and Ravens-
wood Junction !!!, three feet vein in granite country
(J.); 18 miles west of Collingwood!!!, described
as occurring in very thick beds in the “ Rolling
Downs” (Cretaceous), (J.); Bulimbu, near Brisbane},
as selenite (L.) ; Warrego district ! ! fibrous and foliated
varieties (L.) ; Mount Gregory ! !, Clermont (R.)

Ha.ite—Sylvester Creek, Herbert River ! !, (Q. M. C.).

HemitirE—
Specular tron ore—Kelvin Grove, 30 miles south of Mac-
Kay !, occurs in thin leaders and isolated kernels in
a rock made up mainly of actinolite and clear and
pellucid grains of quartz (M.); Mount Leviathan and
Mount Pisa, Cloncurry ! ! !, hills of pure ironstone near
the Cloncurry copper lodes in slate, greywacke and
quartzite country, micaceous iron ore, plentiful in the
same neighbourhood (J.) ; Kangaroo Hills, near Towns-
ville ! ! !, very large lodes of very pure ore (J.); Wild
River !! !, very large lodes of very pure ore (J.) ;
Cabbage Tree Creek !! !, very large lodes of very pure

MINERALS OF QUEENSLAND. 25

ore (J.) ; Gunpowder Oreek ! !, vein in slate and quartz
ore, greywacke (J.); Gilbert River (Q. M.C.).

Micaceous iron ore—Rosslyn, Burnett district !, (R.) ; Clon-
curry district !!(J.); Mount Morgan !! (auriferous),
with hematite and silicious sinter (J.); Mary Douglas
Reef, Cloncurry ! ! (auriferous), associated with quartz
and native bismuth (J.) ; Warwick, (Q. M.C.) ; Ravens-
wood, ochreous (Q. M.C.); Ipswich, (Q.M.C.); Kil
kivan, pseudomorphous after pyrites (Q.M.C.); near
Calliope, Gladstone !! (R.); Mount Morgan ! ! (aurif-
erous), with brown hematite and silicious sinter (J.) ;
Cloncurry !, as pseudemorphs after iron pyrites (L.) ;
Calliope ! ! (R.); Duck Creek, Cloncurry, ochreous,
cementing a breccia (Q. M. C.) ; Yatton Goldfield, pseu-
domorphous after pyrites (Q. M.C.); MacKinlay Range,
Cloncurry !, pseudomorphs after iron pyrites, in perfect
cubes and in pentagonal dodecahedra (Sheaffe).

Hyauite—Stanthorpe district !, encrusting smoky quartz (L.) ;
Northern Downs (Q. M. C.).

InFusor1AL EAartu—Logan district (R.),—[ Analysis by W. A.
Dixon :—Moisture and traces of organic matter 10°31,
oxide of iron and traces of alumina 0°59, lime traces
silica 89-10, total 100-00]; Upper Coomera, Albert
district (R.).

IronsTONE Buacksanp—Fourteen miles up Cockatoo Creek |,
thin seams in Carbonifero-Permian formation (J.).

J ASPER—Diamantina, Springsure (B.); Kilkivan, in veins, both
red and green (R.) ; Tableland, Peak Downs (R.).

KaoLtin—Stanthorpe district !!, in the tin-drift (L.); Mount
Morgan Extended of Brisbane (Callan’s Knob) ! },
apparently in dykes and of a very pure character (L.) ;
Mount Morgan and elsewhere +! !, common as a result
of decomposition of acidic felspars in dykes and of
granites, &c., in reefs (J.).

KERARGYRITE—Mount Albion ! !, large “slugs” in Albion Mine
at surface and at 19 feet, and in Lady Jane Mine at
130 and 180 feet, associated with galena (J.) ; Croydon
Goldfield ! !, Queen (auriferous) reef, No. 2 south (B.) ;
Last Chance, New Zealand Gully, Rockhampton !, in
reef; the kerargyrite contains specks of gold (D.) ;
Puzzler Reef, 8 miles north-east of Charters Towers !,
in small slugs with quartz, native silver, and very
much decomposed galena (C.). This sample assayed for
silver 6180z. 7dwt. 13gr. per ton (Coane and Clarke).

LaprapDorite-—West of Mount Eurie, Cloncurry |, iridescent (J.).

252, MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.

LaumonitE—Strathmore Creek and Bowen River ! !, in geodes
in epidote rock (J.).

LizvritE—Endeavour River !, in geodes in basalt (J.).

MacnesirE— Western half of Queensland ! ! !, in extensive beds,
part of the “desert sandstone” formation (W.);
Waverley Creek, St. Lawrence !!!, cimolitic fire-clays or
magnesites, with films of coal and fragments of silicified
tree stems, in Styx Coalfield (D.); Islaport, Rock-
hampton,—[ Analysis :—Silica 7-23, carbonic acid 49-08,
peroxide of iron 1°66, magnesia 43.70, lime traces,
total 101.67.] (C.).

MaGnetirE—Newelltown, Tinaroo!!!, the lump in my pos-
session exhibits marked magnetic polarity and will
support a fine sewing needle. The powdered mineral
can be lifted up in long strings or brushes on a lump
of the mineral (J.),—This is a very pure iron ore and it
was being raised in large quantities when I was at
Newelltown for the Mount Albion Silver Smelting Co.,
who used it in conjunction with limestone (which
abounds in this neighbourhood) as a flux in their
Pacitic smelters (C.); Wild River, five miles below
Herberton !!, sand in tin wash (J.); Hinchinbrook
Island !, fine octahedral crystals in chlorite schist (J.) ;
Percy Island No. 2! !, fine sand on beach (J.) ; Great
Northern Mine, Star River (Q. M.C.); Nundubber-
mere, near Stanthorpe ! !, in granite (R.); Mount
Victoria, near Mount Perry ! !, in granite (R.); Mount
Webster, Mount Perry district, crystalline and granular,
massive (L.); Chowey Creek, Wide Bay district, in
bluish grey quartzite (R.) ; Kroombit, with carbonates
of copper (Q. M. C.).

MALACHITE—Flying Dutchman Reef, Cloncurry !, in auriferous
quartz reef (J.); Homeward Bound, Cloncurry ! ! !,
auriferous copper lode (J.); Mountain Home ! !, with
ferruginous cuprite, pyrolusite, garnets and asbolane
(J.); Duck Creek Copper Mines, Cloncurry ! !!, in
lodes (J.); Argylla Copper Mines !!!, in large lode
with native copper and cuprite (J.); Leichhardt
River!!!, in lodes (J.); No. 1 Copper Selection,
Dugald River ! !, in large lode with cuprite and native
copper (J.); Iron Clad Mine, Herberton !!, with
azurite and iron pyrites (C.) ; Mount Garnet, Tinaroo ! !,
with cerussite and galena and hematite, in some
portions of the lode very perfect crystals of azurite,
measuring 12-l5mm. in the longest axis, occur in
vughs in the malachite (C.); Mount Garnet, Tinaroo

MINERALS OF QUEENSLAND. 253

district ! !, with azurite (C.); Cloncurry !!!, frequent
in “gossan ” often in large masses (L.); Cloncurry ! ! },.
containing free gold; also pseudomorphs after cuprite,
azurite and siderite (Q.M.C.); Great Australian
Copper Mine, Cloncurry ! ! !, in large lode with native
copper, cuprite, tenorite and azurite (J.); Bau Bau,
Burnett district !, coating serpentine (Aplin) ; Taromeo,
near Narrango (Q. M.C.); Curlew, about 12 miles
south of Charters Towers !, with galena, gold quartz,
chrysocolla and pyromorphite (C.); Burdekin River,
near Mount Keelbottom ! !, in lode in quartz porphyry
country (J.); Great Kennedy Copper Mine!!!, in a
large lode, with azurite and cuprite (J.) ; Keelbottom
Copper Mine ! !, IN quartz veins in porphyry (w.)3
Mount Perry !!!, disseminated through granite (R.) ;
Mount Perry district !!, in copper lodes, but not
of very frequent occurrence (L.) ; Peak Downs Copper

Mine, near Clermont! ! !, in fine botryoidal masses
(L.); Mount Gotthard, near Lake Elphinstone, 100
miles west of Mackay !!, in ‘“gossan” and in small

veins (L.); Mount Orange Copper Mine ! !, with other
copper ores (L.); Pine Vale, 25 miles south-west of
Mackay ! !, massive, in reefs, and as stains in quartz,.
also as an alteration product of copper pyrites (M).

Massicot—Stanton Harcourt, Burnett district, from decomposing
galena (R.); Argentine Silverfield !!!, (argentiferous),
from decomposition of galena (J.) ; Dugald River ! !, in
large lode, contains according to assays by K. T. Staiger,
antimony and silver (J.); in small quantities at all the
silver-lead mines ! ! (J.).

MeExaconiteE—Great Australian Copper Mine, Cloncurry !, occa-
sional crystals, with cuprite and native copper (J.) ;
Great Kennedy Copper Mine !!, in a large lode, asso-
ciated with azurite and malachite (J.) ; Ironclad Mine,
Herberton !, with sulphates of iron and copper, and
iron pyrites, hematite, &., &e. (C.); Mount Leyshon,
17 miles south of Charters Towers !, with pyrites in the
country rock of the mount; country rock has been
identified by Mr. Jack, the Government Geologist, as a
volcanic ash (C.); Pine Vale, 25 miles south-west of
Mackay !, an alteration product of copper pyrites, in a
quartzose matrix (M.); Blue Mountains, near Eton ! !
(J.); Emu Plains, Bowen River, mixed with argentite
(J.); Mount Perry district ! !, with chalcopyr ite (L.) ;
Texas, Stanthorpe district ! !, with other copper ores (G. ‘

Mercury — Kilkivan district !} in a hard, dark quartzose
rock (R.).

954 MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.

MispicKEL !! !—Arsenical pyrites occurs in nearly all the
auriferous reefs in Queensland, especially those in which
the country rock is granite, conspicuously at the
Etheridge, Ravenswood and Norton (J.) ; Stanthorpe!
(Q. M. C.); Allendale lode, Chowey Creek, Wide Bay
district ! !, with galena, sphalerite and iron pyrites (R..) ;
Mount Witty, Beenleigh ! !, in dark quartz, auriferous
(L.) ; Reid’s Creek, Mount Perry ! !, auriferous (R.).

MoLyspENiIvE — Stanthorpe district ! in greisen dykes, with
wolfram and cassiterite (R.), also in quartz at Noble
Tin Mine and at Greenups (J.) ; Townsville district!
(D.) ; Halifax Bay, near Townsville ! (J.); Herberton
district ! (J.); Ravenswood Goldfield !, in quartz (J.) ;
Herberton, Young American Claim !, with wolfram (J.) ;
Cania Goldfield !, with gold in calcite (R.); Ipswich
(Q.M.C.); Walsh River ! (J.); Eidsvold Goldfield !, in
“ Moonlight” Reef, auriferous, in quartz (R.); Stan-
thorpe !, in quartz, sometimes with arsenical pyrites and
with tin ore (L.) ; 30 miles west of Mackay !! }, large
blocks obtainable (Staiger); Mount Ophir, Chowey
Creek, Wide Bay district! !, with iron pyrites in
auriferous quartz (R.) ; Old Chowey reefs, nearly due
north of Didcot, Wide Bay district !!, with specks of
gold in its midst (R.); Mount Shamrock Mine, Wide
Bay district !, containing visible gold (L.); Burnett
district ! !, exact locality not yet made public, in quartz
with molybdic ochre, showing fine flakes of gold (L.).

Motyspic Ocure— Burnett district, in quartz with molybdenite,
specks or flakes of fine gold being visible in the ochre, as
well as in the sulphide mineral (L.).

NatroLitrE—Main Range, below Toowoomba !, in basalt (L.) ;
Degilbo Run, Wide Bay !, in basalt (R.).

OLIvINE—Gatton, in basalt (L.) ; Albert district, in basalt (R.) ;
Cania Goldfield, in basalt (R.) ; Cania, Burnett district,
in basalt (R.) ; Albert and Logan districts, in basalt (R.).

Opat—Bulloo River ! ! (L.); Barcoo River ! ! (L.) ; Logan River |,
(Hinchcliffe); Springsure (Q. M. C.); Blackwater
Creek, Bulgroo, Keeroongooloo, Mayne River, Nicka-
villa, Winton !!, ‘in nodules of ferruginous silicious
sandstone and silicious ironstone, elther in the ‘ desert
sandstone’ formation or denuded out of it and resting on
the surface of the underlying ‘Rolling Downs’ formation.
The whole of the area over which the ‘desert sandstone’
extended—the western half of the colony— might
therefore be given as the locality in which ‘opal mines’
are ‘undeveloped’” (J.) ; Mount Toussaint and Mount

MINERALS OF QUEENSLAND. 25d

Macedon ! !, in geodes in epidote rock (J.); Cape Hills-
borough, about 20 miles north-west of Mackay !!, as a
coating in many fragments of the desert sandstone,
forming the Cape tableland (M.).

ORTHOCLASE — Stanthorpe ! !, associated with smoky quartz, the
felspar being in large crystals (L.); Pinnacle Lease,
Herberton ! !, of pink colour as matrix of cassiterite (L.) ;
North Australian Block, Charters Towers !, in fine pink
erystals with chlorite and iron pyrites on granite (C.).

PIMELITE—Cobalt lode, Kilkivan !, earthy variety (R.).

PratinumM—Russell River Terraces !, iinute flakes associated
with gold and cassiterite in high-level river drifts capped
by immense basaltic flaws, probably miocene (J.).

PREHNITE—Biralee, Bowen River ! !, in cavities in epidote rock,
“in radiating groups of crystals” (Allport),—{ Analysis
of “ prehnite rock” by Mr. R. Daintree :—Silica 42-033,
alumina 21-606, ferric oxide 8°829, lime 23°633, water of
constitution and hygroscopic 2°900, copper carbonate
0.825, total 99.826, sp. gr. 2-844. ]

PSILOMELANE — Brookfield, Brisbane (Q. M. C.) ; Beenleigh
(Q. M.C.); Between Chinaman’s Creek and Duck
Creek, 13 miles from Cloncurry ! !, loose blocks in slate
country (J.) ; Gregory River ! ! !, large lode in sandstone
country (J.); left bank of Police Creek, 300 yards
from Gregory River ! !, very pure ore (J.).

Pyritres—Bee Creek, 60 miles west of Mackay ! !, as crystals in
most of the mines, generally enclosed in a quartzose
matrix, associated with galena, zinc blende and copper
pyrites (M.); Allendale Lode, Chowey Creek, Wide
Bay district ! !, associated with mispickel, galena and
sphalerite (R.) ; Eungella, Mackay district ! !, in quartz
with small quantities of copper pyrites and galena (L.) ;
Ravenswood !, in chert as hexakisoctahedra (Q. M. C.) ;
Mount Webster, Mount Perry district! !, with fine
grains of magnetite (L.); Union Claim, Rackhampton
district ! !, auriferous associated with black schorl (C.) ;
Eungella Lime Plains!!!, in quartz with a trifling
quantity of chalcopyrite and galena, assays 240z. gold
per ton (L.), iron pyrites occurs probably without
exception in all the auriferous reefs in Queensland,
in most of the metalliferous lodes, disseminated
through most of the plutonic and igneous rocks, in
many sedimentary rocks, and conspicuously in the
carbonaceous shales which form the country rock of

the Gympie goldfield (J.).

256 MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.

Pyro.usitrE—Near Didcot Creek, Wide Bay district (R.) ;
Leyburn, near Warwick, very pure massive and some-
times crystalline (L.); 8 to 9 miles west of Gympie ! !
(R.); Thanes Creek, Warwick ! !, crystallized, massive
and stalactitic (R.); 20 miles from Port Douglas,
near Mount Spurgeon !!!, the ore is of a high
percentage and the lode very large (Towner) ; Mountain
Home !, dendritic markings on quartz in copper lode
associated with green carbonate of copper, ferruginous
red oxide of copper, asbolane and garnets (J.);

between Gregory River and Police Creek! !, loose
pebbles (J.); Mitchell River, below mouth of St.
George River ! ! !, large lodes associated with quartz in

slate and greywacke country (J.); between Police
Creek and Fiery Creek !! (J.) ; Mount Morgan !, with
silicious sinter and red and brown hematite (J.) ;
Mount Leyshon, near Charters Towers !, in volcanic
ash traversed by auriferous ferruginous veins (J.) ;
Argentine Silver Field ! !, with argentiferous lead ores
and pyrites in “Colorado” and other mines (J.) ;
Hodgkinson Goldfield !, coating quartzite on Peak
river (J.); Flinders River, near Coalbrook !, in films
on bedding-planes and joints of “ desert sandstone” (J) ;
Magazine Island, Townsville, and west of Arthur’s

Creek, Burdekin River !!, as dendritic markings on
quartz poryhyry, unusually fine examples (J.); Glad-
stone Harbour ! ! !, with ferruginous quartz among hard
jasperised metamorphic rocks (R.). Gladstone (C.),—
[ Analyses :—

Available peroxide of

manganese .. 74:84 57:00

Protoxide of manganese 8:20 9°30

Oxides of iron vey PRO LOU. 3°80

Alumina ... Sens S eOO 2°00

Carbonic acid ... traces traces

Sulphur... see | Ore 0:13

Water ates cacy COM 2-70

Silicious insoluble matter 1:10 25-00

Loss ek fuok Oe 0:07

100-00 ~=100-00

no gold or silver—(Messrs. Johnson, Matthey & Co.,
London),

PyromorpHite—Etheridge Goldfield !, in auriferous quartz reef,
with galena and pyrites (J.).; Curlew, about 12 miles
south of Charters Towers, with cerussite, galena, gold
quartz, chrysocolla, malachite, &c. The pyromorphite

MINERALS OF QUEENSLAND. 257

is in very small perfect crystals, being combinations of
the prism with the basal pinacoid (O.P.) (C.).

Quartz—Day Dawn P.C. Mine, Charters Towers ! ! !, auriferous,
associated with pyrites, galena, sphalerite, &c., occurs
in quartz lode, which is associated with diorite (?) and
runs through granite country. The ore is taken from
a depth of 997ft. on the course of the lode, representing
a vertical depth of 732ft. The lode underlies at an
angle of about 50° (T. Buckland).

Tron ee nf icc. OD
Lead a =: woe ore
Zine Ae Av tee 6°50
Copper the id ad: “15
Alumina Nee EM 3 30
Sulphur Sa Se. >. neko
Siliceous insoluble matter ey. 220r90
Gold, silver, oxygen and loss... "25

100-00

Produce of gold 140z. 2dwt. per ton of 2240lb. ; produce
of silver, 90z. l5dwt. per ton of 2240lb., (assay
by Messrs. Johnson, Matthey and Co., London) :—

Lead wa BS UND, FAD
Copper tg oe ae “36
Tron “oe ae cee MZ OSH.
Zine ue OS 3 Sa)
Manganese, with a little cobalt ... “30
Sulphur ins ae IPR MET SOO
Arsenic Ae ale Me 2139
Antimony ... Me a: ‘09
Carbonate of lime oe er 1°50
é », Magnesia ihe 21
Alumina a Bae aes 1:20
Silicious rock ae sezgen ce LO
Gold and silver ae ete ‘04
Oxygen and loss a of 64
100-00

Silver 6oz. 11dwt. per ton of 2240]b. ; gold 60z. 10dwt.
12gr. per ton of 2240lb. (assay by Fred. Claudet,
Esq., London, assayer to the Bank of England); Black
Jack, Charters Towers !!, with calcite, the latter in
opaque rhombohedral crystals (C.) ; Charters Towers ! },
when associated with galena, sphalerite and calcite and
iron pyrites, nearly always auriferous (C.) ; Smoky guartz
Stanthorpe district ! !, with tin ore, with orthoclase felspar
Q

bS
oO
02)

MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.

(L.); Stanthorpe Tin Field ! !, in reefs with cassiterite and
in stream tin wash (J.). All the goldfields in Queens-
land ! ! !, containing free gold and auriferous pyrites (L.).

ReprutTuite—Alliance Mine, Morinish, Rockhampton !!, in
auriferous quartz (L.).

Rupy—Gilbert River !, “‘in creeks flowing from the Conglomer-
ate Ranges” (Samwell).

SapPHIRE—Stanthorpe ! ! (Q.M.C.); Leichhardt district ! (R.) ;
Gilbert River !, ‘‘in creeks flowing from the Conglomer-
ate Ranges ” (8.).

Sarponyx— Stanthorpe ! ! (B.).

Scuorit—lIrvinebank Tin Mines ! ! (J.) ; Ravenswood Goldfield ! },
in granite country (J.); Cooktown ! !, with the tin ores
of this district, particularly Mount Leswell, Mount
Amos, and The Lion’s Den, (vide cassiterite), (C.) ;
Union Claim, Rockhampton ! !, with auriferous iron
pyrites and calcite (C.).

SERPENTINE—Gladstone (R.); near Ipswich, as matrix of chromite
(C.) ; Canoona, a belt of serpentine (D.); Kilkivan and
Yarrol, Burnett district, forming rock masses (L.) ;
different parts of the Burnett district, as Sandy Creek
and Mount Coora, coated with green carbonate of
copper, or containing copper lodes (Gregory and Aplin) ;
Mount Wheeler, 18 miles from Rockhampton, ‘ within a
radius of one mile of Mount Wheeler the serpentine is
traversed by auriferous quartz reefs, while the extension
of the same band of serpentine over a large area beyond
this contains no parallel to the auriferous area round
the above-mentioned hill” (D.).

Sizicious SintreEr— Mount Morgan ! ! !, highly auriferous,
supposed deposit of a hot spring (J.).

Sttver (Native)—Croydon Goldfield !, Waratah (auriferous)
reef (Biccard) ; Croydon Goldfield !, in “‘ Miners’ Right”
and “No. 2 8.” Queen auriferous reefs (Wallmann) ;
Queen line of reef, Croydon, with free gold in quartz
(Morgan) ; Mount Albion, Tinaroo district, in oxide of
iron (L.) ; Puzzler Reef, 8 miles north-east of Charters
Towers, in spangles splashed over quartz (C.) ; Scrubby
Creek, Broad Sound !, in cerussite lode (J.); Nannam
Mine, Orient Camp (Ringrove).

Smrrusonite— Bowen district !, in vesicular quartz, with carbonate
of lead and galena.

SpHALERITE—Bee Creek, 60 miles west of Mackay ! !, massive, in
many of the mines enclosed in quartz, associated with

MINERALS OF QUEENSLAND. 259

iron pyrites, copper pyrites and galena (M.); Tornado
Claim, Silverfield, Tinaroo district ! !, with chalcopyrite,
arsenical pyrites, and galena (J.); Koh-i-noor, Newell-
town, Tinaroo district ! !, with arsenical pyrites and
galena (J.); Hector Claim, Ravenswood ! !, auriferous,
with iron pyrites (C.); Currency Lass and Politician
Claims, Ravenswood !!, auriferous, with iron and
copper pyrites and galena (C.); Alexandra Hill
Gold Mine, Charters Towers ! !, auriferous, with iron
and copper pyrites (C.); Sunburst P.C., Charters
Towers ! !, with galena and iron pyrites in quartz, auri-
ferous (L.) ; Mary Florence, Rockhampton !, auriferous,
with iron and copper pyrites in quartz (C.); Kilkivan
Amalgamated Gold Mine, Kilkivan ! ! !, in quartz with
a little calespar, associated with galena and iron pyrites,
free gold often visible (L.); Gympie !, in quartz with
free gold (R.); Rise and Shine Reef, Kilkivan ! !, auri-
ferous (R.) ; Mount Leyshon, 17 miles south of Charters
Towers !! !, with galena, assayed 2loz. 4dwts. 4grs.
silver per ton (C.); Ravenswood !!, with galena
(Christoe),—The sample assayed 430oz. silver per ton,
An experiment was tried to see whether the galena or
the zinc-blende carried most silver, and as the sample
was remarkably pure and the two minerals in com-
paratively large crystals, it was possible to sort out
sufficient of each (from the coarsely powdered ore) for a
separate assay, and the following returns were obtained :
—Galena 43loz. silver per ton, sphalerite 429o0z. silver
per ton (C.); Charters Towers Goldfield !, with pyrites
and galena in auriferous reefs (J.); Ravenswood Silver
Mines !!!,in lodes with galena, cerussite, stibnite,
pyrites’ &e. (J.) ; Sellheim Silver Mines !! !, in lodes
associated with galena and pyrites (J.); Dry River
Silver Mines ! !, in lodes, associated with pyrites, marca-
site, chalcopyrite, galena, anglesite, cerussite, and mala-
chite (J.); Degilbo !!, in lodes, associated with gold,
galena and arsenical pyrites (R.); Croydon Goldfield },
in auriferous reefs associated with pyrites, galena and
graphite (J.); Ravenswood Goldfield ! !, in auriferous
reefs associated with pyrites, arsenical pyrites, copper
pyrites and galena (J.) ; Etheridge Goldfield ! !, in auri-
ferous reefs associated with pyrites, arsenical pyrites,
copper pyrites and galena (J.); Norton Goldfield ! !,
with galena, iron pyrites, quartz and calcite, auriferous
and argentiferous (C.).—[ Analyses and assays of two
complex zinc, iron and lead sulphides from Norton
Field :—

260 MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.

Goopy’s FRAMPTON’S

REEF. REEF.
Tron ae vem LOO 25:10
Lead coe ma 8:90 1:10
Zine pi am 6:00 7°60
Arsenic ae Bye ass 6:80
Copper Has es 0-95 0:65
Sulphur... a DOU 25-70
Alumina ... en 0-40 0:20
Silicious insoluble
matter .,..:- sag USEPA) 32°60
Gold, silver, oxygen
and loss ... Ban 0:40 0-25

100:00 100-00

Sample from Goody’s reef: Produce of gold, 2°400oz.
per ton of 20cwt.; silver, 14°7000z. per ton of 20cwt.,
sample from Frampton’s claim: produce of gold,
5:5000z. per ton of 20cwt., silver 4:7000z. per ton of
20cewt. (Messrs. Johnson, Matthey and Co., London)].

SrannitE—Eureka Creek !!, in Ivanhoe Mine, associated with
cassiterite (J.); Watsonville, with cassiterite in
Stewart’s T. Claim (J.).

Sraurotire—Agnes Vale, Wide Bay district !!, twin cruciform
crystals in argillaceous slate (R.).

Sreatire—Cobalt lode, Kilkivan (R.).

Sripnitre—Neardie, near Gympie ! !, with valentinite in quartz
(R.); St. John’s Creek, Burnett district ! !, with
valentinite (L.); Victoria Claim, Silverfield, Tinaroo
district ! !, accompanying galena (C.); Emily Reef,
Northcote, Hodgkinson district ! ! !, auriferous, yielding
over 2oz. gold per ton, value of gold £3 19s. per oz. (O.) ;
Rishton ! !, lodes (J.);- Mount Wright, near Ravens-

wood !!!, White and Phillips’ and other lodes (J.) ;
Herberton !, Home Rule and other tin lodes (J.) ;
Fanning River ! !, lodes (J.); Northcote ! !!, in large

lodes, some of which have yielded payable gold (J.) ;
Woodville, Hodgkinson River ! ! !, lodes (J.); five
miles north-west of Gympie !, in fossiliferous limestone
(R.); Eidsvold Goldfield ! !, in auriferous quartz reef,
south of Stockman’s Claim (R.); Etheridge Goldfield !! ~
(Hodgkinson).

SuLtpHur—Curtis Island, Keppel Bay !, cementing grains of sand
(L.); Taylor’s Range, Brisbane !, in cavities of quartz
formed from the decomposition of pyrites (Q. M.C.) ;
Etheridge ! !, on highly decomposing pyrites (L.).

MINERALS OF QUEENSLAND. 261

TetLturiuM—Lucky Valley, Duffer Gulley ! in a quartz vein
there are found ‘small, bright, foliated, metallic plates
and scales of tellurium, in which gold may be seen
imbedded ” (Aplin).

TETRAHEDRITE—Pumpkin Gully, Cloncurry !, in cap of a large
lode (J.) ; Copper Mines at Duck Creek, Cloncurry ! },
in rainbow lode (J.); Argylla Copper Mine ! !, in large
lode, with native copper, cuprite and malachite (J.) ;
Leichhardt River! !, Crusade and other lodes (J.);
Mount Orange Copper Mine, Nebo district! !, with
chalcopyrite (L.) ; Bowen district ! !, with calcite, assay-
ing to 400oz silver per ton (L.); between Bowen and
Mackay !!!, rich in silver (L.); Emu Plains, Broken
River, North Kennedy !, occurs in thin strings, as an
alteration product of azurite, associated with calcite and
malachite, argentiferous (M.); One Mile, Ravenswood
!!!, in Great Extended Shaft at 700 feet, ‘the gangue
is 5 feet wide, the ore is exceedingly rich, assays giving
by ordinary fire process from 500 to 5000 ounces of
silver per ton, the rich ore is contained in a vein from
6 to 12 inches thick, and, singular to say, contains the
merest trace of lead. The formation (gangue) below
this ore is intersected by small] galena veins ” (Archibald),
although generally spoken of as tetrahedrite, with which,
or rather with the argentiferous variety, freibergite,
analyses sometimes roughly correspond, the “ore” does
not appear (judging from what samples I have seen) to
be a single mineral, but an intimate mixture of several
ores of antimony, copper, iron, zinc, &c. (J.), assay silver
23840z. 10dwt. per ton (L.).—Analysis by (J.) :—

Copper Aer wd L012 OF
Antimony ... a. sed ft lls3do
Silver ee =o dee 7°29
Tron aa — tp LOA
Zine ».. aaa wey fa gadis.
Sulphur a eS. .. 24:87
Silica i aa BENS YOR ST
101-86 (C.).
Analysis, different sample :—
Copper ses af vee) ou)
Antimony ... he Loe, ee
Silver Fs aft poo LORS
Tron A dys we 8 8:49
Zine hp nee a3 8-75
Sulphur a at eerily le
Silicious matter gee aad tor

99-47 (Merry).

262 MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.

THOMsSONITE—Strathmore Creek and Bowen River ! !, in geodes
in epidote rock (J.).

TiraNiFEROUS Iron—In creeks in Mount Perry district (R.) ;
watercourses on the flanks of Mount Jukes, 20 miles
west of Mackay! !, as rounded grains and regular
octahedrons, associated with grains of magnetite and
quartz (M.).

Topaz—Never-can-tell claim, Coolgarra, Tinaroo, with cassiterite
erystals (C.) ; Running Creek, Star River (yellow), in
tin wash, associated with garnets (J.); Stanthorpe
district (white) in tin wash (J.).

TourRMALINE—Cloncurry ! !, with free gold (Q.M.C.) ; Union Gold
Mine, Rockhampton! !, with calcite as matrix of auri-
ferous pyrites ; Great Freehold, Mount Perry district ! |,
in masses composed of fine divergent acicular
crystals (L.); Mount Leswell, near Cooktown ! ! !,in coarse
crystals with cassiterite (L.); Stuart Valley, Burnett
district ! !, in fine-grained felsphatic rock; St. John’s
Creek, Burnett district !,in quartz (Q.M.C.); Cooyar
Range, Narrango!, long prismatic crystals in coarse
granite (R.) ; Mount Victoria, Mount Perry district ! !, in
radiating crystals (R.); Woodonga, near Kilkivan, in
radiating crystals (R.); Lizard Island !!, in large
crystals (J.); Argentine Silver Field! !, large thick
crystals embedded in quartz (J.); Fanning Diggings !,
small crystals passing into the aggregated fibrous
bundles called schorl (J.).

VALENTINITE—Neardie, near Gympie ! !, and St. John’s Creek ! },
with stibnite (L.).

Wo.trram — Noble Island ! ! !, in quartz (L.); Stanthorpe
district ! !, associated with cassiterite (L.); Brisbane
district !!, in quartz (L.); Flagstone Creek, Bowen
district ! !, in quartz, forming cap of a galena lode (L.) ;
Bonnie Dundee, Coolgarra, Tinaroo !, with cassiterite
and mica in red chlorite (C.); Mackay district !, in
quartz (G. Francas) ; Great Northern P.C., Herberton ! |,
with quartz and cassiterite (C.) ; Chance claim, Watson-
ville, Tinaroo !!, in fine large crystals in ferruginous
gangue, with quartz and cassiterite, also massive (C.) ;
Eureka Creek, Tinaroo ! !, with cassiterite (C.) ;
Herberton Tin Mines ! !, with cassiterite in lodes (J.) ;
Stanthorpe Tin Field ! !, with cassiterite (J.) ; Eungella
Goldfield !!, with garnets and iron glance in a large
lode in granite country (J.); Annan Tin Mines ! !, with
cassiterite and tourmaline in lodes at Mount Amos (J.).

MINERALS OF QUEENSLAND. 263

ZEOLITE—(ScCOLECITE ?) Charters Towers,—This zeolite, which is
of a pale pink, occurs in the joints and cleavage planes
of the granite. One sample from the Rainbow Lease is
massive and is found on both walls of the lode. The
polished surface shows an included vein of pure white
calcite. The mineral is found at various depths (C.).

(I.) (ELOY) * CV.)

SiO, wa 46:25. .49-04 47:0. 47-94
PG She OO) Lord 26-64
CaO a hago | Loree 12°95
H, O (by igni-

tion) ... 13:47 13:30 13-7 14:20
Fe, Os; ... trace trace trace

In the above analyses No. 1 is from the Queen Block
Extended, No. 2 from the Mary claim, No. 3 from the
Rainbow, and No. 4 from the Mexican (C.).

Zircon, Narrango Creek (R.); Russell River Terraces ! ! (hya-
cinth), water-worn, associated with gold, quartz (Clarke);
EKungella, Broken River (J.); Constant Creek, about
18 miles west of Mackay, occurs both as small crystals
and grains of a deep yellow or reddish brown colour,
all more or less rounded by attrition, in the sandy
gravel in the bed of the creek, associated with fragments
of quartz and mica (M.)

MINERALS OF NEW ZEALAND.

By Sir JAS. HECTOR, K.C.M.G., F.R.S.

Actinouite !—Milford Sound (Hector); Para-para, (Cox), as
radiating fan-shaped crystals in metamorphic schists.

ALBITE, or Sopa Ferispar!!— Maori Point, West Coast,
Wilkes River, Makarora, Dun Mountain, George
Sound, in diorites (Hector, Haast, Davis).

Axum !!—Pomahaha, as a product of pyritous shale (Hector,
1862) ; Puai Island, Waikuaiti (Hochstetter, 1860) ;
Tokomairiro, as potash alum (Hector, 1862); D’Urville
Island, as manganese alum (Hackett, 1866). Analysis
per cent (Skey) :—

Alumina, +! sit “ee 2 O40
Ferric oxide... ie, ee 1h
Lime ME Oy fs *5O
Magnesia ... Ai a: 5:46
Soda ay iu VA A]
Sulphuric acid - woe) OTEAO
Hydrochloric acid’... ... traces
Water aus ae Pe cr
Insoluble in water... bi 2-00

100-00

ALuNnITE !—RKotorua, deposited by geysers (Ulrich)

ALUNOGENE ! !—Tuapeka, Manawatu, occurring in some of the
brown coals, is colourless, crystalline, and completely
soluble in water. Analysis per cent. (Skey) :—

Sulphate of alumina ... Jie OD aD
Sulphate of lime a Soule Labi
Sulphate of magnesia ... at (ero
Alkaline sulphates... a 3:00
Water Bae son ae or ae

100-00

AnpbEsINE !—Colleville Peninsula, Taupo district, Ruapehu, in
andesites (Hutton).

ANORTHITE !—Kakapo Lake, West Coast, in diorite dykes
(Hutton).

ANTHOPHYLLITE !—Karori, Wellington, in a massive laminated
form (Davis).

ANnTIGORITE !—Dun Mountain, in serpentine schists (Cox).

MINERALS OF NEW ZEALAND. 265

ANTIMONIAL OcHRE !—Endeavour Inlet, as a coating on antimonite

(Cox).
ApatvITE !—Wangapeka (Lab. and Geol. Reports).
APopPHYLLITE ! !—Turnagain Point, in amygdaloids, Rangitata, as

ichthyopthalmite in felsite porphyries (Haast).

ARAGONITE ! !—Collingwood, Dunedin, Thames, in cavities in
basaltic rocks and from hot springs (Hector); and
several other places, lining fissures and cavities in
volcanic rocks of Bank’s Peninsula (Haast).

ArsENIc (Native) !—Kopanga Mine, Coromandel, in auriferous
quartz lode with calcite (Hector, 1367).

Assestos ! ! !—Milford Sound, Collingwood, Takaka (Hector).

Avaite ! !—Hororata district, Dunedin, Nelson, Auckland,
Collingwood, Bank’s Peninsula, Acheron, Chatham ;
enters into the composition of all basalts, dolerites,
anametesites, trachydolerites, diabases and melaphyres ;
sometimes in crystals $ inch long, Nelson (Hector).

AzuriTE !—Nelson, Great Barrier Island, in gossan of copper
lodes in serpentine.

Barytes !—Waikoriti (Mantell, 1852); Akitea (Hector, 1867) ;
Thames (Skey, 1870); East Cape (McKay, 1874).

Beryt !—Dusky Sound, in hornblendic schists (Cox); Stewart’s

Island, with tin stone in large crystals (McKay),
determined by Skey.

BismutH !— Owen, Collingwood, alloyed with gold (Hector),
determined by Skey.

Brrumen—Cast up on the south and east coast of New Zealand
in considerable quantity (Lab. Geol. Reports III.)

Bote ! !—Lytt elton Tunnel, in dolerite rocks (Haast). Analysis

(Skey) :—
Silica Las mm nnd Gaffe
Alumina .... wv ft)? *1 5°66
Tron AA SA Ai Reemall IE Spf
Manganese ... ie ne ‘60
Lime Bad et sa 2-02
Magnesia... ae a 5-02
Potash 25 «>, na 2-69
Water (constitutional) LA

100-00
Bornite !—Kawau, Dunstan, in micaceous quartz (Hector).

BournonitE !—Wangapeka, occurs in quartz with galena (Hector).

Bravunite ! !—Malvern Hills, vicinity of Wellington, massive
(Geol. Survey, 1873).

266 MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.

Bronzite !—Dun Mountain, in diorite rocks (Hector, Davis).
BrookiTE !—Otepopo, in crystalline dolerite (Hector, 1862).

CALAMINE !—Tararu Creek, as lustrous transparent crystals
attached to diallogite, but always external (Skey).
CaLcspar (CauciTE) ! !—Tokotea Range, Otago, in tertiary rocks
of Otago as dogtooth spar; Nelson, in limestone at
Moeraki; Canterbury, as Iceland spar (Hector 1862,
Haast 1864); Dunedin, Sea-cliff, near Waikouaite,
Cape Rodney, Tararu Creek, Thames, smoke-coloured
calcite, Cape Rodney (Cox, 1882).
Marble | |—Collingwood district (Hector, 1863) ; West Coast:
Sounds (Hochstetter, 1860); Kakaka, Canterbury
(Monro, 1866).
Stalactite and Stalagmite | !—Whangarei, Waipu, Colling-
wood, Mount Somers, occur in many limestone caves.
Travertine | '!—Oamaru, Mauriceville, Takaka, and many
other places, deposited from calcareous waters (Hector,
1862).
CERVANTITE !

widely distributed, occurs incrusting stibnite.
Cuasasite !—Dunedin, in vesicular basalts (Hector) ; Helen-
burn and Bank’s Peninsula, in trachytic rocks (Haast).
CuHaALcopyRritE ! ! !—Kawau, Great Barrier Island, Moke Creek,
Paringa River, Canterbury, Collingwood (Geol. Surv.).
CHIASTOLITE !—Collingwood, embedded in clay slate (Hector).
Cuuorite ! !—Fox Glacier, Westland, in chlorite schists (Cox) ;
Tararu Creek, Thames (Skey); West Coast of Otago

and Otago Heads, in an amorphous form in vesicular
basalts (Hector) ; Kakapo Lake (Liversidge).

CHROME OcHRE ! !—Nelson, occurs in combination with
“chromite” in small quantities (Hackett, 1861).
CuromiteE ! !—D’Urville Island, Dun Mountain, Aniseed Valley,

Red Hills, Otago, in a band of serpentine and olivine,
also occurs as massive crystals, massive amorphous
crystalline, disseminated, and granular (Hector, 1865) ;
Nelson ! !, associated with nephrite (Hector, 1865). Sp.
gr. 3°328. Analysis (Skey) :—

Silica 12:66
Chromic oxide ree mae BES)
Ferrous oxide ne gan EEO
Alumina .... _ apie 6:29
Lime ag as a 3:16
Magnesia... ae 2 6:12

100-00

MINERALS OF NEW ZEALAND. 267

CurysoBEeRYL !—Stewart Island (determined by Skey, 1889).

Curysocotia !—Nelson, encrusting gossans of copper ores in the
serpentine belt.

CurysoTiLe, or Perrpot—Dun Mountain, traversing the dark
green serpentine (Cox).

CHLOROPHYLLITE !—Mount Somers, fine earthy mineral filling
cavities in rocks (Haast).

Coats ! ! !—Special schedule, abstract of report by Sir J. Hector
(Geol. Surv. Dept.

Coats oF NEW ZEALAND.

Analyses by Skey.

No. Description. Locality. < 8 ¢ 5 8 _ & 2 3
Pe ell) palee iS @ Jane
BS jms] & | ~ [Bee

|
if Anthracite dee Acheron, Canterbury 84:12 | 2°06 1°80 | 12°12 | 10°93
2 Bituminous oon Coalbrookdale ... .» | 74°83 | 20°50 1°16 3°51 | 10°72
3 a + 5 Ex ese | 70°00 |, 22°15 2°52 5°33 910
4 ss ae Banbury ... aoe «-- | 69°97 | 25°71 99 3°33 9°09
5 | Altered brown coal Malvern Hills... ... | 68°54 | 19°89 4°15 742 8°87
6 Bituminous ae Tyneside ... aoe ..- | 65°59 | 29°18 82 | 4:41] 852
7 | Glance Coal gs Rakaika Gorge ... ..- | 6451 | 21°27 | 676 | 7:46] 8:30
8 Bituminous ree Wallsend ... sea ... | 62°87 ; 31°64 | 1°66 3°83 | 817
9 ss a4. Grey River “ed .-- | 62°37 | 29°44 | 1:99 | 6:20] 8-01
10 | Pitch Coal ae Kawa-Kawa 2 --. | 61°16 | 28°00 | 2°51 8°33 | 7°95
11 Bituminous AG Preservation Inlet ... | 60°88 | 20°69 | 4°33 619 | 7:91
12 Pitch Coal Bae Black Creek, Grey River. | 60:20 | 29:97 | 8-01 1°82 | 7°82
13 | Bituminous % Mokihinui.. Ss 59°75 | 32°14 | 3°27 | 414) 7°76
14 Pe sea Coalpitheath Sen ... | 5881 | 38°98 1:02 119 764
15 a eae Mokihinui ... rc ... | 57°92 | 34°94 | 3°96 | 3:18 | 7°50
16 a as Brunner Mine ... ... | 56°62 | 35°68 | 1:59} G11) 7°36
17 ae wea ” oe .. | 06°21 | 37°83 1:50 | 4:56 7°30
18 re kde Westport ... “ee ... | 56°01 | 37°17 2°60 4:22 7°28
19 + a Mokihinui... ead ... | 55°59 | 38°86 | 3:16 | 2°39 | 7:20
20 S os Brunner... aig ... | 5416 | 35°85 2°50 | 7:49 7-04
21 | Altered brown coal Malvern Hills... ... | 08°29 | 32°04 | 12°65 2°02 6°92
22 Bituminous ay Otamataura Creek ... | 52°89 | 36°63 2°19 8:29 6°90
23 % ... | Wallsend ... ... | 53°10 | 35°47 | 1:41 | 10°02 | $-90
24 ES Pe: Near Cape Farew: ell J. | 48°59 | 43°17 2:18 6°06 6°31
25 | Pitch coal one Shag Point ih .-, | 43°19 | 30°15 | 15°82 | 10°94 5°61
26 O65 Fee Kawa-Kawa as ... | 50°15 | 42°63 | 418] 3°04] 6°50
27 Glance coal... Whangarei aes ... | 50°11 | 38°68 | 8:01 | 3:20} 6°50
28 | Pitch coal es Kamo . ro ... | 50°01 | 37°69 | 9°61! 2°69] 6°50
29 Brown coal = Malvern Hills eee .--.| 49°99 | 35°42 | 11°79 2°80 6°49
30 2 ae Fernhill ... sta ... | 49°95 | 36°95 | 12°00 1:10 6°49
31 5 ae Allandale .., maa ... | 47°31 | 36°26 | 12°41 6°02 6°15
32 cf ae Kaitangata zs ... | 46°48 | 33°48 | 1466 | 5°35 6°04
33 é ek Shag Point rs ... | 46°21 | 32°65 | 16°02 5°12 6°00
34 a ia Homebush wet ... | 44°92 | 36°00 | 15°83 | 3°25 5°83
35 = vee Hokonui .., ios ... | 44°28 | 38°22 | 16°50 1:00 | 5°75
36 oe 225 Kaitangata os ... | 4411 | 38°32 | 15°44 2°13 574
37. » Ee Nightcaps... aoe ... | 43°62 | 33°68 | 18°33 4:37 5°67
38 9 ... | Springfield wane | 42°68 | 33°66 | 18°65 | 5°01 | 5°55
39 5 = Orepuki ... ... | 42°64 | 36°26 | 14-44 | 6°66 5°54
40 | Pitch coal “| Walton's Whangaraei ... | 38°80 | 41°20 | 7-20 | 1280 | 4:96
41 | Brown coal i3f Kaitargata i883 ... | 38°29 | 32°43 | 17°50 | 11°78 | 4°87
42 ” sae Shag Point ee .-. | 35°76 | 30°92 | 13°22 | 20:16 464
43 ” ave Allandale ... Bs 3 ... | 34°72 | 40°26 | 1899 4°86 4°51
44 | Pitch coal a Grey River on ... | 84°72 | 55°48 | 6°20,| 2°60 | 4°51

t

268 MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.

| TF TF

Approximate Total
Name of Coal. Output of Coal
up to the
31st December, 1888.

Tons.

Bituminous... =; ees oF Aa ae 2,484,687
Piteh re. sit ais ast a fe 803,948
Brown ... She see os a0 So 550 1,797,725
Lignite ... dd bes Hen SOK “He 544 146,472
Totals 500 cs 3 AP 5,232,832

Total output of coals of New Zealand to 31st December
1888, 4,618,937 tons.

‘CopaLtt Bioom !—Otago, occurs in schists and gneiss (Hector).

‘Copper (Native)—Great Barrier Island, Nelson, Lake Wakatipu,
Dun Mountain, Perserverance Mountain, &c., in plates
associated with copper deposits in serpentine (Skey);
as grains disseminated through a granular serpentine,
as fine grains in basaltic dykes which cut through
trachydolerite breccias (Geol. Survey), (Cox).

Black Copper, or Tenorite—D’Urville Island.

Copper Glance !|—Nelson, in various parts of the serpentine
belts, in a massive form.

Peacock Copper—Maharahara, Champion Mine, occurs asso-
ciated with native copper (Hector).

hed Copper !—D’Urville Island, Lake Te Anau; 35:60 per

cent. copper.

‘Copper Pynrites! ! !—Waipori, Moke Creek, Coromandel, in a
compact amorphous form (Hector). Analysis (Skey):—

Copper ste ae .» . 15°03

Iron ike me eR Bir ax0

Quartz us Me: azn 2AGOG

Sulphur cle a's des OOIOK

100-00

‘Copperas !—Kawau, Barrier Islands, crystallised.

‘CovELLINE !—D’Urville Island (Hector, Cox).

DeErRmMATIN !—Dun Mountain, West Coast Sounds, occurs in their
faces with smooth polished surfaces (Davis).

DIALLAGE, or ALUmINous AvaItTE ! !—Kakapo Lake, in diorites
(Hector) ; Martin’s Bay, in gabbro and in reefs
traversing mesozoic limestones (Hector).

Green Diatlage!!—Mount Arthur, in serpentine schists
(McKay).

MINERALS OF NEW ZEALAND. 269

Drattoaits ! !—Thames (Hector, 1881), associated with calamine ;
Makara (Skey, 1870).

Ditessite !—Mount Somers, fine earthy mineral filling up
cavities in melaphyres (Haast).

Dioprase !—Thames, Nelson, occurs as an encrustation on the
copper ores (Skey).

DotomitE !—Malvern Hills, interstratified with augitic sand-
stone (Haast, 1865) ; Collingwood (Hector, 1872).

DoppieritE !—Waiapu, formed as a surface deposit by oxidation
of exuded petroleum. Analysis (Skey)

Oils 3:1
Paraffin ee 9°3
Earthy matters as seidinzce
Water aes ee se extghlie
Oxygenated hydro-carbons 49-4

100-0

DuFeRENoysITE !—Great Barrier Island, as a fine crystalline
vein associated with galena in large crystals (Hutton).

Dunite ! !—Dun Mountain, found in masses (Hochstetter), named
by Hector, 1863. Analysis (Reuter) :—
Silica is nce ... 42°80
Magnesia... ore pea (ES 0)
Protoxide of iron ne et 0
Water eh ae a DT
100715

ELaTeritE !—Kawau (Hector, 1865), hardness 2 sp. gr. 1-034 ;
Poverty Bay (Liversidge, 1877).

Eectrum !! !—Thames, usually found in places where gold
occurs.

Emeraxp !—Dusky Sound, in quartz with pyrrhotine (collected
by Dockerty, determined by Cox and Skey).

Kripote !—West coast of Otago, in granites (Hector) ; Mount
Torlesse, in diorites (Haast); Wairarapa, in massive
form (Hector). Analysis (Skey) :—

Silica bet me MP All
Tron ae ae <<..0pfl 4-06
Alumina aa os ee Weer
Lime ns ae eed WER:
Magnesia... ee eek
Water of constitution aa 4:10

100-00:

270 MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.

EpsomiTe, or Epsom Sats !—Otago, as an efflorescence (Hector,
1865).

Faya.irE !—Nelson, in schist, contains 2°67/ copper (Skey).
Freispar (Guassy) !—Taupo district, in rhyolites, &c. (Hector).

Fiuor Spar ! ! !—Stewart’s Island and West Otago (McKay,
1889); Batton Liver, associated with sulphate of
baryta (Park, 1889) ; determined by Skey.

Fuutier’s Eartu !—Great Barrier Island Hot Springs, in
trachyte tuffs (Hutton).

-GAHNITE !—Stewart Island, with tin stone (McKay) ; determined
by Skey, 1888.

GaLena !—Kaituna and Kaimauawa Range, associated with
quartz, generally argentiferous ; Wangapeka, containing
an average yield of about 91 ounces of silver per ton;
Great Barrier Island (Skey).

‘Garnet (Lron Lime)—West Otage, in gneiss (Hector).
Black Garnet—Dunedin, in vesicular basalts (Hector).

GLAUBER Sats !—Brancepeth, Whareama, Wellington, sample
forwarded by Mr. W. H. Beetham in 1874 (determined
by Skey).

GLAUCONITE !—Otago, occurs in schist and green sands as rounded
grains in several of the younger secondary beds (Hector).

Gotp (Native) ! ! !—Auckland, Taranaki, Hawke’s Bay, Welling-
ton, Nelson, Marlborough, Canterbury, Southland,
Westland, occurs plentifully in reefs, alluvial deposits,
sea sand, Wc., as crystals in the Ben Nevis Range and
Mahakipawa.

GRAPHITE ! ! !—Pakawau, occurs chiefly as thin flat veins inter-
stratified with metamorphic schist, was largely worked
prior to 1866; Wangapeka and Mount Potts, dissem-
inated throughout the graphtolite or carbon slates
(Silurian) and in the glossopteris beds (Permian),
(collected by Hector); Waikoura Creek, a boulder of
very pure graphite in a stream from Mount Egmont.

Analysis of Pakawau sample (Skey) :—

Carbon 2% ‘oe ice, DOuLO
Water : has Joie +(e OS
Ash a a Sate Oe
100-00
Green Eartsa !|—Malvern Hills, filling cavities in melaphyres
(Haast).

MINERALS OF NEW ZEALAND. 971

Hattoysire ! !—Dunedin (Hector) ; Water of Leith (Liversidge) ;

Scinde Island (McKay),
Analysis (Skey):

in decomposing

basalts.

Silica i 58-22
Sesquioxide of iron 5,82
Alumina 24°34
Lime 2-02
Magnesia 2°53
Water =y 4-8]
Alkalies and loss 2°26

100-00

Haverire ! — Wakatipu district, Collingwood, in crystals

(McKay) ; Hauerite per cent. 10°87 (Skey).

HavsMAnniTE !—Selwyn liver, in rolled pieces and coating joints

in rocks (Haast, 1865).

Hecrorite!—Dun Mountain, named

serpentine rocks (Cox, Tran.

Analysis (Skey) :—

by Cox, occurs with

N.Z.I. 1882, p. 409).

Silica : 57°89
Ferrous oxide 18-46
Alumina 4:74
Ferric oxide traces
Manganese ... traces
Lime 11S ig)
Magnesia 13°94
Water 2°98
100-00
Hematite !— Mount Gilbert, Nelson, Dunstan, as _ lenticular
masses. Analysis (Skey) :—
Silica 4-60
Alumina 3°00
Sesquioxide of Iron 90°60
Water of constitution... 1:80
100-00
Hev.anpiteE !— Canterbury, in amygdaloidal traps associated

with felsite porphyries (Haast).

Hessite !—Te Aroha, in auriferous quartz (Hector); analysed

by Skey.

HornBLENDE ! !—Widely distributed (Hochstetter, 1863).

HyPerstHENE ! !_-Warp Point, Kaduku River, in diorite rocks

and in hypersthenite (Hector).

22 MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.

Ipocrasz, or VesuvianiTE !—Dusky Sound, as dirty-green, fluted
prismatic crystals in quartz associated with crystalline.
rocks (Docherty), (identified by Skey).

IDRIALITE, or INFLAMMABLE CrINNABAR !—Dunstan, Serpentine
Valley, Waipori, Ohaeawai Springs, occurs as rounded
grains in alluvium (Hector). Analysis (Skey) :—

Water sna ae it 6°89
Hydrocarbon As Pie it)
Cinnabar... bas Ay 0)
Sand ohh Ye WM EST DL

100-00

ItmenitE !—Taranaki, in iron sands in all parts of New Zealand,.
especially Taranaki.

IrmposMInE !—Takaka, Orepuke, occurs in gold wash as small
flat grains (Hochstetter).

Tron Pyrires ! !—Collingwood, Wakatipu district, &c., occurs in
octahedral crystals (Lab. and Geol. Reports).

Tsering !!—Common on the West Coast, S. I, (Lab. and Geol.
Reports).

JADE, NEPHRITE, or AXxE-STONE ! !—Milford Sound, Teremakau
River, known as “maori greenstone.” It occurs as
rolled pieces on the beach and as white nephrite
(Hector), Analysis (Skey) :—

Silica ae oon POL Ue
Ferric oxide, ate eens of man-
ganese and chronium ee Res
Adami a Re Fe 1:42
Lime “ef Me Zan 9:00
Magnesia... his -0 4 2eoo
Soda ~~ rn ... traces
Water (constitutional) ae 97
95-20
Kaoutn ! ! !—Manuherikia, Arrow River, Mount Somers, Colling-

wood, Stewart Island, formed by the decomposition of
felsite porphyries (Hector, Cox).

Kermes !—Endeavour Inlet, occurs with stibnite.

Kyanite, or DistHene !—Westland, associated with quartz.

Lasraporire ! !— Purahanui Range, Mount Charles, Bank’s
Peninsula, in trachydolerites (Hector, Haast).

Leap (Native) !—Collingwood, in the wash of a creek in the form
of round grains, like shot. It is alloyed with gold
(Skey,; Tr. N2Z.,. dn. SGT, pd 67):

LepipouiTe !—Thompson Sound, in marble (Hector).

MINERALS OF NEW ZEALAND. 273

LEPIDOMELANE !—Milford Sound, in schists and gneiss rock

(Hector).
Levucite !—Castle Point, in leucite basalt (McKay). Analyses
(Skey) :—
Silica ... ... 48°63 48:29 43-06
Lime ... PSO SI), 9 Daisey
Alumina ois, DOO mR eee 47
Tron and = man-
ganese ... traces traces 7:24
Magnesia ee SUES 30 (1 906
Water . aay Brod {i Bsbe y hae?
Loss ... se LAt ayn (tl

100-00 100-00 100-00

LeucopyritE !—Thames, Reefton, Collingwood, with mispickel
(Cox).

LimoniteE ! !—Wangaru, Parapara River, Shotover River, Col-
lingwood, in massive earthy botryoidal, mamillary and
concretionary forms (McKay).

MaenesitE !—Rotorua, crystalline (Cox, 1878); Chatham Islands,
massive (Smith).

MaenetitE ! !—Lake Wakatipu, Mount Cook, disseminated
through various rocks in minute crystals and grains
(Haast), 72 per cent. iron (Skey).

Matacuite — Moke Creek, D’Urville Island, occurs as thin
encrusting films on some copper ores (Hector, Cox).

Analysis (Skey) :—

Copper ai. es 4. 1) 88:20
Tron dee aa: Jar Kealcho
Silica ud By LL) ded
Sulphur +f ... traces
Carbonic acid and Beer soar OM EDL
100-00
Maneanite !!— Tory Channel, Kawarau, Clutha, Otago,

Waiheke, Waimarama, Wellington, Waipu, “in veins
in schists,” ‘‘as rolled fragments in alluvial drift.”
Analysis (Skey) :—

Sesquioxide of manganese ... 63°42
Sesquioxide of iron... J12.1/.66°66
Alumina... ie ... traces
Silica aes ae UE S2O
Sulphur i ... traces
Water (hygroscopic) . Ja VI1O"22
Water (constitutional) — seg P2*45

100 00

274 MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.

Marearite !—Milford Sound, in schists and gneiss (Hector).

Meerrscuaum !—Dun Mountain, in contact with massive white
quartz (Davis). Analysis (Skey) :—

Silica wl (O3FkG
Lime tte aA Se 2:36
Alumina ~s: De fs AS
Tron oxides ... ae ... traces
Magnesia... asf, .49020°36
Water of constitution... ie LO

100-00

MELLITE '_Thames, described as a resinous substance with a
splintery fracture (Hutton, 1870); Blgh Sound, from
a cave (Hector, 1876).

Menaccanite !—Brancepeth, Wairarapa, occurs associated with
felspar (Skey).

Mercury !—Waipori, Bay of Islands, Westport, occurs in alluvial
wash in the form of small thin globules (Hector) ;
contains 99.54°/ of mercury.

Mereorite, or Mertroric [ron !—Wairarapa. Hardness 5:6,
specific gravity 3°254, weight, 94lbs., contents 49 cubic
inches, containing 24 / iron, with silica, sulphur,
nickel, &c..

Mica! ! !—West Coast, in all schists; Charleston, in granite as
large plates.

(Biaxial, or Potash) |—West Otago, in schists (Hector).
(Uniaxal, or Biotite) |—Dusky Inlet, Milford Sound, a black

green mica rock with numerous minute crystals of
zircon (Hector).

Chrome Mica |—Dead Horse Gully, in flat tabular plates
(McKay, Skey). Analyses (Skey 2) :—

Specimens from 1 2
SCHWART- DEAD HORSE
ZENSTEIN. GULLY.
Silica sped 221 4Asces 39°25
Alumina... eee alts 22°12
Chromic oxide as) ee 1:56
Ferric oxide art 5°72 18:69
Manganous oxide ... 1:05 “A
Magnesic oxide ... 11°58 10-60
Sodic oxide pee) belles ; S443
Potassic oxide PAL \
Water hey 2°86 4-06
Lime rae rte 2°18

MINERALS OF NEW ZEALAND. 275

Muscovite, or Mica !!—Snowy Peak Range, Milford Sound,
Charleston, Dusky Bay, Great Barrier Island, as a
common constituent of mica schist, gneiss and granite.

Mispicket ! —Milford Sound, Waipori, Malvern Hills, Colling-
wood, Thames, associated with gold (Hector, Hutton,
Cox). Analysed by Skey.

Mo.tyspeEnitF !—Dusky Sound, as flakes in a gneiss rock
(Docherty, 1880).

Narrouitre !—Dunedin, in vescicular basalts (Hector); Bank’s
Peninsula, in volcanic rocks (Haast); also in cavities
of basalts from Dunedin (Hector) ; Mount Livingstone,
Look-out Point, Whakahara.

OpsIDIAN, or Voucanic Gtass ! !— Mayor Island, Bank’s
Peninsula, Mount Eden, Taupo Island, associated with
rhyolites and on the sides of trachyte dykes (Hochstetter,
Hector).

OuicocLasE !!—Mount Misery, Malvern Hills, Snowy-peak
Range, in quartz porphyries (Haast, Daintree).

OLIVINE, or CHRYSOLITE ! !—Mandamus district, Hurunui district,
in dolerites (Liversidge, Hutton); Banks’ Peninsula,
Chatham Islands, as grains in basaltic rocks (Haast) ;
Saddle Hill, Milford Sound, in basaltic rocks (Hector,
1862).

Opa ! !—Mount Somers, Malvern Hills, inferior qualities only.

Common Opal and Semt-opal | |—Malvern Hills, filling small
cavities in quartz porphyries (Cox, Haast).

fire Opal !|—Otago Peninsula, in tuffs, collected by Capi.
Fram, determined by Skey.

Opal Jasper | !—Portobello, Otago, in trachytic tufa (Liver-
sidge).

fitch Opal! '!—Dunstan, Rakaia Gorge, Harper’s Hill
(Liversidge).

Wood Opal, or Silicified Wood !!—Mount Somers, Canter-
bury, Coromandel, occurs in tuffs and conglomerates
and where silicious rocks are decomposing (Haast,

_ Hochstetter).

Geyserite | !—Rotorua (Hochstetter),.

ffyalite |—Bank’s Peninsula, Malvern Hills, found lining
cavities in vocanic rocks (Haast) : Dunedin, in vesicular
grey-trachyte (Liversidge).

Menilte | |—Bay of Islands.

OrTHOCLASE, or PorasH Fetspar! !—Mount Misery, Bank’s
Peninsula, West Coast, Auckland Islands, Ruapuke,

R2

276 MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.

Great Barrier Island, Sugar Loaves, Boulder Bank,
Nelson, Hororata district, Dusky Sound, as a con-
stituent of granites, syenites, gneiss, trachytes and
rhyolites.

OzoKeERITE !—Dunstan, Otago, occurring brown coals (Hector,
1865).

PaxaconiTe ! !—Harper’s Hill, Two Brothers, Taipo Hill, as
angular fragments in palagonite tufas (Haast). Analysis

(Skey)
Silica sis ses 38°82
Alumina DAB PITS
Tron oxide 6°30
Lime 3°65
Magnesia ae,
Alkatlies ti Suh. 2:08
Water Bit th ae eh | 5)
Carbonaceous matter ... ... traces

99:97

Peart Spar !—Thames (Hector, 1878).

Perroteum ! !—Sugar Loaves, Taranaki, from deep-seated coals,
altered by voleanic dykes. A specific gravity, -960 to
‘964, rich in lubricants (Hector, Geol. Rep., 1866 ;
Poverty Bay and Waiapu, deep wells and surface
springs from middle jurrassic strata (Hector, Geol. Rep.,
1873). Paraffin oil, sp. gr. ‘843 to °872, yielded 647 to
84% kerosene (Skey).

Picrouite !—Dun Mountain, coarsely fibrous, of a dark-green
colour (Cox).

PicrosMInE !—Dun Mountain, associated with chromite, and is
also found as a network of veins in which crystals of
bronzite occur (Cox).

PIMELITE !—Malvern Hills, Clent Hills, filling cavities in
amygdaloidal rocks (Haast).

Pisracite !—West Coast, Mount Torlesse, Mount Somers,
Wairarapa, in gneiss, granite, and granulite, and in
melaphyres (Hector, Haast).

Pircustone !|—Mount Somers, Snowy Peak, associated with
quartz porphyries (Haast).

Puatininipum !— Takaka, Orepuke, as grains in gold-wash
(Hochstetter).

Pratinum (Native) !—Orepuke, Stewart Island, Collingwood,
Nelson, Takaka, in the form of small flat grains of a
steel-grey or white colour, associated with gold and
zircons in southern goldfields, but it has never been
found in reef (Hector).

MINERALS OF NEW ZEALAND. 277

PREHNITE !— Moeraki, Otepopo, Canterbury, in trap rocks
(Hector, Daintree).

Provustire !—Thames (Hutton).
PsILOMELANE ! !—Waiheke, Wairuakariri, Bay of Islands, Kawau,
Wellington, massive, and is associated with manganite,

forming a valuable ore. Analysis (Skey)—sample from
Bay of Islands :—

Manganese oxides... Se EO
Ferric oxide Sut ML E76
Silicious matters aes sol A
Water - _ ... 10°04
100-00
Pumice ! ! !—Tongariro, Tokano, Lake Taupo, Kereru, Ruapehu,

&c., along the coast and on the banks of rivers, and on
the plateaux round Lake Taupo, 2000 feet above the
sea level, occurs also as pumice sand (McKay) at
Kereru. ;

Pyrires (AuriFEROvS) ! !—Thames, Otago, as octahedral crystals
in quartz reefs.

Quartz—Amethyst | | |—Rakaia Gorge, in an amygdaloidal trap ;
Canterbury, in the melaphyres (Haast).

Cellular Quarts | !—Thames.
Ferruginous Quartz !!|—Abundant (Lab. and Geol. Reports, °

1865).

Milk Quarts | !|—Everywhere, in the granites, schists and
slates.

Rose Quartz | !—Rakaia Gorge, in trachyte and pitchstone
(Haast).

Bloodstone !|—Clent Hills, Snowy Peak, Malvern Hills, in
small fragments (Haast).

Carnelian |!— Malvern Hills, Mount Charles, Otago, in
volcanic rocks (Hector).
Chalcedony |!— Canterbury, Clent Hills, Gawler Downs,

Tokatoka, Nioeraki, Otepopo, &c., in ‘“‘geodes” in the
‘‘melaphyres” and quartz porphyries (Hector, Haast,
Hochstetter).

Chrysoprase !— Moeraki, Otepopo, Dunedin, Canterbury,
Coromandel, filling cavities in amygdaloidal rocks
(Haast).

Flint ! !—Kaipara, Mount Somers, in chalk marls (Hector) ;
Campbell Island, in chalk (Hector); Amuri Bluff, in
limestone (Haast); Bay of Islands, Tapanui (Liversidge),
(see Trans. N.Z. Inst.) ; Whanganui Heads, in diatom
earth (Hector).

278

MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.

Jasper | |—Coromandel, abundant in volcanic and porphy-
ritic rocks (Hector) ; Snowy Range, as porcelain jasper
(Haast) ; Auckland, in tuffs and conglomerates (Hoch-

stetter).
Agate Jasper | !|—Coromandel, in trachytic tuffs (Hector).
Plasma | '!—Mount Somers and Gawler Downs, filling fissures

in tertiary quartzose trachyte (Haast); Moeraki and
Otepopo, in volcanic rocks (Hector).

Potato Stone or Geode |! !—Snowy Ranges (Haast).

Pearl Sinter | |—Rotorua.

Prase !|— Gawler Downs, as small deposits in quartzose
porphyritic trachytes (Haast, 1865).

Rock Crystal! !!—Tamata, Kereru, Napier, Taupo, Canter-
bury, Milford Sound, in metamorphic schists, and derived
from rhyolitic rocks (Lab. and Geol. Reports).

Silicious Sinter | |! — Orakeikorako, surrounding thermal
springs (Hochstetter) ; Te Tarata, in terraces.

Siderite | |—Mongonui, in cover of brown coal beds (Hector,
1866).

Tridymite | |—Lyttleton Harbour, in trachytic rocks (Ulrich).

RETINITE, or AMBRITE ! !—Hyde, Caversham, Tuapeka, Waita-

huna, Dunstan, Bay of Islands, occurs as masses of
altered kauri gum in brown coals. First mentioned
by Hochstetter, also Hector (Geol. and Lab. reports).
Mean of three analyses by Richard Maly :—

Carbon ote wet ose LOGE
Hydrogen ... Sia «- Uae
Oxygen i fe .. WDB
Ash is tos ia “19
100-00
RHODONITE, or MANGANESE Spar!— Canterbury, Kawarau,

Clutha, Dunstan, Waiheke, as veins in schists and as
rolled fragments in alluvial drifts (Haast, 1865).
Analysis (Skey.)

Silica Ba Shr ede 15240)
Sesquioxide of iron... we SORT O
Protoxide of iron Ko ste 1-20
Protoxide of manganese ont SESS
Alumina... ae Das 7:20
Copper ste ee ... traces
Lime ot — ae 3°02
Magnesic aide ie cre 3°00
W ae (constitutional) _ 1:43

MINERALS OF NEW ZEALAND. 279

RUBELLANE !—Bank’s Peninsula (Haast. )
SappHire !—Southern Alps and Collingwood, in alluvial gold
beds (Haast, Hutton), determined by Skey.
Emery—Stewart Island.
Saussurite !— Mount Torlesse, in gabbro (Haast).
ScHEELITE !!!—Lake Wakatipu, Buckle Burn, Rees River,
Waipori, Richardson Mountains, Havelock, solid lodes

and large rolled fragments and in arsenical pyrites in
the form of small grains (Hector 1863, McKay 1880).

ScHILLER Spar !—West Coast, with iron pyrites (Hector.)

Scuort !—Bedstead Gully, Mosquito Hill, Resolution Island, in
gneiss and in micaceous and hornblendic schists (Hector).

ScHROTTERITE !— Malvern Hills, filling the cavities in
amygdaloidal trachytes, having a mammilated crust on
its surface (Liversidge).

SELENITE, or Gypsum ! ! — Widely distributed throughout
Canterbury, Auckland, Nelson, New Plymouth, &c., as
groups of crystals associated with sulphur, or as nests of
crystals in clay or marls. It is very plentiful, and is
mentioned several times in the Geol. Sur. and Lab.
Reports.

“ SELEN-SULPHUR” !—White Island, massive dark yellow varieties
of sulphur (Liversidge, Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. X).

SERPENTINE, or MArmontireE—Mineral Belt, Nelson, and Dun
Mountain, as common serpentine forming rock masses
(Hochstetter) ; Milford Sound, nobleserpentine, occurring
with nephrite in thin grains (Hector). Analyses (Skey):—

(1.) (I1.) (111.)

Silica AtH4.0-20 OD BO Hob Ol
Protoxide of iron 12°10 12-10 1:67
Alumina ... traces traces 5:63
Manganese... traces traces traces
Chromium ... traces traces traces
Magnesia .. 33°20 ° 34:02 35-07
Water (consti-

tutional ... De) 12:94 2-67

98:20 100-06 100-95

with gold and as a component of tetrahedrite; Golden
Crown Mine, as rolled fragments.

5 SMARAGDITE !—Red Hill, Collingwood, in diorite (Hector).

SPH ROSIDERITE !— Mount Somers, Bank’s Peninsula, in volcanic
a and dyke rocks (Haast).

280 MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.

SpineEL — Manawatu and Waipori, Otago, as rhombic dodeca-
hedrons, nearly opaque (Hector).

SreaTiTe, or Soap Strong! !—Milford Sound, massive ; Colling-
wood, foliated (Hector).
SrrpniteE ! !—Otago, Endeavour Inlet, Reefton, Langdons (Hector,

1865) ; Thames (Hutton, 1867); Endeavour Inlet (Cox,
1879), in schistose rocks.

Strizpite ! !— Karori, Mangawhai, Tokatoka, Dunedin, as radiating
pearly crystals forming films in joints of auriferous
rocks (Skey), also in trachytic rocks as detached
crystals (Haast, Liversidge).

Sutpuur!!!—White Island, deposited from fumaroles and
geysers and from an enormous spring in the centre of
White Island (Hector, 1865); Roturua and Taupo
districts, from Hot Springs (Hochstetter) ; Waipara,
efHorescence from carbonaceous standstones (Haast,
1870), efflorescence from pyritous reefs (Davis) ; Wan-
gapeka. Analyses :—

LIVERSIDGE Cox
?2_——, =
Sulphur ese]. ¢ 99/6145. (98888; .55, 00500 5 Ga
Foreign matters 386 Tova =I 37°5

100:000 100-000 100-00 100-00

TacHytitEe !—Bank’s Peninsula, Oamaru, on the sides of fissures
where basaltic dykes have intruded (Haast).

Tatc !!—West Coast, S.I., Jackson’s Bay, Collingwood, in
quartz, and associated with crystalline rocks (Hector).

TARANAKITE !—Taranaki, very much like wavellite, is a double
hydrous phosphate of alumina and potash, part of the
alumina being replaced by ferric oxide, discovered and
described by Skey as a new mineral. Analysis per
cent. (Skey) :—

Phosphoric acid f Lay [BOD
Alumina * we ng Wea
Ferrous oxide a ada 4°45
Lime et Asis his a)
Potash a4 “ae 4-20
Soda aT Lee ... traces
Chlorine 33 BSH ee 46
Sulphuric acid ... traces
Insoluble in acid (silica) 80
Water driven off at 212° 15: 46 \ 33-06
s As red heat 17°60

MINERALS OF NEW ZEALAND. 281

TETRAHEDRITE !—Collingwood, a variety, Aichmondite, occurs as
as a lode at Richmond Hill. Analysis (Skey) :—

Sulphide of lead ite ie i
7 5» antimony... 1, 122-20

3 , bismuth ... ... traces

‘5 mecopper, UC Mp rd 9-3)

. » iron BAA 19ia1 3°50

o +) VANE cae OES 2p

9 5, silver — sa 2°39

es 5, Manganese ve ‘52
100-00

Tin !—Reefton, in granite (McKay, 1874); Stewart Island, in
mica gneiss (McKay, 1889).

Topaz !—Chatto Creek, Arrow River, Waipori, in alluvium,
: mixed with rubies, garnets, &c. (Hector); Stewart
Island, with tin stone (McKay), determined by Skey.

Tremo.ite !—Kanieri, Hokitika, Milford Sound, in quartzite
(Hector).

VivianitE !—Dunedin, Awatere, as prismatic crystals in moa
bones (Hector).

Wap ! !—Auckland, as crystals (Hector, 1870) ; Stewart Island
(McKay, 1886).

WaAVELLITE !—Taranaki, occurs in thin seams of a deep yellowish
brown colour, hard, translucent and infusible, traversing
the taranakite in various directions (Skey).

WITHERITE, or BarRyTo-cALcITE !—Thames, in gold mines (Skey).
Wotrram ! !—Stewart Island, with tin stone (McKay, 1889).

WottastonitE !—Dun Mountain, massive in form. Analyses

(Skey) :-—
1 2 3 4
Silica ... 48:01 49°30 50°62 58-80
Lime... 46:20 45:91 44°88 24-60
0

Alumina 145 1-41 1°84 | 5%
Tron oxide traces traces 1°64 {
ae .-, 2 e RD: . traces

8°8
4°6
Magnesia traces °80 traces 146
2-2
1-4
Miter. 2" loeeoe | 102. 4

100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00

WULFENITE !|—Dun Mountain, as crystals of a flat tabular form.

282 MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.

Zinc BienpE !—Bedstead Gully, Tararu Creek, Great Barrier
Island, associated with gold (Hector, Hutton). Analysis

(Skey) :—
Sulphide of zinc nf J Soll
Sulphide of cadmium ... traces
Sulphide of iron Sen kg ilat
Silicious matter set Mae Dow's,

100-00
ZincitE !—Collingwood (Skey).

Zircon !—Southern Alps, Timbrill’s Gully, Doubtful Inlet,

associated with platinum and gold and in the wash, and
also in ‘biotite rock” (Hector).

NOTE.

This Report 1s not yet complete, as it does not include the

Census of Victortan or Tasmanian Minerals.

i ee eee eee.

.

REPORT OF COMMITTEE No. 14.

The State and Progress of Chemical Science in Australasia,
with Special Reference to Gold and Silver Appli-

ances used in the Colonies and elsewhere.

MemsBers oF CommitTTEEe: —Professor Brack, Professor Kerrnot, Dr.
Lereius, Professor A. LiversipGE, Professor Orme Masson, Professor
Renniz, Mr. 8. H. Cox (Secretary).

Durine the past year, although a good deal of new work has
been projected in Australasia, there is comparatively little fresh
to chronicle regarding the treatment of ores of this class. It is
true that new inventions have been brought out, but, with very
few exceptions, they have not found favour with owners of mines,
because, in the majority of cases at any rate, they offer no real
improvements upon old and well-tried processes.

We may call attention at the outset of our report to certain
subdivisions which may be made in considering the subject, and
classify the ores as follows :—

: { 1. Free milling gold ores.
— \ 2. Refractory gold ores.

( 3. Free milling silver ores.
« 4. Easy smelting silver ores.
| 5. Refractory silver ores.

It will be understood that there is, perhaps, no hard and fast line
to be drawn between these different groups, and thus that Nos. 1
and 2 often occur in the same stone, while No. 1 very generally
gives place to No. 2 as depth is attained. The characters of the
silver ores, moreover, and the methods of treatment to which
they must be subjected, necessarily depend largely upon the
surroundings, the nature and quantity of flux attainable, the
price of coke, salt, and other substances required in the processes
to be adopted, and so forth ; and our division must thus be of a
somewhat arbitrary nature. We shall endeavour, however, to
define our meaning in speaking of these different classes of ore so:
as to make plain the reasons which have induced us to adopt
them.

Silver

284 STATE AND PROGRESS OF

GOLD.

Free milling gold ores include all those ores in which the gold
is in a free state, associated generally with quartz as a gangue,
but occasionally also with porous ironstone or gossan. In the
majority of cases, however, where gold occurs under the latter
condition, it is coated by a film of oxide of iron, which prevents
proper amalgamation, and is also, in many cases, of a very fine
nature ; these characters would transfer the ore from this class
to that of class No. 2.

The treatment of ores of class No. 1 has, from the earliest
times, consisted of crushing and amalgamation, and although
many new systems of crushing have been tried from time to
time, no machine has yet been introduced which will compete
with stamps when a large quantity of ore has to be dealt with.
‘The primitive battery crushing of the early days has, however,
given place in the better managed mines to plants in which all
the points which promote rapid, efficient, and economical work
are considered ; and although we still find batteries supplied
from some foundries built upon the old systems and employing
the old patterns, there is a decided tendency at present to erect
thoroughly capable machines, and to study what really are the
best methods of treating the ore.

Perhaps the chief point of difference to be noted in batteries is
that some employ light stamps, with a high drop, while others
use heavy stamps, 8 or 9 cwt., with a drop of 6in., or, in some
cases, even less. It will be evident that one advantage of the
latter form is that the battery can be worked at a higher speed,
since those with a low drop will not take the same time to fall
as those in which the drop is higher. Another point in which
a great difference presents itself in the efficiency of different
machines, is to be found in the method of feeding the stone to the
battery. In many cases, even now, the stone, as it is brought
from the mine, is roughly spalled by hand, and fed into the mill
whenever the feeder has time or inclination to attend to the
work ; and thus at times we hear the stamps striking direct on
the dies, having nothing to crush, while at others there is so
much stone in the battery that the stamps have a large part of
their fall cut off, and are, moreover, crushing stone on stone
instead of, as intended, directly on the dies. The more improved
batteries of the present day are supplied with ore crushers (stone
breakers), which reduce the stone to about one and three-quarter
inch metal, and this is fed into the boxes by means of improved
self-feeders, such as the Challenge Ore Feeder, which can be
regulated so as to furnish a regular supply of ore to the mill.

There is a good deal of prejudice against ore-feeders at some
mines even now, and no doubt, in certain cases, they have not
worked satisfactorily ; but the fault has been, not in the feeders

?
5
g

CHEMICAL SCIENCE IN AUSTRALASIA. 285.

themselves, but in the neglect to regulate them so as to produce
the best results.

A crushing battery that is firmly set on good foundations,
consisting of vertical mortar blocks, well rammed with sand,
that has substantial mud-sills and cross-sills, and the housing
constructed so as to resist the strains put upon it, and that is fed
regularly with ore that has been first broken by a stone-breaker,,.
will work rapidly without very great vibration, and should put
from two to three tons per head per twenty-four hours through a
No. 8 screen.

The boxes or mortars are made of various forms, and with a
delivery which is high or low, according to the fineness or coarse-
ness to which the crushing is to be carried, and the arrangement
of the screens is also varied by different makers. It is in these-
boxes that the first amalgamation takes place, and usually a stout
copper plate is placed in a recess at the back of the box, on which,
when the gold is coarse. a considerable proportion is retained. It
is, also, sometimes considered advisable to place free mercury in
the boxes, but the practice should be deprecated, as it flours the
mercury, and a considerable loss frequently ensues.

Outside the screens plates of copper amalgamated with mercury
are placed to catch the gold as it flows over the surface, and in
many cases of late these copper plates have been replaced by
electro plates, which avoid the constant formation of a green scum
when the plates are new. Mercury wells are also used in many
batteries, but they are not beneficial, because, if any sulphides are
present in the stone, they soon form a coating on the mercury and
destroy its utility.

For true free milling ores this treatment is all that is necessary,
and although machines have been introduced to replace the
stamps there are none which have as yet been tried which can
claim to have superseded them. Probably the best of the new
machines is the Huntingdon mill, which has achieved a certain
measure of success, and for small mines is undoubtedly an
economical system of crushing. It has, however, been so
frequently erected by men who have not had any experience in
the plant, and worked by others who are equally ignorant in the
matter, that there have been many failures recorded in these
colonies against comparatively few assured successes.

The Globe mill again claims to supersede the stamps, but has
not yet, so far as we are aware, succeeded in establishing itself
at any mine. Another machine, the Ashcroft Pulveriser,
which has been patented, works upon a different system, the
grinding being done by heavy balls and pestles, an attempt
being made to imitate, as closely as possible, the action of
the pestle and mortar. The inventor claims that the motion
of a ball, or a hemispherical surface, revolving on its own axis at
the same time as it is driven round the pan, is the most economical.
way of reducing mineral to fine powder.

286 STATE AND PROGRESS OF

In the earlier machines this motion was imparted to the balls
by cones, against which the centrifugal force so acted as to
produce the rotatory motion desired, and it acted well so long as
the balls preserved their spherical form, but if any small flat
surface became worn, or if fine matter accumulated in the machine,
the balls ceased to rotate. In the present arrangement the balls
cannot stop, and the true spherical form is preserved.

The result of experiments with the first mill made on the new
plan is that the hardest quartz can be rapidly reduced to the
finest powder, and the inventor has supplied us with the following
figures, derived from actual experiments, as illustrative of the
work performed :—

Power required to work a four feet diameter

mill ‘en ta sf ... 6 horse-power.
Quantity passed through wire screen, with

1600 holes to square inch, per hour de De Wibs
Weight of heaviest piece in mill Se. el etewite
Total weight of mill_... Bc i. © -Setons’

A plant is now being erected at the Britannia Mine, near
Forbes, which wili afford an excellent guide as to the actual
working results of the machine. There are several incidental
advantages which are claimed for this mill. The whole grinding
pan can be replaced at the same cost as replacing a false bottom.
The wearing parts are all castings. The mill requires no founda-
tions, and can be set to work a few hours after arrival at a mine,
and can easily be moved from place to place.

The refractory gold ores, in the majority of cases, carry a certain
amount of free gold in them, and are thus generally subjected to
the processes to which we have alluded before undergoing further
treatment. They are sometimes, however, taken direct from the
battery for concentration without the intervention of any method
of amalgamation, or, at times, passed through a system of pan
amalgamation, which will be alluded to further on, without being
concentrated at all.

In concentration there is a wide field for inventors, and to
this subject a good deal of attention has been directed. Until
comparatively lately concentration was performed on blanket
tables, in buddles of various form, or on end blow, percussion, or
shaking tables only ; but of late the Frue Vanner and Triumph
Concentrator have been somewhat extensively introduced, doing
their work very completely, but working at a comparatively slow
rate, wo vanners being required for each #ve heads of stamps.

A patent has been taken out by Mr. G. C. Knapp and
Mr. T. E. Fuller for a concentrator known as the ‘‘ Champion,”
which, while working on a similar principle to the Triumph, has
different mechanical arrangements, and the belt is shorter and
wider. This concentrator comes under the head of belt

i a er a ae

CHEMICAL SCIENCE IN AUSTRALASIA. 287

machines, and was designed by the inventors to modify
and overcome some of the defects experienced in their practice
with the Frue Vanner, Triumph Concentrator, and other machines
of a like character. Their first object was to gain a larger
cencentrating surface by widening the belt, and their second to
do away with a needless length of belt, and thereby increase the
facility with which the tailings could flow away. The superfluous
length was ascertained by direct experiments with existing
machines. With this object in view, the length of the top surface
of the belt, from centre to centre of the two end rollers, was made
six feet, and the width the same, thereby decreasing the length
of the vanner belt by about one-half, and increasing the width by
two feet, giving a large increase in the concentrating power of
the machine, and getting rid of the tailings in about half the
time of the Frue Vanner. Another special point in the construc-
tion of the machine, which the inventors claim in their patent,
has relation to the means by which the “ grade” is raised or
lowered, and is one of which any practical man who has seen it
will at once admit the advantage.

The work of a machine of this class can be regulated almost
exclusively by the alteration of the grade, without reference to
the “uphill travel,’ and, in most machines, this alteration has
been effected by wooden wedges, driven in or out by a hammer
according as the grade is to be lessened or increased. As, in
that case, the whole of the stationary framework has to be raised,
it detracts very considerably from the stability of the machine,
and, in the case of the Triumph Concentrator, slackens the
driving-belt to a great extent, as the wedges have to be driven
under the frame at the head.

In the machine now under consideration the raising and
lowering is done by a separate framework, made of angle iron,
on which the supports of the shaking frame rest in suitable
sockets. The front ends of this frame are pivoted on the main
standing frame, which is made of cast iron, and bolted permanently
down to the longitudinal mud-sills, and it is raised or lowered on
the pivots by two hand wheel-screws situated at the foot of the
machine, which work in cast iron bosses bolted to the floor.

This machine has been built by the Mort’s Dock Engineering
Company Limited, but has not yet been worked, pending the
arrival of the belt ; but it may be mentioned that Mr. Egleston
states, in his “Metallurgy of Silver, Gold and Mercury,”
Vol. I, p. 481, that at the Silver King Mine, in Arizona, six 6ft.
vanners were started in August, 1886, and by January, 1887,
they had treated 10,178 tons of tails from the twelve 4ft. vanners
on which the first concentrations were made. The average
amount treated on each of the 6ft. vanners was twelve and a half
tons per day, nearly twice the quantity dealt with by the 4ft.
machine. The tails from the large vanners yielded only 2:030z.

288 STATE AND PROGRESS OF

of silver, or 74 % of the value of the original ore, and was almost
entirely composed of argentiferous zinc blende. With any of
these concentrating machines the heavy pyritous minerals can be
concentrated from the ores, leaving the tailings almost absolutely
clean, but since every ore requires special adjustments of the
concentrators to achieve the best results, it is only by actual trials,
which may take a few days, that the most perfect adjustment
can be arrived at. Where vanners are employed it is necessary
to crush with as little water as possible, and consequently the
tables have to be set on a steep grade. If this be not attended
to there is too much water for the vanners to work satisfactorily.

It is the subsequent treatment of the concentrated sulphides
that has, perhaps, received the greatest amount of attention of
late, as the colonies have but recently awakened to the fact that
on this treatment the ultimate success of the gold-mining
industry depends. In every case the pyrites has to be roasted
in the first instance, with the exception of the so-called cyanide
process, in which the finely-divided sulphides are digested with
potassic cyanide, which is stated to dissolve the silver and gold,
and these are subsequently precipitated by zinc, the cyanide
being recovered. We are not aware that this process has been
tried on a practical scale in the colonies, but the results of
laboratory tests by several observers has disclosed the fact that
the results are very various, and while sometimes nearly 90 /% of
the silver and gold are obtained, in other cases not more than
half that proportion is saved. It would appear, therefore, that
there are some disturbing agencies which are not yet thoroughly
understood, and consequently that the process requires further
investigation before it can be considered a practical success.
Roasting is the first requisite in all other processes, the object
being to oxidise the sulphides and liberate the gold in a free state,
and this is done at several of the mines. There are certain
difficulties attached to roasting ores, some relating to the question
of expense and others to the complete extraction of the gold and
silver if it is present.

The simplest form of furnace, and the one which is usually
employed here, is the reverberatory, the floor of which is made
very long, and the ore being fed through a hopper at the end
farthest from the bridge, is gradually raked down until it reaches
the hottest part near the flame, and from this point it is scraped
through a hole in the floor into cars, which convey it to the cooling
chamber. Roasting in this furnace can be done as perfectly as in
any other, but the expense of handling, and the hard work it
entails on the men, is a decided disadvantage, and a good deal of
attention has been directed elsewhere to the construction of
furnaces which obviate these difficulties. We may mention
Bruckner’s revolving cylinder, White’s, White-Howell and
Howell’s improved revolving furnaces, which have been largely

wae eS

CHEMICAL SCIENCE IN AUSTRALASIA. 289

used in America; but we believe there is only one mine in
Australasia, the Waiorongamai, at Te Aroha, New Zealand,
where any of them have been erected. Another furnace, the
“Stetefelt,” works on the principle that a rapid oxidising and
chloridising action can be produced by bringing the finely-divided
particles, either with or without salt, in contact with an ascending
column of hot air, and this again, although it has been worked
successfully in America, has, we believe, been only tried at one
place, St. Arnaud, in the colonies, where it was subsequently
stopped.

A furnace has been patented in the colonies by Mr. H. D.
Meston, which consists of several floors communicating one
with the other by slots, which can be opened or closed
at pleasure. The ore is transferred from one shelf to a lower
one through these slots from time to time, and the ore is stirred
by revolving stirrers, the final roasting being performed in a
reverberatory furnace. This would appear to possess the
principal requirements for perfect and economical roasting.
It is at present in operation at the Clyde Smelting Works,
near Sydney, where it is stated to perform its work
satisfactorily.

So long as the gold is free from silver, or contains only a small
proportion of that metal, but little difficulty is experienced in
roasting, provided sufficient care is taken not to raise the heat
too rapidly, and thus fuse or cake the material; but with silver
the greatest care is necessary, because, in order to recover this
metal, it is necessary to introduce salt at some time during the
roast, preferably near the end, and a volatile chloride of gold is
frequently formed, resulting, unless the greatest care is taken, in
a loss of that metal. It would appear, however, that care and
attention can overcome this difficulty, and the loss is comparatively
slight where the process is thoroughly understood. After roasting,
there are two distinct processes open, each of which has received
a good deal of attention; these are respectively amalgamation
and chlorination.

Where amalgamation is employed, the roasted ore is ground in
charges in some form of pan, and of these there are numerous
adaptations. The objects of these pans are to provide as great a
grinding surface as possible, and to have a complete circulation
of the pulp. This circulation is generally secured by wings in
the side of the pan diverting the flow of the current to the
centre, but a pan has been patented in the colonies of late
by Mr. G. C. Knapp which has an octagonal form, the mullers
having, of course, only a circular rotation, and the circulation of
the pulp in this machine is as perfect as it is possible
to desire. Another pan, invented by Mr. C. Dubois, is
closed at the top, and having a steam jacket below,
it is claimed that the mercury is volatilised, and thus

s

290 STATE AND PROGRESS OF

permeates every pore of the pulp. We have not seen this pan in
operation, but it appears that the heat gained could not be
sufficient to volatilise the mercury, except at a prohibitory
expense.

In chlorination there is not a single instance in which Plastner’s
system is being employed, that known locally as the Newbery-
Vautin process, with modifications, having entirely taken its
place. We think some notice of this class of process is necessary,
because there is some misconcepiion as to the origin of the
principle.

Dr. Mears seems to have been the first to introduce the
system of working chlorination under pressure, and to do this he
employed a revolving barrel, into which chlorine, generated
from chloride of lime and sulphuric acid, was pumped, and the
barrel was subsequently rotated. Mr. Thies evolved chlorine
from the same substances, but did it in the barrel itself, not
obtaining any adventitious pressure ; while Messrs. Newbery and
Vautin proposed to secure the pressure by pumping in air, the
chlorine being generated as in Mr. Theis’ process. The system
employed here seems to be identical with that of Mr. Theis.

In all chlorination it is necessary to keep the pulp damp after
crushing, the test of suitability being that it can be crushed
together in the hand, but commences to fall to pieces when the
pressure is released. Under these conditions, the chlorine pene-
trates the ore more completely than when it is dry, besides
which, if allowed to dry it cakes, and has to be reground.

SILVER ORES.

The various processes of treating the more simple silver ores
has been so thoroughly exhausted in numerous works on the
subject that it would be going outside our province to note any
details regarding it. For the free milling ores a chloridising
roasting is first resorted to, and this is followed by amalgama-
tion in pans. This process is now in operation at Waiorongomai,
at Te Aroha, New Zealand, and will probably be introduced at
the White Rock Mine in New South Wales. There have not,
so far as we are aware, been any improvements introduced into
the methods of treatment in these colonies, in which, indeed, the
silver mining industry is but new. The principal method of
treatment which has found favour here is by smelting, and this
is adopted over a wide-spread area. At Broken Hill, Sunny
Corner, Mount Costigan, Port Pirie, and other places the ores
are smelted, and in some cases lead has been bought and passed
through the furnaces with the view to recover the silver. In the
majority of cases the water-jacket continuous furnaces are
employed for smelting, and although, in some cases, refining has
been attempted, the bullion is now generally shipped. At Sunny

CHEMICAL SCIENCE IN AUSTRALASIA. 291

Corner the first system adopted has given place to smelting to a
regulus in the first place, and from this the silver is subsequently
recovered with lead. There are, however, no new adaptations of
well-known processes to chronicle. As regards the refractory
silver ores at Webb’s Mine, New England, an ore is being raised
which consists of a mixture of fahlore, galena, zinc blende, and
copper pyrites, and this has been subjected to a leaching process,
modified from Von Patera’s. There are many other localities,
notably in Northern Queensland, where very refractory ores are
met with, and which are generally shipped for sale.

The leaching process does not appear to have been worked
satisfactorily at Webb’s—at least, operations were suspended, and
a good deal of discussion ensued as to what was the best method
to adopt for dealing with the ore. Amalgamation was advocated
by some, but this has been overruled, and the process about to be
employed is stated to be Russell’s modification of the Von Patera
process, in which sodium hyposulphite takes the place of the
corresponding calcium salt, and sodium sulphide is used asa
precipitant. There are many advantages in this change, the
principal, perhaps, of which is that the lead can be precipitated
as a carbonate, leaving the silver in solution, and although the
sodium hyposulphite solution is more expensive than the calcium
hyposulphite one, it can be used in a more concentrated form, and
the sodium sulphide precipitates a larger proportion of the silver
than the corresponding calcium salt. This process is about to be
introduced at the Broken Hill Proprietary Mine to treat some of
their ores, but the “extra solution,” a double cuprous and sodium
hyposulphite, which forms one of the features of the Russell process,
is to be used weaker than specified in Russell’s patent. We believe
this process to be admirably adapted for the treatment of many of
the more complex ores in the colonies, and may quote Mr. Stetefelt’s
resumé of the advantages of this system over pan amalgamation,
set forth in a paper read before the American Institute of Mining
Engineers. These are as follows :—

1. In amalgamation the fineness to which the ore has to be
crushed is determined by the capacity of the settler to work off
coarse sands without loss of quicksilver. It is not practicable to
use a coarser screen than No. 30 if the crushing is done by
stamps. This is almost equivalent to sifting through a No. 40
revolving screen, if the crushing is done by rolls. In lixiviation,
pulverising as coarse as possible is desirable. The limit of coarse-
ness is determined by the roasting process. It depends upon the
character of the ore, and, principally, upon the manner in which
the silver-bearing minerals are distributed in the gangue.

2. The original cost of the lixiviation plant is much lower than
that of pans and settlers. A further saving is effected by a
reduction in the size of the engines and boilers.

92

al

292 CHEMICAL SCIENCE IN AUSTRALASIA.

3. In amalgamation the pans and settlers consume not less
than one and a half horse-power per ton of ore. The power for
pumping solutions, &c., in the lixiviation process is merely
nominal.

4. In large mills the quantity of quicksilver in rotation repre-
sents a capital of from £6000 to £8000, while the stock of
chemicals required for lixiviation does not cost more than one-
tenth of this amount.

5. With Russell’s improvements, the percentage of silver
extracted by lixiviation is much higher than by amalgamation.

6. Lixiviation by Russell’s process requires a less careful
chloridising roasting. In many cases the salt may be dispensed
with.

7. The value of the lost quicksilver and cost in wear and
tear of the pans and settlers amounts to more than that of the
chemicals consumed in the lixiviation process.

8. The lixiviation process permits of the extraction of copper
and lead as valuable by-products.

9. The sulphides from the lixiviation process can be more
easily converted into fine bars, and the gold parted, than this
can be done with the bullion obtained in amalgamation.

10. Amalgamation is invariably injurious to the labourer’s
health.

11. Where gold-bearing silver ores have been roasted with
salt, lixiviation extracts, In most cases, more gold than amal-
gamation.

12. The possibility of lixiviating many so-called “free milling
ores” without previous roasting, including tailings resulting from
amalgamation of roasted or raw silver ores.

13. The possibility of lixiviating with profit some classes of
silver ores after they have been subjected to an oxidising
roasting only.

Since the foregoing was written, a patent by A. A. Lockwood
and H. Chappel has come under our notice, in which the
roasting of auriferous and argentiferous ores is performed in
retorts by steam, super-heated steam, or carburetted hydrogen.
An experimental plant has been erected in Sydney, but we
have not yet had an opportunity of ascertaining the completeness
of the operation.

REPORT OF COMMITTEE No. 11.

The Bibliography of the Australasian, Papuan, and
Polynesian Races.

MempBers oF CommirTse :—Hon. Dr. AcNEw, Rev. J. CopELANp, Rev.
S. Exiua, Rev. W. Wvratt Git, Sir James Hector, Mr. A. W.
Howirt, Mr. J. F. Mann, and Dr. Joun FrRassr, Secretary.

ALL the members of this committee have been consulted, but
the arrangement of the work to be done and the doing of it have,
of necessity, been mainly in the hands of those members of it
who reside in Sydney. Thus it was agreed that the Papuan Race
should be inserted in our programme; it was also thought
desirable, and in this all the members of the committee concurred,
that an effort should be made to present to these colonies, and
especially to Britain, a full and reliable account of some of the
less known features of the social and domestic life of the
Australasian, Papuan, and Polynesian Races, based on the same
topics of inquiry, and written, as it were, in parallel columns.
Even those who are well informed on such subjects may find it
pleasant to have thus the means of comparing and contrasting at
one glance some of the characteristics of these races; and when
we consider the lack of trustworthy information of that kind
among scientists in European countries, our committee is of
opinion that a voluntary labour such as this, may well be added
to the work assigned to us. The following syllabus was
accordingly prepared and issued to the members of the committee
and to others :—

Torics TO BE DISCUSSED IN THE REPORT ON THE AUSTRALASIAN,
PAPUAN, AND PoLYNESIAN RACEs.

N.B.—The characteristic features of the Races and other well-known

points are omitted.

BirtH AND CHILDHOOD.—Observances and superstitious beliefs in con-
nection with the birth of a child—any variation in these when
the child 1s a female—is the woman isolated and regarded as

294 AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN

unclean for a time—how long? Infanticide of males, females ;
when, how, why practised—any cannibalism then? Is child
named in any formal way—when, how—whence comes the name ?
How are deformed and sickly children treated? How does the
mother carry the child or children—does the father ever carry it ?
Suckling, how long continued? Is anything applied to the
child’s head to regulate its shape? During childhood is the child
lovingly cared for, disciplined, taught useful habits by parents ?
Is female child betrothed when young—by whom ?

Marurity.—At whatage mature? For females, observances on reaching
maturity? For males, rites of initiation into the tribe and the
privileges of manhood—circumcision, how done, why (as natives
say), with what instrument, by what person—how long is initiation
carried on—is it progressive as in the grades of freemasonry ?
Are there mystic ceremonies—of what kind—a badge or sacred
belt, a new name, tattoo, hair cut off, restrictions as to food? Are
there special colours used at the ceremony—sacred songs, dances,
taught? What privileges does the fully initiated youth possess ?

Marriace.—Preliminaries ? Does a betrothed child at once pass into
the charge of her husband? Is there marriage by force, by
capture, by sale, by barter? State restrictions, if any, as to
marriage among the classes of the tribe—marriage ceremonies
and observances? Is there polygamy? Is it restricted to the
chiefs? Do children take their tribal (totem) classification from the
father or from the mother—in war do they join their mother’s kin?
The law of inheritance of land or property? How is a widow
treated—orphans? Is there any restriction of converse or inter-
course between relatives by blood or marriage—why (as natives
say)? What work has the married woman to do—how is she
treated by her husband ?

Tue Tripe.—What constitutes a tribe ? Is there one chief or several—
how does a man become a chief—is the office of chief hereditary—
how does it pass—the power and authority and duties of a chief ?
Is there a tribal council—how constituted—its work? How are
infractions of tribal law punished ?

SociaAL AND Domestic.—Huts—how built—of what material, shape ?
Cultivation—how—kind of food—abundance of food—work done—
by whom? Meals, how cooked, how eaten—when, how many each
day—reception of strangers? Ornaments—of hair, ear, nose,
arms, legs? Clothing? Are the natives well nourished ?

Wizarps.—What makes a man a wizard? How is he supposed to obtain
his magic powers—how use them, for good, for evil—in bringing
rain or driving it away—in causing sickness—in curing the sick—
in driving away evil spirits—in causing death—in discovering the
cause of death, &c.? Does he receive any pay or reward ?

Dratu.—Beliefs as to causes of natural death—observances by relatives
at death—cutting of gashes on head or body—modes and colours
of mourning—wrappings of dead or other preparations—funeral—
erave—mode of interment—grave mound or other mark—articles
put in the grave with deceased—offerings or watchings at fire at
grave, mourning, how long continued ?

Sprrir Woritp.—Where? Beliefs as to the continued existence of
spirit, and its first condition after death—changes which the spirit
undergoes, when, how—transmigration—the spirit’s ultimate

RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. 295

destiny and abode—its presence and influence among the living—
the entrance and road to the spirit world; beliefs as to the
deceased great men of the tribe or race ?

Myruo.tocy.—Beliefs as to a creator or creators—assistants in the work
of creation, in administration, in communicating with men—as to
inferior deities and their province and attributes ?—are these
supposed to be heroes or (family) ancestors deified >—do they help
or injure men ?

PuitoLoey.—A list of the numerals and pronouns in the language, with
suggestions as to their etymology? Paradigm of the conjugation
and declension of the verb “to go,” and of the verb “to kill,”
with a pronominal object? A few simple sentences to show the
erammatical structure of the language ? A list of words for the
English—man, woman, head, hair of head, eye, nose, tongue, ear,
hand, thumb, foot, bone, blood, fire, water, sun, moon, father,
mother, son, daughter, brother, sister, cousin, uncle, aunt; and
the verbs give, take, make or do, bear, burn, see, hear.

Our committee wishes to present to the next meeting of this Associa-
tion a comparative view of the Australasian, Papuan, and Polynesian
races, to be written in sections and on the same lines (as above) by those.
who are well acquainted with these races, and are thus able to give
reliable information regarding them.

Reports on these lines may yet be obtained in sections for
Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, the New Hebrides, New
Guinea, Fiji, and the chief groups in Polynesia. These reports
would, doubtless, show considerable uniformity in the usages of
the races, but the divergences would also be considerable, and
especially interesting to a mind accustomed to observing these
usages, and to ask what was their origin and how they came to
vary. Of course such a task is a large one, and can be managed
only by instalments. We now present two of these instalments,
the one written by the Rev. W. Wyatt Gill, B.A., LL.D., and
the other by that indefatigable pioneer missionary, the Rev.
James Chalmers, of Port Moresby, New Guinea. Dr. Gill’s
report applies to Polynesia, and especially to the Hervey Islands,
where he so long laboured.

The bibliography of the races has been compiled from two books
already published, the ‘Catalogue of the York Gate Library,”
formed by Mr. G. Wm. Silver, and the “Catalogue of the Sir
George Grey Collection,” in the Free Public Library at Auckland,
of which the latter has been forwarded to us for this purpose
through the courtesy of Sir George Grey himself. Our committee
has entered in these lists only such books as throw light on the
ethnography of the races or the philology of their languages ;
concise notices of some of the chief publications in the native
languages will be found under each head. These lists do not
pretend to be complete, and therefore may require to be supple-
mented at some future time, when also other portions of our
report on the races themselves may appear, if the Science
Association should wish our labours to be continued.

296

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16.

AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN

I.—BIBLIOGRAPHY.

(1) AvsTRALIA.

. Angas, G. Frencu.-—“ South Australia [lustrated, with

illustrations of the Australian Aborigines.” 60 plates
with letterpress. Folio. London, 1847.

. Ancas, G. Frencu.—‘“ Savage Life and Scenes in Australia

and New Zealand.” 2 vols., 12mo. London, 1847.

Bennett, J. W. O.—“ Vocabulary of the Woolner District
Dialect, Adelaide River, Northern Territory.” Adelaide,
1869.

Brireex, W. H. I.—“On the Position of the Australian
Languages.”

Bonwicx, Jas.—‘ William Buckley, the Wild White Man,

and his Port Phillip Black Friends.” 8vo. Melbourne,
1856.

. Bonwick, Jas.—‘‘ The Last of the Tasmanians and the

Black War of Van Diemen’s Land.” 8vo. London,
1870.

. Bonwicx, Jas.—‘ Daily Life and Origin of the Tasmanians.”

8vo. London, 1870.
Bonwick, Jas.—‘‘ The Australian Aborigines ” (see 14).

Brapy, Rev. J.—‘‘ Descriptive Vocabulary of the Native
Language of Western Australia.” Rome, 1845.

. Breton, Lieut. H. W. (R.N.)—“The Aborigines of New

Holland.” In “ Excursions in New South Wales, &e.”
1833.

. BuckLey (see 46).

Buncr, Dantet.—‘ Language of the Aborigines of the Colony
of Victoria, with Translations.” Melbourne, 1851.

. Catpger, J. E.—‘“ Account of the Wars, Extirpation, Habits,

&ec., of the Tasmanians.” 12mo, Hobart, 1875.

. CASsELL’s “ Tllustrated Travels.” 6 vols., 4to. Vol. VI.—

“¢ At an Australian Corroboree,” by J. A. SKERTCHLEY.
Vol. VI.—“The Australian Aborigines,” by Jas.
Bonwick. London, 1869-74.

. Cotiins, Davip.—“ Account of New South Wales, with

Remarks on the Native ; Particulars of New Zealand,
and the Discovery of Bass’ Straits.” Plates. 2 vols.,
4to. London, 1798-1802.

Couns, Davip.—‘ The Australian Aborigines ; their Habits,
Manners and Customs.” With plates. In “The Account
of New South Wales.” (See 15).

it.

18.

to
(02)

33.

RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. 297

CunnincHam, Prerer (R.N).—“The Aboriginals, their Personal
Characteristics, Mode of Life, Customs, &c.” In ‘‘Twe
Years in New South Wales.” 2 vols., 12mo. London,
1827.

Dawson, Rospt.—‘‘The Present State of Australia, with an
Account of the Aborigines.” 8vo. London, 1831.

. Dawson, Jas.—‘‘ Australian Aborigines; Languages and

Customs of Several Tribes of Aborigines in Western
Victoria.” With photographs. 4to. Melbourne, 1881.

Fison, Lorimer, and Howirr, A. W.—‘“ Kamilaroi and
Kurnai; Group, Marriage, and Relationship, &c.” 8vo.
Melbourne, 1880.

. Fraser, Joun.— The Aborigines of Australia ; their Ethnic

Position and Relations.” London, 1888.

. Grey, Sir Georce.—“ The Aborigines of Western Australia ;

in Two Expeditions in North-west and Western Aus-
tralia, 1837-39.” 2 vols., 8vo. London, 1811.

. Grey, Sir Grorce.—“ Vocabulary of the Dialects of the

South-west of Australia.” London, 1841.
Grey, Sir Grorce.—The Library of Philology—* Languages

of Australia, Papua, Fiji, New Zealand, Polynesia.”
8vo. London, 1858-9.

. GRIBBLE, Rev. J. B.—‘ Black but Comely; Glimpses of

Aboriginal Life in Australia.” 12mo. London, 1884.

Harr, Horario.—“ The Australian Aborigines, &c.” In
the ‘“‘ Ethnology and Philology ” of the “ U.S. Exploring
Expedition.” Royal 4to. Philadelphia, 1846.

. Hrenperson, Lieut. Joun.— Excursions and Adventures in
New South Wales; Description of the Australian
Natives, &.” 2 vols.,12mo. London, 1857.

. HENDERSON, JoHn.—“ Observations on the Colonies of New
South Wales and Van Diemen’s Land.” 8vo. Calcutta,
1832.

. Hopexinson, CLemEentT,—“ Australia, from Port Macquarie
to Moreton Bay.” 8vo. London, 1845.

. Howitt, A. W. (see 20).

. JARDINE, J.—‘“‘Overland Expedition from Rockhampton to
Cape York.” 1867.
2. Keane, A. H., and Watuacz, A. R.—‘‘ Australasia.” Edited

by A. R. Watxace, 1879. In Stanrorp’s “Compendium
of Geography and Travel.” 6 vols. 8vo. London,
1879-85.

Lane, G. 8.—“ The Aborigines of Victoria.” Melbourne,
1865.

298

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

43.

44,

45,

46.

47.

48,

AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN

Lane, Rev. J. D.—‘ Queensland: a Field for Immigration,
&e., with a Disquisition on the Aborigines.” 12mo.
London, 1864.

Leicuarpt, Dr. Lupwic.—‘ Journal of an Overland Expe-
dition in Australia (from Moreton Bay to Port
Essington, a distance of upwards of 3000 miles) During
the Years 1844-45.” 8vo. 1847.

MacGi.iivray, Joun—“ Narrative of the Voyage of H.M.S.
Rattlesnake.” 1852.

Martin’s “Colonial Magazine.”—Articles on ‘‘The Abori-
gines of Australia.” In vols. iL, v., Vi.

McCompiz, Tuos.—‘ Arabin; or the Adventures of a
Colonist in New South Wales.” With ‘“ Essay on the
Aborigines.” 12mo. London, 1845.

Metvitir, Henry. — “Present State of Australasia ;
Remarks on the Aborigines, &c.” 12mo. London, 1857.

Meyer, H. E. A.—‘ Manners and Customs of the Aborigines
of the Encounter Bay Tribe, South Australia.” Adelaide,
1846.

Meyer, H. E. A.—‘“ Vocabulary of the Language Spoken
by the Aborigines of the Southern and Eastern Portions

of South Australia.” Preceded by a Grammar. Adelaide,
1843.

. Minuican, JosEpH.—‘ Vocabulary of the Dialects of Some

of the Aboriginal Tribes of Tasmania.” 8vo. Hobart,

1866.

Mitcuett, Major T. L.—“Three Expeditions into the
Interior of Eastern Australia.” 2 vols., 8vo. London,
1838.

Moors, G. F.—“ Descriptive Vocabulary of the Language
in Common Use amongst the Aborigines of Western
Australia.” London, 1842.

Moornousr, M. — “Vocabulary of the Murray River
Language.” Adelaide, 1846.

Morean, Joun.—“ Life and Adventures of William Buckley ;
for 32 Years a Wanderer amongst the Aborigines of
Victoria.” 12mo. Hobart, 1852.

Morritt, EpmMunp.—“‘ Sketch of the Residence of James
Morrill among the Aborigines of Northern Queensland
for 17 Years. Brisbane, 1865.

Muniz, Rosr.—* Account of the Native Inhabitants of
Australia,” from Collins, Flinders, Oxley, Barron Field,
and others. In the “Pictures of Australia.” 8vo.
London, 1829.

49.

60.

61.

63.

64.

RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTER. 299

Mounpy, Col. G. C.—“ Our Antipodes; or, Residence and
Rambles in the Australasian Colonies.” (1846-51).
8vo. London, 1855.

. Parerson, G.—‘ History of New South Wales; with a

Description of the Natives, &c.” 8vo. Newcastle-on-
Tyne, 1811.

. Peron, Frep.—‘ Voyage de Découvertes aux Terres Aus-

trales, 1800-1804.” Paris, 1807.

2. Peron, Frep., et Freycinet, Lovuis.—‘‘ La Force Physique

des Peuples Sauvages de la Nouvelle Hollande et la
Terre de Diemen.” In the “ Voyage aux Terres Aus-
trales.” 2 vols., folio. Paris, 1807.

. Riptey, Rey. W.— “Gurre Kamilaroi; or, Kamilaroi
Sayings.” Sydney, 1856.
. Riptey, Rev. Wm.—‘ Kamilaroi, Dippil, and Turrubul;

Languages Spoken by Australian Aborigines.” 4to.
Sydney, 1866.

. Riptey, Rev. Wu.—“ Kamilaroi and (20) other Australian

Languages.” 2nd edition, revised and enlarged. 4to.
Sydney, 1875.

. ScourMANN, C. W.—“ Aboriginal Tribes of Port Lincoln, in

South Australia.” Adelaide, 1846.

. ScourMANN, C. W.—‘“ Vocabulary of the Parnkalla Lan-

guage.” Adelaide, 1844.

. SKERTCHLEY, J. A.—‘ At an Australian Corroboree” (see 14.)

. SmytH, R. Broveu.—‘ The Aborigines of Victoria, &c.”

2 vols., 8vo. Melbourne, 1878.

STANBRIDGE, W. E.—‘“ General Characteristics, Astronomy,
and Mythology of the Tribes in the Central Part of
Victoria.” 8vo. 1861.

Stokes, J. L. (R.N). — “ Discoveries in Australia; the
Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle in the Years 1837 to 1843 ;
also a narrative of Captain Owen Stanley’s Visit to the
Islands in the Arafura Sea.” S8vo. London, 1846.

2. Sturt, Capt. CHaries.—‘ Two Expeditions into the Interior

of Southern Australia during the Years 1828-31.” 2
vols. London, 1833.

Sturt, Capt. Cuartes.—“ Narrative of an Expedition into
Central Australia, &c.” 2 vols. London, 1849.

Tapuin, Rev. G.—“The Folklore, Manners, Customs, and

Languages of the South Australian Aborigines.” 8vo.
Adelaide, 1879.

300 AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN

65. TEICHELMANN, C. G., and ScHuRMANN, C. W.—“ Outlines of
a Grammar, Vocabulary, and Phraseology of the Abori-
ginal Language of South Australia.” Adelaide, 1840.

66. THornge, E.—‘‘ The Queen of the Colonies ; with an Account
of the Aborigines of Queensland.” 8vo. London, 1876.

67. THRELKELD, L. E.—“ An Australian Grammar, &c.” 8vo.
Sydney, 1834.

68. THRELKELD, L. E.—‘‘ A Key to the Structure of the Aborig-
inal Language.” 8vo. Sydney, 1850.

69. TownsEND, J. Puipps.—‘‘ Rambles in New South Wales;
Sketches of the Aborigines.” 12mo. London, 1849.

70. Watuace, A. R.—“ Australasia.” In Sranrorp’s “ Com-

pendium of Geography and Travel,” based upon
Hellwald’s ‘‘ Die Erde und ihre Folker.” London, 1879.

71. WiLHetmi1, Cart.— Natives of the Port Lincoln District,
South Australia.”

72. Wituiams, W.—‘ Vocabulary of the Language Spoken by
the Aborigines of the Adelaide District.”

73. Woop.—‘ The Native Australians.” In “ Wood’s Natural
History of Man.” Illustrated. 2 vols., royal 8vo.
London, 1868-70.

74. Woops, J. D.—“The Native Tribes of South Australia.”
8vo. Adelaide, 1879.

Vocabularies and incidental notices of Australian words, and
their meanings, are found in the works of many authors who have
written about Australia; e.g.—1790, White has a few names of
animals ; 1763, Hunter, about 390 words ; 1793, Tench, between
70 and 80 words; 1798, Collins, about 400 words; 1807-11,
Péro, about 20 words; 1811, Patterson, a few words; 1814,
Flinders, about 15 words; 1820, Oxley, 37 words ; 1825, Field,
a few words; 1827, Cunningham, over a dozen words; 1827,
King, about 50 words; 1832, Henderson, about a dozen words ;
1833, Breton, 70 words; 1833, Sturt, a few words; 1834,
D’Urville, about 150 words; 1834, Geo. Bennett, 130 words ;
Threlkeld’s Grammar has a large vocabulary of words ; 1839,
Ogle, about 170 words; 1839, Mitchell, about 350 words and
names ; 1844, Mrs. C. Meredith, 25 words ; 1845, Hodgkinson,
a few names ; 1845, Strezlecki, remarks on the language; 1845,
Eyre, nearly 100 words; 1845, Rev. D. McKenzie, about 50
words ; 1846, Dr. Braim, a few notices from Threlkeld; 1846,
Hale (U.S. expedition), about 360 words ; 1847, Marjoribanks, a
few words; 1848, Mitchell, some names ; 1848, Gould (‘ Birds”),
about 230 native names ; 1849, Sturt (“‘ Central Australia”), some
names ; 1850, Threlkeld’s Key has comparative tables of words ;

RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY CCMMITTEER. 301

1851, Bunce, about 80 words ; 1851, Henderson, about 70 words ;
1852, Mundy, half a dozen words ; 1857, Cooper, 220 words ;
1860, Geo. Bennett, 50 names ; 1862, Latham, about 150 words ;
1863, Rev. J. Graham, upwards of 30 words; 1865, Sam.
Bennett, comparison of words; 1866, Bailliere (‘‘ Gazetteer of
New South Wales ”), about 3000 names of rivers, mountains, &e. ;
1866, Ridley, first edition ; 1875, Ridley, second edition, greatly
enlarged, about 1200 words; 1878, R. B. Smyth, about two.
dozen words ; 1880, Fison and Howitt (‘‘ Kamilaroi and Kurnai”),
words for relationships ; Curr.

Information about the aborigines of Australia and_ their
languages may also be obtained from ‘‘ Notes and Proceedings of
the Parliament of New South Wales, 1834-38 ;” “Report of the
Select Committee of the Parliament of New South Wales, 1838-
1845;” and from numerous articles in the volumes of the
“Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain,” the
“Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London,” the
“Journal of the Royal Colonial Institute of London,” the Journals
of the Royal Societies of New South Wales, Victoria, cc.

(2.) East InpIAN ARCHIPELAGO.

—

. Bopp, Franz.—‘‘ Uber die Verwandschaft der Malayisch.
Polynesischen Sprachen mit den Indisch. Europiischen.”
Berlin, 1841.

. CRAWFURD, JoHn.—“ History of the Indian Archipelago ;
Manners, Arts, Languages, Religious Institutions, and
Commerce.” 3 vols., 8vo. Edinburgh, 1820.

bo

3. CRAWFURD, JoHN.—‘‘ Grammar and Dictionary of the Malay
Language.”

4. Harrwic, Dr. Grorce.—‘‘ On the Malayan Race.” Vol. iv.
5 vols., 8vo. London, 1881-82.

5. Humsoitpr.—“ Uber die Kawi Sprache.”

6. Marspen, Witi1amM.—‘ History of Sumatra; its Native
Inhabitants, Natural Productions, &c.” 35rd edition, 4to.
With Plates, Folio. London, 1811.

. Marspen, Witit1am.—Miscellaneous Works on “The Poly-
nesian and East Insular Languages ;” on “ A Continental
Roman Alphabet, Applicable to Oriental Languages,
&e.” 4to. London, 1834.

8. Muuuer, F.—“ Reise der Fregatte (Vovara.” Wien, 1867.

9. WautLace, A. R.—“ Physical Geography, Ethnology, &c., of

the East Indian Islands.” In Sranrorp’s “ Compendium

of Geography and Travel.” 6 vols., 8vo. London,
1879-85.

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AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN

(3.) MELANESIA (GENERAL).

. ANDERSON, J. W.—‘“ Notes of Travel in Fiji and New

Caledonia.” London, 1880.

. CAMPBELL, F. A.—“ A Year in the New Hebrides, Loyalty

Islands, and New Caledonia.” Melbourne, 1874.

. Coprineton, Rev. R. H. (D.D.).—‘“A Sketch of Motu

Grammar.” London, 1877.

. Coprineton, Rev. R. H. (D.D.).—“The Melanesian Lang-

uages.” S8vo. Oxford, 1885.

. CopELAND, Rey. J. (Futuna Island, New Hebrides).—‘“ The

Language of Aneityum.” 1861.

. CopELAND, Rev. J.—‘‘ Sheet of Meteorological Observations

Made at Futuna Island during tha years
Dunedin, 1878.

. Duncan, Prof.—“‘ Types of the Lowest Races.” Folio.

London, 1874.

. GABELENTZ, H. C. von pER.—‘ Die Melanesischen Sprachen,

&e.” Leipsic, 1860.

. GARNIER, J ULES.—‘‘ La Nouvelle Calédonie et Tahiti.” 12mo.

Paris, 1871.

. GrezEL, Le Peére.—“ Dictionnaire Futunien-Francais, avec

Notes Grammaticales.” 8vo. Paris, 1878.

. Guppy, H. B. (late surgeon R.N.).—‘“ The Solomon Islands

and their Natives.” S8vo. 1887.

. Hoop, T. H.—‘“ Notes of a Cruise of H.M.S. Fawn in the

Western Pacific in 1862.” 8vo. Edinburgh, 1863.

. Ineuis, Rev. J. (D.D.).—“A Dictionary of the Aneit-

yumese Language.” 8vo. London, 1882.

. Inauis, Rev. J. (D.D.).—‘“‘In the New Hebrides.” 8vo.

London, 1887.

. Macponatp, Rey. D. (Havannah Harbour, New Hebrides).

“Oceania: Linguistic and Anthropological.” 8vo.
Melbourne, 1889.

. Macponatp, Rev. D.—‘ Three New Hebrides Languages

(Efatese, Eromangan, Santo).” 8vo. Melbourne, 1889.

Marxuam, Com. A. H. (R.N.).—‘ The Cruise of the Rosario
Amongst the New Hebrides and the Santa Cruz
Islands.” 8vo. 1873.

Martin’s “Colonial Magazine.” Articles on the various
Islands and Groups of Melanesia, in vols. ili., iv., V., Vi.
vii., vill, 1840-42.

27.

RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. 303

. McFartane, Rev. 8.—‘‘Story of the Lifu (Loyalty Islands)

Mission.” 12mo. London, 1873.

. Meyer, Dr. A. B.—“ Beitriige der Kentniss der Melanesis-
chen, Mikronesischen und Papuanischen Sprachen.”
Leipsic, 1882.

. Pickertne (see Polynesia).

. Rienzi, G. L. Domeny pE.—“ Océanie.” Paris, 1836.
. Rominty, H. H.—‘‘The Western Pacific and New Guinea.”

8vo. 1886.

. SmyrHe, Mrs.—‘“Ten Months in the Fiji Islands.” 8vo.

1867.

. TyerMAN, D., and Bennett, G. (see Polynesia).
. Watuace, A. R.—“ Australasia.” In Sranrorp’s “ Compen-

dium of Geography and Travel.” Chapters xxii., xxiii.,
and Appendix.

WILKEs (see Polynesia).

Articles on the various groups and islands of Melanesia will be
found in the “ Encyclopedia Britannica.”

(4.) Mrentanesia (NEW GUINEA.)

. CHALMERS, JAs., and Git, W. Wyatt (B.A., LL.D.).—“ Work

and Adventure in New Guinea, 1877-85.” 12mo.
London, 1885.

. Earue, G. Winpsor.—‘‘ The Papuan Races of the Indian

Archipelago.” 12mo. London, 1853.

. Lawes, Rev. W. G.—‘‘Grammar and Vocabulary of the

Language Spoken by the Motu Tribe, New Guinea.”
With Introduction by Rev. Gro. Pratt. 8yvo. Sydney,
1885.

. Linpt, J. W.—“ Picturesque New Guinea; with Chapters

on the Manners and Customs of the Papuans.” With
50 autotype illustrations. 4to. 1887.

. Stone, O. C.—‘‘ A few Months in New Guinea.” With

Illustrations and a Vocabulary. 12mo. London, 1880.

. TrEGANCE.—“ Adventures of Lewis Trégance; Nine Years a

Captive in the Interior of New Guinea.” Edited by
Rev. H. Croker. 12mo. London, 1876.

. Woop, J. G.—“ The Papuan Race, their Customs, &.” In

Vol. II. of ‘*Wood’s Natural History of Man.” Illus-
trated. 2 vols., royal 8vo. London, 1868-70.

Articles on New Guinea, the New Hebrides, New Caledonia,

and the other adjacent groups will be found in the “ Encyclopedia

304 AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN

Britannica,” ‘Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of
London,” and ‘“ Proceedings of the Royal Colonial Institute.”

Books and pamphlets in the native languages of MELANESIA
are :—
New Hebrides, etc.

In the languages of Aneityum, Futuna, Tanna, Eromanga,

Aniwa, Efaté, Nguna, Epi, Ambrym:—Primer, Catechism,

Hymn Book, Lesson Book, Vocabulary, portions of the

Bible (the earliest of these dating from the year 1855).

The Aneityumese has the whole Bible (1889) and the

‘“‘Pilgrim’s Progress,” also a dictionary of the language.
Almanacs were printed in 1855 and 1859.

Of the Northern Groups of Melanesia,

Motu Island
Has the Lord’s Prayer, Reading Book, and Hymns in the
native language.
Solomon Islands
Have Prayers and Scripture Readings.

New Britain

Has Catechism and Hymns, a Dictionary and Grammar, and
St. Mark’s Gospel.

(5).—Tue First Isianps.

1. Erskine, J. E. (R.N.).—“ Journal of a Cruise Among the
Islands of the Western Pacific, Fiji, &c., in H.MLS.
Flavannah.” 8vo. London, 1853.

Gorpon-Cumminea, Miss C. F.—‘‘ At Home in Fiji.” 2 vols.,
12mo. London, 1881.

3. Hazitewoop, Rev. D.—‘ A Fijian and English Dictionary.”

8vo. Fewa, 1850.
4. HazLewoop.—‘ A Fijian and English and an English and
Fijian Dictionary, &c., with a Grammar of the
’ Language.” 8vo. London.
5. Moorr, Rev. Wm.—‘“ Handbook of the Fijian Language.”
8vo. Hobart, 1866.

6. Prircnarp, W. T. (H.M. Consul at Samoa and Fiji).—
“Polynesian Reminiscences.” 8vo. London, 1866.

i)

7. Scuoues, S. E.—‘“ Fiji and the Friendly Islands; their
Scenery and People.” 16mo. London, 1882.

RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. 305

8. Turner, Geo. (LL.D.).— “ Nineteen Years in Polynesia,
Fiji, &c.” 12mo. London, 1884.

9. WatTeRHOUSE, Rev. JosepH.—“ The King and People of
Fiji.” 12mo. London, 1866.

10. Wituiams, Rev. T. and Catvert, Jas.—‘ Fiji and the
Fijians; the Islands and their Inhabitants. 2 vols.,
12mo. London, 1858.

Books in Native Language are :—

** Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress.” London, 1867.

“ Teacher’s Hymn Book, Catechism, and Book of Offices.’
London, 1884.

“ Church History.” Barth. London, 1867.

“System of Theology.” Hunt. Viti, 1850.

“ Lectures on the Doctrines of Christianity and Wes-
leyan Catechism.” London, 1884.

Arithmetic (no date).

Catechism, 1863.

Geography, 1879.

Arithmetic Book, 1871.

Hymn Book, 1884.

Outline of Theology, 1863.

History of Daniel and Esther, 1883.

The New Testament. Mission Press, Vuva, Fiji, 1853.

The Bible. London, 1864 and 1867.

(6.) MiIcRONESIA.

1. Martin’s “Colonial Magazine.”—Articles on the various
Islands and Groups of Micronesia in vols. v., vi., Vil., Vill.

1840-42. And in the “ Encyclopedia Britannica.”
Some of the books on Polynesia also include Micronesia.
2. Meyer (see Melanesia).
3. Watuace, A. R.—“ Australasia,” in “Stanford’s Compen-
dium.” Chap. XXV.

Pamphlets in the native languages are :—

Gilbert Islands—
Spelling Book, 1860; Catechism, Hymn Book, Geography.

Marshall Islands—

Arithmetic Book, 1863 ; Hymn Book, 1869; Geography, Spelling
Book, Reading Book.
i

306

bo

“J

10.

ike

17.

AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN

(7.) Poynesta.

. Anprews, Lorrin.—“ Grammar of the Hawaiian Language.”

8vo. Honolulu, 1854.

Anprews, Lorrin.— A Dictionary of the Hawaiian Lang-
uage.” 8vo. Honolulu, 1865.

Aneas, G. FrencH.—“ Polynesia; a Description of the
Physical Features, Inhabitants, History, and Productions
of the Islands of the Pacific.” 12mo. London, 1866.

ArsousseT, To.—‘ Tahiti et les [les Adjacentes.” 12mo.
Paris, 1867.

Birp, J. L.—‘“‘ Hawaiian Archipelago; Six Months in the
Sandwich Islands.”

BoppamM-WHeEtTHAM, J. W.—‘“ Pearls of the Pacific.” 8vo.
London, 1876.

. BrencuiEy, Jutius L.—‘“Jottings During the Cruise of

H.M.S8. Curacoa Among the South Sea Islands in 1865.”
With Illustrations and Natural History notices. 2 vols.,
8vo. 1873.

Buzacotr.— Mission Life in the Pacific (Tahiti, Rarotonga);
Life of Aaron Buzacott.” 12mo. 1866.

CHEEVER, Rev. Henry T.—‘“‘ The Island World of the Pacific
(Hawaii).” 12mo. Glasgow, 1857.

CuEeEVER, Rev. Henry T.—“ Life in the Sandwich Islands:
As It Was and As It Is.” 12mo. London, 1857.
Cook and Kine.—Atlas, containing two charts of Cook’s

Discoveries and 61 plates of the Races of the South
Pacific. Folio.
Coox.—‘‘ The Three Voyages of Captain Jas. Cook;” with an

appendix giving an account of the present condition of
the South Sea Islands. 2 vols., 4to. 1846.

. Cooper, H. StonrHEwER.—“ Coral Lands.” 2 vols., 8vo.

London, 1880.

. Daviss, Rev. Jonn.—“A Tahitian and English Dictionary.”

Ato; Tahiti, 1857:

. Dipsir, Rev. SHELDoN.—“ History of the Sandwich Islands.”

12mo. Lahainalima, 1843.

. Exviis, Wu.—“ Narrative of a Tour Through Hawaii; with

Observations on the Natural History of the Island and
its Inhabitants.” 8vo. London, 1824.

Exuis, Wm.—“ Polynesian Researches, Natural History of
the Islands, History, Mythology, Traditions, Arts,
Manners and Customs of the Islanders.” 2 vols., 8vo.
London, 1829. 4 vols., 8vo. London, 1859

18.

19.

20.

_

RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. 307

FornaNDER, ABRAHAM.—‘“ The Polynesian Race ; its Origin,
Migrations, and Ancient History of the Hawaiian
Peoples.” 3 vols., 8vo. London, 1878-85.

Git, Rev. W. Wyarr (B.A., LL.D.).—“ Myths and Songs
from the South Pacific.” With preface by Max Miiller.
12mo. London, 1876.

Git, Rev. W. Wyarr (B.A., LL.D.).—“ Life in the Southern
Isles ; or, Scenes in the South Pacific and New Guinea.”
12mo. London, 1876.

. Gitt, Rev. W. Wyarr (B.A., LL.D.).—“ Historic Sketches

of Savage Life in Polynesia.” With illustrations, clan
songs, &c. 8yvo. Wellington (N.Z.), 1880.

. Gitt, Rev. W. Wyarr (B.A., LL.D.).—“ Jottings from the

Pacific.” 8vo. London, 1885.

. Gint, Rev. W. Wyarr (B.A., LL.D.).—“Gems from the

Coral Islands of the South Seas.” 8vo. London, 1856.

. GopEeFrFRoy Museum, Catalogue of—Being a Handbook of the

Ethnography and Ethnology of the South Sea Tribes,
including Australians, by J. D. E. Scumetrz and R.
Kransz, M.D. Map and 46 plates. 8vo. Hamburg,
1881.

. GopEFFRoy Musrum.—Album of 28 Photographs, containing

175 subjects, with descriptions. 4to. Hamburg, 1881.

. Grey, Sir Georce.—“ Polynesian Mythology and Ancient

Tradition ; History of the New Zealand Race, as
furnished by their Priests and Chiefs.” &vo. London,
1855.

i Jarves, J. J.—‘ The Hawaiian Islands ; their Antiquities,

Mythology, Legends, History, &c.” With additions by
H. M. Wuritney. 8vo. Honolulu, 1872.

. Keans, A. H.—“ The Philology and Ethnology of Polynesia.”

In Wallace’s “ Australasia.” (See 47.)

. Lane, Rev. J. Dunmore.—‘ Origin and Migration of the
Polynesian Nation, &c.” 8vo. Sydney, 1877.

. Lunpiz, G. A.—“ Missionary Life in Samoa.” Being the
Journals of Gro. ArcH. Lunpiz, 1840-41. 12mo.
Edinburgh, 1846.

. Mariner.—“ Account of the Natives of the Tonga Islands.”
Edited by Dr. Jonn Martin. 2 vols., 8vo. London,
1878.

. Murray, Rev. A. W.—“ Missions in Western Polynesia.”

8vo. London, 1863.

. Murray, Rev. A. W.—“The Martyrs of Polynesia, &c.,

from 1799 to 1871.” 8vo. London, 1885.
T2

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

4].

42.

43.

44,

45.

46.

47.

48.

49,

AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN

. Murray, Rev. A. W.—“ Forty Years’ Mission Work in

Polynesia and New Guinea.” 12mo. London, 1876.

. Perkins, Epwarp T.—‘The Hawaiian, Georgian, and
Society Islands.” With plates. 8vo. New York,
1854.

Pickerine, Cuas. (M.D.) (Member of the U.S. Exploring

Expedition.—“ The Races of Man and their Geogra-
phical Distribution.” 8vo. London, 1854.

Pratt, Rev. Gro.—“A Samoan Dictionary; English-
Samoan and Samoan-English ; with a Short Grammar.”
8vo. Samoa, 1862.

PritcuarD, W. T.—‘ Polynesian Reminiscences.” By W. T.
PritcHarD, H.B.M.’s Consul at Samoa and Fiji. 8vo.
London, 1866.

Rienzi, G. L. Domeny pre.—‘ Océanie ; Revue Geographique
et Ethnographique de Melaisie, Micronesie, Polynesie,
Melanesie.” 3 vols., 8vo. Plates and Maps. 1836-37.

RussEtL, Bishop M. (LL.D.).—“ Polynesia: Account of the
Islands of the South Sea, including New Zealand, their
Inhabitants, &c.” 12mo. Edinburgh, 1842.

Stewart, Rev. C. S.—‘ Private Journal of the Rev. C. S.
Stewart, Missionary to the Sandwich Islands.” 12mo.
Dublin, 1830.

Stewart, Rev. C. S.—‘*A Residence in the Sandwich
Islands.” With Introduction and Notes by EL.Is.
12mo. London, 1832.

TurNER, Rev. Gro.—“ Nineteen Years in Polynesia ;
Missionary Life and Travel.” 8vo. London, 1861.

TuRNER, Rev. Gro.—‘‘ Samoa a Hundred Years Ago; with
Notes on the Cults and Customs of 23 other Islands in
the Pacific.” 12mo. London, 1884.

TyerMAN, D., and Bennett, G. — “Voyages and Travels
Round the World, 1821-29.” London, 1840.

VEESON, GEorGE.—‘“ Authentic Narrative of Four Years’
Residence at Tongatabu.” 8vo. London, 1810.

Wattace, A. B.—“ Australasia.” In Sranrorp’s “ Compen-
dium of Geography and Travel.” Chap. xxiv. and
Appendix by A. H. KEanr.

West, Rev. TuHomas.—‘Ten Years in South Central
Polynesia.” 8vo. London, 1865.
Witkes, Commodore CHariEs.—“‘ U.S. Exploring Expe-

dition to Polynesia and the Antarctic Regions in
1838-42,” 5 vols., 8vo. Philadelphia, 1845. London.

RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. 309

50. Woop, J. G. — “The Sandwich Islands.” In “ Wood’s
Natural History of Man.” Illustrated. 2 vols., royal
8vo. London, 1868-70.

Books, PAMPHLETS, &c., IN THE NATIVE LANGUAGES.

Rarotonga.

Catechism, 1847; Arithmetic, 1848; Pilgrim’s Pro-
gress, 1849 ; Hymn Book, 1852 ; Astronomy illustrated ;
English and Rarotongan Grammar (Buzacott) ; Bogue’s
Theological Lectures ; Scripture Lessons; Geography
and School Reading Book; the Laws of Rarotonga,
written by the chiefs, and printed at their special
request and cost, 1862—all printed at Rarotonga ;
Barth’s Church History; Commentaries on Several
Books of the Bible (William Gill); Ata Ao, “ Peep of
Day” (Mrs. W. W. Gill)—all printed at London;
and many others. The New Testament (translated by
John Williams), London, 1838; the Bible (translated
by Williams, Pitman, and Buzacott), 1st edition, London,
1851; 2nd edition (edited by William Gill), London,
1855; 3rd edition (edited by Geo. Gill and E. R. W.
Kranse), London, 1872; 4th edition (carefully revised
and carried through the press by Rev W. Wyatt Gill,
LL.D.), London, 1888.

Hawaiian.

Catechism on Bible History, 1832 ; Hymns and Times,
1834; Geography Book, 1845. Printed at Oahu.
Sacred Readings, 1841; Pilgrim’s Progress, 1842 ;
Arithmetic Book ; Church History ; Moral Philosophy ;
The Story of the Lady of the Twilight ; Baxter’s Saints’
Rest ; Evidences of Christianity ; Keith on the
Prophecies ; Wayland’s Moral Science; Wayland’s
Political Economy ; General History ; Ancient History;
the Bible ; and many others. Printed at Honolulu.

Maort.

Maori Catechism (the first book printed in New Zealand),
16mo., Kirikiri, 1825; The Pilgrim’s Progress; Robinson
Crusoe ; Poems, Traditions and Chants of the Maoris,
edited by Sir Geo. Grey; Proverbial and Popular
Sayings of the Ancestors of the New Zealand Race,
edited by Sir George Grey ; and other books; pamphlets
very numerous.

Margquesan.
Geography, Arithmetic, Hymn Book, 1869.

310 AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN

(8.) New ZEALAND.

1. Ancas, GeorcE FrencH.—“‘ The New Zealanders.” Illus-
trated. Folio. London, 1847.
2. AnGas, GEorGE FRENcH.—“ Polynesia ; a Popular Descrip-

tion of the Physical Features, Inhabitants, &e.” 8vo.
London, 1866.

3. ANGAS, GEORGE FrEeNcH.—‘‘Savage Life and Scenes in
Australia and New Zealand.” 2 vols., 8vo. London,
1847.

4, Brown, Wmu.—‘ New Zealand and its Aborigines, and the
Means of Civilising Them.” 12mo. London, 1845.

. Buiier, Rev. Jas.—“ Forty Years in New Zealand ; with
an Account of Maoridom, &e.” 8vo. London, 1878.

6. CamMpBELL, Dr. J. L.—‘ Poenamo.” Sketches of the early
days of New Zealand. 8vo. 1881.

7. Fenton, F. D.—“ Origin and Migrations of the Maori People.”
8vo. Auckland, 1885.

8, Fenton, F. D.—‘“‘ Observations on the Aboriginal Inhabitants
of New Zealand.”

9. Grey, Sir Greo.—“ Polynesian Mythology and the Traditional
History of the New Zealand Race.” 12mo. London,
1855.

10. Jounstone, J. C.—‘‘ Maoria; Manners and Customs of the
Aboriginal Inhabitants of New Zealand.” 12mo. 1874.

11. MaunsetLt, Rev. R.—‘“‘Grammar of the New Zealand
Language.” Third edition, Melbourne, 1882; first
and second editions, Auckland, 1842, 1862.

12. Potack, J. S.—“‘ Manners and Customs of the New
Zealanders, &e.” 2 vols., 8vo. London, 1840.

13. Rutuerrorp.—‘ The New Zealanders; Account of New
Zealand and its Inhabitants.” With a History of Jon
RUTHERFORD, a Sailor, Detained among them Several
Years (1816-27). 12mo. 1830.

14. SHortTLAND, Epwarp.—‘‘The Southern Districts of New
Zealand, with Notices of the Aborigines.” 12mo.
London, 1851.

15. SHorTLAND, Epwarp.—Traditions, Superstitions, Manners
and Customs of the New Zealanders.” 2nd edition. 12mo.
London, 1856.

16. Taytor.—“Te ika a Maui; or, New Zealand and its
Inhabitants, their Origin, Manners, Customs,
Mythology, Religion, Songs, Proverbs, Fables and
Language.” 8vo. London, 1870.

Or

RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. 31}

17. Wuitt, Joun.—“Te Rou; or, the Maori at Home.” 8vo.
1874.

18. Wurtz, Joun.—“‘The Ancient History of the Maori; His
Mythology and Traditions.” 8vo, Wellington, 1887.

19. Wixiiams, W.—“ Dictionary of the New Zealand Language.”
8vo. London, 1852 and 1871.

20. Woop, J. G.—“ The Maoris.” In ‘“ Wood’s Natural History
of Man.” Illustrated. 2 vols., 8vo. London, 1868-70.

II.—REPORT ON THE AUSTRALASIAN, PAPUAN,
AND POLYNESIAN RACES.

(1.) New Guinea. Toaripr and Ko1ari TRIBES, BY
THE Rev. JAMES CHALMERS.

(2) TOARIPI TRIBE.

BIRTH AND CHILDHOOD.

In many of the tribes a feast is prepared by relatives when a
woman is known to have conceived, but here (Toaripi, or Motu-
motu) nothing is done. After conception a woman is not sacred,
but hes with her husband until near childbirth. When she feels
the pains of childbirth, she goes to the bush close by, and
selecting a cocoanut or other large tree, lies down beside it. A
friend brings her a chatty of water and a shell. She is left
alone, and does everything for herself and the child. The after-
birth she takes home and presents to her mother or other near
relative, who keeps it for a day or two, when it is thrown into
the sea. Ifa son is born, great is the joy ; if a girl—well, only
a little pleased. She cooks her own food, but the husband does
not partake of food cooked by her; he remains away from her
until the child is well grown, when he enters the house, talks
with his wife, and nurses the child. There is no cohabitation
until the child is grown and able to crawl about. Only then
will the husband have connection with her and eat food cooked
by her. A man having connection with his wife before then
would injure the child, who would sicken and die.

A woman having another child before one is quite grown is
spoken of as an animal, a pig, or something else ; she would be
terribly ashamed. An Eastern Polynesian woman had two
children within a year, and the natives were horribly disgusted,
and said she was only a sow.

312 AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN

For the first child, on the fifth day after birth, food is cooked
by the husband’s and wife’s relatives, and the women of the
village where the woman who has given birth to the child resides
partake of it.

Only illegitimate children are killed. There is no infanticide
and no cannibalism.

Children are named by relatives—if a girl, the mother’s friends
give the name ; if a boy, the father’s friends. A name will be
given for a quarrel, or a journey, or anything particular occurring
on it, or sickness. A man is now here named by a relative who
at the time of his birth was suffering from a sore chest, and he
named the child Harepai (sore chest). They do not actually kill
deformed children, but they are so neglected that they soon die.
They do not pierce the nose until the child is about five or six
years old, having no superstition regarding it. The mother
carries the child in her arms, or, when going a distance, in a net
bag over her back. The father frequently nurses the child.
Yesterday a father returned from a journey, and when safely
landed, his wife met him, gave him the child, which he nursed
affectionately, whilst the wife carried home the things on the
canoe. Such may be seen any day. The child suckles until
walking about. Children are lovingly cared for by parents and
relatives. Uncles and aunts take as great an interest in the
children as the parents do. They are not disciplined, are taught
planting, sago-making, and fighting.

There is no betrothal in infancy. When young women, they
are betrothed. Parents make all arrangements, but not unless it
is agreeable to the young man and woman.

MATURITY.

Fourteen and fifteen years old. There are no observances at
that time. Lads, when about seventeen or eighteen, leave off the
sporran worn by all boys, enter the Eramo (temple or dubu), and
these adopt the string, shave the head, and remain for many
months until the hair has grown long and frizzy. Before entering
the Eramo the father, or nearest relative, kills a pig and makes
a feast, and invites all friends to assemble. A relative takes off
the sporran, and fastens on the sihi (string), after which all sit
down and eat. When the hair is well grown he leaves the Eramo,
and again there is feasting. He is now considered a man, and is
marriageable. When in the Eramo he is not supposed to look upon
or be seen by a woman. Female friends cook food and leave it
outside, making a noise as they leave, and shortly the lad
‘descends, takes it into the Eramo, and eats it. They spend the
time in the Eramo making armlets from fibres. The old men, who
live mostly in the Eramo, occupy themselves in working (plaiting)
belts, which are worn by young men after birth of the first child.

RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. 313

When the first child is born the father cooks a pig and food, and
the belt, being purchased with food, is then fastened on, there to
remain until rotten, or, on death of a near relation, it is cut off.

When in the Eramo, various kinds of food may not be eaten,
especially taro. Sago and bananas may be eaten, and only a very
few kinds of fish. The young man’s hair is shaven off on entering
by a friend, for whom he will do the same.

Not until after they have left the Eramo is the “ Roaring
Bull” seen. On the occasion of its being worked all women and
children and young men keep away. Near to here are two large
houses filled with masks, which are all very sacred, and are now
kept from vulgar gaze until after a large feast, soon to be held,
when they will be used for dancing, and afterwards burned. A short
time ago two old men sat in one of the houses, communicating
with the spirits and working the “Bull.” Large quantities of
food were brought them by men. Not until a youth has been
in the Eramo can he wear a mask or join in the dances and
drum-beatings of the tribe, and only then is he considered a man.
Not until he has descended from the Eramo does he know a
woman. All singing, dancing, and drum-beating are considered
sacred, and never uselessly done.

There is no circumcision practised in the Toaripi Tribe.

MARRIAGE.

When about fourteen years of age, boys and girls go planting
in different places, and there is a custom (Hiriho), when the
afternoon arrives, the boys get their bows and arrows and rush
the girls, who make for the sea, and if one of them is wounded,
she is supposed to become the wife of the boy who fired the arrow.
Many girls attend school who, a few days ago, were wounded.

As already stated, there is no betrothal in infancy. A young
man gives areca nuts to a girl, and she tells her parents, and the
young man informs his. The youth’s father then gets bananas
and areca nuts and carries them to the maiden’s parents, and if
accepted they are said to be betrothed, and the girl carries firewood
at night to the boy’s home. They are not married until the young
man leaves the Eramo. Should the girl not care for the lad, she
informs her parents, and the bananas and areca nuts are returned.

Before marriage, food is collected in large quantities by parents
and relations of the young man, and on a fixed day carried to the
girl’s home. Her parents dress her in feathers, arm-shells, shell
necklaces, and best petticoats. The bridegroom remains at his
home. The girl, when dressed, sits on a mat in presence of the boy’s
parents and eats out of a dish cooked specially for her. She then
rises, and her father places on her shoulder a bow and a bundle of
arrows, and she then accompanies the boy’s parents to their home.
A large party accompanies them, all carrying food, and preceded

314 AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN

by a man carrying a bunch of ripe bananas, which he distributes
one at a time to the crowd of children and others who follow.
On arrival at the bridegroom’s home, she takes off all her finery,
which then becomes the property of the husband’s parents, and
she presents him with the bow and arrows; a dish of food having
been prepared, they both eat out of it. The day after, the woman’s
head is shaven and a large feast is prepared and distributed to
each Eramo. She is now a married woman, and does all the
work of a married woman.

Relations do not as a rule marry. They are polygamists, but
only a few have more than one wife. When two or more
wives, they all live in one house. Polygamy is not restricted to
chiefs,

The classification is from the father, and in the event of war
children would join the father’s tribe.

Sons and daughters share alike in land. A woman takes land
with her, and dying without issue, the land would return to her
own family, brothers or sisters. If there are children, they
claim it.

Widows, if they have children, remain with the husband’s friends ;
if no children, they return to their own families. Should a widow
again marry, the payment for her is very great, and goes to the
first husband’s relatives.

Orphans are well cared for by relatives of the father and
mother ; after death of both parents they are divided.

Women do all the cooking, and a great part of the fishing.
Husband and wife plant, fetch wood, make sago, &e.

As a rule the women are well treated; not many beat their
wives. A husband beating his wife would have to bear the wrath
of all her relatives.

Sometimes a woman, after a quarrel, will leave her husband, and
will remain with her relatives until fetched back by him. A
woman leaving her husband takes all the children with her.

THE TRIBE.

There is one language, one tradition. There are several chiefs,
and no distinction between them. Chieftainship is handed down,
and if there are no sons the girls can take it. The chief is
supposed to have plenty of pigs, and makes feasts, assisted by
his friends. He is not supposed to fight, and does not carry
warlike implements—only goes about with a net bag containing
areca nuts, betel, pepper, and lime calabash.

They have no councils. Each one does his own sweet will.
Breach of custom is punished by the sufferer. Theft or any other
crime is so also, Asa rule there is very little crime. When food
is stolen all denounce it, and it may lead to serious quarrels.

RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. 315

SOCIAL AND DOMESTIC.

Huts are built of wood, on wooden piles about 9 feet above
the ground. The house slants towards the back. In the front
there is a platform. They plant yams, taro, sweet potatoes, sugar-
cane, and always have plenty. There is a very large supply of
sago, and at all times itis used. Spoons made from cocoanuts
are used for sago and any other soft food, a one-pronged fork is
used for other food. They always cook in pots bought from the Motu
tribe. They have two mealsa day asa rule, sometimes only one.

Husband sleeps in the Eramo, and only occasionally visits his
wife, and very seldom sleeps a whole night with her. When
they are alone in plantations they will have intercourse.

Father and small children will eat together, and mother, grown-
up daughters, daughters-in-law or other female relatives eat apart.
Sometimes grown-up sons will eat with the father, but more
frequently come in after the meal and have their food.

Strangers are kindly treated and fed regularly as long as they
like to remain. Male strangers live in the Eramos, women in
houses with other women. They cover themselves from the cold
with a cloth, made by the men from the bark of a tree, some
made from mulberry tree.

They are greatly given to ornamenting themselves, using
various coloured ochres, and marking in various ways. They
wear feathers and shell ornaments of various kinds, also collars,
garters, and anklets made of netted twine. All men on feast
days wear a large carved belt, made from the bark of a tree.
They are all well nourished.

wiIzaRDs (Karisu Vita).

There are none here, but plenty at Kerema and Vailala. A
spirit enters into a man, and he becomes Karisu Vita. The spirit
gives him power. When he desires to kill anyone he gets various
kinds of plants, cooks them, and drinks the water. He then goes
outside, and near to where the party is asleep whom he wishes to
destroy. He goes through some incantations, when pigs’ and
dogs’ bones enter into sleeping one, who soon wakes up ill, and
not long after dies. The spirit is said then to carry heart, lungs
and liver to some other place, where they are buried.

These Karisu Vita are employed by others, and receive large
payment in pigs, shell ornaments and feathers.

When anyone is sick the Karisu Vita is fetched, who prays, and
then extracts from the sick one’s body pigs’ and dogs’ bones, and
sometimes men’s. He is then paid. Should the sick one die, it
is because some spirit is having revenge for some misdeed.

The Karisu Vita can cause sickness, and can drive it away.
They declare the cause of death, and point out who killed.

316 AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN

The rain-makers, lightning and thunder makers, sun, wind and
calm makers reside chiefly at Oiapu, and receive payment from
people all round. There is one here, and he often gets payment
for wind, rain and sun.

To frighten away general sickness they beat drums, blow
conchs, throw fire-sticks, and shout.

DEATH.

Only old people die natural deaths. All others are slain by
spirits, it matters not how they die. Relatives assemble and
mourn, and cut themselves with shells. The body is dressed in
all the ornaments belonging to the deceased. They dig a grave
and then place the body in it. In the evening all ornaments are
taken off, the body is covered over, and never again uncovered.
A house is built over the grave, and relatives sleep there. Ifa
husband dies, the widow throws off her petticoats and goes about
as if demented. Her first sign of mourning is to plaster herself
all over with river mud and live naked over the grave. Friends
bring her food, which she cooks. Three months after death a
feast is made, and she goes into black, which is made from burnt
cocoanut husk and water. The last mourning isa dress that
covers from the neck to the knees, made of native twine, netted.
Widows mourn for very long. Ihave known them continue it
for three or four years.

After death the spirit roves about until there is plenty of food
got together, when a double canoe is carried to the side of the
grave. A number of young men, artistically dressed in their
finest, get in, and stand with paddles ready to pull. A large
quantity of food is placed on the centre, the widow sits beside it,
there is then a loud, long shout, and the young men paddle.
They soon get out, and the canoe and food is carried to the river,
and in the evening the food and areca nuts are divided amongst
the relatives. The spirit has now gone to Lavau, far away to
the west.

SPIRIT WORLD.

Motu motu (Toaripi) spirits go to the west, and there all
meet. Those there first will be informed of the approach of
friends, and they will come to meet them, throw their arms
round them, and embrace them. In Lavau they build houses,
plant food, and live as man and wife as we do here. Itis a
good place, with a constant and plenteous supply of food.

MYTHOLOGY.

Hiovaki Semese, one spirit, who lives in the heavens, made
the sea and the land. There was nothing until he descended.
When he made the sea and land he dwelt at Meveave, and there

RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. 317

he planted trees which cause elephantiasis ; hence the prevalence
of that disease at Meveave. They take offerings to Hiovaki, and
seek his favour in fighting. All killed in fighting go to Hiovaki.
Hiovaki is the son of Semese by his wife Kauue. He has a
younger brother, and they divide work—Miai is his name.

Hiovaki made first men and women from a cocoanut tree
which he cut down, and he first taught men how to build houses
and Eramos.

I cannot find that they deify heroes or ancestors. Spirits
both help and injure men.

PHILOLOGY (see Motu Grammar).

(5) KOIARI TRIBE.

BIRTH AND CHILDHOOD.

When a woman is known to have procreated, her husband
takes a spear and points it at her breasts, signifying he wants a
son, ales being more desired than females. When it is certain
a woman is in such a state, food is cooked and a feast (udugui)
is made by the parents of the husband and wife, and eaten by the
woman and all friends and relatives. The woman is not then
sacred, but cooks food and sleeps with her husband.

When pains of childbirth first begin, her friends get a supply
of dried banana leaves, spread them on the floor, and on these she
lies. The house will be full of women, the only males present
being her father and husband. The father will call on the spirits
of his forefathers to come and help his beloved daughter in her
pains. He will take an old cocoanut, break it in two, and over
it prays that the child may be quickly born. Food is cooked by
the woman’s friends, and the women in attendance eat it. The
husband, when the pains are great, takes off his sihi (string—
only article of clothing worn) and armlets and sits apart. The
sihi is made fast to a rafter in the roof, and in pain the woman
hangs on to it. An old man, a member of that part of the tribe,
is fetched, who looks at the woman, then goes inland and plucks
long grass, returns to the house, breaks the grass up small and
places it in a dish, pours water over it, repeating a prayer and
breathing on it. The grass is then thrown away, and the water
poured on the woman’s head, who sips what flows over to her
mouth. The old man leaves, and soon after the child is born.

When the child is born, food is prepared by friends of both
parties. When the navel string drops (dokoru negea), more
food is cooked.

The woman stays in the house after the birth of her first child
for a month or two. When she goes out for the first time, food
is again cooked (hadihoa). From the birth the woman becomes

318 AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN

sacred, and is not touched by the husband, nor can he approach
any other woman, until the child is grown, crawls about, and
picks up food.

The woman does not cook food during the time the child is
small, lest the child should suffer ; the husband cooks, or friends
for him.

Illegitimate children only are destroyed. I know of no
infanticide anywhere in New Guinea.

The first-born child, if a son, is named by the father; if a
daughter, by friends. Children are named frequently from events.

Deformed children are not destroyed. Fathers frequently
nurse children, and are very fond of them.

Children are carried in arms, and, when grown, on the hips.
The cradle used is a netted bag, hung up to a rafter, and swung
to and fro.

The child is long suckled. I have seen children playing with
spears, bows and arrows, sporting in the sea, and spying the
mother, rush up to her, insist on her sitting down until they have
been suckled. Women suckling frequently suckle a young pig or
a pup at the same time. I have seen a child at one breast and
a pig at another.

Nothing is applied to the child’s head to regulate its shape.
When the child is first washed with lukewarm water the head is
squeezed to make it round. At Levalupoand Eelema, after birth,
the mother and child bathe in the sea.

All children are lovingly cared for. Discipline is unknown,
“they grow.” Fathers teach sons to fight, hunt, fish, plant, and
to make nets, and mothers teach girls to make pottery, cook, &e.

Children are betrothed sometimes in infancy by their parents.
The boy’s father, seeing a nice girl, or because of friendship, will
take a present of food to the girl’s parents, signifying he wishes
their daughter for his son. If the food is taken it is agreeable,
and the betrothal is made. The mother and daughter will
constantly visit the boy’s home, fetching water, wood and food.
The food is cooked in the boy’s house by the girl’s mother, and
eaten by the boy’s parents.

MATURITY (Zidua-koht).

When menses are first seen, the girl will be ordered to wash the
blood off her legs, and taught how to use her under rami (petticoat).
When getting better food is cooked, and friends invited, and an
aunt will then take some of the food, pass it round her head,
body, and under her legs, praying to the spirits that the girl may
grow up strong, beautiful and pure. The girl will be taught to keep
pure, to remember that for a virgin a great price is paid. During
menstruation she is not allowed to eat pig, fish, or kangaroo.
They reach the age of maturity when thirteen or fourteen years
old.

RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. 319

At Kabadi and Nara, girls, on reaching maturity, are kept
indoors for a long time, well fed, and not allowed to be in the
sun. When they are to go out a feast is prepared by her parents,
and she mixes with the company, dressed up with all the finery
available.

Girls also have tattoo marks made at various times, and when
menses appear, the fima/e is made between the legs and back, and
then she waits until marriage, when her chest is done.

In Motu and other tribes, lads when about 14 years old, or
when hair appears, receive the sihi (string). When the parents.
think the time has arrived he is sent to his aunt on father’s side
with food, pig, and arm-shells, and she ties on the sihi. He
receives presents from father’s and mother’s relatives, and visits
every part of the village. If there is any girl he likes he may
spend the evenings with her, she lying close to him, it may be on
his arm, but they must have no intercourse. If he has not been
betrothed he can then select the girl he wishes for wife, and will
inform his parents of it.

There is no circumcision, and the only place I have seen it was
on Rook Island.

MARRIAGE.

Marriage is by payment. After betrothal, the boy’s parents
and relatives give articles of value to the girl’s parents, also give
food, fish, wallaby, and pig, when these can be got. Near relatives
do not marry.

A young man who has been betrothed will sleep in the girl’s
house, leaving it before morning light; his parents, knowing where
he has been, will ask him if he has been with the girl, and if they
had connection. The same is asked of the girl by her parents, and
if answered in the affirmative, the girl is that day taken to the
husband’s house, food is cooked by the friends of both parties,
husband and wife eat out of one dish, and she remains in the
husband’s home. Afterwards, final payment is made, the husband’s
friends carry to the bride’s parents, arm-shells, necklaces, toma-
hawks, and food. The bride takes home with her to her husband
cooking pots, water pots, fish net, hunting net, spear and shield,
bow and arrows.

Many betrothed ones, not caring for one another, never come
together, and, the girl marrying another, the payment is made to
the betrothed. There is generally a good deal of trouble about
such lapses.

There is polygamy: it varies in the various tribes—in some
many, in others few. It depends upon the wealth of a man the
number of wives he has. The more he has the more food he will
have, and hence the greater man he becomes.

Children follow their father’s tribe, but can hold property in
their mother’s. In war they follow their father’s. Sometimes,

320 AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN

when brought up in the mother’s, they become members of
the same.

Property is divided equally between sons and daughters, and
the latter hold land equally with the former. A woman marrying
into another tribe takes land with her. Leaving her husband, or
dying childless, the land belongs to her father’s party. If there
are children, on the death of the parents property will be equally
divided between sons and daughters. A widow is treated very
well; she belongs to her husband’s party, and should she marry
again, the payment will go to them. When old they are well
cared for by their children and friends. Orphans are adopted by
the friends of their father and mother.

Relatives do not marry, as they say it is one blood. Cousins
of several degrees are called brothers and sisters.

The married woman is fairly well treated. Some husbands are
wife-beaters. The Kirarians (inland tribe) often kill their wives.
She is supposed to care for the house, fetch and cook food; she
assists in planting, but the husband does all the heavy work.
She follows to the fight, urges the husband on, and helps in
looting.

THE TRIBE.

In former ages there must have been chiefs of some power,
but now their power is very nominal. Nowhere is there a real
chief with kingly or priestly power to be felt.

A people speaking one language and with like traditions we
have called a tribe.

Many become chiefs by force of character, prowess, large
family connections, and plenty of food. These often come to the
front, and the real hereditary chief sinks into insignificance.
Sometimes a sorcerer will hold great influence over a tribe and
neighbouring tribes. The oldest member of a family would be
called a chief, and would be listened to in restraining from or
urging on to fight or kill. In making peace or friendship, it
would be done through him. Chiefs such as mentioned declare
taboo, order feasts and dances, and have a kind of superintendence
over others.

There is no tribal council and no law. There is no one who
can pass punishment on another. Only custom is honoured.
Breaking a taboo the spirits punish.

SOCIAL AND DOMESTIC.

Nearly everywhere huts are built on piles; at Maiva and
some parts of Eelema they are built on the ground. In the Motu
district some of the villages are built at sea. The huts vary in
kind, from the small humpy to the fine large houses of Kalo.
Some are square, with a level ridge pole; others are round at

RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. Sell

the top, and shaped like a canoe afloat ; others like a canoe turned
upside down; others like a crocodile with large open mouth.
They are built of wood, some of bamboo; some thatched with
sago leaf, others with nipa leaf, and others with long grass.
The flooring in some parts is large planks made from old canoes ;
in other tribes strips of palm, and, inland, frequently the sago
leaf stem.

In cultivating, the earth is turned over with long, pointed
sticks, natives standing in a row, and each native with two:
sticks. When dry, the women go over the ground, pick out all
roots and burn them, breaking up the clods with short pieces of
hard wood at the same time. The fencing and hard work
generally is done by the men, the women assisting. The women
plant, weed, and fetch, the men assisting. Yams, bananas, sweet
potatoes, and sugar-cane are the chief kinds of food, and in some
districts these grow abundantly.

Food is cooked in pots made from clay by the women, and in
some parts earth ovens are sometimes used.

There is only one meal a day, and that in the afternoon.

As a rule, strangers are kindly received, but sometimes
rudely, and even cruelly, treated. At Aroma they were badly
treated.

Visitors are generally met in a kindly manner, and have food
cooked for them. Friends bring dishes of food and place near to
visitors.

All the tribes love dress, and use flowers and variegated leaves.
In many parts they very artistically paint the face. On the head
they wear various kinds of head dresses made from birds’ feathers,
and greatly delight in the whole plume of the Paradisea regiana.
They have shell ornaments on the forehead, also necklaces, made
from small shells, dogs’ teeth, and kangaroos’ teeth. On the
breast they wear a large pearl-shell crescent. Everywhere they
wear tortoise-shell earrings ; in some districts they are very large.
In the nose they wear ground pieces of shell, and sometimes
coral, also pieces of wood when not dressed, On their arms they
have large toeas (arm-shells, made from a large conical shell) ; also
armlets, made from vines, pandanus leaves, and reeds. Round
the body they have belts of various kinds, some made of native
cloth and coloured, others made of the bark of a tree, nicely
carved, and inlaid with lime and red ochre. On legs they wear
knitted garters and anklets, some very tastefully worked. The
most dressy of all the tribes is the Eelema.

The Dahuni natives wear the soft part of the sago leaf, which
covers the person, and they look respectable. Mailiu, Aroma,
Levalupo, Motu, Eelema, and others wear only a string, and on
occasions a narrow piece of native cloth, coloured. Kabadi,
Nara, Lolo, Maiva, Kiveri, cover the person with a piece of native
cloth, and are ashamed if seen without it.

U

322 AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN

As a rule, the natives are well nourished, and have plenty to
eat; but some seasons, such as this, there is a great scarcity of
food in some districts, and hunger is known.

WIZARDS (OR SORCERERS).

Generally descend from father to son. Spirits are supposed to
be their familiars. They cause sickness, and remove it. They
withhold and give rain. They give fine weather at sea, and cause
storms. They kill by their magic, and discover the causes of
death. They are much feared, and large presents are given to
them, such as large pigs, arm-shells, necklaces, tomahawks,
tobacco, and food of various kinds.

DEATH.

Death occurs by some unseen agency. The sorcerer pronounces
the tribe that is guilty, and sometimes the individual, and then
the dead will be revenged, just as if they had been killed by the
hand of an enemy.

Spirits travel by night, and cause sickness and death.

Mourning continues for a long time. The juice from the body
is rubbed over the chest and back, and sometimes, mixed with
black, it is rubbed over the whole body. Friends and relatives
sleep over the grave. At stated times food is cooked, presented
to the dead, and eaten by the living. At death they cut them-
selves with shells and flint, and do so until the blood flows freely.

In Eelema, for some time they besmear themselves with mud
as a mark of mourning. Food is cooked, and they then use black.

The dead are wrapped in old mats or native cloth, and laid in
a grave covered with a plank. In some districts great mounds
of earth cover the graves.

The funeral is attended by friends and relatives, and these also
dig the grave. The grave is dug under the house or in the
village street.

A chief will be buried with his finery on. Over the grave, if a
man, the bow and arrows and spear used by him, also cooking
pot and dish, and small bag containing lime calabash and betel
nuts, will be placed. If a woman, her petticoat, cooking pots,
and dishes, and any other article she used much.

A year is very general for mourning for grown-up people,
especially for husband or wife. I have known widows in
mourning for three or four years, and widowers for two years. It
is indecent to get married within a year or two.

SPIRIT WORLD.

Spirits go west towards the setting sun. On leaving the body
they seek some point of land near to, and there await some

RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. 323

friendly spirits, who lead them away to a land of plenty. All
with a pierced nose pass into that country, hence every native
has the nose pierced in childhood. The Motuans say the spirit is
dried over a fire, and when light and dry is taken into Tauru.
Spirit land is one of plenty, and there they live as they do here.
There is death there, and after it the spirits become lights
(mamaro) that wander over the sea.

When chiefs or leading men in families are laid in the grave,
friends bend down and speak into their ears, and ask that they
may be remembered in that other state, and that they always may
have plenty of dugong, turtle, fish of all kinds, and kangaroo.

MYTHOLOGY.

The sorcerers and sorceresses have communication with spirits,
and it is they who know all about the other state. Spirits can
both help and injure men, and are more dreaded than loved.

PHILOLOGY.

See Motu Grammar, by Mr. Lawes, and list of words at end.

(2.) Maneara (Hervey Is~anps), By Rev. W. Wyarr GILL.

BIRTH AND CHILDHOOD.

On the island of Mangaia, in the Hervey Group, as soon as a
child is born, a leaf* of the Alocasia indica (Seeman) was cut off,
its sides carefully gathered up, and filled with pure water. Into
this extempore baptismal font the child would be placed. First
tieing with a bit of “tapa” (native cloth made from the inner
bark of the Broussonetia papyrifera) the part of the navyel-string
nearest the infant, the right hand of the operator longitudinally
divided the cord itself with a bamboo-knife. The dark coagulated
blood was then carefully washed out with water, and the name of
the child’s god declared, it having been previously settled by the
parents whether their little one should belong to the mother’s
tribe or to the father’s. Usually the father had the preference ;
but occasionally, when the father’s tribe was devoted to furnish
sacrifices, the mother would seek to save her child’s life by getting
it adopted into her own tribe, the name of her own tribal divinity
being pronounced over the babe. As a rule, however, a father
would stoically pronounce over his child the name of his own

* From 8 to 12 feet in circumference. The Alocasia indicu isa gigantic aroid, the native
name of which is “kape.”

v2

324 AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN

god, Utakea, Teipe, or Tangiia, which would almost certainly
insure its destruction in after years. It was done as a point of
honour; besides, the child might zo¢ be required for sacrifice,
although eligible. The bamboo-knife would be taken to the
“marae” of the god specified, and thrown on the ground to rot.
If a second god’s name were pronounced over the child, the
bamboo-knife would go to one “marae” and the name of the
babe only be pronounced over the second “marae.” The removal
of the coagulated blood was believed to be highly conducive to
health, all impurities being thus removed out of the system.

An analogy was believed to exist between the pith of a tree
and the umbilical cord at birth. Hence the expressions “ara io”
z.¢., “ pathway of the pith,” or simply “io” z.e., “ pith,” are still
used for ‘ God.”

On the island of Rarotonga, when a boy was born, a collection
of spears, clubs, and slinging stones was made. When the sun
was setting, a leaf of that gigantic aroid, A/ocasia indica, filled
with water, was held over these warlike weapons, and the umbilical
cord treated as above described. The idea was that the child
should grow up to be a famous warrior.

The wife is, as arule, isolated from her husband ten nights only.

Infanticide was rarely practised in the Hervey Group, excepting
at Rarotonga, where it was common.

In six out of of seven islands of the Hervey Group cannibalism
ceased only with the introduction of Christianity. It is worthy
of note that on the remaining island—Mangaia—this revolting
practice ceased defore the introduction of Christianity, a cireum-
stance unparalleled in Polynesia. It was in this wise: About a
century before the Gospel was conveyed to those islands, the
famous priest-chief, Mautara, had, by craft and force, crushed out
all his foes, and seized the reins of government. There was not a
person living on the island but was connected with him or his by
worship, blood, or marriage. When this far-seeing man acquired
absolute power, he wisely forbade cannibalism, through fear of
perpetuating the anarchy which for generations had existed. Still
the old habit showed itself again, even in Mautara; and solitary
instances of cannibalism are known to have taken place in later
times by stealth, not openly and constantly as in the early days.
. of the celebrated priest-chief.

Old cannibal Hervey Islanders have assured me that human
flesh is “‘far superior to pig.” My worthy friend and helper,
Maretu of Rarotonga, was, in early manhood, a cannibal. This
T learnt from his own lips. But the last generation that practised
cannibalism has entirely disappeared. Their descendants, in many
instances, through shame, deny the well-known facts of the past.

+In Maori “iho” (=io) means the funis umbilicus. See “Myths and Songs” by the
present writer, page 37.

RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. 325

At Mangaia, and, I believe, the other islands of the Hervey
Group, it was customary to prepare the body in this wise: The
long spear, inserted at the fundament, ran through the body,
appearing again with the neck. As on a spit, the body was slowly
singed over a fire, in order that the entire cuticle and all the hair
might be removed. The intestines were next taken out, washed
in sea-water, wrapped up in singed banana leaves (a singed
banana-leaf, like oil-silk, retains liquid), cooked and eaten, this
being the invariable perquisite of those who prepared the feast.
The body was cooked, as pigs now are, in an oven specially set
apart, red-hot basaltic stones, wrapped in leaves, being placed
inside to insure its being equally done. The best joint was the
thigh. In native phraseology, “‘nothing would be left but the
nails and the bones.” It is worthy of notice that only warriors
partook of these horrid feasts in the Hervey Group, very rarely,
and by stealth, women and children (as in times of famine), or the
remains of a broken clan hiding in the forest or in caves.
Indeed, when a warrior wished his son to partake of human flesh
for the first time, it was needful to deceive the lad by saying “it
was only a bit of pork.” Of course, when the truth oozed out,
the son felt less scruple in following the evil ways of his father
and uncles. Taoro, of Rarotonga, cooked his only child (a son) as
a return feast for his cannibal friends. There can be no question
that, at first, an inward voice protested against this unnatural
practice. Yet, after a time, they learned to giory in their shame.

For many generations after the settlement of the islands
cannibalism was rarely practised. Native traditions distinctly
informs zen it was first sanctioned by the authority of leading
men, and thus grew to be customary. Strange that on Mangaia
it should again have ceased. In the opinion of many, in the
deadlock which existed about the date of the introduction of
Christianity, the natives of Mangaia would have relapsed into
cannibalism. The deadlock was this :—Tead would only consent
to beat the drums of peace on condition that his two maternal
uncles, the leading vietorious warrior chiefs (Tead being himself
amongst the vanquished), were slain, and laid on the altar of
Rongo as the price of peace! It was for this that Teaé lost his
rank in after days.

Deformed children are very kindly treated indeed, although, ,
perhaps, the deformity was occasioned by the cruel treatment of
the parents in a burst of passion.

A single child is universally carried astride on the hip of the
mother. “Thy daughters shall be nursed at thy side” (Isaiah,
Ix. 4.). When there is a second child to be carried, it is placed
on the shoulders of the mother, so that it rides triumphantly,
holding on to the hair of the parent. This leaves one hip free to
carry a basket of food and cooking leaves. It is rare for a father
to carry his child.

326 AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN

I have known a lad, three years old, to be still suckled, but in
general the period of suckling does not extend beyond two years.
Too often infants are not suckled at all, on the plea that the
“ mother’s milk is bad.” Such children are ‘‘mama paru,” Ze.,
brought up by hand. — Bits of “taro” (Caladium fetiolatum), well
chewed, are given to it from time to time. The kernel of an old
cocoanut is finely scraped, the rich, oily juice is then expressed
from it, and given in small quantities to the infant. The spoon
anciently used for the purpose is the leaf of the gardenia. I have
often wondered how the stomach of the infants should be able to
stand it ; but they do, and become fine men and women. Of late,
however, the use of the cocoanut has gone out of fashion, much
to the detriment of the children. The soft, half-formed kernel
itself is much used as the child becomes stronger.

Many natives feed their new-born children on “ paka,” z.e., the
baked leaves of the “taro,” dipped in water. The mortality
amongst infants thus reared is great, and should they attain to
adult age they have a diminutive frame.

A chief’s child would have three or four wet nurses, in order
to produce the enormous frames for which they were famous.

It is customary for a native woman, when visiting her friend,
to suckle her infant.

At Rarotonga, to regulate the shape of the child’s head, it
was a common practice to apply slabs of soft wood (‘“ buka tea ”)
to the forehead and back of the head to produce the desired
shape, z.2.,a high head. This practice did not obtain on Mangaia,
nor, I think, on any other island of the Hervey Group.

It is still customary in the Hervey Group for mothers to press
with the palm of the hand the noses of their infants, so that they
may grow squat and round, “not (as I once overheard a woman
say) like the ¢izn, starved nose of the white race.”

When children are small they are spoiled by their parents ;
but when of a useful age all this disappears, and many of them
have a very hard life. The curse of native family life is adoption ;
this makes discipline almost impossible. A cross word will make
the youngster run off to its adopted parents, who sympathise
where they ought to scold. I have known parents take a present
of food to the runaway, and humbly entreat his return; but all
in vain! These adopted parents, however, will resolutely set
themselves to discharge the duties of real parents in teaching the
youngster the arts needful in after life.

The betrothal of the female child often takes place in the
families of chiefs, in order to secure a suitable match. In that
case the girl is continually receiving presents from the family
into which, at adult (say 13 or 14 summers) age, she is to marry.
Should the contract not be fulfilled, full payment is exacted for
all these gifts; but, as a rule, the contracts are well kept, so
many parties being interested in the the affair.

Ls |

RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. 32

MATURITY.

When circumcised, a lad considers himself to be a man. This
rite was not unfrequently delayed, so that the lad might become
a finer man. It was performed about the age of 17 or 18.

A Hervey Island girl may be considered mature at the age of
14. It must not be imagined that the ages of children were
marked off by years, as with us.

For females, a slight tatooing, the patterns being different
from those on males.

She is expected to make her aéut by taking part in the next
grand dance. The great requisites of a Polynesian beauty are to
be fat and as fair as their dusky skins will permit. To insure
this, favourite children in good families, whether boys or girls,
were regularly fattened and imprisoned till nightfall, when a
little gentle exercise was permitted. If refractory, the guardian
would even whip the culprit for not eating more, calling out,
“Shall I not be put to shame to see you so slim in the dance ?”

These dances invariably took place in the open air, by torch-
light. About a year was required for getting up one such
entertainment. This long interval was needed, first, for the
composing of songs in honour of the fair ones and the rehearsal
of the performers ; secondly, for the growth of “taro,” &e., &e.,
to provide the grand feast necessary. The point of honour was
to be the fairest and fattest of any young people present. I
know of no more unpleasant sight than the cracking of the skin
as the fattening process proceeds; yet this calls forth the
admiration of the friends.

There is no analogy between the initiation of males into the
tribe and the grades of freemasonry, it being done once for all.
No new name is taken, no special colours used at the ceremony.
The advantage that accrues is simply this—he ranks as a man,
can marry, take part in tribal dances, songs, recitations, and the
various duties of adult native life.

CIRCUMCISION.

An imperfect sort of circumcision has been practised in the
Hervey Islands from time immemorial. Captain Cook’s account
of the ceremonies attending this rite at Tahiti applies to nearly
all the branches of the great Polynesian family. In point of fact,
the term ‘‘circum-cision,” as applied to these islanders is a solecism.

The operation is sometimes attended with danger, and is usually
performed about the age of sixteen. The lad invariably wears a
necklace of fragrant flowers after his recovery, and takes the
coveted rank of a man.

Two reasons were assigned for this observance in heathenisin.
First, in the event of being slain in battle, or being offered in

328 AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN

sacrifice, that the nude body should not be reviled as ‘“‘the carcase
of an uncircumcised wretch.” It was considered to be sufficiently
remarkable to be handed down in tradition that amongst the
sixty who fell in the important battle of Maueue, fought about
184 years ago, were two uncircumcised youths.

Secondly and principally, the performance of this rite was, and
still is, absolutely indispensable to marriage. No Hervey Island
woman would knowingly marry an uncircumcised husband. A
few years ago a young man, a church member, complained to me
that nothing could induce his wayward spouse to live with him.
The near relatives of the woman had again and again taken the
truant wife back to her husband, but in vain. I requested a
deacon to go and remonstrate with her upon her conduct. The
dark-skinned shrew said to the deacon, “ What! ask me to go and
live with an uncircumcised husband? Never!” A year or two
afterwards, severe illness caused her to alter her mind.

The greatest insult that can be offered to a man is to accuse
him of being uncircumcised. The contemptuous expressions in
the sacred writings, in reference to the uncircumcised Gentiles,
seem to the Hervey Islanders to be quite natural.

This epithet, put in the most offensive way, led to war some
years prior to the introduction of Christianity to the island of
Mangaia, in the Hervey Group. The predecessor of Numangatini,
the late king of Mangaia, was on one occasion thus reviled,
without reason, by his maternal uncle. The irate sovereign
demanded that his two maternal uncles should be slain, and
presented in sacrifice to the god Rongo, by way of atonement for
the insult. The leading warriors of the day declined to carry
out his insane wish. Two bloody battles resulted from the
king’s persistence.

The first native pastors set their faces like flint against the
practice of circumcision. The entire despotic power of the great
warrior chief, who embraced Christianity, was brought to bear
upon the extinction of this custom, but utterly failed to uproot it.
My predecessor wisely persuaded the chiefs to blot circumcision,
as a crime, out of their statute-book.

Numbers of white men in the Eastern Pacific Islands, married
to native women, have submitted to this degrading custom to
please their wives.

The natives of Peurhyus, Manihiki, Rakaauga, Pukapuka, and
Niue, also the Ellice and Gilbert Islanders, do not practise
circumcision, although the parent stock of all those islanders still
observe it. The reason for its disuse, doubtless, was the fact that
in all those islands the sharp red quartz, invariably used in
circumcising, is not found. Bamboo is unsuitable for the opera-
tion; like Zipporah of old, they “take a sharp stone” for a knife.

In the Southern New Hebrides, z.c., Fotuna, Aniwa, Aneityum,
Tauna, and one half of Erromanga, circumcision is universally

7

RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. 329

practised. It appears to have been introduced from Tonga by
the first settlers on Fotuna and Aniwa, who originally drifted
from that Island. These drift natives have, in most of the islands,
intermixed with the true Papuans, and propagated their own
eustoms. The Loyalty Islanders, the natives of New Caledonia,
and the Northern New Hebrides, who appear to be pure Papuans,
are reported not to practise circumcision.

The mythical origin of circumcision at Mangaia runs thus :—
The god Rongo invented it in order to steal away the affections
of Taka, the beautiful wife of his twin-brother Tangaroa. In this
he was but too successful. Unable to endure this new affront
put upon him by his unscrupulous brother, Tangaroa took flight
(aecompanied by his other wife) to other lands, where he enjoys the
supremacy justly due to the eldest-born divinity. Rongo enjoined
the observance of circumcision upon his worshippers.

It should be borne in mind that Rongo, tutelar god of Mangaia,
is the “‘Orono” (or rather Rono) of the Sandwich Islands; the
“Oro” (or rather Ro’o) of Tahiti and most of the Leeward
Islands ; “'Terongo” (= fe Rongo) of Atiu; the “Longo” of
Samoa. In some mythologies he is the soz of Tangaroa, in others
the ¢win-brother, to indicate equal rank.

The modus operandi is as follows: a piece of cocoanut shell
(scraped smooth and thin) is introduced beneath the upper part
of the prepuce, and a longitudinal slit made. The divided
prepuce is then drawn underneath into a slight twist. A soothing
application heals the wound in a few days. The operator
frequently renews the twist, so that eventually a small lump
remains underneath the urethra. I asked a venerable deacon the
motive for this singular custom. Respondit ille: Hoc facere eo
consilio, cum ne album illud (piapia quam vocant), sub preputio
exsistat ; tum autem maxime, quo magis femine venerea voluptate
fruantur. I believe that the statement of my aged friend is
perfectly correct; indeed, it may serve to explain why Polynesian
women are far more lascivious than their Melanesian sisters in
the Western Pacific, where this curious practice was originally
unknown.

MARRIAGE,

Special messengers, of high social rank, are despatched to
make the proposal and convey presents in ratification of the
contract ; but the betrothed child usually remains in the custody
of its parents, now and then paying a visit to the other parties
with much ceremony and under proper guardianship.

Marriage never occurs by force or capture. Sometimes a fallen
tribe or family would endeavour to resuscitate its fortunes by
giving in marriage the flower of the tribe to some disagreeable
but powerful old chief.

The pet daughter of a chief often married into an inferior or

330 _AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN

fallen tribe, the parent intending thereby to swell the ranks of
his own warriors by the welcome addition of this inferior or
unlucky clan. In times of peace this servile son-in-law is
expected to be at the beck and call of his father-in-law. There
is, properly speaking, no such thing as sale or barter of wives in
the Hervey Group.

Exogamy was the universal rule of the olden time. Should a
tribe be split up in war, the defeated portion was treated as an
alien tribe. I have known comparatively near relatives to marry
with the approbation of the elders of the victorious portion
of the tribe, expressly on the ground that the sanctity of the clan
law had been wiped out in battle.

Distant cousins sometimes (though rarely) marry ; but must
be of the same generation, z.e., be descended in the same degree
(fourth or fifth, or even more remotely) from the common
ancestor. That the male branch should thus invade the female
is a far more pardonable offence that the converse, but even then,
should misfortune or disease overtake these related couples, the
elders of the tribe would declare it to be the anger of the clan-
god (kua kai te angai). It is the duty of parents to teach their
growing children whom they may Jawfully marry, the choice
being extremely limited. The correct thing in the native mind
undoubtedly is exogamy.

The nuptial ceremony consisted merely in a feast, when bride
and bridegroom, seated together on a piece of the finest white
native cloth,* ate together in the presence of their friends, and
received gifts from them, the good things of the bridegroom’s
friends going to the bride, and vie versa.

A remarkable ceremony obtained on Mangaia in families of
distinction on the marriage of the first-born. Gaily dressed, he
walked from his own door-way to the house of the father-in-law
over a continuous pathway of living human bodies, members of
the wife’s clan. On reaching the goal, three elderly females so
prostrate themseves as to form a living seat for the bridegroom.
A fish is now brought forward, and, with the aid of a “pit of
sharp bamboo, cut up into dice upon a human body. It is now
presented to the bridegroom, who eats it raw. Piles of native
cloth and food are then formally presented to the happy man.
All parties partake of the feast, and afterwards the road of
living bodies is again formed for the distinguished son-in-law to
go back, as he came, to his home.

In due time (a few months later on) the husband’s friends
return the compliment to the bride, only it is understood that
(unless of inferior social status) the second exhibition should
surpass the first. The native name of this remarkable custom is
“maninitori.” It is a usage of great antiquity, but no account

* Theinner bark of the Breussonelia papyrifera beaten out with mallets and pasted
together.

RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. 331

is given by tradition of its origin. (See my “Life in the
Southern Isles,” pp. 59, 60.)

Polygamy has been entirely done away with by Christianity.
In the olden time it was very common, and was not restricted to
chiefs. As women were rarely slain in war, superfluous females
were divided out amongst the victorious warriors. The famous
Arekare, of Mangaia, had ten wives, Parima six, others two
apiece. In general, if a man of position married the eldest
girl of a slave-family, the younger sisters became his as a matter
of course, being only too glad to have a protector. Even amongst
those of equal rank a man often had two or three sisters to wife
at the same time. Even now, in Christian times, a woman feels
herself to be deeply injured if her brother-in-law does not, on the
death of his wife, ask her to become a mother to his children.

Children, unless distinctly adopted into another clan, always
follow the father. The name of the god pronounced at the
severance of the /wnis umbilicus really determines the clan of the
infant, as before stated. In war they usually followed the
father’s kin; but the duty of an adopted son would be to fight
alongside of his adopted father. Sometimes serfs, forgetting the
claims of blood, followed their lord to battle.

Land is the property of the tribe, and must on no account be
alienated. The adopted son possesses land only so long as he
goes with the clan, obeys the commands of the elders, and fights
(if need be) against his nearest of kin for the tribe into which he
has been adopted. A woman, in general, owns not an inch of
soil, lest she carry away the right to it into another family.
Usually she gives up one child at least to her own tribe, the rest
going to the father’s. When her husband dies, she lives on with
the tribe as s/ave to her children. She weeds, plants, and eats
because of them. If they die, she goes back to her tribe as she
originally came—empty-handed.

When a chief has only a daughter, and that daughter is
married (by the father’s arrangement) to a man of inferior (7.e.,
slave) rank, the husband lives with her on land given to her for
their mutual support (or, as the phrase runs, “land given to her
to feed her husband.”) In all points she rules the household and
lands ; but should war break out, Ze may elect to fight by the
side of his father-in-law, and if victory incline to their side, he is
no longer counted a slave. Should he go with his own clan to
fight against his father-in-law’s tribe, the wife may or may not
go with him. Sometimes the wife, with her children, will stay
on with her own clan; so that, if victorious, the children will
share the good things of the mother’s tribe, whilst the unhappy
father, if not slain in battle, becomes a homeless, hunted fugitive.
In no case may a woman take into another clan any portion of
the ancestral lands of her own tribe. The reason of this is
obvious ; these lands were originally won and subsequently kept

332 AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN

by the bravery of the entire tribe. Rarely did women fight ;
their part was to stand a little de4znd the husband, to carry baskets
of stones and weapons with which to supply the warriors.
Heavy ¢koru clothes were thrown by the wives over these spears
‘to turn their points aside from the mark.

At Rarotonga, &c., the soil was the sole property of the high
‘chiefs (areki) and under-chiefs. These distributed the land in
accordance with their own wishes .

I do not consider that orphans were in general ill-treated ; the
uncles, as a matter of course, looked after their welfare. In the
native language there is but one word for “ father” and “ uncle.”
It was of the last importance to the tribe that their numbers
should be kept up; hence the care taken of the children, and their
careful education in mimic war.

There are no restrictions as to converse, but as to kissing
(“rubbing of noses”) plenty. The rule is to “kiss” only near
relatives on either side. The elders of the tribe settle these
knotty points. Many a quarrel have I had to compose, the
ground of the dispute being that the lady had no right to permit
‘So-and-so to kiss her. The usual defence is, ‘‘it was done openly,
and therefore could bear no ill significance.” Half the troubles
in native life arise from this source ; the other half from land-
grabbing, or, as the natives phrase it, ‘ land-eating.”

Woman is the slave of man in heathen society. She plants,
carries home the food, collects the firewood and succulent oven-
leaves, cooks her lord’s meal, spreads out supper on hibiscus
leaves (in lieu of plates, and of the same size), never omitting the
sea-water, used as sauce and salt. Torch-fishing is woman’s
occupation only. Whenever she gets home, often in ‘the small
hours of the morning, a special oven for these dainties must be
prepared by her for husband and children. The wife is expected
not only to feed but to clothe her husband. She strips off the
bark of the paper-mulberry (Bvoussonetia papyrifera), steeps it in
running water, beats it out with a square iron-wood mallet, pastes
the strips together, stains the cloth, or, with the aid of leaves,
makes designs on it, glazes the outer side, that her lord may strut
about in his new clothes. A/7s duty is to defend land and life, to
plant and weed, and to fish with hook or net or spear. The wife,
in her torchlight fishing, simply grabs sleepy fish, or puts her
hand in holes which they haunt (often to her cost), but never
uses either canoe, hook, or net.

But as their children (girls) grow up, all the duties of the
mother are performed by the daughters. And the strange thing
is, that they are perfectly content with their lot. To see a
‘woman emerge from the mud of a taro-patch (up to her waist), in
which she has been planting taro-tops (no man at Mangaia plants
.a taro-patch), and then go to the stream to wash herself, excites
pity. But she does not think herself to need pity.

RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. 333)

At Rarotonga, and some other islands, men plant and bring.
home the “taro,” but the women weave mats and baskets.

After all, despite the horny hands of Mangaian women, their’
lives are pleasant, so long as Christianity secures immunity from:
the cruel bloodshed of heathen times. Even in the old time they’
enjoyed their old dances and semi-dramatic performances. In.
general, it was the young women and girls who took part in these
diversions, the middle-aged prompting or clapping hands or:
looking after the feast to follow.

The model Rarotongan warrior never (like other natives),
allowed his wife to s/eep on his arm, lest his spirit should become:
enervated. After slaying a foe, he became “tapu,” so that he-
might, for a certain period, only kiss his wife and children. On
no account might he cohabit with his wife until the “tapu” had
been removed. During this period of “tapu,” all the warriors of
the same tribe lived together, receiving immense presents of food.
When a sufficient interval had elapsed, in preparation for the
removal of the “ tapu,” they would go unitedly to fish. If, while
fishing, a warrior happened to be bitten by an “aa” (conger eel),
or get his legs clasped by an octopus, he regarded this as a sure
presage of a violent death. If he, that day, caught only a
miserable fish, such as the poisonous “no’u,” it plainly indicated
that in his next battle he would only kill a wretched sort of
person, not a chief or a warrior. On the other hand, if he caught
a really fine fish, it was evident that he would hereafter conquer:
and kill some person of distinction, and thus enhance the fame of.
his tribe !

THE TRIBE.

Descent in the ma/e line from a common ancestor (tama tane))
constitutes the tribe. Descendants in the female line (tama
vaine) may be adopted into the tribe, with the consent of the:
elders, after bathing in a sacred stream in order to wash off the
taint of old slave or antagonistic associations. (See my “Historical
Sketches of Savage Life,” pp. 136-9). In general, slaves married
into the victorious clans, were content to follow its fortunes ; but
there were numerous exceptions to this rule. When dying,
mothers of rank would commend their children to the chiefs of
their own tribe, the slave-fathers having no voice whatever
concerning their own offspring. The filial instinct, however,
often led these children to endeavour to restore the fallen fortunes
of the father’s conquered clan. Usually, the question of tribe
was decided by the divinity or divinities named at the severance
of the funis umbilicus. But all the worshippers of Tané, with its
numerous modifications, were supposed to form but one tribe
In every case there must be oneness of origin (on the maternal if
not on the paternal side), even in cases of adoption. When a

334 AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN

great favour—life or land—was sought, it was wonderful how
close the relationship was made to appear ; but when a grudge
had to be paid off, the sins (blood-shedding) of that branch of the
clan were alone remembered.

Each tribe had its own god or gods,* its own marae or maraes
(groves for worship), its own prayers and incantations, and its
own songs. Even in the matter of clothing there were special
differences. I have seen a man stripped naked for presuming to
wear the garments of another tribe. The meek defence was that
his grandmother was a member of the said tribe. Thus the will
of the individual counted for nothing, or next to nothing, in
heathen times.

There is one head chief, many subordinate ones. The office
and power of chief is usually passed on to the brother, but when
all the brothers were dead, would be transmitted to the eldest
born of the eldest male branch of the ruling family (‘te kiko
mua”). Whenever this individual was deficient in intellect or
courage, the tribal oracle was sure to declare that the god had
taken up his abode in another (generally speaking, the youngest

male) member of the ruling family. This divinely-favoured
individual was then duly installed, and the entire tribe compelled
to obey, as there could be no appeal from the word of the priest
when inspired, for it was the fiat of the gods. On the island of
Mangaia ‘“ Barima” was not the representative of the eldest
branch of the tribe of Tané, but he was undoubtedly the fittest
man, specially selected, it was averred, out of his family by the
god Tane-i-te-ata. Primogeniture was the rule, selection by the
god the exception. The kingly oftice mzght descend in the female
line; and this of necessity, as the males were so generally slain.
But the male line would invariably be preferred.

The duties of a tribal chief were (1) to adjust disputes, (2) to
confirm or lay aside wills (vvd@ voce wills, of course), (3) to lead
in battle, (4) to preside at all tribal work or feasting, (5) to
provide at all points for the well-being of the clan, and (6) not
the least important of a chief’s duties was to consult or worship
the gods, on his own behalf as chief and on behalf of the tribe.
On Mangaia every high chief must worship Rongo, god of war and
ruler of the invisible world. But there would be also his own
private god, who must be duly honoured in the daily concerns of
life. The worship of Rongo was reserved for great occasions, the
making of war or peace, the selection of human sacrifices for the
ratification of all degrees of chieftainship, &c. Summoned by
the king, as high-priest of Rongo, all tribal chiefs were bound
to attend, with a few followers, on behalf of their respective clans

The state was conceived of as a long dwelling standing east and
west; the chiefs of the southern (right) side of the island

* The tribe of Ngariki worshipped Rongo, Ruler of Night, i.e, the invisible world, and
Motoro, one of the gods of “ Day,” or this upper and visible world.

RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. 335

represented one side of it; the chiefs of the northern (left) side
of the island represented the other side. The under-chiefs
everywhere symbolized the lesser rafters ; individuals the separate
leaves of thatch covering. Yet, by a subtle process of thought,
the state itself—with its great and lesser chiefs, and its numerous
members—was but the visible expression of a spirit-dwelling in
under-world, in which the major and minor divinities did not
merely live, but actually constituted it ; the major gods being the
pillars and main rafters, the minor gods the lesser rafters,
&e., &e. The safety of the state consisted’ in this—that in the
spirit-temple in the nether-world there should be no schism or rent ;
for should there be one, divisions will immediately arise in the
visible state, z.e., in the councils of the great chiefs; the necessary
consequences being war and bloodshed.

The order of descent in regal families was usually from father
to son; but with great land or warrior chiefs it was different,
the brothers of the deceased taking precedence of his sons,
for the excellent reason that it was their strong arms that won
or preserved the tribal lands. The kings were sacred men, priests
of the great tutelar divinities ; therefore the representative of the
senior branch in each generation was held in the greatest
veneration, irrespective of age and sex, as being the visible
mouth-piece and shrine of the invisible and immortal gods. But
no female was competent to offer “prayers” (karakia), however
well versed in them.

The elders and wise men of the tribe constituted the tribal
council. The paramount chief or king must endorse their advice,
else it was not law. It was the duty of the presiding chief to
ask the opinion of the elders on any point.

Punishment for theft of food was the destruction of everything
edible on the land belonging to the family of the thief, or the
taking of the culprit’s life. In general, the former penalty was
for members of the tribe; the latter for outsiders. In some
islands all offences were punished with one—the death—penalty.
No idea of proportion between an offence and its punishment
existed in the native mind. Asa rule, a chief might do anything
he liked ; not so the members of the tribe.

Polynesian chiefs were invariably fine men. Makea Daméla
of Rarotonga would have been considered a very tall man but
for his extreme corpulence. He seemed to waddle, not to walk.
In his infancy he had (as was usual with the children of high
chiefs) three or four wet nurses at the same time. His eldest
brother weighed 312 lbs., their father nearly 5 cwt.

SOCIAL AND DOMESTIC,

In the Hervey Group the huts were in the form of a rectangle,
and made of reeds. The thatch used by the common people was

336 AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN

merely the plaited leaflets of the cocoanut palm—very pervious
to rain. The idol-temples and the great dwellings of the chiefs
were covered with pandanus-leaf thatch—idol-temples first,
dwellings of chiefs afterwards. The doors were always sliding.
There was a sacred and a common entrance. Squares were
prettily worked in black sennit on the front and back sides of
the dwelling. The “tirango,” or threshold, was made of a single
block of timber, tastefully carved. We name our dwellings
because they are are enduring; ¢4ey name the sve, their huts
being so perishable.

Only the large open valleys of Mangaia and Atiu were culti-
vated in the olden time, but at Rarotonga a considerable portion
of that narrow strip of rich soil near the sea was well planted.

The weeding spade of Mangaia was not unlike a club in shape,
and was made of iron-wood (Casuarina equisetifolia). The length
was five feet nine inches. Indeed, it was a most formidable
weapon at close quarters, as many an unfortunate has found to
his cost.

The staff of life on Mangaia and Atiu is the “taro”* plant ; on
Aitutaki, the sweet potato; on Rarotonga, bread-fruit and plan-
tains; on Mitiaro, &c., &c., cocoanut. In most of the islands a
vast quantity of fish is eaten as soon as it is captured.

On Mauihiki the natives subsist on cocoanut and fish; on the
sister island of Rakaauga they have in addition a good supply of
“puraka” 7.e., a coarse species of Caladium. On most of the
atolls the inhabitants live contentedly on cocoanut and fish only.

Food is abundant throughout the Hervey Group except when
a cyclone has wrought its desolation, or continuous rain has
flooded the valleys where “taro ” is cultivated.

About two days’ work in a week will keep a plantation in good
order. On atolls, like Mauihiki, where only the cocoanut palm
flourishes, no weeding or planting can be done, as the soil
consists of sand and gravel thrown up by the ocean on the ever-
growing coral. Hence it is that the natives of these atolls are
such excellent fishermen, having little else to do.

The usual time for the one real meal of the day in the Hervey
Group is at sunset. The richer natives have a warm meal about
ten a.m., but in general they cook enough at sunset to last for the
morning’s repast.

Throughout Polynesia the mode of cooking is similar. A
circular hole, two or three feet in diameter, is dug in the ground,
the centre being deeper than any other part. Firewood is split
and piled up in the hole. Basaltic stones are now laid on the
firewood just before it was lighted. When the fire had burnt
out, and the red-hot stones fallen to the bottom amongst the
glowing ashes, they are carefully arranged by means of a hooked

* Caladium petiolatum.

RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. 337

green stick, of a sort that will not easily burn. A large bundle
of succulent leaves are now thrown upon the hot stones, occa-
sioning a dense cloud of steam to arise. On this the well-scraped
“taro,” split bread-fruits, sweet potatoes, or plantains are placed.
Fish are invariably wrapped up in the leaves of the Cordyline
terminalis, so that their juices may be retained. The oven is
now covered in with a second bundle of fresh-plucked leaves.
The dry leaves of yesterday are thrown on the top, and the whole
pressed down by heavy stones kept for the purpose. In fine
weather this steaming oven was made in the open air, in rainy
weather under shelter.

In heathen times it was customary at Mangaia and some other
islands to slay all strangers. At Rarotonga, if a stranger
landed in sight of one of their kings his life was safe; but even
then it was not quite wise to travel any distance in the bush
without the chief. But in these days the stranger is fairly well
treated, often far better than he deserves. He shares the good
things going and remains as long as he likes. It is usual, on
meeting another, to share whatever food may be in the hand or
in the basket. The influx of visitors is rapidly producing a
change in their customs ; still, I think an unprejudiced observer
must admit that the stranger is better cared for in Christian
Polynesia than in Christian Britain. The generous man is the
ideal good man yet.

Ear ornaments were universal. The shell of a species of
cocoanut producing small, long nuts—their ends rubbed off on
madrepore coral—were filled with fragrant flowers and leaves and
worn in the slit lobes of the ears of persons (males) of distinction.
The lobes were marvellously distended by this practice.

The arms of warriors—between the elbow and the shoulder—
were tatooed black only, so that, on dance nights, the beautiful
white (Ovwla ovum, Linn) shell fastened across with sennit might
be the more admired. Happy was the dancer who had a shell
for doth arms.

Just above the ankles finely-plaited hair was wound repeatedly,
the amount indicating the rank and wealth of the wearer. So,
too, with the wrists and neck. From the plaited hair on the
neck was suspended a large pearl shell, or, in lieu of this coveted
ornament, a piece of “miro” wood ( Thespesia populnea), adzed
into its shape. This plaited hair was called “manoa;” the
breast ornament, “ tia.”

The ears of children were pierced with fish-bone, then enlarged
with a twig of the gardenia, so as to admit a fresh-plucked
flower (the scarlet Azd7scus or the Gardenia).

The women had to be content with necklaces and chaplets of
flowers, but a favourite daughter might wear plaited hair round
her neck. Of course, in each ear a flower was worn, and on her
bosom a woman of rank might wear a “miro” ornament. Men

Vv

338 AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN

emulated the other sex in regard to wreaths and necklaces, the
latter often descending nearly to the knee. It is noteworthy
that the septum of the nose was never pierced by the Hervey
Islanders, as nasal ornaments were never in vogue in that part
of the Pacific.

The Hervey Islanders were a clothed race. The inner bark of
the paper-mulberry (Lroussonetia papyrifera) yielded them the
material for their ‘‘ tikoru.” Poorer natives were content to use
the inner bark of the “aoa,” or banyan tree. On Rarotonga,
Aitutaki, and Mauke the inner bark of the bread-fruit tree
yielded a light and beautiful garment. Even the Zutada scandens
was utilised by the poor for the manufacture of clothing.

The defect of native garments is their inability to keep out
moisture. To remedy this, on Mangaia, the outside was some-
times anointed with scented cocoanut oil. The varieties of native
dresses, with their distinctive names, were very numerous.

A native woman, in her own dwelling, wears a single garment.
In the cold season she throws a “ tiputa ” over her shoulders. A
man at work in the olden time, 7.e., when weeding, canoe-making,
or fishing, wore only a girdle (maro). Travelling through the
rain he was content with a girdle, but on arriving at his hut he
would put on old warm clothing. A good covering of native
cloth is (as I know from experience) as warm as a blanket.

An unmarried girl wore her petticoat nearly to the knee ; when
married, it was brought down just below the knee. In sitting,
the Hervey Island females rested upon their heels, zo/, as in
these days, tailor fashion. This latter indelicate custom was
imported from Tahiti in recent times.

Speaking generally, it may be confidently stated that the
natives are a well-nourished race. But in the old fighting days,
when so small a portion of the soil was cultivated, it was hardly
so. The chiefs and all the ruling race were indeed well nourished,
but the “ao,” or serfs, had sorry times of it. The frequent famines
of those days were terrible. I have known natives who kept
themselves alive on candle-nuts alone for months together ; but
they were wretched objects to look at. It is curious that a
starved race becomes black almost, but if plenty returns, their
natural, agreeable, coffee-colour is restored. In atolls, to the
north-west of the Hervey Group and the Line Islands, the natives
subsist chiefly on cocoanut, pandanus drupes, and fish. Should
any accident (e.g., if the leaflets are devoured by a plague of
Lopaphus coccophagus, or a cyclone, or if the crowns are sprinkled
by ocean spray) occur to the cocoanut palm, it is frightful to see
the wasted forms of the islanders.

But even on the most fertile islands, after a cyclone, the
sufferings of the natives are great. Happily, now, there are so
many introduced plants, as well as imported food, that the natives
do not perish of sheer starvation as in the days of heathenism. I

RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. 339

have known entire families to subsist on the crown of a felled
cocoanut, with what fish they could catch.

The salutation of the Hervey Islanders was the very reverse
of our own. We dow to our friends ; they toss the head upwards,
at the same time elevating the eyebrows.

Their great national amusement was the dance. In this
singular performance the joints seem to be loose. I do not believe
it possible for any European to move the limbs as a Polynesian
loves to do. Ata very early age mothers carefully oil the hands,
&c., and then knead the tiny limbs, stretching and “ cracking ”
each joint. Respecting the morality of their dances, the less said
the better; but the ‘‘ upaupa dance,” introduced from Tahiti, is
obscene indeed.

WIZARDS,

Priests ex-officio dealt with the gods and the invisible world.
It was for them alone to approach the deities on behalf of the
state, clan, or chiefs, ze, to chaunt avakia (prayers) at the
marae* and present offerings. If Rongo were the divinity to be
propitiated, a human sacrifice specially selected must be offered.
To all other gods offerings of tish and “taro,” &e., with the indis-
pensable bowl of piper mythisticum, were presented from time to
time. No worshipper dared go empty-handed to his priest to
inquire the will of the gods. The value of the gift must be
proportioned to his rank and means. The load might be carried
by ma/e slaves to the outskirts of the marae, but the offerer had
a place allotted to him within the sacred precincts. The priest,
or “ god-box,” clothed in white} //koru, at a little distance, alone,
in the most sacred place, went through the needful prayers.

Ina case of sickness the deity would be asked about the fate
of his devoted worshipper. At Mangaia the favourable response
would be couched in these terms—(‘ The spirit) will go to the
sun-rising ” (ka aere ki te ra iti), ze, the sick will recover. For
the spirit to descend with the sun-god Ra into the nether, or
invisible, world is death. If the sufferer must die, a different
metaphor was employed by the priest —“ kua rau-ti para ”—‘‘ The
leaf of the ¢ tree (Cordyline terminalis) is sere,” z.e., will drop off
and perish.

The office of priest was hereditary throughout the Hervey
Group. When a new priest was installed, he first bathed in the
sacred stream of his tribe, put on the white “/horu, ate only
certain kinds of food, and abstained from many things permitted
to others. On the day of installation of the priest of Rongo the
temporal chief accompanied him to the marae—not too closely
following him. Offerings of food having been deposited at the

* Idol grove.
+ Off duty, the priest might wear a yellow “tiputa” over his shoulders.

340 : AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN

usual spot, cooked ‘“‘taro” and the invariable bowl of “kava”
having been disposed of by the new priest-king, the temporal
chief shouted, ‘“‘ Ka uru Rongo”—* Let Rongo enter” (z.¢., inspire).
The new high-priest, seated on a sacred stone,* then fell into
convulsions, and spake in a most unearthly voice (? ventriloquism),
the words so uttered being accepted as a divine oracle! Thus
did the /empora/ sovereign install the new priest-king (z.e., spiritual
ruler). A grand feast would follow.

Less of ceremony was observed with priests of divinities of
inferior rank, but substantially the same process was carried out.
The technical phrase for this was “ Va’i ite pia atua ou”—‘‘ open
up the new god-box.”

On the eve of an important battle “the omens were taken”
(ka pa te vai) by the warrior chief himself. These omens
consisted in the drowning of insects, &c., in water, or a fish hunt
on the reef. (See my “Savage Life,” page 104).

The native phrase, ‘‘ Ka pa te vai,” means, literally, ‘“‘ enclose the
water,” because in taking the omens by the drowning of insects,
&e., it was customary to arrange the cut stems of a banana ina
square on the ground. A single leaf of the Alocasia indica
(Seeman), holding half a bucket of water, was deposited in the
hollow, the water being kept from spilling by the cut banana
stems. A number of centipedes, green lizards, and dragon-flies
were now dashed into the water. The total of creatures drowned
prefigured the number of warriors doomed to perish in to-morrow’s
battle. There was a special prayer (now lost) for this ceremony.

Sometimes two shells (Zirbo petholatus), intended to represent
the two hostile camps, were deposited by the warrior chief on his
own marae, with an appropriate prayer, in the dusk of evening.
On returning at daylight, it is averred that Moke found the shell
representing his foes turned upside down, a sure omen of their
destruction, which accordingly took place.

On most of the eastern Pacific islands were “ wise women,”
who were consulted respecting the minor affairs of daily life.
These women were supposed to be inspired by a female divinity.
A small present must be made ere consulting the priestess. On
Mangaia the goddess Ruatamaine was consulted to discover a thief,
and to secure success in fishing. There were numberless Ruaatu,
or fishermen gods (of stone) in all the islands, each demanding an
offering of a newly-caught fish from its votaries, or, in default of
that, a hollow pebble to be strung into a sort of necklace, or the
midrib of a cocoanut leaf, and thrown into the darkness, with
these words, “ Here is thy share, O Ruaatu !”

The native name for sorcerer is “taugata purepure,” 7.2, “a
man who prays.” A heathen only prays for the ill-luck or death
of his foes. The prayers offered by the priests to the gods

*Te koatu karakia—the stone for praying.

RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. 341

worshipped on the national or tribal maraes were termed
“ karakia ;” those on minor occasions to the lesser gods were
named ‘“fure.”* All these prayers were metrical,j and were
handed down from generation to generation with the utmost
care. There were “prayers” for every phase of savage life; for
success in battle; for a change of wind (to overwhelm an
adversary fishing solitarily in his canoe, or that an intended
voyage of his own may be propitious); that cocoanuts, yams,
&c., &c., may grow; that a thieving or murder expedition may be
successful; that his hook or net may catch plenty of fish; that
his kite may fly higher than all others; that his “teka” (reed)
may outstrip the rest; that strong teeth may take the place of
his child’s first tooth when extracted, &c., kc. A great secret
was the prayer at the excision of the /funis umbilicus, that the
boy might be brave, or that the girl might in after-life be fruitful.
Few men of middle age were without a number of these
“prayers” or charms. ‘They were usually uttered in too low a
key to be heard by a stranger, lest he, too, should thus be armed
with a dangerous weapon of offence. If a plantation were to be
robbed, the appropriate “prayer” or charm must be uttered near
to it, so that it might have its full effect. If a man were to be
clubbed in his sleep, the “prayer” must not be used until the
hut is in sight. Important charms or “prayers” such as these
were to grown-up sons part of the equipment of life. In most
cases, one or two would never be divulged until there was a
premonition of death in sickness or battle. A man felt that if
his last bit of “wisdom” were “reeled off” (to use a native
parable), die he must.

Payment to the sorcerer consisted in a couple of pieces of native
cloth, or fish and “taro,” &e.

The succession was from father to son, or from uncle to nephew.
So, too, of sorceresses ; it would be from mother to daughter, or
from aunt to niece. Sorcerers and sorceresses were often slain by
the relatives of their supposed victims.

A singular enchantment was employed to kill off the husband
of a pretty woman desired by someone else. The expanded
flower of a Gardenia was stuck upright—a very difficult perform-
ance—in a cup (ze., half a large cocoanut shell) of water. <A
“prayer” was then offered for the husband’s speedy death, the
sorcerer earnestly watching the flower. Should it fall, the
incantation was regarded as successful. But if the flower still
remained upright, he will live. The sorcerer would in that case
try his skill another day, with perhaps better success. Old
natives assert that these enchantments, if persevered in, never
failed ; but that since the prevalence of Christianity they have

> In New Zealand “‘ karakia.”
+ Hence appropriately termed by us incantations.

342 AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN

all become impotent. Indeed, the “prayers” themselves are
happily lost.

In adzing a canoe, it was the duty of the chief saunga (artisan-
priest) to chaunt an extempore never-ending song, which the other
workmen took up. The song gave precision and unity to the
stroke of their stone adzes, added to their cheerfulness, and
was believed to be supernaturally efficacious in helping on the
work to its completion. As the ¢awnga would be sure to be
associated with the same set of helpers, the assistants knew
pretty well what was being chaunted. This sort of thing was
called a “pataratara” — “a talking,” of which I retain two
written but untranslated specimens. Originally it was an address
to the tree-spirit not to be angry at their adzing the noble trunk,
with an invocation to the axe-fairy, Ruateatonga, to aid the
progress of the work.

Taraaere, the last priest of Tangaroa (who had often offered
human sacrifices to the tutelar god of Rarotonga), when nearly
ninety years of age, said to me :—

“My father taught me how to retain wisdom (korero). He also
told me when to marry. He did not feed me with bananas,
plantains, and fish, lest, the food being light and slippery, wisdom
should slip away from me. No! he fed me with ‘taro,’ well
beaten with a pestle, and mixed with cooked ‘taro ’-leaves, the
glutinous nature of the ‘taro’ being favourable to the retention
of wisdom.”

This was uttered without a sinile, in the full belief that this
simple diet of his youth and early manhood accounted for the
marvellous memory which he possessed to the very end of life.
He assured me that it was thus the priests of the olden days
were brought up.

DEATH.

No one was believed to die a strictly natural death unless
extreme old age was attained. Nineteen out of every twenty
were regarded as victims of special divine anger or of the incan-
tations of “the praying people” (Zangata purepure) i.e., the
sorcerers. Causes of death were :—

1. Infringement of Zapz laws of all kinds.

2. An uttered resolve broken; e¢.g., preparation for battle
upon the receipt of false intelligence. The trick may be seen
through after a time, still the fight must at all risks come off, 7f
once the war-girdle has been put on. Not only would shame attend
the withdrawing warriors, but the special wrath of the war-god
would rest upon them. So that there is nothing for it but fight at
allrisks. A journey prepared for, but not carried out. Many years
ago it was intended that the writer should remove to Rarotonga to
take charge of the mission there. Everything was ready, when
a brother from England arrived for that station. It so happened

RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. 343

that just afterwards I lost two sons in one week of diptheria. I
was astounded to find that the natives of Mangaia, while
sympathizing with my loss, attributed the sad blow to my failure
to carry out my original purpose.

3. A grave dug fora corpse, but not occupied. At the last
moment perhaps the owner of the soil objects to the burial, so
the corpse is disposed of elsewhere. In that case, the natives
firmly believe that someone else must die in order to occupy
the empty grave.

4. Unusual luxuriance of growth of plantations of food. The
saying is, “ E mou Avaiki tena,” 7.e., ‘it is also a crop for spirit-
land” (portends a crop for the reaper Death, as we perhaps
would phrase it).

The bodies of deceased friends were anointed with scented oil,
carefully wrapped up in a number of pieces of cloth, and the same
day committed to their last resting-place. A few were buried
in the earth within the sacred precincts of the appropriate
marae; but by far the greater number were hidden in caves
regarded as the special property of certain families.

If a body were buried in the earth, the face was invariably
laid downwards, chin and knees meeting, and the limbs well
secured with strongest sinnet cord. <A thin covering of earth
was laid over the corpse, and large heavy stones piled over the
grave. The intention was to render it impossible for the dead
to rise up and injure the living! The head of the buried corpse
was always turned to the rising sun, in accordance with their
ancient solar worship.

It was customary to bury with the dead some article of value—
a female would have a cloth-mallet laid by her side; whilst her
husband would enjoin his friends to bury with him a favourite
stone adze, or a beautiful white shell (Ovz/a ovum, Linn) worn
by him in the dance. Such articles were never touched after-
wards by the living.

Numbers were buried in caves easily accessible, to enable the
relatives to visit the remains of the dearly-loved lost ones from
time to time. The corpse was occasionally exposed to the sun,
re-anointed with oil, and then wrapped in fresh f/koru (white
native cloth).

The dead were never disembowelled for the purpose of
embalming. The corpse was simply desiccated, and daily
anointed with cocoanut oil. A month would suttice for this.

_ Warriors were in general carefully hidden by their surviving
friends, through fear of their being disinterred and burnt in
revenge.

The people of the entire district where the deceased lived take
up “taro” and prepare a feast in honour of the dead. <A grand
interchange of presents is usual on these occasions ; but, excepting
the near relatives of the deceased, no one is really the worse for

344 AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN

it, as it is etiquette to see that distant relatives get back similar
articles to what they brought.

Whatever is laid upon the corpse is buried with it, and no
further notice taken of it ; but whatever is placed by the side,
without touching it, is repaid.

The moment the sick died, the bodies of near relatives were
cut with sharks’ teeth, so that the blood might stream down the
bodies ; their faces were blackened, and the hair cut off. At
Rarotonga it was usual to knock out some of the front teeth in
token of sorrow. Everywhere the moment of death was the
signal for the death-wail to commence. The most affecting things
are said on such occasions, but always in a set form, commencing
thus :—

Aue toue! Aue! Aue!
Alas for us! Alas! Alas! &e.

The wailers usually lose their voices for several days, and their
eyes are frightfully swollen with crying.

As soon as the corpse was committed to its last resting-place,
the mourners selected tive old cocoanuts, which were successively
opened, and the water poured out upon the ground. These nuts
were then wrapped up in leaves and native cloth, and thrown
towards the grave ; or, if the corpse were let down with cords
into the deep chasm of “ Auraka,” the nuts and other food would
be successively thrown down upon it. Calling loudly each time
the name of the departed, they said, ‘“‘ Here is thy food ; eat it.”
When the fifth nut and the accompanying ‘“raroi,” or pudding,
were thrown down, the mourners said, ‘‘ Farewell ! we come back
no more to thee.”

A death in the family is the signal for a change of names
amongst the near relatives of the deceased.

Chiefs and priests occasionally received the honour of a “ spirit-
burial,” the corpse being borne to the most renowned marae of
his tribe on the island, and allowed to remain within the sacred
enclosure for some hours, but the same day hidden away in the
tribal cave. In such cases the depositing of the body in the
marae was “the burial,” or the committal of the spirit to the care
of the god worshipped in life, whilst the letting down of the
corpse into the deep chasm was designated “ the throwing away
of the bones” (¢ringa ivi), the well-wrapped-up body being
regarded as a mere bundle of bones after the exit of the spirit.

In the olden times, relatives of the deceased wore only
‘“‘pakoko,” or native cloth, dyed red in the sap of the candle-nut
tree, and then dipped in the black mud of a taro-patch. ‘The
very offensive smell of this mourning garment was symbolical of
the putrescent state of the dead. Their heads were encircled
with chaplets of mountain fern, singed with fire to give it a red
appearance,

RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. 345

The eva, or dirge, and the mourning dance succeeded. Of this
dirge, four varieties are known. They invariably took place by
day, occupying from ten to fifteen days, according to the rank of
the deceased. Sometimes ‘“‘a death-talk ” was preferred, consisting
of sixty songs in honour of the dead, mournfully chanted at night
in a large house built for the purpose, and well lighted with
torches. Each adult male relative recited a song. A feast was
the inevitable fiza/e.

Each island of the Hervey Group had some variety of custom
in relation to the dead. Perhaps the chiefs of Atiu were the
most outrageous in mourning. I knew one to mourn for seven
years for an only child (a woman), living all that time in a hut in
the vicinity of the grave, and allowing his hair and nails to grow,
and his body to remain unwashed. This was the wonder of all
the islanders. In general, all mourning ceremonies were over in
a year.

SPIRIT WORLD.

Spirit-land proper is underneath, where the sun-god Ra reposes
when his daily task is done. It is variously termed Po (Night),
Avaiki, Hawaii, Hawaiki, or home of the ancestors. Still, all
warrior spirits, z.e., those who have died a violent death, are said
to ascend to their happy homes in the ten heavens above.
Popularly, death in any form is referred to as ‘“ going into night,”
in contrast with day (ao) z.e., life. Above and beneath are
numerous countries and a variety of inhabitants—invisible to
mortal eye; but these are but a fac-simile of what we see around
us now.

The Samoan heaven was designated Pudotu or Purotu, and was
supposed to be under the sea. The Mangaian warrior hoped to
“leap into the expanse,” “to dance the warrior’s dance in Tairi”
(above), ‘to inhabit Speck-land (Poépoé)” in perfect happiness.
The Rarotongan warrior looked forward to a place in the house
of Tiki, in which are assembled the brave of past ages, who spend
their time in eating, drinking, dancing, or sleeping. The
Aitutakian brave went to a good land (Iva) under the guardianship
of the benevolent Tukaitaua, to chew sugar-cane for ever with
uncloyed appetite. Tahitians had an elysium named “ Miru.”
Society Islanders looked forward to ‘“ Rohutu noanoa,” 7.e., “sweet-
scented Rohutu,” full of fruit and flowers.

At Mangaia the spirits of those who ignobly “died on a pillow ”*
wandered about disconsolately over the rocks near the margin of
the ocean, until the day appointed by their leader comes (once a
year), when they follow the sun-god Ra over the ocean and
descend in his train to under-world. As a rule, these ghosts
were well disposed to their own living relatives; but often
became vindictive if a pet child was ill-treated by a step-mother

* I te urunga piro, i.e., a natural death.

346 AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN

or other relatives, &c. But the esoteric teaching of the priests
ran thus :—Unhappy* ghosts travel over the pointed rocks round
the island until they reach the extreme edge of the cliff facing
the setting sun, when a large wave approaches to the base, and at
the same moment a gigantic “dua” tree (Fagrea berteriaua ),
covered with fragrant blossoms, springs up from Avaiki to receive
these disconsolate human spirits. Even at this last moment, with
feet almost touching the fatal tree, a friendly voice may send
the spirit-traveller back to life and health. Otherwise, he is
mysteriously impelled to climb the particular branch reserved for
his own tribe, and conveniently brought nearest to him.
Immediately the human soul is safely lodged upon this gigantic
“dua,” the deceitful tree goes down with its living burden to
nether-world. Akaanga and his assistants catch the luckless
ghost in a net, half drown it in a lake of fresh water, and then
usher it into the presence of dread Miru, mistress of the nether-
world, where it is made to drink of her intoxicating bowl. The
drunken ghost is borne off to the ever-burning oven, cooked, and
devoured by Miru, her son,and four peerless daughters. The refuse
is thrown to her servants, Akaanga and others. So that, at Man-
gaia, the end of the coward was annihilation.

At Rarotonga the luckless spirit-traveller who had no present
for Tiki was compelled to stay outside the house where the brave
of past ages are assembled, in rain and darkness for ever, shivering
with cold and hunger. Another view is, that the grand rendezvous
of ghosts was on a ridge of rocks facing the setting sun. One
tribe skirted the sea margin until it reached the fatal spot.
Another (the tribe of Tangiia, on the eastern part of Rarotonga)
traversed the mountain range forming the backbone of the island
until the same point of departure was attained. Members of the
former tribe clambered on an ancient “dza” tree (still standing).
Should the branch chance to break, the ghost is immediately
caught in the net of “ Muru.” But it sometimes happens that a
lively ghost tears the meshes and escapes for awhile, passing on
by a resistless inward impulse towards the outer edge of the
reef, in the hope of traversing the ocean. But in a straight line
from the shore is a round hollow, where Akaanga’s net is concealed.
In this the very few who escape out of the hands of Muru are
caught without fail. The delighted demons (taae) take the
captive ghost out of the net, dash his brains out on the sharp
coral, and carry him off in triumph to the shades to eat.

For the tribe of Tangiia an iron-wood tree was reserved. The
ghosts that trod on the gveex branches of this tree came back to
life, whilst those who had the misfortune to crawl on the dead
branches were at once caught in the net of Muru or Akaanga,
brained, cooked and devoured !

% Because they had the misforturre “to die on a pillow,” and because they had to leave
their old pleasant haunts and homes.

RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. 347

Ghosts of cowards, and those who were impious at Aitutaki,
were doomed likewise to furnish a feast to the inexpressibly ugly
Miru and her followers.

Evidently, the ancient faith of the Hervey Islanders was
substantially the same. Nor did it materially differ from that of
the Tahitian and Society Islanders, the variations being such as
we might expect when portions of the same great family had been
separated from each other for ages.

There is no trace in the Eastern Pacific of the doctrine of
transmigration of human souls, although the spirits of the dead
are fabled to have assumed, temporarily, and for a specific purpose,
the form of an insect, bird, fish, or cloud. But gods, specially
the spirits of deified men, were believed permanently to reside in,
or to be incarnate in, sharks, sword-fish, &c., eels, the octopus, the
yellow and black- spotted lizards, several kinds of birds and insects.
The zgnzs fatuus, opportune mists concealing a victim, imagined
balls of fire guiding the fleeing or killing party, were all the work-
ing of their gods for the destruction, safety, or guidance of mortals.

In sleep, the spirit was supposed to leave the body and travel
over the island, to hold converse with the dead, and even to visit
spirit-world. Hence the dreams of mortals. Some of the most
important events in their national history were determined by
dreams.

The place in which the placenta (enua) of an infant is buried
is called the “ ipukarea,” or natal soil; and it was believed that,
after death, spirits of adults, as well as children, hover about the
neighbourhood.

MYTHOLOGY.

Strictly speaking, the Hervey Islanders had no conéeption of a
creator, as the islands were believed to be dragged up out of the
depths of Avaiki, or Nether-World, otherwise called Po, or Night,
These islands are merely the gross outwird form, or Jody, vohalat
there still remains behind in the obscurity of Nether-World the
ethereal essence or sfz77z.

The primary conception of the Hervey Islanders as to existence
is a point; then something fu/sating ; next, something greater
— everlasting.

The universe is to be conceived of as the hollow of a vast
cocoanut shell, the interior of which is named Avaiki. At the
very bottom of this supposed cocoanut shell is a thick stem,
gradually tapering to a point, which represents the very beginning
of all things. This pointis a spirit named Zhe-root-of all-existence.
_ Above this extreme point is another demon, named Breathing, or
Life, stouter and stronger than theformer one. The thickest part
of the stem is Zhe-long-lived. These three stationary, sentient
spirits constitute the foundation, and insure the permanence and
well-being of all the rest of the universe.

348 AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN

In the interior of the supposed cocoanut shell, in the lowest
depth of Avaiki, lives a woman, or demon, of flesh and blood,
named Vari-ma-te-takere (shortened into Vari) — The-very-
beginning. At various times Vari plucked off three bits from
each side, and moulded them into human shape. These six are
the primary gods of the universe. Yet no ‘‘ marae” or image
was ever sacred to them, nor was any offering ever made to them.

The first of the six primary gods is Avatea or Vatea (Noon),
half man and half fish, whose eyes are the sun and moon.*
Evidently we have in Avatea, or Vatea, the god of light. The
second primary god is Tinirau (Innumerable), the lord of all fish,
The third is Tango (Support). The fourth is Echo (Tumuteanaoa),
regarded as a female dwelling in hollow rocks. The fifth,
Raka, or Zyouble, presides over winds. At the edge of the
horizon are a number of wind-holes. To each child is allotted one
of these apertures, through which he blows at pleasure. The
sixth and last of the primary gods is a female, Tu-metua, or
Tu-papa, who dwells with the Great Mother, ‘ Vari,” at the very
bottom of Avaiki, in the S7/ez¢-/and, the only language of which
is that of signs and smiles, to comfort her. Tuy (short for
Tu-metua or Tu-papa) was the tutelar goddess of the island of
Moorea. To her the fourteenth night in every moon was
sacred.

In his dreams, Vatea, the eldest of the primary gods, saw a
woman, Papa (Foundation), whom he afterwards succeeded in
making his wife. Now, Papa was the daughter of Timatekore
(Nothing-more). Tangaroa and Rongof{ were the twin children
of Vatea and Papa. They were the first beings of ferfect human
form in the universe, and possessed no second shape. Three
other sons (Tonga-iti, Tangiia, and Tane-papa-kai) were born to
Vatea and Papa. These are the principal deities of the Hervey
Islanders and (with numerous variations and additions) of Eastern
Polynesia. To the children of Vatea and Papa belong the maraes
and idols ; they received the offerings and listened to the prayers
of mankind.

The tutelar god of Mangaia is Rongo, whose wife, Taka, bare
him a daughter named Tavake. The boast of the three original
tribes on Mangaia is that they are the descendants of Tavake by
her own father Rongo, z.e., that they are of divine origin.

Now, Rongo was likewise the dread deity of Tahiti and the
Leeward Islands, under the slightly modified designation of
“Ord.” The original marae of “ Ord” in Eastern Polynesia was

* The moon is the fish-eye, on account of its paleness.

+ When Cantain Cook, for the second time, visited Tahiti, he found the king to be “ Otoo,”
ancestor of the preseut Pomare. * Otoo” should be written 7u, the O being a mere prefix
to all proper names. This mythological name was adopted in order to secure for its owner
the reverence due to the gods, who are invisible to mortal eye.

+ In the Society Islands ‘ Oro ” (Ro[ng]o) was the son of Ta‘aroa (Tangaroa), not his twin
brother,

RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. 349

Opoa, on the island of Raiatea, whence the worship spread to all
the neighbouring islands.

At the shrine of this deity, on the island of Tahiti alone, fifty
reeking heads were offered in a single generation. To Rongo,.
Ord, Rono, or Orono (as he is variously named), no offering was
acceptable but a bleeding human:sacrifice, specially selected, males
being always preferred to females. At Tahiti females were
ineligible, being regarded as ‘“‘noa” (common); whereas males
were “tapu” (sacred), and therefore suitable for sacrifice.

Tangaroa was specially honoured at Rarotonga, Aitutaki, Samoa,
and the Society Islands. In the Tahitian and Society Groups,
Ta’aroa was regarded as the originator of the world, and the
parent of gods and men. At Samoa, Tangaloa was regarded as
the great creator.

The gods were divided into two orders, ‘dwellers in day,” and
‘dwellers in the shades, or night.” The former busied themselves
with the affairs of mortals; moving, though unseen, in their
midst ; and yet often descending to Nether-World, the true home
of the major gods. The /a¢ter frequently ascend to day to take
part in the affairs of mankind, but prefer to dwell in spirit-land
(night). A few were supposed to remain permanently in the
obscurity of Avaiki.

Many of the deities worshipped in the Hervey Group and other
islands of the eastern Pacific were canonised priests, kings, and
warriors, whose spirits were supposed to enter into various birds,
fish, reptiles, insects, &e., &c. Strangely enough, they were
regarded as being, in no respect, inferior to the original divinities.

The gods firs¢ spake to man through the small land birds ; but
their utterances proved to be too indistinct to guide the actions
of mankind. The gods were thus led to communicate with
mankind through the medium of a human priesthood. Whenever
the priest was consulted, a present of the best food, accompanied
by a bowl of intoxicating “ piper mythisticum,” was indispensable.
The offerer, in a stentorian voice, said, “ Ka uru Motoro”—Enter
(z.e., inspire), Motoro!* At these words the priest would fall into
convulsions, the god Motoro having inspired (literally, ‘entered ”)
him, and the oracle would be delivered. From the oracle thus
delivered no appeal whatever lay. The best kinds of food were
sacred to the priests and chiefs.

Although unsuited for the delivery of oracles, birds were ever
the special messengers of the gods to warn individuals of
impending danger, each tribe having its own feathered guardians.

The great Polynesian word (Atua) for “God” means strictly
the pith, core, or life of man. This is evident from its constant
equivalent, ‘“‘ara io,’ shortened sometimes into “io,” which
literally signifies “pathway of the pith,” or “pith.” What the
pith is to the tree the god is to the man, Z.e., zfs lie.

* Or whatever may be the name of the worshipper’s deit y.

350

AUSTRALASIAN

AND POLYNESIAN

The greater gods alone had carved images for the convenience

of worshippers ;

the lesser were countless, each individual

possessing several.

PHILOLOGY.

A list of numerals and pronouns in the language, with
suggestions as to their etymology :—

COON OOH AWAN EH

wownwore Fe
wore OW

100

NUMERALS.
Okotai, tai.
Rua.
Toru.
A.
Rima.
Ono.
Itu.
Varu.
Iva.
Ngauru.
Ngauru ma tai (10+1).
Ngauru ma rua (10+ 2), &e.
Rua ngauru (2 X 10).
Rua ngauru ma tai (2X 10+1).
Rua ngauru ma rua (2 X 10+ 2), &e.
Anere (i.e., from the English “ hundred”) &e.

In the Hervey Group we have two distinct bases of numeration

—four and ten.

‘The former base is used in counting cocoanuts,

which were from time immemorial tied up in fours (Kaviri).

5 Bunches (kaviri) of cocoanuts make one Takau, i.e. 20
10 Takau 55 55 Rau 200
10 Rau * Ns Mano 2,000
10 Mano A Es Kiu 20,000
10 Kiu 5 33 Tiui 200,000
All beyond this is uncertain.

PRONOUNS.

1.—Personal.
First person ... si Au = Maua eo Matou
First person, including the second ... Taua Tatou
Second person ... Koe Korua Kotou
Third person Aia, ia ... Raua Ratou

Of the dual and plural pronouns of the first person, “taua” and
“tatou”’ include the person or persons spoken to, while “maua” and
“matou” exclude them.

2.—Relative.
Tei and nona, nana.

“Tei” is used only in the past tense and becomes ‘‘ te” in the future,
and is generally accompanied with “ka.”

RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE 351

3.—Adjective.

First person singular ... : Toku, taku
Third person singular ... ae Tona, tana
First person plural ... < To matou, ta matou, &e.

4.—Interrogative.

Koai ses re oe A Who &
Teiea ids 4 ete See Where 4, ™©-
Eaa ne os be ac What &-.”
Teea = sh Which...”

Koai and teiea are declinable.

5.—Demonstrative.

: ela... “ae This

Gineuler Teianei a This here
Tena ... aa That (near the person spo
Tera... - That (at a distance)
Ba est aa These

PETS 4 Eianei ... si These here
Bigtee ae ie Those (near the person spoken to)
1p eee Ba That (at a distance)

6.—Indefinite.
Etai, tokotai bee ate das Some, few

Paradigm of the conjugation and declension of the verb “to go” and
of the verb “ to kill,” with a pronominal object :—

Aere nae Hee Go

Indicative Mood.
Singular. Dual. Plural.

Pres.—Te aere nei au - Te aere nei maua - Te aere nei matou, &e., &e.
Past—Iaereanaau - laereanamaua - I aere ana matou, &e., &e.
Fut.—Ka-aere au - Ka aere maua - Ka aere matou, &e., &e.

Imperative.
Ka aere koe, Xe.

Subjunctive or Conditional Mood.

Present—Me aere au, &ce.
Past—Naringa au i aere.
Future—Kia aere au.

Infinitive.
E aere.
Participle.
Aere anga.
NE ewe ... | Strike, kill*
* When a native wishes to say “ kill,” he uses this phrase, “Ta kia mate ”’—“ Strike, so

that (he) may die;” or “Taua.” Still, ‘‘ta” may by abbreviation mean “ kill.”

5 152 AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN

Indicative Mood.

Singular. Dual. Plural.
Pres.—Te ta neiau, &c. - Teta neitaua, &e. - Te ta nei tatou, &e.
Past—I taanaau, &e. - Itaanataua,&c. - I ta ana tatou, &e.
Fut.—Ka ta au, &e. - Kata taua, &e. - Ka ta tatou, &e.

Imperative.
Ka ta koe.

Subjunctive or Conditional Mood.

Present—Me ta au, &e.
Past—Naringa au i ta, &e.
Future—Kia ta au, Ke.

Infinitive.
E ta.

Participle.
Ta anga.

Indicative Mood (Passive Voice).

Singular. Dual. Plural.
Pres.—Te taia nei au, &e. - Te taia nei taua, &e. - Te taia nei tatou, &e.
Past—I taia na au, &. - I taianataua, &e. - I taia na tatou, &e.
Fut.— Ka taia au, &e. - Ka taia taua, &e. - Ka taiatatou, &e.

Imperative Mood.
Ka taia koe, &e.

Subjunctive or Conditional Mood.
Present—Me taia au, &e.
Past—Naringa au i taia, &c.
Future—Kia taia au, &ce.
A few simple sentences to show the grammatical structure of
the language :—

Kaa tena? ... sk bi What is that?

E noo ki raro eae ee Sit down

E tu ki runga oes 330 Get up

Aea koe aere ei ? es ae When will you go?
Apopo ai Ae ae To-morrow

Kapikiia dat wh ie: Call (him)

Teia, te aere mai nei £97 Here he comes

Koai toouingoa? ... Sd What is your name ?

E vaine taau ? a aS Are you married ?

E tamariki taau? ... ahs Have you any children ?
Tokoia ? be Buc a5 How many ?

Kua maki koe ? ee sia Are you ill?

Ka mate paa koe ... ace You will perhaps die
Kare rava ia ... wae ae Not a bit of it

Many 2. ie ae er Tangata

Woman ope is sist Vaine

Head ... “a ee une Upoko, mimiti (of animals)
Hair of head <A Se Rauru

Hye ©... me ele sas Mata

Nose”... Joc hoe oe Putaiu, putangiu

RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE.

Tongue
Ear
Hand ...

Thumb ( Mangaia .

( Rarotonga
Foot a :
Bone ...

Blood ...

Fire

Water ...

Sun

Moon .

Father

Mother

Son + ...
Daughter vn
Brother (of a woman)
Sister (of a man)
Cousin ;
Unele ...

Aunt

Give

Take ...

Make ...

Bear

Burn

See

Hear

Arero
Taringa
Rima

Nui (i.e., big)

Maikao maata (big finger)

Vaevae

Tvi

Toto

INA

Vai

Ra

Marama
Metua tane
Metua vaine
Tamaroa
Tamaine
Tungane
Tuaine
Taeake
Metua tane
Metua vaine
Omai; oronga mai
Rave atu
Anga

Apai, maranga
Ka

Akara
Akarongo

3

3

REPORT OF COMMITTEE No. 3.

Australasian Biological Station Committee.

Memspers oF CommiTTEE:—Mr. A. Denpy, Mr. J. J. Furrcusr, Mr.
A. H. 8. Lucas, Mr. MacGituivray, Professor W. BALDWIN SPENCER

and Dr. W. A. HaswEuu (Secretary).

‘Ow1nG to the impossibility of holding meetings at other times than
during the meeting of the Association, the members of the committee
being scattered over all the Australian colonies, it has been
impossible for the committee as a body to do much in the course
of the year. Measures, however, have been taken, which it is
hoped will lead to their being in a position to report an important
step before the next meeting of the Association.

It was the general opinion of the members of the committee
who were present at the Sydney meeting of the Association that
Port Jackson is in many respects the most favourable situation
for the establishment of the proposed station. The proximity to
a capital in which there are good scientific libraries, the sheltered
character of the shores, and the richness of the marine fauna all
combine to render it the most convenient situation that could be
selected. In addition, the neighbourhood of Sydney, or at least
some part of the New South Wales coast, is to be preferred as
the site of the proposed station, owing to the fact that there
already exists there a nucleus for such an institution.

From 1881 to 1886 there was at Watson’s Bay, near the Heads
of Port Jackson, a small building entitled the Biological Station,
which was constructed on a piece of land granted by the
Government. The expense of the construction of the building
having been defrayed by private subscriptions and subscriptions
from various learned societies, including the Royal Societies of
New South Wales and Victoria, supplemented by a Government
subsidy. The situation was not very convenient, and the station
was little used, except by M. N.de Miklouho Maclay, by whose
efforts it was founded. In 1886, at the time of a scare regarding
war with Russia, the land was resumed by the Government of the
colony for military purposes; a sum of money being granted to
the trustees of the station as compensation for the loss of the
building. This sum of money is now available as a nucleus of

AUSTRALASIAN BIOLOGICAL STATION COMMITTEE. 355

the sum required for endowing a new station, and it is proposed
that, as soon as a suitable site can be got, additional subscriptions
should be solicited, both from private individuals and from the
learned societies in the various colonies, so that the trustees may
be enabled to begin the construction of the new station. It is
proposed that this should at first be on a small scale, but so
constructed that further extension could be readily effected when
required. It is hoped that the New South Wales Government, to
whom application has been made, will grant a portion of one of
the numerous reserves on the shores of the harbour as a site for
the proposed new station.

w2

REPORT OF COMMITTEE No. 6.

The Construction and Hygienic Requirements of Places of

Amusement in Sydney.

Mempers oF Committee:—Mr. W. E. Rotu, Dr. ASHBURTON
Tompson, Professor WARREN, D. J. T. Witson, and Mr.

Joun Suuman (Secretary).

THE committee has been compelled to confine its enquiries to the
City of Sydney, and has been much assisted by a report of the
Royal Commission appointed on the 17th June, 1886, to enquire
into the construction of theatres, public halls, and other places of
public amusement or concourse. With this report the committee
is in full accord, and appends a copy thereof.

As far as the committee has been able to ascertain, there is no
legislative enactment dealing with the subject; but as the
licensing of theatres is annual, a practical control is thereby
secured. These licenses are issued by the Colonial Secretary, and
in one recent instance, viz., the Theatre Royal, the pressure
employed has been sufficient to secure the carrying out of very
necessary alterations and improvements, which will tend to the
greater safety and healthfulness of this building.

The committee is, however, of opinion that the annexed report
should form the basis of specific legislation, and that an existing
body, such as the Board of Health, should be entrusted with the
administration of the same, and with power to appoint competent
inspectors and other necessary officials. There is a precedent for
this course in the position accorded to the Board of Health in
Melbourne.

REPORT OF COMMITTEE No. 13.

Australasian Geological Record.

MemsBers oF ComMITTEE:—Professor F. W. Hurtron, Mr. R. L. Jack,
Mr. R. M. Jonunston, Mr. JaAmzrs Strruine, Professor R. Tarr, and

Ot

10.

vr.

Mr. R. ETHERIDGE (Secretary).

(1.) New ZEALAND.

. Beat, L. O.—The Alluvial Deposits of Otago. Trans. N.Z.

Inst., vol. xxi., p. 332.

. Bryys, G. J.—On a Striated Rock Surface from Boatmans,

near Reefton. Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxi., p. 334.

. Bonney, T. G.—Note on a Rock Collected by the Rev. W.S.

Green from near the summit of Mount Cook. ‘Trans.
N.Z. Inst., vol. xxi., p. 334.

. Crre, L.—Sur les affinités des flores jurassiques et triassiques

de VAustralie et de la Nouvelle Zealande. Comptes
Rendus, Tome cvii., 1888, p. 1014.

. Davis, J. W.—Fossil-fish Remains from the Tertiary and

Cretaceo-tertiary formations of New Zealand. Scientific
Transactions Roy. Dublin Soc., 1888. Vol. iv., Series
Le p. o

. Davis, J. W.—On a new Species of Scymnus from the Upper

Tertiary Formation of New Zealand. Geol. Mag., 1888,
p-. 315.

. ErtiIncsHAvUSEN, C. V.—Bertriige zur Kenntniss der fossilen

Flora Neu-Seelands. Kaiserliche Akademie der
Wissenschaften Anzeiger. Vienna, 1887.

. Hamitton, A.—Notes on a Deposit of Moa Bones in the

Te Aute Swamp. Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxi., p. 311.

. Harpine, J.—On the Neighbourhood of Te Aroha. Northern

Wairoa. Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxi., p. 336.

Hitt, H.—Discovery of Fossil Moa Feathers in Rocks of
Pliocene Age. Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxi. p. 318.

Hitt, H.—The Oil Prospects of Poverty Bay and District.
Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxi., p. 320.

. Hurron, F. W. (C.M.Z.S).—Notes on the Mueller Glacier,

Pro. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, 1888. Series 2.
vol. iii., p. 429.

358
13.

14,

15.

16.

17.

Ls.

HS

bo

AUSTRALASIAN GEOLOGICAL RECORD.

Hutton, F. W. (C.M.Z.S).—The Earthquake in the Amuri.
Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1889, vol. xxi., p. 263.

Hutton, F. W. (C.M.Z.S.).—The Eruptive Rocks of New
Zealand. Pro. Roy. Soc. New South Wales, 1889.

Lantour, DE H. A.—On the Fossil Marine Diatomaceous
Deposit near Oamaru. Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxi,
p. 293

O’Reitty, J. P.—On the Antipodal Relations of the New
Zealand Earthquake District of 10th June, 1886, with
that of Andalusia, of 25th December, 1884. Jour.
Roy. Geol. Soc. of Ireland, 1887, vol. xxii., p. 179.

Park, Jas.—The extent and Duration of Workable Coal in
New Zealand. Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxi., p. 325.

Ratu, vom G.—Ueben den Ausbruch des Tarawera auf
Neu-Seeland, 10th Juni, 1886. Neues Jahrbuch fiir
Mineralogie, &c. Bandi. p. 101. Stuttgart, 1887.

Tuomas, A. P. (M.A., F.L.S.).—Notes on the Geology of
Tongariro and the Taupo District. Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. xxi., p. 338.

(2.) QUEENSLAND.

. De Vis, C. W. (M.A.).—On a New Genus of Extinct

Mammals. Proc. Royal Society of Qd., vol. v., pt. 5,
1888. 8vo., 3 pp.

. De Vis, C. W. (M.A.).—On Diprotodon minor, Huxiey. Proc.

Royal Society of Qd., vol. v., pt. 2, 1888. 8vo., 7 pp.
With a plate.

. Frercuer, JosepyH (F.C.8., F.1.C., M.R.I.A., Brisbane City

Analyst).—The Analysis of Soils. Arishbane Courier,
27th August, 1889.

. Grecory, Hon. A. C.—Report to the Board of Waterworks

on Proposed Boring for Artesian Water at Brisbane.
19th September, 1888. SBrishane Courier of 4th Feb-
ruary, 1889.

. Henperson, J. B. (M.1.C.E.).— Report on the Blackall

Artesian Well. Addressed to the Minister for Mines
and Works, Brisbane, 16th May, 1888.

. Henperson, J. B. (M.I.C.E.).—Report on the Charleville

Artesian Bore. Addressed to the Honourable the
Colonial Treasurer, Brisbane. 12th September, 1889.

. Henperson, J. B. (M.I.C.E.).—Report on the Racecourse _

Bore. Addressed to the Honourable the Colonial
Treasurer, Brisbane. 18th September, 1889.

10.

i.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

Bt:

18.

19.

AUSTRALASIAN GEOLOGICAL RECORD. 359

. Ivimey, Axeck. J.—Rockhampton and Mount Morgan: a

Mining and Descriptive Account of Central Queensland.
Brisbane: Davison and Metcalf, 1888. 8vo., 84 pp.

. Jack, Ropert L. (F.R.G.S., F.G.S.).—On some Salient

Points in the Geology of Queensland,

Jack, Ropert L. (F.R.G.S., F.G.S.).—Preliminary Report
to the Minister for Mines and Works in Limestone
District, part of the Palmer Goldfield. Brisbane:
by Authority, 1888. 2 pp. foolscap. With map.

Jack, Rosert L. (F.R.G.S., F.G.S.).—Report on Rock and
Other Specimens from New Guinea and Neighbouring
Islands, forwarded by Sir William MacGregor,
K.C.M,G., &e. 5th June, 1889. Published in New
Guinea Gavernment Gazette.

Jack, Ropert L. (F.R.G.S., F.G.8.).— Report to the
Minister for Mines and Works on Coal Discoveries on
the Flinders. Brisbane: by Authority, 1888. 2 pp.
foolscap.

Jack, Ropert, L. (F.R.G.S., F.G.S.).— Report to the
Minister for Mines and Works on the Geology of the
Russell River. Brisbane: by Authority, 1888. 5 pp.
foolscap. With geological map.

Jack, Ropert L. (F.R.G.8., F.G.8.).—Second Report to the
Minister for Mines and Works on Mount Morgan Gold
Deposits. _ Brisbane: by Authority, 1889. 6 pp.
foolscap. With plans and sections.

Jack, Rosert L. (F.R.G.S., F.G.S.). — Report to the
Minister for Mines and Works on Taranganba Gold
Mine. Brisbane: by Authority, 1889. 10 pp. fools-
cap. With plan of mining operations.

Jack, Ropert L. (F.R.G.S., F.G.8.).— Report to the
Honourable the Minister for Mines and Works on
Proposed Boring for Artesian Water in the vicinity of
Brisbane. Published in Arisbane Observer of Y9th
March, 1889.

Jack, Rosert L. (F.R.G.S8., F.G.S.).—The Mineral Wealth
of Queensland. Brisbane: Warwick and Sapsford,
rcs) ”Gyvo., 71 "pp:

Linpon, Epwp. B. (A.R.S.M., F.R.G.S., F.G.S.).—A Cata-
logue of such Minerals as are at present known in
Queensland, with their Principal Associations and
Places of Occurrence. Brisbane: R. 8S. Hews and Co.,
1888. 8vo., 47 pp.

Ranps, Witutiam H.—WNotes on Certain Boulders met with
in the Beds and Reefs of the Gympie Goldfield, Queens-

360

20.

33.

34,

AUSTRALASIAN GEOLOGICAL RECORD.

land. Proc. Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Sydney, 1888.
Pp., 297-299.

Ranps, Wittiam H.— Report on Gympie Goldfield.
Brisbane: by Authority, 1889.

. Ranps, W1LLt1AmM H.—Report to the Minister for Mines and

Works on the Geology of the Albert and Logan
District. Brisbane: by Authority, 1889. Foolscap.
With map.

22. SmirH, JameEs.—Fossils at Neerkol, near Rockhampton.

Published in the Rockhampton Bulletin, June, 1888.

23. SmirH, James.—Mount Morgan Fossils. Letter in Rock-

hampton Bulletin, dated 30th January, 1888.

. Smiru, JaAmes,—On the Discovery of Fossils at Rockhampton.

Abstract in Proc. Aust, Assoc. Adv. Sci., Sydney,
1888.

. Smitu, J aAmEs.—The Desert Sandstone. Rockhampton Bulletin

of 17th August, 1888.

. Surru, JAmes.—The Geological Features of Central Queens-

land. Paper read before Natural History Society of
Rockhampton, 8th April, 1889.

. Sykes, F. W.—A Practical Treatise on Mount Morgan:

Including a concise and detailed Account of the Mines
in and around Mount Morgan, and also of the celebrated
Taranganba Mine. Compiled by F. W. Sykes for
William Donaghey. Mount Morgan: Donaghey, East-
wood and Co., 1888. 8vo., 52 pp.

. Tentson-Woops, Rev. J. E. (F.G.8., F.L.8.)—The Desert

Sandstone. Royal Society of N.S.W. 7th November,
1888. 8vo., 45 pp.

. Annual Progress Report of the Geological Survey for the

year 1888. Brisbane: by Authority, 1889. Foolscap.

. Annual Report of the Department of Mines for the year

1888. Brisbane: by Authority, 1889.

. Balcardine Artesian Well. Article in Sydney Dazly Tele-

graph of 11th January, 1889.

2. Canoona Goldfield. Leading article in Rockhampton Bulletin

of 6th August, 1889.

Saltern Creek Artesian Well. Article in Queenslander of
19th May, 1888.

Sandringham Artesian Well. Article in Townsville Bulletin,
dated 14th May, 1888.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTIONS.

ee

J “eworpag?: Sut 30° CaMleaag
a : i .

= ale
Li
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| 0 i
a P
i |
.
‘i | | |
i |
| *
{ ve P
) ‘
-
iJ
y ‘ vial vi
| . :
?
=i
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i
‘ , :
{ ' ‘i
j
'

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTIONS.

Section A.

ASTRONOMY, PHYSICS, MATHEMATICS, AND
MECHANICS.

President of the Section: R. Threlfall, M.A., Professor of Physics,
University of Sydney.

1—THE ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF QUARTZ
THREADS.

By R. Turetratt, M.A., Professor of Physics, University of
Sydney.

| Abstract. |

THE research of which the following is an abstract was carried
out in the Physical Laboratory of the University of Sydney,
with the assistance of Messrs. J. F. Adair and J. A. Pollock.
The undoubted superiority of quartz fibres for purposes of
suspension led the author to undertake the present investigation,
in order to supply the requisite data to instrument makers, and
to physicists engaged on the designing of instruments. The
investigation of most of the elastic properties of quartz threads
depends on the accurate estimation of the thickness of the threads
used. The microscopic methods of measuring the quantity were
made the subjects of special enquiry, and it is shown that in the
measurement of tibres of the order of -01 cm. diameter con-
stant errors may be practically avoided, and accidental errors
reduced to 3 or 4 per cent. per measurement. The greater
portion of the uncertainty of a single observation can be eliminated
by multiplying the observations. A new method of drawing
threads suitable for the production of short, thick fibres was
devised. The following points were investigated :—

1. The breaking strength of fibres of various thicknesses,
investigated in two ways.

2. The simple rigidity of quartz fibres.

3. The temperature co-efficient of the simple rigidity.

4, The temperature co-efficient of the total torsional rigidity
of cylindrical fibres (the datum to be used in instru-

s
364 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

ment making), and practically identical with the
temperature co-efficient of the “modulus of torsion.”

. The co-efficient of expansion of fused quartz—a datum
requisite for the calculation of (3) from (4).

. The Young’s modulus of quartz fibres.

Calculation of the bulk resilience from the foregoing.

. General investigation as to the limiting intensity of
torsional strain which may be given to a quartz fibre
without making it exhibit torsional fatigue or
nachwirkung.

(1.) The breaking strength turned out to verify Boys’ estimate
of from 50 to 70 tons per square inch. A new method, involving
the use of a spiral spring of brass wire was used for producing
the stresses.

(2.) The simple rigidity was calculated from vibration experi-
ments made in an exhausted vibration box. The mean value of
several experiments on different fibres was—

W = 2°8815 x 10" C.G. S. at 22°C.

(3.) The temperature co-efficient of the simple rigidity is
calculated from the next series of experiments by means of a
value for the co-efficient of expansion of quartz, which was the
average of a large number of unsatisfactory experiments—
it is +0 00013 per degree cent.

(4.) Determined from experiments on three fibres which were
heated and vibrated in a special and ratber elaborate piece of
apparatus. In order to overcome an experimental difficulty, a
method of soldering quartz to brass was devised, depending on
the coating of the quartz with platinum. This datum gives the
co-efficient of increase of torsional rigidity of any cylindrical fibre,
and is the number which must determine the amount of tempera-
ture correction to be used in any instrument in which quartz
fibres are employed. The co-efficient e=-00013307 between
22° and 98°C.

(5.) The co-efficient of expansion of fused quartz was got from
an experiment on about 14 grammes of fused quartz, by Matheson’s
method of weighing in water at different temperatures. The
results were such as to show that the expansion of sticks of fused
quartz is very irregular. The most probable value over the range
30°—100° is at =-0000017 (co-efficient of linear expansion).

(6.) Young’s modulus was got by bending a thread of quartz,
supported at each end on a knife edge, by a platinum wire rider.
Several experiments agreeing very well gave M = 5.178 x 10”
C.G.S. Which in combination with the result (2) gave.

(7.) Bulk modulus or resilience K = 1:435 x 10" C.G.S.

(8.) The tests as to torsional fatigue and nachwirkung were
made in the usual way, and showed that no fatigue is to be
apprehended in any experimental use to which quartz fibres are
likely to be put. As to nachwirkung, the usual symptoms were

Or

[ool Mor)

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. 365

produced when the intensity of twist rose beyond a certain
point. From the experiments it is deduced that a good margin
for safety will be left if a fibre ‘01 cm. in diameter is not twisted
at a greater rate than one-third complete turn per centimeter,
and in other fibres at a rate simply inversely as the diameter.
The claims of quartz fibres for suspension purposes are established
beyond criticism by the above researches.

Notre.—Further experiments have shown that the tempera-
tive coefficient of total torsional rigidity is more nearly ‘00012
than -00013; also that the amount of nachwirkunk exhibited
appears to depend on the thickness of the threads in a manner
probably related to their rate of cooling during manufacture.

2,—CLOUD OBSERVATIONS.

By W. W. Cuucuetru, M.Inst.C.E.

3.—_SOME REMARKS ON THE TEACHING OF ELE-
MENTARY MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.

By Rev. W. L. Bowpitcu, M.A.

4._-NOTE ON THE EULERIAN EQUATIONS OF
HYDRODYNAMICS.

By ALExANDER McAutay, M.A.

| Adstract. |

Mr. Larmor (Proc. Lon. Math. Soc., March, 1884) has from
general dynamical principles deduced the Lagrangian equations
of hydrodynamics by the principle
ho BPS O07) Lo 0 * a2 GLY.

[ Z the Lagrangian function of a system, g a co-ordinate, Q the
external force corresponding to 7, the initial and final positions
and times of the motion, invariable.] We may, by considering azy
finite portion of a fluid, deduce the Eulerian equations, and also
the fact that the stress is a hydrostatic pressure. Here by a fluid
is understood a substance, the potential energy due to whose-

strain is a function of the density only. For the finite portion
we have with usual notation

366 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

L=fff{(4(@+e+w)-V-f(p))pds... mi (2)
where f(p) is the potential energy per unit mass due to strain
and ds is an element of volume. Eq. (1) gives

fat(8L4S/f(EX+nV+lZ)pds+/S (EP, + 1h. +bp,)aS) (3)
where (€, 7, ¢) is the virtual displacement, (X, Y, Z) an external
bodily force independent of V, and (A, A, 2, ) the stress per unit
surface at the boundary. If by means of the displacement the
point would move from P to P' and if / be the value of any
quantity at P before displacement, “+ 6 will be supposed to
mean the value at P’ after displacement. Thusé(pds)=0,du=¢
Hence,

a FSIS Eur nor bw) pds+J/(Elenmetn)p'f aS

SI RAE +” ECe'P eal] + 0s

where /' stands for df//dp and where (/, m, x) are the direction
cosines of the normal outwards. From equation (3) we obtain
the surface equations

=p kh FAS

(say), shewing that the stress is a hydrostatic pressure of
magnitude p* 7’; and the volume equations

bee AO tec ee (5),

and two similar ones.

Notice that p’/' = £ gives f= — fp dv' where v' is the volume
of unit mass. This is the ordinary expression for the potential
energy of strain per unit mass.

5.—ON THE DESIGNING OF TRANSIT
INSTRUMENTS.

By Professor Krrnot, M.A., C.E.

THE transit instrument is an appliance of cardinal importance to
the astronomer. By its means he determines the relative positions
of the heavenly bodies, and upon the accuracy of its indications
all his calculated results depend. It is therefore of the utmost
importance that this instrument should be in every respect as
perfect as it can be made.

The transit instrument consists of a telescope attached at right
angles to an axis, which latter is provided with a graduated circle,

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. 367

and supported upon two bearings. For its proper performance it
is necessary that the axis be placed horizontal and truly east and
west, that the line of collimation of the telescope be exactly at
right angles to the axis, and that the circle give a definite and
known reading when the line of collimation is horizontal. That
these conditions may be always complied with, it is desirable that
all parts of the instrument be rigid, or, in other words, remain
invariable in form. Now, a rigid substance, though often
postulated by lecturers on physics, does not exist innature. All
known solid materials are more or less elastic, and change their
form to a greater orlessextent. Thus the telescope of the transit
instrument may be straight when vertical, but when placed in a
horizontal position the ends will droop, and this effect will take
place, though to a less degree, in positions intermediate to the
horizontal and vertical. Similarly, the axis will droop, but its
flexure will be the same, provided the material is homogeneous in
all positions of the telescope.

Now, did both ends of the telescope and axis bend equally, no
harm would be done, as the effect of flexure would simply
move the line of collimation to a position parallel to and a
minute distance from that which it would occupy were there no
flexure. Unfortunately, however, this equality or symmetry of
flexure does not appear to exist; hence, errors arise, and the
performance of the instrument is impaired.

In all transit instruments known to us, the telescope tube is
of circular section, consisting of two slightly conical portions
united by a central cube, or sphere, and the axis consists of two
other conical parts. Now, this section is suitable for a beam
exposed to bending moments equally in the direction of all its
diameters, but is totally unsuitable to the case in point, in which
the bending moment is all in one plane, that in which gravity
acts. What would be thought of an engineer who employed a
circular tube as a girder for a bridge? Why, he would be an
object of ridicule to the whole profession. The transit telescope,
equally with the bridge-girder, is a beam always flexed in the
same plane, and, in the interests of both strength and rigidity,
should be made so that its cross section has as large a moment of
inertia as possible about its central axis. In this respect iy
differs essentially from the telescope of an equatorial, upon which
gravity may act in any plane. The section, then, of a transit
telescope should be rectangular instead of circular, and the bulk
of the material should be concentrated in the top and bottom,
the sides being as thin as practical considerations permit. The
best depth of the beam or tube cannot, I think, be determined by
the methods of maxima and minima, but will be as great as
practical conditions allow, as the flexure of a beam made as
described varies inversely as the depth. In side elevation the
tube will have the form of a lozenge, the greatest depth being at

368 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

the centre, whence it diminishes uniformly to each end, when it
need be no greater than is necessary to accommodate the optical
apparatus.

The axis may remain a double cone as at present, but preferably
enlarged in diameter at its centre, whereby flexure will be
reduced.

6.—FURTHER INVESTIGATIONS ON THE LAWS OF
MOLECULAR FORCE.

By WituiamM SUTHERLAND, M.A., B.Sc.

[ Adstract. |

In this paper the author gave a brief sketch of the methods and
results of his researches during the past year on the subject of
molecular force. The most important point in the theory of
molecular force is the establishment of the characteristic equation
for fluids on the model of Clausius’s equation of the Virial—
8pv = SimV -—- 4433/7. where F is the force between two
molecules at distance ~ apart. According to a law of force
3.A m’ |r between two molecules of mass m, + > 3/7 the internal
virial must vary inversely as the volume. In agreement with
this, the equation for the elementary gases and methane is
from Amagat’s experiments proved down to the critical volume
to be pu=K r{ 1 +5/(o-5 ; “5 where //v is 2:43 3 Fr for
unit mass of gas. But in the case of compound gases a different
form is, from Ramsay and Young’s experiments on ethyl oxide
and Amagat’s on carbonic dioxide, proved to hold down to the
9
critical volume pv= Rk T (1 +24) wife which is indirectly
v+k/i utk
proved to apply to the great majority of compounds, the most
prominent exceptions being the alcohols and water, ethylene and
bodies such as acetic acid and nitric peroxide, which have been
shown to contain double molecules. The most notable point
about this equation for compounds is that the form //(v+) for
the internal virial holds down to yolume v=4, at which it
becomes 7/2, and below which it becomes 7/2v. Hence, below
a certain volume, 4, the internal virial for compounds varies
inversely as the volume, as the law of the inverse fourth power
requires, but above the volume & the form //(v+) would seem
to be in contradiction to that law, only that the author is able to
show that this form is due to the pairing of molecules in com-
pound gases, the virial constant for the free molecules being J,

a ee

an

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. 369

and that for the pairs being 7/2, so that when the volume 2 is
reached all the molecules are paired, and then through the whole
range of liquid volume the pairs behave as single molecules in
the matter of molecular force. These equations apply down to
the critical volume ; in the case of the elements and methane the
critical volume pressure and temperature are given by the con

3k
ditions df/dv=od'p/dv’ = o, whence 2, Sh VE OO eae

p. = 47/27. At the critical volume 2 i 1+ Iw-5) |

Dui , ¥ :
becomes sea and the form established below the critical volume is

— us
pu= if z. (1 pba ) —- Im the case of compounds the
Zi = U.
condition @’f/dv° =o is not a possible one, and the critical
Tk
values are given by @f/dv=o and v, = = whence 7, = 120//

409 Rk, p. =367/409 &. By means of Ramsay and Young’s data
aon ¥Tv,- 4

for ethyl oxide, the general form fp 7= ra

hate , Ga
eis established for compounds below the volume 4, while

25 R ae Cee
between & and 7 £/6 the form is J v = ares ile Ser . - e

4

v+ hk.
of the present experimental range of fluidity, one can proceed
to applications too numerous to detail in an abstract ; thus it
is possible to amend to a more accurate statement Van der
Waals’ generalisation that, if volume pressure and temperature
for any substance be expressed in terms of its critical values,
as units, then one and the same law applies to all fluids.
The more accurate statement is that above the critical volume
the elements and methane follow the same law, while compounds
with the previously mentioned exceptions follow another law, the
same for all compounds, but different from that for elements.
Below the critical volume these statements are not strictly but
only approximately true. With these equations there are five
main methods of finding values of the virial constant / from
available data. The first is from extended enough observations
on the compression and expansion of bodies as gases ; the second
from one measurement of the co-efficient of expansion a and of the
compressibility ». at temperature Z of the body as a liquid

x

Thus equipped with equations covering the whole

370 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

: i 25 :
according to the relation / = $ (2, me - R)o T the third from
Vg
the latent heat 4 according to the relation /4= fe adv
a

which, with appropriate reduction and approximation, gives
M1/v, =66°5 AZX—-101 7, in terms of the megadyne, gramme
and centimetre, where J/ is the molecular weight and 7; the
boiling point (counted of course from absolute zero) 4 being
measured in calories; the fourth from the equations given for
T.and p~, whence /= 409 &’ 7?/ 400 4, The fifth method depends
on results already established (PAz/. Mag.. July, 1887, and
April, 1889), that the internal virial is 3 7 4 p Jog Z/a, so that,
for compound liquids, 7= 4 7 A log L/a where Z/a isa ratio
which is constant and the same for all compounds; and that the
surface tension x Is given by x = wp’ Ae / (2 + vy’ 2) where e is
like a a quantity nearly equal to the mean distance apart of the
molecules, from these we get / = ¢c x v3 / 173 wherec is a constant
whose value can be found. To get comparable values for ditferent
bodies we must measure y and v always at the same fraction of
the critical temperature. These methods enable us to calculate
values of 7 for a large number of bodies; the following are three
illustrative samples of the agreement of the different methods :—

Method Second Third Fourth Fifth

GS; 26°5 25°7 27°2 26°9 ) Values of 47° in terms
CHC, 33°0 38°2 36°71 36°8 ~ of megamegadyne,
God. MAD 43°] 42-7 43°8 \ gramme and cm. ~

Agreement such as this in a large number of cases constitutes
the veritication of the theory so far unfolded. In s-eking for the
law that connects the virial constant 7 of a compound with its
chemical composition, it proved advantageous to multiply 7 by
M*, and it was then found that J7°7 = 6S + 668° where S is
called the dynic equivalent of the compound and is defined as the
number of C7, groups in the normal paraftin which exerts the
same molecular force as the compound; .S is the sum of the dynic
equivalents of the radicals in the compound. The following are
the values of the dynic equivalents for several radicals, along
with their molecular refractions in terms of that for CZ, as unity

CE we H CO OO Nise
Dynic equivalent 1 7a) (P25 dO Gen eel
Molecular refraction 1 54 P3vil-4) 35) chhpeeeliaee

iO UCM Sigma SC
2 2:85 “
2

Dynic equivalent 1
S-Ouinls

9D.
ad
Molecular refraction 2°

ee

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. 371

The significance of the parallelism in the values of these two
quantities cannot be discussed in this abstract. The law of Z has
thus been found, and as 7 is proportional tu 4, we have the law of
Am in 3An’ //* the expression for molecular force.

In extending the theory to inorganic bodies with data at
present available it is necessary to construct a theory of the
capillarity and compressibility of solutions ; this is successfully
done with the unfolding of some interesting results in the
process, and the same parallelism between dynic equivalent and
molecular refraction is again established for a large number of
elements. Many matters are treated of in the full investigation
which cannot be touched on in this abstract.

7.—REMARKS ON THE ARRANGEMENT OF A
GALVANOMETER.

By E. F. J. Love, M.A., Fellow of Queen’s College, Melbourne,
and Assistant Lecturer and Demonstrator in Natural Philosophy
to the University.

| Adstract. |

THE author of this paper described a ballistic galvanometer, the
suspension and mounting of which offered some peculiarities.
The suspended system of magnets was made as nearly astatic as
possible, and the restoring force was supplied by the torsional
rigidity of the suspending fibre. For the latter, the author
employed dark human hair, of suitable length, mounted in its
natural state without cleansing. This substance he found to
possess very perfect torsional rigidity, and to be nearly free from
“elastische nachwirkung.” It was recommended that all
delicately-suspended apparatus should be mounted on india-rubber
pillars, of height equal to their diameter, as such a mounting
almost completely insulates the apparatus from external
disturbance, and, at the same time, rapidly takes up and damps
vibrations actually set up within the instrument. The paper
further contained a comparison of the merits of Gauss’s method
of observing by means of telescope and scale with those of Sir
W. Thomson’s lamp and scale method, the conclusion being
strongly in favour of the former for absolute measures of angle,
and concluded by describing a simple method of constructing
circular scales.

8.—AIDS TO CALCULATION.
By J. J. Fenton.

Section B.
CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY.

President op the Section: Professor E. H. Rennie, M.A., D.Sc.,
University of Adelaide.

1—ON AN APPLICATION OF CHEMICAL CONTROL
TO A MANUFACTURING BUSINESS.

By Ep. W. Knox.

As there are still doubts in many minds about the money value
of scientific aid in practical work, I have thought that some
interest might be taken in a short account of a purely commercial
application of chemical science to a manufacturing business—
an application, I think, unique in its completeness as far as
Australasia is concerned, though in Europe many better examples
might easily be found, but few, if any, where the staff of experts
is so large or the work done so wide in its scope.

The business I speak of is that of the company known as the
Sugar Company, which is largely interested in the manufacture
and refining of sugar in five of the colonies of the Australasian
group. Having entered the service of this company twenty-five
years ago, and having since passed through all its grades, I can
speak with some authority of its transactions ; but as I have not
enjoyed any training in science, I will deal with the subject on
which J am to address you merely from the point of view of one
concerned with the results alone.

About ten years since we were led by the great attention then
being paid to chemical research in connection with the beet-sugar
industry to commence such investigations into our mode of work.
We did not know clearly what was wanted, nor did the man we
engaged, so the first start was not a success; but it showed us
we were on the right track, and we accordingly engaged in
Scotland a refinery chemist, and a year later two beet-sugar
chemists in Germany, and began the systematic check on our
working. Of these gentlemen, the former is now our head
chemist (Mr. T. U. Walton, B.Sc., F.1.C., F.C.S.), and one of the
latter our inspecting chemist (Dr. Gustav Kottmann, Ph.D.) ;
and it is to the patience and industry of these two gentlemen, and
to the system they introduced, that much of the success we have

.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. Bal f3)

achieved is due. The chemical staff then fast increased in numbers,
but it was not till I visited Europe in ’85 and saw there to what
an extent the supervision of industrial work was passing into the
hands of those having chemical knowledge that any large portion
of the practical work was entrusted to members of our chemical
staff. I sought, however, authority for such a change, and during
the past two or three years have gradually, as chances offered,
transferred to men who were trained chemists or analysts, the
management of a large part of our manufacturing operations.

The method adopted now is as follows :—There is a central
laboratory in Sydney, where the head chemist is stationed. Here
five or six officers, including juniors receiving elementary training,
are always at work, and to this centre all the returns from each
factory are forwarded weekly. At each sugar-mill and refinery
(nine and three respectively) there are employed a chemist or
analyst, and one or more juniors or assistants—not counting the
officers who may be engaged in overlooking the manufacture—
and each of these analysts is responsible for the chemical
investigations to be carried out at his station. At the mills
these comprise :—

1. Analysis of the sugar-cane as received

2. 2 5» juice expressed

3 _ 5, megass er crushed cane after the juice
has been removed

4, A 5, Clarified juice

ap _ £5 as 5, after it has been boiled down
6. . », massecuite from the pans

is u » sugar and molasses

8. iS eM Coal

and in addition a record is kept of the work done, and each week
a statement is prepared which shows the quantity of cane crushed
and sugar produced. The work, of course, is so arranged that
the more important analyses which determine the amount of
sugar lost in the various processes are made frequently, and those
of smaller moment as time permits.

At the refineries the sugar is all sampled and analysed according
to the various brands on being landed from the ships, and it is
stowed so that it can be procured as wanted. Each day’s melting
is again analysed, and the weekly averages of all sugars and syrup
produced. There is also a careful examination made of the bone-
black used for filtering, to determine if this has been rightly
re-burned, and full analyses of this also are made from time to
time. The records of the work are prepared on different lines
from those for the mills, but there is a similar check, and
occasional investigations have also to be made into other points
connected with the refinery work.

374 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

At the end of each quarter for the refinery, and of each
crushing season at the mills, the weekly returns which have been
prepared are summarised and tabulated, and careful comparison
made between the results at the various factories, improvements
effected or new methods suggested being brought under the
notice of the leading officers, as are also the occasional short-
comings relentlessly exposed by the figures recorded. The refinery
returns are all under the charge of the head chemist, the mill
returns under that of the inspecting chemist ; and the whole of
them are made out in such a way that the administrative heads
of the different departments—who, as a rule, know nothing of
chemistry—can grasp the main features very easily, and then at
once deal with any matters which call for attention or explanation.
All the work in connection with sugar is carried out by the aid
of the polariscope, and indeed could hardly be done without this
instrument, which has been devised to make a practical applica-
tion of the property that a solution of sugar has of altering the
character of polarised light allowed to shine through it. The
degree of change thus experienced by the rays of light is in exact
proportion to the quantity of sugar present in the solution, and
when measured by suitable prisms the amount of sugar thus
becomes known. This apparatus is the outcome of a long series
of experiments and discoveries commenced nearly seventy years
ago, and it serves well to illustrate the dependence of practical
work on purely scientific enquiry conducted for the acquisition of
knowledge, and in this instance, I think, without thought of
personal gain.

So far I have spoken altogether of the manufacturing work,
but I should here state that we have now also taken the chemical
staff into our counsel in regard to the cultivation of the cane
grown on our own plantations, at present about 14,000 or 15,000
acres. In past years we have not availed ourselves to any extent of
the assistance of the chemists in this department, partly because
we were working virgin land, and partly because, till a
short time ago, nearly the whole of our supply of cane—and
still a large proportion—was grown by others and sold to us when
cut. However, the partial exhaustion of our lands and the
necessity for applying manure, the desirability for improving the
present canes and for introducing new varieties, and some little
trouble with diseases in the canes, compelled us to seek the aid of
our chemical staff in this branch also, and we are now carrying
out an elaborate investigation into the composition of the soils of
our various estates; and, under the supervision of the chemists,
a vast number of trials in the special cane nurseries established
by us two or three years ago, and in the fields with manure of
various compositions applied in different ways, and with irrigation
and many systems of planting. From all these experiments we
shall, in the course of time, derive much benefit ; but though there

=r = ee

ee eee

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. By Es

can be little doubt that, by careful selection of cane and manures,
we can increase considerably the production of sugar per acre,
still we can hardly hope that there can, in a short time, be any
improvement in the sweetness of the cane at all corresponding
with that obtained in Europe in a few years in beet-roots. Sugar-
cane is one of those grasses which has been hitherto believed not
to produce fertile seed, and as propagation is therefore effected. by
planting cuttings, no one has attempted to produce by selection
of seed—as is done with the beet—that marked increase in
saccharine contents which is so much desired ; and any advance
in this direction, if actually obtained at all by continually planting
the sweetest canes, can only be made by slow and painful steps.
Fertile seeds have, however, been lately found by scientific
observers in the West Indies and in Java, and as their success
in raising plants from such seeds will be emulated by hundreds
of planters all over the world, it seems possible that we may now
be on the threshold of an important change in our methods of
propagating cane, and that we may have grounds for hoping that,
in the early future, we may bring about a sensible improvement
in the sweetness of sugar-cane, which has not, so far as our know-
ledge extends, been as yet increased, even if it has not, in some
countries, been diminished by the use of immature stalks for
cuttings and by careless cultivation. To what extent the beet
has been improved can be gathered from the fact that, during
the last twenty-five years, its sweetness has been practically
doubled, and that nearly 20 per cent. of pure sugar in the picked
beets is not unusual, this increase being obtained by extreme care
in the cultivation and manuring, but principally by the special
selection of sweet beets for seeding, thus following the same line
as that pursued by Mr. Hallett when raising the celebrated
pedigree wheat, which attracted so much notice a good many
years ago.

A good deal of attention is also paid by the chemists to the
saving of what are usually called waste products. These play an
inportant part in the manufacture of sugar from the cane. The
crushed cane, after the obtainable sugar has been extracted, is
used for firing the boilers, and thus furnishes a very large
proportion of the fuel needed for working the factory ; and this,
too, serves a second purpose, as the ashes from it contain a good
deal of potash and other fertilising substances which are needed
for application to the fields from which the cane has been taken.
Then, again, at all our factories, the water driven off the juice of
the cane while this is being boiled down is caught and used for
watering the megass before it goes to the second mill and for
other purposes ; and at our New South Wales mills, where fresh
water cannot be obtained, it is fed into the boilers, which are
thus both fed and fired with parts of the cane we buy. There is,
however, one waste product for which yet but little use has been

376 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

made: this is molasses, of which we make about 5000 to
7000 tons a year. Of this quantity we distil nearly half, and
sell a small proportion for other purposes ; but the balance is put
on the fields as manure, or thrown away. As it contains about
40 per cent. cane sugar and from 10 to 20 per cent. glucose or
grape sugar, it is a material of the greatest value for feeding
stock ; but so far we have not found it possible to make arrange-
ments for disposing of it in any quantity. In the refineries, also,
we effect some savings from the by-products by recovering
sulphate of ammonia from the bones we distil for making the
filtering charcoal, and the spent charcoal itself is converted into
superphosphate, the three important components of cane manure—
ammonia, phosphoric acid, and potash—being, to a certain extent,
provided by the waste material of our own business.

Tt could not be expected that changes in our methods, such as
have been here alluded to, and the general adoption of chemical
control, could be carried out without some friction. Among
even the strongest and most intelligent of our officers there was
at first a hardly-concealed scorn for the new-fangled notions and
distrust of the chemists’ work; but these have now entirely
disappeared, and in every direction their reports are, as a rule,
accepted without question, and with confidence in their fairness
and accuracy ; and the help of the chemists is sought in many
ways—here by a manager who wants to check waste in some
branch of the manufacture, there by an agricultural overseer who
wishes an analysis of the water he is using for irrigation, or
advice as to the proportion of manure to apply to a field, or,
again, by an engineer who asks for an analysis of the coal he
uses or of the gases from a boiler flue, in order that he may know
if the setting of the boilers and the arrangement of the fire-bars
are those most conducive to the economic combustion of coal.

Having thus briefly sketched our system, I may say a few
words about the financial results ; and first, as to our expenditure,
would state that we are now paying to the chemical staff and
to those officers charged with the control of part of the manu-
facturing business who possess a knowledge of chemistry, and
have been chosen for those posts in consequence, some £8000 to
£9000 a year in the shape of salaries and allowances for board,
&e. There may be some doubt how we can be repaid for such
expenditure, but any doubts on this point I do not in the
remotest degree share. It would be almost impossible, even if it
were necessary, for me to state exactly what is the value of the
savings we have to set against such an expenditure ; but among
those in whose hands the general control of our business is placed
there is not a second opinion as to the money advantage of the
chemical check ; and when J say that saving 10lbs. or 12lbs. of
sugar from each ton of cane—say 5 per cent. of the weight of the
cane—means to us £15,000 to £20,000 a year, and that an

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. By arg

improvement in the colour of our refined sugar, which will bring
us a few shillings per ton more for it, represents a similar sum,
some:idea can be gained of the ground on which the chemical
staff has to work and of the savings they can effect ; and I can
add that some of the losses in our manufacturing business have
by their aid been reduced by one-third during the past four
years, and the extent of this saving can be guessed by the fact that
in one year the entire losses of sugar at our mills amounted to
14,000 tons, z.e., the cane we crushed contained 14,000 tons more
sugar than we were able to turn into marketable sugar. From
the sum of such loss it is easy to see that there are yet great
possibilities in the manufacture of sugar from the cane, and in
the cultivation of this crop much can still be done by manuring
and thorough culture, even if the sweetness of the cane be not
increased, as before suggested. We know now that on one
plantation in Java the entire crop of cane has contained in one
year as much as 8 tons of sugar to the acre, the cane being about
twelve months old; and when we bear in mind that the weight
of an unusual crop of maize (80 bushels) is two tons, and that a
40-bushel crop of wheat gives a total yield of one ton of grain
and two tons of straw, some idea will be gained of the effect of
tropical rain and sunshine in forming sugar in the cane when
the circumstances are favourable and the cultivation and manuring
are carefully done under skilled supervision. Jt will be seen,
moreover, that sugar-cane occupies an exceptional position among
other crops in the weight of marketable produce which can be
extracted from it.

And to the money benefits obtained by the chemical check we
must add two more, both of considerable importance. The first
is the great advantage of having in a large service like ours a
body of men of various ages trained in the knowledge that their
work is useless unless it is carried out with patient thoroughness,
accompanied by uncompromising truth-telling. No chemist worth
his salt dreams of concealing anything wrong or twisting his
conclusions so as to hide defects in the work of himself and
others, and it is surely of great value to have an example of this
sort always before the younger as well as the older men. To
those who fear to confess a mistake the certainty of its exposure
acts as a useful tonic, while to all, from the top to the bottom
of the staff, the example is wholesome. The second is the
mental refreshment and the increased interest in the work due
to the constant discussion of recorded facts and opinions, and of
the experiments of the chemists. Speaking for myself, I can say
that I have frequently found that energy flagging from the
pressure of routine and other monotonous work has again been
roused by interesting reports of experiments or suggestions as to
changes in our methods ; and in the case of others, the constant
competition between the officers, the chances offered in the

378 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

interval between the seasons for independent research and the
interchange of results, certainly produce healthful and useful
interest in the work.

Such is the record of our experiences, but I may, before con-
cluding, answer two questions which are sometimes put to me.
These are—‘' How was such a staff got together,” and “ What
education do you consider best for boys intended for chemical
work.” To the first I would say that the officers I have
mentioned, as well as one Englishman, one Scotchman, and one
German, were engaged in Europe and brought to Australia by
us. The rest were engaged here and trained by us, with the
exception of a few who had instruction in chemistry before
entering our service.

The staff now consists of nine Scotchmen, two Germans,
three Danes, one Belgian, one Swiss, two Englishmen, fourteen
Australians ; total, thirty-two.

It will be noticed at once that the proportion of Englishmen
—and of the two one was trained by us—is but small, but I can
only say about this that such a result is not due to any inclination
on my part to employ in preference men born elsewhere.
Whether the passing of chemical work of this sort into the hands
of men of other nationalities is due to the temper and character
of the English, making them averse to the study and application
which it demands, or to the opportunities for such study in
England being less frequent or availed of to a smaller extent than
is the case elsewhere, is a matter about which I cannot pretend
to speak with authority ; but I think I should call attention to
the position which men born in England hold numerically in a
staff recruited as ours has been. Nor have I any intention of
comparing the work of the men from the various countries ; but
I can say this, that we have derived much benefit from having
officers of different nationalities and dispositions and trained in
different ways, and that the Australians, who are all younger
than the others, have shown that in quickness and natural
ability they are not inferior, though not all possessed of the
patient perseverance which is so marked a characteristic of the
Scotch, Danes and Germans; and some of them have been, in a
measure, hindered in the acquisition of the knowledge of the work
by superficial school training.

And this remark brings me to the second question—about the
education best calculated to benetit boys intended for scientific
work. To this the reply is very simple, viz., that in my opinion
no special training should be attempted. Of all the plausible
fallacies put forward from time to time about education, the most
foolish seems to me that of attempting to teach any boy a trade
at school. If he is to leave school between sixteen and seventeen,
as most boys do, the years available are none too long for him to
master the ordinary school course, and it is simply wasting

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PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. 379

precious time to give a boy a smattering of chemistry at school
because he is destined for a laboratory when he leaves. Let him
be grounded thoroughly in mathematics, let him work seriously
at history and geography, and from the first drill him in the
Latin grammar, and then teach him to read and understand
French and German, the Latin grammar being taken up, as he
will learn from it the construction of a language much better than
if taught syntax from an English grammar, while it will also be
of much assistance afterwards when studying French and German,
a partial knowledge of which languages is desirable on account of
the valuable scientific literature thus made available. With such
a training as this, the boy will have a fair chance when he
commences his business life ; but if some of his school hours are
spent in an endeavour to teach him chemistry, he will find, when
put in a laboratory, that he has then to make good deficiencies in
his education due to his time having been wasted over so-called
technical training. Ido not go the length of saying that there
should not be a chemical laboratory at a school, or that the boys
should be brought up in entire ignorance of chemistry or science
of any sort, but I do maintain that the laboratory will do more
harm than good unless the masters realise that its function can
only be to fulfil that part of the definition of education which
requires that a man should know something of everything, or to
give a possible bias to the thoughts and aims of some boys who
have a natural gift for scientific pursuits; and it is surely an axiom
that no boy is fit to take up any branch of science, or indeed any
work by which he is to earn a living, until he has received a
thorough elementary training, and has learned how to acquire
knowledge—the only part of an education he can hope to receive
-at school.

There only remains now for me to add the hope-that the facts
and opinions I have been permitted to bring before you this
morning may be of some use in showing you how, by the employ-
ment of trained experts, the results from manufacturing and
agricultural work can be improved, and the losses which now
occur may be reduced, and those products now called waste
utilised, which latter may in other industries, as in the manufac-
ture of gas, be found of sufficient value to cause an enormous
reduction in the expenses of manufacture.

2,.—ON THE GUM OF THE LEOPARD-TREE
(Hindersia maculosa.—¥. v. M.)

By J. H. Maipey, F.LS., F.C.S., Curator of the Technological
Museum, Sydney.

Hilindersia maculosa (F. v. M., B. Fl., i. 388) is a synonym of
F. strzeleckiana (F. v. M.), of Mueller’s Census, p. 9. It belongs

380 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

to the natural order AWe/iacee.* It is an interior species, and is
found in New South Wales and Queensland. Owing to the
peculiar, and somewhat ornamental, spotted or blotched appear-
ance of its bark, it is known as “spotted, or leopard tree.” It
also bears the name of “‘ dogwood.”

During the summer months large masses, of a clear amber
colour, exude from the stem and branches. It makes good
adhesive mucilage, has a pleasant taste, and is eaten by the
aboriginals. It is commonly used by bushmen as a remedy in
diarrhea.

Two samples have been received at the Technological Museum,
and the following is an account of them. In view of the scarcity of
good gum-arabic, it would be a useful addition to our raw products
if abundant supplies of it could be obtained. I have not heard
of a gum being yielded by any other Australian species of
Llindersta :— ’

SampiLe I.—From between the Lachlan and Darling Rivers,
N.S.W. <A most valuable gum. It is in pieces as large as
pigeons’ eggs, and I have seen a piece half as large as an emu-egg,
clear and of excellent quality, with only a small portion of bark
at the place of attachment to the tree. In parts of the interior
it is said to be fairly abundant. In some cases it remains in the
liquid state on the trees for some little time before hardening, or
else exudes very rapidly, for it is frequently brought to Sydney in
pieces as long as an ordinary earthworm, and of the same average
ciameter.

Tt dissolves readily and completely in cold water. It hardly
appears to affect the transparency and absence of colour of pure
water. In this respect it may be ranked very closely to picked
Turkey gum-arabic. It possesses the faint cloudiness which an
aqueous solution of gum-arabic soon assumes.

Samp.e II.—From Tarella, near Wilcannia, New South Wales.
This is by no means so pleasing-looking as the preceding sample.
For the inost part it is dull and dirty-looking externally, as if
the tree had been exposed to dust during its exudation. It is
very brittle, and has a bright fracture. It is of a very pale
colour (almost colourless, in fact), but the presence of the
accidental impurity above alluded to reduces its value. This
contamination is, however, probably rare. This gum appeared to
most frequently exude from half-dead trees.

Leopard-tree gum is, to all intents and purposes, a good gum-
arabic. Its average composition may be readily seen from the
following :—

Arabin. Metarabin. Water. Ash. Total.
Sample 1 yp ..4» 80°2), .....cnilaen lO: 9 q.. (2:76 eee
Sample 9) hz, 80080 .:..9taild)soegllOrd. «102? Gone

* Por a discussion on gums of this natural order, see a paper by the author, Proc. Linn.
Soc. N.S. W., 1889.

4
t
f
%
:

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. 381

3._OBSERVATIONS ON THE GUMS YIELDED BY
TWO SPECIES OF CERATOPETALUM.

By J. H. Maney, F.LS., F.C.S., Curator of the Technological
Museum, Sydney.

THE genus Ceratopetalum belongs to the natural order Saxifragee,
and is endemic in New South Wales. Of its two species, the
first is C. gummiferum (Smith), generally of bushy size, though
in favourable localities it attains the dignity of a small tree. It
is the well-known ‘“Christmas-bush” of Sydney, and its reddish
persistent calyxis very showy. For this reason it was also called
‘‘ officer-plant”” in the early days of the colony, though an
officer’s tunic is of a very different colour. The second species is
a well-known gully tree, never found out of moist situations, and
is tall, with smoothish bark, bright#looking foliage and white
flowers which it bears in abundance. This is C. afpetalum
(D. Don), and its local names are “ coachwood,” “ lightwood,”
and “ leatherjacket.”

In deseribing C. gummiferum, Dr. J. E. Smith, in “ A Specimen
of the Botany of New Holland” (1793), gives an excellent figure
of the plant, which he calls the ‘“ three-leaved red-gum tree.”
He says :—‘‘ This, Mr. White informs us, is one of the trees (for
there are several, it seems, besides the ucalyptus resinifera)
which produce the red gum. He further remarks that it is the
only wood of the country which would swim in water.” (The
latter statement is, of course, founded on imperfect knowledge.)
This is the first and, as far as I know, the only reference to the
gum-yielding propensity of this plant; but it impressed Smith
sufficiently for him to give the specific name he did. Mr. White’s
observation, so early recorded, does not seem to have attracted
the attention of subsequent observers.

The first parcel of C. gummiferum gum I received was in small
tears of a beautiful ruby colour, perfectly transparent, and having
a bright fracture. It is powerfully astringent to the taste, sticks
to the teeth, and obviously contains a large proportion of gummy
matter. This sample was removed from the cut ends of a log,
from which it exuded in small drops and in thin pieces which
dried very quickly. The tree was 6 to 9 inches in diameter. It
seems, as far as our experience goes at present, that ring-barking
or wounding the tree, or even cutting it down merely, is of little
avail to obtain the gum ; the tree must be cut into logs or pieces,
so that the timber is open at doth ends, before the gum will exude
in any quantity. It remains to be seen whether the gum exudes
most freely in the summer.

I have received a cake of the substance obtained by draining
the ends of a severed log on to a plate. When first received it
was exceedingly tough; but on exposure to the air for two or
three months, it fractured without difficulty between the fingers.

382 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

The fractures are quite bright. It has no odour. To cold water
it imparts a dark, rich orange-brown colour; at the same time,
the insoluble portion forms a bulky gelatinous mass.

In bulk, the gum of C. afefalum appears in no way different
from that of C. gummiferum. It, however, smells more or less
strongly of coumarin, which is also contained in abundance in
the bark. It is obtained either by wounding the tree or by
felling it. In cold water it swells up largely, and at the same
time possesses a good deal of coherence. It imparts to the water
a pale orange-brown colour and an intense odour of coumarin.

Ceratopetalum gums are kinoid or astringent. They are much
of the colour and texture of ruby kinos,* but unlike those
substances, swell up and only partially dissolve. They may be
described either as £zvo0s or as kinoid gums. All the definitions
of kino with which I am acquainted allude to the tannic acid
contained in them, and make no allusion to any gummy consti-
tuents. All the gum of kinos of Zuca/yptus known to me is readily
soluble in water, and is arabin ; but in the case of Ceratopetalum,
the gum is present in the form of metarabin. Whether that
circumstance is sufficient to remove them from the kinos is a
matter of opinion; in any case they form a connecting link
between the kinos and metarabic gums. If they be looked upon
as kinos, I believe the present is the first instance in which such
substances have been recorded from the Saxi/ragee.

Ceratopetalum gums form a remarkable group, and at present
I do not know any other precisely similar gums. C. afetalum is
worthy of note as an available source of coumarin, and the
presence of that substance sharply separates the two gums. The
following difference also appears to be constant. The ash of
C. gummiferum is quite white, while that of C. apfetalum is dark
brown, very bulky, and difficult to ignite. It contains but a
small percentage of iron, but manganese is abundant. The
composition of the gums may thus be stated :—

C. Gummiferum. C. Apetalum.
Tannic acid (estimated as
gallo-tannic acid es
Phlobaphenes (soluble in 8%
alcohol)... be 19°5 ste 12:21
Phlobaphenes (insoluble
in alcohol, together

16:76 moe 6°35

with metarabin) ae 41-6 as 52-09
Coumarin so “ih nil (variable) 2 to 3
Accidental impurity... 2:5 ee 2°0
Moisture ae Re 16°7 eee 20°47
AGH... Jn - 1.8 oe 3°44

98-86 99°56

* See papers by the author, Pharm. Journ., [3] xx. 221, 321, and Proc. Linn, Soc., N.S.W.
July, 1889.

~ ian

ee My AOL AL gO

aap Se Cie <4

ae

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. 383

REMARKS ON THE ABOVE TABLE.

1. Ceratopetalum gums yield, on treatment with cold water, a
residue which consists almost entirely of phlobaphenes and
metarabin. That the greater portion of it consists of phlobaphenes
is proved by the facility with which continued boiling with water
converts it into an equal weight of tannic acid. In fact, if the
gums of this genus were boiled with water to begin with, the
percentage of tannic acid returned would be between forty
and fifty per cent. in each case. (Actual experiments gave
C. gummuiperum, 49°78; C. apfetalum, 41:14).

2. The difficulties surrounding the separation of a mixture of
phlobaphenes, insoluble in alcohol, and metarabin, are very great,
and my attempts in this direction have not been entirely “satis-
factory. I, therefore, have no recourse but to state the result as
I have done. But from my experiments in converting the
phlobaphenes into tannic acid, the metarabin into arabin, and by
observing the physical appearance in water and in alcohol of the
original mixture, and other tentative methods, I estimate the
percentage of metarabin to be about eight to ten per cent. in
each case.

4.—ON THE COMPOSITION OF LUCERNE
(Medicago sativa).

By Wm. M. Douerry, Assistant Government Analyst, New
South Wales.

Lucerne, purple medick or alfolfa, now very extensively grown
in Eastern Australia as a fodder plant, is of great antiquity, and
well known in Europe and Asia.

“The Romans brought it, 470 years before the Christian era,
from Media, hence ie generic name (A. de Candolle). <A
perennial fodder-herb of great importance, and largely utilised in
most countries with a temperate clime. . . . Lucerne
keeps green and fresh in the hottest season of the. year, even in
dry and comparatively barren ground, and on coast sands, but
developes itself for field-culture with the greatest vigour on river-
banks, or when subjected to a judicious system of irrigation,
particularly in soil rich in lime. . . . One of the most
valuable of green fodders, but less suited for hay, as the leaves
so readily drop off. . . . Itis also an important honey plant
for bees.”

Analysis of the Fresh Plant.

The analysis was made on good fresh specimens, obtained in
the spring of the present year (1889) from the estate of Robert
Scobie, Esq., M.L.A., of Maitland, Hunter River district, New
South Wales.

354 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

Watery on si 44 beg ih j 78:18
Albuminoids ; ; 3°27
Containing nitrogen , coe ced
Carbonaceous matter... ath 16-60
Containing fat ee ee Wie We
As starch ... Pee 5310)
Hs sugar ... sane Ore
se Gum. we. 0°24
ny woody fibre ... 8°77
Ash aie en a “ak ME 1)
100-00
Results Calculated on the Plant Dried at 212° F,
Albuminoids ... aa 15:00
(Containing nitrogen, 2°37)
Carbonaceous matter A ste 76.07
Containing fat 0:55
sd starch 1:37
ss sugar 0-69
Pe gum 1:12
= woody fibre 40-20
72) eee ; ie 8-93
100-00
Percentage of Inorganic Constituents, Calculated on the Dry Plant.
Potash (KO) ... ee se 3°58
Soda (Va,O) ... ae wa 0-81
hime (CaO) Ss te Abs 1:25
Magnesia (ZO) ao Le 0-36
Oxide of iron (72,03)... Ao 0-08
Phosphoric acid (P.O0;) ... vee 0-85
Carbonic Siam CCGA) hoe coe Lat 1-04
Sulphuric, ger US@.) f-- Abe 0:37
Chlorine (C7)... oe ae 0-64
Siena (70s) vs. bx ibd 0-11
Analysis of the Ash.
Potash (K,.0) .... ae? ... 40°20
Soda (4va,O) ... ost Ae 9-09
fame (G20)... wks zo. | ees
Magnesia (AZg0) so oe 4-09
Oxide of iron (@3'03) eiee Bh 1-00
Phosphoric Acid (P,O;) .. Bh 9°57
Carbonic Acid (CO,) _... 1 SLR
Sulphuric Acid (SO;) ... fds 4-20
Chiorme(G/)- =: 7 Lee 7:27

Silica (S70)... Be sae 1:30

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. 385

TABLE OF COMPARISON
(Calculated dry).

Albuminoids,) Carbon-

Fodder. “aang! | Saeeenee Weg mie PAH.
Substances, | digestible.

Lucerne “ee “ss 15°00 35°87 40°20 8:93
Cabbage a a 14°17 | 67°02 10°76 805
Barley Straw ee a10..|, ¢Ls2 78°46 5°02
Wheat Straw as 4°91 27°79 62°45 | 4°85
Oaten Straw ... bs 318 | 44-62 45°92 | 6:28
Oaten Hay ... eas 12:10 | 46°33 34-21 7°36
Brewers’ Grains eee 19°37 | 50°31 23°79 6°53

The annexed table shows at a glance the relative values of the
foods. I have separated the woody fibre from the other
carbonaceous matter, to show the amount of substance contained
in the food capable of being assimilated and the amount which
cannot be used up as a food by the animal. Lucerne, then,
taking this and the high percentage of flesh-forming substances
it contains into consideration, stands well at the top of the list of
the fodders I have enumerated, and well deserves the reputation
it possesses. I add the brewers’-grains, because they are used so
largely as a cattle food wherever obtainable, and a comparison
may prove useful.

5.—NOTE ON THE ESTIMATION OF ALKALIES IN
IGNEOUS ROCKS.

By Joun Dennant, F.G.S., F.C.S.

[ Adstract. |

In the analysis of igneous rocks there are no more important
bases to estimate than the alkalies, as the particular felspar
present can thus be frequently determined. It is true that the
microscope enables us to distinguish between the orthoclastic and
plagioclastic felspars, or even to make further subdivisions with
fair precision; but the chemical analysis is, after all, the most
convincing test. Not seldom, there are macroscopic felspar
crystals developed, of the same structure as the microscopic ones
which constitute the ground-mass of the rock.
x

386 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

A special instance of this occurred to me lately with some
phonolite rocks from the Western District of Victoria, in the
felspathic matrix of which tolerably large tabular crystals of
sanidine were observed. About twenty grains weight of the
crystals was separated from the rock and analysed. As soda and
potash exist in varying proportions in sanidine, it was necessary
to be very accurate-in estimating them, and I attempted to
control the gravimetric determination by a volumetric one. These
two methods gave, however, such divergent results that I made
special experiments to ascertain which of them was to be relied
on for the estimation of small quantities of the alkalies.

The volumetric method used was that of Fr. Mohr, in which
the chlorine is determined by a solution of nitrate of silver of
known strength, with potassium chromate to indicate the end
of this reaction; and the gravimetric, the ordinary one with
bichloride of platinum. :

Nearly equivalent quantities of chemically pure sodium chloride
and potassium chloride were taken, the actual weights being
4:19 grains and 4:32 grains respectively. These being mixed
their solution was divided into exactly equal portions, so that
each half contained 2-095 grains of the sodium, and 2-16 grains
of the potassium chloride, or 4°255 grains of the mixed salts. The
actual weight of chlorine required by theory in this mixture of
the two salts is 2°296 grains, or 53°96 per cent., and the amount
found volumetrically was 2°31475 grains, or 54:4 per cent., the
difference being thus—0-44 per cent., which falls within the limits
of reasonable error, and is as near as volumetric determinations can
be expected to reach. The formula for calculating from the
chlorine found the respective weights of the salts present was the
usual one, which gives an answer within one per cent. of the
truth, when the amount of chlorine is exactly ascertained. I say
exactly, because the slightest error in this becomes much magnified
by the multiples used for finding the relative weights of sodium
chloride and potassium chloride in the mixture of the chlorides.
Thus, although the initial error in my experiment was only 0:44
per cent. of chlorine, yet, by applying the formula, I obtained
6:1 per cent. more of sodium chloride and six per cent. /ess of
potassium chloride than the solution really contained.

The remaining half was treated with platinum bichloride, the
resulting precipitate washed with spirits of wine, and the double
salt of potassium and platinum left in the dish weighed.
Calculated to potassium chloride, its weight represented 2°1576
grains, or 99°88 per cent. of the amount taken, viz., 2°16 grains.
The sodium chloride was calculated from the difference.

Other experiments made have given the same results, z.e., the
gravimetric estimation accurate and the volumetric inaccurate
The amounts of the two chlorides being nearly equal in these test
experiments ; the volumetric method was applied under the most

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. 387

favourable circumstances. For estimating large quantities of the
salts, as in manufactories, &c., the method may possibly be
applicable, but in the analysis of igneous rocks it certainly cannot
be trusted.

In the sanidine erystals mentioned, the soda proved to be in
excess of the potash, a gravimetric determination giving potassium
oxide 4:49 per cent., and sodium oxide 6°16 per cent. The results
obtained by the volumetric method were—Potassium oxide 3°68
per cent., and sodium oxide 6°77 per cent. ; but I have no hesita-
tion in saying that this wide divergence is solely due to the
unreliability of the latter test.

The determination by platinum bichloride may be a little
tedious, but there is always the great satisfaction of knowing that
it gives almost absolutely accurate results.

6.—AUSTRALIAN METEORITES.

By A. Liversipce, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry
University of Sydney.

| Abstract |

THe Zhunda meteorite, found near Windorali in the Diamantina
district, Queensland. The mass received by me originally weighed
137 lbs., and the specific gravity is 7:78. In composition it consists
essentially of nickeliferous iron, containing a trace of cobalt,
together with a little sulphur, phosphorus and carbon. The
erystalline structure is extremely well-marked, which is not only
shown by the fractured surface, but by the cut and polished
sections when etched by acids, bromine, or copper sulphate.
This meteorite is also remarkable for the many nodules of
sulphide of iron which it contains, from which fissures proceed
in such a way as to show that the iron sulphide must have
crystallised last ; in fact, it looks as if it had been the cause of
the fissures.

Barratta Meteorites, Nos. 2 and 3.—The first meteorite found
at Barratta, near Deniliquin, in New South Wales, has already
been described in the journal of the Royal Society of New South
Wales for 1872 and 1880.

These later ones, also in the possession of Mr. Russell, F.R.S.,
Government Astronomer, Sydney, were found near the site of
the first ; the second one has a weight of 31 lbs. and a specific
gravity of 3°706; the third weighs 48 lbs. and has a specific
gravity of 3.429; the first having a specific gravity of 3:429.
In structure and appearance all three are very much alike, and
they consist essentially of silicates of magnesia (as enstatite),
iron, with small quantities of other substances, intermingled with
a network of nickeliferous iron. x2

388 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

Gilgoin meteorite, in the possession of Mr. Russell, F.R.S.,
Government Astronomer, Sydney, found on the station of that
name, near Brewarrina, N.S.W. This weighs 674 lbs. and has a
specific gravity of 3°857. It is very much more cracked and
fissured and contains rather a larger proportion of nickeliferous
iron than the preceding one, but in other respects closely resembles
them.

£li Elwah. This meteorite is also an earthy one, containing
nickeliferous iron, with a chondritic or granular structure ; it
weighs 334 lbs. and has a specific gravity of 3°537.

Photographs and micro-photographs of sections of the four
earthy meteorites were shown, as well as specimens of each.

7.—NOTES ON SOME HOT SPRING WATERS.

By A. Liversipcr, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry,
University of Sydney.

(a) Lote upon the Hot Spring Waters, Ferguson Island,
D Entrecasteaux Group.

THE specimens forming the subject of this note were collected by
Sir W. MacGregor, K.C.M.G., Governor of British New Guinea,
who thought that these waters might prove to be of scientific
interest, and therefore forwarded them to me for examination.

Accompanying the specimens was the following description of
the hot springs, prepared by Mr. Basil Thomson, together with
two photographs of the locality :—

“The evidence of volcanic action on the east end of Ferguson
and Goulvain Islands in the D’Entrecasteaux Group were plainly
visible from the sea, but a few miles to the westward gave place
to a schistose slaty formation, of which the island seems mainly
composed. It was, therefore, with no little surprise that, on the
evening of our anchoring in Seymour Bay, we noticed a strong
smell of sulphur, the fumes being sufficient to discolour the white
paint on the vessel during the night. Seymour Bay lies in the
narrow strait named by Captain Moresby after himself, and is.
fringed with mangrove and dense scrub and backed by low hills.

After forcing our way through mangrove and sago swamps for
about half a mile, we came on a well-beaten native path, which
led to a rapid stream. Some of the party who stopped to prospect
for gold found the gravel in the bed of the stream too hot for the
hands, although the water of the stream was cold.

Making our way southward, we emerged from dense scrub.
upon a flat, bare of vegetation, and dotted with little hillocks of
pure sulphur, from which vapour was rising.

ee

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. 389

The vegetation surrounding this flat was identical with that in
the non-volcanic country, and terminated suddenly, but on the
flat itself a few eucalypts were trying to exist. This is the most
easterly point at which this tree was found in British New
Guinea.

Passing over this flat, which gave a hollow sound to the feet,
showing that the crust was very thin, we climbed a low hill, and
looked down upon a small lake shut in by hills, having a margin
of dazzling whiteness, made by the crystallisation of salts, which
tasted strongly of alum. At the foot of the hill was a spring of
boiling water, which discharged into the lagoon.

The low hills surrounding the lake were composed of sulphur
and the white salt referred to above. The water of the lake,
which was covered with wild fowl, was of a light yellow colour,
and tepid, and the margin was surrounded by a thin crust, which
gave way when trodden on, and let one of our party through into
three feet of black slime.

All round the base of the hills was a succession of holes full of
boiling mud. Near the summit of one of the low hills we found
a larger hole, which was throwing up liquid mud to the height
of several feet with loud reports. (Photograph enclosed.)

Further to the northward we found a similar lake and hot
springs, and some of our party, who were obliged by the hostility
of the natives to pass the night on the top of one of the sulphur
hills, experienced much inconvenience from the fumes. At night
the hills give out a bluish light.

Sydney, 8th March, 1889. (Signed) B. H. THomson.”

None of the specimens were in sufficient quantity to permit of
a full analysis beimg made of their mineral constituents, the
largest sample being contained in a so-called quart brandy bottle.

The only quantitative determinations which could be con-
veniently made were the total solids, fixed solids, loss on ignition,
and chlorine and sulphuric acid.

The loss on ignition includes any organic matter which may
have been present, water of combination, volatile and decom-
posable salts, together with some sulphur.

There were four samples in all.

SampLtE No. 1.—Labelled “ Seymour Bay, Ferguson Island,
11th November, 1888. Boiling Water from Hot Spring.”

This sample was contained in a sodawater bottle, and as one-
half of it consisted of solid matter, it would be more correctly
described as a mud.

The sediment, or solid matter, was of a bluish-grey colour, and
was found to contain a few diatom frustules and small crystals
of selenite (calcium sulphate), and a good deal of sulphur. At

390 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

some future time it is intended to make a more complete
examination of this sediment, as there is sufficient for a quanti-
tative analysis.

The sulphur was carefully tested for selenium, but none was
found to be present; neither did this residue contain either
arsenic or phosphorus.

The supernatant liquid was filtered off from the mud after
allowing the specimen to stand for two or three days; the
filtrate had a strong smell of sulphurous acid, and strongly
reddened blue litmus paper, showing the presence of free acid,
and, on exposure to the air, soon became milky from the separa-
tion of sulphur.

On evaporating the filtrate down to dryness in a platinum
dish over a water bath, a pale brownish residue was left, which
rapidly absorbed moisture. On ignition, it intumesced strongly,
and gave off dense white acid fumes (of sulphur trioxide), the
ignited residue being yellow when hot and brown when cold.

The weighings gave—

Loss onignition ... ... 9°63 parts per 1000
Fixed solids DN Inpeaajor af 4
Total solids Ho axUdeelioou vs

The chlorine and sulphuric acid were not determined in this
sample. The fixed solids left, on ignition, were found to contain
both soluble and insoluble silica—suflicient of the former to
gelatinise with hydrochloric acid—much iron, mainly present in
the original water in the ferrous condition, some magnesia, lime,
and a considerable quantity of sodium chloride. Lithium was
sought for, but no indication of it was obtained, although the
other three samples gave the lithium band most readily.

SampLtE No. 2.—lLabelled “ Hot Springs, Seymour Bay, 11th
November, 1888. Water after Boiling.” Contained in an
ordinary pickle bottle.

This also showed a large amount of a powdery yellow sediment,
about 10 per cent. perhaps, which consisted mainly of free sulphur.
The water contained a good deal of free sulphuric acid, and on
evaporating down to dryness over a water-bath, the residue
blackened from the action of the free sulphuric acid upon the
organic matter present, and on ignition copious fumes of sulphur
trioxide were evolved. Much gelatinous silica was left, together
with iron, lime, magnesia, and soda. This residue showed a well-
marked lithium band. ;
‘The iron was present in the original water mainly in the
ferrous. state.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. 391”

Loss on ignition ... 1274 parts per 1000
Fixed solids 1S tld athe 53 4;
Total solids Bite st 490407 5, ¥5
Chlorine nthe . oat) BAO) iy,

SampteE No. 3.—Labelled “ Seymour Bay, 11th November, 1888.
Boiling Water from Small Spring.’ Contained in a sodawater
bottle.

This, like No. 2, contained a yellow powdery sediment of
sulphur and other matters. It possessed a strong acid reaction,
and gave off a smell of sulphurous acid, together with that of
sulphuretted hydrogen.

On evaporating down to dryness, a light-coloured residue was
left, brown in the centre, and on ignition this blackened
considerably but only gave off a small quantity of sulphur
trioxide fumes. The salts present were the same as in No. -2,
and the lithium band was equally well marked.

Loss on ignition ... ‘630 parts per 1000
Fixed solids ... See vant” ei. te Sai
Total solids ... Jan gE ROU ox ce coge:
Chlorine ane a hel wes Poi Se

Sampite No. 4.—Labelled “ Seymour Bay, 11th November, 1888.
Water from Lagoon, Hot Springs, Saline Lake, margin
surrounded by sulphur.” Contained in a wine bottle.

The sediment from this was but small in amount, and of a dark-
brown colour. There was also a little black flocculent matter
The water possessed a strong acid reaction, and smelt of
sulphuretted hydrogen.

On evaporating down to dryness, a large quantity of iron was
found to be present, mostly in the ferrous condition, much
gelatinous silica, some lime, magnesia and soda, together with
lithium.

On ignition, the residue became intensely black, gave off slight
fumes with an acid reaction and decripitated (from sodium
chloride crystals), and left a dark ferruginous-looking residue.

Loss on ignition 2-110 parts per 1000
Fixed solids sa GOno, jt] au bay
Total solids ighnd O8O 1000 03, 1974
Chlorine ont zimides9O) bia 2% 5

These waters present the usual characters of hot spring waters
occurring under similar conditions, and require no special
comment except as to the presence of lithium, and I regret that.

392 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

none of the samples were sufficient to allow the amount of this
element to be estimated ; but, perhaps, on some future occasion
it may be possible to bring away a larger supply of the water, or
in default of that, the residue left by the careful evaporation (on
the spot) of a fair quantity of the water.

Lithium was formerly regarded as a very rare element, but the
spectroscope shows that, although it only occurs in small
quantities, it is one of the most widely-distributed elements, and
is found in many minerals, rocks, soils, and in the ashes of
numerous plants.

It may prove to be present in these waters in sufficient quantity
to render them useful at some future time, for either medicinal
or other purposes.

(b). Note on Water from a Hot Spring, Savo Island, Solomon
Group.

THis specimen, received from Mr. Chas. M. Woodford, in
February, 1889, was contained in an ordinary fruit bottle.

On opening the bottle, a strong smell of sulphuretted hydrogen
was emitted, and the gas continued to escape for two or three
days, the sides of the measuring flask were marked by small
bubbles of the gas as it slowly escaped, and the previously clear
water became milky from the deposition of sulphur.

The bottle contained rather a large amount of black sediment,
which, under the microscope, was seen to consist of black opaque
granular masses, fragments of quartz and other transparent
minerals, together with a few diatom frustules; the black
particles were soluble in hydrochloric acid and gave off sulphuretted
hydrogen, and the solution reacted for iron; hence they were
proved to consist of iron sulphide, probably of quite recent
origin, just as is seen in the New Zealand hot springs. (Liversidge,
New Zealand Hot Springs, Jour. Roy. Soc. of N.S.W. 1887).

With litmus paper the reaction of the water was slightly acid,
as might be expected.

The clear water, on decantation, after long standing, so as to be
free from sediment, was found to contain ‘764 grammes of total
solids per litre (53-48 grains per gallon) in solution, and after
ignition -422 grammes (29°54 grains per gallon of fixed solids
per litre).

The residue left on evaporation was whitish, with a silky lustre,
and emitted an odour of sulphur compounds, as is usual in such
water residues ; and on ignition gave off much steam from water
of combination. It rapidly blackened, and the carbonaceous matter
present burnt off but slowly.

The amount of water at my disposal rendered it impossible to
make a quantitative analysis of the salts in solution, but the

eee ee

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. 393

qualitative analysis showed the presence of hydrochloric, sulphuric,
and sulphydric acids, together with silica, the metals iron,
aluminium, calcium, magnesium, and sodium, and ferrous sulphide,
as already mentioned.

As far as can be ascertained from the above necessarily
imperfect examination, there is nothing unusual in the character
of the water; the spectroscope did not show the presence of any
of the rarer alkaline metals, such as lithium. A much larger
quantity of the water would be required to make a satisfactory
examination for them, but there was quite sufficient of the water
to show that they are not present in any quantity.

The following notes are appended, as it may be of interest to
some of the members to have the accounts of other Pacific hot
spring waters for comparison. *

Samples of Water from the Islands of Simbo and Santa Anna.
Collected by Dr. H. B. Guppy, Surgeon H.M.S. “Zaz.”

Bottle 49.—Containing water from the fresh-water lake of
Wailava, in the island of Santa Anna, collected in April, 1882.
I have seen no reference to this lake in any of the works which
bear on these islands. The island of Santa Anna has the
characters of a raised atoll, with the large central depression
occupied at its lowest part by the waters of the lakes of Wailava
and Waipiapia. Wailava is about half-a-mile across in length,
and has a depth of 15 fathoms, as ascertained by Lieut. Oldham.
On carefully examining this lake, I found that its waters are at
about the sea level, though they are not affected by the rise and
fall of the tides. On one side it is only separated from the sea
by a low swampy tract about one-third of a mile across, and not
elevated more than 20 feet above the sea. The surface of this
tract is strewn with coral fragments, and the more swampy
portion abounds with Auricule. It is evident that this lake has
been only cut off from the sea by recent elevation. On making
a rough examination, I found the density about that of fresh
water, with chlorides abundant, me two or three grains per
gallon, ammonia unmistakeable, fas¢e flat andfresh. The water
rapidly decolourises a solution of permanganate of potash.

Bottles 142 and 143.—Containing water from the boiling spring
in the island of Simbo, collected in May, 1882. The island of
Simbo is formed of trachytic rocks, and contains in the southern
part an extinct crater, a solfatara, and numerous fumaroles, which
pierce the rocks, occurring from the sea up to the highest summit,
about 1100 feet above the sea. This water was collected from

* Journal of the Koy. Soc. of N.S.W. for 1887, vol. xi p. 223.

394 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

the boiling spring on the shores of a lagoon (very probably an
old crater) on the south-west side of the island.. The spring is
placed amongst decomposed trachytic rocks, a foot or two above
the sea level. Its temperature is 212°, and large quantities of
HS are exhaled. Iron oxide stains the rocks around, which are
encrusted with sulphur and chloride of sodium in some places.
Numerous fumaroles pierce the slopes overlooking the springs :
sulphur, alum, milk-white opal, &c., form deposits around their
orifices. As this spring is close to the edge of the lagoon of salt
water, with the tidal movements of which its waters rise and
fall, I am of opinion, from a cursory examination of the water,
that its compositiom may be regarded as sea water, plus the
substances discharged by a fumarole.

Bottle 150.—Water condensed from one of the fumaroles in the
solfatara on the south-west point of Simbo, in May, 1882. A
little sulphur, which unavoidably fell in, forms a sediment at the
bottom of the bottle. For two hours the thermometer retained in
the orifice of the fumarole varied only between 208° and 210° F.
Watery vapour, sulphuretted hydrogen, and sulphurous acid were
evolved, flaky crystals of sulphur enérusting the sides of the
aperture. A strip of paper, soaked in a solution of acetate of
lead, was immediately blackened, and the black metallic silver
sulphide was formed in the interior of a piece of glass-tubing,
moistened with silver nitrate, whilst the presence of sulphurous
acid appeared to be indicated by the suffocating smell of burning
sulphur, by the presence of sulphur deposits, and by the reddening
of litmus paper. No turbidity was produced in lime-water, nor
was the presence of hydrochloric acid gas shown on exposing a
solution of silver nitrate.

The interior of the solfatara was whitened by the decomposing
influence of the vapours evolved. The elevation of the fumarole
in question was rather under 300 feet above the sea.

Bottle 151.—Water condensed May, 1882, from one of the
fumaroles on the summit of the South Hill, in the island of
Simbo, elevated about 1100 feet above the sea. The temperature
of the fumarole varied during two hours between 175° and 180° F.
Employing the same rough field tests, I ascertained that watery
vapour was the principal substance discharged. No effect was.
produced on acetate of lead, silver nitrate, or lime-water, and
litmus paper was very slightly reddened after a prolonged
exposure. No deposits were formed around the orifices of the
fumaroles on this hill summit. The trachytic rock was much
decomposed, and a little of the decomposed rock unavoidably fell
in, and forms a sediment at the bottom of the bottle.

For an additional example of water from hot springs at Suva,
Fiji, see “ At Home in Fiji,” by F. M. Gordon Cumming.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. 395

8.—ON THE PURIFICATION OF CERTAIN
SUBSTANCES.

By R. Turetratt, Professor of Physics, University of Sydney.

9.—NOTES ON THE SPECTRA OF ZINC AND
CADMIUM.

By J. B. Kirxianp, F.C.8., Assistant Lecturer and Demon-
strator of Chemistry, University of Melbourne.

THE author, in the course of a spectroscopic examination of some
zinc sulphide, obtained under peculiar conditions, was led to
make a series of comparative quantitative spectroscopic experi-
ments with samples of zinc obtained from different sources, in
order to determine whether, under such circumstances, any
difference in the sensitiveness of the spectral lines of zinc could
be detected.

Experiments were first made on a series of solutions of definite
strengths, containing from 20 to ‘001 per cent of the metal as
chloride, the apparatus employed consisting of a one prism
spectroscope by Browning, and a spark apparatus of simple
construction, the spark being produced by a 4-inch induction coil,
excited by six large bichromate cells.

The following results were obtained :—With the stronger
solutions the spectrum consisted of four brilliant continuous
lines, one in the red, w./., 6362°5, and three in the greenish-blue,
w./., 4809°7, 4721°4., 4679:5.* As the solutions become more
dilute, the lines gradually shorten to the negative electrode,
until the solution contains ‘005 per cent. of zinc. With this
degree of dilution the red line is not visible. Finally, with -001
per cent., the others appear as dots on the edge of the spectrum.

On repeating the above experiments, and introducing a con-
denser (300 square inches of surface) into the secondary circuit,
a pair of very bright lines in the green, w./,-4923°8, 4911-2,
appeared, besides those already noted. These differ in character
from the others, being blurred at the edges, and resemble air-lines
seen in this region of the spectrum; moreover, they are not
nearly so sensitive, for solutions containing one per cent. of the
metal give them only faintly, and ‘1 per cent. almost
imperceptibly. The other samples of zinc experimented on gave
exactly similar results. ‘The metal itself was then submitted to
the action of the induction spark. The spectrum was essentially
the same as that produced by a strong solution of zinc, not a
trace of the green lines being visible, even on increasing the’

* Wave lengths are given in ten-millionths of a mn. after Thalen.

396 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

primary battery ; but on including the secondary condenser, they
were at once apparent.* From the blurred nature, want of
delicacy, and general resemblance to air-lines, it seemed probable
the two lines under notice might be due to the oxide of the
metal. This conclusion was strengthened by careful considera-
tion of the spectra and physical properties of the natural group
of elements, Be, W7g, Zn, Cad, He.

For example, if the spectra of this group be examined, con-
siderable homology is observable between them, the refrangibility
of the principal lines of each element increasing inversely as its
atomic weight. It is worthy to note, in this connection, the
absence in the spectra of Be and Mg of lines corresponding to w.7.
4923-8, 4911°2 in Zn, and 5378°8, 5337-5 in Cd. A possible
reason for this is to be found when the melting and _ boiling
points of the elements of this group are considered. Similarly
with their oxides ; but with this great difference, that, whilst the
metals melt and vaporise at comparatively low temperatures, the
oxides, for the most part at least, are non-volatile.

Now, whether the lines in Zz and Cd are due to the oxide or to
the metal, it seems probable, from what has already been noted
in the case of Zz, that if the spectra of Be and AZg were examined at
sufficiently high temperatures, by the use of a more powerful
induction apparatus and extra condensers, lines corresponding to
those of Zz and Cd would be found.

The fact that Ca is the most volatile element of this group,
except “7g, led me to examine its spectrum, in order to find
whether the lines w./, 5378°8, 5337-5 would be influenced by the
temperature of the spark, as in the case of Zz ; it seemed probable
they might be visible at a lower temperature. On subjecting
that element to the action of the spark the lines w./. 6438, 5085,
4799, 4676°8 were the only ones visible ; 5378-8, 5337-5 required
the condenser. Another trial was made without the condenser,
increasing the strength of the primary battery. At this tempera-
ture they were seen as a nebulous band.

It has been stated elsewheret that zzsoluble and non-volatile
substances do not yield spark spectra, and as this statement rather
upsets the present considerations, zinc oxide, specially purified,
was submitted to the action of the spark. It gave lines identical
with those of metallic zinc, both at low and high temperatures.
In order to settle the question as to the lines w./, 4923-8, 4911-2
in the zinc spectrum being due to the oxide, there appeared only
one course open. The spectrum must be observed in an atmosphere
free from oxygen and its compounds, pure dry hydrogen being
thought most suitable for the purpose.

* Jn a photograph of the are spectrum of zinc, by J. R. Cafron, F.R.A.S., where the arc
‘was produced by 40 Groves’ cells, no trace of the lines, w.l, 4923°8, 4911°2, is shown. This
will give some idea of the extraordinary influence of a condenser in raising the tempera-
ture of the spark.

+ Professor W. N. Hartley in a paper on “Spectrum Photography,” Phil. Trans., 18&4.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. 397

A glass tube, containing a rod of pure zinc, so arranged as to:
allow the passage of the spark, was filled with pure, dry hydrogen
gas, and then hermetically sealed.

On passing the ordinary induction spark, the lines w./. 6362°5,
4809-7, 4721°4, 4679°5 were the only ones seen. With the
condenser in circuit the line spectrum of hydrogen was beautifully
shown, together with the zinc spectrum, which was now seen to
consist, principally, of the lines w./ 6362°5, 6102°8, 6022-7,
5893°6, 4809-7, 4721°4, 4679-5, the lines 4923-8, 4911:2 not
appearing. After sparking some time they graduad/y made their
appearance, and finally were seen as strongly as in air.

Unfortunately, a minute crack was discovered in the side of the:
tube, and whether the gradual appearance of these lines occurred
simultaneously with the crack, it isimpossible to say. Up to the
present the author has not succeeded in definitely settling the
question, but experiments are in progress, and if successful, will
be communicated at another time.

10.—NOTE ON THE PRECIPITATION OF ZINC
SULPHIDE.

By J. B. Kirxianp, F.C.8., Assistant Lecturer and Demon-
strator of Chemistry, University of Melbourne.

THE author, being engaged in an analysis of a peculiar looking
zinc blende, was much perplexed at the following circumstance.
The ore under examination had been dissolved in the usual
manner, 7.é., In aqua regia, excess of acid being removed by
evaporation ; the residue was dissolved in 100 ¢.c. of 40 per cent.
hydrochloric acid, and the whole diluted to 800 cc. with water.
The above solution was next submitted to a rapid current of
sulphuretted hydrogen for about two hours in the cold, until no
further precipitation occurred. The precipitate consisted mainly
of arsenic, copper, and lead sulphides; these, after being filtered
off, were well washed with sulphuretted hydrogen solution. The
filtrate in the first instance came through perfectly clear, but on
continued washing, an opalescence or milkiness appeared,
resembling sulphur. That this should be sulphur seemed unlikely,
considering the excess of precipitant used in the first instance.
On treating the opalescent solution to a further action of the
gas, a white crystalline gritty powder was thrown down in
considerable quantity. Could this be zine sulphide? This seemed
highly improbable, for it is generally understood that zine is not
precipitated from solutions strongly acidified with mineral acids.
Upon making a qualitative analysis of the white powder, the
result indicated that it consisted chiefly of zinc and sulphur in
combination. However, it is well known how one substance may

398 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

influence the precipitation of another, under certain circumstances ;
it struck the author there might be something present in the
original mineral, precipitable by sulphuretted hydrogen from an
acid solution, capable of carrying down large quantities of zinc
sulphides. In order to settle this question, recourse had to be
made to the balance, a weighed portion of the sulphide was
converted into oxide by ignition in a porcelain crucible, in order
to get the ratio between them. This method of procedure proved
a failure; for, upon stronger ignition over a blast lamp, a brown
sub-metallic film condensed on the cool part of the crucible cover,
showing the sulphide to be impure. This sublimate proved upon
examination, to be cadmium oxide; a second deposit was obtained
in a similar manner on prolonged heating, and on testing found
to be lead oxide.*

When no further sublimation could be detected, a weighed
quantity of the residual oxide was converted into sulphate by
dissolving it in dilute sulphuric acid, afterwards removing the
excess of acid by evaporation, finally heating to a temperature
near redness, so as to render the salt anhydrous. The weight
being taken after cooling, the ratio between the oxide and
sulphate was found to correspond almost exactly with zine.t

Experiments with the view to find out the exact conditions
necessary for the precipitation of zine from acid solutions by
hydrogen sulphide were made. The result of these proved,
tirstly, that zinc is precipitated from solutions as long as the acid
does not exceed one per cent; secondly, if the temperature of the
solution be raised, the quantity of acid required to prevent
precipitation is less.

It would appear the conditions vary according to the ratio of
zinc salt to the free acid in a given volume of solution, the
duration of the experiment having also considerable influence.

11.—ON THE COLOURING MATTER OF DROSERA
WHITTAKERI.

By E. H. Renniz, M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Chemistry in the
University of Adelaide.

THE species of Drosera above named is found growing plentifully
in the hills in the neighbourhood of Adelaide. The bulb, which
is found attached to each plant at a depth of from three to four
inches, contains colouring matter which can be extracted by
boiling alcohol. On evaporating off the spirit a residue remains,

* These facts are mentioned here as they may be found useful in the detection of traces
of cadmium and lead.

+ Examined spectroscopically, it contained nothing but zinc, except traces of cadmium
and lead.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. 399

practically insoluble in water, which, on drying, can be, to a large
extent, sublimed, yielding a crystalline sublimate. By fractional
erystallisation from alcohol and glacial acetic acid, two distinct
substauces at least can be isolated, one having the formula
C,, H, O,, melting point about 192°-193°, and the other the
formula C,, H, O,, melting point about 165°. Both substances
are reduced by boiling solutions of stannous chloride, the former
yielding a crystalline yellow substance of formula C,, Z, O,.
The examination of these colouring matters, so far as it has heen
carried out, tends to show that they are respectively trihydroxy-
and dihydroxy-, derivatives of a methylnaphthaquinone, but so far
material has been wanting for completing the investigation.

The bulbs also contain a white crystalline substance, which is,
apparently, a mixture of fats of very high molecular weight.

12.—ON THE OCCURRENCE OF ASSCULIN IN
BURSARIA SPINOSA.

By Professor Renniz, M.A., D.Sc, and E. F. Turner.

Our attention has been recently drawn to the fluorescent solution
which is produced when the leaves of the above-mentioned plant
are steeped in water, especially if the latter contains a little free
alkali. A preliminary spectroscopic investigation, kindly carried
out by Professor Bragg, having indicated the presence of xsculin,
we extracted a quantity of the leaves by the ordinary method, and
obtained, after repeated crystallisation, a white substance having
all the characteristics of eesculin. It contained two molecules of
water of crystallisation, melted at 204°-205°, and gave, in fact,
all the reactions tried for esculin. The plant, Bursaria spinosa,
is very common in South Australia, especially on the steep banks
overlooking the lake at Mount Gambier; hence it has been
suggested that the blue colour of the lake is due to the fluorescence
produced by leaves finding their way into the water. This,
however, 1s mere speculation.

13.—ON THE REMOVAL OF GOLD FROM SUSPENSION
AND SOLUTION BY FUNGOID GROWTHS.

By A. Liversiper, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the
University of Sydney.
Some examples of gold removed from solution and suspension by

fungoid growths, were first exhibited by the author at a meeting
of the Royal Society of New South Wales, in September, 1889.

400 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

Since then several additional experiments have been made under
known conditions, and with a gold solution of known strength.

On the occasion referred to the fungoid growths exhibited had
formed in bottles of distilled water, containing very finely divided
gold in suspension, which had been prepared at different times to
show a class of students that, under ordinary circumstances, gold
reduced from a weak solution of the chloride by means of
phosphorus dissolved in ether, usually takes several years to
completely precipitate and yield a clear solution.

On examining the bottles, some of which had been settling
since 1881, it was found that those containing a colourless liquid
were also characterised by the presence of fungoid growths,
usually at the bottom of the bottles; those without fungoid
growths still possessed either the ruby red or the purple colour
characteristic of gold reduced by phosphorus in ether; z.e., the
gold still remained in suspension.

In the case of a bottle put up on 28th November, 1884, a
purple blue growth had formed, and the solution was practically
colourless ; the bottle had not been opened since 1884, and had
been kept in the dark for six years. On removing the stopper
the odour of ether was still present.

Under the microscope, with a low power, the growth had the
appearance of a mass of matted purple-blue filaments; when
dried over a spirit lamp the filaments retained their form, but lost
their purple colour and acquired the metallic lustre and colour
of gold.

When the growth was rubbed in a mortar it also immediately
acquired the colour and lustre of gold.

Although none of the solutions free from fungoid growths were
colourless, many of those with fungoid growths still possessed
tints of ruby or purple, even after standing for five or six years,
e.g., a solution in a bottle put up on Ist December, 1884, was in
September, 1889, still of a deep purple-red colour, with a large
purple-red muffin-like mould at the bottom of the bottle some
34 in. across and Jin. thick; but by 29th May, 1890, the whole
of the colour had disappeared from the liquid. The disappearance
of the tint between September, 1889, and 29th May, 1890, may
have been hastened by the exposure of the bottle to daylight. *

In the case of a quart bottle put up on 30th April, 1885, the
solution “was, in October, 1889, perfectly colourless, and the
fungoid growths were of a different character, some being white
and others blue-black ; the white ones were floating oval bodies,
about din. in length, with a blue-black nucleus.

(Specimens of these growths, together with micro-photographs
and drawings of the same, enlarged 1000 diameters, were
exhibited).

* This observation is now added to the paper as originally read.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. 40]

The gold in the foregoing experiments was, of course, merely in
suspension, having been reduced by the phosphorus in ether prior
to the formation of the growth. The growth seems to have been,
in most instances, merely instrumental in removing the gold from
suspension, although such growths will reduce or precipitate the
gold as well as remove it from suspension.

The growths seem to have formed much more readily in those
cases where phosphorus in ether or alcohol was used, and this
may have been due to the oxidation of the phosphorus to phos-
phoric acid, the presence of which is, of course, favourable to such
growths, and the ether and alcohol may have, in part, served as
food for the moulds, since there was no growth, or but very little,
when other solvents for the phosphorus, such as carbon disulphide,
chloroform, turpentine and benzene were used.

On 11th October, 1889, ten confirmatory experiments under
known conditions were started. Several pint bottles of distilled
water were put up, and a definite quantity of the ordinary
erystallised gold chloride was added to each. The gold chloride
solution was made by dissolving a fifteen-grain tube of the
AuCl,,NaCl, 2H,O salt in 500 cc. of water, and 5 «ac. of
this solution were added to each pint (20 fluid ozs.) of distilled
water, and a small quantity of the reducing solution, or agent,
added at the same time. The bottle was then filled up to the
stopper with distilled water, and not re-opened until the time
arrived for examining the growth, if any, which had formed.
These bottles were not placed in the dark, as in the first
experiments.

Roughly speaking, each bottle contained ‘01 gramme of the
crystallised gold salt.

In addition to chemical reducing agents various organic ones
were made use of, and as I was not in a position to obtain named
fungi I made use of certain fungoid growths, which can always be
obtained in a chemical laboratory, so that the experiments can be
easily repeated, and the growths used can, if necessary, be
identified and named.

Amongst those used, which are all likely to be more
pure growths, were the moulds which form sponta
solutions of the following :—

Magnesium sulphate
5. Potassium tartrate.

1. Potassium acetate ,

9. Citric acid ak ®& YY} =}
pepe Li® ee

3. Oxalic acid sa =

4, : ford

The mould (Peniciliium ?) from cheese and banana ski
also used. Bread and other organic bodies were also employed.
All of these were found to remove the gold, more or less,
completely from both solution and suspension, and to become

Z

402 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

stained with the ordinary blue-purple colour characteristic of gold
absorbed or taken up by organic matter.

All the bottles put up prior to October, 1889, had been kept in
a cool, dark room, without a window, and the door of which was
seldom opened, hence the change may, in these cases, have gone
on more slowly.

Although the fungoid growth had been observed in some of the
bottles prior to October, 1889, no special attention was paid to
the matter until that date, hence in the table which follows no
remarks are appended before that date.

The amount of gold chloride in bottles from one to eight is
unknown, but from number nine to the end of the series it is
‘O01 gramme (roughly) of the crystallised double gold and sodium
chloride.

Since the note was communicated to the Australasian Associa-
tion, and pending the printing of the paper, I have been able to add
observations upon the solutions up to the 28th May, 1890.

The following table shows the changes which took place in the
solutions of gold chloride on the addition of various reducing
substances ; the first date indicates when the solution was put up
and the other dates when the observations were made.

REAGENT AND RESULTS.
Darter. iNOn le
1-12-84. Phosphorus in Ether.

1-1-90.—Blue-purple colour. Heavy blue-black growth.
22-5-90.—Blue-purple solution. Heavy blue-black growth, one
mass of which 2 in. long and 1] in. wide.
28-5-90.—No further change.

No. 2.
1-12-84. Phosphorus in Ether.

1-1-90.—Perfectly colourless solution. Blue-black growth.
Photographs and sketches were made of this.
22-5-90.—Colourless solution. Blue-black voluminous growth,
with some light-coloured growth.
28-5-90.—No further change.

No. 3.
30-4-85. Phosphorus in Ether.
1-1-90.—Quart bottle. Solution colourless. Both white and
blue-black fungoid growths had formed. The white
were fluffy, about }in. through, quite different

from the other growths, and possessing a blue-black
nucleus or centre.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B 403

No. 4.
30-4-85. Phosphorus in Ether,

1-1-90.—Colourless solution. Blue-black growth.
22-5-90.—Very pale-slate coloured solution. Blue-black growth,
and a downy white growth streaked in places with
blue-black.
28-5-90.—Solution colourless. Blue-black flocculent voluminous
growth, also amceba-like growth of very pale-blue
tint.

No: 5.
23-11-85. Phosphorus in Ether.

1-1-90.—Deep blue solution. Voluminous blue-black growth.
22-5-90.—Purple solution. Large black growth.
28-5-90.—Purple solution. Voluminous blue-black growth.

No. 6.
23-5-88. Phosphorus tn Ether.

1-1-90.—Water tinted with dark blue. Precipitate blue-black,
rather denser and not so much fungoid growth as
in the others.

ING. f.
23-5-80. Phosphorus in Ether.

1-1-90.—Greenish solution. Blue-black growth.
22-5-90.—Nearly colourless solution, but of a light purple-slate
colour.
28-5-90.—Pale-blue solution. Blue-black growth, in loose pieces
about 4 in. through.

No. 8.
15-8-89. Phosphorus tn Ether.

Liquid of a red-purple colour. Only a slight amount
of mould, also of a purple-red colour.
28-5-90.—No further change.

Noy 9:
11-10-89. Phosphorus in Ether.

14-10-89.—Nearly colourless. Slight bluish-green precipitate.
1-1-90.—Red solution. Voluminous purple-red growth.
22-5-90.—Red solution. Voluminous purple-red growth, and a
few minute portions of whitish growth.
28-5-90,—Red solution. Floating voluminous purple-red growth
and a compact adherent growth at bottom of bottle.

No. 10.
21-11-89. Phosphorus in Ether.

1-1-90.—Deep purple-red solution No growth and little
sediment, Z2

404 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

22-5-90.—Solution almost colourless, but pale-slate colour. <A
considerable quantity of almost black sediment.

28-5-90.—Solution practically colourless. Dense blue-black
growth at bottom of bottle.

Nia: SU
15-8-89. Phosphorus in Ether.

1-1-90.—Dark purple-red solution. Dark purple-red growth.
22-5-90.—No apparent alteration.
28-5-90.—Fairly deep-purple solution. Bluish-black voluminous
growth.

No. 12.
Potassium Acetate Mould.

11-10-89.—Gold reduced immediately, and the solution became
of a pale-blue colour in ninety minutes.

14-10-89.—Dense blue-purple precipitate. Clear colourless solu-
tion. Mould stained blue-purple.

1-1-90.—Dense thin adherent dark-purple deposit in addition
to mould.
22-5-90.— Deposit very deep-black.
28-5-90.—Deposit very deep-black. Solution very pale-slate
colour.

No, 13.
11-10-89. Phosphorus in Benzene (C,H, ).

14-10-89.—Purple-blue colour. No precipitate. No growth.
1-1-90.—Purple-blue solution. No growth, and no deposit.

22-5-90.—Slight deposit of a dark-purple colour.
28-5-90.—Solution of a fairly deep-purple colour, apparently
turbid. No further deposit, and no mould or
growth.
No. 14.

Citric Acid Mould.

11-10-89.—Pale-blue colour in ninety minutes.
14-10-89.—Red-purple solution. No precipitate, and no growth.
1-1-90.—Pale-blue solution. Indigo-blue fungoid growth.
22-5-90.—Mould almost black, one piece 5°, in. x =3 in.
28-5-90.—Solution colourless. Deep blue-black deposit, and
free lump of similar-coloured growth.

No. 15.
Phosphorus in Alcohol.
11-10-89.—Dirty brown colour at once.
14-10-89.—Blue-purple solution. No precipitate or growth.
1-1-90.—Pale purple-blue solution. Small quantities of bluish
growth.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. 405

22-5-90.—Considerable quantity of blue-black growth.

28-5-90.—Pale tint of blue left in liquid. Thick blue-black
deposit evenly covering all the bottom of the
bottle.

Wo. 1:
11-10-89. Reduced by Ferrous Sulphate Solution.

14-10-89.—Clear solution. Flocculent dirty bluish-green precipi-
tate of gold.
1-1-90.—Pale-green solution. Dirty green precipitate. No
growth.
22-5-90. —Pale yellowish-green solution. Dirty green precipitate.
No growth.
28-5-90.—Bottle coated with very thin film of gold. Bluish-
black precipitate in powdery form, not coherent
nor adherent to bottle. No growth. Solution
colourless.

No. 17.
11-10-89: Bread Crumbs.

14-10-89.—Bread stained purple outside. Blue-purple solution.
Neither growth nor precipitate.
1-1-90.—Pale-blue solution. Bread stained blue-black. Slight
fungoid growth on bread of a pale purple-blue
colour.

No. 18.
11-10-89. Potassium Tartrate Mould.
14-10-89.—Purple red solution. No precipitate. Mould stained
purple.

1-1-90.—Thick, dark-bluish growth. Pale-blue solution.
22-5-90.—Thick, dark-bluish growth. Purple slate-coloured
solution.
28-5-90.—Solution colourless. Mould very voluminous, readily
floating about, of a deep-bluish colour. Growth ? in.
across. Also a blue-black deposit.

No.419.
11-10-89. Magnesium Sulphate Mould.

14-10-89.—Colourless solution. All gold precipitated. Mould
stained dirty green.
1-1-90.—Slight dirty green precipitate. Mould dark green,
but had not increased.
22-5-90.—No apparent alteration.
28-5-90.—Colourless solution. Slight blue-black precipitate.
Mould blue-black also.

406 PROCEEDINGS: OF SECTION B.

No. 20.
11-10-89. Green Cheese Mould.

14-10-89.—Purple-red solution. Cheese mould stained purple.
No growth nor precipitate.
1-1-90.—Purple-blue solution and growth.
22-5-90.—Purple-blue solution and growth.
28-5-90.—Dark purple-blue solution. Blue-black growth on
pieces of the cheese mould.

No. 21.
11-10-89. Phosphorus in Turpentine.

14-10-89.—Red-purple solution. No precipitate. No growth.
Turpentine floating on top.
1-1-90.—Red (ruby) solution. Some whitish growth.
22-5-90.—Ruby solution. Some dark ruby-coloured mould in
addition to the whitish growth.
28. 5-90.—Solution red. Growth dark. red, mixed with some white.

No. 22.
11-10-89. Phosphorus in Carbon Disulphide.
14-10-89.—Pale purple solution, the carbon disulphide of a dirty
colour.

1-1-90.—Slate-purple solution. Adherent film of light slate-
coloured deposit. No growth.
22-5-90.—No apparent alteration.
28-5-90.—Dark (slate) purple solution. No growth, and no
precipitate at bottom.

No. 23.

Oxalic Acid Mould.
11-10-89.—Deep-purple in ninety minutes.
14-10-89.—Red-purple solution. No precipitate, and mould had

disappeared.

1-1-90.—Purple colour. No mould and no precipitate.
22-5-90.—Slight growth at bottom.
28-5-90. —Red- purple colour. No growth and no precipitate.
No. 24.
11-10-89. Phosphorus in Chloroform.

14-10-89.—AlImost colourless solution. Chloroform at bottom, of a
pale purple-blue colour. No precipitate. No growth.
1-1-90.—Red-purple solution, No growth. A little black
deposit.
22-5-90.—Pink-purple solution. A whitish growth. A little
black precipitate.
28-5-90.—Pale ruby-red colour. Turbid (metallic) looking.
Sinall quantity of purple-red growth in small heavy
pieces. Also small pieces of a waxy-looking material,
probably separated phosphorus.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. 407

No. 25.
Banana Skin Scrapings (Mouldy).
11-10-89.— Pale-purple in ninety minutes.
14-10-89.—Dark-purple solution. Skin stained. Slight precipitate.
1-1-90.—Dark purple-red solution. Growth on skin almost
black.
22-5-90,—Dark-blue purple solution. Growth on skin black.
Dark growth at bottom of solution.
28-5-90.—Dark-blue purple solution. Growth on skin purple-
black. Also purple-black loose precipitate.

The details of the experiments are given since they show the
first appearance of the mould and the time taken for the change
in colour according to the removal of the gold.

It is noticeable that no growth was produced where chloroform,
turpentine or carbon disulphide was used as the solvent for
phosphorus, but alcohol favoured such growth. The development
of the mould may be in part due to the presence of the alcohol
radical (C,H, ) ethyl existing in both ether and alcohol; the
presence of phosphoric acid, we know, is as essential to penicillium
as it is to man.

It is remarkable that the oxalic acid mould did not increase
but disappeared (confirmatory experiments are required on this
and other points). The organic substances, like bread, &c., behaved
as might have been expected.

It was found by Roulin that the salts of iron and zine promoted
the growth of moulds; and Hamlet (Australasian Association
for the Advancement of Science, Sydney, 1888, p. 326) found
zine in the mould of mouldy bread, and it may be that many
other metallic substances, including gold, are favourable to the
growth of moulds.

There is no doubt that gold in natural waters could be removed
by any moulds with which it might come in contact; but then
any other organic matter, living or dead,does the same. Hence at
this stage of the experiments I do not wish to draw any inferences
as to the possible part which fungoid growths may have had in
the separation and accumulation of gold in natural deposits,
alluvial or otherwise.

14.—NOTES ON AN EXAMINATION OF SOME SAND
FROM WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

By A. H. Jackson, B.Sc., F.C.S.

15.—NOTES ON THE NEW SILVER FIELDS AT
MOUNT ZEEHAN, TASMANIA.

By A. J. TAyutor:

Section C.

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

President of the Section: F. W. Hutton, M.A., F-G.S., CM.ZS.,
Professor of Geology, Canterbury College, University of
New Zealand.

1.—NOTES ON THE METAMORPHIC ROCKS OF OMEO.
By A. W. Howirt, F.G.S.

lw the memoir which I presented to this association; at its last
meeting, I noted the results of my investigations up to that date
into the origin, formation and structure of the crystalline schists of
the Omeo district. Since then, I have continued my work by an
examination of a considerable number of thin slices prepared from
samples which I had collected in typical localities. I now propose
to submit to the association the further results of this enquiry,
in anticipation of a more complete discussion of the data ata
future time in the publications of the Department of Mines of
this colony.

I now select for illustration three localities, which will afford
some light on the obscure questions involved in the consideration
of the mode of formation of these schists, and their relation to
the sedimentary rocks with which they are associated.

One locality is on the western margin of the metamorphic area
at the Upper Dargo River, another on the eastern margin,
between Mount Leinster and the Limestone River, and the third
at the base of Mount Livingstone. In each of these places I
have carefully examined natural sections which cross the strike
of the schists, and have then studied thin slices prepared across the
foliations of the collected samples. It will not be necessary for
the purpose of this paper to do more than to detail the general
results of this study, with special reference to certain typical
examples, leaving fuller details for the future, when the quanti-
tative analysis of certain of the rocks will have enabled me,
possibly, to speak with greater certainty as to the particular beds
in the sections, which may be referred to the group of metamor-
phosed sediments, rather than to the metamorphosed plutonic
rocks.

+ ** Notes on the Metamorphic Rocks of the Omeo district.” Vol.i., p. 206. Report of
Australasian A.A. Science, 1888,

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. 409

I take for the first example the section on the western
boundary, at the Upper Dargo River. The valley of the river at
that place is almost coincident with what has been regarded as the
line of passage of the normal Lower Silurian} rocks of the district
into the metamorphic schists. The observations which I had
made elsewhere caused me to feel very strong doubts as to there
being any passage from the sedimentary formations to the
crystalline schists of Omeo, and it seemed to me that this locality
might afford some valuable evidence on the question.

The sedimentary rocks at the Upper Dargo are an alternating
series of highly-inclined greenish-coloured slates and sandstones,
having a north-westerly strike, and being traversed by more or
less auriferous quartz lodes. On the eastern side of the river
these beds are found to be much corrugated, and to be minutely
wrinkled with asilky lustre. Strings and small lenticular patches
of quartz are also present in and across the corrugations. Herein
one may recognise an early stage of metamorphism.

In ascending the steep spur on the eastern side of the valley
the rocks are all mica schists of increasingly marked character,
becoming harsher, and with veins of glassy-looking quartz. The
dip of the beds appears to be the north of east, at from 60 deg.—
70 deg.

At about 400 feet above the river there occurs a mass of diorite
in the schists. It is composed principally of rather light-coloured,
not very pleochroic amphibol, with a small amount of ideomophic
plagioclase and quartz. From about this point the schists more
resemble gneisses with a harsher texture, and are marked by the
abundance in them of black mica (biotite). From here upwards
it is not possible to say with any safety what is the position of
the beds, but so far as I could make observations, the dip is
probably in accord with that of the lower beds.

In order to show the character of the beds from 400 feet up
to 1250 feet, namely, to the summit of the spur above the level
of the river, the following may be noted.

As I have said, biotite increases greatly in the schists, until at
about 600 feet much contorted foliations of black mica are very
marked. Under the microscope the rock is a finely foliated
contorted schist, composed of biotite, a little muscovite, grains of
quartz, and here and there broken crystals of green tourmaline.
I observed here also a white schist with schorl, which traverses
the other schists. On examination, it proved to have been
originally a dyke composed of orthoclase, quartz, and schorl,
similar probably to felspathic dykes, which are common in the

} The rock is a very fine-grained mica schist. The micaisin minute colourless flakes,
which are arranged either longditudinally in the narrow foliatures or in smaller plumose
groups or rosettes. In places there are narrow foliatures, or lenticular aggregates of quartz
grains, In other places similar veins of quartz, in which are scattered plates of mica, The
whole rock has been molecularly rearranged. assuming it to represent the argillaceous slates
near at hand, in some of which minute mica flakes are very numerous.

410 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION ©.

Omeo district. This rock has, however, been in so far meta-
morphised that it has become foliated to some extent. The
alternating foliatures with the felspars are of quartz, with also a
colourless, very fibrous mineral, which appears to be fibrolite.
The schorl is in rather narrow prisms.

Mica schists of the character described extend up to nearly
1000 feet above the river, where the schists are composed of
foliatures of black mica, felspar and quartz. In places the
foliatures contain small masses of felspar and quartz, forming
“eves.” The foliatures vary from very narrow to a width of
several inches of each mineral aggregate. This rock is a pressure
schist, representing a former massive plutonic rock, composed of
orthoclase (microperthite), biotite and quartz. At the summit
of the spur, 1250 feet, which is nearly also at the summit of the
Great Dividing Range, there is a well-marked example of one of
the diorite-gneisses of this district. This place is well within
the metamorphic area. This gneiss shows in the clearest manner
the violent movements to which it has been subject after its
consolidation, as well as an original gneissic structure due to the
parallelism of some of its constituents. This gneiss is therefore
interesting as being an example of both forms of gneiss. That,
namely, which is frequent in the margins of the plutonic masses, as,
for instance, at Swift’s Creek and which has been produced during
consolidation. Secondly, that which has been produced in massive
rocks after consolidation, by the effects of pressure metamorphism.

The biotite mica is dark coloured, and is in crystals which have
been bent, twisted, and in places opened out. It forms in great
part the separations between the other minerals, thus producing
a gneissic structure. Its position in the rock shows that it was
formed after the porphyritic felspars which it surrounds. The
felspars are triclinic, the angles have been somewhat rounded, and
the crystals are more or less fractured or crushed. The broken
fragments have in places been pushed aside, and the interstices
cemented with quartz. The quartz is in considerable amount, and
has been much granulated by movements in the rock.

This gneiss is evidently somewhat later in age than the
generality of the gneisses in which it occurs, and has been
therefore less metamorphised than they. As a contrast, I may
note the structure of one of the latter. The main mass of the
rock is formed of foliations composed of fragments of felspar and
quartz, with plates of biotite. The partings are formed of
narrow foliations of a pale-coloured mica in minute scales and
fibres, which appears to have resulted from the alteration of the
finer detritus. In this mass, and surrounded by the foliations
of smaller material are what have once been porphyritic crystals
of triclinic felspars in the original quartz diorite; these gneisses
are good examples of the pressure schists of the district.

In this section there are several points to note. First, the

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. 41}

normal lower Paleozoic sediments pass into the corrugated fine
grained mica schists at the foot of the hills, and the mica schists
up to about 400 feet are characterised by having a preponderance
of muscovite mica. From that place, which is marked by a mass.
of diorite, the schists have a different character, being much
harsher in texture, and having a preponderance of biotite mica.
Towards the summit of the spur, where the schists are most
marked, they are clearly recognisable as metamorphosed plutonic
rocks of the quartz diorite class, which are now in the form of
diorite-gneisses.

Further careful work will have to be done before these schists can
be satisfactorily classed, but for the present I think that these
mica schists, in which muscovite predominates, may be referred
to the metamorphosed sediments, while the mica schists with a
preponderance of biotite and the gneisses belong to the group of
metamorphosed plutonic rocks.

On the north-east side of the Omeo district the furthest outlier
of the crystalline schists is found, between Mount Leinster and
the Limestone River. I propose to take a section from the
Limestone River to Marengo Creek, as my second example
of the supposed passage of the sediments into the crystalline
schists.

The section commences at the Limestone River, where there is
a series of highly-inclined sediments, including a band of crystal-
line limestone (marble). The age of these sediments is, so far as
may be judged from the imperfect fossils, of Upper Silurian age.
The section follows a generally south-westerly course across a high
range, which forms the divide between the Limestone River and
the Marengo Creek. If produced further, its course would be
not far from Mount Leinster, to which I shall again refer
further on.

In order to illustrate the section, I shall shortly describe repre-
sentative samples, giving the approximate distance in chains in a
direct line from the Limestone River.

At a distance of about ten chains the sedimentary rocks are
much hardened and broken up by small joints. The beds dip
south 40 deg. west at 50 deg. The rock is fine-grained, and under
the microscope can be seen to be formed principally of innumerable
minute fibres, of what is probably one of the chlorite minerals.
Numerous minute veins of quartz granules traverse it, and the
rock itself has also a large amount of the same granular quartz
distributed through it. “This quartz is secondary, and not to be
confounded with the elastic quartz in the rock.

At about sixty chains these altered sediments are in contact
with a mass of porphyrite, which extends for nearly fifty chains
along the course of the section. The sedimentary rocks in contact
with the porphyrite are hard and flinty, and with the dip and
strike obliterated. Slices of the rock show it to resemble that

412 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

-described, but to be less fine-grained, and with more secondary
quartz diffused through it, as well as in narrow reticulated veins.
The induration of these sediments is due to silicious infiltrations,
which may have been connected with the intrusion of the
porphyrites. On the further side of these the sediments are
much contorted in places, but are somewhat less indurated and
more schistose. At about one hundred and twenty chains the
probable strike is to the north-eastward, with a dip of 80 deg. to
the south-east. Narrow strings of quartz appear in and across the
foliations. Under the microscope, the rock is seen to resemble in
mass those already described, but, in addition, to be traversed by
numerous winding, although on the whole parallel, partings lined
with flakes of a pale yellowish mica, indicating the commence-
ment of a foliated structure produced by pressure. In parts of
the rock, where there are some larger elastic grains of quartz,
these foliations wind round them, forming ‘“ eyes” in the same
way as I have described in the pressure gneisses near Omeo.

At about 160 chains the rocks are distinctly more schistose,
with little traces left of bedding. Under the microscope, it is an
irregularly foliated rock, composed of flakes and small crystals of
colourless mica, with a lesser amount of biotite in larger, but
irregularly formed plates and crystals. At this point I observe
a decided change in the character of the schists.

Those adjoining are very silicious, and are composed of quartz
grains full of minute fluid cavities and microliths. The grains of
quartz which form the greater part of the rock have not the
appearance of elastic quartz, and are separated in places by small
foliations of minute flakes of biotite. Further on, at about 230
chains, the schists are also extremely quartzose. They are formed
of foliations of quartz grains, between which are narrow foliations
of detrital materials, some part of which is felspar, with a little
mica, and a comparatively large percentage of epidote. The
narrow detrital foliations swell out in places, round small
masses, which can be regarded as altered felspars. Immediately
adjoining these rocks are gneisses, composed of foliations of
orthoclase and plagioclase, which are rounded, in places fractured,
but not stretched or distorted. As is usual in such cases, they
are all more or less surrounded by margins and endings of
detritus, that is, of rubbings of felspar and quartz. Flakes of
biotite line the most marked planes of separation. Besides the
lesser quartz grains, there are also foliations of quartz, which in
places bend round the inclined felspars, or larger quartz grains.
In places the quartz has undulatory extinction. Some samples
of these rocks show typical examples of such crystalline schists.

Finally, where the track crosses the first branch of Marengo
Creek, there are massive quartz diorites composed of biotite mica,
triclinic felspar (oligoclase) and quartz. These diorites extend
over a large area, and from them might be produced just such

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. 413:

gneisses as I have described. They extend over a_ large
area of many miles in diameter, within which rises Mount
Leinster, one of the later plutonic intrusions of the district. The
sequence of rocks is as far as the intrusive area is concerned—
(1), quartz diorite ; (2), syenite porphyries and orthophyrs, and
thus resembles the Frenchman’s Hill area, near Omeo, which I
have already described in a former paper.

In the section just described, I find the sequence of rocks to
be on the whole very analagous to that at the Dargo River.
There is a passage from the nomal Lower Paleozoic formation into
metamorphic schists ; then a sequence of schists characterised by
the gneisses resulting from the metamorphism by pressure of the
massive quartz diorites, which in this case exist over a wide
tract adjoining the former. In this case still further minute
investigations are necessary, but for the present I think that the
point of demarcation may be placed a little to the eastward of
the quartzose schists, which I regard as being on the margin of
the intrusive rocks.

Part of the metamorphism of the sediments must be no doubt
attributed to the large intrusive mass of porphyrite.

The third example is near Mount Livingstone. It is centrally
situated as regards the whole metamorphic area. It is interesting,
because there the schists are surrounded by plutonic rocks still in
a more or less completely massive condition as quartz-diorites,
and granites. There is in this locality a tract of gneisses
undoubtedly produced by the metamorphism of plutonic rocks.
At some distance, and to the north east of the Frenchman’s Hill,
there is a tract of mica schists, produced by the metamorphism
of the Lower Paleozoic sediments. Thus the two groups, which I
have endeavoured to distinguish from each other at the Upper
Dargo and at Marengo Creek, are found here each one by itself.

The schists at Mount Livingstone can be studied in
Green Wattle Creek. They are distinctly bedded, more or less
nearly vertical on a north westerly strike. The texture of the
beds varies from rather fine-grained to comparatively coarse-
grained, with numerous “eyes” of felspar, or of felspar and
quartz. The character of the beds also varies from the appearance
of a mica schist to gneiss. Details will be best illustrated by
describing some of the samples collected.

The first to be mentioned is a micaceous schist at the lower end
of the gorge-like valley down which Green Wattle Creek flows
for several miles. In a hand sample the rock greatly resembles
some of the light-coloured mica schists which have resulted from
the metamorphism of the sediments, as, for instance, those near the
foot of the spur at the Upper Dargo River, of which I have
spoken already. A thin slice, however, prepared across the
foliations, shows that the rock is formed of alternate foliations of
mica, which is almost wholly muscovite, quartz, and small

414 PROCEEDINGS OF SECEION C.

fragments of more or less altered felspars. The felspars are
orthoclase and plagioclase, and the alteration is to mica.

The quartz foliations are, as in other cases, bent and drawn
out. At some little distance up the stream the schists are much
harder, less micaceous, and more felspathic and quartzose. The
rock is composed of biotite, quartz, and felspar, with usually
subordinate muscovite. The felspars, as usual, form “eyes” in
the foliatures and the larger indurduals are either arranged in
the line of foliation or more or less across it, just as if slightly
turned over in the process of rubbing between two planes. The
portions which have been abraded surround the felspars, and are
accumulated at the ends, where they tail off into a point where
the two micacious or quartzose foliatures come together again round
the felspar crystal. In samples from this place I again observed
that the erystals of felspar are broken and abraded, and not
stretched or distorted. The quartz, however, is evidently both
stretched and bent, indicating a considerable degree of plasticity.

In order to obtain some further information as to the structure
of these “eyes,” I examined slices prepared from a felspar’
inclusion from this place. It was about an inch in length by
three-quarters of an inch in the widest part. The felspar proved
to be orthoclase, in which the extinction was slightly undulating
in places. At the end it was joined by a mass of fragments of
felspar and quartz, gradually narrowing off to where the
enveloping foliations of biotite came together from both sides.
At one side, where the micaceous foliation touched the felspar,
crystals of quartz have been formed, some of them having well.
formed lateral planes. Some of these are at the contact of the
mica and felspar, others in the felspar itself, with a few plates of
biotite placed perpendicularly to the foliation. Here and there
in the orthoclase are quartz crystals, from which cracks radiate,
and round which the extinction is disturbed, It is evident that
these quartz crystals and biotite flakes are of secondary origin,
that is to say, whatever has been the origin of the foliated struc-
ture of the rock, they are not older than it. There is, therefore,
evidence here of the formation of biotite mica and the crystalli-
sation of quartz in the pre-existing crystal of felspar, and also
that the quartz has been more plastic than the silicates of
alumina and alkali forming the felspar.

Schists of this character extend for about a mile in a south-
westerly direction, where the rocks become more massive, and of
a character which may be best described as that of a quartz-diorite
approaching gneiss. When looked at in the block there is
apparent a certain parallelism of the mineral, which is not always
to be seen in small samples.

T found, on examining a rather fine-grained example of such a
rock, that it was composed of biotite, in rather ragged-edged and
wasted crystals, numerous triclinic felspars having the appearance
of oligoclase and quartz.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. 415

Among the felspars, some were good instances of that form of
structure where the interior is well crystallised with a margin of
greater or less width, less ideomorphic, and apparently of some-
what different constitution, for the interior was mostly more con-
verted into mica than the exterior. The quartz, which was fairly
abundant, had the usual character of that found in such rocks.
In this sample there was no appearance of crushing, or of the
linear arrangement of the minerals.

Among these more massive rocks there is a narrow band,
having the appearance of a quartzose schist, but, on examination,
I found it to be a prepared and very quartzose rock belonging to
the quartz-diorite group.

Beyond this point the rocks are more or less massive quartz
diorites, with here and there schistose bands, and this formation
extends westward to the upper Dargo River, of which I have
already spoken.

Speaking generally, I may now say that the schists of Green
Wattle Creek are gneisses, more or less micaceous, felspathic, or
quartzose. They are composed of the mechanically rearranged
constituents of massive plutonic rocks, as diorites and granites,
such as are to be found in the neighbourhood. They are not the
metamorphosed representatives of sedimentary beds, as are the
mica schists to the north-eastward of the Frenchman’s Hill.

The examination shows that in the metamorphism of the
gneisses the original minerals have differently resisted the forces
acting upon them. The felspars have been crushed, broken and
rounded off, but hardly, or at all, distorted or stretched. The
quartz, on the contrary, has not only been crushed and broken,
but it has become so plastic as to be found in long drawn out and
eventually bent portions. The detrital material has been
regenerated mostly as biotite, and apparently there is most biotite
in the most disturbed portions. It has also produced muscovite,
and more rarely intergrowths of quartz and orthoclase in the
graphic manner, as micropegmatite. The felspars can be recog
nised as being original crystals which existed in a rock apparently
analogous to these massive plutonic rocks, which occur in the
same locality.

The quartz of the foliatures is of two kinds—original quartz
grains which have been crushed, and, in a much greater amount,
quartz which has been produced in the form it now has during
the metamorphic action.

It seems to me to be now clear that the crystallised schists
of the Omeo district are, as I indicated before, of two kinds.
Mica schists which have been formed by the metamorphism of
Lower Palzeozoic sediments, and gneisses which have been formed
by the metamorphism of quarts diorites and granites. Where
the sedimentary rocks and the plutonic rocks have both been
involved in the same process, the mica schists of the one and the

416 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

micaceous gneisses of the other appear as a passage from the
sediments to the igneous rocks. In Green Wattle Creek and at
Wilson’s Creek the two classes of schists are seen separated. At
Dargo River and at Marengo where the two sets are in contact
metamorphism has taken place, thus masking the true character.

It may be accepted as a preliminary distinction that where
felspars occur in the schists, and more especially where they are
surrounded by detritus and form “eyes” in the foliations, the
original rock was plutonic ; but when the rocks have no felspar,
but are composed of merely mica and quartz, the original rock
was a sediment. Yet these distinctions are not hard and fast,
for the complete comminution of a plutonic rock might give rise
to a regenerated schist composed of biotite, mica and quartz.
One of the most suggestive observations which I have now made
is that the quartz of these schists has been far more plastic
than the felspars. Why silica should be so rather than a silicate
of alumina and alkali, which is less refractory to high temperature,
T do not at present see. But this is certain, that the quartz has
been drawn out and bent, while the felspar has been broken.
It may be that the action has not been merely that the
constituent minerals of the rock have become free to re-arrange
themselves by reason of the enormous pressure to which they
have been subjected. It has seemed to me that solutions must be
taken into account. Yet the rock itself has not gone into solution
for the felspars remain intact excepting in so far that mechanical
action has broken them.

So little, however, is yet known of the behaviour of mineral
substances under great pressure that it is but wise to refrain
from endeavouring to explain those phenomena which present
themselves as exceptional.

My results so far seem to me to support the views enunciated
by Professor Lehmann as to dynamo-metamorphism, at p. 33 of
his great work on the Crystalline Schists of Saxony. (Alt krystal-
linischen Schiefergesteine. Bonn, 1884).

Put shortly, they are these :—Rocks which by reason of great
earth-stress, not only assume new forms of structure, but also
are compelled to adapt themselves to a less space and eliminate
constituent substances. Most energetic re-combinations of sub-
stance accompany the deep-seated crushing of rock, and any open
fissures become filled with secretions. This can, however, only
take place under such superincumbent weight as will suttice to
prevent an actual disruption of the rock, and such phenomena
are usually only apparent in the heart of mountain chains. Such
secretions can only exude when the pressure in the rocks exceeds
the limit of plasticity, and there is a want of compensating
counter pressure which causes the disruption of the whole system
of beds. Lehmann believes that it is at such a time that the
granite magmas enter the fissures and mix with the secretions
of the metamorphosed rocks.

oe ay

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. 417

Many observations which I have made in the Omeo district
support generally these views.

In conclusion, I may say that the examination of the samples
of rock from the margin of the metamorphic rocks at Dargo and
at Marengo lead me to conclude that the limit of the metamor-
phosed sediments is reached in the former locality when the schists
become filled with foliations of biotite, and show traces of
felspars ; and at Marengo where the quartzose pressure-gneisses
commence.

2.—CHALK AND FLINTS FROM THE SOLOMON
ISLANDS.

By A. Liversiper, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the
University of Sydney.

The following notes are upon some specimens collected by Mr.
Charles M. Woodford in the Solomon Islands, and sent by him
to me for examination and description.

The specimens consisted of the following :—

1. Water from a hot spring, Savo Island. (See separate note
for description. ) |

2. Rock from ‘“‘ Stoneheap,” in the crater of Savo Island.—This
is a greyish coloured crystalline trachytic rock, containing small
but fairly well formed felspar crystals.

3. Rock from “Stoneheap,” in the crater of Savo Island.—This
is apparently a solfatara deposit, white and friable, and closely
resembling the deposit from New Zealand and other solfataras.

4. Rolled Pebbles, from Belisima River, Guadalciva Island.—
These are evidently fragments of one of the older crystalline
rocks, and resemble gabbro in appearance. They are of import-
ance, since they indicate the presence of the older rocks in these
islands, and if time permits, a fuller examination will be made of
them.

5. A hard compact limestone with a minutely crystalline
structure, from Isabel Island.

6. Two specimens from Florida or Gela Island.—These some-
what resemble chalk in appearance, but the amount of carbonate
of lime present is not great; they are soft, granular, and grey in
colour, with a minutely crystalline structure.

After being acted upon by strong hydrochloric acid, the larger
fragments retained their original form, and the residue was
found to consist of sharp quartz particles and rock debris, hence
this rock is probably largely made up of volcanic ash and other
materials, cemented together by calcium carbonate.

Analyses of somewhat similar specimens from Vati and Malli-
colo, New Hebrides, are given in the Jour. Roy. Soc. of N.S.W.

¥a

418 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

for 1883.* Hence it was considered unnecessary to further
examine these specimens from Florida Island.

7. Chalk from Ulawa Island, together with flints set free from
the same.—Both the chalk and the flints closely resemble those of
the south coast of England ; the chalk also closely resembles that
from New Ireland, (See ‘““On the Occurrence of Chalk in the
New Britain Group,” by A. Liversidge, Jour. Roy. Soc. of
N.S. W., 1877) ; except that in the particular specimens of the
Ulawa chalk examined by me, foraminifera are not so abundant
as in the New Ireland chalk, nor are there very many sponge
spicules.

The specimens are all rolled, and could not by mere inspection
be distinguished from those found at the base of the English
chalk cliffs.

T did not consider it necessary to make a complete analysis,
but the amount of calcium carbonate and soluble matter was
determined and found to be 93°66 per cent., hence in composition
the rock is essentially a chalk; the insoluble residue, 6°33 per
cent. is gelatinous, of a pale brownish colour, and is composed of
particles of silica and the usual rock deérvis. The differences,
between a chalk and a limestone are, apart from geological age
mainly physical.

8. Flints set free from the above chalk, Ulawa Island.—
Some of the flints are not distinguishable in appearance from
English chalk flints, but others are rather more chalcedonice.

In all, there were ten specimens of flint, and the specific
gravities of four were determined.

1. A brown chalcedonie flint, more or less translucent and
with a well marked conchoidal fracture, had a sp. gr
of 2:21 to 2°22.

A dark smoky flint with whitish spots and markings,
and outer skin or crust, so common on chalk flints,
well marked conchoidal fracture. The whitish coating
varies from ;), in. to in. thickness. The sp. gr. of
two pieces were found to be 2°39 and 2°36.

to

(Se)

. A pale brown chalcedonie flint with white films running
through it, fissured ; well marked conchoidal fracture,
but breaks into small pieces on account of the
numerous fissures. The sp. gr. was found in different
pieces to be 2°23, 2:24, and 2:23.

4. A greyish-coloured flint, with a platy or laminated

structure. The fissures between the larger plates

little chalk. The sp. grs. of three pieces were found
to be 2:15, and a porous specimen 2°23.

* On the Composition of Some Coral Limestone from the South Sea Islands,” by A. Liver-
sidge.—Jour. Roy. Soc. of N.S.W., 1880.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. 419

Sections were made of these flints, but no recognisable organic
structure was met with in the pieces examined.

The following notes on the occurrence of flints in the Solomon
Islands are from Dr. Guppy’s letters :—

“These flints are commonly found in the island of Ugi,
embedded one or two inches below the surface soil, and are exposed
in numbers when the soil is disturbed for purposes of cultivation.
I have seen similar flints from the opposite coast of St. Christoval,
where they occur under similar circumstances. In Ugi they are
found on the low land which fringes the coast, which varies in
elevation from five to twelve or fifteen feet above the high-water
level; fragments of decayed coral and portions of shells are
frequently intermingled in the soil where flints are found. In
addition to common flint, which composes the majority of these
masses, fragments of chalcedony, carnelian, and a jasper also
occur. If I remember aright, all the specimens which I send
are fragments of nodules. Their resemblance in some instances
to flint implements of the palolithic age is worthy of notice;
one flake is coloured white, and reminds one of the similarly
shaped flakes of the Post Tertiary gravels. The prevailing rock
of the island of Ugi is an earthy foraminiferous limestone.

I made a careful examination of the natural sections of
this rock, which were displayed in the deep gorges worn by the
streams, but I never came upon embedded flints. I am informed
by resident traders that flints are abundant on the beach of the
island of Ulawa, together with fragments of a white rock like
chalk. I was unable to visit the island of Ulana.

I may state that in my short experience I have met with
islands of very varied geological character. The large islands,
such as St. Christoval and Florida, appear to be formed of an
axis of primitive eruptive and metamorphic rocks, flanked by
more recent volcanic formations, and fringed near the coast by
elevated coral-limestone, reaching to a height in some instances
of several hundred feet above the sea. In Florida I traced
the coral-limestone, often indistinguishable from the compact
rock of the existing coral reef, to a height of 900 feet above
the sea.

Then comes the volcanic type of island, e.g., Simbo, which is
entirely of trachytic rocks, and still retains an old funnel-shaped
crater, a solfatara, numerous fumaroles, even on the highest
summit, and boiling springs.

Then we have tne raised atoll, such as Santa Anna, which,
elevated some 500 feet above the sea, offers interesting confirma-
tion of Mr. Darwin’s theory of coral islands.

In one instance I succeeded in finding, 72 sc#w beneath the
crust of coral rocks, the crystalline eruptive rocks of the original
island before it underwent subsidence and became clothed with
coral.

#49

a

420 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

The island of Ugi presents yet another variety of geological
structure, a low-lying island ; it is composed of bedded foramini-
ferous limestone, once incrusted with coral-rock, which is
now toa great extent removed by denudation; flints occur in
the surface soil, though I have not yet found them zz situ. I
intend, however, to continue my observations on this island.”

—Jour Roy. Soc. N.S. W., 1883.

3—THE PLUTONIC AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS
OF BATHURST, NEW SOUTH WALES.

By W. J. Cuiunies Ross, B.Sc., F.G.8.

Av the last meeting of the association I contributed a short
paper on “Metamorphism and the Rocks of the Bathurst
District.” I should hardly have brought forward another paper
on a similar subject but that Mr. Stirling informed me that it
was proposed to make the study of the metamorphic rocks of
Australia a special feature at the present meeting, while at the
same time he courteously invited me to contribute something on
that branch of geology.

During the past year I have had the opportunity of studying
some of our rocks in more detail than I had previously done, and
I therefore propose to give a short account of some of them, both
as to their description and mode of occurrence, and to exhibit
specimens and sections in illustration of my remarks. On
reading Mr. Howitt’s interesting paper on the metamorphic rocks
of Gippsland, which was published in the last volume of
Proceedings, I was struck with the similarity of the geology of
that area to that of the Bathurst district, although there appear
also to be considerable differences. I am not personally
acquainted with the Gippsland rocks, with the exception of a few
small specimens lent me by Rey. J. M. Curran, F.G.S8., but shall
be glad to learn from those familiar with them whether they at
all resemble our Bathurst rocks. I do not propose to deal with
the geology of the Bathurst district, but to confine myself to
recording my own observations on the two groups of plutonic and
metamorphic rocks. I use the term plutonic advisedly, to indicate
the holocrystalline intrusive rocks of the granitic type, as being
tolerably well understood, and not committing one to any
particular theory as to their origin.

Before proceeding to deal with the rocks themselves, I may
say, for the benefit of those not acquainted with our district, that
Bathurst is built on granite, which extends for a considerable
distance round the town and that outside the granitic area we

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. 491

come toa series of metamorphic rocks. The granite is covered
in places by basalt, and also by drifts, but these do not concern
us now.

The rock on which the town is built is very much decomposed,
and although it often appears solid, crumbles away at once before
the hammer. Closer investigation shows that it is made up of
coarse grains of light-grey or white felspar, much decomposed, a
fair amount of quartz, and a little black mica (biotite). In places
there are patches composed almost entirely of this mica, but soft
and crumbling like the rest. It is sometimes a little difficult to
say whether the rotten granite has decomposed zz situ, or whether
the materials have been washed down from a higher level. In
some cases no doubt the latter is the case, as bands of pebbles
occur at a considerable depth from the surface. On the higher
ground, however, the granite has no doubt decayed where we
find it, and it is often traversed by hard veins, which are very
distinct from the surrounding matrix. These veins appear to
correspond very closely to some of those described by Mr. Howitt
as occurring in the granite of Gippsland. They vary in thickness
from less than an inch to about a foot, and may be traced some-
times with great regularity for a considerable distance. In
texture they vary greatly, some being excessively coarse-grained,
the crystals of pink orthoclase and quartz being several inches in
length. These crystals are sometimes coated with fine scales of
white mica, while coarse plates of brown mica (muscovite) are
also found occasionally, but are not very common. Other veins,
however, are very fined-grained, almost micro-crystalline, and are
a good deal like some Cornish elvans. Mr. Howitt calls his veins
aplite, and considers they are all intrusive, I believe. Ours may
also be intrusive, but I am yet not quite convinced that they are
so in all cases. Some of the veins are found in the heart of the
granite quite close to Bathurst, while others occur at the junction
with the schists into which narrow veins sometimes penetrate,
but for no great distance. Besides the rotten granite described
above, we have plenty of the solid material in the neighbourhood.
At several places near the town, hard bars of a coarse-grained
variety of granite come to the surface, and it may also be found
at many other places by sinking a few feet, so that it is quite
possible that it extends under the whole area, but there have not
been enough deep wells sunk to decide the question. The felspar
in the hard granite is white or light grey, but sometimes is in
large crystals of a reddish colour. The latter variety is doubtless
orthoclase, and also much of the white, but there is likewise a
good deal of plagioclase. I have not thoroughly analysed the
felspars, nor am I aware that any analyses have been made. It
would be interesting to learn their exact composition, and a more
complete examination of their optical characters than I have been
able to make as yet would also be interesting, as already I have

422 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

noticed several peculiarities of structure which would repay
further investigation and probably throw some light on the
manner in which the crystals have been formed. Besides the
felspar, there is a good deal of quartz and biotite, as well as
hornblende. The mica and hornblende are generally very opaque,
so that except in very thin sections it is difficult to study their
optical characters. Scattered through the coarse-grained rocks
are patches of much finer grain consisting largely of mica, and at
first sight suggesting the idea that they are extremely altered
inclusions of slate, but as they occur in the very heart of the
granite they can hardly besuch. Besides the normal constituents,
various accessory minerals are developed such as sphene, while,
where the granite is slowly decomposing, I have detected calcite
and prehnite filling cracks in the rock.

It is probable, but not certain, that the rotten granite has re-
sulted from the decay of the hard variety, and that the latter
owes its preservation to some local difference of texture and com-
position.

As we travel out from Bathurst, and approach the metamorphic
rocks, the granite seems to change its character. The hornblende
disappears, the biotite is partly replaced by muscovite, and the
felspar becomes distinctly red; so that, near the junction, the
rock appears to be entirely different from the one we have studied
at Bathurst. It may really be distinct and of different age, or,
on the other hand, the change may be a gradual one ; but, owing
to the surface rock being generally so much decomposed, it is
difficult to decide the question. I hope to continue my study of
the Bathurst granites, as I consider them a very interesting
group of rocks; but for the present we must leave them. Before
doing so, however, it may be of interest to mention that the area
over which they form the surface rock is tolerably extensive,
being something like 450 square miles.

On proceeding outward from Bathurst in any direction, one
finds, at a distance of about eight miles in some directions, ten or
twelve in others, that one has passed off the granite and entered
a metamorphic area. Even in travelling along roads the transi-
tion is seen to be abrupt, but good exposures of the junction are
not very easy to find. By examining railway cuttings and
creeks, however, a good many very satisfactory sections may be
obtained. In all of these that 1 have seen the granite finishes
abruptly against a much darker rock, and there is no sign of a
gradual passage from one to the other. The junction line, more-
over, although so sharp, is not a straight line, but winds about in
such a manner that there can be no possibility of a faulted
junction, while small veins from the granite run into the
contiguous rocks. These veins are very narrow, and often one
about an inch in thickness can be traced for thirty or forty feet
as straight as if the boundaries had been ruled. The rock

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. 423

abutting against the granite is rather an interesting one. It is,
in most cases, an evidently foliated rock, but can hardly be called
a typical mica or hornblende schist. In some cases it is rather
coarse-grained, and almost gneissic in appearance, while in others
it is very fine-grained, and suggests a felstone. Examined under
the microscope, it is holocrystalline, largely made up of quartz,
with a good deal of mica, probably biotite, perhaps a little horn-
blende, but with more of a rather indefinite greenish mineral,
which may be called viridite in default of a more definite name.
In the coarser grained varieties felspar may be recognised, while
even the closest specimens I have found show a distinctly
schistose character when cut.

This rock may be found at Locksley, to the south-east of
Bathurst; at Peel, to the north-east; near Vittoria, west ;
Wimbledon, south-west ; as well as at intermediate points, some
of these places being more than twenty miles apart. On first
viewing some of these rocks, one is tempted to consider them as
igneous and intrusive, but on comparing a large series of
specimens from different localities, one tinds so many intermediate
gradations that it appears almost certain that they are of
essentially similar character, and are probably a very good
example of contact metamorphism produced by the granite,
partly by heat and partly by the introduction of new, especially
silicious, matter, and that they form a fringe completely
surrounding the granite.

As we pass off the contact rock, we find that the character of
the rocks soon changes. At Peel we find a rather curious spotted
schist, z.¢., a silky-looking schist with numerous black spots. I
have not critically examined the spots, but doubt if they are of
one definite mineral. The schists reminded me of some of those
found in Cumberland, in the neighbourhood of the Skiddaw
granite. I have searched, but hitherto in vain, for chiastolite,
slate or schist so well known in Cumberland. The spotted schist
passes into a series of silky slates, or schists which may be called
phyllites, and these again, near Vittoria, into soft black slates,
not unlike the Skiddaw slates. To the east of Bathurst I have
not seen any well cleaved slates, but rocks of various types occur,
such as gribs filled with casts of brachiopods, especially Spirifer
adisjunctus and Rhynconella pleurodon, and a few corals. There
are also limestones with encrinite stems. Some of these rocks
are traversed by dykes of felstone and dioritic rocks, mostly
highly silicious. The slates and similar rocks are probably Upper
Silurian or Devonian. Rather to the north of Bathurst we find
a series of massive rocks of slaty character, but with no distinct
cleavage. I have found no fossils in these as yet. To the south
we have an interesting area, near the old mining township of
Cow Flat, now nearly deserted. The rocks in this district are
highly metamorphosed, some of them being more gneissic than

494 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

any other I have seen in our district, although even these are
hardly typical gneiss. They are, however, foliated rocks
containing quartz, felspar, and mica. These gneissic rocks
appear to be interbedded with micaceous schists and crystalline
limestones ; the latter being pure white or cream-coloured, with
bluish veins.

The celebrated petrified man is thought by some to have been
formed of Cow Flat marble. There are numerous quartz veins
traversing the schists, and the phyllites are often very much
crumpled and contorted. Quartz- reefs are common in all the
slate country round Bathurst, but are seldom auriferous. The
Cow Flat copper mines were once rather extensively worked, but
have now been closed for several years. In the case of the
carbonate ores I was informed that they sometimes found lumps
of unaltered limestone in the centre of masses of carbonate of
copper, thus indicating that the copper had replaced the lime.
The rocks about Cow Flat are too much altered for one to have
much hope of finding fossils, but they may very possibly be
Lower Silurian.

To the east and west of Bathurst the rocks dip roughly in
those directions respectively, and there seems little doubt that
the area represents the crest of an anticlinal. An immense
amount of denudation must have taken place, all the overlying
rocks having been removed, and a considerable thickness of the
granite itself. To what height the granite originally reached is
uncertain, but drifts resting on granite are now found at least
400 feet above the town. The so-called Bathurst plains really
form a plateau, about 2300 feet above the sea, surrounded by
higher ground.

The rate of denudation of the granite would probably be
rather rapid, to judge from the speed with which the gullies and
creeks are now formed and deepened by the present low rainfall.
The numerous gullies, with vertical walls from ten to twenty feet
deep, struck me very much on first arriving from the old country,
being quite new to me, and bearing a ridiculous resemblance in
miniature to the pictures of the canons of the Colorado, and also
bearing some resemblance to the scenery of the Blue Mountains
on a very small scale.

We have, then, in the Bathurst district a rather extensive
granitic area surrounded by one at first of contact, and after-
wards of regional metamorphism, if we use the latter term to
include cases in which sedimentary rocks have been converted
into slates and phyilites. If, however, we mean by regional
metamorphism an extensive area made up of true gneiss, erystal-
line schists and limestones, such as one finds in the Highlands of
Scotland, then it must be admitted we have not such an area
about Bathurst. I am conscious that in giving this short account
of a few rocks, I have not brought forward anything which can

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. 425

be considered novel or striking, and that I have only dealt with
a small part of one district of New South Wales. The descrip-
tions, however, may be of interest to those engaged in the study
of metamorphism, and the specimens exhibited will serve for
comparison with those of other areas. It may thus be possible
to form an opinion as to whether the upheaval which produced
our Bathurst anticlinal is likely to have been connected with the
upheaval and metamorphism of Gippsland and other districts of
Victoria and New South Wales. The most probable date of our
upheaval seems to be about the close of the Devonian period.
When I first made the acquaintance of the Bathurst rocks, I had
hopes that I might be able to trace the passage from a true
sedimentary rock to a typical mica schist, and thus do something
tewards settling the question of the origin of the latter class of
rocks. Unfortunately, I have not been successful in finding
anything which a critical authority would be likely to admit as a
true crystalline mica schist. It is true that some of our schists
and phyllites bear some resemblance to the so-called pebidian
rocks of Anglesea. Pebidian, it will be remembered, was one of
the divisions into which Dr. Hicks proposed to divide Archean
rocks. One is not sure, however, whether pebidian has not now
been given up even by its author.

In my paper of last year I expressed the opinion that the
problems of metamorphism could only be settled by each observer
studying, and, if possible, mastering the rocks of his own area,
and recording facts without much regard to theory. I have not,
by any means, mastered the Bathurst district ; indeed, the more
I study it the farther I seem to be from mastering it. I have,
however, tried to record a few facts, and these I now present for
what they are worth.

Before concluding, I should like to say that in my work in the
field during the past year I have several times been accompanied
by the Rev. J. M. Curran, F.G.S., with whom also I have had
the advantage and pleasure of discussing the various problems
which presented themselves. I must also acknowledge my
indebtedness to one of the students of my geology class, Mr. W.
Pascoe, who very kindly ground and mounted a series of sections.
Some months agoI sent a collection of rocks to England to be
cut and submitted to some of the leading English petrologists.
The slides have not yet come to hand, and had it not been for
Mr. Pascoe’s kindness I should have been at a great disadvantage,
as I had not time to grind the sections myself.

4.__NOTES ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF QUARTZITE,
MALDON.

By Jno. Hornspy.

426 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

5.—NOTES ON THE CRYSTALLINE ROCKS OF
BETHANGA, VICTORIA.

By Frepx. Danvers Power, F.G.S.

[ dédstract. ]

Tue township of Bethanga is situated about three miles east of
the junction between the Upper Murray and Mitta Mitta rivers.
The rocks in these parts consist of crystalline schists pierced with
granite veins. The former insensibly pass from one variety to
another, but the granite veins which intersect the schists are
sharply defined, and there is no transition rock between them.
The schists have a distinct bedded structure, striking 30 deg.
east of north, and show a system of fine anticlinal and synclinal
curves, which also divert the granite veins. The main ranges in
these parts run 20 deg. east of north, z.e., about parallel with the
Australian Alps to the east, and also parallel to the coast in these
latitudes. From the fact that a fairly continuous range of moun-
tains runs parallel with the coast line so tenaciously from North
Queensland down to Victoria, it is only natural to suppose that
whatever the original force that caused our continent to assume
its present form, it is the lateral pressure of the ocean on our
coast that has a large say in the formation of our mountains.
Dr. W. D. Carpenter, in a paper read before the Royal Institu-
tion of Great Britain, in January, 1880, on “ Land and Sea.
Considered in Relation to Geological Times,” says that the largest
mountain chains characterise the borders of the greatest ocean,
showing that the lateral pressure from the direction of the ocean
was approximately proportional to the extent of the oceanic basin.
Lateral pressure and other earth movements commenced early in
the earth’s history, and continue to the present day, but since
the older rocks have been subject to these influences for a longer
period than the younger ones, they are more likely to be tilted
up, contorted and altered.

The spurs of the Bethanga ranges tend to run in the direction
of 60 deg. to 70 deg. west of north. Now, on referring to the map
of Victoria, although the coast in these latitudes runs parallel
with the main ranges, still, at the south-west and south of
Victoria, the coast takes a turn 50 deg. east of north, and 80 deg.
west of north respectively ; so the pressure of the ocean in these
parts would also influence, in a minor degree, the formation of
our mountain system. There are, besides, other varying factors
to be considered, e.g., the shifting of the coast nearer or further
from the ranges, the pressure of accumulated rock, the contrac-
tion consequent on the cooling of the globe, &c. Lateral pressure
coming from two or three directions would tend to cause a
tortional strain which would rupture the rocks and otherwise

:

'
:
ol

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. 497

affect them. The common strike of the Bethanga lodes is
between 20 deg. and 30 deg. east of north. They are in reality
strike faults, cutting the country rock obliquely at a high angle.
Passing through the different bands of rock in this way is found
to greatly influence the richness of the lode. Pressure causing
the folds in the country rock, no doubt defined the lines of
weakness by drawing out the legs of the curves; a gradual
horizontal motion then took place, as may be seen by the highly
polished and striated nature of the (Cangthonschiefer, which
sometimes occupies the whole space between the walls when in
gneiss rock ; and also by the striations on the polished faces of
the quartz when lying on quartz, the striations having a horizontal
direction, sometimes with a slight dip to the south; also a mineral
once formed may be found to be broken up and cemented together
again, giving some parts of the lode the appearance of a quartz
and pyrites breccia. The lodes have a steep underlay to the
west. I do not think the rocks have been much displaced by
faulting, as the rocks on each side of the lode do not ditfer much
from each other. The dig, partings of clay, and rubbed-off pieces
of country rock found among the lode material, go to uphold
the theory of gradual movement, which probably took a long
series of years.

The lode is most productive when it passes through belts of
altered granite of a greenish hue, containing white mica. This
granite, being unable to give to the strain brought to bear on it,
has fractured and broken up more than the gneisses, so that
waters carrying minerals in solution, being relieved of their
pressure when percolating in the open spaces between the broken
off pieces of rock, would deposit their over-burden, and would
also meet with precipitating agents in larger quantities than
in tighter rocks. When the lodes cross hard garnet gneiss,
the deposit shows little or no metalliferous minerals. This rock
seems to have adapted itself to circumstances, and slid over itself,
forming a series of lenticular masses, containing much chloritic
minerals, which appear to have served as a lubricant, the lenses
fitting so tightly as to have left no space for foreign deposits.

The lodes and rocks in the vicinity of the upper township are
dislocated by a dip fault, which is occupied by a dyke of amygda-
loidal diabase. The heave is about 125 yards; this must be a
horizontal displacement, as the underlie of the lodes is so steep.
The dyke, which is 8 feet wide, strikes 85 deg. east of north, and
dips at a high angle to the north. Even where not seen, this
dyke makes its influence felt ; on driving from the “Gift” shaft
towards the other side of the gully, the country was found to be
much broken up, and there was an influx of water ; the dip joints
of the granite exposed in a quarry near the “ Excelsior” shaft
are so frequent as we near the dyke as to give the rock quite a
fissile character. A lode formation in H. Uren’s paddock, situated

498 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

east of the “Gift” and “Excelsior” lines, strikes 35 deg. east of
north, but as it goes further north, to where the strike of the
dyke would cut it, it has turned 45 deg. east of north. As the
easterly lode formations tend to bend out of the prevailing course
towards the east more than the westerly ones, I rather fancy this
dyke will prove to die out about a mile east of the “ Excelsior”
shaft, as the rocks are evidently strained there, but not sufficient
to bring them to the breaking point. This dyke runs fairly
parallel with the lay of the chief mountain spurs, and was formed
after the lodes which it displaces; it was also sudden in its
formation, to allow the molten rock to take its present position,
and not slow like the lodes.

I consider that the crystalline schists of Bethanga belong to
the earliest sedimentary rocks, which were deposited mechanically,
and probably chemically, and that intrusive granite in tongues
were forced through the deposits along their bedding planes, the
whole being afterwards folded into anticlinal and synclinal curves
by the same terrestrial movements that caused our mountains,
but chiefly by the lateral pressure of the ocean on our eastern
coast. A system of strike and dip joints, having approximately
the same bearings, being seen both in the crystalline schists and
granites, but especially distinct in the latter, show that both
classes of rock have been subjected to the same strains; and
since they have been affected somewhat differently by these
forces, and show no transition from schists into granite, or vice
versa, they must have been different in their origin. The regional
metamorphism, due to intense and continued pressure, has left
traces in the granite, where the mica frequently shows a tendency
to arrange itself in lines parallel with the strike. Black mica
is mostly found in the body of the rock, while the white mica
oceurs on the joint faces. Bands of hard, dark granite course
through the country in a more easterly direction than the softer
granites, and appear to be of a later date. The same earth
movements, assisted by water, caused the early sediments to
change their physical and mineral composition. We hear much
about the heat given off by chemical and mechanical means
playing an active part in the metamorphism of our rocks. I
am inclined to think that the value of this agent is much
exaggerated, for in regional metamorphism, due to pressure, the
force will be exerted gradually, during which time the rocks will
both conduct and radiate the heat away. Terrestrial forces are
being exerted at the present day, and yet we do not notice any
extraordinary change in the temperature of the rocks; tests
made to determine the temperature at different depths vary so
much as to be of no practical universal value. Chemical heat,
again, we know to be great, but much of our direct knowledge is
obtained from underground workings, which expose a larger
surface of oxidisable minerals to the action of the moist atmo

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. 499

sphere than would occur naturally in the fine cracks and fissures
of a rock, where the action would be slower. Moreover, it is
highly probable that, although we may be able to form many
minerals artificially, both in the wet and dry way, still, similar
minerals may not always be constructed by Nature according to
our methods ; for natural solutions are so much weaker than those
used in the laboratory, besides being impure, and time is no
object ; so we cannot say for certain that such and such a
reaction took place among the many possible combinations,
although we may be aware of the final result.

I further consider that lines of weakness having been determined
along legs of the anticlinal and synclinal folds, a.tortional strain
caused a gradual displacement for a few feet, giving mineral
solutions an opportunity to deposit their burden between the
fractured particles of rock. The tortional strain that caused this
movement culminated in a crack, which was filled with diabase ;
the rocks thus relieved of the strain sprang back in opposite
directions, causing a total lateral displacement of 125 yards.
That this took place after the lodes were formed, and the original
country rock was metamorphosed, can be seen by the faulting of
the lodes, and by examining the orses of country rock enclosed
in them.

6.—ON THE APPLICATION OF PHOTOGRAPHY TO
GEOLOGICAL WORK.

By J. H. Harvey.

7.—ON THE GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FUTURE
PROSPECTS OF THE THAMES GOLDFIELD, NEW
ZEALAND.

By James Park, F.G.S., Director, Thames School of Mines.

ALTHOUGH over twenty-two years have elapsed since gold was
first discovered at the Thames, the geology of this goldfield has
always been a subject of much discussion among New Zealand
geologists, and even at the present time the most opposite and
divergent views are held by different authorities, both as to the
structure and true character of the rocks themselves.

The mining operations of this field have so far been confined
to an area little more than a square mile in extent, and as the
more accessible and readily obtainable gold is being rapidly
worked out, the question of deep-sinking and going further afield

430 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

must sooner or later claim the attention and serious consideration
of mining men and those dependent upon the production of gold.
It is abundantly evident that the time has arrived when the future
prosperity of the field must depend upon the successful development
of new ground, and in order to accomplish this, we must possess
an intelligent knowledge of the structure or arrangement of the
gold-bearing rocks, and the character of the reefs. When we are
in possession of these, as well as the experience accumulated
during twenty years of successful mining, we will be in a position
to direct prospecting operations so that they may be conducted
in the most favourable places, and the money devoted to this
purpose expended to the best advantage.

With this object in view, in the beginning of September of
this year, I commenced a detailed survey of the line of section
extending across the field from Tararu to ‘Hape Oreek, the results
of which are embodied in this paper.

General Structure.

The rocks of this goldfield, as disclosed by the above line of
section which supplies the key to their structure, divide themselves
into three distinct formations as follows :—

1. Slaty shales and silicious mudstones.

2, Felspathic and tufaceous sandstones, passing into
breccias, with gold-bearing veins.

3. Coarse volcanic breccias and tufts, with coal and coaly
shales at base.

The slaty shales and associated rocks form the old floor of the
district, upon which rest unconformably the two succeeding
formations, between which no marked break or unconformity
exists. Between Shellback and Hape Creeks, these younger
formations are arranged as an anticline, the dome of which,
formed by the coarse volcanic breccias and tufts, has been largely
denuded, thus exposing the gold-bearing series below. Near the
core of the anticline, which is situated between the Saxon mine
and the old Queen of Beauty shaft, the strata are inclined at
high angles, being much disturbed, but towards the sides of the
anticline they are lying flatter, the dip varying from 30 to 50 deg.

Section from Bonemill Creek to Hape Creek.

The first rock seen on this line of section after passing Bonemill
Creek is a tough grey-coloured felspathic rock, containing nests
and disseminated grains of iron pyrites. It decomposes to a
great depth from the surface into a rusty-coloured tufaceous-
looking rock. It is intersected by a number of parallel joints,
sometimes showing slickensided surfaces. The joints run
N.N.E.-S.8.W., and are almost vertical.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION ©. 431

About five chains south of the mill, following the beach in the
direction of the Thames, this felspathic rock is followed by an
intensely hard greenish-coloured volcanic breccia, often containing
large rounded boulders or masses of andesite, numbers of which
occupy the beach for a further distance of five chains. This
breccia frequently passes imperceptibly into a fine-grained green
tufaceous sandstone, which, at a casual glance, might be mistaken
for a solid lava or dyke rock. Like the underlying grey felspathic
rock near the mill, these rocks decompose to a considerable depth
into rusty-coloured sands and clays. About three chains past the
second point the breccias rest upon a highly-denuded surface of
blue and grey-ribboned slaty shales. Near the point of contact
the breccias contain small rounded fragments of blue shale and
jasperoid quartz, as well as numbers of large well-developed
crystals of iron pyrites.

The old rocks consist of hard blue and grey slaty shales,
showing very distinct lines of stratification. Their strike is
somewhat irregular, the dip varying from 8.S.W. to W.S.W. at
angles of 26 deg. or 30 deg. They are exposed on the beach at
highwater mark, their outcrop measuring about 60 feet by 100
feet. At low-water mark they are seen to be interbedded with,
and to pass upward imto, grey and yellowish-coloured silicious
mudstones, which dip 8.S8.W. at angles varying from 45 deg. to
70 deg. The actual point of junction can be seen to great advan-
tage on the beach, between high-water and low-water marks. At
their base the mudstones are of a bluish-grey colour in the solid,
weathering to a pinkish-grey on the surface. They are highly
pyritous, and are interlaminated with thin layers of grit,
consisting of small rounded particles of hard mudstone, mostly of
uniform size. The ribboned shales contain similar grit layers
near their upper surface.

Passing southward, the fine-grained silicious mudstones rise into
steep rugged cliffs, and form Rocky Point itself. About three
chains past the point they terminate abruptly, and are followed
unconformably by very hard green tufaceous sandstones,
containing small angular blue slaty fragments. At the mouth of
Waiohanga Creek may be seen large boulders of these sandstones,
containing angular masses of blue shale. These boulders were,
no doubt, brought down by that stream, which cuts across the
outcrop of the older rocks in the upper part of its course.

On the beach near Waiohanga Creek the tufaceous sandstones
are intersected by a number of parallel veins, many of which are
filled with material derived from the enclosing rock. They
strike N.E-S.W., and are generally standing vertical. The
two largest veins are four inches and six inches in width
respectively. The smaller of these divides near high-water mark
into two distinct veins, one of which joins the larger.

4392 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

A few chains further along the beach, still going in the
direction of Tararu, veins of pyritous quartz and large segregated
masses of calcite are plentiful. In the road cutting under Tararu
Cemetery the tufaceous sandstones dip 8.S.E. at an angle of
40 deg., and soon after passing Tararu Creek the dip changes to
the north-west, the strata thus forming a syncline, by means of
which the whole of the sandstones and breccias just described are
again repeated before the boundary of the goldfield proper is
reached.

A few yards past Magazine Point the coarse volcanic breccias
and associated rocks rest upon the upper member of the auriferous
series, which is well exposed at Kurunui Creek. There does not
appear to be any unconformity or stratigraphical break between
the two formations, but the line of junction is very plain, the
character of the sediments of each being very distinct.

The auriferous series consists of grey and yellowish-grey and
sometimes ferruginous sandstones, which alternate with wide
belts of hard greyish-blue, coarser-grained sandstone, often of a
felspathic nature. The former are of moderate hardness, are
generally highly decomposed, and at the surface look as if at one
time they had been permeated in every direction by thermal
waters. The gold-bearing veins are almost exclusively confined
to the softer decomposed sandstones. In places the harder sand-
stones pass imperceptibly into angular breccias, which weather on
the surface into bright-coloured clays, being very subject to
decomposition by atmospheric agencies.

From Kurunui Creek to the Waiotahi the strata dip to the
north-west at angles varying from 40 deg. to 50 deg., but after
passing the latter place the dip rapidly steepens, and soon after
passing the Saxon shaft becomes vertical, and then changes to
south-east, the core of the anticline passing through a point
between the Saxon mine and Waiokaraka Gully. From the
latter place to Hape Oreek the whole of the auriferous rocks are
repeated. The low flat spur lying between the Karaka and
Waiokaraka is composed of a series of flat-lying bedded clays,
sands, silts, and coarse cemented gravels, which from their situation
must have been formed by the former during Pleistocene times.
At Hape Creek the gold-bearing strata disappear below the coarse
volcanic breccias and tufts which follow in the order of their
superposition.

The following sketch illustrates the arrangement of the gold-
bearing strata and the position of some of the principal mines
along this line of section :—

433

‘syisodap 010004sto[q —F ‘Aagunod warreq Jo spuvq pavey—e a
‘£ayunod SuLIvaq-plog—zZ ‘SYN} PUB SBIODeIq OTUBOTOA—T

“‘qMey Wreyeuvop—y ‘yoorg odeH— ‘TH 8 Aydanypy 10 vug—y
lest, BCE ‘ATTN Vyeareyore | —F ‘TEE FU"}0re MM —C
“Yoon meyore j4—O ‘Woop areyeuvop—gq *‘yoolg nuniny—y

"Y204) aGvf]T Of 924) inunsnyy mosf prayfpjoy saumvys, ssoasv uoysas

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C

434 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION ©.

Summarising the evidence disclosed by the above section, we
find that there are three great formations of sub-aqueous origin
represented on the Thames Goldfield. Tabulating them according
to their probable age, they are as follows :—

1. Upper Eocene—volcanic breccias and _ tuffs—Mount
Brown series.
. Lower Eocene—auriferous series—grey mar] series.
3. Paleeozoic—slaty shales, &e.—Te Anau series.

bo

1.— Upper Eocene.

This formation covers by far the greater part of the peninsula.
It consists of a great succession of trachyte tufts, andesite-breccias,
and fine-grained tufaceous sandstones passing into dirty greenish-
coloured grit beds. Its thickness varies considerably, but is
generally between 1200 feet and 1500 feet. It is frequently
intruded by dykes of hornblende-andesite, augite-andesite, and
trachyte. A fine example of the former may be seen on the coast
three miles past Tararu, and of the latter in the valley of the
Kauaeranga, opposite the Orphanage. Veins of jasperoid,
chalcedonic and opalline quartz, calcite and ironstone are not
uncommon in the breccias and finer-grained tufas ; but no gold-
bearing quartz, so far as I can ascertain, has up to the present
time been found in this formation.

In a bed of blue tufaceous clay exposed in a road-cutting on
the beach, about two miles north of Tararu, there occurs a
quantity of selenite, as well developed crystals and radiating
fibrous masses. Near their junction with the underlying
auriferous series the breccias often contain large quantities of
silicified wood, as at Hape Creek and Kauaeranga, and thin seams
of brown coal and coaly shales, as at Paeroa and Owaroa. The
presence of the latter would indicate an approach to land
conditions at the close of the Lower Eocene formation, but, as
has already been stated, there is no stratigraphical break to mark
an unconformity. At Waiohanga they overlap an isolated rocky
ridge of the paleozoic rock; elsewhere they rest upon the
auriferous series.

Between Cape Colville and Te Aroha this formation is arranged
as a succession of synclinal and anticlinal folds, the axes of which
have a general north-east trend. The underlying auriferous
series at the Thames, Tapu, Puriri, Hikutaia, Karangahake,
Waitakauri, Te Aroha, and all the other goldfields on the penin-
sula, are exposed in the denuded cores of the anticlinal folds.

It may be interesting to note that the Waitakerei range,
extending between the Kaipara and Manukau harbours, and the
great Pirongia range, lying between the Waipa and West Coast,
are composed of similar rocks. It is evident that, during the
period of their formation, the province of Auckland must have

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. 435

been the scene of the most violent and intense volcanic activity.
From stratigraphical reasons I am inclined to think that this
great series is probably of Upper Eocene age, and contemporary
with the great volcanic outbursts which took place around
Oamaru during the deposition of the Mount Brown or Hutchison
quarry beds.

2.—Lower Eocene, Auriferous Series.

This formation, as we have seen, consists principally of fine-
grained sandstones, generally pyritous and highly decomposed,
alternating with subordinate bands of harder and coarser sand-
stone, which sometimes pass imperceptibly into breccia beds. It
is exposed in the denuded core of an anticline, both sides of which
are overlain by the great volcanic breccia and tuff series just
described.

In his report on the Thames Goldfield in 1882, Mr. 8. H. Cox,
F.G.8., late Assistant-Geologist, makes the dip of the auriferous
series north-west along the whole line of exposure from Kurunui
Creek to Hape Creek. (Geological Reports, 1882, pp. 10-12).

The effect of this is to place the coarse breccias and tuffs as the
lowest member of the auriferous series. At the Tararu end of
the section these breccias are found overlying the auriferous
rocks, but Mr. Cox gets rid of this difficulty by calling in the
aid of a hypothetical fault, the throw of which, he says, would not
be less than 2000 feet ; (/.c., A. 12), but it is evident that 5000 feet
would be nearer the amount, as the two outcrops are separated
by over a mile and a half. The hard sandstone and breccia band
forming the apex of the anticline, which follows the trend of
Waiotahi Hill (see D on Section), is shown by Mr. Cox on his
map and section as lying on the highly denuded edges of the
auriferous series. An important result of my survey of this
line of section has been to place these rocks in their natural
position.

It is usual among most writers to speak of the reefs at the
Thames as occurring in volcanic rocks. This, however, is not
the case. The gold-bearing rocks are closely hemmed on both
sides of the field by coarse volcanic breccias, tuffs and agglo-
merates, frequently intruded and interbedded with solid dykes
and lavas, and this has probably led to the error. The whole
of the auriferous series is of undoubted sub-aqueous origin. No
doubt much of the material composing some of the members of
this series has been derived from the destruction of volcanic
rocks, more especially the coarser breccia bands, which, however,
are distinctly stratified and sometimes contain large fragments
of partially-carbonised wood, showing that the conditions of
deposition were probably estuarine.

In his paper “ On the Rocks of the Hauraki Goldfields,” read

before the Geological Section of this Association at last year’s
*B2

436 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

meeting at Sydney, Professor Hutton describes a number
of igneous rocks which are said to come from Waiotahi Creek,
Karaka Creek, and other places on this goldfield. He mentions
hornblende and enstatite-dacites, hornblende-andesite, augite-
andesite, and enstatite-andesite. This is a subject to which I
have devoted some study, and I regret that I am unable to
confirm this author’s conclusions. As a result of the closest
investigation, I have been unable to find any of the above rocks
im situ within the boundaries of the goldfield. Rounded boulders
of hornblende and augite-andesites are common enough in the beds
of the Waiotahi and Karaka streams, but they are obviously derived
from the overlying breccia and tuff formation, which, as I have
pointed out, is often intruded by igneous dykes, and in places
contains huge angular masses of solid lava many feet in diameter.
I have also examined many of these so-called dykes, both in the
mines and on the surface, and have no hesitation whatever in
stating that they are all of clastic origin. The rocks composing
these hard bands are generally extremely hard, and of a dark
bluish-grey or green colour when obtained in the solid. They
are highly felspathic, and hence very subject to decomposition
near the surface, and usually contain disseminated nests and
grains of iron pyrites, and not uncommonly well-developed prisms
of hornblende. They are, in fact, indurated tufas of fine texture,
the true character of which can only be determined by a close
study of their disposition and arrangement in the field.

The Character of the Auriferous Veins.

So far as my observations go at present, I am inclined to think
there are no true jsswre reefs on this goldfield, a circumstance
which may be partly accounted for by the absence of intrusive
dykes cutting through the auriferous strata. The gold-bearing
veins occur as Jedded-segregations, possessing in most cases the
strike and underlie of the country. A peculiarity of these
deposits is that, while the foot-wall may be well defined, the lode-
stuff is found to pass upward into the country without any
approach to a hanging-wall or defined line of demarcation. They
are also very irregular in character, being often elliptical in shape
and subject to great variations in width. They often split into a
number of parallel veins, and receive leaders or droppers from
the hanging-wall side. The country has a general strike between
N.N.E. and N.E., and the auriferous veins follow the same
general course. The underlie of the veins is also dependent on
the dip of the strata. Thus, where the dip is to the N.W.,
the veins underlie in that direction, and where it is to the 8.E.,
the veins also underlie that way. Looking at the section on the
preceding page, it is obvious that the anticlinal arrangement of.
the auriferous strata causes the repetition of the auriferous veins,.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION ¢. 437

first between the Saxon mine and Shellback Creek, and again
between the former and Hape Creek; or, in other words, the
gold-bearing veins being worked at Kurunui Hill are the same as
those at Una Hill, while those between the Saxon mine and the
Waiotahi find their equivalents on the opposite side of the anti-
cline, the great dome of which has been cut down almost to
sea-level by the Karaka stream, |

Besides these gold-bearing veins, the auriferous series contains
what are locally termed duck reefs. These consist, of great
segregated bodies of flinty quartz, which sometimes run parallel
with the country, sometimes across it, but are not continuous
either in length or depth for any distance. In his report on this
goldfield, in 1882, Mr. Cox speaks of these deposits as cross-courses,
but their character and behaviour are altogether different from
those of cross-courses, and they certainly do not deserve the name.
Tests of samples from a number of these reefs at the School of
Mines in all cases proved the presence of gold and silver, the
bullion, in a few instances, being worth as much as £11 per ton,
largely made up of silver. When the richer parts of the field
become worked out these will, no doubt, form a valuable asset.

The Great Moanatairi Fault.

This fault is of more than usual interest and importance. In
the first place it is of recent date, a fact which is satisfactorily
proved by its having drawn down the old floor of the harbour,
with its accumulations of recent shells, sands and gravels, a
distance of several hundreds of feet. On the other hand, its
course is as plainly marked on the surface as that of the great
Kaikoura fault, a slight displacement of which, it will be remem-
bered, last year caused the alarming earthquakes at Christchurch
and the Hanmer Plains. Where it crosses compact rocks on the
surface the striations and slickensides are as fresh as if the faulting
or sliding had only taken place yesterday.

This fault is an important factor with regard to the distribution
of the gold. It runs almost at right angles across the general
trend of the gold-bearing strata. It crosses Hape Creek, as
shown on the accompanying geological sketch map, immediately
below the gorge, and thence follows along the foot of Una Hill to
Karaka stream, whence it passes across the ridge to the Waiotahi,
and then onward to Moanatairi Hill, beyond which it bends
slightly to the north-west, and enters the sea a little beyond the
mouth of Shellback Creek. The course of this fault is marked on
the surface by a line of depression, which can easily be traced by
theeye. Its adeis towards the harbour, that is, to the westward,
thus indicating this as the downthrow side. A moment’s
consideration will show that the country at the sea level is the
same, or corresponds with that at a height of about 300 feet above

438 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

the sea on the upper side of the fault, the amount of vertical
displacement being about 300 feet. The effect of this will be
better understood when it is stated that a bore put down from
the Moanatairi tunnel, on the upthrow side of the fault, would
explore lower country and reach the old floor or basement rock
in a shorter distance than a bore put down from the foreshore,
which has been carried down in recent times several hundreds of
feet from its original position. Besides vertical downthrow, this
fault has also caused a certain amount of lateral displacement,
which must always be taken into consideration when conducting
explorations from the low side to the high side of the fault.
Besides the Moanatairi fault, there is what is locally known as
the deach-slide. It appears that in driving from the mines on the
foreshore towards the harbour a loose formation of shelly sands
and gravels is met with, which has led to the belief that the
country is cut off in this direction by a slide or fault. I am
inclined to think that no fault exists along this line, the appear-
ance being simply caused dy driving out of the country into the old
harbour.

3.—FPaleozoic—Te Anau Series.

This formation forms the floor or basement rock of the peninsula,
but it does not reach the surface within the limits of the Thames
Goldfield proper, nor has it been reached in any of the mines.
It crops out on the shores of the firth, about a mile north of
Tararu stream, forming Rocky Point, whence it extends eastward
to the upper part of Waiohanga Creek. It consists of blue and
grey banded slaty shales, which are followed by yellowish-grey
silicious mudstones, which seldom show distinct stratification, but
are jointed in all directions, the joints being often stained or
filled with yellow ocherous clays. Professor Hutton in 1869, and
Mr. Cox in 1882, spoke of this mudstone as a felsite. In 1887
the former re-examined this point, and in his paper on the “Rocks
of the Hauraki Goldfields” states that he is now convinced of its
clastic origin, a conclusion which I can fully endorse.

These shales and mudstones are of uncertain age, as no fossils
have yet been found in them, but they most probably belong to
the Paleozoic period. At any rate, they bear a strong resem-
blance to the rocks forming the Taupiri range, on whose flanks
occur fossiliferous rocks of undoubted Triassic age.

At the Thames the gold-bearing veins occur in the felspathic
and tufaceous sandstones of Eocene age, at Taupo and Coromandel
goldfields they occur both in the tufaceous sandstones and in the
underlying slaty shales and mudstones. At Coromandel, for
instance, we have the celebrated Kapanga mine in the tufaceous
sandstone, and the Tokatea and Bismark mines in the slaty
shales, near their junction with the overlying tufaceous sand-
stones.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. 439

On the coast between Waikawau and Tapu the slaty shales
are intruded by eight dyke-like masses of hornblende-andesite,
which are well exposed in the road cuttings.

Liuture Prospects of the Thames Goldfield.

Up to to the present time the mining operations on this field
have been almost exclusively confined to a small area on the
foreshore, embracing altogether little more than a square mile of
country. I have already pointed out that the auriferous series,
with its gold-bearing veins, possess a general N.N.E. or N.E.
strike, and a reference to the accompanying map will show that
it passes as a narrow belt, about a mile and a quarter wide,
north-eastward to the upper parts of Tararu and Otonui streams,
and thence onward in the direction of Mercury Bay. I am
fully convinced that the prospects of finding payable gold in the
forest country just indicated are sufliciently encouraging to
warrant the thorough exploration of that portion of the field.
The country is broken and heavily timbered, but these obstacles
could easily be overcome by a judicious expenditure in making
pack or even blaze-tracks in the more inaccessible parts.

Coming back to the limits of the present goldtfield, it is obvious
on all sides that the mining of the past has been confined to the
winning of gold from the veins near, or only a few hundred feet
below the surface. Yet veins carrying payable gold have in
many instances been proved to live into the “low levels,” the
term generally applied to the country below 400 feet. A large
and wealthy area of deep ground exists between the Saxon mine
and the Big Pump, and even a larger and richer between the old
Queen of Beauty mine and Hape Creek, extending right across
Block No. XX VII. The neglect of this rich ground is no doubt
due to the fact that hitherto the gold has always been found
accessible to the surface, and, in consequence, mining companies
have not considered it necessary to incur expenditure in seeking
gold at lower levels ; but as the accessible gold must soon become
exhausted, the working of the deep ground must attract the
attention of the mining community at an early date, and it
would, I think, be a matter for regret if its development is lett
to foreign skill and capital rather than to local enterprise. As the
lower levels are opened out, the Thames will become one of the
richest and most productive goldfields in Australasia.

8.—COAL: ITS ORIGIN AND PROCESS OF
FORMATION.

By James MELvIN.

440 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

9.—NOTES ON AN ANNELID FORMATION
IN QUEENSLAND.

By James SMITH.

[ Abstract. |

I DESIRE to draw attention to a discovery of fossil annelids near
Rockhampton, in Queensland. Argillaceous shales which, so far
as I am aware, are azoic, occur at intervals from Broad Sound to
Brisbane, and from the islands in the sea at Emu Park on to the
Dawson River. They are interrupted by layers of basalt, which
appear to have come to the surface through weak points in the
shales, and to have partly overflown them. The Fenestella and
annelid beds were, I think, laid unconformably upon them. The
entirely different composition, the unique character of the enclosed
fossils, the opposing dip and the altered slope in the short distance
warrant, I think, the supposition of unconformability, though
the junction is not absolutely seen.

The annelids also are found lying loose in little slabs all over
the country, and away in the upper reaches of the Fitzroy, over
a country one hundred square miles in extent. The one drawn
by Mr. Etheridge was found on the top of the Athelstane Range,
along with others in my collection. They are got in all the
neighbouring gullies, and help to macadamise the streets of North
Rockhampton. They have for the most part been lost to us by
denudation.

These annelids seem to have been in solitary possession of the
sea bed at this point, not a sign of coral, shell, or other form of
life appears amongst them or in the intervening beds. They
oceur only in the blue thin beds, made of mud, in which, during
life, they grovelled and burrowed, disappearing entirely during
the formation of the hard indurated sandstones, and apparently
returning some half dozen times at intervals.

The lowest bed in which they appear is the richest in them, and
here they attain their maximum size of 12 inches in length and
4 inch in width (the head and hinder part being wanting). They
are curved in a serpentine manner. In the higher beds they
dwindle away to small dimensions, becoming thread-like in size.
They were distinctly segmented, and supplied with cirri and with
processes like the legs of centipedes.

These annelids are not to be confused with another series of
which I have, at Wilangi, found the tunnels occupied by them
during life in the upper beds of the desert sandstone (?) These
tunnels ramify in all directions, and the worms appear to have
lived in communities, and used the passages in common, just like
ants in their galleries,

~~

it oi,

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. 441

10.—OBSERVATIONS ON THE TERTIARY AND POST-
TERTIARY GEOLOGY OF SOUTH-WESTERN VIC-
TORIA.

By Joun Dennant, F.G.8., F.C.S., Corr. Mem. Roy. Soc., S.A.

THE region referred to in this paper forms the basin of the

Glenelg River, and comprises the counties of Follett, Normanby,
Dundas, and the southern half of Lowan. With the exception

of Dundas and a small portion of Normanby, it may be described

generally as an extensive limestone formation, of Tertiary age,
overlain either by basalt or by drift sands and gravels. In
places the limestone crops out in ridges, but, when covered by
the more recent deposits mentioned, it is always found at a short
distance below the surface, and is thus frequently exposed in the
channels of creeks and rivers. The Glenelg has for more than a
hundred miles of its course carved out a deep as well as wide
gorge through beds of limestone. One is much struck by the
height of the cliffs on the Glenelg at Dartmoor, and also by their
great distance apart—that is, by the width of the gorge through
which the river runs. Not only is this noticeable for the Glenelg,
but even in the case of insignificant streams, or rather creeks,
which flow into it. The Glenelg gorge is, at Dartmoor, perhaps
as much as a mile across, and that formed by the Glenaulin
Creek nearly half a mile, though it is but a puny stream. The
actual channel of the Glenelg is much increased in volume during
winter floods, but even then it never approaches the top of the
cliffs. From Drik Drik the width, but not the depth, of the
gorge gradually diminishes, and close to the mouth of the river it
is only from 100 to 200 yards across. The friable nature of the
limestone causes it to suffer degradation rapidly when once it
becomes subject to atmospheric wear, and it is possible that in

course of time the gorge, even there, may yet widen out from

this cause alone. If this is the only cause, then at Dartmoor
and upwards the river must have been flowing a longer time than
near its mouth.

From various portions of the strata, I have, during the last
few years, collected nearly a thousand species of fossils, the
majority of which have been determined by Professor Tate.
With their aid, and by noting the relative positions of the beds,
the Tertiaries and Post-Tertiaries of the district can be classitied
into several well defined groups, which will be discussed in the
order of their deposition, beginning with the lowest.

I.—Lower TERTIARY.

As the celebrated shell beds at Muddy Creek have been
described by me quite recently, the remarks now made upon them

442 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

will be brief, and confined mainly to their relations to other
members of the Tertiary series.

In the Grange Burn, and at a lower level than any of the
Muddy Creek sections, a great change is observed in the character
of the strata. The soft clayey beds, so rich in mollusecan forms,
give place to a hard polyzoal limestone, containing numerous
spines of echini, but only occasional shells. A similar rock forms
high cliffs on the Glenelg and Crawford rivers, and crops out,
amongst other localities, on the South Australian border near
Apsley, and in the Salt Creek at Dergholm. Professor Tate
records the occurrence of strata presenting the same general
characters on the Murray Cliffs near Morgan, where, just as in
the Grange Burn, the gastropod beds are succeeded by limestones
and calciferous rocks, with pectens, palliobranchs, echinoderms,
polyzoa, &c., as the prevailing fossils.*

In speaking of the River Murray section, Professor Tate says,
“Here, because of the slight admixture of argillaceous matter in
the matrix, the tests of gastropods and of many bivalves have
been well preserved, but this condition is maintained only for
about 350 yards, measured along the front of the cliff; beyond
that the shells gradually disappear with the diminution of the
clay, and finally, at half a mile distant, the beds have merged
into the limestones, caverned with casts, and the ordinary
calciferous rock.”

This description would serve almost as well for the sections on
the Grange and Muddy Creeks, the only difference being that the
change from argillaceous deposits, with their profusion of fossils,
to the polyzoal rock is here a sudden and not a gradual one.
Collectors at Muddy Creek have always found it dificult to tear
themselves away from the prolific shell beds, and the less inviting
polyzoal rock, close at hand, has thus been almost entirely
neglected. | Whoever undertakes its examination is likely,
however, to be amply rewarded, and I strongly advise some of
our young Victorian geologists to commence the work.

From a portion of the rock, detached on a late visit, I obtained
a few specimens, which were sent to Professor Tate for deter-
mination. His report upon them is so interesting, and so fully
supports the argument of this paper, that I quote it verbatim,
“The Grange Burn fossils are Eocene. I identify them as
follows :—

Terebratulina scoulart, Tate ; a common Eocene species.

Terebratella tubulifera, new sp.

Isis, sp. undescribed ; Kocene at Mount Gambier, Muddy
Creek, and Yorke Peninsula.

Temnechinus novus, Laube ; Kocene, River Murray cliffs.

* - Notes on the Physical and Geological Features of the Basin of the Lower Murray River.’”
Roy. Soc. of South Australia, 1884,

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. 443

Orbitoides stellata, Howchin ,;

Eocene, Muddy Creek.

Nummularia vartolaria, Sowerby ; Eocene, Europe, Muddy

Creek.

Pecten sp., perhaps a variety of P. foulcheri.”

On the Glenelg no argillaceous deposits have been met with,
the cliffs being composed either of limestone, in which fossils are
rare, or of the polyzoal rock. At the Bluff, a few miles south of
Casterton, the following were gathered :—

Waldheimia grandis
Waldheimia insolita
Waldheimia garibaldiana
Magasella compta.

Pecten deformis
LEchinus woodsti
Eupatagus murrayensis.
Echinolampus sp.

From the perpendicular cliffs at Dry Creek, about six miles
from the mouth of the same river, I obtained

Terebratula vitreoides
Waldheimia garibaldiana
Monostychia australis
Ostrea ? arenicola

Pecten gambierensis

Pecten foulchert
Lrisstopsis archert
Echinolampus gambterensts

A collection from the Crawford River contained

Waldheimia insolita
Waldheimia sp.
Pecten foulcheri
Pecten sturtianus

Conus sp.

LEchinolampus, n. sp.

Pecten sturtianus

Pecten semt-levis

Pecten polymorphoides

Llemiptagus forbesit

Eupatagus murrayensis ex RTCA j
Magasella compta ie Sedalia Sa 2

Defeciieaes musta wit + ¢ Sg
Pes ‘ a

Cyprea sp.
Magasella woods
LEchinolampus sp.
Turbo sp.

and some casts of bivalves which cannot be determined.

A few years ago some fossils were found in the Border quarries,
near Apsley, by a road contractor, who obligingly allowed me to

choose what I pleased.
fossil he had, which comprised—

Waldheimia garibaldiana
Magasella compta
Cyprea, ? gigas

Cyprea sp.

Aturia, ? australis
Cassis, textilis

Trochus sp.

Cerithium sp.

Stliguaria sp.

Cardium victorie

Chione sp.

I selected one or two specimens of every

Pecten gambterensis

Pecten sturtianus
LEchinolampus gambierensis
Echinolampus sp.
Flemiptagus forbesit
Arachnoides australis
Echinus woodsit.

Mactra sp.

Natica sp.

Letocidaris australis

444 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

The identified fossils of the above lists are, with one or two
exceptions, also recorded from the Murray cliffs, either from the
gastropod beds or from the calciferous rock. A large proportion
of them occur also in the lower beds at Muddy Creek. In his
article on the Basin of the Lower Murray, Professor Tate
classes together the three beds just named in the Middle
Murravian group, which corresponds very nearly with that which
is here called Lower Tertiary. By Victorian geologists the
Muddy Creek beds are usually termed Oligocene, and those on
the Glenelg, Miocene, but this classification is not universally
accepted. Professor Martin Duncan, F.R.S., in remarking upon
the Australian Tertiary beds known to him from fossils and
rock specimens submitted, as well as through survey reports,
advised that they should all be called Cainozoic, without further
subdivision, as he considered the upper member of the fossilferous
series to be merely a deep-sea deposit (in a general sense), and
contemporaneous with those below it.* From a perusal of his
article, I understand Professor Duncan to mean, by the upper
member of the series, the calciferous rock of the Glenelg and its
equivalent on the south coast, and by the lower, the gastropod
beds of Spring Creek and other places on the same coast.

The recognition of two separate zones in the Muddy Creek
beds has materially modified the estimate formed of their age
when they were supposed to consist of a single deposit. On the
basis of the percentage of living to extinct forms, the upper may
still be regarded as Oligocene, or perhaps early Miocene, but the
lower should now be referred to the Eocene period. That the
fossils of the Grange Burn polyzoal rock are of a marked Eocene
type has already been noted. The Glenelg and Apsley deposits
must, I think, be placed in the same group, not only on account
of the community of fossils, but also because of the significant
fact mentioned by Professor Tate, that the equivalents of the two
sets of strata, viz., the gastropod bed and the calciferous rock,
are, in the River Murray sections, inseparable.

This view is confirmed by the occurrence of fossils belonging to
the lower zone of Muddy Creek at several localities in the Glenelg
basin, as well as in the neighbourhood of Apsley. They have
been mostly found in well-sinkings, and their number is therefore
not great, especially as the settlers seldom think it worth while
to preserve such apparently useless articles as fragile or, perhaps,
even fragmentary shells. In common with other searchers after
natural curiosities, I have often been as much annoyed as
interested by being Zo/d of strange-looking objects unearthed by
a hospitable friend, but which he had unfortunately /os¢ some
time previously.

At Tea-tree Creek, near Harrow, casts in ironstone of the
following species were obtained :—

* Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., XXvi., p. 284 (1870).

a ee EE EE EEE EEE eee

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION ©. 445
Cyprea contusa Marginella propinqua
Cyprea platypyga Pleurotoma haastit
Cyprea sp. Natica ? limata
Trivia ? Trochus sp.
Voluta ? me coy Pecten ? foulcheri
Voluta two sp. Cucullea cortoensis
Triton tumulosus Chione sp.
Conus sp. Waldheimia grandis
Ancllaria sp. Waldheimia garibaldiana
Eburna? © Terebratulina scoulari

Senicassis transenna

Some well-preserved Lower Tertiary shells were also got ina
well-sinking as far east as Mount Arapiles, a few of which were
given to me, viz. :—

Cyprea murraviana Cytherea sub-multistriata
Voluta anti-cingulata Chione aff. C. cainozoica
Daphnella sp. Pectunculus mcecoytt
Clathurella sp. Myodora tenutstrata
Pleurotoma sp. LEntalis mantelli

Turritella aldinge.

At Portland there is an outcrop of a chalky limestone, from
which, in addition to numerous specimens of Hemiptagus forbesti
and Magasella compta, 1 have also obtained a cast of Cucullea
corioensis. Though this rock has yielded so few fossils, it should,
no doubt, be classed with the Glenelg and Apsley strata.

Before concluding my remarks upon this division of the
tertiaries, it may not be out of place to advert briefly to the
interesting fossiliferous formation at Schnapper Point. Numerous
specimens have been obtained from it, but they have only lately
been even partially catalogued. In his revision of the Australian
Tertiary Mollusca, Professor Tate has described 96 fossils from
this place; but his work, though well advanced, is not yet
complete, and many more species remain to be dealt with. Ona
late visit I collected 63 species, additional to those already
mentioned, making a total of 159 species known to me. They
include 131 Muddy Creek shells, of which no less than 121 are
peculiar to the lower zone, while seven others belong to both
zones. ‘The remaining three are characteristic shells of the upper
zone, viz., Myodora equilateralis, Johnston; Nucula tumida,
T. Woods; and Marginella aff. ovulum, Sowerby, of which the
two last have been found, though very rarely, in the lower also.
We may conclude, therefore, that the Schnapper Point section is
nearly, if not exactly, on the horizon of the older beds at Muddy
Creek.

446 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C

IJ.—Mippie TERTIARY.

This division contains the Ostrea limestone and the upper
deposit at Muddy Creek, the latter of which has not been
recognised elsewhere in Victoria. The deposit at Cheltenham,
that at Jemmy’s Point, and the superior beds of Table Cape,
Tasmania, possess some of its characteristic forms; but though
they all belong, probably, to the same group, none of them can
be considered the full equivalents of this well-marked zone.

In South Australia a group of strata, comprising the oyster
beds of the Murray Cliffs, Aldinga, &c., has been termed Upper
Murravian by Professor Tate, who has described fifty-two fossils
from it. Amongst them, twenty-two are identical with Muddy
Creek species, eight of which, or fifteen per cent., are represented
in the lower beds, and sixteen, or thirty-two per cent., in the
upper. The percentage of living to extinct species in the latter
has been shown to amount to 6°5,* or much the same as in the
Upper Murravian, where it is 5°8. It is not possible to correlate
these two sets of strata definitely, but from the general resem-
blance of their fossils, as well as from other considerations, they
may be regarded as near equivalents.

Oyster beds of considerable thickness also overlie the Older
Tertiary, at Portland, on the Glenelg Cliffs, and in other portions
of the counties of Normanby and Follett, but they are evidently
younger than those on the Murray. In the neighbourhood of the
Glenaulin Creek, at Dartmoor, and throughout the south of
Follett, oyster shells are often turned up by the plough, while on
the banks of the Glenelg, interesting sections of the beds are
visible at intervals, from a few miles north of Limestone Creek
almost to its mouth. Usually the only fossil is the prevailing
oyster, but at Ascot Heath, near Dartmoor, several others occur,
including numerous and fine specimens of Fecten meridionalis,
Brazier, and AZytilus chorus, Molina (MZ. /atus, Lam.). In all,
however, only six identifiable fossils have been found, but, as four
of them belong to existing species, the deposit may be fairly
classed as the youngest member of the Middle Tertiary.

At Ascot Heath it merges gradually into the underlying
calciferous strata, but at Portland it is sharply separated from
the chalk rock beneath by a thin layer of rounded pebbles. Just
as in the case of the remarkable nodule band, which divides the
upper and lower zones at Muddy Creek, this indicates a break
in the succession of the tertiaries, and serves as a line of
demarcation between the older and younger groups.

Il1.—Upprer Terriary.

On the completion of the Ostrea Limestone deposit, a long
interval elapsed, unrepresented in south-western Victoria by any

* “ Notes on the Muddy Creek Beds.” Roy. Soc. S.A., 1889.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. 447

known fossiliferous strata. A large portion of the area must
still have been submerged, but such was not the case for all of it,
as the high lands of Dundas and the northern part of Normanby
are old land surfaces.

One deposit recognised consists of the disintegrated remains of
granitic, metamorphic, and sandstone rocks belonging to the
Grampian series.

There are also beds of ironstone gravel, of no great thickness,
but covering the surface of the country like a mantle, and resting
alike on paleozoic, mesozoic, and tertiary strata. A gentleman
of my acquaintance, who travelled a good deal in this region, was
so struck by the prevalence of gravel over such wide areas, that
he could only explain its origin by supposing that it had fallen
from the clouds. A much more feasible explanation can, however,
be given. The iron has been precipitated as limonite, or bog-iron
ore, from water holding it in solution. Fine mammillated nodules
of bog-iron ore can be obtained*at the bottom of some of the
swamps in various parts of the district, while small pea-shaped

- fragments are abundant in every watercourse. The iron oxide

has also served as a cementing material for masses of sand derived
from the decay of the rocks just mentioned. The iron itself has
probably come, in the first instance, from decomposed trappean
and basaltic rocks, remnants of which still exist in certain portions
of the region. This explanation would not, perhaps, suffice if the
swamps and morasses had always been confined within their
present limits, as ironstone, evidently zz sztw, is abundant in
places where water now seldom remains on the ground for any
length of time. But the country is generally level, and it would
only require a heavier rainfall to flood a great part of it. Professor
Tate has given sound reasons for concluding that Southern
Australia has undergone a gradual dessication, the rainfall in past
ages having been much greater than at present.* Such being
the case, large tracts would be covered by permanent swamps,
and the precipitation of iron oxide over an extended area is
easily accounted for. In fact, the presence of these extensive
deposits of bog iron-ore lends, I think, strong support to the
arguments of those who claim for Victoria a humid climate in the
Pliocene period. It is not, of course, contended that this iron-
stone gravel was wholly formed 7 stu, a great part having
undoubtedly been transported by creeks and rivers, whose course
has been changed, or which have now ceased to flow.
Incidentally, I may refer here to the numerous lakes and
swamps which are scattered about the southern half of Lowan.
The minds of not a few of the more observant residents in the
county have been much exercised concerning the mode of their
formation. Being mostly salt, the first idea has generally been

* “ Post-Miocene Climate in South Australia.” Roy. Soc. S.A., 1885.

448 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

that they were left by a retiring sea. Another explanation some-
times given is that they are due to the action of Post-Miocene
glaciers, which are supposed to have scooped out the hollows ; but
as I have failed to discover any evidence for the former glaciation
of the province, I regard the theory as untenable. In my
opinion most of them are simply the remnants of former rivers,
which have dried up owing to a diminished rainfall. On one
occasion, when standing on the top of Mount Arapiles, it appeared
to me that the lines of these ancient rivers could be fairly traced.
As this mountain rises out of a plain, the whole country around
is spread out before the eye, and many of the lakes, which dot the
landscape, could easily be supposed to be merely chains of water-
holes in the course of former streams, the channels between them
having been choked up by sand. The country falls northwards,
that is, towards the Murray, the watershed between that river
and the Glenelg being a little to the south of Edenhope ; and I
am told that, even yet, after an*’unusually heavy downpour, there
is an actual current from Lake Wallace to Booroopki swamp.
None of these lakes are deep, and many of them are for years
together perfectly dry. In one instance, a small lake, near
Apsley, was regarded as permanently dry, and a house was built
by one of the early settlers in the middle of it. The succeeding
winter proved, however, a wet one, and the lake was not only
then filled, but has never been dry since.

But to return to the strata of the Upper Tertiary. An
exceedingly interesting deposit is found on the Glenelg, in the
neighbourhood of Limestone Creek, and thus about 25 miles, in a
direct line, from the coast. The river gorge is here very wide,
and the beds now referred to lie just on the margin of the
stream, at the foot of the cliffs, which consist as usual of Lower
Tertiary rocks, overtopped by the Ostrea limestone. In describing
them a few years ago,* a list of 141 fossils was given, but since
then many additional species have been collected, the names as
well as the distribution of which have been, with his usual kind-
ness, supplied by Professor Tate. The material available for
comparison has thus much increased, and a slight modification of
the conclusions formerly arrived at will be necessary. Altogether,
242 species are to hand, of which 212 are well identified, and the
following remarks will apply to them only. The living species
amount to 171, and the extinct ones to 41, so that the proportion
of recent forms is about 81 per cent. In my previous paper a
similar calculation gave a much higher percentage, but the
number of determined species was then only 121, and it is a
curious circumstance that the later collections include a much
larger proportion of extinct species than the earlier ones. Of the
extinct shells, 20 are peculiar to the Lower and 8 to the Middle

* Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, 1887,

eel eee eS

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. 449

Tertiary ; 6 belong to both groups, while 7 others are not known
elsewhere, either fossil or recent. Professor Tate thinks that.
there are good grounds for supposing that many of the extinct
species are derived from an older formation, and that the beds.
are thus really younger than the percentage of recent forms
would indicate. They rest upon the Lower Tertiary, which must
have been cut through just before, or concurrently with, their
deposition, so that the supposition is likely enough to be correct.
The results of the later gatherings are certainly favourable to
this view. The older Tertiary species are represented by rare,
or even by single, specimens, while there are usually numerous
examples of the recent ones. The latter also are often as fresh-
looking as if they had just been picked up on the beach, while
the former are worn and faded. If not actually Post-Tertiary, as
I previously classed them, the beds cannot be assigned to an
earlier period than late Pliocene.

At the time of their deposition, the mouth of the Glenelg
must have been nearly as far north as the present Limestone
Creek, when of course a great part of the province would still be
submerged. The river, no doubt, entered the sea by a wide
estuary, up which the tide could advance for a considerable
distance. Tall cliffs bounded it on either side, the outlines of
which were probably much the same as now. As the shells are
found also in the lower course of Limestone Creek, this stream
must have been in existence at the time, entering the Glenelg
not far from its ancient mouth.

I know of no equivalents to these beds in the south-west, or,
indeed, in any other part of Victoria.

IV.—PLEISTOCENE AND RECENT.

Next in order come, I think, the immense sheets of basalt
which overspread a great part of Normanby, as well as the
counties to the east. The whole of it belongs to the division
known as Newer Basalt by Victorian geologists, though possibly it
may consist of more than one flow. All of it, however, is
younger than the oyster beds, and older than the dune limestone,
the next succeeding formation. In the well-known section at
Whaler’s Bluff, Portland, the earliest flow, if there be more than
one, rests directly on the Ostrea limestone, while at Capes Grant,
Nelson, and Bridgewater, where the dune limestone is best seen,
the basalt is invariably the inferior rock. That it is younger
than the Limestone Creek beds cannot be directly proved, but
for reasons which I have given elsewhere,* and need not therefore
repeat, I believe it to be so.

With the exception of that at Cape Bridgewater, the various
vents from which the lava streams issued appear to have been

= Op.cit. Roy. Soc. South Australia, 1889.
*o

450 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION GC.

sub-aérial. Even there, it is probable that the ashes and scoria
ejected soon raised a mound, which rose above the waters, while
the lava continued to well out and spread for a long distance on
the sea bottom.

While speaking of the igneous rocks of the district, I may
briefly refer to the singular obsidian bombs, which are so frequently
picked up. They have been gathered in the drifts near Portland,
on the surface of the basalt at Hamilton, and in the Byaduk
Creek, near Mount Napier. But, curiously enough, they are also
found in ironstone gravel at Harrow, amongst the dééris of
metamorphic rocks at Balmoral, and very abundantly on the mud
plains to the north of the Glenelg. There are not now any signs
of volcanic rocks very near the last-mentioned places, so that the
origin of the bombs is somewhat of a puzzle. They vary in size
from }inch to 1} inches in diameter. The smaller ones are flattish,
and look much like black buttons, but the larger ones are thickerand
almost basin-shaped. Boat-shaped, and even amorphous, pieces are
not rare, and a very fine elongated specimen was once shown to
me, which was said to have been found near Lake Wallace. No
doubt they have been carried about the country by blacks, who, as
is well known, prize them highly, but those found near the
Glenelg river must, from their comparative abundance, be near
the source whence they were derived. That they have not been
carried far amongst drifts is evident, since they are seldom, if
ever, waterworn. The only explanation which suggests itself to
me, is that they have come from some small volcanic vent in the
neighbourhood, which is now concealed by waste material from
adjoining rocks.

The dune limestone, which has been incidentally mentioned
before, is not a very important formation ; but, from its bold,
striking character, it has attracted a good deal of attention, and
has been described by more than one writer. The late Rev. J. T.
Woods confounded it with the Pliocene crag of Suffolk, and
attributed it to the action of ocean currents. In one of his later
publications, however, he frankly acknowledged his mistake, and
gave the true explanation of its origin, viz., the action of wind
upon the sand washed up by the waves. In the course of his
remarks he says :—‘“ Professor R. Tate, who first asserted the
formation to be AXolian, found small shells in portions, and these
were land shells—not marine, and of the kind now existing
on the coast. When I first saw this deposit I imagined it
to have been derived from marine currents ; but a better know-
ledge of the floor of the ocean shows us that marine currents do
not leave such stratification. Besides the land shells, and the
fact that the strata show no signs of upheaval, I found in subse-
quent years, by various sections on the coast, that this deposit is
only an indurated portion of the sand-dunes with which it is
always associated. It is an aérial rock, and is stratified by the

Cpe a eae CP ae Re eS —— ae ee a ia)

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. 451

wind alone.”* In support of his argument he also instances the
Bermuda sandstone, which is an exactly similar formation,
quoting as follows from Jones’ Guide to Bermuda :—‘In the
islands of Bermuda a similar formation is met with. Although
generally very low, some parts of these islands rise to 250 feet
above the sea level, consisting of various kinds of limestone rock,
sometimes soft and friable, but very often hard, and even
crystalline. It has been put beyond a doubt, by a long-continued
series of observations, that the rocks are all due to the wind,
which blows up the sand from the beach, and which itself is
derived from coral and shells. The rain dissolves portions of the
lime and consolidates it.”

As might be expected from its mode of formation, the deposit
is remarkable for its constant change of dip, which may vary
from 0 deg. to as much as 30 deg in a few yards. It is chiefly
developed in the neighbourhood of Portland and Bridgewater,
but does not extend far inland, so that either the causes producing
it have not operated for any lengthened period, or else the
previously formed rock has been entirely removed.

From Cape Bridgewater to the mouth of the Glenelg, and for a
long distance farther west, the low coast line is occupied by dunes
of shifting sand, which sometimes rise to a height of from 200 to
300 feet. By examining these mounds, it is at once seen how the
hardened rock of the cliff sections has been formed, as, wherever
the wind has removed any considerable mass of sand from one of
them, the remaining portion is found to be more or less consoli-
dated. A little consideration will convince anyone that this
result must be inevitably produced when a mound of sand, of the
height mentioned, remains intact for any length of time.

Since the dune limestone is thus due to causes still in active
operation, I have classed it as Recent, though I am aware it has
also been referred to the Pleistocene period. For aught anyone
can say to the contrary, its deposition may have commenced in
Pleistocene times, but, as represented by the indurated dunes of
Swan Lake and the hummock region of Discovery Bay, the action
appears to have continued ever since.

One other deposit remains to be noticed. If I were asked to
name the most striking feature of the plains bordering the Glenelg,
and extending for many miles to the west and north, as well as
for some distance to the east, I should certainly reply, ‘“‘ Sand,”
and whoever travels much in the region must have the same
conclusion forced upon him. Sometimes one has to plod slowly
along through sandy and almost desert tracts for fully forty miles
at a stretch. It is true there are occasional swamps and morasses,
but the tame monotony of the landscape is not thereby much
relieved.

* “The Hawkesbury Sandstone.” Roy. Soc. V.S.W., 1883.
*o2

al

452 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION ©.

There is no difficulty in accounting for all this sand when the
geology of the country is understood. Much of it, especially
towards the south, has evidently been produced by the degrada-
tion of the Ostrea limestone, for oyster-shells are often seen, not
only in occasional outcrops of the rock, but also ainongst the sand
itself. Where the oyster beds are wanting, the calciferous rock
is frequently near the surface, and its weathering gives rise also.
to loose beds of the same material. Towards the north of Follett,
coarse granitic rocks are rapidly crumbling away, while in South
Lowan a large area is covered by the degraded remains of a
paleozoic sandstone. The sand derived from these is not, of
course, precisely like that from the limestone, but to the casual
observer there is very little difference, and it is at least note-
worthy that such continuous and apparently similar deposits
should have been formed, in contiguous localities, by the decay of
wholly distinct rocks.

11.—THE GLACIAL CONGLOMERATES OF VICTORIA.
By E. J. Duny, F.G.S.

The Glacial Conglomerates are among the most interesting of the
rocks of Victoria. That certain conglomerates found at Bacchus
Marsh, Wild Duck Creek, and elsewhere, owed their origin to
glacial causes was surmised by Sir R. Daintree so long ago as 1866.
Dr. A. R. C. Selwyn confirmed this view, and later observers
coincided. Absolute proof, however, of glaciated stones and
boulders was not obtained until quite recently. Now that
indubitable evidences of glaciation have been secured, a wide and
fascinating field of research has been opened up.

In the northern hemisphere glaciation in all its varying develop-
ments has been closely studied by the most eminent geologists,
but in the southern this phase of geology has received but scant
attention. In Victoria these conglomerates are so intimately
connected with the coal measures that their investigation becomes
indispensable to the correct understanding of the coal measures in
their relation to the underlying rocks.

Distribution.

The conglomerate is spread over a wide area, and on both sides
of the Dividing Range. On the north side it has been observed
by the writer at Wahgunyah, Rutherglen, The Springs, El
Dorado, Wooragee, Tarrawingee, Badaginnie, to the north-east of
Costerfield, and at Wild Duck Creek, west of Heathcote. It is
found underlying the auriferous beds at Carisbrook and at the
Midas Company’s mine, near Creswick. South of the Dividing

—*

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. 453

Range it is met with east of Gordons about four miles. The
conglomerate forming the ‘false bottom” at Morrison’s diggings,
and on which the tertiary drift reposes, may possibly belong to
the conglomerate under notice, although no direct evidence of
glaciation was observed. At Bacchus Marsh the conglomerate is
largely developed, attaining a thickness of over 100 feet. At
Turton’s Creek, a few miles N.N.E. of Foster (Gippsland), a
conglomerate of well-rounded boulders and pebbles is found that
in all probability is of glacial origin.

These localities, so widely separated, serve to indicate the wide
diffusion of the conglomerate. Near Nhill a boring made for
water also pierced a conglomerate that strongly resembles what is
proved to be of glacial origin. The known limits of the areas
occupied by such beds will be continually enlarging as knowledge
is gained by borings, &c., of the strata beneath the surface where
the rocks are newer than Devonian.

Underlying Rocks.

Granite, Lower Silurian and Upper Silurian are the rocks on
which the conglomerate is most commonly found to repose. It
should also rest on the Devonian, where the two occur together ;
but I have seen no instance of this.

Geological Horizon.

So far as present evidence goes, the position of the con-
glomerate appears to be at the base of our coal-measures. Above
it the usual sandstones and shales, with coal seams occur. At
what height the seams are found above the conglomerate has
still to be determined ; once settled, the conglomerate might
prove a valuable bench-mark in further searching for seams.
The conglomerate found in New South Wales, and described by
Wilkinson and others as of glacial origin, may yet prove to be
identical with the Bacchus Marsh and Wild Duck Creek con-
glomerates. In the sandstones associated with these latter are
found three species of Gangamopteris, as determined by M ‘Coy.

From a personal examination of both, I can testify to the
striking resemblance that exists between the Wild Duck Creek
conglomerate and the widely-dispersed Dwyka conglomerate
glacial) of South Africa. Glossopteris is found in the shales
overlying the glacial Dwyka conglomerate of South Africa
known as the Ecca beds. These Ecea beds comprise thick beds
of carbonaceous shale, and, it is believed, also coal seams. Ata
higher horizon, with an interval of several thousands of feet of

sandstones, shales, &c., are the Stormberg coal-measures, in

which are workable coal seams. These coal seams, in the
character and quality of the coal, are identical with the seams

454 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

found in the north-east of Tasmania. The seams occur under
similar conditions as regards the containing strata in each case,
and the fossil ferns also correspond. Now, the Victorian coal
seams are considered to correspond to those of Queensland and
the north-east of Tasmania rather than to the older coal seams of
New South Wales. In the Victorian coal-bearing rocks, Tzeniop-
terisdaintreei, Zamites, and -Pecopteris have been identified.
These same fossils abound with the coal seams of the Stormberg,
South Africa, and are known as occurring in the upper coal
seams of Queensland. Glossopteris has not been observed in the
Stormberg beds, and there appears to be an absence of this fossil
from where Tzniopteris is met with, as well in South Africa as
in Queensland. ‘Ihe coal of the Victorian seams, however, is
much higher in quality and less seamed with shaly films than is
the case with the Stormberg coal seams.

The series as represented in South Africa is as under :—

Cave Sandstone.
Stormberg ( Rea Beds.
Beds Coal Measures. Coal Seams, Teeniopteris
Zamuites, &c.

Karroo Karroo Beds.
Beds
OUnconformity.

Ececa { Ecca Beds. Carbonaceous Shales, Glossopteris, &¢.
Beds | Dwyka (Glacial) Conglomerate.

Carboniferous and Triassic.

In Victoria the series is probably as below :—
Gippsland Coal Measures. Coal, Tientopteris, Zamites, &c.

Possible Unconformity.

Bacchus Marsh and Wild Duck

. Gangamopterts, &c.
Creek, Conglomerate (elacial) } SU

The glacial conglomerate corresponding to the Dwyka _ con-
glomerate of South Africa occurring at a considerable depth
below the Gippsland coal seams, and perhaps unconformable to
the beds in which these seams occur.

If the glacial conglomerates of Victoria correspond with those
of New South Wales found below the older coal seams, coal-
measures older than those of South Gippsland may yet be found.

Thickness.

At Bacchus Marsh over 100 feet of conglomerate is exposed.
At Wooragee a shaft was sunk over 100 feet in coarse
conglomerate without reaching the bottom.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. 455

Nature of the Conglomerate.

Almost every species of rock older than the conglomerate itself
is represented, granites in great variety, gneiss, schist, quartz
rock, sandstones, lydianite, agate, porphyry, amygdaloid, shales,
&c., are met with in great variety, vein quartz and jasper are also
present. As the great mass of the conglomerate consists of
material derived from schistose and other ancient rocks, there
appears no good reason why gold should not also be found, though
it may be unprofitable to work.

In size the material of the conglomerate ranges from the finest
silt up to great blocks several feet across, and weighing in some
cases probably 20 to 30 tons.

From the well-rounded, almost polished, pebble or boulder to
the rough angular fragment of rock that has been torn from its
parent mass, and not subsequently abraded, all are represented in
these conglomerates.

Generally the colour of the ground mass is dark grey, but there
are local variations, such as might be anticipated from the
manner in which the conglomerates have been deposited. Near
the Springs and El Dorado, coarse agates of large size are not
uncommon, and here it may be observed that the beautiful
pebbles of jasper, agate, lydianite, &c., that were so commonly
found when the alluvial gold was being won at the Woolshed,
were all derived from the glacial conglomerate, of which so large
an outlier remains in the Wooragee valley. Great numbers of
well-rounded, large, hard granite boulders, having pink coloured
felspar are found at Wooragee, but here, as elsewhere, the most.
numerous are pebbles of a very fine grained argillaceous rock
that is free of laminations. It is of brownish colour, and soft,
and on these most commonly are found the groovings, scorings,
striations and fine scratches that stamp the conglomerate as of
glacial origin. Not only are the pebbles, &c., scored and
scratched, but great numbers are rubbed on one or more sides
(facetted). Though rounded, many of the boulders, &c., indicate
from their peculiar form that water alone was not the agent.
Frequently the stones show broken edges, as though caused by
one stone impinging with great force on another.

The contour of the country occupied by these conglomerates is
rounded in places, the surface is dotted with the larger blocks and
boulders. Some of these are of such a size as to deserve the
term erratic-block, as, for instance, on Wild Duck Creek, where
the railway from Heathcote to Sandhurst crosses it. One huge
mass of granite, scored on the upper surface, can be seen from
the train ; it is on the west side of the creek on a slope, and on
the south side of the railway. At this locality the glacial
conglomerate can be studied to more advantage than at any other
I have visited.

456 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C,

Associated with the conglomerate, and generally resting upon
it, are soft silicious sandstones, as at Wild Duck Creek, Bacchus
Marsh, &e. Soft, grey, thin-bedded shales cover the conglomerate
in places at Wooragee.

Mode of Deposit.

Taking into account the composition and character of this
conglomerate, as well as the arrangement of its constituents, no
other conclusion can be arrived at than that floating ice has been
the agent by which the material has been brought into its present
position. Much of the material is foreign, and many of the rocks
are not known to occur at present in this continent anywhere
near Victoria. Probably in some distant land, not necessarily to
the southward, glaciers slowly pushed their way into the ocean,
laden with such material as glaciers generally carry. These
became broken off eventually, and floated away to destinations
governed by currents and winds, the dirt, stones, &c., being
deposited on the floor of the sea, or possibly lake, in which the
icebergs floated.

Unmistakeable ice scratches have been observed by Mr. H. Y.
L. Brown, F.G.S., Government Geologist in South Australia. It
would be interesting to ascertain if any conglomerates, similar to
those under notice, occur there.

Whence Derived.

Although it is apparent that most of the constituents of the
conglomerate are not of local origin, or even derived from
Victorian rocks, it is by no means apparent whence these travelled
stones have come. Tasmania may have furnished some of them,
or the lands they came from may now lie beneath the ocean.

So many problems of intense interest centre about these rocks
that it would be desirable to record every observation and collate
what has already been recorded in some convenient manner. The
geological section of this association could, perhaps, deal satisfac-
torily with this subject.

12,—_UNIFICATION OF THE COLOURATION OF GEO-
LOGICAL CHARTS OF AUSTRALIA, TASMANTA,
AND NEW ZEALAND.

By ArtHur EVERETT.

[4 bstract. |

Havine had considerable experience in colours and colour printing,
I was encouraged to write this short paper owing to an opinion
expressed by the President of the Geological Society of London,

_ “as. F202 eS —Clc !mLC ee

— 7

a

ee ee de

ae

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. 457

in his anniversary address for the session 1888-89, to the effect that
the question of colours to be adopted for geological maps was
one of which very few geologists have any wide experience.

The following remarks apply to detail maps to a large scale, say
from two to six inches to a mile.

I would first draw attention to a fact which appears to have
been overlooked by the committee of the Bologna Congress,
namely, the prevalence of colour-blindness. This peculiarity is
far more common than is generally believed, as is shown by the
results of the examinations in the Railway Department for
guards and signal-men, where from two to three per cent. of those
that present themselves are disqualified for this reason. Taking
this, and the difficulty that many ordinary persons find in
distinguishing between a series of tints of the same colour, the
system that would appear to recommend itself as being most
complete would be that adopted in the United States Geological
Survey, of using light tints as bases and dark tints as overprints
in various mechanical arrangements to represent the several
formations in each system, or era, consisting of horizontal lines,
vertical lines, right oblique lines, left oblique lines, broken lines,
cross lines, dots, &c. This system admits of many variations,
which can be used when desirable to represent a large number of
members of an extended system.

It is an easy matter to distinguish a pattern, and to carry it in
the mind’s eye from the index to the map, or vice versa, whereas
many who are not experts would frequently be at fault in this
respect, if they had several grades or tints to deal with. By this
scheme each epoch is represented by one colour only, although
easily distinguishable in its several stages by the grading or
over-print, while all attempts to establish a system by using shades
of the same colour must prove inefficient. To my mind, it is of
no great importance what colours are used, so long as they are
distinct, yet I should in this again lean towards those used by
the United States Survey, with two exceptions. The colours
used are for

Recent—Greys, for which I would prefer green.

Tertiary— Yellows.

Mesozoic—Green, for which I would substitute browns.

Permian and Carboniferous—Blues.

Devonian, Silurian and Cambrian—Purples, leaving the reds
for the igneous rocks.

The colours used would be in different tones and not tints of
the same ; for instance, take ths Cainozoic or Tertiary system—
for

Pliocene sis ... chrome yellow
Miocene i ... brown pink
Eocene ee ... cadmium yellow.

458 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION ©.

In addition to the grading by lines, &c., the proposal accepted by
the Congress that each system should be represented by a corres-
ponding capital letter, is essential to render the scheme complete.
Mr. Selwyn, formerly Government Geologist in Victoria, and now
of Canada, adopted a system on his maps which at once conveyed
the sequence of underlaying strata by printing letters on each
formation, thus for example V. 1.3, on T.P. 1.3, on 8. 1.2, signifying
Volcanic 1 and 3, on Tertiary Pliocene 1 and 3, on Silurian | and 2.

The system of colouring referred to above, of course, could only
be done by lithographic printing. The practice of colouring
geological maps by hand for publication should, I consider, be
abandoned as being too indefinite, liable to fade, and the darker
shades so opaque as to destroy all trace of the topographical
features, whereas, in lithographic printing, the darkest shades are
always transparent, and if colours of the best quality be used
there is little chance of their fading. Large portions of some of
the maps of the geological survey of Great Britain and Ireland
are covered with such dark opaque colours as to entirely obliterate
the beautiful topographical work of the geodetic sheets. In
conclusion, I will give an extract from the address of the Presi-
dent of the Geological Society of London :—‘ The fact is, that
the distinctness of colours adjacent to each other is an essential
requirement of any efficient system, though but few of those who
have treated of map colouration with the Congress have referred
to this important point. It must be remembered that all hues in
contact should remain sufticiently distinct after a certain amount
of fading from exposure, and that all should be easily distinguished
by artificial light.”

13.—ON THE THERMAL SPRINGS OF THE EINAS-
LEIGH RIVER, QUEENSLAND.

By Ropert L. Jack, F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Government Geologist
for Queensland.

| Adstract. |

From five shallow wells, streams of water, estimated at 589
square inches section, issue at a temperature approaching the
boiling point, and accompanied by gas-bubbles. The water has
deposited a mound of travertin 15 feet in height and 260 yards in
circumference. Themound is terraced with successive basins or cups.

After the denudation of the desert sandstone (Upper Creta-
ceous) and subjacent rocks in the valley of the Einasleigh to the
depth of 1000 feet, lava-form basalts flowed down the valley.
After the basait had been itself denuded till mere fragments.
were left, the thermal springs burst out—probably, therefore,
well on in Tertiary times.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. 459"

14.—_LEUCITE AND NEPHELINE ROCKS OF NEW
SOUTH WALES.

By J. Minne Curran.

15.—NOTES ON THE CAMBRIAN ROCKS OF SOUTH
AUSTRALIA.

By Proressor Tate, F.G.S.

16.—A CORRELATION OF THE COALFIELDS OF NEW
SOUTH WALES.

By T. W. E. Davin, B.A., F.G.S., Geological Surveyor, New
South Wales.

| Abstract. |

Tus paper, though dealing principally with the relation to one
another of the different Palzeozoic coalfields of New South Wales,
describes also the author’s views with regard to the probable
relation of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic coal measures of New
South Wales to those, when represented, of Queensland, Victoria,
New Zealand, and Tasmania. The coal-bearing strata of New
South Wales belong to three distinct systems.

lst System.—The first system, probably of Lower Carboniferous.
age, has not yet been proved to contain workable seams. Two
seams, however, 5ft. and 7ft. thick respectively, occur near the
top of this system, but the coal in both is too dirty and full of
bands to be marketable.

Both of these seams occur in the Rhacopteris series overlying
the Lefidodendron beds, of which, however, they form a part, and
this series is separated by a vast interval of time, as evidenced by
a strong break in the flora, from the overlying Permo-Carboniferous
system.

The Lepidodendron beds of New South Wales are considered to
be the equivalents of the Avon River sandstone in Victoria, and
of the Star Basin and Drummond Range beds in Queensland.
The observations of Professor McCoy that the Zepzdodendron of
the Avon River in Victoria was not the Devonian variety—Lepr-
dodendron nothum—but a variety of possible Lower Carboniferous
age, is quite in accord with the recent observations of geologists
in New South Wales, no true specimens of the above-mentioned
plant, in the opinion of Mr. R. Etheridge, jun., having ever been
found in New South Wales.

460 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

The discovery of Lefidodendron has not yet been recorded from
‘Tasmania or New Zealand.

2np Group.—The Permo-Carboniferous system of New South
Wales, which comes next in order, and which is characterised by
a predominance of Glossopteris in the flora, is extensively developed
in New South Wales and Queensland. Productive coal measures
occur in this system on three horizons in New South Wales, and
on two horizons in Queensland. These three coal-bearing
horizons in New South Wales are—(1), first and lowest, the Greta
(Stony Creek) series, then (2), the Tomago (East Maitland)
series, then last and uppermost (3), the Newcastle series. The
total thickness of this system and its associated strata at New-
castle is about 11,000ft., containing a total thickness of about
150ft. of coal, without taking into consideration seams less than
3ft. thick.

With the exception of the small outlying coalfield of the
Ward’s River, near Stroud, this system is geologically united to
form a single vast coalfield, extending from Bateman’s Bay on
the south to Port Stephens on the north, thence sweeping inland
under the Blue Mountains to the Talbragor River, thence
trending northerly to the Queensland border, where it dips under
the newer Rolling Downs formation, and does not reappear until
the head of the Dawson River is reached in Central Queensland,
where the equivalents of the Newcastle or Tomago measures are
found to be developed, and further north, near the junction of
the Isaacs River with the Mackenzie, the Greta coal-measures
are exposed. This coal-basin extends for a short distance beyond
Fort Cooper, where it terminates, but its former further continua-
tion in a northerly direction is probably marked by the outlying
Bowen River coalfield, and possibly by the small concealed coal-
field, discovered by Mr. R. L. Jack, F.G.S., the Government
geologist of Queensland, at Townsville. The Little River coal-
field between Cooktown and the Palmer Gold-field may also at one
time have been united to the main basin, as the strata both in this
and in the Townsville coalfield contain Glossopteris. The
Permo-Carboniferous coalfields of New South Wales are nine in
number, as follows :—(1) The Hunter River (Northern) coalfield ;
(2) the Ward’s River coalfield ; (3) the Sydney coalfield ; (4) the
Illawarra (Southern) coalfield; (5) the Mittagong (South-western)
coalfield; (6) the Blue Mountain (Western) coalfield; (7) the
Talbragar River coalfield ; (8) the Namoi River coalfield ; (9) the
Gwydir River coalfield.

With the exception of the Neweastle and Tomago (Hast
Maitland) coal-measures in the Hunter River coalfield, and
possibly of the last three fields in the above list, which as yet are
not much explored, all the other Permo-Carboniferous coalfields of
New South Wales are considered by Mr. C. 8. Wilkinson, F.G.S.,

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. 461

the Government geologist of New South Wales, to be probably
the equivalents of the Greta coal-measures, (see appendix note 1),
as evidenced by the invariable association of kerosene shale, or:
cannel coal, with these measures. The unworked areas of these
Paleozoic coal-measures are estimated to contain between
130,000,000,000 and 150,000,000,000 (one hundred and thirty
thousand and one hundred and fifty thousand million) tons of
coal (see appendix, note 2), a quantity more than equal to all
the accessible unworked coal of Great Britain, assuming 4000:
feet to be the limit down to which coal can be profitably worked,
and not taking into account seams of less than three feet in
thickness. The quantity of unworked coal in Queensland in
similar formations is very vast, but the measures have as yet been
so little tested that it is impossible to form even an approximate
estimate of their coal contents. These Permo-Carboniferous coal-
measures have no equivalents in Victoria, unless, as shown by
Professor A. R. C. Selwyn and Reginald A. F. Murray, F.G.S.,
the Government geologist of Victoria, undenuded patches of them
may occur under the newer formations of Western Port, South
Gippsland, Cape Otway and Wannon. Possibly the Bacchus
Marsh sandstone, containing Gangamopteris, may be the equivalent
of part of the New South Wales Permo-Carboniferous system, as
that plant occurs in abundance in New South Wales at the
Ward’s River coalfield, associated with Glossopetris and produc-
tive coal seams. (See appendix, note 3).

The author agrees with the opinion expressed by Mr. Murray,
that it is improbable that the Permo-Carboniferous coal of New
South Wales will be found in Victoria, except perhaps at great
depths, beneath the newer formations of Mesozoic age, from
which the local supplies of coal in Victoria are at present being
chiefly obtained. The possible contemporaneity, however, of the
Bacchus Marsh sandstone with some part of the Permo-Car-
boniferous system of New South Wales suggests the possibility
that coal seams of the same age as those of New South Wales
may yet be discovered in association with these Bacchus Marsh
sandstones, but at present concealed under newer formations,
whether volcanic or sedimentary. The line of country between
Bacchus Marsh and Williamstown might perhaps be a favourable
one to prospect, especially if prospecting were commenced at the
Bacchus Marsh end of the line. In New Zealand the Permo-
Carboniferous system has probably no exact representative, but
in Tasmania the Mersey coal-measures. are probably the equiva-
lents of some part of it.

3RD SysteM.—The close of the Permo-Carboniferous period in.
New South Wales is marked by a. strong break in the flora.
indicating a vast interval of time.

462 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

The system of rocks, which succeed, are all characterised by the
predominance of Zeniopteris and Thinnfeldia. Near Sydney, this
system comprises the Wianamatta shales, the Hawkesbury sand-
stone, and the Narrabeen shales, but it is only in the first-named
series that coal seams of any thickness are known to occur, and
none of these are workable. In the Clarence district, however,
there are several seams belonging to this system, which may be of
sufficient thickness and of suthciently good quality to be worked
for local use. The system characterised by Zeniopteris and Thinn-
feldia in New South Wales is represented in Queensland by the
Ipswich, Burrum, and Broadsound coalfields, each of which con-
tains coal seams of workable thickness and quality ; but the coal is
slightly deficient in cohesive power, as compared with the Paleozoic
coal of New South Wales. The thickness of these beds in Queens-
land is probably not less than 5000 feet. In Victoria, similar,
though probably somewhat newer, Mesozoic coal-measures consti-
tute the carbonaceous series of Wannon, Cape Otway, and South
Gippsland. The thickness of these beds was estimated by Selwyn to
be not less than 5000 feet, and Murray suggests that it may be
even 20,000 feet.

The principal seams at present known to occur in this system
in Victoria are the Mirboo, the Moe, the Bolara, and the
Kilcunda, the respective thicknesses of the coal in which are
stated by Murray to be four feet eight inches, two feet to two
feet eight inches, three feet, and two feet. It is gratifying to
learn that the Government of Victoria, recognising the great
importance of the possible coal supplies in the Mesozoic areas in
Victoria belonging to this system, have intrusted the work of
making a complete survey of these coalfields to so energetic a
geologist as Mr. James Stirling, F.G.S., and an exhaustive report
on this subject may shortly be looked “for from Mr. Stirling, as
soon as his survey is completed.

The principal coal seams worked in New Zealand are probably
much newer than the Mesozoic coal-measures of New South
Wales, Queensland, or Victoria, and those which occur in the
coal series are placed by Sir James Hector, F.R.S., at the base
of the Cretaceo-Tertiary.

The thick lignite beds of Morwell, in Victoria, and the lignite
beds of Kiandra and Twofold Bay, in New South Wales, may
perhaps be homotaxial with part of the coal series of New Zealand.
The principal seam worked, in this series, in the Nelson District,
is stated to be from ten feet to forty feet thick, and is a good,
hard, bituminous coal, resulting, as shown by Hector, from the
alteration of brown coal by the heat and pressure to which it has
been subjected in areas disturbed by the instrusion of volcanic
rocks, as, when traced away from such areas, it passes into an
ordinary hydrous brown coal. In this paper the author has for
the most part followed the present classifications proposed by

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. 463

the Rev. W. B. Clarke, F.R.S., Mr. C. S. Wilkinson, F.G.S.,
Professor W. J. Stephens, F.G.S., J. MacKenzie, F.G.S., and
the Rev. J. Milne Curran, F.G.S., for New South Wales,
by Mr. R. L. Jack F.G.S., and Mr. W. H. Rands for Queens-
land, Mr. R. A. F. Murray, Mr. A. W. Howitt F.GS.,
and Mr. J. Stirling, F.G.S., for Victoria, and by Sir James Hector,
F.R.S., for New Zealand.

Appendix.

Norse 1.—Since the above was written Mr. Wilkinson has
made a geological examination of the Illawarra coalfield, which
has led him to somewhat modify this view, and he now considers
that a large portion of the Illawarra and Blue Mountain (western)
coalfield is probably the equivalent of either the Newcastle or of
the Tomago series. The author has also, since this paper was
written, examined, for the first time, the Illawarra coalfield, and
considers the Bulli coal-measures here, in their upper portion at
any rate, to be the equivalents of the Newcastle coal-measures.
The kerosene shale belongs, therefore, perhaps, to two distinct
horizons, the lower one in the Greta coal-measures, and the upper
one in the Newcastle or in the Tomago coal-measures, and cannot
consequently be considered of so much classificatory value as was
at first supposed.

Nore 2.—This estimate gives the author’s approximate idea of
the total gross quantity of coal contained in the Paleozoic coal-
fields of New South Wales. These figures, however, should be
taken as extremely approximate, and may be in excess of the true
quantity. Mr. 0. S. Wilkinson has made the following estimate
of future available coal in New South Wales :—‘ Within depth
of 4000 feet the New South Wales coal-seams, over 24 feet thick,
are estimated to contain, after allowing one-fifth for loss in
working, at 78,198,200,000 tons.”

Note 3.—That Gangamopteris is a younger type of plant than
Glossopteris is a statement which appears to be open to grave
doubts. Mr. R. Etheridge, junr., and the author have lately
observed the occurrence of Gangamopieris at the base of the
Ward’s River coal-basin, where Glossofterts is comparatively
scarce, whereas the latter plant is very abundant in the upper
beds of this same coal-basin. Also at Lochinvar, near Maitland,
the same observers have collected a fossil plant, seemingly allied
to Gangamopteris, from a low horizon in the lower marine series
below the Greta coal-measures. The fact that Gangamopteris is
a less highly organised type of plant than G/ossofteris would also
suggest that the former antedates the latter.

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PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

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464

465

OF SECTION C.

PROCEEDINGS

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466 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

17.—NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN CAVES.
By James Sriruine, F.G.S.

18.—NOTES ON THE CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS OF
THE) CAPE OTWAY DISTRICT

By J. H. BieNnett.

| ddstract. |

Tue Mesozoic rocks of the Cape Otway Ranges are bounded by
the coast on the south, and are more or less overlain by Tertiary
rocks on the north and north-west.

During four years’ prospecting the author found several seams
of brown coal near Mount McKenzie, into the largest of which a
tunnel was put for 300 feet. It averaged 3 feet 6 inches in
thickness. Iron pyrites were abundant in that part of the district.

It would not pay to work the coal-seams of the Gellibrand
River district unless the latter were made navigable or a railway
brought near. The author believes the immense drift deposits
of this district to have been brought down from the Grampians.

Passing over the dividing range between the Gellibrand and
Barrum Rivers, the author found the Mesozoic rocks to be well
exposed in the beds of the streams. Small veins of bright coal
were visible, and on the coast, between the mouths of the Elliot
and Barrum Rivers, five seams were found, varying in thickness
from 5 inches to a foot. Between the mouths of these two rivers
there also exist mineral springs, about one and a half miles inland.

In the Apollo Bay district the Mesozoic rocks dip from north
to south, at an angle of about 25 deg., and contain patches and
small veins of bright coal of the nature of cannel and anthracite,
and in following down the dip a bluish-white fire-clay is found.

Some twenty chains up the Wild Dog Creek, which runs into
Apollo Bay, Mesozoic rocks appear, standing at an angle of 75
deg., and seams of coal are seen between layers of sandstone and
shale. These extend for some 80 chains, and have been exposed
by the erosion of the creek waters; they vary in thickness from
3 to 18 inches. They all dip to the south-west, at angles varying
from 10 to 71 deg. Some 50 chains to the east les the Stony
Creek, a short distance up which is a precipitous ledge, 100 feet
in height. Under this cliff the author proposes to put in a tunnel
to cut the 25 seams met with along the Wild Dog Creek, and
expects to cut them about 700 feet below their outcrop. Above
the cliff nine seams of coal were seen, varying im thickness from
3 to 17 inches, and in angle of dip between 49 and 61 deg., the
coal being of first-class quality.

i Ne ee

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION ©. 467

By the side of Skene’s Creek the author found a seam of coal,
which was not more than 6 inches thick at its outcrop, but which
on tunnelling was found to increase to 26 inches. Close to this
was found another seam, 18 inches thick, and the two dipping at
different angles come to lie close to one another at some 35 feet
below the surface, giving in all 3 feet 10 inches of coal. Higher
up the creek more seams were found, varying from 6 to 18 inches
thickness.

Altogether, the author has prospected for some 45 miles from
east to west, and across the measures from north to south, and
has opened 55 seams of coal, of which 50 consist of good black
coal. From the rock-sections examined, the belief has been
arrived at that an extensive coalfield exists in the Otway
Ranges. In addition to coal, iron, fireclay, lead, copper,
graphite, magnesium, cobalt, and manganese are to be found.

19.—ON THE DESERT SANDSTONE OF CENTRAL
AUSTRALIA.

By Proressor Tate, F.G.S.

20.—THE PHYSICAL CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH
THE CHIEF COAL-MEASURES OF TASMANIA
AND VICTORIA WERE FORMED.

By 8S. H. Winttz, FVL:S.

It has been the general impression among the earlier geologists
who had visited Tasmania, notably, that the coal-measures of that
island, which not only flank its mountain system for the most
part, but encircle it as a zone, are of anterior age to the green-
stone which rises above them. The result of over a quarter of a
century’s observation convinces me that the contrary is the fact.
In a word, that the dioritic crystalline rock, most frequently
highly columnar and diabasic, is truly plutonic, and that it
existed long before the coal-measure strata, with the great
thickness of alternating thick-bedded sandstones, clay-shales,
mudstones, limestones, conglomerates, together with the Silurian
beds were laid down. When the coal deposits are not found upon
the mountain slopes in Tasmania at an elevation of from 500 feet to
1500 feet above sea level, they not only form an exception to the
rule, but are of very limited extent, and much disrupted by
subsequent local seismic disturbance, as, for instance, in the
Mersey district, at Jerusalem, and the anthracite beds at New
*p2

468 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

Town. I believe I am right in assigning the position which the
three last-mentioned coal-measures occupy, in the lower levels, to
seismic depression of the surface of the area which they occupy,
long after the deposits were formed, for the reason that they are
intimately associated with eruptive and disrupted basalts corres-
ponding to the older or Miocene basalts of Victoria.

The principal coal-beds of Tasmania, from a commercial point
of view, are those at Mount Nicholas, in the district of Fingal,
Mount Ben Lomond, 30 miles distant easterly, and at the Sandfly
Rivulet Ranges, in the Huon River district, south of the island.
These all occupy elevated positions on the sides of mountain
ranges, the altitude of which vary from 500 feet to 1500 feet above
sea level. These coal-seams, with their associated interstratifying
clay-shales and sandstone, present a nearly horizontal position,
the average inclination, or dip, being 24 deg. north-east, while
the Upper Silurian strata on which they repose uncomformably,
and which chiefly consist of purple and yellowish variegated
arenaceous incoherent shales, with intercalating slates, have an
average inclination of 70 deg. The Mount Nicholas coal-seams
may be accepted as a type of these alpine coal-measures in the
island of Tasmania. The summit of this range consists of crystal-
line diabasic prismatic greenstone, its greatest altitude being
1800 feet above sea level, or 1000 feet above the Break-o’-Day
valley. The uppermost coal seam (which is that mined by the
Cornwall Coal Mining Company, and exported to Victoria) has a
thickness of 11 feet, but at the western extremity of the range,
distant about two lineal miles, it attains a thickness of 15 feet in
the clear. There are known to me five other different seams, vary-
ing from two feet in thickness to five feet. They are all bituminous
coal, of a dense, laminated structure, possessing a well-defined
cleavage conformable to the line of deposit. The coal-seams
which obtain on the southern side of the range have their exact
equivalents on the northern side. They have been cut through
in the depressions at both ends of the mountain range. That
they have not been subjected to any displacement, such as would
be the result of telluric disturbance since they were deposited, is to
be gathered from the fact that they only depart from the horizontal
position by a mean dip of 6 deg. east by south on both sides of
the range. All the associated strata of clay-shales, sandstones,
marine mudstones, and limestones—the faunal paleontology of the
two latter formations being striking analogues of the faunal
paleontology of the carboniferous, z.c., mountain limestone of
Europe—are conformable to the coal-seams. The base of the
system is a coarse, pebbly conglomerate, reposing immediately
upon the edges of the upturned Upper Silurian shales and sand-
stones. In brief, these coal-measure strata, at one remote period,
formed an unbroken zone, or belt, around these older greenstone
heights to within, on an average, 500 feet of their summits, as

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION ©. 469

at Mount Nicholas, Ben Lomond, and Sandfly Ranges. At this
period, which is generally regarded as Mesozoic, the summits of
the loftier mountains formed small islands in the southern ocean.
Subsequently, seismic action took place in various centres, and
produced depressions of areas of the coal-measures, and these
terrene disturbances, by eruptions of diorite, shattered and in
many instances overflowed the coal-measure strata. This is
evidenced in the Jerusalem coal basin, Derwent Valley, and at
the Mersey, north of the island. The coal-beds flanking the
mountain sides are covered up, to. a great extent, by fallen green-
stone. At the Cornwall mine, before mentioned, the main adit
level has been carried in for a distance of 950 yards towards the
greenstone backbone of the mountain under fallen greenstone
without meeting with the dyke of plutonic rock. Turning to the
coal deposits of Victoria, in Gippsland, at South Moe, which are
those I have examined and reported upon professionally, they are
found to obtain to an elevation of little short of 1000 feet above
sea level. Here, as in Tasmania, they have a very slight
departure from the horizontal. The associated trap-rock, dark
augitic basalt, is older than the coal, if [ may venture to make
such an assertion, from the fact that I saw a slightly-rounded
erratic block of the same basalt taken out of the centre of a seam
of coal two feet eight inches thick on the Moe Coal Mining
Company’s holdings. These coal-measures differ from those of
Tasmania in having been laid down under fresh-water conditions.
The complete absence of marine deposits is strikingly apparent.

My contention is that the diabasic greenstone of the island
colony, and also the basalt associated with the Gippsland coal
beds of Victoria, are older than the coal-measures. In short, the
coal-measure strata were laid down in depressions, which, at that
time existed, in contradistinction to the older accepted theory
that the igneous rock had burst through them.

21—THE SILVER ORES OF THE BARRIER.
By G. H. Buaxemors.

22.—GRANITE: ITS PLACE AMONG, AND ITS CON-
NECTIONS WITH THE SEDIMENTARY AND
IGNEOUS ROCKS.

By J. G. O. Teppsr, F.LS.

Section D.
BIOLOGY.

President of the Section: Professor A. P. Thomas, M.A., F-L.S.

1—ON SOME. POINTS IN THE MORPHOLOGY OF
ASTACOPSIS BICARINATUS.

By J. StepHen Harr, M.A., B.Sc., University of Melbourne.

[ Abstract. |

THE common crayfish of the ponds and waterholes of Victoria,
known as Astacopsis bicarinatus, or popularly as the yabbie or
yabber crayfish, is a member of the family Parastacide, separated
by Professor Huxley from the northern crayfishes on account of
the absence of a well-developed lamina on the podobranchie, of
appendages on the first abdominal segment, and of a transverse
hinge dividing the telson. But although placed ina different
sub-family, our Astacopsis resembles very nearly the European
Astacus, and is substituted for it in our university courses and
elsewhere as a representative of the bigher crustacee. The aim of
this paper is to serve as a supplement to the well-known text-
books—such as Huxley’s volume, in the International Series, or
Marshall and Hurst’s Practical Zoology—by pointing out what
differences are to be looked for in the general anatomy of the two
genera.

The external form is described by Professor McCoy in the
Prodromus, decade iii., plate 29, under the name of Astacoides
dicarinatus, and further details are given in decade xvi., plate 160.
To this description it should be added that the first abdominal
segment has pleura as large, in proportion, as the other segments,
and not concealed, as in Astacus, by those of the second segment.
The colour, as Professor McCoy points out, is very variable, the
forceps alone being constantly blue, with red joints. The mem-
branous parts of the last appendages of the abdomen are said by
him to be constantly brown, but I have found them much more
often of a bluish colour.

Appendages.—The thoracic and cephalic appendages are identical
with those of Astacus, but those of the abdomen are very
different. As already stated, there are none on the first segment.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 47]

On the second, third, fourth and fifth there are appendages,
diminishing in size towards the posterior end, and consisting of a
protopodite of two segments, a very small coxopodite and longer
basipodite, surmounted by an exopodite and endopodite, which
are similar in form and almost of the same size, the endopodite
being generally rather the smaller, except on the fifth segment.
Each has the form of a narrow, flat, membranous plate, bordered
by more perfectly calcified serrations, from which arise large
plumose sete forming a close fringe to the appendage. The
appendages of the sixth segment forming, with the telson, the tail
tin, have much the same shape as in Astacus.

Gills —The gill formula is as follows :—

Arthrobr.

Thore. segt. Podobr. ant. post. Pleurobr.
Ihe af ep. s0c 0 0 0)
II. 1 1 0 0
III. 1 1 A )
IV. 1 i! 1 0
Ve i 1 it 1
Ve 1 1 1 1
VII. iL 1 1 rud. 1
VIII. 0 10) 0) 1

6+ ep 6 4+rud. 4=20+rud.+ep.

This differs from the formula of Astacus, in having the posterior
arthrobranch on the 7th segment rudimentary, and all the pleuro-
branchs fully developed.

The podobranchie have a somewhat complicated structure.
The stem, or main axis, arises from a broad basal piece directed
backwards, and covered with plumose setz, with hooked ends.
This is continued upwards as a narrow posterior wing to the stem,
which is covered elsewhere very closely with branchial filaments.
From its inner side a flat plate projects, lying between the
arthrobranchs and covered, though much less densely than the
rest of the gill, with branchial filaments. It is very small and
narrow on the posterior podobranchs, those of segment 7, and
gradually increases in size in the more anterior ones, in which
it finally extends nearly the whole length of the gill. The
epipodite on the first thoracic segment is a flat plate, furnished on
the posterior surface with branchial filaments resembling the
inner projecting plate of the podobranchs.

In front of each podobranch is a tuft of coxopoditic sete, like
those of Astacus, but much smaller, and provided with hooks. On
the posterior edge of each segment there is a small flat plate, fringed
with hooked setz, and formed from the membrane of the joint.

The arthrobranchize consist of a simple stem, with very
numerous filaments, except along the posterior inner surface,

472 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

which is closest to the body, and has very few, or none. The
posterior arthrobranch of segment 7 is reduced to a papilla,
bearing some 9 or 10 gill filaments. The pleurobranchs have
no filaments on the inner side, which is closely applied to the
body.

The gill filaments are, in some cases, provided with distinct
hooks at their free extremities, the distribution of which appears
constant. All the filaments of the posterior arthrobranchie,
and the pleurobranchie, are of this description. The anterior
arthrobranchie bear hooked filaments only on the inner surface,
while in the podobranchie they are confined to the projecting
lamina.

Sense organs.—As in Astacus, the exopodites of the antennules
bear setze, supposed to be olfactory in function. There is one set
on each joint, not two as in Astacus, and it consists of a trans-
verse row of three or four hairs, each of two joints, the distal one
very much flattened. These are supported by a pair of sete,
which are larger, and taper gradually towards the free extremity.
Of the internal organs the circulatory and reproductive systems
are most modified.

Circulatory system.—The heart, lying in the same position as
in Astacus, has three pairs of valves leading from the pericardium.
Two pair are placed towards the dorsal side at the anterior and
posterior ends. The third is at about the middle of the ventral
surface. The arteries arise as in Astacus, and, except the sternal
artery, follow the same course. The sternal artery divides into
twoa short distance below the heart ; the branches encircle the
intestine, and again unite just above the endophragmal skeletal
plates, after which they follow the same course as the single
sternal artery of Astacus.

Reproductive system.—The ovary lies principally just in front of
and below the pericardium. There is a median part between the
pericardium and the stomach, from which project backwards two
small lobes lying close together beneath the heart. In front it
rises towards the dorsal surface, and there divides into two
divergent halves. A long, narrow, tube-like prolongation of each
half runs forward for some distance. At its extremity, between
the large muscle of the mandible and the eye, it dilates into a
small sack containing ova. The oviducts arise from the posterior
end of the main undivided region of the ovary.

The testes lie in the same position as the ovary, in front of and
below the heart. They are formed of two lateral halves united
together, only in the region of the vasa deferentia, about one-
third from the anterior end. The posterior end is not formed of
a median lobe as in Astacus, but of two distinct from each other,
and often unequal in size.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 473

2.—NOTES ON THE FERTILISATION OF XNIGHTTA.

By T. F. Cueeseman, F.LS., Curator of the Auckland
Museum.

Some years ago [ published in the New Zealand Journal of Science
some notes on the fertilisation of Axightia, one of the two species
of Proteacee indigenous to New Zealand. Since then I have had
opportunities of examining the subject with more care, and it
has occurred to me that a veswme of what I have been able to
make out may not be without interest to the members of the
Australasian Association.

Up to the present time very little has been published on the
fertilisation of the Proteacee. Many years ago Mr. Bentham, in a
suggestive paper printed in the journal of the Linnzan Society
(“ Botany,” vol. 13, p. 58), pointed out that in most of the species
the anthers open while the flower is still unexpanded, and
discharge their pollen on an enclosed portion of the style often
described as the stigma. Thus, on a superficial examination, it
might be concluded that the flowers fertilised themselves, and
several observers have fallen into this very natural error. In
reality, however, either the stigma does not mature until long
after the expansion of the flower, and until after all the pollen
has been swept off the style, or else special contrivances exist by
which the stigma is shielded from the pollen so liberally scattered
around it, and reserved for the action of pollen brought from
other flowers. The general plan of fertilisation is thus somewhat
analogous to that of the Composite, where, as is well-known,
the anthers cohere into a cylinder surrounding the style-branches,
on the pubescent or papillose outside of which the pollen is
usually shed. But fecundation cannot take place at this stage,
for the stigmatic surface is always on the inner face of the style
branches, which remain firmly closed together until some little
while after the expansion of the flower ; and before they separate
the pollen has usually been brushed off by the visits of insects,
or removed by other means; so that, to ensure fertilisation,
pollen must be regularly conveyed from younger flowers to older
ones. This is precisely what takes place in the Proteacee ; butas
in that order the style is always undivided, and the stigma con-
sequently external, much more elaborate contrivances are often
required to screen off the pollen of the same flower. Some of
these contrivances are so remarkable that it has long been a
matter of surprise to me that so few of them have been fully
examined and described.

The curious inflorescence of Anightia is familiar to most
settlers in the northern portion of New Zealand. The flowers,
which are of a bright red-brown colour, and very conspicuous, are
arranged in pairs on stout lateral racemes, each raceme containing

\

474 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

from 40 to 80 flowers, or even more. Before expansion the
perianth is cylindrical in shape, slightly swollen at the base and
then contracted, but again gradually thickened towards the
extremity. It is about 13 inch long, and externally is every-
where covered with a dense velvety tomentum. In the young
bud there is no appearance of segments, but some time before
expansion the top of the tube splits into four minute teeth, the
apex of the style showing between. Later on the segments come
apart at the base of the perianth, and by degrees the separation
extends higher up. For a long time, however, they firmly cohere
in the upper swollen part of the tube, and the final separation
always takes place suddenly and elastically, the four segments
each coiling up into a tight spiral band, which is packed away at
the very base of the flower. The fully-expanded racemes show,
therefore, little more than a brush of long styles projecting from
a mass of twisted perianth segments, and present a very different
appearance to those in the bud state, so that I have had the two
brought to me as the flowers of two distinct plants! The anthers
are four in number, sessile towards the tops of the perianth lobes,
and in the bud form a ring round the upper part of the style, to
which they are closely applied. The style is over an inch in
length, rather slender at the base, but much swollen in its upper
half, forming a lengthened club-shaped termination usually con-
sidered as the stigma, but I very much doubt the whole of it
being truly stigmatic. At the base of the flower are four rounded
glands, secreting an abundance of nectar, which slowly exudes
from them and usually surrounds the base of the ovary. The
flowers have a strong and very peculiar odour, a single raceme
being quite sufficient to unpleasantly scent a close room.

If a flower is examined just prior to expansion, it will be
noticed that the anthers have opened down their inner face and
deposited the whole of their pollen on the moist surface of the
thickened portion of the style, on which it forms four little
ridges. After the opening of the flower, and the coiling up of
the perianth segments, the pollen is thus left exposed on the
surface of the style. As mentioned before, this looks like a
simple case of self-fertilisation, but a little examination proves
that the stigmatic surface is not mature until some time after the
flowers open; and that before it is in a receptive condition the
pollen has.all been removed. Some means must therefore exist
by which the pollen is regularly transferred from the younger to
the older flowers. It is natural to assume that this is done
through the agency of insects, especially as the great abundance
of honey induces many to visit the flowers. But in most cases.
they simply crawl about between the styles, and never touch
either the pollen or stigma elevated far above them. It appears.
to me that large insects alone could aid in the work of fertilisa-
tion; and even among these the nocturnal or crepuscular moths.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 475

could be of little service, as the styles are far enough apart to
allow of their probosces being inserted without touching them.
Possibly some of the larger Diptera or Coleoptera, as well as the
honey-bee (which is a regular visitant), may be of use; but the
conclusion I have arrived at is that the flowers are principally
adapted for fertilisation by honey-feeding birds, such, for example,
as the Tui (Pvrosthemadera nove-sealandig) and the Korimako
(Anthornis melanura). 'That the former bird regularly frequents
the flowers I have myself repeatedly observed, and old and obser-
vant residents, who were well acquainted with the habits of the
Korimako before its disappearance from our northern forests, all
agree in stating that it was equally ready to take advantage of
the luscious supply of honey offered by the plant. In addition
to these two species, I have noticed the Kaka Parrot (Vestor
meridionalis) sucking the honey from the flowers, as also the
little white-eye (Zosterops ceulescens), but I do not think that
either is such a frequent visitant as the Tui.

A glance at the flowers will at once show how fertilisation is
effected. It is obvious that a bird, when thrusting its head
between the styles of a recently-expanded raceme in search of the
honey, must dust the feathers of the forehead and throat with
pollen. And if it should afterwards visit flowers in a more
advanced stage, it is quite certain that much of this pollen would
be rubbed off on the moist surface of the style, and fecundation
consequently take place.

Knightia is not the only New Zealand plant in which the work
of fertilisation is mainly performed by birds. The flowers of the
red kowhai (C/ianthus puniceus) rarely produce seed in our
gardens, simply because that in such situations they are seldom
visited by birds. Some years ago, a fine plant growing in my
own garden, profusely loaded with flowers, was visited by a stray
Kaka parrot, which spent the greater part of one day in sucking
the honey from the flowers. That season the plant was loaded
with pods, although in no previous year could more than two or
three be obtained at one time. The yellow kowhai (Sophoza
tetraptera) is largely (but not exclusively) fertilised by birds, as
also is the tree fuchsia (7. excorticata). There can be little doubt,
too, that in the various species of JWetrosideros there is a good
deal of cross-fertilisation through the agency of birds.

It is now well established that cross-fertilisation possesses
undoubted advantages over self-fertilisation ; and an excellent
argument in favour of this view may be inferred from the case of
Knightia. We find that the structure and arrangement of the
parts of the flower are such that the style and stigma are actually
embedded for some time in a mass of pollen, so that no one can
doubt that if self-fertilisation had been the preferable mode it
might have been obtained with certainty, and with a minimum
expenditure of force. But instead of this we see a number of

476 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

contrivances all pointing in the opposite direction. The ripening
of the stigma is delayed, in order that there may be no risk of
contamination by pollen from the same flower. The summit of
the style is enlarged to form a suitable stage on which the pollen
may be presented to the visitors, to whom the task of transferring
it from flower to flower is entrusted. The perianth segments are
coiled up, and removed from their path, and a suitable attraction
is afforded in the shape of an abundant supply of nectar. Surely
these contrivances would not be provided if some great advantage
were not expected in return. To my mind, cases similar to those
of Anightia—and they are probably numerous enough—afford
additional proof of the truth of Mr. Darwin’s well-known
aphorism—“ That nature tells us, in the most emphatic manner,
that she abhors perpetual self-fertilisation.”

3.—ACCLIMATISATION IN VICTORIA.

By W. H. D. Le Sousr, Assistant Director of the Zoological
Society, Melbourne.

THE subject of Acclimatisation is a record of great successes and
great failures, and I regret that my experience of the subject tells
me (and mine is the experience of all interested in this subject)
that, as a rule, it would have been better for Australia if the
great successes had been failures and the failures successes.
Certainly, horses, cattle, and sheep, and, in fact, all domestic
animals, have proved themselves very much at home in almost all
parts of Australia, for no portion of the earth’s surface produces
finer stock or finer wool.

I do not propose in this brief paper to go into the subject of
Acclimatisation generally, but only to mention those animals and
birds that have been introduced into Victoria from other
countries at different times during the past thirty-five years. I
am unable to say how long ago it is that the first efforts were
made in the direction of acclimatisation in Australia, but it most
likely commenced in the older colony of New South Wales, and
it is now nearly if not quite fifty years ago since efforts were first
made to introduce the pheasant into Tasmania, but all efforts
failed to establish this fine game bird in the island. Here in
Victoria enthusiastic men, foremost among whom may be men-
tioned the late Mr. Edward Wilson, the late Mr. Samuel Winter
of Murndal, and Dr. Thomas Black of St. Kilda, have for many
years past endeavoured to introduce not pheasants only, but many
other birds and animals, and, I regret to say, have met with but
indifferent success. The Zoological and Acclimatisation Society
of Victoria has also introduced many varieties ; among them may
be enumerated the alpaca, the Angora goat, the sambur, axis,

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 477

rusa, hog, Formosa, and Barasingha deer, the hare, the ostrich,
pheasant, Californian quail, thrush, blackbird, starling, &c., and
it has to bear a certain amount of blame for assisting in the
introduction of the house sparrow ; but it had no share whatever
in the introduction of that dreadful pest, the rabbit, which was
brought out by private individuals ; the fox, which promises to be:
almost as great a nuisance, was also introduced by private
enterprise.

The two first-named animals, the alpaca and the Angora goat,
were costly experiments, and both have failed. In Peru, the
habitat of the alpaca, its home is on high mountain ranges ;
there these animals are found at an altitude of nearly 10,000
feet, seldom descending lower. The difference in altitude and
climate soon told on the imported animals, and they gradually
drooped and died out. It is doubtful if these animals will thrive
in any part of Australia, but the most likely place would be in
mountainous country far inland, where the rainfall is small.

The Angora goat, also imported by the Society, principally
through the instrumentality of Dr. Black, of St. Kilda, at a very
considerable outlay and much trouble, has also proved a failure ;
many persons have tried them, both in Victoria and South
Australia, but all have failed to make them pay, and the only
pure goats now in Victoria (excepting a few kept at the Zoo-
logical Gardens as specimens) are a small flock on the Mount
Bute estate, the property of Sir Samuel Wilson. These animals
have been tried in almost all parts of Victoria, and also in South
Australia, by Mr. Price Maurice and others; but they have
never been able to hold their own, and have in all cases been
given up as an unprofitable industry, being not only delicate in
constitution, but troublesome to manage, great care having to be
exercised to keep them from common goats, which are now to be
found almost everywhere ; and although on one occasion the clip
of Victorian bred Angoras reached as high as four shillings a
pound, and on another three shillings and sixpence, yet as a rule
the fleece, beautiful as it is, is not as valuable in the London
market, pound per pound, as first-class merino wool; and, at the
same time, the fleece is much lighter than that of a well-woolled
merino. In a very interesting paper on the Angora goat,
published in the Society’s Proceedings in the year 1873, by Sir
Samuel Wilson, that gentleman stated that, with careful manage-
ment and sufficient pastures, his flock of a little over one hundred
should increase in forty years from that date to over seven
millions. Sixteen years have passed since then, and the pure
flock mentioned in this paper has remained nearly stationary in
numbers. If common goats had never been introduced into
Australia, and the Angora only had been acclimatised, the result
might have been very. different, and the animal would have
proved of great value, for they would then have fallen into the

478 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

hands of small owners, who would have looked well after them for
the sake of their fleece, and there would then have been no
chance of deterioration from cross-breeding. This is the case in
Angora in Asia Minor, the habitat of this particular breed of
goats.

The Cashmere goat has also been tried here, a number having
been introduced in 1862, but it did not succeed ; in all proba-
bility the difference of climate and elevation having something to
do with the failure, Cashmere being from 5000 to 6000 feet above
sea level.

Deer, on the other hand, do very well in Victoria, and there
are numbers of different varieties in the colonies. On the Upper
Yarra the Fallow deer (Dama vulgaris) is well established ; they
have increased and spread from some turned out by Mr. Paul de
Castella many years ago. On the Grampians the Indian Axis
deer (Cervus axis) are numerous, and in the Koo-wee-rup swamp
and surrounding country in Mornington the Sambur deer ( Cervus
aristotelis) are plentiful; they are the progeny and descendants
of a few liberated many years ago by the Society ; this variety of
deer is also established at ‘ Ercildoune,” near Burrumbeet. In
the Gembrook Ranges the Rusa deer (Cervus hippelaphus) and
Formosan deer (Cervus taévanus) are met with, but they have
not had time to increase much yet, as it is not long since they
were liberated by the Society.

Little need be said about the hare, which seems to be only
second to the rabbit in fecundity in this climate, and it seems
to have spread all over Victoria from a few pairs liberated nearly
at the same time by the Society at the Royal Park, by Mr. F. R.
Godfrey at Mount Ridley, near Donnybrook, and by the late Mr
William Lyall at ‘‘ Harewood,” near Cranbourne. They are fre-
quently found in scrubby, mountainous country, where no one
would expect to see them.

The ostrich was first introduced by the Society in the year
1868 ; they were first sent to the Wimmera, to one of Sir Samuel
Wilson’s stations, and remained there for some years; they were
then transferred to the care of Messrs. Officer Brothers, at the
Murray Downs Station. Owing to the bad means of transit from
the Wimmera to the Murray, and an accident to one of the hen
birds soon after their arrival, the success of the experiment was
nearly marred at the outset, as only one hen bird was left ; fortu-
nately she proved herself equal to the occasion, and laid a number
of eggs, which were successfully hatched. The birds gradually
increased in number until they reached one hundred, the Messrs.
Officer Brothers going to considerable expense in providing
suitable accommodation and food for them. Some years after
the Murray Downs Station was sold, and Mr. C. M. Officer pur-
chased the Society’s interest in the birds and removed them to a
property of his near Kerang, where they still remain; but the

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 479

industry has not developed, as no one else has had the spirit to
follow in their footsteps, and at present, though the adaptability
of the lower Murray country to the ostrich has been fully proved,
there seems very little probability of the industry being followed
up; one reason, no doubt, is the great difference at times in the
price of feathers, which suffer much from the caprice of fashion,
and are not, like wool, always in demand.

That splendid game bird, the pheasant, was introduced by the
Society many years ago and efforts were made to acclimatise it,
numbers being liberated in various parts of the country; but no
success attended these early efforts, and it was not till the Zoo-
logical Society secured a block of land at Gembrook, then a newly-
settled district, that the birds increased to any extent. For
some years a considerable number were liberated there every
season, and they increased and spread considerably for miles
around ; but then came the rabbits, and in destroying these the
pheasants also suffered. There are still a few to be found on
different properties, but as a matter of acclimatisation the experi-
ment cannot be said to be a success, although at one time it
promised to be so, as the birds were breeding fairly well and
many young broods were seen; but poisoned grain and domestic
cats turned loose have done their work, and the pheasants have
nearly disappeared.

Californian quail, a very fine bird, about two-thirds the size of
a partridge, were a great success at Gembrook for some years,
and the original fifty birds liberated there increased to many
hundreds ; but suddenly they began to disappear, and now there
is not a bird to be seen, and it is a mystery to me what has
become of them. They certainly were not shot, and I never
heard of any that had been found dead, nor could we learn that
they had migrated, but the fact remains that they have gone.
It must be remembered that there are very few berry-bearing
bushes in Victoria, and the birds have many enemies ; the native
cat, or Mange’s dasyure, the tiger cat, or spotted-tailed dasyure,
the iguana, or Gould’s monitor, the snake, laughing jackass, or
giant kingfisher, the hawk, etc., all prey on the young birds.

The partridge was introduced many years ago, and seemed to
succeed for a time, but bush fires carried them off. Now that
large tracts of land are under cultivation, it would be much easier
to introduce and establish them than in former years ; but it could
not be done unless they were protected by law.

The European thrush has been successfully established, but has
spread very slowly, although it is plentiful on the south side of
the Yarra, in the gardens of Toorak and the surrounding districts,
but it has not made its appearance in any numbers in the northern
suburbs, although a few are to be seen occasionally.

The blackbird does not seem to thrive in Victoria. This is, no
doubt, principally from the want of berry-bearing bushes, which

480 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

form a large portion of its food. At the Zoological Gardens we
are making another effort to establish this delightful songster by
enclosing the birds in a large wire aviary filled with shrubs, and
letting only the young birds go free.

Considerable sums of money have been expended by the Society
in the introduction of. the skylark, but so far almost without
success. Here and there a few birds are still to be seen, and their
delicious song heard, but they are few and far between. Yet
everything is in their favour here in regard to climate and suitable
country, but the reason of their non-success is apparently due to
the ever-active and numerous hawks in the air, added to the many
enemies I have already enumerated on the ground.

About ten years ago the Society liberated a few starlings,
obtained from New Zealand, in the University grounds here and
in the Zoological Gardens. The success of this experiment has
been very marked. Not only have they succeeded, but they have
increased to large numbers ; flocks of several hundreds may now
frequently be seen. They migrate every year, most likely to the
north, and regularly return about November. This is strange, as
the starling is not strictly a migratory bird. As is well known,
these interesting birds are insectivorous in their habits, and are
looked upon justly with favour even in quarters where most birds
are viewed with a suspicious eye.

The Indian minah, introduced in the year 1862, has spread all
over the neighbourhood of Melbourne. They are insectivorous
birds, and no doubt do much good by destroying countless insect
pests, but as they also eat fruit an outcry has been raised against
them. Victorians have been so accustomed, of late years, to a
plentiful supply of vegetables that thay forget that it is to such
birds as the Indian minah and the sparrow that they are indebted
in this respect. Before these much abused, but in many respects
most useful, birds were introduced, cabbages, cauliflowers and
many other vegetables could not be grown successfully, they
were so covered with aphis, but now such a thing is rarely seen.
The same may be said of roses, which were formerly infested with
aphis. I have often watched a sparrow on a rosebush busy in
clearing off the aphis with which it was thickly covered.

The English robin, the goldfinch, the linnet, and many other
small birds have been introduced and liberated, but they have
not succeeded. It is very different in New Zealand, where all
the European birds seem to answer admirably. Pheasants,
blackbirds, thrushes, skylarks, and numerous other birds have
not only succeeded, but in some instances become a nuisance from
their increasing numbers.

I may say that the result of acclimatisation in this colony has
taken everyone interested in the subject by surprise. The rabbit
goes on breeding at an astonishing rate all the year round. The
hare, which in England rarely produces more than two at a birth,

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 481

here frequently has five and even seven, while the sparrows have
increased at a prodigious rate. On the other hand, many birds
that would be highly beneficial will not adapt themselves to their
new surroundings. Another troublesome importation from the
old country has of late years made its appearance, in the European
snail, no doubt introduced in wooden cases containing plants. It
is now spreading far and wide over Victoria; wherever plants
are carried the snail probably goes too. It seems, like the
sparrow, the rabbit, and the fox, to increase very rapidly, and
will yearly become more troublesome.

The introduction of English trout into Victorian streams has
been, on the whole, a success. There are several fish acclimatisa-
tion societies in Victoria—in Ballarat, Geelong, and other places,
all of which do good work ; and Sir Samuel Wilson has a very
complete fish-hatching establishment at “ Ercildoune,” which he
maintains at his own cost, giving the young fish every year
principally to the Zoological and Acclimatisation Society, the
Society undertaking the transportation of the fish to suitable
streams, and thus benefitting the whole colony. In this manner
a great many fine streams have been stocked, and the number of
trout streams is being increased every year. One or two costly
experiments have been made with the English and the Californian
salmon, but without success. But here again New Zealand is
far in advance, as the streams of that fine colony are much better
adapted to the trout and other European fish than ours are.

Both my father and myself have taken a deep interest in
acclimatisation for many years past, and I sincerely wish I could
write more hopefully on the subject; but I fear that but scant
success will attend any efforts in this direction, as far as good
game birds are concerned, without laws to prohibit indiscriminate
shooting. At every holiday season parties of young people spread
all over the country shooting everything they meet, and also,
alas! shooting each other. This should be stopped, but in this
free and democratic country such prohibitions are not popular.
One thing is certain, that if birds are to be established they must
be protected from pot-hunters, and individual effort must be more
sustained in the future than it has been in the past.

The following list gives a summary of the principal animals and
birds acclimatised in Victoria :—

The Deer, of which six kinds have now successfully established them-
selves, and are at large in the colony.

The Alpaca, which has not been able to accommodate itself to the
great change from an altitude of 10,000 feet in Peru, its native land, to
the Victorian climate, and has died out.

The Cashmere Goat, which has failed from the same cause.

The Angora Goat, which has proved unprofitable, and has been almost.
entirely absorbed into the breed of common goats. Ms

E

482 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

The Hare, which is well established here, and, with the fox, bids fair
to be a nuisance in some parts. Both the fox and rabbit were introduced
by private enterprise.

The Ostrich, which has proved itself well suited to the plains of the
lower Murray ; but the enterprise has not proved profitable, owing to
the uncertain market for the feathers.

The Pheasant, Partridge and Californian Quail throve well at first, but
seem now to have succumbed to their many enemies.

The Thrush has been established here, but not as yet in large numbers.

The Blackbird has not as yet been established, but another effort is
now being made at the Zoological Gardens.

The Skylark, too, has not met with suitable conditions here, and is now
almost extinct.

The Starling and the Indian Minah have been very successfully intro-
duced, and are to be found in great numbers.

The Robin, Goldfinch, Linnet and many other small birds have also
failed to get a footing here.

Amongst fish, the ZTvout has been a success, and the Salmon has
failed.

4._ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF CAH/LOBRANCAUS
RUFUS (TELEOSTEL SYMBRANCHIDZ:).

By Witiiam A. Hasweti, M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Biology,
University of Sydney.

Chilobranchus rufus is a small eel-shaped fish, very abundant
below stones between tidal limits in Port Jackson. The family
(Symbranchide) to which it is referred includes only the two
genera Symbranchus and Chilobranchus, and is regarded as most
nearly related to the Wurenide. With regard to the structure
and affinities of the genus I shall have something to say in a
later paper dealing with the more advanced stages in the
development.

Chilobranchus rufus deposits its eggs on the under surfaces of
stones between low and high water mark, occasionally, though
not frequently, on the upper surface of small stones or shells
lying under the shelter of a larger stone. In such shelters, in the
breeding season, which extends over July, August, and September,
male and female (which differ very strikingly in coloration and
markings) are to be found together, and near them will usually
be found a batch of eggs. The eggs are cemented to the surface
of the stone in a single layer, and in one batch there will often be
found from fifty to a hundred, presenting a variety of stages in
their development, showing that they had been laid and impreg-
nated at different times. Each egg is cemented to the stone bya
little disc, formed apparently by a drop of a viscid material,
against which the egg is pressed, and which becomes firmly
united with the egg-membrane which it resembles in
character.

——_— ss

Eee

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 483

In addition to the examination of living eggs, the following
methods were followed :—

1. The eggs were put in a ten per cent. solution of nitric acid
and left in it for half an hour, then thoroughly washed in water,
and passed through ascending grades of alcohol to 90 per cent.
This was found to be by far the best method for most phases in
the development ; the nitric acid readily passes through the egg-
membrane and produces a strong whitening effect on the blasto-
disc, leaving the yolk unaffected and translucent; the shrinkage
is very slight. With this, as with the other methods employed,
series of sections cannot well be made by the paraffin method,
owing to the great brittleness of the yolk, especially in the earlier
stages, and recourse must be had to celloidin.

2. The eggs were fixed with Perenyi’s fluid, allowed to act for
half-an-hour, and followed by ascending alcohols. This method
preserves the eggs well, but is not so serviceable as the preceding,
as it does not produce so great a whitening effect on the proto-
plasm of the blastodise.

3. The eggs were treated with osmic acid, followed by Merkel’s
fluid, as used by Agassiz and Whitman in their studies on
pelagic fish-eggs. This method is of very great value in differen-
tiating the periblast and the periblast cells from the other
elements.

General Features of the Egg of Chilobranchus.

The eggs are very small, being only 1-2mm. in long diameter.
They are nearly always of oval shape (though a few spherical
examples were found), and the short diameter is lmm. The egg
is cemented down by one side; the blastodisc is sub-polar in
position, but nearly always inclined towards the upper side of
the egg (z.e., that side cemented to the surface of the stone) ; its
position would therefore seem to be a polar one, slightly modified
by the action of gravity. In a small percentage of cases, how-
ever, the blastodisc was found to be situated in the middle of one
side of the egg, which brought about marked changes in the
general form in certain stages, as will be afterwards noticed. A
few abnormalities were observed, of which the most interesting
were two cases, in each of which there were ¢wo two-cell stages
close together. It is very likely that these were not natural, but
resulted from mechanical action during the removal of the eggs
from the stone. There were a good many eggs, however, in
which development seemed to have been arrested, there being
only an abnormal blastodisc with a softened yolk. Such were
probably eggs that had accidentally escaped impregnation.

Circumstances were not favourable for investigating the history
of the egg previous to the beginning of the process of segmenta-

*E2

484 _ PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

tion, and what slight observations I have been able to make on
this stage may be reserved till | have had the opportunity of a
more thorough study. As in some other teleosteans, the germinal
disc is formed as a result of impregnation, and an unimpregnated
ovum presents no trace of such a structure.

The Blastodisc and the Process of Segmentation.

The blastodisc makes its appearance a little on one side (the
upper) of the future ectodermal pole of the egg. When fully
formed, and before segmentation has commenced (a phase which,
judging from its rarity in preserved specimens, must be of very
brief duration), it is a small circular disc, around which is
gathered a narrow zone of periblastic protoplasm. From the
periblastic zone there radiate outwards a number of branching
protoplasmic threads, which soon become lost in the yolk and in
the thin investing layer of periblast. The plane of the first
cleavage is vertical to the surface of the blastodisc, and is
inclined at an angle to the plane passing through the long axis
of the egg. In the next stage, of which many specimens were
obtained, there are four symmetrically-arranged blastomeres
forming a quadrilateral blastodisc with rounded angles. The
next change brings about a disturbance of the symmetry, for two
of the four cells subdivide in such a way as to give rise at once
to the appearance of a long anda short axis in the blastodise,
which now consists of three pairs of cells, arranged right and left
on either side of a median line—the future long axis of the
embryo. Of these, the middle pair are larger than the others,
and each of them very soon becomes divided into two by a
transverse fissure. Thus is reached the stage of eight cells, in
which four pairs of cells are arranged symmetrically on either side
of the middle line. During those phases of segmentation the
blastoderm has undergone some increase in size, probably at the
expense of the periblastic material, which has become much less
evident, the radiating threads having disappeared altogether
shortly after the beginning of segmentation.

The next stages are marked by the considerable increase in
thickness of the blastoderm, which soon projects prominently
from the surface of the egg, and by the appearance of a ring of
marginal cells differing to a marked extent from those of the
remainder of the blastoderm. This ring first appears in the 32-
cell stage, when it consists of ten rather narrow cells encircling
the remainder. At first it is on a level with the rest of the
blastodisc, but while the latter bulges more and more the marginal
cells remain nearly ona level with the surface of the vitellus,
eventually becoming tucked in beneath the steep edge of the
central part of the blastodisc.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 485

In the meantime the blastodise has become (after the 32-cell
stage) two layers thick in its central portion. It lies directly on
a thin layer of non-nucleated periblastic material, which extends
round the whole vitellus. There is at this stage no trace of a
segmentation cavity. The blastoderm now spreads out as a very
thin layer over the ectodermal extremity of the egg. The thick
blastoderm of 16 cells becomes converted in eighteen hours into a
thin cap of very numerous small cells, covering about a quarter of
the yolk. This cap is at first perfectly uniform, but soon changes
appear, by which it is marked out into an embryonic (posterior)
and a non-embryonic (anterior) portion.

The first of those changes, which becomes marked when the
blastoderm extends over about a third of the yolk, is the forma-
tion of a thickened rim, having the appearance of being produced
by a bending inwards of the edge. About this time also a cavity
(segmentation cavity) appears underneath the anterior (non-
embryonic) part of the blastoderm. This cavity has a very short
duration, soon becoming obliterated. It intervenes between the
blastoderm proper and a thin layer of periblast, with scattered
nuclei, which forms its floor. A depression then appears just
within the anterior border of the ring, bounded behind by two
rounded elevations. The depression, which is of small extent, is
the non-embryonic part of the blastoderm, the rest, ending in front
in two convexities separated by a median notch, is the embryonic
shield. As the blastoderm extends further over the yolk, both
the embryonic and the non-embryonic portions are increased in
size. The two convexities of the anterior border of the embryonic
shield coalesce to form one median prominence, which marks the
position of the anterior border of the head of the embryo. When
the blastoderm has passed the equator of the egg an axial
thickening, at first very narrow, appears, running from the
posterior border to near the anterior margin of the embryonic
shield. Its direction of growth seems to be from behind forwards,
and it probably begins at the thickened posterior border, into
which its posterior extremity passes out laterally. In some
instances there is a slight break or notch in the thickened border
of the blastoderm at the end of the axial thickening; but this
does not seem to be of constant occurrence.

When the blastoderm covers three-quarters of the surface
of the egg the axial thickening has become somewhat
broader and is growing downwards into the yolk as a keel-like
ridge. This keel is much more strongly developed in its anterior
half ; behind it decreases greatly in size.

Sections through embryos with the keel in various stages of
development show that epiblast and mesoblast are completely
fused in the whole length of the keel. This is entirely at variance
with what has been observed in other fishes. Goette, for example,
states that in the trout there is no coalescence of the layers along

486 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

the line of the median keel at any stage, and figures them as
clearly distinguishable from one another.

It is some time before the blastoderm has quite covered the
yolk that the earliest rudiments of the optic vesicles become
visible. First the anterior end of the epiblast layer of the keel,
which may be termed medullary cords, shows a rounded enlarge-
ment in front. Then in this there become distinguishable an
axial portion, which is the anterior end of the medullary cord,
and two lateral parts, which soon become distinctly separated
from the former. When they first become distinguishable these
lateral parts of the anterior enlargement extend to the extreme
front end of the latter; but very soon they appear to retreat
backwards—their anterior ends falling short, by a little distance,
of the end of the axial cord. This appears to be due to the
anterior part thinning out, while the posterior part becomes
thickened and more strongly defined. These lateral parts of the
anterior enlargement are the equivalents of what Goette* terms
the sensory plate (Sinnesplatte). The thickened posterior part
forms the optic “ vesicle.”

That these optic rudiments arise from the same stratum of cells
as the medullary cord is evident enough, but from the way in
which they make their appearance at the sides they would rather
seem to be thickenings of the surface stratum of epiblast than
outgrowths from the medullary cord. The latter, it has also to
be noted, at the time when the bodies in question are distinctly
formed is scarcely yet a definite structure, but is really nothing
more than the more superficial cells of the blastodermic ridge or
keel, which are not yet definitely marked off from those below,
destined to form the notochord and the mesoblast.

Up to this point there is not the least appearance of a groove
or cleft on the surface of the medullary cord, which is an un-
divided axial thickening of the epiblast not projecting very
prominently on the surface. It is only after the establishment of
the optic “vesicles” that the medullary cord becomes separated
from the cells lying below it, and becomes marked out by a faint
longitudinal fissure into two lateral halves. A little later a pair
of thickenings appear behind the optic rudiments at the sides of
that part of the embryonic cerebro-spinal axis destined to form
the hind-brain. These when first they become evident are
elongate thickenings running parallel with the medullary cord.
The middle part of each gives rise to the rudiment of the auditory
labyrinth, which makes its appearance later in the form of a
rounded sac.

The first trace of the drain is the appearance of a slight
swelling just behind the optic vesicles. From this there become
constricted off behind a pair of inconspicuous swellings, which

* “ Beitriige zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Wirbelthiece, IV., Ueber die Sinnesplatte
der Teleostier.” Arch. f. Miker. Anat.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 487

subsequently give rise to the cerebellum. The front part—
corresponding to both fore and mid brain—long remains undivided,
but subsequently a slight dilatation of the median longitudinal
fissure appears opposite the anterior ends of the optic vesicles ; this
is the third ventricle, and the small segment of the brain at the sides
of and in front of it represents the fore-brain. When the rudiment
of the third ventricle has made its appearance, the hind-brain has
become plainly marked into cerebellum and medulla oblongata.

The lens-involution first appears before the brain shows any
definite signs of division into parts ; it has the form at first of an
irregularly-shaped plug of cells, which does not lose its connection
with the surface epiblast till after the fore-brain has become
differentiated. It grows into a depression of the optic “ vesicle”
formed to receive it; the “vesicle” long remains a solid structure,
the wall of the optic cup only presenting a division into two
layers at a comparatively late period.

The nasal pits appear after both eye and ear rudiments have
become well formed ; they appear as depressions in little three-
cornered masses of cells between the anterior end of the cerebro-
Spinal nervous axis and the rudimentary eyes.

The proto-vertebre appear at about the time when the first
swelling indicating the brain has become apparent. They are
remarkable for their small size and their number. They are
formed as a result of the segmentation of two narrow bands of
mesoblast lying at the sides of the cerebro-spinal axis.

5.—NOTES ON THE MUSCULAR FIBRES OF
PERIPATUS.

By Wittram A. Haswett, M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Biology,
University of Sydney.

In Hatchett-Jackson’s revised edition of Rolleston’s “Forms of
Animal Life,” there is the following statement with reference to
Peripatus capensis (p. 320) :— The muscles, with the exception
of those attached to the jaws, are unstriped.” I have been
unable to find in any of the original papers* on Peripatus the
statement that the muscles attached to the jaws are striped, and
I do not know on what authority Hatchett-Jackson rests in
making the statement. Owing, however, to the peculiar interest
which the subjects presents from the point of view of the evolution
of striated muscle, I made a very careful examination of the
muscular fibres of the New South Wales species of Peripatus

* I refer to the well-known papers on the subject by Mosely, Balfour and others. It is
possible that there may be some statement of this kind in Sanger's paper, which I am unable
to read.

488 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

(P. leuckartii), both in the fresh condition and when treated by
the gold method, with the result that the fibres of the jaw muscles
are entirely unstriated, like the muscles of the rest of the body,
though a peculiar transversely-striped appearance is imparted to
those muscles by the arrangement of a number of the finest
branches of the trachee.

If the statement made by Hatchett-Jackson should prove to be
correct—that in P. capensis the jaw muscles alone are striated—
then one would be tempted to think that we have in the muscular
fibres of the appendages of Peripatus an example of degenerate
compound fibres, in which the striation has become lost, save in
one set of muscles, since the ordinary fibres of the muscles of the
limbs are of compound character, and resemble some varieties of
muscular fibres found in other Arthropods in all respects save in
the absence of striations. This does not, however, in view of
what we know of the rest of the organisation of Pertpatus, seem
very probable, and it appears more likely that a mis-statement
has crept into a work otherwise remarkable for its accuracy.

6.—DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW VICTORIAN ALGA.

Translated by J. BracesripcE Witson, M.A., F.LS8., from
Till Algernes Systematik nya bidrag af J. G. AGARDH.
SIPHONE.

Bryopsts claveformis.—Group of plants somewhat pyramidally
tufted. Fronds bristle-shaped, about half an inch in height,
radiating upwards from a radical plexus, simple or sparingly
dichotomous below, cylindrical, gradually thickening upwards
into a club shape, bearing spherical conceptacles below the blunt
apex.

B. baculifera.—Group of plants somewhat pyramidally tufted.
Fronds bristle-shaped, four to five inches long, radiating upwards
from a radical plexus; dichotomous below, branches distant,
narrowed at the base, finally cylindrical, apices blunt.

B. gemellipara.—F¥ronds more or less erect, generally simple ;
each plumula at the lower part of its contour lanceolate,
apparently distichous. The branchlets springing on each side
duplicated in two ranks, each forming several series of twin
branchlets, above the middle simple, with a very short imbricated
featherlike tip.

Avrainvillea obscura.—Frond rising with a short flattened
stem from a swollen base. Upper portion passing into a wide
wedge-shaped expansion, thick, dark in colour, ragged along the
terminal margin. (Note.—It is not unlikely that, when more
perfect specimens are obtained, our Victorian plant will prove to
be Avrainvillea letevirens of Crouan.—J. B. W.)

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 489

Callipsygma wilsonis.—Frond expanded on each side above the
stem, which is apparently rough below and slightly encrusted,
extending in two directions, sparingly, sub-pinnately, branched
from the margins. The whole frond is flattened, each branch
passing into a terminal fan-shaped expansion, at length plumose
by the lengthening of its own rachis. The lower filaments of
each expansion somewhat separate, and rapidly passing into fresh
branches. The filaments composing the whole frond constricted,
so as to form oblong articulations The filaments of the laminze
proceeding from the margin of the rachis repeatedly dichotomous,
placed close together, united laterally. Those of the stipes for
some distance wavy, alternately superimposed, fastened together,
thicker near the medial line.

Udotea peltata——Frond expanded, slightly funnel-shaped,
peltately attached upon a very short simple stipes, the lamina of
the flabellate expansion generally somewhat rounded, but
inequilateral. Margin ragged, or irregularly lobed. Plant green,
filaments of the flabellum covered by a cortical stratum,
conspicuous along the margin, rather distant, lower down united,
the cross filaments passing transversely to the surface of the
fronds, uncinate and peltate, forming the cortical stratum of tha
surface.

Caulerpa alternifolia.—Fronds from a surculum, erect, slender,
filiform, repeatedly dichotomous, pinnate along their whole length.
Pinne subulate, mucronate, attenuated from a somewhat thicker
base, lower pinne generally regularly alternate, spreading,

~distichous, slightly curved inwards, many times exceeding in their
length the breadth of the rachis; the upper pinne approaching
nearer to one another, less regularly alternate.

FLORIDE®.

Thamnocarpus glomuliferus.—Frond filiform, elongated, upper
portion with long branches, branchlets in the form of glomeruli,
alternately arranged like knots along the branches. Stem and
branches very distinctly articulated, cortical stratum dense,
articulations two and a half times their diameter, separated by
the darker line of the nodes. Ramellisituated at the nodes much
branched, articulated, the young ramelli rather soft, the older
somewhat rigid, furnished with a spinelet at the apex and at the
upper nodes.

Fructification as yet unknown.

Cryptonemia wilsoni.Stipitate membranaceous, nearly a foot
in length, fronds elongated, lanceolate or linear, from the usually
entire margin scattered proliferous processes, sometimes pinnate,
at others terminal, digitately spreading from the upper margin of
a frond apparently injured. Young proliferous leaflets obovate
lingulate, older ones linear.

490 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D,

Fructification as yet unknown. The older fronds often marked
with scattered stains. Frond bright red, without any indication
of ribs. Cortical stratum comprises 3 to 4 series of cells, the inner-
most the larger, occasionally somewhat elongated vertically, very
many globose, the cortical cells conspicuously smaller than the
others.

Stenogramma leptophyllum.— Fronds arranged in a_hemi-
spherical group, mostly very narrow, linear, apparently arranged
dichotomously, the older segments alternating on the rachis,
sub-pinnate, as it were primary and exceeding the rest. Apices
obtuse, very slightly narrowed. Antheridia in blotches in longi-
tudinal series along the middle of the frond. In colour and
substance resembling Stexogramma interruptum.

florea wilsonis.—Frond flat, distichously decompound, pinnate,
the larger pinne compound and intermixed with minute pinnules
proceeding from the margin. Pinnze somewhat erect, sub-obtuse,
pinnules very spreading, subulate and delta-shaped. Cystocarps
almost intramarginal, topped with a very short crown of
spines.

Rhodymenia stenoglossa. — Stems from a_ radical plexus,
numerous, somewhat erect, filiform at the base, soon becoming
flat with a slight groove, passing into a flat, very narrow, linear
frond. Young frond simple, or sparingly dichotomous, segments
slightly attenuated at the base. The older frond beset with
marginal processes, by degrees growing out into lingulate pinne,
subfiliform at the base.

Fructification as yet unknown.

Glaphyrymenia pustulosa.—Plant about a foot in diameter,
sometimes also with laciniz of equal dimensions. Stem some-
times hardly perceptible, almost sessile, sometimes more con-
spicuous, rounded below, soon flattened into a wedge shape, and
then widened into a flat membranous expansion, somewhat
thicker near the base and thinner above. Membranous expan-
sion widely expanded, sometimes rounded oblong with a con-
tinuous margin, or at times more or less divided into very large
lobes, with the margin either even or folded. Surface smooth, or
at length pustulate, more or less perforated by scattered foramina.
Margins of the foramina and laciniz often recurved, bearing
cystocarps within the margins. Colour and habit resembling
those of Kallymenia reniformis. Adheres very closely to
paper.

(Nore.—In the living state this alga is peculiarly soft, velvety,
and clinging, quite unlike in consistence any other I have
handled.—J. B. W.)

Delesseria heterocystidea.—Frond with cortex ribbed, prolifica-
tions appearing from the midrib, generally in a single row, rarely
branched, folioles somewhat erect, very slender, lanceolate,

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 49].

acuminate, occasionally blunt, without veins, margin slightly
wavy, minutely denticulate.

Sori unknown as yet.

Scinata moniliformis. — Frond membranaceous, cylindrical,
flattened, extremely constricted at the joints, dichotomously
decompound, with prolifications appearing below the upper part
of the articulations. Articulations united by a very narrow neck,
the lowermost obconical, the middle ovate-oblong, the uppermost
lately formed sub-rotund.

Chondriopsis foliifera.—Plant nearly pyramidal, with branches
alternately pinnate with great regularity. Pinne springing from
the margin, or within the margin of the rachis, spreading both
ways, linear, lanceolate. Simple, or beset with an additional
series of similar pinnules ; all, on both sides, extremely slender,
the last fruit-bearing. Spherospores rather irregularly arranged
on the upper part of the pinnules, marginal keramidia on the
pinnules either solitary or few in number. Cortical cells angular,
a little longer than their own diameter.

Polysiphonia sphacelarioides.—Stem spread out in every direc-
tion, loosely entwined among other algz, with long, curved, hair-like
threads rooting here and there. Articulate, devoid of cortex,
distantly branched with dense ramelli. Rachis often extending
beyond the branchlets, ramelli subvertical, chiefly secund, younger
ones slender to a distance from the base, older branchlets flexible.
Articulations of the older branchlets 7-siphoned, mostly 2 to 3 times.
as long as their diameter. The final ramelli about equal to their
diameter.

Cliftonea pectinata.—The cystocarps in Cliftonea pectinata
(observes Agardh) were first discovered by J. Bracebridge Wilson.
In the fruit-bearing specimens sent to me I have seen cystocarps
of considerable size, sub-globose, arranged in a row along the
midrib, between the lacinie, produced upon the older parts of the
plant ; protected, as it seemed to me, by the sterile laciniz
encompassing them from the side of the phyllodes. In a trans-
verse section I observed the pericarp to be formed of two strata,
that is, of exterior cells closely packed together, and inner ones
more loosely arranged, as though meeting one another only at
scattered points ; in the lower part of the pericarp more extended
longitudinally.

In the lower part of the cystocarp there is a placenta, from
which large pear-shaped spores proceed, supported on long stalks,
collected into several tufts, such as are normally present in the
Rhodomela group. On the lowermost part of the placenta I noted
a cell of greater size, as though primary, filled with a quantity of
granular matter. This cell is joined by other smaller cells, loosely
arranged, touching it round about in places, from the upper part
of which the spores at length proceed.

492 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

7.—NOTES ON THE ZOOLOGY OF HOUTMAN’S
ABROLHOS.

By A. J. CAMPBELL, F.L.S.

My visit to these most interesting islands was from 7th to 23rd
December, 1889. To Messrs. Broadhurst and McNeil I am in-
debted for passages to and from different islands, as well as for
much open-handed hospitality, while Mr. F. C. Broadhurst, Mr.
G. K. Beddoes, C.E. (manager), and other employés of the firm,
have furnished me with many valuable notes gathered of late
years upon the groups, and which were impossible for me to
personally make during my limited sojourn.

Houtman’s Abrolhos are certainly the greatest “rookery” for
sea birds in Australia, and by reason of their geographical posi-
tion in the sub-tropics, perhaps afford suitable breeding grounds
for a greater number of species than any other distinct or limited
spot in the world. That the groups have been resorted to for
untold ages by the birds is evinced by the rich deposits of guano
—notably upon Rat and Pelsart Islands. Rat Island may be said
to be fairly alive with feathers. There were birds breeding upon
the bushes, birds breeding under the bushes, and birds breeding
in the ground underneath. Rat Island approximately contains
350 acres. Deducting, say 50 acres, for the guano station and
cleared ground, and taking one bird for every square yard (there
could not be less, probably more, when young and eggs are taken
into consideration) the 300 acres would give 1,452,000 birds upon
one island alone. With fair success I took instantaneous photo-
graphs of some of the flights, but could not take the birds when
thickest, namely, at early morn and late evening, the sun being
unfavourable or the camera. Of the wonderful flights of noddy
and sooty terns I need not speak, but can fully substantiate
Gilbert’s accurate descriptions as given in Gould.

MAMMALIA.

Halmaturus derbianus, Grey (Derby’s wallaby). Found on
the East and West Wallaby Islands (northern group) only.

Luotaria ? (seal). Principally found on Easter and Pel-
sart groups, but now getting scarce.

Mus (rat). I was unable to procure a specimen for
identification, which may probably prove to be the common Euro-
pean rat introduced by some shipwreck.

AVES.

Haliaetus Jeucogaster, Gm. (White-bellied sea-eagle). Not
common. Eyries are established on Wallaby (Pigeon Island)

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 493

and Pelsart groups. The noddy tern constitutes a portion of
this eagle’s prey. Breeds beginning September. Young do not
assume adult plumage until second or third year.

Pandion leucocephalus, Gould (White-headed osprey). More
common than the preceding species. One day, as the barque
Capella was riding at anchor in Good Friday Bay each of the
mast heads was occupied by one of these noble birds. In addition
to fish, the osprey is very partial to the little white-faced storm
petrel and a rough-tailed lizard (Zgernia stokesi) common upon
Rat Island. Lay in September.

Hirundo neoxena, Gould (Welcome swallow). Noticed flying
over Pelsart Island.

Sericornis maculatus, Gould (Spotted serub-tit). Found only on
Wallaby group.

Zosterops gouldit, Bp. (Green-backed white-eye). Found in pairs
throughout the groups.

Phaps chalcoptera, Lath. (Bronzewing pigeon). Wallaby group.

Turnix scintillans, Gould (Speckled turnix-quail). Wallaby
group.

Hematopus longirostris, Vieill. (White-breasted oyster-catcher).
Few pairs throughout groups.

Hematopus unicolor, Wagl. (Sooty oyster-catcher). Seen occa-
sionally.

igialitis ruficapilla, Temm. (Red-capped dottrel). A few
always upon the islands where they breed.

Tringa albescens, Temm. (Little sandpiper). In small flocks
about the beaches. Retire inland to roost at evening, when they
often co-mingle with the former species.

Tringa subarguata, Gmel. (Curlew sandpiper). Singly or in
twos or threes about the shores. But none observed in full
plumage.

Strepsilas interpres, Linn. (Turnstone). This cosmopolitan was
observed in flocks of six or seven about the reefs at low water,
but scarcely in adult plumage.

LWumenius cyanopus, Vieill. (Australian curlew). Noted at
Wallaby group.

Numenius uropygialis, Gould (Wimbrel). Small flock seen at
the mangrove swamp, Pelsart Island, 23rd December.

Demuiegretta sacra, Gmel. (Reef-heron). Both the blue variety
and the white found throughout the groups. Breed November.

Lypotenidia philipensis, Linn. (Pectoral rail). Seen upon Rat
and Pelsart Islands. Known to breed upon latter.

Porzana tabuensis, Gmel. (Tabuan crake). Pelsart Island,
about the mangrove swamp.

Anas castanea, Eyton (Australian teal). Wallaby group.

Larus pacificus, Lath. (Pacitic gull). Odd couples breed
throughout all groups. Laying commences early September.

AQ4 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

Larus longirostris, Masters (Long-billed gull). Common. Breeds
in September. Have been witnessed plundering the noddies of
their eggs, especially if nearly incubated. The gulls also rob
these peaceful birds of the contents of their stomachs when spread
out for their mates or young.

Sterna caspia, Pall. (Caspian tern). Seen in small companies
about the reefs or singly diving for fish about the harbours.
Fledglings seen 15th December, also fresh egg taken same date.
Young in down white underneath, mottled with black and brown
above.

Sterna bergit, Licht. (Common tern). A few breed upon
Pelsart Island. Young in down similar to Caspian tern.

Sterna dougalli, Mont. (Graceful tern). Nesting in scores
upon the dead coral ridges in the narrowest part of Pelsart Island.
December appears to be the laying month. Young in down
under surface white, wings white, and rest of upper surface
mottled black and white, with slight brownish tinge. Feet and
bill light pink.

Sterna anestheta, Scop. (Panayan tern). In small companies
of ten or twelve, or in pairs, breeding under shelving limestones,
sometimes under bushes, chiefly on isolated rocks.

Sterna fuliginosa, Gm. (Sooty tern). The “ wide-awakes ”
first appear in the beginning of September upon Rat and Pelsart
Islands, when they come in vast numbers for about a fortnight.
When the young are reared, all depart about April. Their call-
note sounds like “‘ wide-awake ;” hence their vernacular name.
A long guttural scream appears to be the alarm note, while
“squak” like notes are uttered in anger. Young in down,
underneath parts (except throat) whitish, all the rest of the
surface mottled with black, brown and white. Feet and bill dark-
coloured.

Sternula nereis, Gould. (Little tern). A few couples found
breeding upon dead coral on Pelsart Island, in close proximity to
the graceful terns. Young in down dull or yellowish white.
Bill and feet light yellow.

Sternula inconspicua, Masters. A pair noticed in company
with little and Caspian terns near Rat Island. A skin was
obtained, which appears to correspond with Masters’ description,
although some authorities believe it to be a different stage of
plumage of the little tern. But this can hardly be, seeing the
young of the little tern from the time they are hatched possess
yellowish-white bill and feet, whereas Masters’ tern has dark-
coloured bill and feet.

Anous stolidus, Linn. (Noddy tern). Records kept upon Rat
Island. show that these birds first appeared for the breeding
season 14th August, 1888, and 16th August, 1889, respectively.
They are usually first heard at night, and then appear gradually
for a few days before they arrive in great crowds. The earliest

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 495

eggs are deposited about the beginning of October, but laying
continues for the two or three following months. About the
break-up of the weather in April all the noddies with their young
depart. Nota solitary bird remains. A week or two prior to
the final exodus the birds leave the island daily, but return at
night. This may be a method of exercising the young before the
last great flight. There is a curious incident of all these birds
having suddenly left Rat Island for about a fortnight during the
month of October when a cold rain set in, leaving eggs and young
to perish. Upon slight showers of rain falling, the birds clear
out to the shoals upon the reefs, and skim over the water in a
remarkable manner, as if fishing. The call-note of the noddy is
a coarse, gull-like bark. Young in down vary in colour from
light to dark sooty brown, with the upper portion of the head
mouldy white. Bill and feet black.

Anous tenuirostris, Temm. (Lesser noddy.) As its name
implies, it is similar in appearance but smaller than the noddy,
yet in one or two points of its natural history differs much.
Unlike the noddy, which nests upon low bushes or upon the
ground, the lesser noddy seeks the mangrove trees, and then only
upon one island (Pelsart) out of all the groups, although man-
groves exist elsewhere. Then, again, the lesser noddy remains
throughout the year, whereas the noddies’ visits are periodical.
The first eggs may be observed the beginning of September, but
the climax of the breeding season is not reached till December.
Young in down, sooty black, upper part of head mouldy white.
Bill and feet black.

Now that a successful guano depét has been established upon
Pelsart Island, no doubt in time the limited supply of mangrove
trees will be used for fuel. What then will become of the
extraordinary flights of the lesser noddies as they go to and from
their fishing grounds? I trust the photographs I took may not
soon be the “light of other days.”

Puffinus nugax (1). Sol. (Allied petrel.) I am not quite
satisfied about the identity of this petrel, although it closely
resembles P. nugax. Professor McCoy, to whom I submitted a
skin, shares my doubt. If it be P. xugax, then it has never been
reported from the western side of Australia, nor has it been
recorded nocturnal, as the Abrolhos bird certainly is. I took my
specimen flying about Rat Island the midnight of 9th December.
They have also been known, attracted by the light, to fall into
the fires of persons camping upon the islands. They breed in
underground burrows in July, and appear to rear their young
and depart in time to accommodate the following species.

Puffinus sphenurus, Gould. (Wedge-tailed petrel.) It has
never been hitherto published that this petrel is also nocturnal in
its habits. It is somewhat extraordinary that such a peculiar
trait in the bird’s character should have escaped Gilbert’s notice.

496 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

About half an hour after sundown they commence moaning and
get uneasy in their burrows, and shortly afterwards birds may be
seen swiftly cutting the air in many directions. The moaning
and infant-like cries of the wedge-tailed petrel are a curious
experience. After a ramble, one quiet night, I noted in my
pocket-book next morning that “the whole island seemed groaning
and travailling in pain with the noise of mutton birds.” Some-
times the roofs of the guano station are struck with terrible force
by the birds during flight. About half an hour before sunrise
they disappear underground, when all is quiet as far as they are
concerned. The attitude of this petrel upon the ground resembles
a duck upon water, a squatting posture. When walking they
are assisted by their wings, which gives the bird a waddling or
lame gait. The burrows generally extended two or three feet in
an oblique direction, rarely more than five feet. Sometimes they
deposit their single egg in holes or fissures of rock, while more
than once eggs have been taken from under bushes. The eggs,
like those of the noddies and other birds, are excellent eating, not
at all fishy in flavour as may be supposed.

Procellaria fregata, Linn. (White-faced storm-petrel.) 15th
December, found young about ten days old in burrows upon
Beacon Rock, near Rat Island. They were clothed in long
bluish-grey down, with dark naked head and bill ; feet also dark-
coloured, with webs yellowish-white. After death an amber-
coloured oil exudes freely from the beak.

Phaéton candidus, Briss. (White-tailed tropic-bird.) An occa-
sional visitor.

Phaéton rubricauda, Bodd. (Red-tailed tropic-bird.) Seen
occasionally on Rat Island during calm weather.

Graculus varius, Gm. (Pied cormorant.) Frequent the bays
and breed in numbers upon isolated rocks.

Pelecanus conspicillatus, Temm. (Australian pelican.) Have
been known to breed upon Pigeon Island (Wallaby group) during
September.

REPTILIA.

Morelia variegata (?) (Carpet snake.) Found only on Wallaby
group. Said to be a darker variety than that found on the
mainland, and not so lively in movements. Maximum length
about nine feet. Supposed to be non-venomous.

Lgernia kingt, Gr. During the season these lizards devour
many of the eggs and young of the noddy and sooty terns, when
their skin assumes a darker hue ; but whether this be from the
change of food or merely a summer coat remains to be proved.

L£gernia stokest, Gr.

Lygosoma lesueurt, D. and B. (variety).

Lygosoma prepeditum, Blg.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 497

8.—A COMPLETE CENSUS OF THE FLORA OF THE
GRAMPIANS AND PYRENEES.

By D. Suutivay, F.LS.

In presenting this compilation to the Society, I beg to state that
my sole aim and object is to encourage others to attempt similar
productions in their respective districts. By such efforts amateur
botanists could at once see which districts were explored and
where to go to make their labours both pleasant and profitable.
The present enumeration is the result of eighteen years’ research,
and little remains to be accomplished by future explorers within
the area included in the “census” now presented. Sir Thomas
Mitchell, Baron von Mueller, Dalachy, and others have been over
the district, so that in the way of actual discovery there was little
left for me to accomplish ; still I have added, as shown, not less
than thirty-six plants new to science. It is quite possible that
many mosses and lichens, and perhaps orchids, remain still to be
discovered in the deep umbrageous gorges of the Grampians. The
district, concerning which these pages are written, extends from
Stawell to the Hopkins and the Ararat and Hamilton railway on
the one hand, and from the Grampians, Serra, and Victoria
Ranges on the other, or about forty miles each way, which gives
an area of 1600 square miles. The country lying between these
boundaries is beautifully diversified with hill and dale, having a
most charming effect, especially in the spring, when the grass and
crops are green.

The principal trees scattered over this area are Aucalyptus
rostrata, viminalis, stuartiana, obliqua, leucoxylon, gunnit and
gontocalyx, Acacia decurrens, melanoxylon and pycnantha. Fora
time the wholesale destruction of these useful trees was ruthlessly
carried on for the sake of their bark, but, I am happy to say,
since the appointment of foresters in the district, one seldom sees
saplings denuded of their bark. The native cherry, Exocarpus
cupressifornis, at one time very plentiful, is totally disappearing.
The sheoaks, too, are becoming scarce.

With regard to the vegetation of the Pyrenees, it is neither
varied nor remarkable. I have found no plants that could be
said to be absolutely restricted to these ranges. The eucalypts
already mentioned, together with Prostanthera rotundifolia,
Correa emula, Kunzea pomifera, and a few acacias, form the
leading features. Bursaria spinosa attains here the dimensions
of a middle-sized tree. ‘Ihe most elevated peaks of the Pyrenees
are Langi Ghiran, 3200, and Ben Nevis, 3000 feet above the
level of the sea. The native plants are destined in time to
become extinct, owing to bush fires and the vast number of sheep
depasturing on the slopes, and, in fact, to the very summits of

*F

498 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

the ranges. Taking leave of the Pyrenees, and turning our
attention to the beautiful Grampians—“ the garden of Victoria ”—
one feels like a weary traveller coming upon an oasis after
traversing the dreary desert, that is, from a botanist’s point of
view.

The Grampians (in 1871, when I first commenced their
exploration) were very different indeed from what they are at
present. They were then a perfect floral paradise. Bush fires
and sheep have made sad havoc within the last ten or twelve
years. The Lpacridee abound everywhere on the heath-grounds.
The incomparable £pacris tmpressa—the queen of native flowers
—here exhibits its endless variety of colour through all shades,
from dark-red to the purest white. Contrasted with this, the
bright-red of Styphelia sonderi, the white and pink of Styphelia
ericoides, the greenish yellow of Styphelia adscendens, the delicate
white of Styphelia glacialis, the fiery-red flowers of Dauiesia
brevifolia, the tall white-flowered spikes of the grass-tree
(Xanthorrhea australis), with the fine glossy foliage of the young
trees of Eucalyptus robusta, and you have before you a picture
that, to be appreciated, must be seen. Crossing the creeks at the
foot of the mountains, the explorer tears his way through a maze
of Melaleucas, Leptospermum, Acacias, Pultenzeas, Sprengelias, and
species of Myrtacez, with charming festoons of the white-flowered
Clematis aristata, the pretty blue-flowered Comesperma volubile,
and the rare yellow-flowered Mavianthus bignoniaceus. Then,
tired from his late exertion, he sits probably on a rock, taking in
at one view the splendour and variety that nature has lavished
upon this highly-favoured locality. The prevailing plants close
to the mountains are Conospermum mitchelli, with immense
corymbs of white flowers, the white-flowered Brachylomas,
Kennedya monophylla (native sarsaparilla), grass-trees, Correas,
Hakeas, Dillwynias, and the Styphelias already alluded to
Advancing up the stony ridges, the scented Boronias, Eriostemons,
myrtaceous plants, Pultenzas, Bossivas, and the large white-
flowered Leptospermum lanigerum are met with everywhere.

After about three hours’ struggling, the summit of the highest
peak—Mount William—is reached. The height of Mount
William is variously recorded at from 4000 to 5200 feet, the
latter being probably nearest the truth.

The scenery is, indeed, sublime. To the north-west, forming a
curved line, are the Grampians, and farther still the dark outline
of the Black Range, towards the South Australian borders. To
the north-east is to be seen the bold granitic peaks of the other
Black Range, in the vicinity of Stawell. Mount Ararat, standing
boldly out from the group of granite hills by which it is
surrounded, presents the appearance of a volcanic cone. Farther
to the east, Mount Cole, Langi Ghiran, and Ben Nevis, the cul-
minating points of the Pyrenees, form a conspicuous feature in

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 499

the landscape. Moyston, Stawell, and Dunkeld are the only
towns visible from Mount William. To the south, the vast and
fertile plains of the Hopkins, dotted over with small lakes,
resembling sparkling stars, in the far distance, give a momentary
relief from the contemplation of apparently interminable
mountain scenery. Descending one of the deep gorges or gullies
of the mountain, the traveller finds himself in the midst of a
dense, luxuriant growth of fern-trees, Lomarias, Gleicheneas, &c.,
their ample fronds completely canopying the mountain streams.
As he advances downwards the gorge widens, and now, indeed,
he is in the “ The Garden of Victoria.” The walks, however, are
badly kept, for one has to labour through the dense entangled
mass of vegetation with the utmost difficulty. Pultenzas,
Coprosmas, Daviesias, Pomaderris, Baueras, Hoveas, Melaleucas,
Eriostemons, Correas, Sprengelias, Clematis, Billardieras, and
hundreds of others too numerous to mention, mingle their
brilliant red, yellow, blue, pink, and scarlet flowers in such pro-
fusion as to fairly dazzle the eyes of the spectator.

DICOTYLEDONEA. Ray.
CHORIPETALEZ Hypocyne. F. v. M.

RANUNCULACEA. B. de Jussieu.

Cuematis. Jl EHcluse.

Clematis aristata. R. Brown. Grampians.
Clematis microphylla. Candolle. Grampians.

Myosurvs. L’Obel.
Myosurus minimus. Linné. Grampians, Saline Flats.

Ranuncubus. Tournefort.

Ranunculus aquatilis. Dodoneus. Grampians.

Ranunculus lappaceus. Smith. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Ranunculus rivularis. Banksand Solander. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Ranunculus hirtus. Banks and Solander. Pyrenees.

Ranunculus parviflorus. Linné. Grampians and Pyrenees.

t

DILLENIACE. Salisbury.

Hisppertia. Andrews.

Hibbertia densiflora. F.v. M. Grampians.
Hibbertia stricta. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Hibbertia humifusa. F.v. M. Grampians.
Hibbertia billardieri. F.v. M. Grampians.
Hibbertia fasciculata. R. Brown. Grampians.
Hibbertia virgata. R. Brown. Grampians, Serra, and Victorian Ranges.
Hibbertia diffusa. R. Brown. Grampians, Serra, and Victorian Ranges.
Hibbertia acicularis. F.v.M. Grampians.
*F2

500 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

MAGNOLIACEH. St. Hilaire.

Drimys. Forster.
Drimys aromatica. F.v. M.

LAURACE. Ventenat.

CassyTHA. Osbeck.

Cassytha glabella. R. Brown. Grampians.
Cassytha pubescens. R. Brown. Grampians.
Cassytha melantha. R. Brown. Grampians.

CRUCIFERZ. B. de Jussieu.

Nasturtium. Linné.
Nasturtium terrestre. R. Brown. Grampians.

CARDAMINE. I’Ecluse.

Cardamine dictyosperma. Hooker. Grampians.
Cardamine laciniata. F.v.M. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Cardamine hirsuta. Linné. Grampians.

Cardamine hirsuta, var. glabra. Grampians.

SisymBrium. ‘Tournefort.
Sisymbrium cardaminoides. F.v. M. Grampians.

CapsELLA. Medicus.
Capsella elliptica. C.A. Meyer. Grampians and Pyrenees.

Lepipium. Dioscorides.
Lepidium ruderale. Linné. Grampians and Pyrenees.

VIOLACEH. De Candolle.

Vroua. Plinius.
Viola betonicifolia. Smith. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Viola hederacea. Labillardiére. Grampians and Pyrenees.
HYMENANTHERA. R. Brown.
Hymenanthera banksii. F. v. Mueller. Pyrenees.

PITTOSPOREA. R. Brown.

Bursaria. Cavanilles.
Bursaria spinosa. Cavanilles. Grampians and Pyrenees.

Mariantuus. Huegel.
Marianthus procumbens. Bentham. Grampians.
Marianthus bignoniaceus. F.v. M. Grampians.

BILLARDIERA. Smith.

Billardiera scandens. Smith. Grampians.
Billardiera cymosa. F.v. M. Grampians and Pyrenees.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D,

DROSERACEZ. Salisbury.

Drosera. Linné,

Drosera spathulata. lLabillardiére. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Drosera whittakerii. Planchon. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Drosera pygmea. De Candolle. Grampians.

Drosera glanduligera. Lehmann. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Drosera peltata. Smith. Grampians and Pyrenees.

Drosera auriculata. Backhouse. Grampians.

Drosera menziesii. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Drosera binata. Labillardiére. Grampians.

HYPERICINA. St. Hilaire.

Hypericum. Plinius.
Hypericum japonicum. Thunberg.

POLYGALEA. Jussieu.

ComESPERMA. Labillardiére.

Comesperma retusum. Labillardiére. Grampians.
Comesperma volubile. Labillardiére. Grampians.
Comesperma calymega. Labillardiére. Grampians
Comesperma defoliatum. F'.v. M. Grampians.
Comesperma polygaloides. F.v. M. Grampians.

TREMANDREA. Rk. Brown.

TETRATHECA. Smith,

Tetratheca ciliata. Lindley. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Tetratheca ericifolia. Smith. Grampians.

RUTACEA, Jussieu.

Boronta. Smith.
Boronia polygalifolia. Smith. Grampians.
Boronia pilosa. Labillardiére. Grampians.
Boronia pinnata. Smith. Grampians.

Eriostemon. Smith.

Eriostemon obovalis. Cunningham. Grampians.
Eriostemon pleurandroides. F.v. M. Serra Range.
Eriostemon hillebrandi. F.v. M. Grampians.
Eriostemon pungens. Lindley. Grampians.
CorrREA. Smith.

Correa speciosa. Andrews. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Correa lawrenciana. Hooker. Grampians.
Correa emula. F.v. M. Grampians and Pyrenees.

LINE. De Candolle.

Linum. Theophrastos.
Linum marginale. Cunningham. Grampians and Pyrenees,

501

502 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

.GERANIACEA. Jussieu.

GERANIUM. Dioscorides.

Geranium carolinanum. Linné. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Geranium sessiliflorum. Cavanilles. Grampians and Pyrenees.

Eropium. Il Héritier.
Erodium cygnorum. Nees. Pyrenees.

PELARGONIUM, 1’ Héritier.

Pelargonium australe. Willdenow. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Parlargonium rodneyanum. Mitchell. Pyrenees.

Oxauis. Plinius.
Oxalis corniculata. Linné. Grampians and Pyrenees.

STERCULIACEZ. Ventenat.

LasIopETALUM. Smith.
Lasiopetalum dasyphyllum. Sieber. Grampians.

EUPHORBIACEA. Jussieu.
PoRANTHERA. Rudge.
Poranthera microphylla. Brongniart. Grampians.

PsEUDANTHUS. Sieber.
Pseudanthus ovalifolius.* F.v. M. Grampians.

Bryeria. Miquel.

Beyeria viscosa. Miquel. Grampians.
Beyeria opaca. F.v.M. Grampians.

AMPEREA. Jussieu.
Amperea spartioides. Brongniart. Grampians.

PHYLLANTHUS. Commelin.
Phyllanthus thymoides. Sieber. Grampians.

URTICEA. Ventenat.

PaRieTariA. C. Bauhin.
Parietaria debilis. G. Foster. Grampians.

Urtica. Plinius.
Urtica incisa, Poiret. Grampians.

CASUARINE. Mirbel.

Casuarina. Rumphius.

Casuarina quadrivalvis. Labillardiére. Pyrenees.
Casuarina distyla. Ventenat. Grampians.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 503

SAPINDACEA. Jussieu.

Doponza. Linne.

Dodonea viscosa. Linné. Grampians.
Dodonea bursarifolia. Behrand F.v. M. Grampians.
Dodonza boronifolia. G. Don. Pyrenees.

STACKHOUSIEH. R. Brown.

StackHousia. Smith.

Stackhousia linarifolia. Cunningham. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Stackhousia viminea. Smith. Grampians.

PORTULACE. Jussieu.

CLAYTONIA. Gronovius.

Claytonia pygmea. F.v.M. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Claytonia australasica. Hooker. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Claytonia calyptrata. F.v.M. Grampians and Pyrenees.

CARYOPHYLLEA.

SreLuarra. Linné.

Stellaria pungens. Brongniart. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Stellaria glauca. Withering. Pyrenees.
Stellaria flaccida. Hooker. Grampians.
Stellaria multiflora. Hooker.
SPERGULARIA, Persoon.

Spergularia rubra. Cambessédes, Grampians.

PontycarpPon. Loefling.
Polycarpon tetraphyllum. Loefling. Grampians.

AMARANTACEH. Jussieu.

ALTERNANTHERA. Forskael.
Alternanthera triandra. Lamarck. Pyrenees.

Pritotus. R. Brown.

Ptilotus alopecuroideus. F.v.M. Grampians.
Ptilotus erubescens. Schlechtendal. Pyrenees.
Ptilotus spathulatus. Poiret. Pyrenees.
Ptilotus macrocephalus. Poiret. Grampians.

SALSOLACEA. Linne.

Raacopira. R. Brown.
Rhagodia billardieri. R. Brown. Pyrenees.

CuENopopium. Tournefort.
Chenopodium carinatum. R. Brown. Grampians.

DysPHANIA. R. Brown.
Dysphania myriocephalia. Bentham. Pyrenees.

504 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

FICOIDEA.

MESEMBRIANTHEMUM. Breyne.

Mesembrianthemum aequilaterale. Haworth. Pyrenees.
Mesembrianthemum australe. Solander. Pyrenees.

POLYGONACEA. Jussieu.

Roumex. Plinius.
Rumex brownii. Campdera. Grampians.
Rumex bidens. R. Brown. Pyrenees.
Potyeonum. Dioscorides.

Polygonum strigosum. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Polygonum prostratum. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Polygonum hydropiper. Linné. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Polygonum minus. Hudson. Grampians.

Polygonum lapathifolium. Linné. Grampians.

MUEHLENBECKIA. Meissner.
Muehlenbeckia cunninghamil. F.v. M. Pyrenees.

Summary of the Choripetalee Hypogyne :—

Natural Orders 556 eee aie 24
Genera ihe 3% 18 nk 52
Species are ah Ae seve LS

CHORIPETALEH PERIGYNZ.

LEGUMINOS. Haller.

GomPHOLOBIUM. Smith.
Gompholobium huegelii. Bentham.

SPHHZROLOBIUM. Smith.
Spherolobium vimineum. Smith. Grampians.

Viminaria. Smith.
Viminaria denudata. Smith. Grampians.

Daviesta. Smith.

Daviesia corymbosa. Smith. Grampians.
Daviesia brevifolia. Lindley. Grampians.
Daviesia ulicina. Smith. Grampians.

Aotus. Smith.

Aotus villosa. Smith. Grampians.

PuULTENZA. Smith.

Pultenea rosea. F.v. M. Grampians.
Pultenea gunnii. Bentham. Pyrenees.
Pultenewa daphnoides. Wendland. Grampians.
Pultenza scabra. R. Brown. Grampians.
Pultenza pedunculata. Hooker. Grampians.
Pultenzea subumbellata. Hooker. Grampians.
Pultenea dentata. Labillardiére Grampians.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 505

Pultenea mollis. Lindley. Grampians.

Pultenza viscosa. R. Brown. Grampians.
Pultenza juniperina. Labillardiére. Grampians.
Pultenza villosa. Willdenow. Grampians.
Pultenea villifera. Sieber. Grampians.
Pultenza styphelioides. Cunningham. Grampians.
Pultenza laxiflora. Bentham. Grampians.

Evraxta. R. Brown.
Eutaxia empetrifolia. Schlechtendal. Grampians.

DILLwYnNisa. Smith.

Dillwynia floribunda. Smith. Grampians.
Dillwynia hispida. Lindley. Grampians.
Dillwynia ericifolia. Smith. Grampians.

PLATYLOBIUM. Smith.

Platylobium alternifolium. F.v.M. Grampians.

Platylobium obtusangulum. Hooker. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Platylobium formosum. Smith. Grampians.

Platylobium triangulare. R. Brown. (Grampians.

Bosst#a. Ventenat.

Bossiea cinerea. R. Brown. Grampians.
Bossiea riparia. Cunningham. Grampians.
Bossiea prostrata. R. Brown. Grampians.

TaMPLETONIA. R, Brown. P ear
= 2 ‘ ! Pa J ot
‘Templetonia muelleri. Bentham. Grampians. ym :
%
Hovea. R. Brown. i w
Hovea longifolia. R. Brown. Grampians. jm 4 rar
Hovea heterophylla. Cunningham. Grampians. ‘ &
9 -”
Goopra. Salisbury. b+ co, 2 asf
. . . . A ts gn,
Goodia lotifolia. Salisbury. Grampians. i 2 ro. gM ey
Goodia medicaginea. F.v.M. Grampians. VE eee S/
, £3 2
Nee a Ry oy
InpicorerA. Linné, NE

Indigofera australis. Willdenow.

Swarnsonta, . Salisbury.
Swainsonia procumbens. F.y.M. Grampians.
Swainsonia lessertiifolia. Candolle. Grampians.
GuycinE. Linné.
Glycine clandestina. Wendland. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Glycine latrobeana. Bentham. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Kennepya. Ventenat.

Kennedya prostrata. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Kennedya monophylla. Ventenat. Grampians and Pyrenees.

ACACIA. Dioscorides.
I,.—PUNGENTEs.
Acacia juniperina. Willdenow. Grampians and Pyrenees.

506 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Il.—UNINERVES.
Acacia aspera. Lindley. Grampians.
Acacia armata. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Acacia vomeriformes. Cunningham. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Acacia retinodes. Schlechtendal. Grampians.
Acacia pycnantha. Bentham. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Acacia myrtifolia. Willdenow. Grampians.
-III.—PLuRInERVES.
Acacia whanii. F.v.M. Grampians.
Acacia melanoxylon. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
IV .—JULIFERS.

Acacia oxycedrus. Sieber. Grampians.

Acacia verticillata. Willdenow. Grampians and Pyrenees.

Acacia longifolia. Willdenow. Grampians
V.—BIPINNATA.

Acacia mitchelli. Bentham. Grampians.
Acacia decurrens. Willdenow. Grampians and Pyrenees.

ROSACEA. Jussieu.

Rusus. Plinius.
Rubus parvifolius. Linné. Grampians and Pyrenees.

ALcHEMILLA. Brunfels.
Alchemilla vulgaris. Bauhin. Grampians and Pyrenees.

Acmna. Mautis.
Acena ovina. Cunningham. Grampians.

Acena sanguisorbe. Vahl. Grampians and Pyrenees.
SAXIFRAGEA. Ventenat.

Bavers. Banks and Kennedy.
Bauera sessiliflora. F.v. M. Grampians.

Bauera rubioides. Andrews. Grampians.
CRASSULACEA. De Candolle.

Tirnua. . Michelli.

Tillea verticillaris. Candolle. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Tillea purpurata. Hooker. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Tillea macrantha. Hooker. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Tillea recurva. Hooker. Grampians and Pyrenees.

ONAGREA. Jussieu.
EprrLtopium. Gesner.
Epilobium tetragonum. Linné. Grampians and Pyrenees.
SALICARIEA. Jussieu.

LytruRum. Linne.

Lythrum salicaria. Linné. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Lythrum hyssopifolia. Linné. Grampians and Pyrenees.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 507

HALORAGEA. R. Brown.

Hatoraais. R. and G. Forster.

Haloragis elata. Cunningham. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Haloragis micrantha. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Haloragis ceratophylla. Zahlbruckner. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Haloragis tetragyna. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Haloragis teucrioides. Schlechtendal. Grampians and Pyrenees.
MyriopHyiium. Dioscorides.

Myriophyllum variifolium. Hooker. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Myriophyllum integrifolium. Hooker. Hopkins River.

CALLITRICHIN A.

CALLITRICHE. Linné.
Callitriche verna. Linné. Pyrenees.

MYRTACEHX. Jussieu.

CatycorHRix. Labillardiére.
Calycothrix tetragona. Labillardiére. Grampians.
Calycothrix sullivani. F.v.M. Grampians (new).
Lyorzxya. Schauer.
Lhotzkya genetylloides. F.v.M. Grampians.

THRYPTOMENE. Endlicher.
Thryptomene mitchelliana. F.v.M. Grampians.
Thryptomene ericea. .F.v.M. Pyrenees.
Thryptomene ciliata. F.v.M. Grampians.
Backes. Linné.
Beckea diffusa. Sieber. Grampians.

Leprospermum. R. and G. Foster.

Leptospermum scoparium. Foster. Grampians.
Leptospermum myrsinoides. Schlechtendal. Grampians.
Leptospermum lanigerum. Smith. Grampians.
Leptospermum flavescens. Smith. Grampians.

Kunzea. Reichenbach.

Kunzea pomifera. F.v.M. Grampians and Pyrenees.

CALLISTEMON. R. Brown.
Callistemon coccineus. F.v.M. Grampians.

MeEuatevca. Linné.

Melaleuca gibbosa. Labillardiére. Grampians.
Melaleuca decussata. R. Brown. Grampians.
Melaleuca squarossa. Donn. Grampians.
Melaleuca squamea. Labillardiére. Grampians.

Evcatyrptus. Il Heritier.

Eucalyptus pauciflora. Sieber. Grampians.
Eucalyptus amygdalina (var.). Labillardiére, Grampians.

‘508 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Eucalyptus obliqua. Jl Heritier.

Eucalyptus capitellata. Smith. Grampians.

Eucalyptus leucoxylon. F. v. M. (var.). Pyrenees.

Eucalyptus melliodora. Cunningham. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Eucalyptus alpina. Lindley. Grampians.

Eucalyptus goniocalyx. F.v. M. Pyrenees and Grampians.
Eucalyptus gunii. Hooker. Grampians.

Eucalyptus stuartiana. F.v.M. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Eucalyptus viminalis. Labillardiére. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Eucalyptus rostrata. Schlechtendal. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Eucalyptus macrorrhyncha. F.v. M. Grampians.

RHAMNACEA. Jussieu.

PomapeErRis. Labillardiere.

Pomaderris apetala. Labillardiére. Grampians.

Pomaderris elliptica. Labillardiére. Grampians.

Pomaderris elachophylla. F.v. M. Grampians and Pyrenees.

Pomaderris vacciniifolia. Reisseck and F.v. M. Grampians.
CRYPTANDRA. Smith.

-Cryptandra amara Smith. Grampians.

ARALIACEA. Ventenat.

AsTRoTRiIcHA. Candolle.
Astrotricha ledifolia. Candolle. Grampians.

UMBELLIFERA. Morison.

Hyprocoryite. Tournefort.
Hydrocotyle laxiflora. Candolle. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Hydrocotyle callicarpa. Bunge. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Hydrocotyle capillaris. F.v. M. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Dipiscus. Candolle.
Didiscus pusillus. F.v.M. Grampians.

TRACHYMENE. Rudge.
‘Tractyme heterophylla. F.v.M. Grampians.

Eryneium. Theophrastos.
Eryngium vesiculosum. Labillardiére. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Apium. 'Tournefort.
Apium prostratum. Labillardiére. Grampians.

Daucus. lEcluse.
Daucus brachiatus. Sieber. Grampians and Pyrenees.

OREOMYRRHIs. Endlicher.
Oreomyrrhis andicola. Enlicher. Grampians.

Summary of the Choripetalee Perigyne :—

Natural Orders ei mes anc ial
Genera ar, ait 664 ie 47
Species ae. Me sh. we =: 124

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 509°

SyNPETALEZ® PERIGYNE.

SANTALACA. R. Brown.

Lepromeria. R. Brown.
Leptoweria aphylla. R. Brown. Grampians.

Exocarpos. Labillardiére.

Exocarpos cupressiformis. Labillardiére. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Exocarpos stricta. R. Brown. Grampians.

LORANTHACEA. Jussieu.

Lorantuus. Linné.

Loranthus pendulus. Sieber. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Loranthus celastroides. Sieber. Grampians.
Loranthus exocarpi. Behr. Grampians.

PROTEACEHX. Jussieu.

; Isopocon. R. Brown.
Isopogon ceratophyllus. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees..

ApENANTHOS. Labillardiere.
Adenanthos terminalis. R. Brown. Grampians.

ConosPeRMUM. Smith.
Conospermum mitchellii. Meissner. Grampians.
Conospermum patens. Schlechtendal. Grampians.
Prersoonia. Smith.
Persoonia rigida. R. Brown. Grampians.
Persoonia juniperina. Labillardiére. Grampians.
GREVILLIA. R. Brown.

Grevillia aquifolium. Lindley. Grampians.
Grevillia ilicifolia. R. Brown. Grampians.
Grevillia alpina. Lindley. Grampians.
Grevillia confertifolia. F.v. M.

Grevillia australis. R. Brown. Grampians.

Haxkea. Schrader.

Hakea rostrata. F.v.M. Grampians.

Hakea acicularis. R. Brown. Grampians.

Hakea ulicina. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Hakea dactyloides. Cavanilles. Grampians.

Banksia. Linné.

Banksia marginata. Cavanilles. Grampians and Pyrenees...
Banksia ornata. F.v.M. Grampians.

THYMELE#. Jussieu.

PimeveA. Banks and Solander.

Pimelia curviflora. R. Brown. Grampians.
Pimelia phylicoides. Meissner. Grampians.

510 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D,

Pimelia flava. R. Brown. Grampians.

Pimelia axiflora. F.v.M. Pyrenees.

Pimelia linifolia. Smith. Grampians.

Pimelia humilis. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Pimelia spathulata. Labillardiére. Grampians.

RUBIACE. Jussieu.

Corrosma. R. and G. Foster.

Coprosma hirtella, Labillardiére. Grampians.
Coprosma billardieri. Hooker. Grampians and Pyrenees.

OPERCULARIA. Gaertner.
Opercularia varia. Hooker. Grampians.
Opercularia ovata. Hooker. Grampians.

Gatium. Dioscorides.

Galium umbrosum. Solander. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Galium australe. Candolle. Grampians and Pyrenees.

AsppRuLA. Dalechamps.
Asperula oligantha. F.v. M. Grampians and Pyrenees.

COMPOSITA. Vaillant.

LAGENOPHORA. Cassini.

Lagenophora billardieri. Cassini. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Lagenophora huegelii. Bentham. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Lagenophora emphysopus. Hooker. Grampians and Pyrenees.

Bracuycome. Cassini.

Brachycome diversifolia. Fischer and Meyer. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Brachycome graminea. F.v. M. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Brachycome exilis. Sonder. Grampians and Pyrenees.

Brachycome scapiformis. Candolle. Grampians.

Brachycome multifida. Candolle. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Brachycome collina. Bentham. Grampians and Pyrenees.

Canotis. R. Brown.

Calotis anthemoides. F.v. M. Grampians.

Aster. Dioscorides.

Aster myrsinoides. Labillardiére. Grampians.

Aster stellulatus. Labillardiére. Grampians.

Aster asterotrichus. F.v.M. Grampians and Pyrenees.

Aster glandulosus. Labillardiére. Grampians.

Aster huegelii. F.v. M. Grampians. %
Aster aculeatus. — Grampians.

Virrapinia. Ach. Richard.
Vittadinia australis. A. Richard. Grampians and Pyrenees.

Struartina. Sonder.
Stuartina muelleri. Sonder. Grampians and Pyrenees.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

GNAPHALIUM. Bauhin.

Gnaphalium luteo-album. Linné. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Gnaphalium japonicum. Thunberg. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Gnaphalium indutum. Hooker. Grampians.

Popouepis. Labillardiére.
Podolepis acuminata. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.

LEPTORRHYNCHOS. Lessing.

Leptorrhynchus squamatus. Lessing. Grampians and Pyrenees.

Leptorrhynchus tenuifolius. F.v. M. Grampians.

Leptorrhynchus elongatus. Candolle. Grampians.

Leptorrhynchus medius. Cunningham. Grampians.
HewipTeRum. Candolle.

Helipterum incanum. Candolle. Pyrenees.

Helipterum cotula. Candolle. Pyrenees.

Helipterum corymbiflorum. Schlechtendal. Grampians.

Helipterum exiguum. F.v.M. Grampians and Pyrenees.

Helipterum dimorpholepis. Bentham. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Heticurysum. Theophrastos and Dioscorides.

Helichrysum blandowskianum. Steetz. Grampians.
Helichrysum apiculatum. Candolle. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Helichrysum semipapposum. Candolle. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Helichrysum baxteri. Cunningham. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Helichrysum scorpioides. Labillardiére. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Helichrysum obtusifolium. Sonderand F. vy. M. Grampians.
Helichrysum ferrugineum. Lessing. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Helichrysum obcordatum. F.v. M. Grampians.
Helichrysum bracteolatum. Bentham. Grampians.

Cassin1a. KR. Brown.

Cassinia aculeata. KR. Brown.
Humes. Smith.
Humea elegans. Smith. Grampians.
Rutiposis. Candolle.

Rutidosis pumilo, Bentham. Grampians and Pyrenees.

Ixop1a. R. Brown.
Txodia achilleoides. R. Brown. Grampians.

Minuotra. Cassini.
Millotia tenuifolia. Cassini. Grampians and Pyrenees.
AnGIANTHUS. Wendland.

Angianthus tomentosus. Wendland. Grampians.

CaLocEPHALUS. R. Brown.
Calocephalus lacteus. Lessing. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Calocephalus citreus. Lessing. Grampians and Pyrenees.
SrmcesBeckia. Linné.
Siegesbeckia orientalis.. Linné. Grampians.

bl PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Cotuta. Linné.

Cotula filifolia. Thunberg. Grampians.
Cotula coronopifolia. Linné. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Cotula australis. Hooker. Grampians and Pyrenees.

CENTIPEDA. Loureiro.
Centipeda cunninghami. F.v.M. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Centipeda orbicularis. Loureiro. Grampians.

Isorropsis. Turcezaninow.
Isoetopsis graminifolia. Turczaninow. Grampians.

Smnecio. Plinius.

Senecio lautus. Solander. Grampians.

Senecio vagus. F.v.M. Grampians and Pyrenees.

Senecio velleioides. Cunningham. Grampians.
Erecutites. Rafinesque.

Erechtites quadridentata. Candolle. Pyrenees.

Crmsponotus. Cassini.
Cymbonotus lawsonianus. Gaudichaud. Pyrenees.

Mrcroseris. D. Don.
Microseris fosteri. Hooxer. Grampians and Pyrenees.

CAMPANULACE. Jussieu.

Lopeuia. Linné.

Lobelia simplicicaulis. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.

Lobelia rhombifolia. De Vriese. Grampians.

Lobelia anceps. Thunberg. Grampians and Pyrenees.

Lobelia pratioides. Bentham. Grampians and Pyrenees.

Lobelia concolor. BR. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Isotoma. R. Brown.

Isotoma fluviatilis. F.v.M. Grampians and Pyrenees.

WauLENBERGIA. Schrader.
Wahlenbergia gracilis. Candolle. Grampians and Pyrenees.

CANDOLLEACEH. F. v. M.

CanpouuEA. Labillardiére.

Candollea sobolifera. F.v.M. Grampians.
Candollea calearata. F.v. M. Grampians.
Candollea despecta. R. Brown. Grampians.

LEEWENHOEKIA. R. Brown.
Leewenhoekia dubia. Sonder. Grampians and Pyrenees.

GOODENIACEA. R. Brown.

Brounonia. Smith.
Brunonia australis. Smith. Grampians and Pyrenees.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Scmvona. Linné.
Scevola emula. R. Brown. Grampians.

GOoDENIA. Smith.

Goodenia ovata. Smith. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Goodenia geniculata. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Goodenia elongata. Labillardiére. Grampians.
Goodenia pinnatifida. Schlechtendal. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Goodenia humilis. R. Brown. Grampians.

VELLEYA. Smith.

Velleya paradoxa. R. Brown. Grampians.

SELLIERA. Cavanilles.
Selliera radicans. Cavanilles. Grampians and Pyrenees.

Summary of the Synpetalee Perigyne :—

Natural Orders ae a * 9
Genera ... es = ats me 00
Species ... ale a ag be les

SYNPETALEZ HypoGynz2.
GENTIANE. Jussieu.

SEB#A. Solander.

Sebea ovata. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Sebza albidiflora. F.v. M. Grampians (Wannon R.).

ERYTHRzA. Reneaulme.
Erythrea australis. R. Brown. Grampians.
LOGANIACEA. BR. Brown.

Mirrasacme. Labillardiére.

Mitrasacme paradoxa. R. Brown. Grampians.
Mitrasacme distylis. F.v. M. Grampians.

PLANTAGINEA. Jussieu.
Prantaco. lEcluse.
Plantago varia. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
PRIMULACEA. Ventenat.
Samoutus. Tournefort.
Samolus repens. Persoon. Grampians and Pyrenees.
CONVOLVULACEM. Jussieu.

ConvotyvuLus. W. Turner.
Convolvulus erubescens. Sims. Grampians and Pyrenees.
DicHonpRA. Forster.

Dichondra repens. Forster. Pyrenees. ,
%* er
G

513

514 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

SOLANACEA. Haller.

Sotanum. Tournefort.
Solanum nigrum. Linne. Grampians and Pyrenees.

SCROPHULARINA. Mirbel.

Mimutvus. Linné.
Mimulus repens. R. Brown. Grampians.
Mimulus gracilis. R. Brown. Grampians.
GrRaTIoLaA. Dodoens.
Gratiola pedunculata. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Gratiola peruviana. Linné. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Limosetuta. Lindern.
Limosella aquatica. Linné. Grampians and Pyrenees.

VERONICA. FUCHS.

Veronica derwentia. Littlejohn. Grampians and Pyrenees.

Veronica gracilis. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.

Veronica calycina. R. Brown. Grampians.

Veronica peregrina. Linné. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Evpnrasia. Matthaeus.

Euphrasia brownii. F.v. M. Grampians.
Euphrasia scabra. KR. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.

LENTIBULARINEA. Richard.

Urricutaria. Linné.
Utricularia dichotoma. Labillardiére. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Utricularia lateriflora. R. Brown. Grampians.
PotypompHoLyx. Lehmann.
Polypompholyx tenella. Lehmann. Grampians.

ASPERIFOLI®. Haller.

Myosortis. Dioscorides.
Myosotis australe. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.

Erirricoum. Schrader.
Eritrichum australasicum. Candolle. Pyrenees.

Cynogiossum. Dioscorides.

Cynoglossum suaveolens. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Cynoglossum australe. R. Brown. Grampians.

LABIATA. Jussieu.

Mentaa. Hippocrates.

Mentha laxiflora. Bentham. Grampians.

Mentha australis. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Mentha gracilis. R. Brown. Grampians.

Mentha saturejoides. R. Brown. Grampians.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 515

Lycorus. Plinius.
Lycopus australis. R. Brown. Grampians.

BrRunELuA. Brunfels.
Brunella vulgaris. Candolle. Grampians.

PRosTANTHERA. Labillardiére.

Prostanthera rotundifolia, R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Prostanthera lasiantha. Labillardiére. Grampians. ;
Prostanthera hirtula. F.v. M. Grampians.
Prostanthera spinosa. F.v. M. Grampians.
Prostanthera debilis. F.v.M. Grampians (new).

Asuea. Scribonius.

Ajuga australis. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.

Tsucrium. Dioscorides.
Teucrium corymbosum. R. Brown. Pyrenees.

VERBENACEA. Jussieu.

VERBENA. 1 Ecluse.
Verbena officinalis. Linné. Grampians.

MYOPORINA. R. Brown.

Myororum. Banks and Solander.
Myoporum viscosum. R. Brown. Pyrenees.

EPACRIDEZX. R. Brown.

STyYPHELIA. Solander.

Styphelia Sonderi. F.v. M. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Styphelia adscendens. R. Brown. Grampians.

Styphelia humifusa. Persoon. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Styphelia thymifolia. F.v. M. Grampians.

Styphelia strigosa. Smith. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Styphelia pinifolia. F.v.M. Grampians.

Styphelia glacialis. F.v.M. Grampians.

Styphelia ericoides. Smith. Grampians.

Styphelia rufa. F.v.M. Grampians.

Styphelia scoparia. Smith. Grampians.

Bracuytoma. Sonder.
Brachyloma daphnoides. Bentham. Grampians.
Brachyloma ciliatum. Bentham. Grampians.
Brachyloma depressum. Bentham. Grampians.

Epacris. Cavanilles.
Epacris impressa. Labillardiére. Grampians.
Epacris obtusifolia. Smith. Grampians.

Summary of the Synpetalee Hypogyne :—

Natural Orders bs Sec Prk tts)
Genera ... oo mm eh Aero eer-ts)
Species ... = J si oS

¥G@2

516 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

APETALEZH GYMNOSPERMEZ.

CONIFER. Haller.

CaLLItRis. Ventenat.
Callitris pyramidalis. Ventenat. Grampians.

Summary of Dicotyledonee.

Orders, 58; genera, 178; Species, 413.

MonocoTyLEDONE.

CALYCER PBupicewans EF. v. M.
ORCHIDEA. Haller.

Dipopium. R. Brown.
Dipodium punctatum. R. Brown. Grampians.

Gastropi1a. R. Brown.
Gastrodia sesamoides. R. Brown. Grampians.

THELYMITRA. Forster.

Thelymitra ixioides. Swartz. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Thelymitra longifolia. Forster. Grampians.
Thelymitra carnea.. R. Brown. Grampians.

Thelymitra antennifera. Hooker. Grampians..
Thelymitra macmillani. F.v.M. Grampians.

Diuris. Smith.
Diuris palustris. Lindley. Grampians.
Diuris pedunculata.. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Diuris sulphurea. RK. Brown. Grampians.
Diuris longifolia. R. Brown. Grampians.
CaLocuitus. R. Brown.

Calochilus campestris. Grampians.

PRASOPHYLLUM. R. Brown.

Prasophyllum patens. R. Brown. Grampians.
Prasophyllum elatum. R. Brown. Grampians.
Prasophyllum

Microtis. R. Brown.
Microtis porrifolia. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Microtis atrata. Lindley. Grampians.
CorysantHEs. R. Brown.
Corysanthes pruinosa. R. Brown. Grampians.

Prerostruis. R. Brown.

Pterostylis concinna. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Pterostylis curta. R. Brown. Grampians.

Pterostylis nutans. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Pterostylis nana. R. Brown. Grampians.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 517

Pterostylis barbata. Lindley. Grampians.
Pterostylis mutica. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Pterostylis rufa. R. Brown. Grampians.
Pterostylis longifolia. R. Brown. Grampians.
Caurya. R. Brown.
Caleya major. R. Brown. Grampians.
Caleya sullivani. F.v.M. Grampians (new).
Actantuus. Rk. Brown.
Acianthus caudatus. KR. Brown. Grampians.

Cyrrtostruis. R. Brown.
Cyrtostylis reniformis. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.

Lyprrantuus. R. Brown.
Lyperanthus nigricans. RK. Brown. Grampians.

Eriocuiuus. R. Brown.
Eriochilus autumnalis. R. Brown. Grampians.

CALADENIA. R. Brown.

Caladenia menziesii. R. Brown. Grampians.

Caladenia latifolia. R. Brown. Grampians.

Caladenia carnea. R. Brown. Grampians.

Caladenia deformis. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.

CuiLocioTtis. R. Brown.
Chiloglottis gunnii. Lindley. Grampians.
Guossopia. R. Brown.

Glossodia major. R. Brown. Grampians.

IRIDE®. Ventenat.

PatTerRsonra. Rk. Brown.

Patersonia glauca. R. Brown. Grampians.
Patersonia longiscapa. Sweet. Grampians.

HY DROCHARIDE®. Lamarck

Orrrnta. Persoon.

Ottelia ovalifolia. Richard. Grampians and Pyrenees.

AMARYLLIDEA, St. Hilaire.

Hypoxis. lLinné.

Hypoxis glabella. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Hypoxis hygrometrica. lLabillardiére. Grampians and Pyrenees.

CatycE2 Hypocynm F. v. M.

LILIACEA, Haller.

DrymopHita. R. Brown
Drymophila cyanocarpa. R. Brown. Grampians.

518 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D

Dranetia. Lamarck.
Dianella revoluta. R. Brown. Grampians.
Dianella longifolia. R. Brown. Grampians.
Dianella tasmanica. Hooker. Grampians.

Wourmsea. Thunbere.

Wurmbea (Anguillaria) disica. F.v.M. Grampians and Pyrenees.

Burcuarpia. R. Brown.
Burchardia umbellata. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.

Busine. Linné.
Bulbine bulbosa. Haworth. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Bulbine semi-barbata. Haworth. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Tuysanotus. R. Brown.
Thysanotus tuberosus. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Thysanotus patersoni. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Casta. R. Brown.
Cesia vittata. R. Brown. Grampians.
Cesia parviflora. R. Brown. Grampians.
CuamMa@sciLta. F.v. M.
Chamescilla corymbosa. F.v.M. Grampians and Pyrenees.

TRICHORYNE. R. Brown.
Trichoryne elatior. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.

StypanprRA. kh. Brown.
Stypandra glauca. R. Brown. Grampians.
Stypandra cespitosa. R. Brown. Grampians.

ArTHROPOoDIUM. R. Brown.

Arthropodium minus. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Arthropodium strictum. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees

Catrctasia. R. Brown.
Calectasia cyanea. R. Brown. Grampians.

XzERoTES. R. Brown.

Xerotes longifolia. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Xerotes brownii. F.v. M. Grampians.
Xerotes micrantha. Endlicher. Grampians.
Xerotes thunbergii. F.v.M. Grampians.
Xerotes glauca. R. Brown. Grampians.
XANTHORRH@A. Smith.

Xanthorrhea australis. R. Brown. Grampians.
Xanthorrhea minor. R. Brown. Grampians.

TYPHACEZ. Jussieu.

TypHa. Tournefort.
Typha angustifolia. Linné.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 519

FLUVIALES. Ventenat.

TricLocHiIn. Dalechamps.
Triglochin procera. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Triglochin striata. Ruiz and Pavon. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Triglochin nana. — Grampians aud Pyrenees.
Potamogeton. Fuchs.

Potamogeton natans. Linné. Grampians and Pyrenees.

XYRIDEZ. Salisbury.

XyRIs. Gronovius.
Xyris gracilis. R. Brown. Grampians.

JUNCEZ. R. Brown.

Luzuua. Candolle.
Luzula campestris. Candolle. Grampians and Pyrenees.

Juncus. Camerarius.

Juncus bufonius. Linné. Grampians and Pyrenees.

Juncus brownii. F.v. M. Grampians.

Juncus planifolius. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Juncus communis. Meyer. Grampians and Pyrenees.

Juncus pauciflorus. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Juncus palidus. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Juncus maritimus. Lamarck. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Juncus prismatocarpus. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.

RESTIACEA. R. Brown.

TritHuRiA. Hooker.
Trithuria submersa. Hooker. Grampians.

ApHbELIA. R. Rrown.
Aphelia gracilis. Sonder. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Aphelia pumilio. F.v. M. Grampians and Pyrenees.
CENTROLEPIS. Labillardiére.
Centrolepis polygyna. Hieronymus. Grampians.
Centrolepis aristata. Roemer and Schultes. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Lrepyrropia. R. Brown.
Lepyrodia interrupta. F.v. M. Grampians.

Restio. Linné.
Restio complanatus. R. Brown. Grampians.
Restio tetraphyllus. Labillardiére. Grampians.
CatostropHus. Labillardiére.

Calostrophus lateriflorus. F.v. M. Grampians.
Calostrophus fastigiatus. F.v. M. Grampians.

Lxeprposouus. Nees.
Lepidobolus drapetocoleus. F.v. M. Grampians.

520 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

GRAMINEZ. Haller.

NrvuracHne. R. Brown.
Neurachne alopecuroides. R. Brown. Grampians.

Lepturvus. R. Brown.
Lepturus incurvatus. Trinius. Grampians.

ANTHISTIRIA. Linné (fil.).
Anthistiria ciliata. Linné (fil.). Grampians and Pyrenees.

, Eruarta. Thunberg.
Ehrharta stipoides. Labillardiére. Grampians.

Stipa. Linné.
Stipa semibarbata. R. Brown. Grampians and: Pyrenees.
Stipa pubescens. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Stipa scabra. Lindley. Grampians and Pyrenees.
DicHELACHNE. Endlicher.
Dichelachne crinita. Hooker. Grampians.
Dichelachne sciurea. Hooker. Grampians.
PrenTAPoGon. R. Brown.
Pentapogon billardiéri. R. Brown. Grampians.

Ecuinopocon. Palisot.
Echinopogon ovatus. Palisot. Pyrenees.

AmpuHipocon. R. Brown.
Amphipogon strictus. R. Brown. Grampians.

Agrostis. Linné.
Agrostis solandri. F.v. M. Grampians.

Arra. Linné.
Aira cespitosa. Linné. Grampians and Pyrenees.

DantHonta. Candolle.
Danthonia penicillata. F.v.M. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Danthonia nervosa. Hooker. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Poa. Linné.
Poa cespitosa. Forster. Grampians and Pyrenees.

Festuca. Dillenius.
Festuca distichophylla. Grampians.

Triopia. R. Brown.
Triodia irritans. R. Brown. Grampians.

Eracrostris. Palisot.
Eragrostis brownii. Nees. Grampians.

AGrRopyron. Gaertner
Agropyron scabrum. Palisot. Grampians.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Arunbo. Varro.
Arundo phragmites. Dodoens. Grampians and Pyrenees.

AcaLyce® Hypocyne. F. v. M.
CYPERACEZX. Haller.

Cyperus. Tournefort.

Cyperus difformis. Linné. Grampians.
Cyperus lucidus. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.

Hepteocuaris. R. Brown.

Heleocharis sphacelata. R. Brown. Grampians.
Heleocharis acuta. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.

Sctrpeus. Terentius.
Scirpus fluitans. Linné. Grampians.

Scirpus cartilagineus. Sprengel. Grampians and Pyrenees.

Scirpus nodosus. Rottboel. Grampians and Pyrenees.

ScHornvus. Linné.

Schoenus imberbis. Hooker. Grampians.
Schoenus axillaris. Poiret. Grampians.

LEPIposPrERMA. Labillardiére.

Lepidosperma semiteres. F.v. M. Grampians.
Lepidosperma filiforme. Labillardiére. Grampians.

Ciapium. P. Browne.
Cladium mariscus. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.

Caustis. R. Brown.
Caustis flexuosa. R. Brown. Grampians.

CAREX. Ruppius.

Carex tereticaulis. F.v.M. Grampians.
Carex appressa. — Grampians.

Summary of Monocotyledonec.

Orders, 12; genera, 73; species, 132.

ACOTYLEDONEZ.
ACOTYLEDONEZ VASCULARES.

LYCOPODINEA. Swartz.

Lycoropium. Ruppius.
Lycopodium densum. Labillardiére. Grampians.
Lycopodium laterale. R. Brown. Grampians.

SELAGINELLA. Palisot.

Selaginella preissiana. Sprengel. Grampians.
Selaginella uliginosa. Sprengel. Grampians.

OI

ogo PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

PuHYLLOGLOSUM. Kunze.
Phyloglosum drummondii. Kunze. Grampians.

FILICES. Linné.
OpuHioaLossum. ‘Tournefort.
Ophioglossum vulgatum. Bauhin. Grampians.

Scuiz#a. Smith.

Schizea fistulosa. Labillardiére. Grampians.
Schizea dichotoma. Smith. Grampians.

GLEICHENIA. Smith.
Gleichenia circinata. Swartz. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Gleichenia dicarpa. R. Brown. Grampians.
Gleichenia flabellata. R. Brown. Grampians.

OsmunpDA. Tournefort.
Osmunda barbara. Thunberg. Grampians.

AusopHina. R. Brown.
Alsophila australis. R. Brown. Grampians.

Dicxson1a. Jl Heritier.
Dicksonia antarctica. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Dicksonia davallioides. R. Brown. Grampians.

Davatiia. Smith.
Davallia pyxidata. Cavanilles. Grampians.
Davallia dubia. R. Brown. Grampians.

Linpsaya. Lindsaya.
Lindsaya linearis. Swartz. Grampians.

Apiantum. Tournefort.
Adiantum ethiopicum. Linné. Grampians and Pyrenees.

CHEILANTHES. Swartz.
Cheilanthes tenuifolia. Swartz. Grampians and Pyrenees.

Preris. Linné.

Pteris falcata. R. Brown. Grampians.
Pteris aquilina. Linné. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Pteris incisa. Thunberg. Grampians.

Lomaria. Willdenow.

Lomaria discolor. Willdenow. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Lomaria capensis. Willdenow. Grampians.
Lomaria procera. Grampians and Pyrenees.

AsPLENIuM. Linné.
Asplenium flabellifolium. Cavanilles. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Asplenium bulbiferum. Forster. Grampians.

Aspipium. Swartz.

Aspidium aculeatum. Swartz. Grampians.
Aspidium decompositum. Swartz. Grampians.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. Se

Potyropium. ‘T'ournefort.

Polypodium grammatidis. R. Brown. Grampians.
Polypodium pustulatum. Forster. Grampians.
Polypodium scandens. Forster. Grampians.
Polypodium punctatum. Thunberg. Grampians.

GRAMMITIS. Swartz.

Grammitis rutifolia. R Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Grammitis leptophylla. Swartz. Grampians.

ACOTYLEDONEX VASCULARES.

Orders, 2; genera, 19; species, 36.

MUSCI: MOSSES.

DIcRANES.

Ditrichium muelleri. Hampe. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Ditrichium affine. C. Mueller. Pyrenees.

Dicranella paucifolia. C. Mueller. Grampians (new).
Dicranum sullivani. C. Mueller. Grampians (new).
Dicranum dicarpum. C. Mueller. Grampians.
Dicranum polychetum. Hampe. Grampians.

Dicranum angustinervis. Mitten. Grampians.
Dicranum subpungens. Hampe. Grampians.

Ceratodon purpureus. Bridel. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Campylopus tasmanicus. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Campylopus depilosus. C. Mueller. Grampians (new).

GRIMMIEX.

Grimmia basaltica. Grampians.

Grimmia subeallosa. C. Mueller. Grampians and Pyrenees (new).
Grimmia leiocarpa. Taylor. Pyrenees.

Grimmia cylindropsis. C. Mueller. Grampians (new).

Grimmia sullivani. C. Mueller. Pyrenees (new).

Grimmia cygnicolla. Taylor. Pyrenees and Grampians.

TORTULER.

Acaulon sullivani. C. Mueller. Pyrenees (new).

Tortula pandurefolia. C. Mueller. Pyrenees.

Tortula vesiculosa. C. Mueller. Grampians and Pyrenees (new).
Tortula breviseta. C. Mueller. Pyrenees.

Tortula propinqua. C. Mueller. Pyrenees (new).

Tortula calycina. Schwaegrichen. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Tortula sullivani. C. Mueller. Grampians and Pyrenees (new).
Tortula lamellosa. C. Mueller. Grampians (new).

Tortula geminata. C. Mueller. Grampians (new).

Tortula acrophylla. C. Mueller. Grampians and Pyrenees (new).
Astomum kanseanum. Grampians and Pyrenees.

Eucalypta tasmanica. Hampe and C. Mueller. Pyrenees.
Phascum disrumpens. C. Mueller. Pyrenees (new).

Phascum sullivani. C. Mueller. Pyrenees and Grampians (new).
Pottia brachyphylla. Pyrenees and Grampians.

Weissia nudiflora. C. Mueller. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Weissia sullivani. C. Mueller. Grampians (new).

H24 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

ORTHOTRICHEZ.

Orthotrichum eucalyptaceum. C. Mueller. Grampians (new).
Orthotrichum sullivani. C. Mueller. Grampians (new).

Zygodon brownii. Schwaegrichen. Pyrenees and Grampians.
Zygodon scaber. C. Mueller. Grampians and Pyrenees (new).

FUNARIEX.

Funaria hygrometrica. Linné. Grampians and Pyrences.

Funaria pulchidens. C. Mueller. Pyrenees (new).

Leptangium repens. Hooker. Pyrenees and Grampians.
Entosthodon sullivani. C. Mueller. Grampians and Pyrenees (new).
Entosthodon minuticaulis. C. Mueller. Pyrenees (new).
Entosthodon dissodontoides. C. Mueller. Grampians (new).

HOOKERIEZ.
Orthodontium zetterstedtii. C. Mueller. Grampians.

BARTRAMIE®.

Bartramia erecta. Hampe. Grampians and Pyrenees (new).
Bartramia austro-pyrenaica. C. Mueller. Pyrenees (new).
Bartramia pygmea. C. Mueller. Grampians and Pyrenees (new).
Bartramia commutata. Hampe. Pyrenees and Grampians.

BRYER.

Bryum mielichhoferia. C. Mueller. Grampians (new).
Bryum leucothecium. C. Mueller. Pyrenees (new).
Bryum austro-nutans. C. Mueller. Grampians (new).
Bryum pyrothecium. C. Mueller. Grampians.

Bryum subrotundifolium. Hampe. Pyrenees (new).
Bryum pohliopsis. C. Mueller. Grampians (new).
Bryum altisetum. C. Mueller. Grampians (new).
Bryum pumilisetum. C. Mueller. Grampians (new).
Bryum pachypyxis. Hampe. Pyrenees (new).

Bryum breviramulosum. Hampe. Pyrenees (new).
Bryum sullivani. C. Mueller. Pyrenees (new).

Bryum gambierense. C. Mueller. Pyrenees.

Bryum inequale. Taylor. Pyrenees.

Bryum nutans. Schreber. Grampians.

Mielichhoferia sullivani. C. Mueller. Grampians (new).
Leptostomum flexipile. C. Mueller. Grampians and Pyrenees.

NECKERE.
Neckera hymenondonta. C. Mueller. Grampians.
Meteorium molle. Hooker (fil.) et Wilson. Grampians.
Hedwigia ciliata. Ehrhart. Grampians.
Rhacocarpus humboldtii. Hooker. Grampians.
Hedwigidium emersa. Hampe and C. Mueller. Grampians.

HYPNEz.

Rhynchostegium patulum. Hampe. Grampians.
Rhynchostegium trachychetum. F.v. M. Grampians.
Hypnum stenangium. C. Mueller. Grampians (new).
Thuidium plumiforme. Hampe. Grampians.
Thuidium pinnatum. Grampians.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

SKITOPHYLLES.
Fissideus sullivani. C. Mueller. Grampians.

POLYTRICHES.

Polytrichum juniperinum. Hedwig. Grampians and Pyrenees.

Polytrichum sullivani. Mitten. Grampians.

ANDRES.

Andrea subulata. Harvey. Grampians.
Andrea acuminata. Mitten. Grampians.

LICHENES.

Parmelia perforata. — Grampians.

Parmelia placorrhodioides. Nylander. Grampians.
Parmelia physodes. Acharius. Grampians.

Parmelia conspersa. Acharius. Pyrenees and Grampians.
Parmelia anthomelana. J. Muller. Pyrenees.

Parmelia imitatrix. Taylor. Pyrenees.

Parmelia eneofusca. J. Muller. Pyrenees.

Parmelia tenuisima. Taylor. Grampians.

Parmelia pertusa. — Grampians.

Cladonia verticillata. Floerke. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Cladonia ochrochlora. Floerke. Grampians.

Cladonia macileuta. Nylander. Pyrenees.

Cladonia corallifera. Nylander. Pyrenees and Grampians.
Cladonia pyxidata. Hoffmann. Pyrenees.

Cladonia costata. Floerke. Grampians.

Cladonia furcata. — Pyrenees.

Pertusaria glebosa. J. Muller. Grampians.

Urceolaria scruposa. Acharius. Grampians.

Placodium xanthophanum. Nylander. Grampians.
Callopisma aurantiacum. Nylander. Pyrenees.
Lecanora vitellina. Nylander. Grampians.

Lecanora effusa. Fries. Grampians.

Lecanora hoffmannia. Acharius. Pyrenees.

Lecanora sordida. Fries. Pyrenees and Grampians.
Lecanora atra. Acharius. Pyrenees.

Rhizocarpon geographicum. Kirb. Pyrenees and Grampians.
Lecidea confluens. Fries. Pyrenees.

Theloschistes parietinus. Norm. Pyrenees.

Ramalina levidea. — Pyrenees.

Usnea barbata. — Pyrenees.

Usnea dasypogoides. Nylander. Pyrenees.

Clathrina (Cladonia) sullivani. Pyrenees (new).
Stereocaulon proximum. Nylander. Grampians.
Knightiella leucocarpa. J. Muller. Pyrenees.

Squamaria gelida. — Grampians and Pyrenees.
Physcia speciosa. —- Pyrenees.

Peltigera polydactyla. — Grampians.

Peltigera pulverulenta. — Grampians.

Stictina fragellima. — Grampians.

Stictina gilva. — Grampians.

Sticta freycinettii. — Grampians.

Sticta fasciculata. — Grampians.

Biatora lucida. — Grampians.

Total species AA ae: ae ar 708
New species discovered by the writer ... ne 36

Ol

526 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

9.—NOTES ON THE KNOWN DIPTEROUS FAUNA OF
AUSTRALIA.

By Freperick A. A. SKUSE.

Tue Diptera, or two-winged flies, constitute a very considerable
section of our fauna; indeed, it would be strange if they did
not, for throughout the world this order is known to be one of the
most richly represented of the great insect class.

Our Lepidoptera and Coleoptera have been assiduously collected
and studied, but the Diptera, which are probably as numerous
as either of these orders, have been sadly neglected by both
collectors and describers.

The total number of described Australian Diptera cannot be
precisely stated, but it does not exceed 1392. Even this small
total is undoubtedly above the mark, being for the most part
merely an enumeration of the published descriptions. On close
examination, many cases will be found where descriptions of the
same species are twice and thrice presented by one or more
authors, under not only different specific and perhaps generic
names, but in some instances placed in wrong families. Many
unavoidable cases of describing the same species twice over must
necessarily be found among the numerous publications of Walker
and Macquart between 1848 and 1856; also, between those of
Dr. Schiner (“ Novara” Exp.) and Thomson (“ Eugenia” Exp.),
both appearing in the year 1868, and each containing about fifty
descriptions of new species of Diptera found in the neighbourhood
of Sydney.

In the following pages, under the different family headings,
arranged in systematic order, I have enumerated all the genera
(with the number of species) recorded from Australia, or known
to occur here.

The families Cecidomyide, Sciaridee, Mycetophilide, Simulide,
Bibionide, Culicids, Chironomid, and the Tipulide brevipalpi
have been reviewed by myself in the proceedings of the Linnean
Society of New South Wales (1888-89), and a fair number of
species have been described. All the species of the rest of the
families have been described by European authors, chiefly by
Walker and Macquart, in the Dipteres Exotiques and Lritish
Museum Catalogue respectively; and very little indeed has
been done among the Australian Diptera during the last twenty
years. Dr. Schiner (V.z.-b.G. Wien, 1866) reviewed the Asilidee
of the world, with the advantage of a large number of types,
so that our knowledge of the described Australian species
is fairly complete; Dr. Gerstaecker (Ent. Zeit. Stett., 1868)
overhauled the Midaide; and Bigot (Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr. 1874)
partially reviewed the Dexide. Of few of the other families is

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 527

our knowledge reliable, except where the genera are readily
understood, and limited in described species.

Our described species are referred to rather more than 300
genera, of which about 80, or a little more than one-fourth,
are regarded as endemic; but these numbers will doubtless
be somewhat modified on a careful investigation of the species
themselves.

This essay can only be a very incomplete sketch of the
Australian Diptera, but at any rate it serves to show the present
unsatisfactory state of our knowledge of this most prolific and
interesting portion of our fauna; and may prove of assistance
to entomologists who may be induced to come forward and
devote some attention to one or more of the neglected families.
There is an abundance of unnamed material in collections, and a
plentiful harvest yet to be gathered.

Section 1.—DIPTERA ORTHORHAPHA.
Division I.—NEMATOCERA.

The families falling under this division are probably as richly
represented in Australia as in any other part of the world. Very
little is known of the speoies occurring outside New South Wales,
and the majority of them have been described from specimens
obtained in the vicinity of Sydney. The Blepharoceride and
Orphnephilide are the only families at present unknown.

Fam. 1. CEcIDOMYIDA.

Ninety-five species referred to fourteen genera have been
described from Australia, or, more correctly, exclusively from
New South Wales. Leteropeza, Winn., one; Miastor, Mein.,
two; Gontoclema, Sk., one; Cecidomyia, Loew, seven; Diplosis,
Loew, forty-eight ; Asphondylia, Loew, two; Hormomyia, Loew,
one; Vecrophlebia, Sk., one; Chastomera, 8k., one; Colpodia,
Winn., one; Lfidosis, Loew, ten; Asynapta, Loew, three ;
Lastoptera, Meig., seven ; and Campylomyza, Meig., ten. Most
of these genera are of world-wide distribution ; and some of them
occur in a fossil state in amber. Vecrophlebia, Chastomera, and
Gontoclema have hitherto been found only in Australia. I know
several undescribed species, belonging to four or five genera,
among which is a species of Lestvemia. I am also imperfectly
acquainted with the life-histories of several species, some of
which form galls on the leaves and twigs of the Eucalypti. This
family seems to be very abundant in Australia.

For descriptions of the Australian species see Proc. Linn. Soe.
New South Wales, vol. iii. (Ser. 2nd), 1888, pp. 17-144, pl. 2-3.
Descriptions of all the known genera, and references to the most
important papers treating on this group are given.

528 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Fam. 2. ScIARID®.

The typical genus Sciara, Meig., is represented by forty-two
described species, and Z7ichosta, Winn., by one species, nearly all
from New South Wales. Several species of .Sczava and one or
two of Zygoneura, Meig., are known to me, but not yet charac-
terised. Sciara seems to be generally diffused throughout all
regions of the earth’s surface ; Zyonewra and Trichosia have been
recorded from Europe and America.

Undoubtedly this family is abundantly represented in Australia,
but scarcely anything is known of the species outside New South
Wales. See Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. ili. (Ser.
2nd), 1888, pp. 657-724, pl. 11.

Fam. 3. MycrToPrHILID®.

The hitherto described species number thirty-five species
apportioned to no less than sixteen genera. A/acrocera, Meig.,
three ; Cevoplatus, Bosc, one; Heteropterna, Sk., one ; Platyura,
Meig., eight ; Psewdoplatyura, Sk., one; Antriadophila, Sk., four;
Sciophila, Meig., one; Homaspis, Sk., one; Acrodicrania, Sk.,
three; Zeta, Meig., one; Aze/eca, Sk., one; Zrizsygia, Sk., one;
Aphelomera, Sk., one ; Trichonta, Winn., two ; Mycetophila, Meig.,
two; and Brachydicrania, Sk., four. Of these, nine generic
names, Heteropterna, Pseudoplatyura, Antriadophila, Homaspis,
Acrodicrania, Ateleia, Trizygia, Aphelomera, and Brachydicrania
have been proposed for peculiar Australian forms; the other
genera are of more or less world-wide distribution.

Since enumerating the species last year (Proc. Linn. Soc. New
South Wales, vol. iii. (Ser. 2nd), 1888, pp. 1123-1220, pl. 31 and
32), I have discovered several additional species. No estimate
can be taken of the number of species inhabiting Australia, but
the number must be very considerable. Very little is known of
the species occurring outside New South Wales.

Fam. 4. SIMULID.

This family, containing only a single known genus of universal
distribution, is represented in New South Wales by only a single
described species, S. molestum, Sk. No others have been yet
discovered.

a

Fam. 5. BIBIONIDA.

Australia does not appear to be rich in Bibionide. Nine
species of Aibz0, Geoff., are ascribed to this country, one of which
is Bibio marci, Geoft., known commonly in Europe. I have only
seen one species, B. zmitator, Walk., with which B. fulvipennis
and B. ruficoxis, Macq., and LB. helioscops, Sch. are synonymous.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 529

Plecia, Wied., common to America, Asia and the Eastern Isles,
is known in Australia by four well-marked species. Dz/ophus,
Meig., of almost world-wide distribution, has two species; and
Scatopse, Geoff, also occurring almost everywhere, is represented
here by two species, one of which, S. zofa/a, Linn., originally a
native of Europe, is now known from several parts of the world,
having been introduced into other countries through the medium
of shipping. See Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. iii.
(2nd series), 1888, pp. 1363-1386, pl. 39.

Fam. 6. BLEPHAROCERID®.

No representative of this group has been yet discovered in
Australia.
Fam. 7. CULICIDA.

The genus MZegarrhina, Desv., recorded from America, West
Indies, Asia and the Eastern Isles, is known in this country by one
species. The cosmopolitan genus Cu/ex, Linn., seems abundantly
represented, twenty-one species having been already described ;
one of these, C. claris (? var.) Linn., has been introduced from
Europe, and is the great nocturnal pest of all the colonies.
Anopheles, Meig., has five, and #des, Meig., one described
example. Iam also in the position to record the occurrence of
Corethra, Meig., having recently taken specimens at Wagga
Wagga, New South Wales. For descriptions of our species see
Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. ii. (2nd series), 1888,
pp. 1717-1764, pl. 40.

Fam. 8. CHIRONOMID.

This family, rich in North American and European species,
seems also abundant in Australia, Eleven genera and seventy-
two species have been already recorded. Chivonomus, Meig.,
twenty-eight ; Ovrthocladius, v. d. Wulp, five; Camftocladius,
v. d. Wulp, five; Doloplastus, Sk., one ; Zanytarsus, v. d. Wulp,
seven ; Metriocnemus, v. d. Wulp, one; Tanypus, Meig., one;
Lsoplastus, Sk., three ; Procladius, Sk., two ; Leptoconops, Sk., one ;
and Ceratopogon, Meig., seventeen. Doloplastus, Tsoplastus,
Procladius, and Leptoconops have been adopted for what appear to
be endemic forms. Most if not all of the other genera are
probably universally represented, but owing to the insignificant
size of these insects, and the difficulties which attend their collec-
tion and study, very few have been described, except from Europe
and America. The Australian species are described in the Proc.
Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. iv. (2nd series), 1889, pp. 215-
311, pl. 11-14.

Fam. 9. ORPHNEPHILID®.
None known.
*H

530 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Fam. 10. PsycHopip@.

Several examples are known to me, but none have been
described.

Fam. 11. TipuLip#.

This group is probably as richly represented in this country as
it is known to be in Europe and America. The Tiputipa
BREVIPALPI have received the most attention, with the result that
almost one hundred species belonging to twenty-five genera are
now known, as follows:—Limwnopina, Dicranomyia, Steph.,
fourteen ; Zhrypticomyia, Sk., one; Geranomyia, Hal., four;
Limnobia, Meig., one; TZyrochobola, O. Sack., one; Lidbxotes,
Westw., one; Limnobpina ANOMALA, ARhamphidia, Meig., four ;
Orimarga, O. Sack., two; Letponeura, Sk., two; Teucholadis,
O. Sack, one: Erioprertna, Rhypholophus, Kol., two; Molophilus,
Curt., sixteen; Zasiocera, Sk., two; Evrioptera, Meig., one;
Trimicra, O. Sack, two; Guophomyia, O. Sack., one ; Goniomyia,
Meig., one; Rhabdomastix, Sk., one; Lechria, Sk., one; Trente-
pohlia, Bigot., one; Conosia, v. d. Wulp, one; LimNopHILina
Limnophila, Macq., sixteen; Gynoplistia, Westw., eighteen ;
Cerozodia. Westw., one; and AMALOoPINA, Ama/opis, Hal., two.
The genera Thrypticomyia, Leiponeura, Tasiocera, Rhabdomastix
and Lechria have been erected for Australian species. The second
great division, TIPULID# LONGIPALPI, is also well represented, but
the described genera and species must undergo a thorough revision
before the genera can be clearly defined and located. Altogether,
something like twenty-two species have been described, eleven of
which are vaguely described under the name Z7pu/a. Several
species belong to JMacromastix, O. Sack., a genus which also
occurs in New Zealand and South America. The genera Leféo-
tarsus, Guérin, Semnotes, Westw., and Prilogyna, Westw., are
peculiar Australian forms.

Several undescribed species of Tipulide are known to me,
including a species belonging to the section CYLINDROTOMINA.

Fam. 12. Dixip2.

No species yet recorded from Australia; I am, however,
acquainted with three species occurring in N.S.W. Dzxa, Meig.
(the only genus included in this family), is known by several
species in Europe and America.

Fam. 13. RHyYPHIDA.

This family, represented throughout the world by the genus
Rhyphus, Latr., the species of which bear a remarkable similarity,
is known by one described species, A. dvevis, Wlk., from Tas-

mania. This and another species seem to be found all over New
South Wales.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 531

Division I].—Bracuycera.

The Asilide and Bombylide have received a considerable
amount of attention, from their being conspicuous and for the
most part large insects. No species belonging to Acanthomeridz
and Senopinide yet recorded.

Fam. 14. XyYLOPHAGIDS.

Of this small family two Australian examples of both Xylo-
phagus, Meig., and Agapophytus, Guérin, have been described.
_ Agapophytus is endemic, while the other genus is represented in
Europe and America.

Fam 15. Ca@nomyIp.

This family seems to be of rare occurrence everywhere, as
far as the number of species is concerned. Three Australian
species, belonging to the genus C/zvomyza, have been described ;
one of these by Macquart under the name Xenxomorpha australis.

Fam 16. STRATIOMYID.

Thirty-eight species, referred to nine genera. From this it
appears that this family, which is so richly represented in other
countries, is but poorly so in Australia. Of the more or less
cosmopolitan genera, Odontomyia, Meig., is known by seventeen
described examples; Servis, Latr., seven; Stratiomyia, Geoff.,
eight ; Sargus, Fabr., Oxycera, Meig., Ciitellaria, Meig., Meto-
ponia, Macq., and Zphippium, Latr., by one each. Anacanthella,
Macq., the only known genus which seems peculiar to this
country, has also a single described species.

Fam. 17. ACANTHOMERIDZ.

No examples yet described from Australia, nor have any, as far
as I am aware, been yet discovered here.

Fam. 18. TABANIDA.

One hundred species, arranged under eight genera, have been
recorded. The cosmopolitan genera, Pangonia, Latr., Chrysops,
Meig., Sz/vius, Meig., and Zabanus, Linn., are represented by
forty-seven, two, four, and forty-three species respectively ; the
other four genera, Apocampta, Sch., Cenopnyga, Thoms., Dasybasis,
Macq., and Palecorhynchus, Macq., are endemic, and each contains
only a single described species. Possibly Ajocampta and Cenop-
nyga are identical. Zabanus and Pangonia are numerous all over
the country. The number of Australian species belonging to the
section PANGONINA is considered very large, and, according to the
list, only exceeded by the American species.

*H2

Or
bo

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Fam. 19. Lepripa.

Only four species stand recorded. Three belong to Chrysopila,
Macq., and the fourth to Lefts, Fab., both well-known genera in
Europe and America.

Fam. 20. ASILID®.

Of this family one hundred and thirty-four species and thirty
genera are recorded for Australia. The DasypoGonrna are repre-
sented by forty-eight species, twenty-one of which are distributed
as follows :—4athypogon, three ; Brachyrhopala, two; Cabasa,
two; Codula, two; Damalis, one; Dioctria, one; Leptogaster,
three ; AZicrostylum, one; Phellus, one; Saropogon, two; Steno-
pogon, one; Plesiomma, one ; and Laparus, one. The remaining
twenty-six species doubtfully occupy their correct genera. The
Laphrine only fifteen species— Andrenosoma, one ; Dasyllis, one ;
Lampria, one; Laphria, four ; Thereutria, four ; Tapinocera, one ;
and three doubtful species. The Asi~mina# number the most, with
seventy-one species and eleven genera— Asz/us three, Cerdistus one,
Craspedia two, Erax six, Glaphyropyga one, Ltamus six, Ommatius
five, Philodicus two, Proctacanthus three, Promachus two, Psecas
one, and thirty-nine species of uncertain position. Seven of the
genera, Brachyropala, Cabasa, Codula, Craspedia, Phellus, Psecas,
and Zapinocera are endemic ; two, Lathypogon and Glaphyropyga,
are only found elsewhere in South America, while 7heveutria is
only otherwise known by an oceanic species. The rest of the
genera are more or less completely universal in their distribution.
See V. z.-b. G., Wien, xvi, pp. 649-722, 1866, by Dr. J. R.
Schiner.

Although the Asilide have been largely collected, being for
the most part conspicuous insects, they are so numerous in this
country that it is probable only a small proportion of the existing
species are yet described. The family is richly represented in
the Macleay collection.

Fam. 21. Miparpa.

The Australian species of this family occupy exclusively
endemic genera. Dr. A. Gerstaecker (Ent. Zeit. Stett, 1868;
pp. 65-103) reviewed the Midaide of the world, and placed all
the known Australian species under three new generic names.
Thomson (Eugenies Resa, p. 463) in the same year proposed the
name Harmophana for two species, one of which, described by
Macquart, Gerstaecker simultaneously placed in his own new
genus Zyiclonus. Diochlistis contains one, Triclonus four, and
Miltinus ten species. The Australian genus Pomacera, Macq.,
with a single species, may also be provisionally retained in
this family. The Midaide are generally distributed over the
country, but several of them have been described from Western
Australia.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 533

Fam. 22. NEMESTRINID.

This apparently limited family is, according to descriptions,
more numerous in Australia than in any other ‘country, the total
of our species amounting to twenty-five. The African and South
American faunas are each credited with about twenty species ;
these belong to the genera to which the majority of the Australian
forms are referred. TZ7ichophthalma, Westw., has nineteen,
Hirmoneura, Meig., four, and Z7richopsidea, Westw., and LExere-
toneura, Macq., a single species each. The two last-mentioned
genera are known only from this country; Zxeretoneura is
recorded only from Tasmania.

Fam. 23. BomByLip«.

This family is richly represented. One hundred and twenty-
three species, referable to eleven genera, have been characterised ;
no species, falling under the section ToxopHorIn& are yet known
here. ANTHRACIN# has fifty nine species, nine of which belong
to Exoprosopa, Macq., and the remainder to Anthrax, Scop ;
Lomatin® jncludes sixteen species, one belonging to Lomatia,
Meig., five to Veuria, Newm., and ten to Comptosia, Macq. ; and
BomBYLIn# is represented by six genera and forty-eight species,
two species belong to Gevon, Meig., the same number to Phthiria,
Meig., one each to Duschistus, Loew, and Lomatia, Meig., two to
Acreotrichus, Macq., and forty to the typical genus Bombylius.
Only one genus, Acreotrichus, Macq., is yet recorded as peculiar
to Australia ; several of the others are cosmopolitan.

Fam. 24. THEREVID.

Thirty-three species, belonging to five genera, have been
described. Anabarhynchus, Macq., peculiar to Australia, has
eleven described species ; Dimassus, Walk., has one species
occurring in New South Wales and two others of doubtful locality.
Thereva, Latr., a cosmopolitan genus, is, according to descriptions,
represented throughout the country by at least seventeen species.
The genus Phycus, Wlk., is known by only two species, one of
which has been described from New South Wales, the other from
Bengal. Lctinorhynchus, Macq., only known from Sydney, South
Australia and Tasmania, seems to be limited to three or four
species.

Fam. 25. ScENOPINIDA.

No Australian species have been yet recorded, and I do not
yet know of the occurrence of any.

Fam. 26. Cyrrip2.

Represented here by six genera, three of which are endemic ;
these latter, picerina, Macq., and Leucopsina and Nothra,

534 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Westw., each contains only a single described example. Oncodes,
Latr., of world-wide distribution, has five Australian representa-
tives ; while Prerodontia, Gray, and FPanops, Latr., have each
three species (see Trans. Ent. Soc., Lond., 1876, pp. 507-518).
The genus Ozcodes occurs all over the country; Thomson’s
species described (Zugenzes Resa, 1868, p. 475) under the name
of Mesophysa, from Sydney, belongs to Ozcodes.

Fam. 27. Empip2.

This family, so numerously represented in Europe and America,
seems to be only sparingly so in Australia; the cosmopolitan
genera, /Zybos, Hilara, and Hmfpis, Meig., are indicated by one,
two, and three species respectively. The two species of Alara
belong to Tasmania; Lmpzs occurs in New South Wales and
Tasmania ; the single species of Ay4os is only known in New
South Wales. There are some undescribed species known to me
in collections.

Fam. 28. DoLicHoPpoDID™s.

The Dolichopodide seem numerous in both genera and species,
but only twenty-one species have been described; all but one
have been characterised under the generic title Psz/opus, Meig. ;
the odd one is a Hydrophorus, from Tasmania. Doubtless many of
those described by Walker and others as Psz/opus will eventually
be found to really belong to different genera; some names, I
believe to be synonyms. Loew (Mon. Dipt., N. Amer. IT., 1864)
has written an important work on the North American species.

Fam. 29. LoNCHOPTERIDE.

No species have yet been recorded, though the family, which is
throughout the world represented by only a single known genus,
occurs in Australia.

Srotion II.—DIPTERA CYCLORHAPHA.
Division I.—PrRoposcipEA.

Except among the Syrphide, Tachinidae, Dexide, Muscide,
and Anthomyide, very little is known of the Australian species
belonging to the numerous families included in this division.
The Cordyluride, Lonchxide, Heteroneuride, Sepsidz, Diopside,
and Asteide are unknown.

Fam. 30. SyrRpPHIDZ.

Twenty-three genera of this extensive family are known in
this country; the widely-scattered genera Syrphus, Fab., and

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 535

Eristalis, Latr., are put down as numbering fifteen and eleven
species respectively; the remaining genera, Brachyopa, Meig.,
Ceria, Fabr. Cheilosia, Meig., Chrysogaster, Meig., Chrysotoxum,
Meig., Cozloprosopa, Macq., Criorrhina, Macq., Cyphipelta, Bigot,
Deineches, Wik., Zumerus, Meig., Helophilus, Meig., Hemilampra,
Macq., MJelanostoma, Sch., Merodon, Latr., Mesembrius, Rond.,
Microdon, Meig., Mixogaster, Macq., Orthoprosopa, Macq., Psilota,
Meig., Spherophoria, St. Farq., and Xy/ota, Meig., have mostly
only one, but never more than three, species described as Aus-
tralian. The genera Cozloprosopa, Cyphipelta,, Detneches, Hemt-
lampra, and Orthoprosopa seem peculiar to Australia, none
having been yet recorded from other countries.

The total number of species on paper is sixty-one, though it is
scarcely probable that they are all tenable ; Schiner, in 1868, put
the Australian species down at 53, and even this includes the
New Zealand species.

The Syrphide are numerous all over Australia, and doubtless
there is a large number of unknown forms ; there is a considerable
number of undescribed species in the Macleay collection.

The cosmopolitan species, Zristalis tenax, Linn., occurs in
Australia and New Zealand.

Dr. Williston (Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus. No. 31, Washington, 1886)
has monographed the North American species, and compiled a
complete list of all known genera, with synonyms.

Fam. 31. Conopip®.

The universal genus Cozofs, Linn., is credited with twelve
Australian species. The only other genus known here is the
endemic Pleurocerina, Macq., of which a single example is recorded.
Conops occurs throughout the continent.

Fam. 32, PIrPuNcULIDa.

No species have been hitherto described from Australia. There
are specimens belonging to the well-known genus Pipunculus,
Latr., in the Macleay collection.

Fam. 33. PLATyYPEzID®.

None yet recorded.. I know one or two species of Platypeza
Meig., or an allied genus.

Fam. 34. CéstrRIp&,

No Australian examples hitherto recorded. Sir William
Macleay informs me that a fly which may belong to this family
attacks the natives of northern Australia. Cstrus ovis, Linn., is
said to have been introduced into this country (Proc. Roy. Soc.
Tasm., 1884, p. 258, by A. Morton)

536 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Fam. 35. TACHINIDA.

The recorded species amount to eighty-six, referred to twenty-
eight genera. Hyalomyia, R. Desy., one; Gymnosoma, Meig.,
one; Ocyptera, Latr., four ; /urinia, R. Desv., one ; Echinomyza,
Dumer., one; Micropalpus, Macq., nine; Gonia, Meig., two;
Exorista, Meig., seven; Zachina, Meig., twelve; JMasicera,
Macq., twelve ; Phorocera, R. Desv., fourteen; Belvorsia, R.
Desv., one; Blepharopesa, Macq., one; Lurygaster, Macq., two ;
Degeeria, Meig., one ; Chrysosoma, Macq., one; JZyobia, Macq., one;
Tritaxys, Macq., one ; Aprotheca, Macq., one ; Chlorogaster, Macq.,
one ; Exechopalpus, Macq., one; Heterometopia, Macq., three ;
Platytainia, Macq., one; Lolycheta, Macq., one; Sumpigaster,
Macq., one; Zeretrophora, Macq., one; Zoxocnemis, Macq., one ;
and Zvrichostylum, Macq., one. The ten last-named genera are
regarded as endemic forms; the remainder are ice either in
Europe or America, or in both, &ce. Four species of AZicropalpus
have been described under the name WVemoraa, R. Desv.

Fam. 36. DeExip#.

Twelve genera, with about ninety-four species, are ascribed to
this family. Some of the genera and species require a critical
revision ; this has been partly effected by Bigot (Ann. Soc. Ent.
Fr., Ser. V., 4, 1874, pp. 451-460). Dexza, Meig., seventeen ;
Prosena, St. Farq., six; Rutilia, R. Desv., thirty-three, two of
them doubtfully Australian ; Aormosia, Guérin, seventeen ; AZicro-
topeza (= Rutilia), Macq., two: Omalogaster, Macq., three ;
Amphibolia, Macq., three, one of which is possibly merely a
synonym; Sexostoma, Macq., two; Diaphania, Macq., three ;
Amenia, R. Desv., five; and Chetogaster and Graphystylum,
Macq., one each. Three species described as Rutilia belong to
Amphibolta, fourteen to Formosia, and one to Diaphania. Eleven
species described by Walker under Dexia are placed in Rutz,
another in ormosia. The genera Che/ogaster, Diaphania, and
Graphostylum are endemic, and closely allied to Auta; the
latter seems peculiar to Australia, New Guinea, and the Eastern
Islands, New Zealand, and India. <Amphzbolia and Senostoma are
also endemic. Amenza occurs also in New Zealand, one species,
A. leonina, being common to that country and Australia; A/icro-
topeza sinuata and Rutilia pellucens are also found in both
countries. /ormosia is represented also in the Eastern Archi-
pelago and in New Zealand ; Dexia and Prosena occur in Europe
and America.

Fam. 37. SARCOPHAGIDE.

Nine species, belonging to the wide-spread genus Sarcophaga
Meig., have been described.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 537

Fam. 38. Muscip.

Fourteen genera, with sixty-seven species distributed among
them, have been recorded, as follows :—Stomoxys, Geoff., one ;
Idia, Meig., two; Cadlliphora, R. Desv., thirteen; Polenta,
R. Desv., four ; Zucilia, R. Desv., five ; Somomyia, Rond., three ;
Pyrellia, R. Desv., six ; Orimia, R. Desv., seven ; AZusca, Linn.,
fifteen ; Cyrtoneura, Macq., four ; Rhyachomyia, R. Desv., four ;
Onesia, R. Desv., one; Glossina, Wied., one; and Afsatemyia,
Macq., one. The latter genus is apparently endemic, all the
others have a more or less universal dispersion.

This family is most abundantly represented in Australia ;
there must be many undescribed forms in collections.

Musca domestica, Linn., the common house-fly, now known
almost throughout the world, is only too numerous.

Fam. 39. ANTHOMYIDZ.

Eleven genera and thirty-five species are recorded, but this
total cannot be regarded as representative. Anthomyia, Meig.,
well known all over the world, is credited with only thirteen
species; Avicia, R. Desv., with eight species, one of which has
been described by Bigot under the name YVe¢odesta ; Ophyra, R.
Desyv., three ; Wydrotae and Limnophora, R. Desv., and Spilogaster,
Macq., two each ; and Coenosia, Meig., Lispe, Latr., Pygophora, Sch.,
Duomyia, Walk., and Macrocheta, Macq., a single representative
each. The three last-named genera are regarded as endemic.
Undescribed species of Gonza, Meig.,or an allied genus, are in the
Macleay collection.

Fam. 40. CorDYLURID.

The family is represented, but no species have been yet
described.

Fam. 41. Hertomyzip2.

Five specimens of the typical genus elomyza, Fall., have been
described, four of them from Tasmania and one from New South
Wales. The genus appears to be of world-wide distribution.
fleteromyza, Fall., also apparently universal, has two species
described from Tasmania.

Fam. 42. Sclomyzip&.

Four genera with seventeen species are distributed as follows :—
Sciomyza, Fall., eleven, Tetanocera, Latr., two, Drvomysa, Fall.,
three, and TZafeigaster, Macq., one. Only the last-named is
endemic. There are undescribed species belonging to this group
in the Macleay collection.

538 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Fam. 43. Psinip@.

None yet described. There are specimens of Zoxocera or an
allied genus in the Macleay collection.

Fam. 44. Muicropezip@.

Five indigenous species of Calodata, Meig., only have been
described. This genus is distributed throughout the globe.
Macquart (Dipt. Exot. Il., part 3rd, 1843, p. 245) seems to
believe that Wiedemann’s Caloéata albitarsis, described in 1830,
from Java, is identical with a species found at Cuba, Philadelphia,
and (Port Jackson) Sydney ; if so, his C. a/dimana, from Java,
is the same species.

Calobata occurs throughout Australia and at Lord Howe
Island.

Fam. 45. ORTALIDA.

Twenty-two species, referred to seven genera, are recorded.
Lamprogaster, Macq., found also in the Phillipine Islands, Java,
the South Sea Islands, and New Zealand, is represented in Aus-
tralia by about eight or nine described examples; one of which,
Lamprogaster strigipennis, described by Macquart as a Tephritis
(= T7rypeta), is according to Schiner found in New Zealand.
Walker has described several of our species under the generic
title Chromatomyia, proposed six years after Macquart’s name.
Stenopterina, Macq., has five recorded species, mostly Tasmanian ;
this genus also occurs in America, Java, etc. erina, R. Desv.,
which is widely distributed, has a single species from Tasmania
(described by Thomson as Hernia). The typical genus Orfalts,
Fall., is according to our list represented in Australia by four
species ; probably not one of them is an Orfadis. Besides these
four genera, the three following, with one species each, are
regarded as endemic, Campigaster, LEpicerella, and Toxura,
Macq.

Fam. 46. TrYPETID®.

Thirty-two species and three or four genera are doubtfully
ascribed to Australia. Various authors have characterised species
which apparently belong to 77y/efa, under no less than four generic
names (7.e., Acinia, Tephritis, Trupanea, and Urophora), hence no
doubt the same species have in several instances been described
under different names. The species described by Macquart as
Platystoma, Meig., and his genus Zufrosopia (peculiar to Aus-
tralia) also cannot be trusted. Macquart and Guérin describe
each a new genus (Cardiacera and Bactrocera respectively) for
Australian insects, which probably belong to Dacus, Meig.; a.
third species has been described by Walker under the name
Dacus.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 539

The above-mentioned species and genera require a thorough
overhauling before any can be satisfactorily admitted. See
Loew’s papers on: the North American Trypetide (Mon. Dipt.,
N. Amer., I. & III., 1862-1873).

_ Fam. 47. Loncn ipa.

No Australian species have been yet identified.

Fam. 48. SAprRoMyZID&.

Hight species of Sapromyza, Fall., and two of Zauxania, Latr.,
both world-wide genera, have been described from New South
Wales and Tasmania. Celyphus inegualis, Costa, dubiously
Anstralian, should perhaps be referred to this family.

Fam. 49. PHycoDROMID.
One species each of Phycodroma, Stenh., and Celopa, Meig.,
are recorded.
Fam. 50. HETERONEURID.

No species of this family have yet been recorded from Aus-
tralia.

Fam. 51. OPpomyzIp@.

One species of the universally-distributed genus, Ofomyza,
Fall., described from Tasmania.

Fam. 52. SEpSsIDe.
None recorded. .

Fam. 53. PrIropHimip#.

None recorded ; the well-known Piophila caset, Linn., of course
occurs in Australia.

Fam. 54. Dtopsipm.
None known to occur.

Fam. 55. EpuHypDRIpD#.
One species of Zphydra, Fall., a widely-distributed genus, and
one of £ctropa, Sch., an endemic form, have been characterised.
Fam. 56. DrRosopHILip#.

One species of the cosmopolitan genus, Drosophila, Fall.,
described from New South Wales. Several others are known in
collections.

540 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Fam. 57. OSscINID®.

Two species each of the wide-spread genera Oscinis, Latr., and
Chlorops, Meig., stand recorded. Several undescribed species
occur in collections, from all parts of Australia. The genus
Batrachomyia, Kr., proposed for two species parasitic upon
Australian frogs, and Lestophonus, Will., containing also two
species, parasitic upon Australian Coccidide, seem peculiar to
this country. The latter two species have been artificially
introduced into America.

Fam. 58. AGROMYZID&.

A single species of Oxyrhina, Zett., has been described by
Thomson from Sydney.

Fam. 59. PHyTomMyzIp&.
The genus /Phyfomyza is numerously represented, but no

species have yet been described.

Fam. 60. ASTEIDZ.
Not known as yet in Australia.
Fam. 61. Borsoripa.
Some species of Borborus, Meig., or allied genus, are in the
Macleay collection. None yet described. |
Fam. 62. PHorRIDs.

The genus Phora, Latr., is numerous. Only one species has
been described, Phora nebulosa, W\k., from Tasmania.

Division IJ.—EPrRoBOSCIDEA.
Fam. 63. HtIpPoBoscIp&.

The cosmopolitan genera //zppobosca, Linn., and Ornithomyia,
Latr., have respectively two and four described species. Several
other species are known in collections. O/fersia, Wied,, is credited
with a single species. JZelophagus ovinus, Linn., which is known
now almost throughout the civilised world, is found in Australia.

Fam. 64. NyYcTERIBIDZ.

I know a number of species in collections, but hitherto none
have been described from this country.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 541

10.—ON THE EXPERIMENTAL CULTIVATION OF THE
MOTHER-OF-PEARL SHELL WELEAGRINA
MARGARITIFERA IN QUEENSLAND.

By W. Savitie-Kent, F.L.S., F.Z.8., Commissioner of Fisheries
and P.R.S., Queensland.

Tne pearl and pearl-shell fisheries of Queensland and West
Australia occupy a prominent position among the most valuable
natural products of the Australian continent. Collectively, within
the past few years, they have represented an average annual
export value of over £200,000. This estimated value was, how-
ever, In previous years considerably exceeded, the falling-off,
which has been most marked with relation to the Queensland
output, being due mainly to the exhaustion of the home and
inshore fishing-grounds, the pearl-shelling vessels having conse-
quently to go much further afield and to expend much more time
and labour than formerly in securing their harvest. In the
earlier years of the Australian pearl-shelling industry fine shell
was abundant so close in shore that it might be collected by
wading at low spring tides. Examples are even yet to be
occasionally obtained, and have been so collected by myself under
these conditions. The greater bulk of the shell is at the present
date obtained with diving apparatus from an average depth of
seven or eight fathoms, while the very largest shell now pro-
curable, and coming from near the coast of New Guinea, is
brought up from a depth of close upon twenty fathoms. But few
divers, however, can endure the strain of long-continued labour
under such a superincumbent weight of water. A second cause
which has contributed very extensively towards the exhaustion of
the more accessible fishing-grounds has been the wholesale collec-
tion of the young, miniature shell, now being left to arrive at
maturity to replenish the exhausted waters. This minature shell
cannot be utilised for the same purposes as the mature shell, and
there is no demand for it in the English market.

Recognising the necessity of instituting regulations that shall
act as a check upon the unrestricted destruction of the young
shell, and the desirability of inaugurating any other measures
that might contribute towards the improvement and further
development of this important industry, I have been recently
deputed by the Queensland Government to make an exhaustive
inquiry into and draw upa report upon the entire subject. For this
purpose I have spent some two months in the Torres Straits dis-
trict, making Thursday Island my head-quarters, and from thence
visiting all the more important stations and shelling-grounds.
Full details of the evidence collected and recommendations of
regulations suggested for the better conservation and develop-

542 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

ment of the fishery are embodied in the desired report. Apart
from the matters entailing ordinary official attention, advantage
was taken of the opportunities afforded me during my visit to
Torres Straits to initiate a series of experiments in the direction
of ascertaining the possibility of bringing the living pearl-shell in
alive from the more remote fishing-grounds, and of laying it down
and cultivating it in the readily accessible inshore waters. The
results obtained in connection with these investigations were of
so satisfactory a nature, and are, if ultimately followed up,
calculated to exert so far-reaching an influence upon the future
development of the pearl and pearl-shell fisheries of the Austra-
lan continent, that I have considered a brief account of them,
together with an enumeration of the means and methods employed
in their realisation, might form an appropriate contribution to the
Proceedings of the Australian Association for the Advancement
of Science. With the sanction of the Queensland Government,
they are accordingly submitted.

It may be mentioned, in the first place, that previous to the
date of these investigations the most contrary views were prevalent
among those engaged in the shelling industry concerning the
life-history and natural habits of the mother-of-pearl shell,
Meleagrina margaritifera, whilst little or no credence was
attached by them to the possibility of bringing the shell in alive
and cultivating it artificially. By way of illustrating the variety
of opinions that were upheld, it was affirmed by many of the
pearl-shell divers that the mollusc remained permanently fixed in
its ocean bed throughout every phase of its existence. By others
it was asserted that the shell had no means of attaching itself,
but that at the same time it remained perfectly quiescent in its
selected habitat. By yet a third section it was as strenuously
maintained that the pearl shell was a migratory animal, that was
constantly moving from place to place. Had this last-named
theory proved to be the correct one, all attempts at artificial
cultivation would have necessarily proved abortive, the impounded
shells being liable, after the manner of scallops (genus /ecéen),
Lima, and other allied types, to take unto themselves wings and
fly away. As the experiments demonstrated, however, neither
of the three theories propounded were in precise accord with the
actual facts.

By a fortunate coincidence I arrived at Thursday Island at a
period that enabled me almost immediately to acquire some
important information concerning the life habits of this shell-fish.
A few weeks only prior to my arrival, 10th August, a diver, who
had been employed to examine the bottom of the storage hulk,
the Star of Peace, for the purpose of repairs, found growing upon
it a quantity of shells, which were pronounced by some to be the
young of the true pearl-shell. Noattempt was made to keep these
shells alive. They were merely dried and cleaned, and in that

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 543

condition were submitted to me for examination and identification
by the hon. John Douglas, the Government resident at Thursday
Island. The majority of the examples gathered were evidently
the young of the Aeleagrina margaritifera. Mixed with them
were, however, the young of the smaller black-lipped species
usually identified with MMe/eagrina cumingii, and also those of a
third non-commercial species not yet precisely determined, but
apparently corresponding with Meleagrinu muricata. These
shells, gathered from the Star of Peace, varied in size from one to
three inches in diameter. Within the next few -days, while
exploring the coral reefs in the immediate neighbourhood of
Thursday Island at low spring tide, I had the good fortune to
find several similar young living examples of the true mother-of-
pearl shell, JZ. margaritifera. The smallest of these measured no
more than one quarter of an inch, and the largest about two
inches in diameter. These shells were, in all cases, attached to
the under surface of loose coral rocks by a cable or byssus,
consisting of a bundle of tough green threads. By severing this
byssus carefully with a knife, the shells were secured without the
slightest injury, and were brought in and kept alive for the
purpose of studying their habits. Efficient aquaria for their
conservation were extemporised out of a couple of huge clam
shells, Z7idacna gigas, each having a capacity of several gallons,
that ornamented the lawn of the Government Residency. Sea-
water was brought up in buckets from the shore, aud renewed to
them every day, the little pearl-shells adapting themselves with
remarkable alacrity to their novel surroundings. About a dozen
individuals, to which others were subsequently added, were
maintained in health for several weeks under the conditions just
described, and afforded the opportunity of observing and recording
many important data.

It was first observed that these young pearl-shells possessed
the capacity of ejecting the portion of the byssus remaining
imbedded in their tissues after they were separated from their
primary attachment, and of secreting a new byssus, by which
they affixed themselves to the nearest available anchorage. This
was represented, in association with the specimens under observa-
tion, by the interior surface of the clam-shells in which they were
confined. In all instances, with rare exceptions, the re-attach-
ment of the shells was effected on the immediate spot upon which
they were placed when brought in from the sea, and to which
anchorage they remained firmly fixed throughout the period of
their confinement. The exceptions referred to were furnished by
certain of the smallest-sized shells, one or two of which crept
from the upper and re-attached themselves to the shaded
under-surface of an empty oyster-shell, upon which they had been
placed. A specimen in another instance moved for the space of
a few inches before re-attaching itself by its new byssus. Two of

544 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

the smallest examples, about one-quarter inch in diameter, which
were temporarily kept in a wide-mouthed bottle, were observed to
creep, with the aid of their slender protrusible foot, a little dis-
tance up the side of the bottle, and to which they then made
themselves secure by the secretion of a new byssus. This byssus,
or anchoring cable, is secreted a thread at a time; during its
exudation it is of the consistency of liquid glue, but rapidly
hardens in the water. The byssus of living examples of the true
pearl-shell, AZe/eagrina margaritifera, was in all cases observed,
whether young or old, of a glassy sea-green hue, and the number
of threads or strands of which the entire cable is composed usually
averages from thirty to forty. It may be mentioned here that
the extemporised aquaria, represented by two large clam-shells,
in which the young pearl-shells were confined, were left exposed
on the hillside in front of the Residency, and fully open to the
action of the south-east monsoon, which, at the period of the
experiments conducted, August and September, blew strongly
and continuously, and thus received the thorough re-oxygenisation
of the water in which the shells were kept. The only additional
precaution taken for their welfare was the placing of a board
over the top of the clam-shells to screen the water with its living
contents from the direct rays of the tropical midday sun.

The facts that were determined in association with the experi-
mental culture of the young shells, as just described, may be thus
summarized :—1l. It was conclusively demonstrated that the
pearl-shell, in its young condition at least, firmly attaches itself
to submarine objects by means of a so-called byssus, or anchoring
cable. 2. That in the event of injury, the primary byssus can
be ejected and a new one secreted. This fact carried with it the
demonstration that the animal was capable at will of separating
itself from its original fulcrum, and of re-attaching itself else-
where. 3. While the young animals were found to possess the
capacity of locomotion, such locomotion was shown to be of a
feeble character and rarely exercised. In this respect the habits
of the pearl-shell were found to coincide to a considerable extent
with those that have been observed of ordinary mussels, genus
Mytilus, and the wing-shells, genus Avicula. Active locomotive
functions similar to those of the scallop-shells, genus /ecfen, and
an allied type, genus Zz#za—both of which can transport them-
selves to considerable distances by the opening and closing of
their valves—are certainly not possessed by the pearl-shell,
Meleagrina margaritifera, and have been incorrectly ascribed to it
by many of the divers and owners of shelling-boats.

The information gathered concerning the life habits of the
young pear]-shell was next extended to that of the more matured
and adult individuals. This was accomplished chiefly through
the acquirement of materials obtained in an excursion made in
the G.S. Aldatross to one of the most prolific shelling-grounds in

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 545

Torres Straits, lying west from Bado or Mulgrave Island, and
familiarly known to the fishermen as the “Old ground.” Some
forty vessels, luggers of ten or eleven tons burden, were then
engaged in shelling operations in the area traversed by the
Albatross. The majority of these were boarded, the manner of
working observed, materials collected, and much practical infor-
mation elicited from the divers. It was found in this connection
that all the medium-sized pearl-shells, up to a diameter of seven
or eight inches, were attached, in a similar manner as the young
ones already described, by a strong byssus, or anchoring cable, to
a supporting fulcrum, which consisted chiefly of the frag-
ments of coral and shell, of which the sea bottom in this district
is composed. The shells of larger size, nine or ten inches in
diameter and of considerable weight, 5 or 6 lbs., were in all
examples I examined devoid of a byssus, and rested simply on
their ocean bed. A similar condition was observed, also, of
several shells of the same size I personally collected at extreme
low tide, on the Warrior and other outlying coral reefs. Such
adult shells evidently require no cable to keep them anchored in
the tideway, their own weight insuring their stability, which
is in most instances further secured by the luxuriant growth upon
their exposed upper shells, usually the right valve, of heavy
madrepores and other corals, such as the well-known cup coral,
Turbinaria peltata, and innumerable varieties of sponges, shells,
sea-weeds, and other organic growths. Under such a combined
weight it would be altogether impossible for the animal to move,
and the question of their migratory habits previously suggested
may, in face of the practical evidence now adduced, be most
distinctly answered in the negative. Many young shells, corres-
ponding in every essential point with those referred to as having
been obtained from the bottom of the Star of Peace, were also
found adhering to the adult individuals. These were saved alive,
in company with a series of matured specimens, to form the
subject of further investigation.

One of the most important objects of the expedition was to
ascertain by direct experiment if it was possible to bring the
pearl-shells in alive from the outer fishing-grounds, and to relay
and cultivate them in the shallower inshore waters. The evidence
hitherto adduced was not favourable to this proposed scheme,
the majority of the witnesses interrogated maintaining that the
shells would not survive removal from their native habitat, and
that all attempts previously made to transport the shell had
failed. In order to thoroughly test the matter, several distinct
methods were now resorted to. Some fifty examples, varying in
dimension from five or six to as much as ten inches in diameter,
were placed at my disposal by the different boats. The majority
of these specimens were immersed in two tubs of sea water on

board the Adbatross, the water being run off and renewed in them
<1

546 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

every three or four hours. At night, when the ship was usually
at anchor, these shells were taken out of the tubs and placed in
specially-constructed cages composed of wired netting stretched
over rhomboidal wooden frames, this shape offering the least
resistance to the current. The frames, with their contents, were
then lowered overboard, and secured by a rope till the morning.
A small number of specimens, some half a dozen only, were
simply placed in a shady place on deck, sea water being thrown
over them at intervals. With a third equally small series an
experiment was put in practice, and identical with the method
recently reported to have been attended with remarkable success
in connection with the conservation of the American oyster for
long periods out of water. This method, known as “ muzzling,”
consists of fastening the shells so tightly together with wire that
the contained liquids cannot escape. Thus treated, the oysters
are said to survive several weeks’ isolation from their native
element. All the pearl-shells treated in the several manners
described were brought into Thursday Island on the second day
after their collection. Of the examples confined in tubs of sea
water, renewed at intervals throughout the day and lowered
overboard in frames at night, every specimen was preserved in
health. Of the number simply placed in the shade on deck, sea
water being occasionally thrown over them, one half only arrived
in good condition, while the remaining half, being too exhausted
to recover, fell a prey to crabs and predatory molluscs. A like
untimely end befell all those examples on which the “ muzzling”
process had been practised. A subsequent study of the case last
recorded showed that the mortality was brought about through
the liquid draining away entirely from the animals through the
byssal or pedal cleft, which retains its full development even
in the adult shells in which a byssus is no longer present. A like
explanation applies also, though in a less marked degree, to the
specimens left on deck, and over which water was thrown at
occasional intervals. The results of the foregoing experiments
clearly demonstrate that the mother-of-pearl shell, while of a
much more delicate constitution than the ordinary oyster, and
very impatient of prolonged removal from its native element,
might, with due care and under conditions corresponding with
those to which the bulk of the specimevs were submitted, viz.,
continued immersion in sea water, be easily transported in a
living state from the outer fishing-grounds to any desired locality.

The next step taken was to ascertain the practicability of
cultivating the pearl-shell brought from the outer fishing-grounds,
having a depth of seven or eight fathoms, in the comparatively
shallow inshore waters. With this object, some favourable-
looking pools in the fringing coral reef, off Vivian Point, and
immediately beneath the Government residence at Thursday
Island, were selected. These pools, which were only exposed for

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 547

a few hours during the lowest ebb of the spring tides, proved to
be admirably adapted for the purpose. At all other times a
strong current, which is one of the most essential elements of
their healthy growth, swept over them. Corals of the genus
Madrepora, which will flourish in the purest and swiftly-circulating
water only, were growing freely in these pools, and the conditions
generally coincided closely with those under which the pearl-shell
was in former times abundantly and may even yet be occasionally
gathered in its adult state. For greater security, and in order
that they might be more readily accessible for examination at all
tides, the forty adult and about an equal number of young
specimens that had been brought in by the A/Jatross were placed
in wire netting-covered frames, closely resembling those that have
for some years been successfully employed by me for the culture
of ordinary oysters. In these frames the shells were raised
slightly from the surface of the ground, and at the same time
remained covered by a few inches of water at even the lowest ebb
of the tide. Examined at short intervals during the remaining
period of my stay at Thursday Island, about six weeks, all the
specimens were found not only to be doing well, but to be growing
rapidly. By the end of this relatively short period some of the
examples had added as much as half an inch to the free border of
their shells, and in almost all instances lappet-like prolongations
of new shell were produced throughout this region. A corres-
ponding rapidity of growth was also observed of the young shells
having a diameter of two or three inches only, and including both
those acquired in connection with the A/éatross expedition and
the specimens previously obtained from the adjacent coral reef.
Several examples from the stock ef pearl-shell accumulated
were dissected for the purpose of preparing illustrations of the
animal’s anatomy, and others were sacrificed with the object of
ascertaining the capacity possessed by the living animals of
repairing their shells, and the time occupied in such process. The
results obtained in these several directions tended to show that
the growth and maturation of the pearl-shell is effected within a
much shorter interval than has been hitherto suspected. By
many of those practically associated with the pearl-shell fisheries
a period of from ten to fifteen years has been variously assigned
to the mollusc as the time required for the growth of its shell to
a marketable condition. Until the species has been under culti-
vation or direct observation for a number of years, it will be
impossible to accurately determine this important point. From
the investigations recently conducted, and evidence otherwise
collected, I am, however, inclined to anticipate that, under
favourable conditions, a period not exceeding three years suflices
for the shell to attain to the marketable size of eight or nine
inches diameter, and that heavy shells of five or six pounds
weight per pair may be the product of five years’ growth. In
*12

548 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

connection with the experiments initiated in the direction of the

artificial cultivation of the pearl-shell, it was my desire to make

myself acquainted with the reproductive phenomena of the

species, and of which up to that time no accurate information was

available. In none of the specimens dissected, or in the more
numerous examples opened in my presence on the shelling-
grounds, however, were the reproductive organs in a mature
state of development. From this circumstance, I am disposed to
conjecture that the principle spawning season of the mollusc
occurs at a time of the year differing from that of my recent
visit to the Torres Straits, and most probably during the hotter
season of the north-west monsoon. As evidence in support of
this conclusion, it may be stated that some few of the specimens
examined immediately before my return to Brisbane were found
on dissection to have their reproductive organs in a more
advanced condition of development than those investigated at an
earlier date.

As a general result of the experiments and investigation so far
conducted, added to the satisfactory intelligence recently received
(December, 1889) concerning the condition of the pearl-shell that
has been under cultivation at Thursday Island for over three
months, the practicability of artificially transporting and culti-
vating this valuable mollusc is, I consider, fully assured. Suitable
facilities being granted, in the form of leases of fore-shores and
water areas similar to those conceded for the purposes of ordinary”
oyster culture, there is no reason, indeed, why all the available
areas of the intertropical Australian coastline should not be
utilised for the development of the newly-indicated branch of this
pearl and pearl-shelling industry. The archipelago of islands in
Torres Straits, with its numerous sheltered intervening channels,
and including Thursday Island as a central station, no doubt
offers the most favourable field for the prosecution of this
industry. The neighbourhoods of Port Essington and Port
Darwin, falling within the jurisdiction of South Australia, with
which I am personally acquainted, are also eminently suited for
pearl-shell cultivation. And the same may be said of the more
sheltered areas of the north-western coastline of West Australia,
a district which is already notable for its valuable pearl and
pearl-shell fisheries.

It may be argued, in conclusion, that a scientifically-conducted
system of artificial cultivation offers, as is the case with ordinary
oysters, the only sure remedy against the reckless practice of
over-fishing, and which has, not only in Australian waters, but in
other quarters of the globe, ruined what were formerly the most
prolific fisheries almost beyond redemption. Should the series of
experiments and investigation recorded in this paper lead to the
inauguration of the more scientific and permanently profitable
development of the Australian pearl and pearl-shell fisheries,
herein suggested, the author’s object will have been accomplished.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 549

11—AN APPARENTLY NEW TYPE OF CESTODE
SCOLEX.

By Professor W. A. Haswext, M.A., D.Sc.

12._THE CLAIMS OF ARBORICULTURE AS A
SCIENCE IN AUSTRALIA.

By W. Brown.

13.—AUSTRALIAN LICHENOLOGY.
By Rev. F. R. M. Witson.

[ Adstract. |

AUSTRALIAN lichenology begins with this century.

In 1791 M. Labillardiere accompanied Amiral d’Entrecasteaux
in his expedition in search of La Pérouse, and, on returning to
France, he published the results of his collection in his “ Novee
Hollandize Plantarum Specimen,” 1804. He gives description
and drawings of one lichen from Cape Van Diemen, New
Holland, which he named 4eomyces reteporus. Acharius calls it
Cenomyce retipora, Syn. Meth., 1814. Acharius mentions only
another lichen from New Holland, Col/ema tremelloides, vay.
pichneum, sent to him by Thunberg.

In 1802 Mr. Robert Brown accompanied Captain Flinders in
his investigation of the coasts of New Holland; and of the
lichens collected by him he gives a list of 58 species common
to Australia and Europe, in Appendix 3 to “ Flinders’ Voyage
to Terra Australis,” 1814. Brown’s collection lay in the British
Museum for nearly 80 years, until Rev. Mr. Crombie revised
it, and published the names of 73 lichens, inclusive of 12 new
species described by him.—/ourn. Lin. Soc., Lond., 1880.

In 1817 M. Gaudichaud accompanied Amiral Freycinet in his
expedition to the South Seas, and on returning to France
published the results of his collection in the botanical part of
Freycinet’s “ Voyage Autour du Monde.” The lichens were
determined by Persoon, and 4 of them were gathered in
Australia.

In 1827 Sprengel’s “Systema Vegetarum” mentions only 2
Australian lichens.

In 1838 Herr Ludovic Preiss, visiting Swan River, met there
a botanical resident, James Drummond, who took Preiss through
the neighbouring country. When he returned to Europe he

550 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

submitted the lichens of his collection to Elias Fries, who
enumerated, in the “ Planta Preissiane, or Enumeratio Plan-
tarum,” edited in 1847 by Christian Lehman, 23 lichens, inclusive
of 2 described as new.

In 1839 Mr. Joseph D. Hooker accompanied Sir Jas. Clark
Ross in his Antarctic expedition. On returning to England he
drew up an account of the botany of the voyage. The 3rd and
4th vols. contain the “ Flora Tasmaniz,” 1847, in which Messrs.
Babington and Mitten enumerate 92 lichens, inclusive of 2
described as new. Mr. Hooker was assisted in the collection of
these by seven persons, whose names he gives.

After Hooker’s visit to Australia, Mr. Drummond sent to him
from the Swan River, among other plants, a number of lichens,
which were submitted to Messrs. Taylor, Montague, and Berkeley,
and the names and descriptions were published in the Lozdon
Journal of Botany, 1844-47.

In 1847 Dr. Ferd. Mueller, now Baron v. Mueller, came to
Adelaide, and made collections in South Australia till 1852 and
in Victoria during 1848. The lichens were sent to Dr. Hampe,
who published their names and descriptions in Schechtendal’s
Linnea. Yn 1852 Dr. Mueller was made Government Botanist in
Victoria; and in his reports to the Victorian Council in 1854,
and to the Assembly in 1858, he transcribed from the Lzmn@a a
list of 31 Victorian lichens, and a list of 15.

Baron v. Mueller informs me that M. Verreaux, mentioned by
Nylander as an Australian collector, came out to New South
Wales at the expense of the Paris Museum, and that Mrs.
Dietrich came to the same colony at the expense of Godefroy, of
Hamburg, as a collector for his herbarium. Ludwig Leichardt
collected a few lichens in New South Wales for the Melbourne
Bot. Mus.

In 1858-1860 Nylander published his Syx. Meth. Lich., in
which he notices 77 Australian lichens. His works have
revolutionised the study of lichenology, and necessitate revision
of all lichens previously named.

In New Soutn Wats Rev. Dr. W. Wools published, in 1867,
in his “Contribution to the Flora of Australia,” the names of
fourteen lichens collected by him in New South Wales, chiefly
near Parramatta. The names are not reliable.

“Der Reise der Oecsterreichischen Fregatte /Vovara” was
published at Vienna, 1870, in which Dr. Krempelhuber records
four lichens collected by the JVovara expedition from 1857 to
1860.

Dr. Chas. Knight, having made a collection of 52 lichens in
the neighbourhood of Sydney, published their names, including
descriptions of 40 new species, in the Trans. Lin. Soc., Lond.,
1882. This is a most valuable contribution to the lichenology of
New South Wales.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 5d1

Specimens collected in the same colony by Messrs. Kirton,
Wilcox, Bauerlen and White, and Mrs. Hodgkinson, for the
Victorian Botanical Department, have been named by European
specialists, and preserved in the Melbourne Bot. Mus. A few
collected by myself, near Sydney and in the Blue Mountains, are
enumerated in the Proc. Roy. Soc., Queensland, vol. vi. I have
also named a few for Mr. A. G. Hamilton, of Mount Kembla,
New South Wales.

In Vicrorta collections by Messrs. R. Wilhelmi, D. Bulivan,
C. Walther, Merral, C. French, and Mrs. McCann, have been
forwarded by B. v. Mueller to Europe, the earlier collections to
Dr. Krempelhuber, who published the names of 122 in “ Der
Verhanlungen des Kais. Ken. Zool. Botan. Gesellsch,” Wien,
1880, whence a list of the names has been transcribed into Frag.
Phyt. Austral., xi. supplement ; the later collections to Professor
Jean Mueller, who revised Krempelhuber’s determinations in the
Ratisbon Flora, or Botanische Zeitung, 1887, and published the
names of others, including descriptions of new species in the same
journal, whence a list of the names has been transcribed into the
Victorian Naturalist, 1887. J. Mueller’s determinations are the
most reliable and complete that we have of Australian lichens.
Some Victorian lichens, collected by Mr. Hugh Paton, from
Glasgow, along with some from Ball’s herbarium, collected at the
Macquarrie, were named by Dr. Stirton, and published in Proc.
Roy. Soc. Vic., September, 1880. Collections by Miss F. M.
Campbell, now Mrs. Martin, by Mr. F. Reader, and by myself,
were determined by Dr. Chas. Knight. Latterly I have taken
it upon me to name and describe a few out of the large number
collected by myself; and lists of 237 species, with descriptions of
43 new ones, have been published in the Victorian Naturalst,
October, 1887, June, 1888, August and September, 1889.

In Sourn AvsTRALIA a few specimens are recorded in Fraser’s
Phytologia Austraitensis. Messrs. J. G. O. Tepper, Batt, and
Oliver have collected a few, the names of which appear in Trans.
Roy. Soc. South Australia, vol. iv., v., vii and ix. A few have
been collected also by myself, one of which was new.

In QUEENSLAND Messrs. Hartmann, Sayer, Karston, Pentzke,
and Persich gathered a number of lichens, among other plants,
for the Victorian Bot. Dept., and they have been determined by
Prof. J. Mueller. Mr. F. M. Bailey, the Government Botanist
at Brisbane, and Messrs. Bowman, J. Keys, J. Shirley, Cosson
and Mrs. Thozet have made collections, which have been examined
by Dr. Stirton, Rev. W. Leighton, Dr. C. Knight, or Prof.
Mueller. And with the help of my friend J. Shirley I have made
a fair collection from the neighbourhood of Brisbane. Stirton’s
namings appear in the Scottish Naturalist, 1878, and in Proc.
Roy. Soc. Victoria, 1880, and in Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasmania, 1880,
from which latter they have been reprinted in Frag. Phyt.

552 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Austral. xi. suppl. Knight’s earlier namings appear in Proc.
Roy. Soc. Qn., vol. i, in a paper by Mr. Bailey. The later
appear in the synopsis of “ Queensland Flora” and Sup. i. and ii.
All the Queensland lichens hitherto named, numbering 485, are
classified and described by Mr. J. Shirley in his ‘“ Queensland
Flora,” which appeared in Proc. Roy. Soc. Qn., vols. v. and vi.,
and has been lately published by him in a separate form. This
is a most useful work, and will be found to be indispensable to
the student of Queensland lichenology.

In WestErN AusTRALIA there have been, in late years, three
collectors, Messrs. Moore, Webb and A. J. Campbell.

In TasmantA I do not know of any collections made since those
of Hooker.

LITERATURE OF AUSTRALIAN LICHENOLOGY.

1. Labillardiére. Novy. Holl. Plant. Vol. 2,p.110 ... 1804. P!
2. Brown, in Flinder’s Voy. Ter. Aust. Vol. 2, pp. 593-4 1814. P! M!
3. Persoon, in Gaudich. Vol. bot. Freye. Voy., pp. 187-215 pal
4. Sprengel. Syst. Veg. Vol. 4, parti., pp. 271, 303 1827. P! M
-5. Taylor, in Hooker’s Journ. Bot., pp. 634-658 ... wos 18449 (Ba
6. Mont. and Berk., in Hooker’s Journ. Bot., p. 257 ... 1846. P!
7. Taylor, in Hooker’s Journ. Bot., pp. 148-197 csv yp LBAM Pel
8. Fries, in Plant. Preiss. Vol. 2, pp. 140-145 wilh L847 ee Pe!
9. Bab. and Mit., in Hook. Fl. Tasm. Vol. 2, pp. 343-54 1847. M! B!
10. Hampe, in Shlecht. Lin. Vol. 25, pp. 707-712 SUE Baoan ian
Thien i Vol. 28,p.47.... —..- -1856, Mt
12. Report Bot. Gard. Melb. Vic. Council, pp. 18-19 .... 1854. P!
13. = a E Assem., p.13 ... <2: eel SeSaeee
14. Nylander’s Syn. Meth. passim ... : sap L860.) at
15. Brown’s Miscel. Works. Ray Soc. Publ. Vol..1. 3... W866 KB!
16. Wood’s Contrib. Flor. Austral., pp. 163-173 ... ie CSET Ea
17. Krempelhuber, in Reise der Novara, pp. 107-129 ... 1870. P!
18. Stirton, in Scot. Nat. Jan., Apr., July ba bred lisifitox
19. es Trans. Field Nat. Soc. Glasg.
20. Crombie, in Journ. Lin. Soe. Vol. 17, pp. 390-401 1880. P!
21. Stirton, in Proc. Roy. Soc. Vic., Sept., pp. 66-78 ... 1880. P!
22. Tennison Woods, in Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasm. ... 1880. P!
23. Krempelhuber, in Verhand. Bot. Gesells, Wien,
DP: Ba0s84% ory ch: 1880. M!
24. Krempelhuber, in Neuer Beitr. “Flecht. snail:
25. Frag. Phyt. Austral., XI Suppl., pp. 70-74, 115-118, &e. 1888. P! M!
26. B. v. Mueller. Census sages in Trans. Roy. Soc.
N.S.W. 4 f sk 1881, 1883, 1888. M!
27. Fraser’s Phyt. Austral.

28.

29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34,
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.

a a
SOmMANanekowonwrH so

OMIA MNP OD Y

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D,

Tepper, in Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A. Vols. 4, 5, 6, 9.
1881, 1882, 1883.

Knight, in Trans. Lin. Soc. Dec. sae = 1882.
= Bailey in Proc. Roy. Soc. Q. Vol. 1.,p. n oak

a Syn. Q. Flora, pp. 740-753 ae eeu 1883:

= " a Suppl. 1, pp. 70-78 .. 1886.

» as = » 2,-pp. 78-96 Boor altstsiée

J. Mueller. Lich. Beitr., aus Flora, 8 ese 1887.
b C 5 ne, 10, 925: 26; 27), 28, 29, 30 1888.
Wilson, in Vic. Nat. Oct. sae ‘ie sos tists
B. v. Mueller, in Vic. Nat. Oct. oa 1887.
Wilson oe » June, 1888, & ens & Sept. 1889.
S Proc. Roy. Soc. Q. Vol. 6, pp. 85-93 ee ElLSSo:

Shirley’s Lich. Flora, in Proc. Roy. Soc.Q. Vols.5&6 1889.
and in separate vol. 1889.

P in Melbourne Public Library. B in Brisbane Museum,

M in B. v. Mueller’s Library. ! J have consulted.

HERBARIA OF AUSTRALIAN LICHENS.

. In Brown’s collection in British Museum.
. In Preiss’ collection.

. In Hampe’s Lichenes Exsiccati.

. In Melbourne Botan. Museum. !

. In Krempelhuber’s herbarium.

. In Godefroy’s herbarium at Hamburg.

In Ball’s herbarium.

. In Dr. Stirton’s herbarium, Glasgow.

. In Dr. Knight’s herbarium, Wellington, N.Z.

. In Prof. Mueller’s herbarium, Geneva.

. In Museum, Brisbane. !

. In Museum, Paris.

. Knight’s N.S.W. collection in Kew Museum, England.
. In Leighton’s herbarium, Shrewsbury, England.

. In Museum, Adelaide.

. In Mrs. Martin’s herbarium, Brighton, Vic. !

- In Mr. Sullivan’s herbarium, Moyston, Vice. !

. In Mr. Hamilton’s herbarium, Mount Kembla, N.S.W.
. In Mr. Shirley’s herbarium, S. Brisbane, Q.

. In Rev. F. R. M. Wilson’s herbarium, Kew. Vic. !

14.—DISEASES OF PLANTS.
By Mrs. Wm. Martin,

553

Pt
pe
B!
Beary!
BePy!
Beet
BM!
B!M
Bee!
Bre
BP!
BPA
Sere

554 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

15.—_DEMONSTRATION OF LIGHT PRODUCING
BACTERIA WITH EXPLANATORY NOTES
AND EXPERIMENTS.

By Oscar Karz, Ph.D.

16.—NOTE ON DAVIESIA LATIFOLIA.
By J. Bosisto, C.M.G.
| Adstract. |

Turis plant is a favourite remedy for low fevers and for
expelling hydatid cysts among the settlers in those parts of
Victoria where it is found growing. The plant, being in bloom
during the present month (September), offered a favourable oppor-
tunity for examining its characters and constituents.
_Daviesia latifolia is indigenous to Victoria ; it belongs to the sub-
order Papillionacez, of the extensive natural order Leguminose.
It grows about 3 feet high on lands at the foot of the ranges and
mountainous districts of Gippsland ; the shrub is plentiful. The
leaves strongly veined, in length from 1 to 2 inches, rising from
the stem by a petiole half an inch long; the penduncles are
axillary, solitary, and many-flowered; the latter are very
minute, the outer part of the corolla being of a bright golden hue,
and the inner part of a dark purple; the legumes are triangular
in shape, each containing one or two seeds, bean-shape, small,
and spotted purple and brown.

The whole plant is bitter, the leaves especially. On analysis,
two active principles are obtained, one a crystalline body, the
other an oleo-resin. The crystals now before this section are
very bitter (Daviesine), minute and acicular, forming star-like
groups ; these, together with the oleo-resin, are now being further
investigated. These active principles are destroyed if subjected
to the temperature of the boiling-point of water.

Under these circumstances, should the therapeutic effect of
D. latifolia undergo examination, it would be better to employ
either the expressed juice of the plant or an infusion made at a
temperature not exceeding 180° Fahr.

17.—NOTES ON NEW AND RARE SPECIES OF
VICTORIA FUNGI.

By H. T. Tispauu, F.LS.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 555

18.—SOME NOTES UPON THE RARER SPECIES
OF TASMANIAN EUCALYPTS, WITH SPECIAL
REFERENCE TO A SUPPOSED NEW SPECIES.

By G. 8S. Perrin, F.L.8., Conservator of State Forests, Victoria.
[ Abstract. |

THE timber trees of Tasmania, and more particularly the
eucalypts, are well and widely known. The famous blue-gum
(Z. globulus) has won the name of anti-fever tree, whilst its
merits as an anti-malarial agent upon the Pontine Marshes, in
Algiers, and in America are now acknowledged.

The next most important tree is Z. od/iqgua, the “ stringy-bark,”
which has outstripped Z. g/obu/us in commercial value. These
two, with £. amygdalina, var regnans, the swamp-gum, and
E. sieberiana, vie with each other in the extraordinary girth and
height of the trunk.*

If we leave out the timber eucalypts of Tasmania the list of
alpine or sub-alpine species becomes very restricted, and consist
of the following :—

£. vernicosa.—Sub-alpine, very distinct. Small-leaved species,
somewhat similar to the Alpine form of Z. eunnii, Victoria. The
former, however, has thick, fleshy leaves, ovate or semi-orbicular.
Timber small, scrubby nature. Mountain tops.

£. cordata.— A somewhat rare and very interesting eucalypt,
from the extreme beauty of its foliage and inflorescence. That
this tree is not commonly found may be inferred from the fact
that, although the author explored the greater portion of Tasmania
during a two years’ residence, and kept a special look out for this
particular tree, he never had the good fortune to come across it.
The specimen exhibited was sent from Hobart by Mr. F. Abbott,
of the Botanic Gardens. It is, however, fair to state that the
writer never visited that particular part of Mount Wellington
where Messrs. Stephens and Abbott re-discovered the tree many
years after Labillardiere first brought it under the notice of the
scientific world in 1806. In respect to its isolation and compara-
tive rarity, this species is comparable to £. alpima in Victoria,
and, like the latter, may doubtless be cultivated, and thus saved
from utter extinction, as an ornamental plant for our parks and
gardens.

£. cordata is of shrubby growth, its handsome glaucous foliage
and rich golden-yellow stamens fringing the edge of the calyces
at once arrest the eye, and also the rich colouration of its
opposite, sessile, clasping, cordate, and broadly ovate leaves, in
conjunction with the size and general beauty of its inflorescence.

* A blue-gum measured by the author at Geeveston, Huon River, Tasmania, gave the
length of 330 feet clear of top branches, having a diameter at the break of l6 inches. This
was the highest tree seen and measured by the author in Tasmania.

556 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Baron Sir F. von Mueller has on many occasions pointed out
the rapid decadence or approaching extinction of many well-
known forms of vegetable life, and in his late admirable presi-
dential address again pointedly brought the subject under notice.

There is no doubt that, had it not been for the two gentlemen
named above, /. cordata would have become extinct in Tasmania,
as it is doubtful if it can now be found in the locality attributed
to it by the celebrated botanist, Labillardiere, in Recherche
Bay. Mr. Abbott is, however, cultivating the tree in the local
Botanic Garden, and will thus save it from extinction and the
bush fires, now, alas! all too numerous upon the slopes of the
once densely-timbered Mount Wellington.

£. cordata, in its extreme isolation, is in Tasmania analagous
to £. Alpina, which is confined to the summit of Mount Williams
in Victoria.

£. cordata was originally discovered by Labillardiére in
Recherché Bay in 1806, and again, much later, on the banks of
the Huon River by Sir J. D. Hooker, also by Robert Brown at
the same place. Many years after, Messrs. Stephens and Abbott
found it growing at Recherche, Sandfly, Huon Road, and Norfolk
Peninsula. It would appear to grow only in certain localities
and its Aadi¢az is limited to a restricted area. From the fact that
I personally never saw the tree growing in Tasmania, though I
travelled down both banks of the Huon River for many miles,
also down the coast line to the most southern point of Recherche
Bay and also on Norfolk Peninsula, and later on the Sandfly, all
the time keeping a watchful eye on the eucalypts of the districts
referred to, it seems to me that the tree is exceedingly restricted
in the area of its growth, and could only be found by the merest
chance. It is, I think, evident that the tree is not as abundant
as it was formerly, also that a tree reported to Baron von Mueller
by Mr. Coombs as £. cordata should more properly be referred to
£. urnigera, of which a specimen is exhibited. The latter is
common, and grows to a large size on Mount Wellington, where
I noted it as growing 60 or 70 feet high, with red wood not unlike
Jarrah (4. marginata). Such an error is quite possible in the
face of the fact that Bentham chronicled in -lora Australiensis,
Oldfield’s opinion, that Z£. corduta was the young state of
£. obliqua, These two trees, we now well know, are quite
dissimilar in every way.

£. cordata, it will be noticed, has its leaves sessile, opposite,
orbicular, cordate, and slightly crenulated, and a/ways clasping at
the base. The disposition of the seed vessels is primarily in 3’s,
rarely in 4’s, flowers axillary, sometimes terminal, stalks some-
times angular, stalklets none.

From the Baron’s description it will be noted that the leaves
of £. cordata are not connate. This peculiar perfoliate or junction
of opposite leaves is not uncommon to several of our eucalypts in

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 557

the young state, the most important of these being 2. perfoliata
(North-western Australia), 2. risdoni (Tasmania), 2. sideroxylon
(Ironbark, Victoria), #. wncinata and E. gamophylla (North and
Central Australia). The latter, indeed, somewhat resembles Z.
risdoni in the lanceolar semi-elliptical to half-ovate, or sometimes
almost cordate, shape of the leaves.

I have now very much pleasure in directing attention specially
to two exhibits. These are—First, Z. risdonz, a fine specimen,
with perfoliate or connate leaves ; with this specimen I am enabled
to point out that 2. 7sdoni in its more matured state is never
perfoliate ; its seed vessels are large. Specimen No, 2 is a very
singular one, and it is to this that I wish to draw your attention.
It is, as you may see, a small sub-alpine eucalypt, with perfoliate
Zeaves. These being connate, or joined together, would seem to
refer it to Z. risdont, but on comparing the two specimens shown
it is at once seen that they are not at all allied, even in the young
state, Z. risdoni showing a dark thick leaf, witha strong tendency
to become lanceolate. No. 2 specimen, on the other hand, par-
takes more of the characteristics of Z. cordata, but differs from it
in the fact that the leaves of the latter are distinctly and zxvari-
ably clasping at the base, whereas the former is a/zways perfoliate
in young or old specimens. £. r/sdoni rarely or never retains the
connate character of the leaves in its more advanced state, and
herein lies a most important difference, and gives the assumption
that the stranger is a new species. The veins are spreading, the
marginal vein being removed from the edge, which is slightly
crenulated and recurved. It is invariably found in a low,
shrubby state, only a few feet high, in wet, marshy table-lands of
high altitude. From dried specimens; showing the buds only, the
disposition of the seed-vessels are in 3’s. The specimen in ques-
tion was obtained about 10 miles from Parattah, on the main-line
railway. It flowers in or about the month of March, and grows
readily in water. The specimen in question grew well in the
Exhibition Building and flowered there, but, unfortunately, they
were destroyed by some passing visitor. The seed vessels are
very small, about a line to a line and a half in diameter. From
the perfoliate character of the specimen (£. visdonz) on the table,
it is probably an Alpine form of this well-known tree, so numerous
at Risdon, on the Derwent.

The specimen No. 2 is quite distinct from £. cordata, in the
size of the seed-vessels and also in the shape of them. I regret I
have none to show at present, but I saw two on the plant when
in the Exhibition. The shape of the leaves is different to that of
E. cordata, being more orbicular, it differs also in the connate
character of the foliage, though the venation is somewhat similar.

As I have specimens of all the trees named in this paper, it is
easy to note the different characteristics of the specimens shown,
and I am of opinion that the new claimant to notice will be found
to be a new species.

558 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

19.—ON THE PUBLICATION OF A CRITICAL LIST
OF THE AUSTRALIAN FAUNA AND FLORA.

By Cuas. T. Musson.

20.—VEGETABLE FOOD STUFFS OF THE
AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES.

By J. H. Maipen, F.LS.

21.—SOME REMARKABLE AGREEMENTS BETWEEN
SCIENCE AND AGRICULTURAL PRACTICE.

By G. W. Brown.

22,.—_THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF LAND
AND FRESH WATER VERTEBRATES IN

VICTORIA.
By A. HS (bpcas, Vos Bbaag:

Section FE.
Core Go h A bea y,

President of the Section: W. H. Miskin, Esq., FES.

1.—SOME PHYSICAL PHENOMENA OF THE
SOUTH PACIFIC ISLANDS.

By Rev. Samuet ELLA.

WHEN asked by your secretary to prepare a paper for the
geographical section of your association, I felt some hesitation in
undertaking the work, as I can lay no claim to being a
geographer, nor, indeed, a scientist that could offer you anything
worthy of your acceptance at your annual gathering. Yet,
certain physical phenomena which have impressed me during
forty years’ acquaintance with some of the South Pacific islands,
I concluded would not be void of interest to your section ; and a
narrative of my experience and observation, though failing in a
constructive character, might become suggestive or illustrative
to some more familiar with theories of physical geography than I
am. Geographical science, indeed, is one not founded on theories
and hypotheses, but upon established facts, and things as absolutely
existing. We are, therefore, dependent on voyagers, travellers,
and residents in the Pacific Islands for our knowledge of these
regions. In many of these islands, little known to the civilised
world, the Christian missionary and intelligent residents can afford
much valuable and acceptable information; and it is very
desirable that they should recognise this fact, and carefully note
and communicate the knowledge they acquire.

For a long period very little was known regarding the Pacific
islands, and all correct information to be obtained must have
been particularly interesting to Australians. Until a compara-
tively recent date unaccountable apathy was shown in the matter
of maritime surveys in the Pacifie. The famous American
Exploring Expedition, under Commodore Wilkes, in 1838-42,
was the first extensive effort made for a thorough survey of that
part of the ocean which had attracted the enterprise of American
whalers. This was followed up by further surveys on the part of
the British, by H.M.S. Herald, Capt. Denham, in Fiji and the

560 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E.

New Hebrides, and recently these have been succeeded by more
effective operations by means of the Australian fleet. Although
the French have possessions east and west, very little has been
done by them to extend the knowledge already acquired. Only
within the last month or two we have received intelligence of the
loss of a valuable vessel and cargo near the island of Rakaanga,
by running on to a shoal not marked on any existing chart. Some
difficulty and confusion have also arisen through various names
being given to the same place. Hydrographers and mariners
have attached an arbitrary nomenclature of their own, and have
not taken any trouble to ascertain the right name, which might
have been done by recognising the native name, which is generally
euphonious and expressive.

(1).— VOLCANOES.

It is generally understood that the origin of many of the
Pacific Islands is volcanic ; indeed, it is apparent that the coral
islands also are constructed on a volcanic base. Darwin affirms,
“Tt is a remarkable fact that all the many small islands lying far
from any continent in the Pacitic, Indian, and Atlantic Oceans,
with the exception of the Seychelles and this little point of rock
(St. Paul’s), are, I believe, composed either of coral or of erupted
matter. The volcanic nature of these oceanic islands is evidently
an extension of that law, and the effect of those same causes,
whether chemical or mechanical, from which it results that a vast
majority of the volcanoes now in action stand either near sea
coasts or as islands in the midst of the sea.” Journal of Researches,
chap. i. On the Sandwich Islands and the New Hebrides Group,
in New Zealand, and some other islands, active volcanoes and
geysers still exist. In Samoa, some thirty years ago, there still
survived old natives who could speak of the volcano they had
seen in operation on the large island of Savaii, in a district still
bearing the name of Ze Ju (the burning), in the interior north-
west of Savaii. The ground there remains barren, and is covered
with lava, tuff, and scoriz. On the island of Upolu there are
two remarkable volcanic mountains, very high and conical. One
of these is in the centre of the Aana district, called Tafua, on
the top of which is an extinct crater, very deep, and containing a
lake, which possesses an underground aqueduct running for three
or four miles, and debouching from a cavern about a mile from
the shore, and thence flowing in a river to the sea, distinct from
two streams, which are fed from the exterior watershed of the
mountain, and reach the sea on each side of the Aana district.
Massive rocks, volcanic tufa, and ridges of cellular lava along the
shore, and in various tracks from the mountain side, show how
extensive an eruption must have taken place here. In some
parts black, rugged lava rocks form an iron-bound coast and in

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E. 561

other places similar hardened lava streams, like molten metal,
crop up along the shore, or lie buried in the sand within the
lagoon.

The small island of Aporima, situated between Upolu and
Savaii, is also an unmistakable crater. It rises precipitously from
the sea on three sides, with a narrow chasm on the north side,
forming the entrance to the island, very difficult of access, except
in favourable weather. At one time Aporima was an impregnable
fortress to the people of Manono—an adjacent island—and gave
them preponderating influence in time of war ; even now it might
be converted into a small Gibraltar. It possesses a pleasant
spring of water, while Manono, the larger island, is destitute of
fresh water. An ancient legend states that this spring formerly
existed on Manono, but Mafuié, the god of earthquakes, being
angry with the Manonoans, took it away from them, and trans-
ferred it to Aporima. This may indicate an earthquake disturb-
ance at some distant period.

A Submarine Volcano.—On 12th September, 1866, the people of
Tau and Olosenga, the eastern islands of Samoa, were alarmed by
the appearance of a submarine volcano, which burst forth between
the two islands. The Rev. Dr. Turner thus described the event
in an article supplied to the Sydney Morning Herald :-—“On the
7th of September, 1866, the natives of Tau and Olosenga were
surprised by an unusual succession of earthquakes. There were
three or four in the course of an hour. On the night of the 9th
there were 39 shocks in all. The motion at first was but a slight
tremulous agitation, but its continuance, and the addition of an
unusual ‘subterranean groaning,’ as the natives called it, alarmed
everyone. On the 12th, a little after noon, a commotion was
observed in the deep blue sea, about two miles from Olosenga
and three from Tau. It appeared like the surf breaking on a
sunken rock. Some thought it might be a whale blowing, others
that it was a great shoal of fish. This continued all day. By
break of day on the 13th volcanic action was unmistakable. At
first the eruptions were at intervals of about an hour. They
went on increasing till the 15th, when they were fifty in an hour;
and then for three days there was one continued succession of
outbursts. The natives looked on in amazement at the great jets
of mud and dense columns of other volcanic matter rising in
terrific grandeur as high, it is said, as Matafao, a mountain of
Tutuila. That would be 2000 feet or more. They then branched
out into clouds of dust, which blackened the sky, and covered up
Olosenga from the sight of the people on Tau. The roar of the
eruptions and the collision and crash of the masses of rock, met
in their downward course by others flying up, were fearful.
Quantities of fused obsidian, too, threw off fragments, which
shone and sparkled in the sunshine with indescribable

beauty. No flame appeared. Only once or twice was
*y

562 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E.

there a gleam of fire in the matter thrown up. The sea
was most violently agitated in a great circular basin half a
mile in diameter ; and after a time there was a slight sulphurous
tinge in the ocean for miles away. Heaps of dead fish were
washed ashore on Tau and Olosenga, and among them deep sea
monsters, six and twelve feet long, which the natives never saw
before, and for which they have no name. The sulphurous
vapours, heat, smoke, and ashes soon made the settlement in
Olosenga unbearable, and the natives fled to a place on the south
side of the island. A slight tremulous motion continued to be
felt on the land, but no fissures opened, nor did any hot springs
make their appearance. The ordinary springs of fresh water
were unaffected. After three days the activity of the volcano
began to abate, and two months afterwards there were only three
or four eruptions in the course of a day, and the height to which
the matter was thrown up was reduced to 30 or 40 feet above the
level of the sea.” The action ceased on 29th November, but burst
out again the following January like a great spring of water,
accompanied by seismic tremors on the islands. This continued
till March, when it ceased altogether. The captain of H.M.S.
Falcon was directed to survey that part of the ocean. Nothing
was apparent to the sight, but, on soundings being taken, a
cone was discovered at 91 fathoms, and the surrounding
soundings gave 120 fathoms and upwards.

In the New Hebrides Group there are still some active
volcanoes. A notable one exists on the island of Tanna. It is
described by Captain Cook, who witnessed it in August, 1774.
Formerly the eruptions were very powerful, and would vomit
forth great stones and masses of scoriz with loud reports. It
has lately become more quiet, and the discharges are much
subdued, though continually giving forth columns of smoke and
eruptive matter, and emitting a bright light, which may be
seen for a considerable distance, and lava flows down its side.
In the neighbourhood of this volcano there is a sulphur lake,
which once supplied large quantities of crude sulphur to shippers.
Around the active crater are found several extinct craters and
hot sulphurous springs, very strongly impregnated. These latter
are used medicinally by the natives, and sometimes for an evil
purpose by the women. Volcanic dust and sulphur are borne in
the air for several miles. Obsidian is found near the volcano, and
also a stone resembling the nephrite of New Zealand. The soil
of Tanna is remarkably rich and fertile, black alluvial, and mixed
with decomposed trap. On the island of Ambrym there were till
lately two volcanoes, the larger of which is 3500 feet high. It
has recently become inactive, while the eruption of the smaller,
on the opposite side of the island, has increased in power. The
small island of Tangoa, north of Faté, possesses a crater partially
extinct. It now emits only hot mud and steam. In some places

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E. 563

the ground is hot enough to enable the natives to cook their food,
by burying it in the earth. On the small high islands of Lopevi
and Paamu* there are active volcanos. In 1881 a submarine
volcano broke forth near Traitor’s Head, Erromanga.

In the Banks’ Islands, north of the New Hebrides, active
volcanoes and hot springs and other igneous formations exist.

(2).— EARTHQUAKES.

The South Pacific islands are subject to frequent earthquakes,
of more or less magnitude. The oscillations are sometimes very
severe, but more generally of slight character. Earthquakes are
not confined to the volcanic islands, but are experienced also on
islands of coral formation, which have a volcanic base. The
seismic wave is seldom vertical, but chiefly horizontal, generally
(as far as can be perceived) from north-east to south-west. I have
only on one occasion remarked any rumbling sound or other
accompanying noise often noticed in many volcanic regions.
Where active volcanoes exist the shocks are often accompanied
or followed by an increased outburst of the voleano. There is no
active volcano now in the Samoan Group, though earthquakes are
very frequent. As before remarked, at the early part of the
present century there existed a volcano on the northern island of
Savail, which occasionally became eruptive. There are several
extinct craters in the mountains of Upolu and Tutuila as well as
on Savaii.

The testimony of the old natives is that the shocks of earth-
quakes were much more severe in olden times. The reason
assigned for the present change was that the god of volcanoes
and earthquakes, named Mafuié, had his arm broken in a contest
with a young warrior, since which time he has been able to shake
the earth with one arm only, and hence the shocks are compara-
tively light. It may be interesting to the lovers of folk-lore to
know the legend as related. It denotes also how the connection
of volcanic actions and earthquakes is associated in the minds of
the natives. The legend states that a certain chief and warrior,
named Talanga, was a favourite of the god Mafuié, the Samoan
Vulcan. This god’s abode was in the crater ofa volcano. Talanga
was admitted to the regions of Mafuié, and here he worked a
valuable plantation of taro (arum esculentum), whence Talanga
would take home to his family very choice taro, which excited not
only the admiration of his family, but also their curiosity to know
whence it came. His son, Tiitii, determined to find out the
secret, and one day stole quietly after his father when he went to
the plantation. He saw him ascend a mountain until he came
to a great rock, which seemed to stop further advance; but

* Between Ambrym and Api.
ca

564 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E.

Talanga went up to the rock, and cried, “Rock, rock, divide!
I am Talanga, come to work my plantation.” Immediately the
rock divided in the centre, and Talanga entered. The son, Tiitii,
in like manner approached the rock, and feigned his father’s
voice with the same ‘“‘Open, sesame,” and obtained admittance to
the land of Mafuié. He found his father at work in his secret
plantation. His father started up on seeing his son there, and
warned him of his proximity to danger, and begged him not to
talk aloud, lest Matuié should hear him and be angry. Looking
around on the new scene before him, Tiitii discovered a column
of smoke, and asked his father what it was. His father told him
it was the fire of Mafuié. ‘I must go and get some,” said Tuitii.
“Don’t,” replied Talanga, “he will be angry and devour you.”
“ T am not afraid,” said the son ; and off he went in wild bravado,
singing a war-song, and descended the crater. Mafuié rushed
out upon the young fellow, exclaiming, “Who are you! What
do you want here?” ‘TI am Tiitii, son of Talanga, and I am come
for some fire to cook our taro.” “Take it, and begone,” shouted
Mafuié. Highly delighted with the success of his exploit, Tiitii
returned to his father with some burning cinders. They then
quickly made an oven (an easy matter for natives), and were
about to place the taro in it when the oven blew up, put out the
fire, and scattered the stones about. Talanga reproved his son
for his temerity ; but Tiitii, nothing daunted, ran back in a rage
to Mafuié and abused him, exclaiming, ‘‘ Why have you broken
up our oven, and put out the fire?’ Mafuié then flew into a
passion, and rushed out upon Tiitii, and wrestled with him.*
Tiitii caught Mafuié by the right arm, and wrenched it off. He
then seized the other, and would have twisted it off also, but
Mafuié acknowledged his defeat, and begged Tutii to spare his
left arm. ‘I need it,” he said, ‘to hold Samoa level. If you
leave me my left arm,” he promised, ‘“‘ you shall have fire, and
you may always enjoy cooked food.” ‘This was agreed to, and
Mafuié said, ‘‘Go now, you will obtain fire in every wood you
cut.” Since then, the story adds, the Samoans have readily
obtained fire by rubbing one piece of wood against another, and
also that Mafuié has since only been able to give slight shakes to
Samoa, by means of a long-handled lever, which he works with
one hand in his subterranean regions. This legend exists also in
Tonga and Savage Island (Niué) in somewhat modified forms.
Among the records of earthquakes which occurred during my
residence in Samoa, the most remarkable are those which took
place at the close of 1850, from the 26h September to the 29th
December. There were seven shocks during that period. On
26th September, at 9.15 p.m., a single sharp shock, followed by

* Wrestling matches were favourite sports with the natives. I often met a Samoan
whose right arm was withered, it having been wrenched from its socket, and the ligature
broken in such a bout.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E. 565

horizontal tremors ; 28th October, about noon, a slight single
shock ; 9th November, at 6.10 p.m., double shock, the second
sharper and of ionger duration than the first ; this was succeeded
by another shock, slight, at ll p.m. 28th December, at midnight,
a single sharp shock ; 29th December, 7.45 p.m., shock slight,
single. These successive visitations are seldom so frequent. An
earthquake of more than usual severity in Samoa was experienced
on 22nd February, ’61, at a quarter to3 p.m. The shock was
double, the second tremor of great force. The following day two
shocks were felt: at 2.20 a.m., sharp, severe ; 4.15 p.m., slighter.

A peculiarity regarding the recurrence of earthquakes in
Samoa is worthy of notice, for it is difficult to assign a reason for
the phenomenon; the visitation of an earthquake is often succeeded
by another in about a fortnight. The shocks are simultaneous
on the islands of Upolu, Savaii, Manono, Aporima, and Tutuila,
though these islands lie at some distance from each other. Last
September severe seismic tremors were felt in Samoa, causing
great alarm. They lasted for three minutes. Buildings trembled
violently, and trees swayed as ina gale. Ships at anchor in the
harbour of Apia rocked to an alarming extent, and dragged their
anchors, although the sea seemed perfectly calm. Since then, news
from Apia state that the tremors have been so frequent and
forcible that some of the residents were apprehensive that extinct
volcanoes were again about to become eruptive.

Earthquakes are experienced on New Oaledonia and in the
neighbouring Loyalty Group. They are neither so frequent nor
so severe as in Samoa. New Caledonia is of volcanic origin, and
possesses a chain of volcanic mountains and hummocks on the
coast. There is no active volcano now, and very slight trace of
any having existed for some ages past, though the contour of the
country presents unmistakable evidences of volcanic operations
in the distant past. Mount D’Or, at the back of Nouméa, shows
many volcanic features. The Isle of Pines is situated at the
south of New Caledonia, and is of similar conformation.

The Loyalty Group is composed of coral Islands, raised upon a
volcanic base, connected with New Caledonia and the Isle of
Pines. They are situated on the south-eastern side of New
Caledonia, running parallel with it, from 35 to 60 miles from that
island. Earthquakes are simultaneously felt on the Loyalty
Group, New Caledonia, and the Isle of Pines, denoting a common
base. New Caledonia is surrounded by an extensive lagoon,
enclosed by a coral reef from half a mile to two or three miles
from the mainland, and extending still further at the north end.
Here and there islets are formed on the reef and plentifully
interspersed within the lagoon. Uvéa (or Jai), the most northern
of the Loyalty Group, is a lagoon island (or rather islands), the
inhabited part of which is composed of three islands, running
from north to south, and separated from each other by narrow

566 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E.

channels. These form one side of a circular lagoon, which
stretches out westward for fifteen miles, and is enclosed by a
reef and numerous islets, broken by three navigable channels in
the south, south-west, and northern divisions. The deepest part
of the Jagoon is not more than four fathoms. There are traces
of an upheaval of the Loyalty Islands at three periods. Three
distinct water-lines may be discerned on the coast of each
island of nearly equal heights, in the northern island of Uvéa, on
the southern island of Maré, and also upon Lifu, lying between
these two. There is not a great difference in the height of these
several islands on the seaboard, about 150 feet. The centre of
Lifu is higher than any other part, and in several places high
coral cliffs exist at a considerable distance from the shore,
probably denoting that that part of the island was of earlier
formation than the lower land on the coast. It is also evident
that the island of Iai at one period was merely an atoll; for,
running through its centre are lakes, lagoons, and low marsh-
lands, which probably supply the place of the lagoon of the atoll.
Great changes have evidently taken place in the group from
seismic disturbances.

The most alarming series of earthquakes I experienced in the
Loyalty Islands occurred in March, 1875. This was accom-
panied by a disastrous tidal wave, causing serious destruction
of property and loss of life, on the neighbouring islands of
Lifu. The tremors were the most severe and frequent of any
T had ever felt, and the natives said they never before knew
anything like it. The first shock came at midnight of Sunday ;
a second tremor was felt at 3.15 a.m. on Monday; and a third
shock at 6.30 a.m.; a fourth at 7.10 a.m.; and a fifth about an
hour afterwards. On Tuesday forenoon there:were two slight
tremors, a sharp shock at 3.30 p.m., and a very severe continuous
tremor at 8.30 p.m., similar in force to that on Sunday midnight.
The following evening, at a quarter to 6, there was another slight
tremor, and a little after 10 a.m. on Friday there was a similar
oscillation. I noted the time on Uvéa, and found they were
simultaneously felt on the other islands of the group and on
New Caledonia. This continued succession of tremors was quite
phenomenal, and the cause is difficult to define. It was supposed
to have arisen from some unusual outbursts on the volcanic
islands of the New Hebrides.

Of late years very great changes have taken place in the New
Hebrides from earthquakes and palpable upheavals on some of
the islands. Port Resolution, Tanna, which formerly was a
secure anchorage for vessels of large burthen, has lately become
quite shallow, except at the mouth of the bay. The Bay of Pango,
Faté (Sandwich Islands), has also quite changed in character.
Where vessels could formerly anchor the water is too shallow
now for such a purpose. The volcano on Tanna, although still

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E. 567

active, has become less eruptive. On the island of Ambrym, also,
a great change has occurred, as previously noticed, and the larger
volcano is extinct, but the smaller one, on the other side of the
island, has become more active. On the hill side of Dillon’s Bay,
Erromanga, I was struck by the peculiar geological formation ;
interspersed with basaltic and lava rocks. I observed here and
there blocks of coral, indicating that, at some period, that part of
the land had been below the sea. Along the shore, outside the
bay, high cavernous cliffs are seen. These are of coral and
volcanic formation, and must at one time have been below the sea,
for coral polypes do not work above high-water mark.

(3).—THE TIDEs.

A remarkable phenomenon in respect to the tides of the Pacific
has been observed from the time of the earliest settlement in the
Windwards and Society Islands, viz., the singular deviation from
the universal rule of tides being governed by lunar and solar
attractions. In this part of the Pacific high-water occurs about
noon and at midnight, and the rise is very liimited—not exceeding
fifteen or eighteen inches. The ebb tides occur correspondingly
at about 6 o’clock in the morning and 6 in the evening. Regard-
ing this phenomenon, the Rev. Mr. Nott, one of the earliest
missionaries at Tahiti, wrote in 1834:—‘“From what I have
observed during a long residence here, the rise of the tide is
seldom more than a foot or fifteen inches, and there is no differ-
ence between what is called the neap and the spring tides ; or, in
other words, there is no difference in the tides at Tahiti, whether
it be the full or change of the moon, half-moon, or quarter.
There is, however, sometimes a higher sea about the change of
the moon, because a change of the wind then frequently, but not
always, happens. Nevertheless, the higher sea is not a higher
tide, but it is owing to the change of the wind, or some great
commotion at a distance, and never lasts more than four or five
days, during which time the tides continue as usual, namely, high
or full tide about noon (or from 12 to 1 in the day) and about 12
at night, and ebb tide about 6 o’clock in the morning, and about
the same hour in the evening. This is uniformly the time of full
and ebb tides at Tahiti. . . . . At the islands of Tubuai
and Raivavai the tide is much greater than at Tahiti, rising about
two feet and a half.” (Tyerman and Bennet’s Voyage Round the
World, p. viii.) Other missionaries, his contemporaries, confirm
these remarks of Mr. Nott; one of these, the Rev. D. Darling,
whose station was at Bunaauia, at the western side of Tahiti,
adds—‘“ That the natives can always tell when it is midnight by
going to the seashore.” Captain Cook remarked this peculiarity
in the Georgian and Society Islands, but his editor falls into an
error by supposing that this fixed time of the ebb and flow of the

568 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E.

tides and the limited rise prevailed in the other islands of the
Pacific. In a note in the Voyages, speaking of the Friendly
Tslands, he said, ‘‘ At these islands the tides are more considerable
than at any other of Captain Cook’s discoveries in this ocean—
that are situated within either tropics. At Annamooka it is high-
water near 6 o’clock on the full and change of the moon, and the
tide rises and falls about six feet upon a _ perpendicular.
In the harbour of ‘Tongataboo the tide rises and
falls four feet and a half at the quadratures.” (Cook's,
Voyages, fol. ed. p. 470). The -Rev. Mr, ile ya
missionary who spent some years in the Sandwich and Society
Islands, falls into a similar mistake. In his Polynesian Researches,
he says, “Among the natural phenomena of the South Sea
islands, the tide is one of the most singular, and presents as great
an exception to the theory of Sir Isaac Newton as is to be met
with in any part of the world. The rising and falling of the
waters of the ocean appear, if influenced at all, to be so ina small
degree only, by the moon. The height to which the water rises
varies but a few inches during the whole year, and at no time is
it elevated more than a foot, or a foot anda half.” (Vol. 4,
p- 28). The writer on the subject of ‘‘ Waves,” in the Penny
Cyclopedia, speaking of the tide-wave in the Pacific, says, “In
the Pacific Ocean the general direction of the tide-wave is
from east to west; but the heights of the tides are small,
not exceeding two feet at the islands of the South Sea.
It is observed, however, by Mr. Whewell (P22. Zrans., 1833)
that this must not be understood to be the tide which would be
raised if the whole earth were covered with water, on account of
the modifications produced by the form of the continent of South
America. The most eastern part of New South Wales,* between
25 deg. and 30 deg. south lat., has the high-tide earlier than
points which are situated towards the north or south of that
tract. Peculiarities in tides, arising from the interference of
waves, occur in many different places. In the middle of the
North Sea there is supposed to be a considerable space, within
which the tide produced by the waves coming from the north and
south takes place at one time. And Mr. Whewell states, on the
authority of Captain Hewett, that about the Ower Shoal there is
no sensible rise of the tide till three hours after the time of low
water; but, when the ebb-stream has nearly ceased, there is a
sudden rise of five or six feet, so that nearly the whole rise of the
tide occurs in the last three hours.” This writer has repeated the
misleading statement that the phenomenon noticed in the eastern
islands is the rule throughout the Pacific. Such is far from being
the case, and the oscillations of the tide-wave in all the other
islands I find are governed by the lunar and solar influences as

* Formerly ; now north of New South Wales and south of Queensland.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E. 569

in other parts of the world. In Samoa and the adjacent groups
the difference of ebb and flow is from five to six feet. At the
Marquesas the rise of the tide seldom exceeds two feet, but that
group is in the vicinity of Tahiti—about 600 miles to the north-
east.

I am not acquainted with the views of modern hydrographers
respecting this phenomenon. It is a question which arouses
inquiry, and offers an interesting subject for investigation. What
are the disturbing influences which thus interrupt the wave-tide
in this part of the Pacific? and why are the times of ebb and flow
so fixed at 6 and 12 o'clock in the day and night? The late
Rev. W. Mills, a scientific missionary of Samoa, diffidently
ventured many years ago a few ideas with regard to the elucida-
tion of the matter—not, however, as a decision, but by way of
suggestion. He remarked, ‘“‘ When others have contented them-
selves in merely giving their observations, without attempting to
account for the diversity, I can hardly venture a single suggestion
to solve the difficulty. If Professor Whewell’s Map of Co-tidal
Lines be correct, the tide travels, on the western coast of
America, from north to south, between Acapulco and the Straits
of Magellan; while from the former it travels northward and
westward. The first, most likely, moves south until it meets
with the great tidal oscillation, which proceeds with great rapidity
in a westerly direction, round Cape Horn. There is, then, no
difficulty in conceiving that between these two great tidal waves,
running in an ellipsis to the westward, the Society Islands are
left in the intervening space, or what a Scotchman would call a
‘strath,’ unaffected by either of these waves, but still subject to
the solar oscillation, which may form apart from that of the
lunar. The tide-wave on the north will be inclined to the south
according to the moon’s excursions in declination, or southing ;
and this may account for the diversity at times of high-water
being frequently an hour before or after noon, just as the base of
the lunar wave may advance more or less to the south, by the
moon’s declination and parallax.”—(Samoan Reporter, September,

1852.)

(4).—TipaL WaAVEs.

Another striking phenomenon in the Pacific connected with
the rising of the ocean, and one of tremendous power, often
producing terribly destructive effects, is the tidal wave, caused
by the oscillation of earthquakes producing a similar oscillation
of the ocean. Tidal waves arise as suddenly and unexpectedly
as the visitation of earthquakes, and often overwhelm districts
and engulph the inhabitants without a moment’s warning, and
cut off all means of escape. During my residence in Samoa and
the Loyalty Islands, I have occasionally witnessed this alarming

570 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E.

visitation. The first occurred in Samoa on 29th September,
1849, about 9 o’clock in the morning. At that hour the sea
suddenly receded from the shore at a rapid rate, and continued
to fall till the reef was left quite bare, and the surface standing
about eighteen inches out of the water. In about three minutes
the sea returned and rose to half-tide, thus making the fall and
rise to about five feet. Immediately the sea again receded, and
flowed back to its proper height. Then the sudden rise and fall
were repeated three times within an hour. The oscillation
continued between 11 a.m. and noon; and after this the tide rose
in its normal state. About half-ebb, between 3 and 4 p.m., the
sea suddenly rose again, and flowed to the shore above high-water
mark, and ebbed quietly to its former position ; and then again
arose to high-water, and continued oscillating till a quarter past
4 p.m. The sea then resumed ebbing in its ordinary manner.
There were no earth-tremors perceptible in Samoa, and the wind
was moderate. Similar oscillations were noticed at the same
time on Aneityum, New Hebrides, 1300 miles distant.

The next recurrence of a tidal wave in Samoa was witnessed in
1863. It was not so continuous, but of larger magnitude, in
many places overflowing the shore, and doing considerable
damage. Being absent from Samoa at the time, I have no
particulars of the event.

A terrible catastrophe of this kind occurred on the north-east
side of Lifu, Loyalty Islands, on Sunday night, 28th March, 1875.
Twenty-six lives were sacrificed, chiefly of women and young
children. Nothing more serious was felt in the neighbouring
islands of Maré and Uvea beyond the repeated succession of earth-
tremors already described. On Lifu the tidal wave rose more
than twelve feet above the shore, and swept over the land, bearing
down with irresistible force everything within its impetuous
course. In an instant all the native houses within its reach were
hurled into a mass of ruins, whirling hither and thither where
the swirling waves bore them. The unfortunate natives were
hardly aroused from sleep by a sharp shock of earthquake when
the sea burst upon them, and they were buried under their fallen
houses, and swept they knew not whither. In some of the low-
lying villages along the shore scarcely a house was left standing,
and the land and beach were strewn with ruins. The taro patches
in marsh-lands in the hollows were covered with boxes, articles
of furniture, implements, and dédris of fallen houses, &c. When
the sea subsided, heaps of fishes and turtles were found along the
coast, and even far inland. Several remarkable and narrow
escapes were experienced. Some of the poor natives managed to
extricate themselves from the ruins of their huts, and to cling to
the cocoanut trees against which they were hurled by the rush of
the sea. One hut, with its inmates, was carried out to sea by
the receding wave. A lad got clear of the ruins, and swam to a

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E. 571

cutter that was also being borne out to sea ; the next minute the
wave returned and swept the cutter ashore, and stranded it on
the ruins of the store of its owner. An infant was found
entangled in its bed clothes in the branches of a tree, about
twelve feet above the ground. A cutter was sailing by at the
time of the ocean’s irruption, and the mate was alarmed by finding
the vessel close to the reef when he thought they were three
miles off. He gave orders to put the vessel about, but before
this could be done he saw they were fast drifting away from the
threatening danger. In addition to the twenty-six who lost their
lives, many others were injured by blows from the falling houses,
and by being dashed against the trees, &c. Large coral rocks that
formerly stood in the lagoon were swept up on to the beach, and
big trees also, not belonging to the group, were afterwards found
stranded on the rocks and shore. These had probably been
carried from the New Hebrides or other northern islands.

(5).—HuRRICANES AND CYCLONES.

During seven months of the year, from April to October
inclusive, the ordinary trade wind prevails. Near the equator*
this wind is east-south-east, but higher up, near the temperate
zone, they are a little more southerly. Mariners aver that of late
trade winds have proved very irregular. This may be a mere
supposition. They commence about 9 o'clock a.m., and continue
till 5 p.m., generally with greater force about 2 p.m. They are
strongest in the vicinity of large islands and groups, on account
of the greater rarefaction of the atmosphere in those regions and
the more abundant evaporation occasioned by mountainous lands.
This variation I have remarked during my experience in Samoa,
the New Hebrides, and the Loyalty Islands. After sundown a
gentle land breeze is felt near the coast of the larger islands, and
this in Samoa is surcharged with moisture, causing an appreciable
fall in the barometer, and thermometer likewise, especially in the
middle of the year.

As the sun reaches the summer solstice the monsoon season
begins, and the winds become very variable, often accompanied
with heavy rain and thunderstorms, gales, hurricanes, and calms.
The wind now blows frequently from the north and north-west,
strongest from January to March. Hurricanes and cyclones, of
more or less magnitude, occur during these months, particularly
the last, to which the islands situated between 10 deg. and 24 deg.
are mostly exposed, especially those lying between 15 deg. and
24 deg., as frequently experienced in the New Hebrides and
Hervey Groups. The Georgian and Society Islands, in the east,
and New Caledonia, in the west, though within the belt, escape
the destructive influence of the cyclones; probably the vicinity
of the American continent on the one hand, and Australia on the

* For three or four degrees on each side of the equator the trade winds are rarely met with.

572 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E.

other, presents some deflective forces which cause a divergence in
the cyclone. Seldom a year passes without a severe gale or
hurricane in these latitudes. These are ordinarily preceded by
close, sultry weather, with a murky sky. The barometer falls
rapidly, or oscillates, between 30 deg. and 29 deg.—sometimes
sinks as low as 28 deg. 50 sec.; even the native (or natural)
barometer gives unmistakable indications of an approaching storm.
The gale generally commences in the south, and veers round to
the west and north-west, which is the culminating point, and
blows strongest. The sea rises to a tremendous height, sweeping
in long and overwhelming waves. One vessel near Samoa
suddenly foundered by such a wave breaking over her and carry-
ing her down stern foremost.

At Christmas, 1848, I first experienced this cyclone storm in
Samoa. It was very powerful on the north side of Upolu, but on
the south side and on the other islands it was scarcely felt. In
some places the wind gyrated like a whirlwind. Near my resi-
dence I observed the roof of a native hut torn bodily off from its
supporting posts and whirled in the air for a time, and then cast
down in fragments a considerable distance away. A still more
severe hurricane occurred in April, 1850, and was widely exten-
sive and continuous, lasting for two days, with a brief interval in
which the rain poured down in torrents. My house was unroofed,
and not a native hut was left standing in the district. Stone
churches were either unroofed or blown down, and the land was
strewed with fallen trees. Some natives were killed and others
wounded by falling houses and trees; one man was killed by a
rock falling upon him. Three vessels at anchor in the harbour
of Apia were driven ashore and wrecked; another foundered at
the entrance to the harbour, while endeavouring—like H.M.S.
Calliope, in March last—to escape out to sea ; and a small cutter
went down at her anchorage by a sea sweeping over it.

The next severe hurricane in Samoa was experienced in
January, 65. The neighbourhood of Apia harbour was especially
exposed to its fury. The German barque A/s/er was driven on to
the reef, and all hands, with one exception, were lost. In
March, ’79, another cyclone swept over Upolu, but the current
took a favourable direction for the shipping at Apia, so that the
vessels were able to ride out the gale. Again, in March, ’83, a
destructive hurricane was experienced in Samoa, and the island
of Upolu suffered severely, and a large number of houses and
trees were destroyed. Several vesssel and ten lives were lost.

The latest catastrophe occasioned by a hurricane in Samoa is
that which has become painfully familiar to us in Australia, and
of historical interest universally, occurred last March. The height
of the storm burst with unexpected suddenness and strength
upon the roadstead of Apia Bay. At that time, unfortunately,
there was a larger amount of shipping in the bay than on

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E. Dia

any former occasion. Besides several merchant vessels and small
trading craft, there were no less than seven war steamers lying at
anchor—three German, three American, and one British, the
famous Ca/liope, which so marvellously escaped destruction when
the other vessels were either driven ashore or on to the reef.

Notwithstanding the brave, noble, and self-sacrificing efforts of
the natives of Apia to rescue the shipwrecked mariners, a large
number of the seamen and officers perished in the raging waters ;
in all, upwards of 150 lives were lost, among them some of the
brave Samoans who went to the rescue.

The lamentable event will, it is to be hoped, convey a useful
lesson to captains of ships and others not to despise the indications
given by the weather and the readings of their barometers, to
place undue credence on the statements of residents, not generally
well-informed, that the gathering storm will be but partial and
speedily pass off. The spiral movement of a cyclone current may
suddenly burst with overwhelming power on a spot which had
just previously been considered to have escaped the force of the
hurricane.

There are really no secure harbours in Samoa, the New
Hebrides, and the Loyalty islands during the monsoon season.
The Bay of Pangopango, in Tutuila, which is land-locked, presents
the safest anchorage; but it is narrow, open to the south-east
trade, and has a hidden rock near the entrance. Captains of
sailing vessels, therefore, rarely enter the harbour ; and baffling
winds, occasioned by the mountains and gullies on either side,
offer another impediment to its navigation, except by steam
power. Fagaloa Bay, at the east of Upolu, is also an unsafe
harbour from similar reasons ; and deep water prevails to within.
half a mile of the extreme end of the bay.

2.—EARLY DISCOVERY, EXPLORATION AND
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF AUSTRALIA.

By A. C. Macponaxp, F.R.G.S.

3.—AUSTRALIAN EXPLORATION.
By P. G. Mur Ler.

4ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION.
By Commander Crawrorp Pasco, R.N., F.R.G.S.

574 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E.

5—ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF LAND AND WATER
ON THE TERRESTRIAL GLOBE.

By Jd, Witp, Ph.D. Gs:

6—ANTARCTIC WHALING IN THE OLD DAYS.

By J. J. Suiyuinetaw, V.P.R.G.S. Aust.

Section F.

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL SCIENCE AND
STATISTICS.

President of Section: R. M. Johnston, Esg., F-L.S.,
Registrar General of Tasmania.

1—OUR MEAT SUPPLY.
By H. H. Hayter, C.M.G.

Mr. Cocuian, the Government Statistician of New South Wales,
some time since published a series of calculations in regard to the
supply of meat in continental Australia, and the probability of
its continuing to be sufficient for the wants of the fast-increasing
population. As the result of his investigations, Mr. Coghlan
came to the conclusion that for many years to come the supply of
mutton would be amply sufficient, but that the demand for beef
- would probably overtake the supply in the course of six years.
At first sight it appears hardly probable in a scantily-populated
country like Australia, with millions of sheep and cattle roaming
at large on plain and hill, having also immense tracts suitable for
pastoral purposes still unstocked, that there should be any danger
of the meat supply falling short; still, since an experienced
statistician, after much patient investigation, has pronounced that
the danger exists—at any rate, so far as the supply of beef is
concerned-—the matter certainly merits to be fully enquired into.
Mr. Coghlan starts with the assumption that the population of
Australia is increasing at the rate of 4 per cent. per annum.
This, it may be observed, is a faster rate than that at which the
population of any country, starting with a population as large as
that Australia contains at the present time, has ever been known
to increase for long together, and would result in the population
doubling itself in rather less than eighteen years, which is an
unheard-of result. It is true that since 1881 the population,
according to estimates made in the different colonies, has
apparently increased at the annual rate of rather over 4 per
cent., but this estimate, if correct, which is doubtful, must be
looked upon as quite exceptional and impossible to be sustained.
The present rate of increase by excess of births over deaths is
something under 2 per cent., which being much higher than the
rate prevailing in any other country, may also be expected to

576 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

fall; but supposing it to continue, and another 1 per cent. to be
allowed for excess of immigration over emigration, or 3 per cent.
in all, this is quite as high a rate of increase as is at all likely to
be realised, and one which would admit of the population doubling
itself in 224 years, or in a shorter period by 23 years than the
unprecedently short time in which the population of the United
States has become doubled.

The official statistics of past years afford no guide as to what
the increase in the numbers of sheep and cattle has been in the
past or is likely to be in the future, as those statistics have been
based upon estimates which, in the few cases in which an attempt
has been made to verify them ata general census, have been
found to be quite erroneous. Their unreliable character, more-
over, is borne out by the fluctuations which the figures would
make it appear had taken place in the rates of increase at the
different periods, as shown in the following table :—

APPARENT INCREASE IN THE NUMBER OF SHEEP AND CATTLE
IN AUSTRALIA AT QUINQUENNIAL PERIODS.

Sheep. Cattle.
voar Apparent Quinquennial Apparent Quinquennial
Benimated Increase. Hemineted Increase.
Number. Number.
Numerical. |C’nt’sml Numerical. | Centesimal.

1863 | 24,819,312 —_ — 3,853,688 = =
1868 | 39,346,008 | 14,526,696 | 58°53 | 3,592,796 | — 260,892 = 6:14
1873 | 43,948,576 4,602,568 | 11°70) 5,243,204 | 1,650,408 45°93
1878 | 49,737,531 5,788,955 | 18°17| 6,738,941 | 1,490,737 28°43
1883 | 68,154,228 | 18,416,697 | 37:03) 7,568,618 834,677 12°39
1888 | 80,028,442 | 11,874,214 | 17°42] 8,172,321 603,703 7:98

The figures in the table would appear to indicate, in regard to
sheep, that whilst the large increase of 59 per cent. took place
between 1863 and 1868, the increase was only 12 per cent.
between 1868 and 1873, and no more than 13 per cent. between
1873 and 1878; that it rose to 37 per cent. between 1878 and
1883, and was only 17 per cent. between 1883 and 1888 ; also, in
regard to cattle, that there was an actual falling-off of 7 per cent.
between 1863 and 1868, followed by the large increase of 46 per
cent. in the next quinquennial period, by the increase of 28 per
cent. between 1873 and 1878, 12 per cent. between 1878 and
1883, and only 8 per cent. between 1883 and 1888.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 577

Such irregularities show the figures to be utterly unreliable. It
is therefore necessary to take the estimated numbers as they
stand at the present time, and to find what the possible rate of
increase would be after deducting the numbers required to feed
the population, for which Mr. Coghlan’s estimate may be
accepted, viz., 2 sheep and -26—or rather more than a fourth
part—of a head of cattle to each person per annum.

I am informed by competent authories that upon the existing
numbers of sheep and cattle of both sexes and all ages there may
be expected to be an annual increase of 30 per cent., by the
birth of lambs and calves. The average number likely to die
annually by drought and disease is more difficult to estimate—
Mr. Coghlan sets it down at 5 per cent; but from numerous
inquiries I have made, I am led to believe that, taking one year
with another, the allowance should not be less than 10 per cent.
There being thus a 30 per cent. increase by births and a 10 per
cent. decrease by natural deaths, there remains a net increase of
20 per cent., and the question to be solved is—Will this increase
upon the present numbers of our stock admit of 2 sheep and -26
of a head of cattle being provided annually for the food of our
population, which population may be expected to increase at the
rate of 3 per cent. each year ?

This is a matter of easy. calculation. If, after all deductions
are made, the stock is able to increase at a faster rate than the
population, there is evidently no danger of the supply falling
short ; but if the population is increasing the faster of the two, it
must be only a question of time when the supply will be over-
taken. Such a calculation, together with the data on which it is
based, will be found in the following table, which relates to the
four years ending with 1892 :—

PopuLaTION, SHEEP, AND CATTLE IN AUSTRALIA, 1889 To 1892.
(000’s omITTED).

| Increase by Births each
| Population | Zeer (G0 per cent), us
: ee eaths by Disease an
E ars | At Beginning of each Year. Teo aene t10 ate ey
Care (inereasing | Net Increase—say 20 per
3 per cent. cent.
Ren a0 00) 5 | ee
Sheep. Cattle. Sheep. | Cattle.
1889 2,983 80,028 8,172 16,006 | 1,634
{
1890 3,072 | 90,068 9,030 18,014 | 1,806
1891 3,165 | 101,988 10,037 20,375 2,006
|
1892 | 3,260 | 115,983 11,220 23,160 2,240
| |

eK

578 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

Killed each Y 2 Sh d :26
Cattle es head of tie SOT EG En). At End of each Year.
Year,
Sheep. Cattle. Sheep. | Cattle.
|
1889 5,966 775 90,068 | 9,080
|
1890 | 6,144 799 101,988 | 10,037
1891 6,330 823 115,983 | 11,220
|
1892 6,520 848 132,623 | 12,612

From these figures it is ascertained that after, making what
appear to be ample deductions for the numbers dying naturally
and for the food supply of the increasing population of Australia,
there will be a large possible increase from year to year in the
numbers not only of the sheep—which Mr. Coghlan admits—
but also of the cattle, and that the possible raze of increase, as
well as the possible increase zz xumbers of both descriptions of
stock during each year, is in every case larger than it was in the
year which preceded it, so that there is no danger of either sheep
or cattle falling short. The figures are as follows :—

PossiBLE INCREASE OF SHEEP AND CATTLE, 1889 To 1892.
(000’s OMITTED.)

| Sheep. Cattle.
Year. | aern)
Number. Percentage. Number. Percentage.
1889 10,040 12°55 858 10°50
1890 11,870 13°18 1,007 11°15
1891 14,045 13°78 1,183 11°79
1892 16,640 14°35 1,392 12°41

I use the word “possible” instead of “probable” advisedly,
for it is not at all likely such increases will actually take place,
as the numbers will be kept down by the slaughtering of lambs
and calves, by the spaying of heifers, and by exportations. But
should the surplus at any time be nearly overtaken by the food
requirements of the population, the price of meat will of course
rise, and these practices will at once cease.

With the fresh country which is continually being discovered
and opened up, there will, I believe, be pasturage to maintain any
increase in the numbers of live stock which is likely to take place

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 579

during the existence of every person now living; and with the
benefit of irrigation and the saving of surplus herbage by means
of ensilage in seasons when feed is plentiful, it is impossible to
place any limit on the quantity of live stock this great continent
mmay ultimately be able to carry.

Where Mr. Coghlan seems to me to be in error is, first, that he
has very much over-estimated the rate at which the population of
Australia is likely to increase ; and, secondly, that he has only
taken what he considers to have been the acfua/ rate of increase
of stock in the past as a guide to the future, and has left out
of consideration what might be the josszb/e increase if the
slaughtering of young stock, the unsexing of heifers, and the
exportation of meat were abandoned, which any rise in prices
would inevitably cause them to be.

2.—THE COMING CENSUS.

By H. H. Hayter, C.M.G.

THe officers charged with the collection and compilation of
statistics throughout her Majesty’s dominions have no doubt for
some time past had under consideration the necessity of making
early provision for taking the census of 1891, and some have
probably already commenced their preparations for that important
national undertaking.

Having been connected officially with four censuses of this
colony, the last two of which have been entirely under my own
management, I can confidently say that upon the intelligence and
forethought exercised in devising and planning the preliminary
arrangements, the success of a census mainly depends. It is
impossible that these arrangements can be made satifactorily unless
sufficient time is allowed for them to be perfected, and experience
has shown they ought to be commenced at least twelve months
before the period for taking the census arrives.

It must be remembered that the preparations involve, in
the first instance, the passing of an Act giving the requisite
power to take the census. This Act will no doubt be based upon
former Census Acts, but it is the duty and will certainly be to
the advantage of the superintending officer to weigh well all the
provisions of the proposed measure prior to its becoming law, so
that he may be in the position to recommend the addition of any
which his experience and judgment tell him are wanting, and the
exclusion of any which he has reason to believe are likely to
operate prejudicially. If this is done thoughtfully and with due
consideration for the requirements of the undertaking, much
after trouble will be saved. Nothing is more vexatious than for

*K2

580 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

the officer charged with the conduct of the work to find himself
armed with insufficient powers, or cramped and hampered by
annoying and unnecessary restrictions.

Much inconvenience has been found to result where the house-
holder’s schedule has been attached to the Census Act. _I
therefore recommend that only the heads of inquiry be embodied
in the Act, on which a schedule should be based which might be
afterwards approved by the Governor-in-Council and gazetted.
There are matters of detail in this schedule which it is sometimes
desirable to alter even at the last moment, and this could be done
readily if the schedule were, within certain limits, merely a
matter of regulation; whereas, the Act once passed with the
schedule attached, however desirable it may be to effect changes, it
is impossible to vary the form of the schedule in the slightest degree.

Attempts are sometimes made to collect agricultural statistics
and statistics of mining, manufactures, school attendance, &c., by
means of the census enumerators, but this should not be per-
mitted. The collecting officers have quite enough to do to attend
to their own duties, and any extra work imposed upon them
causes loss of time and tends to make the census inaccurate. It
may perhaps be allowable for the census collectors to take an
account of the live stock, as that can only be done accurately
when a census is taken, and is not likely to cause much delay,
but with this exception, they should not be required to do any-
thing unconnected with their own legitimate work, viz., that
connected with the enumeration of the population.

In one of the colonies a return of the religious belief of the
people has hitherto not been asked for, and in more than one of
the others no attempt has been made to obtain a statement of the
numbers sick, blind, deaf and dumb, lunatic and idiotic. The
information embodied under these heads is interesting and
valuable, and as it can be got without extra expense or trouble,
there seems no good reason why it should not be obtained in
every one of the colonies.

The preparation of the instructions to the persons employed to
collect the census will require much intelligent consideration,
especially as most of such persons, particularly in colonies which
take the census only once in ten years, will be new to the work,
and some, especially in country districts—though perhaps hardy
bushmen—will in all probability be of defective education. The
systems of census-taking no doubt vary in the different colonies ;
but the fact remains that in every colony it is necessary that a
staff should be so organised as to act over its entire length and
breadth, and to extends even to its most remote limits; also
that each member of this staff should be made to thoroughly
understand his duties. It is therefore essential that his instruc-
tions should be precise and definite, as well as simple and easy to
be understood.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 581

The division of the colony into districts suitable for the census-
taking should be done upon a definite principle. In Victoria,
and, I believe, in most of the other colonies, it is the practice to
have superintending collectors, called “‘enumerators,” and working
collectors, called ‘‘sub-enumerators,” the districts assigned to the
former being arranged in the central office, whilst those of the
latter are planned by the enumerators.

For the enumerators’ districts the whole colony should be
mapped out, no portion of it being omitted under the assumption
of its being uninhabited. In forming these districts the principal
objects to be kept in view are, first, that each district should be
of such an extent, having regard to the work to be done, as to be
readily under the control of its enumerator; secondly, that its
boundary lines should, where possible, coincide with the boundaries
of existing districts, such as counties, electorates, municipalities,
&e. ; and thirdly, that its boundaries should be well defined, and
easily discoverable on the ground.

The formation of the sub-enumerators’ districts (or sub-districts
as they are usually called) is, as has been stated, left to the
enumerator, but subject to instructions from the central office.
At the last census of Victoria these instructions were to the effect
that, unless under exceptional circumstances, each sub-district
should be of such a size as to permit the work of enumeration to
be performed in three days, viz., one day for depositing and two
days for collecting the schedules ; that in towns, where the
dwellings were close together, a sub-district might contain from
150 to 200 inhabited houses ; in suburban districts, villages, and
goldfields, where the dwellings were not so near to one another
as in a closely-built town, it might contain from 100 to 150 such
houses ; in the more settled agricultural districts, where not more
than half a mile intervened between a dwelling and the next
nearest, it might contain from 50 to 100; and in scattered agri-
cultural districts, where intervals of two miles or upwards
sometimes occurred between two dwellings, less than 50 might be
allowed. In laying out pastoral and other widely-scattered
districts the enumerator was enjoined to use his own judgment,
both as regards the number of habitations in a sub-district and
the time to be allowed for the enumeration.

I may observe that, probably for the sake of saving themselves
trouble, and sometimes, no doubt, from the desire to give the
sub-enumerators—perhaps their own relatives or friends—an
opportunity of drawing as much money as possible, the general
tendency of enumerators is to make the sub-districts too large,
thus causing the work to extend over a longer period than is
desirable. This should not be permitted, as from the fact of
population being always on the move, it is an ascertained fact
that the longer the time which is taken over the collection of a
census the less accurate it is likely to be.

582 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

On the maps to be supplied to the enumerators—one to be
returned to the central office with the proposed sub-districts
marked thereon, and the other to be retained by the enumerator
for his own guidance—should be plainly delineated before sending
them out from the central office, not only the outside boundaries
of the district, but all county, electoral, or municipal boundaries
which cross it, and all towns, villages, goldfields or other groupings
of population it is desired should be kept separate. If this is
not done mistakes are apt to occur in the marking and arrange-
ment of the schedules, which are likely to lead to much after
trouble.

In order to calculate the number of householders’ schedules
which will be wanted, the enumerators must be required to esti-
mate carefully beforehand the number of houses in each sub-
district under their charge; but to guard against the possibility
of running short, each sub-enumerator must be supplied with
more schedules than he would appear to require from the estimate
of houses in his division. Then the enumerator must have a
number of schedules in stock, ready to supply any sub-enumerator
who, in spite of this precaution, may find himself deficient, and
a large reserve must be kept at the central office, in order to
supply any enumerator who may want them at the last moment.

surplus is therefore required in all directions, and it will
generally be found necessary to have nearly 50 per cent. more
schedules printed than calculations show are likely to be
filled.

Special arrangements should be made and interpreters engaged
for the enumeration of the Chinese; the enumeration of the
aborigines should also be attempted, and timely application be
made to the superintendents of mission stations and aboriginal
reserves, who will, no doubt, not only give information respecting
those staying at such establishments, but supply reliable estimates
of those who may be living elsewhere.

In order to secure a complete enumeration, arrangements
should be made to take an account of all who arrive in the colony
either by land or sea, up to 12 o’clock on the night of the census;
provision should, moreover, be made for enumerating not only
those who pass the night indoors, but of those who may be camp-
ing out, fishing, or taking night duty at mines or elsewhere, and
persons should be specially told off in the principal towns to visit
reserves, Wharves, or other places where tramps and vagrants
may be expected to pass the night. As in certain cases this ser-
vice may be not unattended with danger, it is desirable that the
police should be requested to afford protection to those charged
with the duty.

Tn order to prepare the public mind for the event of the census,
printed notices should be posted at all police stations, railway
stations, post offices, and other prominent places throughout the

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 583

colony, also be several times inserted as an advertisement in all
the newspapers. The same notices, translated into the Chinese
language, should be posted in the Chinese quarters of the towns
and goldtields, and distributed amongst the leading persons of
the Chinese race.

After the census has been taken, the Government, the Press,
and the public are, as may well be supposed, anxious to obtain a
rough statement of the results as speedily as possible. To afford
means of satisfying this very natural wish, each sub-enumerator
should be required to extract from the householders’ schedules he
collects the totals of the population, distinguishing the sexes, also
the Chinese and aborigines, and should insert the figures in a
form supplied to him for that purpose, which he should for-
ward to his enumerator as soon as completed. From these
forms the enumerator should make a summary of his whole
district, adding the columns so that the total result may appear
in one line, and this summary he should transmit to the central
office at the earliest possible moment. Immediately all these
summaries are received, no time should be lost in preparing a
summary of the whole colony, which should be at once published
for general information. By following this practice, I was able
on the occasion of the census of 1881, to publish the approxi-
mate totals for Victoria exactly one month from the census-day,
a speediness of publication which, so far as I am aware, has not
even yet ever been equalled in any other country.

Various methods have been adopted for compiling a census, but
so far as my experience goes the most convenient way of perform-
ing the operation is by means of cards, one card being devoted to
each individual of the population. The cards may be about the
size of ordinary playing-cards, and should be of two colours, one
colour for the males, the other for the females. For their
custody and arrangement pigeon-holes should be provided, which
should have partitions, four inches—or little more than the width
of the cards—apart, and movable cross shelves, constructed to
slide in and out between the partitions through grooves placed
every three inches, so that a large or a small space can be ob-
tained according as it is required to place a greater or a less
number of cards therein. It will be readily understood that it
would be a serious matter if the cards, numbering as they must
one for each person in the colony, were to become disordered or
misplaced, and that upon the perfection of the methods adopted
for the arrangement and disposal of the cards, much of the success
of the card system depends.

The process of using the cards is as follows:—The name or
number of the place to which the entries are to relate, and the
number of the schedule from which the particulars are to be
extracted, having been stamped upon the card, the entries are to
be made with pen and ink. After these have been made, and

584 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

their correctness has been verified by examination, the next
proceeding is to reduce the results toa tabular form, This is
done by sorting the cards of each place into heaps, according to
whatever enquiry it is desired to work out, after which it is only
necessary to count the cards in each heap, and to enter the
numbers so obtained in the columns of specially prepared
summary sheets. As a matter of course, the respective heaps
will be entirely different in number, size and contents, according
to which of the heads of enquiry is being dealt with, but the total
results under each head must exactly balance with one another.

Tt is to be hoped that in all the colonies a careful selection will
be made of the extra officers to be engaged to compile the census.
It has been too often the practice, both in these colonies and in
the United Kingdom, to consider the census office as a sort of
refuge for the destitute, and to appoint thereto persons who have
failed in other occupations, and are not unfrequently of bad
character and inebriate habits. In consequence of this, the expense
of compiling the census has been materially added to, the work
has been unduly protracted, and it has also suffered in point of
accuracy. It cannot be too forcibly impressed upon those by
whom the appointments are made that it is a mistake to suppose
that incapable persons can be made useful on the compilation of
a census. All the work in connection with that operation is of a
more intricate and complex character than that which occurs in
the routine of most Government departments; to the bulk of
those appointed it is entirely novel; it is therefore desirable that
they should possess quick comprehension and aptitude for grasping
fresh subjects, as well as a fair share of ordinary intelligence.
Should it be found that such qualities are absent in an officer, or
should his conduct be such as to be subversive of the discipline
of the office, the head of the census department ought to have
full power at once to dispense with his services.

The forms for compiling the census should be got ready before
the actual work of the census commences, for when that operation
is in progress the time and thoughts of the superintending officer
are fully occupied with the work on hand. To give an Imperial
character to the returns, the forms should be so arranged that
the compilation might be effected as nearly as possible upon the
English principle, such divergencies only being allowed as might
be necessary to suit local circumstances. It is much to be desired
that before the census is taken it may be arranged that the heads
of the statistical departments of the different colonies may meet
in conference, with the view to an agreement being arrived at for
the adoption of a uniform system of compilation throughout the
group.

Federation is said to be in the air, and it seems possible that
at anot very distant period there may be one central Govern-
ment over the whole of Australasia, in which case there would, I

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 585

assume, be also one central statistical department. Such a depart-
ment will, in all probability, not come into existence until after
my own official career has terminated, but it may do so during
the period of service of some of my brother statisticians, and I
may observe that I know of no one who would be better fitted to
be at its head than the talented president of this section. But
cannot its establishment be anticipated by an agreement to
establish uniformity in statistical compilation throughout the
colonies of this group? It is true that for the time being there
must nominally be as many statistical departments as there are
colonies, but if all work as one, the desired union (or federation,
if the term be preferred) will practically be accomplished.
Statisticians should have no petty jealousies or ambitions, no
desire to take credit for originality, or to obtain notoriety by
unnecessarily making their work different from that of others.
The publication of truth in the most useful form possible should
be their aim and object, and they should not mind following in
the footsteps of others, if what they follow is really good. Let
all then agree to state their facts when arrived at in the same
manner and after the same form, and if any change should be
desirable let it be made by mutual agreement. If all act upon
these lines, there will soon be the same uniformity in the statistical
records of the various colonies that there would be if a general
federation of the whole had become an accomplished fact.

3.—FORESTRY : ITS SCOPE AND APPLICATION.

By M. H. Cuirrorp.

4.—A RESERVE INDUSTRY AS A REMEDY F
ENFORCED IDLENESS.

By W. J. Curry.

5.—SETTLEMENT OF AN INDUSTRIAL POPULA-
TION ON THE LAND, BY MEANS OF SMALL
HOLDINGS.

By Hon. G. W. Corton, M.L.C.

586 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

6.—FODDER PLANTS AND GRASSES OF AUSTRALIA.

By Frep. Turner, F.R.H.S. London, Botanist to the
Department of Agriculture, N.S.W.

My object in reading before the ‘‘ Economic and Social Science
Section” of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of
Science an account of my experiments and observations on the
fodder plants and grasses of Australia is that more interest may
be taken in them by scientists, pastoralists, and agriculturists.
“Grass,” says Professor Martyn, in his letters on the “ Elements
of Botany,” “vulgarly forms one single idea, and the husbandman
when looking over his enclosure does not dream there are upwards
of three hundred species, of which thirty or forty may.be at
present under his eye.” These remarks of Professor Martyn’s,
made so many years ago, are substantially correct at the present.
day.

Distinguished agriculturists have often remarked that a know-
ledge of the comparative merits and the value of the different
species of grasses, and the best mode of cultivating them, is very
much below other branches of agriculture. With regard to Aus-
tralian grasses, these remarks are singularly appropriate, notwith-
standing that they are the principal source from which Austra-
lians derive their greatest wealth. However, a new era seems to
have dawned upon Australia. By establishing departments of
agriculture throughout the colonies, we may reasonably expect
most valuable results to accrue therefrom, and if these are assisted
by the patriotic exertions of private individuals, much of the
prejudice at present existing with regard to the value of our
native pasture-plants may be consigned to oblivion. By systematic
experiments their yield could be ascertained, and by analysis
their nutritive qualities proved. This would be an invaluable
guide to pastoralists and agriculturists, who could see at a glance
what species were most suitable to their requirements.

The comparative merits of our native fodder-plants and grasses
should form a part of the curriculum of the national education.
If there were placed in all country State schools an enlarged
drawing of each species that is peculiar to the district the school
was situated in, with its botanical and common name, together
with a short popular description and analysis, it might form a
lasting impression upon the young mind, and would most probably
lead to valuable results in after-years. It cannot be said we have
no material to work upon, for there are upwards of three hundred
and sixty species of grasses indigenous to this continent. All
these, of course, are not valuable fodder, but they have their uses
in the economy of nature, which I shall show in another part of
this paper. Amongst other native fodder plants, the most

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 587

numerous and valuable are to be found in the natural order
Chenopodiacee, numbering as they do for all Australia about one
hundred and twelve species, arranged under fifteen genera, eight
of which are endemic. Some are found on the littoral sands,
whilst others extend to the arid plains of the interior, and
are remarkable for their drought-enduring qualities. There
are also many other trees, shrubs, and herbs, represented in other
natural orders, which are largely used as fodder, especially so
during long droughts; though there is still much doubt to be
cleared up with respect to the value of many of them. Even in
the same district, some persons will assert that a particular species
of plant is poisonous, while the testimony of others, which is
equally reliable, will assert that it makes capital feed. There
are, perhaps, no more conflicting statements made than with regard
to the genus Lvemophila, and the allied one ALZyoporum. Whilst I
must admit that so very little is known of the physiological
properties of the order AZyoporinee, still I cannot close my eyes
to the fact that both cattle and sheep, kept in country where
these shrubs are plentiful, eat them with avidity, and thrive on
them, without any ill effects. Some persons assert that these
Myoporinous plants develop their poisonous properties when in
fruit, but whoever has studied the habits of the birds of Central
Australia will assure you that someof them greatly depend upon the
fruits of these plants for sustenance ; which in fact, in some seasons
are their principal food supply. Moreover, the aboriginals in the
early days, before they tasted the sweets of civilisation, used to
eat the fruits of several AZyoporinous plants. There is no doubt
that when cattle and sheep are taken from one district to another,
where the natural herbage is somewhat dissimilar, it must have,
for a time at least, some effect upon their systems, especially when
they are taken from rolling-downs of grass to country where
shrubs and herbs predominate. And this brings to mind a ques-
tion which I think has not received the attention of stock-owners
that its importance justifies, viz., the mechanical action that
hard-foliaged shrubs have upon the larynx of both cattle and
sheep which are not used to eating them. This irritation of the
larynx not only brings on laryngitis, but often extends to and
brings on inflammation of the intestines. Further, when hungry
sheep have partaken too freely of some leguminous plants,
especially when in seed, they have died. But this is caused
during the process of digestion, when great volunes of gas
are formed, which cause an abnormal distention of the stomach,
thus preventing the lungs working freely, and of course
strangling the animals. On this account many leguminous plants
are called poisonous which are not really so. Still, these causes
could not account for all the sheep that die somewhat mysteriously.
I use the word ‘“‘ mysteriously” advisedly, for many plants have
been sent to me as poisonous which, on examination, have proved

588 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

to be quite harmless. Nor is my case a singular one; many
others have had the same experience. We have a far more in-
sidious enemy to contend against in the parasitic fungi which
affect grasses, not only in the damp coastal districts, but far into
the interior. Some few years ago I drew attention to the great
increase of parasitic fungi on some of our most valuable grasses,
and I then said, what I think now, that fungoid growth on
grasses is the primary cause of many sheep dying so mysteriously.
For we have abundant proof of the destructive agency of micro-
scopic fungi on both animals and plants that have not sufficient
vigour to repel them. The life history of these native fungoid
growths is well worthy the attention of specialists, if only to show
what their effects are upon animals.

As long as a greater portion of this continent is devoted to
depasturing sheep and cattle, and Australia intends to hold her
own against the world in the production of high-class wool, also
in the matter of the frozen meat export trade, it becomes of vital
importance to the population that more attention should be paid
to our native fodder-plants and grasses than has hitherto been
the case, to save some of them from extinction by a proper system
of €conservation, and even cultivation. There is no gainsaying
the fact that duri ing recent droughts large tracts of country have
been so overstocked that many valuable pasture-plants and
grasses have become so scarce that it would take years of careful
conservation to bring them back to anything like their original
state. Being so closely fed down, their only natural means of
reproducing themselves by seed is partially destroyed, and every
year makes matters worse. An occasional good season may, to a
slight extent, remedy this ; but observant and thoughtful persons
can see that in the near future more vigorous action will have to be
taken to keep our pastures up to their normal state, or the number
of sheep and cattle to each station will have to be considerably
lessened, which, of course, means the export of less wool, tallow,
hides and mutton. It should also be borne in mind that every
fleece of wool which is produced takes a percentage of potash and
other fertilising substances out of the soil, and nothing so far
has been done to restore these natural elements to the earth.
It must naturally follow that the more valuable herbage will
gradually give way and a more worthless one take its place, that
is, from an economic point of view. An instance of this is
alre ady taking place in the interior, where the pine scrub
(Frenela) has already taken possession of thousands of acres of
what was, at one time, splendid pastoral country.

By the following figures some idea may be formed of the
quantity of grass-seeds required for one acre, supposing it to be
sown at the usual rate of thirty-six pounds (36lbs.), which,
approximately stated, is equal to about twenty-two (22) millions
ot grains. This applies to ordinary grass-seeds, such as some

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 589

species of Andropogons, Chloris, Eragrostis, Panicums, &c. The
number of grains vary somewhat one way or the other (for no
other seeds in the vegetable kingdom vary more, either in weight
or number) according to the good or bad season they were
harvested in. An acre well clothed with grass would contain
from fifteen to twenty millions of plants, though, in some excep-
tional cases, as many as forty millions of plants have been recorded
to the acre. When such appalling facts as these are brought to
mind they cannot be trifled with, and it is no wonder that
thinking persons are apprehensive as to the future condition of
our pastures unless some radical change takes place.

Many persons have thought that by introducing exotic fodder-
plants and grasses they would, in a great measure, supersede and
be an improvement upon the indigenous ones. But it has often
struck me as being a most remarkable thing that those persons
who have written up the supposed virtues of exotics have
given no guarantee that our high-class wool would be maintained
under this new diet. Climate, no doubt, has a great deal to do
with the production of high-class wool. Still, I cannot close my
eyes to the fact that the indigenous vegetation is the principal
factor. Keeping these circumstances in view, it is much better
to systematically conserve, and even cultivate, our native fodder
plants than introduce others of which we have only a superficial
knowledge.

Many exotic species have been introduced as good fodder-plants
which have proved a positive pest to the country. Everyone
must be painfully reminded of this fact when they see that
ubiquitous Cape composite, Cryptostemma calendulacea, which
already covers large areas of pasture-land, and from year to year
the area widens, to the gradual extinction of native herbs and
grasses. Over two hundred species of worthless weeds have been
introduced with seeds of exotic fodder plants, or in an accidental
way along with other seeds. So great a pest to the country have
some of these proved, that laws have been directed towards their
extermination. The prickly comfrey (Symphytum asperrimum)
was heralded throughout Australasia, a few years ago, as the
fodder plant that was to supersede all others. What is the
consequence, after years of careful nursing? It has proved to be
a positive failure in the country, after all the money expended in
introducing and cultivating it. A Canary Island shrub, called
Tagasasta (Cytisus proliferus) is now occupying much attention in
some quarters, which experience will eventually prove to have
been misdirected. I have observed this shrub for a number of
years, having raised from seed some of the first plants ever seen
in Australia. I have a shrub now under my charge which is
about fifteen feet high, but I can firmly assert that our old man
salt-bush (Rhagodia parabolica) would at the same age have
produced about twice the amount of a superior fodder, and would

590 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

grow in even more adverse circumstances of drought and heat.
To give even a synopsis of all the introduced plants that have
proved a pest in the country would occupy much time. There is
one more, however, I should like to draw attention to. It is the
European dodder (Cuscuta trifolit), a parasitic plant which grows
on the roots of lucerne and clover, and is doing much harm to
those pastures in New South Wales. The dodder seeds, no doubt,
have been imported with unclean samples of clover and lucerne
seed, and the climate being favourable, it has spread very rapidly
of late years.

I must confess that at one period I held the views of those
persons who thought to supplant our native herbage by a free
introduction of exotics, but after an observation extending over
fifteen years, I have outlived these erroneous ideas. My first
observations were made when I had charge of a series of experi-
ments, carried out with both native and exotic fodder-plants and
grasses, with a view of proving their true qualities by comparison.*
To enumerate all the species experimented with (upwards of one
hundred), together with a detailed description, would occupy too
much time ; but to sum up briefly, I may state that the native
ones yielded more at the rate per acre than did exotics, with the
exception of such tall-growing grasses as Panicum maximum,
Panicum spectabile, Reana luxurians, Sorghum vulgare, Zea mays,and
some of the larger kinds of millet. But these were run very close
by the following native ones :— Anthistiria avenacea, Astrebla
pectinata, Heteropogon insignis, Panicum crus-gallt, FPollinia
fulva, Rottboellia ophiuroides, Sorghum halepense, and Sorghum
plumosum. It is a well-known fact, however, among agricul-
turists that tall-growing grasses are not always, in fact, scarcely
ever so nutritious as the more dwarf ones, though they are of the
greatest use for ensilage, where bulk is a great consideration.
Another point to be noted with these fodder plants and grasses is
that horses eat the native ones in preference to exotics, which
proves conclusively that with cultivation native grasses will
become as succulent, as tempting to the appetite, and as
nutritious as the best of exotics. Those species experimented
with, that were indigenous to Northern Europe and North
America, proved to be the most unsuitable, with two exceptions—
one of annual growth, Ceratochloa unioloides, a capital winter
species, and the other a perennial, Poa pratensis (var. virginiana).
This grass has underground stoloniferous stems like our native
Cynodon dactylon, so on this account is not easy to exter-
minate, while it affords a good fodder for sheep. Those from
South Africa did fairly well, especially Z7icholena rosea,
which is quite acclimatised in some situations. Its ripe seeds,
being light, are distributed far and wide by every wind that

* They were sown or planted in spaces exactly one yard square, which was an accurate
way to compute the yield of produce per acre of each species,

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 591

blows. Some South American species did well, as also the
Californian bunch-grass, E/ymus condensatus. But it must be
borne in mind that all these grasses were tested in the coastal
districts, and it is a question whether they would have grown at
all if they had been sown or planted on the arid western plains
of Australia, All these experiments were carried out on a black
loamy soil, but I saw other experiments carried out on different
soils. Still, the results were much the same, with the exception,
of course, of pure sand, which appears less favourable to their
growth than any other; but even this has species peculiar to
itself. I mention this fact, for much prominence has been given
by some persons to the relative values of the different geological
formations as being necessary to the growth of particular pasture-
plants, but this has really an unimportant bearing upon the sub-
ject, and is more likely to lead to confusion than otherwise. Of
course, where soils are naturally very light, or very heavy, very
dry, or excessively wet, it is then necessary to make a selection
of the most suitable species for such situations. But to advise
fifty different geological formations for the same number of
pasture-plants is mere pedantry.

Grasses and other fodder-plants have been recommended by
persons who had formed their judgments of their merits upon
imperfect trials, or upon every-day evidence. This has caused
much disappointment, and discouraged many persons from further
endeavours at improvement of their pastures. To this, also, we
may attribute the general indifference towards obtaining a know-
ledge of the comparative merits of grasses and other fodder-
plants. There is one good thing, however, those persons have
done for the country who have recommended exotic grasses, for
they have always given directions for the soil to be broken up
and brought to a fine tilth before the sowing takes place. But
what a contrast this is to the continual struggle for existence our
native grasses have to undergo, for the paddocks are often as hard
as the roads throughout the country. In these circumstances it
can hardly be wondered at that many of them present a wiry
appearance, and if it were not for the sharp points on many of
our native grass-seeds some of them would have been extinct long
ago. These sharp-pointed seeds burrow into the soil, and when
rain falls to soften it they germinate and grow, where it would be
practically impossible for exotic ones to live.

There is no doubt that the pastures in the coastal districts can
be improved by introducing some exotics, especially those that
make their growth during winter and early spring, for as a general
rule most of our grasses make their growth during the summer
season. Amongst the exceptions are—<Agvropyron scabrum,
Andropogon affinis, Bromus arenarius, Ertochloa annulata, Erto-
chloa punctata, Echinopogon ovatus, Danthonia semt-annularts,
Deyeuxta forstert, Dichelachne crinita, Dichelachne sciurea, Festuca

592 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

bromoides, Lappago racemosa, and Microlena stipoides. Before an
attempt is made at the systematic cultivation of our indigenous
fodder-plants and grasses, it will be necessary to have some data
to work upon. For the benefit of those persons who desire to
enter upon their cultivation, I shall divide them into groups, and
give a synopsis of those species which, after a long study, I am led
to believe will be most suited to the requirements for general
pasture and hay-making, cultivating for grain, species suitable
for wet and undrained soils, also for dry soils, and for binding the
littoral sands. I have already mentioned those species most
suitable to cultivate for ensilage.

Those species suitable for general pasture and hay-making are
—Asgropyron scabrum, Andropogon bombycinus, A. ertanthoides,
A. intermedius, A. pertusus, A. refractus, A. sericeus, Anthisteria
ciliata, A. membranacea, Astrebla elymoides, A. pectinata, A.
triticoides, Chloris acicularis, C. truncata, C. ventricosa, Chryso-
pogon gryllus, Cynodon dactylon, Danthonia longifolia, D. pallida,
D. pilosa, D. semiannularis, Dichelachne crinita, Eleusine egyptica,
Eragrostis brown, E. pilosa, Ertochloa annulata, E. punctata,
Microlena stipoides, Panicum decompositum, P. distachyum, P.
divaricatissimum, P. effusum, P. flavidum, P. leucophaum, P.
macractinum, P. melananthum, P reversum, P. trachyrachis, P.
prolutum, Poa cespitosa, and Setarta glauca.

GRASSES TO CULTIVATE FOR GRAIN.—It is a most remarkable
fact that the native country of wheat, oats, and barley should be
entirely unknown. Many eminent botanists are of opinion that
all our cereals are artificial productions, obtained accidentally,
but retaining their habits, which have become fixed in the long
course of ages, and the following observations seem to bear out
this theory. It has been observed that when oats are grown on
poor land, and shed their grain, the progeny will, if left unculti-
vated for a generation or two, revert to the wild oat, but that
cultivation wili bring the grain back to its proper standard.
gilops ovata is said to be the origin of all our cultivated wheats,
and as a convincing proof of this it is a remarkable fact that this
genus of grass is subject to the attacks of the same species of
parasitic fungi which affect the wheat crops of the present day,
and render them somewhat uncertain in some districts during
some seasons. When these plants can be so changed with cul-
tivation as to afford us useful grain, it seems a most feasible thing
that out of three hundred and sixty species found on this conti-
nent some could be cultivated that would yield good grain, with-
out its attendant drawbacks in the way of parasitic fungi,
especially on the arid central plains of Australia, where wheat
and other cereals would not mature grain, on account of the great
climatic heat. During my experiments I observed that the
grains of some of our grasses developed very much under cultiva-
tion, more especially in one species, Astrebla triticoides (var.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 593

lappacea). This grass produced ears nearly six inches in length,
and were well filled with a clean-lodking firm grain, which
separated easily from the chaff, somewhat like wheat. During
my long observations I never have seen any species of parasitic
fungi attack either the straw or grain of this grass, nor from
enquiries have I ever heard that this grass is affected with fun-
goid growth. Most grain-producing plants are of annual growth,
but this species is perennial, and attains a height of from three
to four feet. It has a stout, clean straw, which would, after the
grain was threshed out, make good fodder. Other species that
might be cultivated for grain are—Leersia hexandra (the native
rice grass), Panicum decompositum, P. flavidum, P. semialatum,
P. trachyrachis, Setaria glauca, and S. macrostachya.

The following species are the most suitable for growing on
wet or undrained lands :—Arthraxon ciliara, Diplachne fusca,
LElionurus citreus, Glyceria fluitans, G. fordeana, G. ramigera,
Hemarthria compressa, Imperata arundinacea, Lsachne australis,
Ischemum australe, Leersia hexandra, Leptochloa chinensis, L.
subdigttata, Panicum indicum, P. melananthum, P. prolutum,
Paspalum adistichum, P. scrobiculatum, Pennisetum compressum,
Phragmites communis, Pollinia fulva, Sporobolus diander, S.
virginicus, and S. indicus. The last is an exceedingly tough grass,
which I have often recommended for paper-making. In strength
it is equal to the esparto grass of Spain (Stipa tenacissima), when
cultivated in Australia.

Grasses suitable for growing on dry, stony ridges, or on poor
soils, are Amphipogon strictus, Arundinella nepalensis, Cenchrus
australis, Echinopogon ovatus, Eragrostis chetophylla, E. ertopoda,
E.. falcata, E. lanifiora, E. Jacunaria, Festuca bromoides, and
NNeurachne mitchelliana.

Grasses that will grow on the littoral sandy wastes of this
continent are of especial value, not only as fodder-plants, but
they assist in binding, and thus prevent the loose sand from
being blown inland by the fury of sea winds. The following
species are amongst the best for this purpose :—Dzvstichlis
maritima, Imperata arundinacea, Lepturus incurvatus. L. repens,
L. cylindricus, Paspalum distichum, Schedonorus littoralis, Spintfex
hirsutus, Sporobolus virginicus, Thuarea sarmentosa, and Zoysia
pungens.

It has been often remarked that many of our native grasses,
while young, are really good pasture-plants, but at the season of
ripening their seeds are irritating and dangerous to the eyes of
sheep, often causing blindness, and this is no doubt correct. But,
in a great measure, this could be guarded against, if pastoralists
were “to confine their sheep to small areas until the seeds had
fallen to the ground, which, under ordinary circumstances, would
not be longer. than tee seeks when most of the danger would
be past. Once the seeds, with their adherent awns, are shed,

*L

594 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

they are comparatively harmless to the animals’ eyes, though they
may get into the wool. Unfortunately, the grasses that bear
these long awns are not so freely eaten when they become old by
cattle or sheep as most other species are, consequently they grow
and produce seed almost undisturbed. I have noted, however,
that when these grasses are brought under cultivation their seeds
and awns lose much of the rigidity common to uncultivated ones.
After some years of observation I have arrived at the conclusion
that the following species are most to be dreaded, on account of
their long seed awns, or sharp pointed leaves :—A7zstida arenaria,
A. behriana, A. calycina, A. depressa, A. hygrometrica, A. leptopoda,
A. ramosa, A. stipoides, A. vagans, Heteropogon contortus, HF.
insignis, Pollinia irritans, Stipa aristiglumis, S. flavescens, S.
micrantha, S. pubescens, Stipa scabra, S. semibarbata, S. setacea,
Friodia cunninghami, T. irritans, T. mitchellt, T. mucrostachya,
T. procera, T. pungens, and Eriachne squarrosa, thus making in
all twenty-six species, which is a little over seven per cent. of
those recorded for the whole of Australia ; not a very formidable
array, it must be admitted, still of sufficient importance to make
their position felt, and somewhat dreaded, by the sheep-owner.

It has been often asked of me whether I favour the annual
burning-off of grasses. With three exceptions I am decidedly
against burning-off, for the following reasons :—Ist. It destroys
millions of grass-seeds, which an occasional good season may have
brought to maturity, thereby destroying the only natural means
for their reproduction. A fire also destroys many valuable
salsolaceous and other plants, 2nd. Because, after burning-off, if
favourable weather ensues, new growth is made quickly, and
sheep turned on to this eat greedily of it, which gives them what
is commonly termed the scours, or diarrhcea, which often becomes
chronic, and of course has such a weakening effect upon them
that many die. Nor is this all, for when biting out the young
growth from the heart of the plant, the sheep often takes the
whole plant out by the roots and thus destroys it. If a fire should
take place, sheep should never be turned into the pasture until it
has made considerable growth, though cattle may be turned in
without any serious damage being done, for they never eat grasses
so low as do sheep. I may here mention the fact that sheep
destroy the natural grasses and herbage in much less time than
horses, and they again much sooner than cattle.

I am in favour of burning-off annually under such conditions
as the following :—Ist. Where grasses are much diseased with
parasitic fungi; 2nd, where there is a predominance of spear-
grasses; and 38rd, where such rank grasses grow as those I
described suitable for wet or undrained soils, for along with this
coarse growth many noxious plants and fungoid pests are
destroyed. (It is very rarely good pasture plants, other than
grasses, will grow in such situations). Pasture in these circum-

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 595

stances becomes more healthy, the fire acting as a disinfectant,
and contagious diseases disappear. Grasses that will grow in
low, damp situations are a valuable stand-by for the pastoralist
during protracted droughts.

SALSOLACEOUS OR CHENOPODIACEOUS PLANTS.—These most
valuable plants are, from year to year, becoming more scarce on the
western plains of this continent. Being so closely fed down
gives them little chance to mature seed, which is their only
natural means of reproduction. When left unmolested for a
time, however, they will produce an abundance of seed, which
germinates readily under ordinary conditions; many of them,
also, are readily increased by cuttings, so that it would require
no great outlay to enter upon a proper system of conservation,
and even cultivation. Moreover, once the plants are established,
they will continue to grow in the most adverse circumstances of
drought and great heat; in fact, very few other kinds of plants,
so useful for fodder purposes, could exist under such adverse
circumstances as do most kinds of the saltbush family. There is
abundant proof that when sheep are depastured in country where
plenty of salinous plants are growing amongst the natural grasses,
fluke and other allied ailments are entirely unknown. It has been
said that, when horses which are subject to swamp cancer on the
low coast lands are turned into pasture where salinous plants are
plentiful, this disease entirely disappears. | While on the subject
of Distoma-disease and other allied ailments, I may mention
another genus of plants which should not be overlooked in any
system of conservation. It is that of Zygophyllum, some species
of which act as vermifuges. There are very few species arranged
under the order Chenopodiacee, which are not available for fodder,
though exception might be taken to the following species. During
protracted droughts balls of cotton-like substance form on Kochia
aphylla, Enchylena tomentosa, and a few other plants of the order.
The fulvous tomentum on some species of Sclerolwna, and the
woolly covering of the fruits of some species of Chenolea, have
been known to kill sheep when they have partaken too freely of this
indigestible stuff, along with parts of the plants. The dorsal spines
on the fruit of all species of Anisacantha cause some trouble to the
salivary glands of sheep and other small herbivora when they
partake too freely of the plants when the fruits are near maturity.
Anisacantha muricata, makes the troublesome “roley-poleys’
of our central plains. The following is a synopsis of those
species which have come under my observation, and I can recom-
mend as being worthy of conservation :—Rhagodia billardieri,
R. gaudichaudiana, R. hastata, R. nutans, and R. paradolica,
Chenopodium carinatum, C. auricomum, C. atriplicinum, and C.
triangulare, Atriplex campanulata, A. cinerea, A. halimoides, A.
holocarpa, A. muelleri, A. nummularia, A. rhagodioides, A. semt-

baccata, A. leptocarpa, A. spongiosa, A. velutinella, A. vesicaria,
9
L2

596 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

and A. sti~itata. Many of these Atriplexes, when cooked, are
excellent table esculents. <ochia aphylla, K. ciliata, K. eriantha,
K. lobifiora, K. pyramidata, K. sedifolia, and K. villosa. A
detailed description of all these valuable salinous and other
plants used for fodder in Australia will be found in an illustrated
work I am compiling, and which will shortly be out of the
printer’s hands, when, I hope (for the welfare of the pastoral
industry), more attention will be devoted, if not to their cultiva-
tion, at least to a system of conservation.

ae

7.—AN INDUSTRIAL FEDERAL DEBT.
By J. J. Fenton, F.S.8.

8.—REGULATION OF THE LIQUOR TRADE AS A
MEANS OF PROMOTING TEMPERANCE.

By J. B. Grecory.

9.—CO-OPERATION : DISTRIBUTIVE AND PRO-
DUCTIVE.

By W. Notatt.

10.—SOUTHERN WHALING.
By 8. W. VINEY.

Section G.

oN ER: OP OuL O'Gsye

President of the Section: Hon. John Forrest, C.M.G., M.L.C.

1—ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.

By James BarnarD, Vice-President of the Royal Society of
Tasmania.

THE extinction of a race of people, however insignificant, is an
event which cannot be contemplated without some degree of
emotion, and must awaken in the mind a desire to trace out the
cause of such a phenomenon. It cannot, therefore, but prove of
interest to investigate the facts connected with the gradual
dwindling down, and ultimate disappearance from the world, of
any portion of the family of man.

Such is the case of the aborigines of Tasmania—its former
princes of wastes and lords of deserts—who have now ceased to
exist as a distinct people; and therefore it is my purpose to
rescue their memory from oblivion by collating from all available
sources particulars of their life’s history from the cradle to the
grave, and embodying the result of my researches in this memoir.
But it must be understood that scarcely any knowledge of their
condition prior to contact with the white man is attainable.
Their past is wrapt in impenetrable obscurity, without any
monument or historical record existing to tell of their origin and
mode of life, save only some faint traditionary lore gathered from
their lips by successive inquirers.

It has become an axiom that, following the law of evolution
and survival of the fittest, the inferior races of mankind must
give place to the highest type of man, and that this law is
adequate to account for the gradual decline in numbers of the
aboriginal inhabitants of a country before the march of civilisa-
tion. Whatever degree of force or truth there may be in this
statement, it may be fairly admitted that partial amelioration in
the condition of the original natives of a country has not exercised
the benign influence upon their existence which might have been
reasonably inferred. From previous habits and modes of life the
indigenous inhabitants are not placed in harmony with their new
surroundings physically or morally, and are consequently

598 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

disqualified from deriving a full share of benefits therefrom. Now,
must it be supposed that this race of our fellow-creatures—the
original lords of the soil—have not as a general rule been duly
cared for since their enclosure within the pale of civilised life?
So far, however, from there being reason to suppose that there
has been any culpable neglect, it is believed that the most
humane sympathy and consideration have been constantly evinced
on the part of successive Governments, and that whatever was
likely to render the condition of these “children of nature”
happy and comfortable have been freely bestowed; nor has this
been confined to physical enjoyments alone, to the bestowal of
mere clothing, food, shelter, and amusements. Education, to the
extent of which their faculties are susceptible, has been attempted,
but with varying degrees of success.

Conflicts between the intruders on a territory and its original
possessors become inevitable until the supremacy of the invader
has been once established ; and in the case of the Tasmanian race
this state of things has been largely aggravated by the influx of
Britain’s criminals—the outcasts of society—in days gone by,
resulting in many a deed of violence and cruelty towards the
poor natives, causing much bloodshed and leading to heavy
reprisals. This forms a very painful episode in the annals of
Tasmania, which it is beyond the proper scope of this paper to
enlarge upon.

With these preliminary observations I pass on to a general
description of the physical and other characteristics of the
aborigines of Tasmania, and shall then enter into details under
distinct sectional headings, of the several particulars concerning
the race.

In stature some of the natives were tall, and a few were robust,
but most of them were slimly built, wiry, and very agile. Their
colour was bluish-black, less black than African negroes, but
slightly more so than Lascars. The features of neither sex were
prepossessing, especially after passing middle age. Their noses
were broad, and their mouths generally protruded. In youth,
some of the women were passably good-looking, but not so the
most of them. The women had a fashion of shaving the head
quite closely, which, in their wild state, was done with flints and
shells, and subsequently with glass when they could get it. The
men, on the contrary, allowed their hair, which was black and
woolly, to grow very long and plastered it all over very thickly
with red ochre and grease, and when it dried a little their locks
resembled a bundle of painted ropes, the red powder from which
gave the native savage a most repulsive look. The shoulders and
breasts were marked by short raised scars, caused by cutting
through the skin and rubbing in charcoal, somewhat resembling
the marks made by a cupping instrument, but much larger and
wider apart.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 599

It has been customary to describe these natives as the lowest
in the scale of humanity, and if this opinion be founded upon the
absence of accountability for their actions, such an estimate of
their moral condition can scarcely be controverted. If, however,
we regard the methods which they devised for procuring shelter
and subsistence in their native wilds, the skill and precision with
which they tracked the mazes of the bush, and the force of inven-
tion and of memory which is conveyed in the copious vocabulary
of their language, we must allow them to have possessed no
inconsiderable share of mental power and activity. Their
migratory habits, arising from their dependence upon the chase,
combined with the mildness of the climate, rendered unnecessary
the building of huts of a substantial character. In the neighbour-
hood of the sea they sought no other retreat than the caves on the
coast ; and in the more open country they erected breakwinds,
which consisted of huge branches of trees firmly wedged together,
and supported by stakes in the form of a crescent, the convex
side of which was so placed as to oppose itself to the wind. A
fire was kept burning to leeward, so that they were cheered by
its heat without suffering annoyance from the smoke. Rude and
insufficient as such structures may appear to us, they afforded as
much protection and comfort as they cared for. Even
subsequently, after being accustomed to the shelter of a cottage,
they would gladly escape from it for the luxury of roaming
through the bush, and of reclining under the shade of a roofless
breakwind. In sickness, and on the approach of death, their
desire was to meet it under the view of the heavens.

Coming now to the more immediate scope of this paper, which
is to present in detail the several particulars outlined under
special sectional headings, I may be permitted to state that I was
led to undertake this task from having been occasionally, some
forty years ago, a visitor to the home of the aborigines at Oyster
Cove, then consisting of a remnant of some 30 to 40 men, women
-and children, and had opportunities of observing their habits and
manners in their semi-civilised condition. I deem it right also
to say that I have freely drawn from the best sources of informa-
tion available, without assigning the particular authority for each
statement, but the writers to whom I am chiefly indebted are
Strzelecki, Dove, Davies, Friend, Milligan, West, Bonwick,
Calder and Smyth, the titles of whose books and articles will be
found in the bibliography appended.

BIRTH AND CHILDHOOD.

There are no special observances or superstitious beliefs in
connection with the birth of a child, whether male or female ;
but when a woman was taken in labour during the wanderings of
a tribe, she was not waited for, but left behind with another

600 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

woman, and afterwards followed as best she could. Soon after
the birth she carried her baby to the river, and plunged in with
it. The child at its birth was white, and gradually assumed the
dark colour; and it was usual, when its head was a bad shape,
to improve it by bandaging. Mothers suckled their infants for a
long time, two years or more; in fact, until they could walk
about, and, as a rule, were extremely fond of their offspring, and
when otherwise occupied they were accustomed to place their
babies in the hot sand to keep them warm. They carried their
infants in a kangaroo-skin at.their backs, and suckled them over
their shoulders ; the breasts of the female became consequently
much elongated. The fathers never carried their children.
Mothers were generally averse from having a family, as it so
materially interfered with their hunting, and they frequently
resorted to artificial means to prevent it, such as placing a hot
sandstone on the abdomen.

There is no reason to suppose that infanticide existed among
them in their wild state. There is little doubt, however, but
that it was not uncommon in late years, driven to it as they in
all probability were by the continued harassing of the whites ; in
fact, when their fear of the latter prevented their killing the
kangaroo in their usual manner, dogs became so extremely
valuable that the females have been known to desert their infants
for the sake of suckling the puppies! Infanticide, in the case of
half-castes, was not unknown. An instance is given of a mother
who had immolated her infant of mixed origin, excusing herself
by saying it was not a “pretty baby.” This was, however, far
from universal, and was more commonly the act of the tribe than
of the mother. A native woman, who had an infant of this class,
fell accidentally into the hands of her tribe, who tore the child
from her arms and threw it into the flames. The mother
instantly snatched it from death, and, quick as lightning,
dashed into the bush, where she concealed herself until she
made her escape. The injuries which: she received were, how-
ever, fatal.

Cannibalism seems, on the best authority, to have been only
partially practised among a few tribes of natives in their wild
state, but under what circumstances is not clear. Truganini
denied that it ever existed in her own tribe, that of Bruni Island.

The male children were taught by their elders to throw the
spear, to use the waddy, to climb trees, and to throw stones, and
were made fit to take part in fights and dances.

Names were given in infancy by parents, and were usually
taken from any surrounding object that took their fancy, such as
an animal, shell, tuft of grass, &c. Later on, when the church
intervened to perform the rite of baptism, suitable Christian
names were duly forthcoming.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 601

MATURITY.

No particular age has been fixed for the attainment of maturity
by either sex, but some ceremonies attended the initiation of the
young males into the rights and privileges of manhood. They
were given over to the old women, who cut them on the thighs,
shoulders, and muscles of the breast with stone-cutting imple-
ments, and thus raised cicatrices. These scarifications were
intended as ornaments.

The women had raised cicatrices on their bodies, but it is
uncertain whether they were purposely made and intended as
ornaments, or were the result of the cuttings and bleedings to
which they were subjected when sick.

There is no evidence of circumcision having been known to the
aborigines.

MARRIAGE.

There were restrictions on marriage amongst the aborigines.
A man was not permitted to marry a woman of his own tribe.
Little or nothing beyond this is known of the customs which the
men followed in selecting wives ; but it is believed that, as in the
case of other barbarous races, they often resorted to violence in
choosing their brides. A man had usually but one wife, but
polygamy was not unknown. Polyandry, or something very like
it, also existed ; and widows, it is affirmed, were, unless given in
marriage, the common property of the males of the tribes into
which they had married.

The women were seldom accompanied by many children; but
there is no reason to suppose that, in their natural condition,
they were less prolific than people of other races.

Strzelecki relates the remarkable fact that after intercourse
has taken place between an aboriginal female and a European
male, the former loses the power of conception on the renewal of
intercourse with the male of her own race. This writer mentions
that hundreds of instances are on record among other aboriginal
races in support of this hypothesis. This curious theory is refuted
by Lieut. M. C. Friend, R.N., in a paper read by him before the
Tasmanian Society on 10th March, 1847, “ On the Decrease of
the Aborigines of Tasmania,” quoting two instances to the
contrary which came under his notice while visiting Flinders
Island. He writes :—‘ One, a black woman named Sarah, the
mother of four half-caste children by a sealer, who afterwards
married a man of her own race, by whom she had three black
children. The other, a black woman named Harriet, who
similarly had two half-caste children, and afterwards married a
black man, and became the mother of a healthy black infant.”
Bonwick, in opposition to Strzelecki’s theory, quotes the following
letter from Mr. Hagenauer, German missionary at Gippsland :—

602 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

“This is not true, for every woman (at his mission) who had a
half-caste child has had black children afterwards, and is still
getting them.” He also cites the testimony of the Rev. George
Taplin, of Queensland mission: ‘I have known many instances
of women bearing black children after half-castes.” Other
evidence to the same effect has been furnished me by a gentleman
of considerable experience as a squatter and landholder, both in
New South Wales and Queensland, conclusively proving
Strzelecki’s theory to be untenable.

West justly remarks, in his “‘ History of Tasmania,” that a natural
law by which the extinction of a race is predicted will not admit
of such serious deviations. The condition of an aboriginal wife
was abject in the extreme, having to labour unceasingly. She
had to provide food for her master, to keep his fire ready for
cooking, and to cook his food, and, when marching, whatever was
deemed necessary for the new encampment. With one or two
children, and a heavy load of weapons and utensils, her progress
was painful. In fact, while the men hunted and amused them-
selves, their wives did all the drudgery.

THE TRIBE.

When Tasmania was first occupied by Europeans, its aboriginal
population spread in tribes, sub-tribes, and families over the
length and breadth of the island, from Cape Portland to Port
Davey, and from Oyster Bay to Macquarie Harbour. Assuming
that these groups were then about 20, and that each consisted, in
men, women and children, of from 50 to 250 individuals, and
allowing to them numbers proportional to the means of subsistence
within the limits of their respective hunting-grounds, it does not
appear probable that the aggregate aboriginal population exceeded
2000. These tribes were distinct, and were known as the Oyster
Bay, the Big River, the Stony Creek, and the Western ; but
there was a sub-division of these into smaller communities, besides
separation from each other by dialects and _ well-established
boundaries.

The open grassy plains, and thinly-timbered forest ground along
the eastern and central portions of the island were the most
attractive to the early settlers, and were consequently the first
occupied ; but these were the districts chiefly frequented by the
aborigines at that time. It is to be regretted that the pioneers
of civilisation, enjoying such facilities for studying the habits and
customs of the people with whom they enjoyed familiar inter-
course, have left no record of the simple race whose position,
rights and very existence they had come to usurp and supersede.

Every tribe was sub-divided into families, and each family was
regulated by the elders. Again, in these tribes there existed
three distinct classes, or social gradations, which were attained

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 603

through age and fidelity to the tribe; but it was only the third
class which was initiated into the hidden mysteries, and possessed
the power of regulating its affairs. Secrecy was usually observed
in the ceremonies of admitting the youth to the first class, and in
raising those of the first to the second, but the secrecy was most
rigidly observed whenever an initiation into the third class took
place.

The customs attending births, marriages, sickness, funerals and
feasts were traditionary, and rigorously adhered to.

SOCIAL AND DOMESTIC.

The aborigines generally selected the banks of a river or
lagoon for their encampment. Hach family had its fire, hunted
separately, and erected a hut for its own accommodation. On
mountains, and beside the sea-shore, they lodged in caverns, or
where these were not found, as in the open country, they
constructed huts, or rather screens. These were of bark, half-
circular, and gathered at top, and supported by stakes ; and in
front they kindled a fire. These huts formed rude villages, of
some seventeen to forty together ; the former number being raised
by a tribe of seventy, from four to five must have lodged under
one shelter. Some, found at the westward, resembling beehives,
and thatched, were evidently for permanent occupation. Water
was drawn for the sick in shells; those in health threw them-
selves on the bank and drank as they lay. Fire was preserved
usually by carrying a brand; and it is believed they were not
ignorant of the mode of producing fire by friction.

As to food, their appetite was voracious. A woman was
watched one day, during which she devoured about fifty eggs of
the sooty petrel (Procellaria sp.) ; and an eye-witness beheld a
child, eight years old, eat a kangaroo-rat and attack a crayfish.
Animals and birds were roasted by being thrown on the fire with
their skins on. Shell-fish were also roasted. The natives were
very partial to a large white grub found in rotten wood; and
they used as food various roots, as an indigenous potato, a fungus
called native bread (MZylitta australis), which tasted like cold
boiled rice. The animals on which they subsisted chiefly were the
emu, kangaroo, wallaby, bandicoot, and the opossum, the latter
living in trees. The women were accustomed to dive for shell-
fish, which they placed in a rude basket tied round the waist.
Mounds of oyster-shells, the accumulation of ages, are met with
on various parts of the sea-coasts.

During the winter the natives visited the sea-shore, disappearing
from the interior about June, and returning to their settlement
in October.

As to dress and ornaments. In summer both sexes went
entirely naked, and in the winter the shoulders and waist were

604 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

protected by dried kangaroo-skins. During days of rain they
kept under shelter, cowering over their fires. The men smeared
their heads with grease and red ochre, partly for ornament and
partly as a substitute for cleanliness. Bits of wood, feathers,
flowers, and kangaroo-teeth were inserted in the hair, which was
separated into tufts, rolled and matted together. This decoration
was denied the women, whose hair was cropped close with a sharp
crystal, some on one side of the head only, in others like a priest’s
tonsure. Several methods of ornamenting the body were adopted
by the different tribes; patches of ochre and grease formed a
considerable portion of such adornment. A necklace was worn
called Aerrina, composed of pearly-blue shells (Zlenchus
ivisodontes), bored by the eyetooth, and strung on the sinews, of the
kangaroo. These shells were cleansed, and received a high polish.

The arms and implements of the natives were of the simplest
description. The waddy was a short piece of wood, reduced and
notched towards the grasp, and slightly rounded at the point.
The spear, nine or ten feet long, was pointed at the larger end,
straightened by the teeth, and balanced with great nicety. The
spearman, while poising the weapon, held others in his left hand,
prepared for instant use. The spear, thus poised, seemed. for a
few seconds to spin, and would strike at sixty yards with an
unerring aim.

In the Tasmanian museum there is an aboriginal stone hatchet
having a wooden handle, secured with gum of the grass-tree
(Xanthorrhea australis). The head of the axe is made of green-
stone, and is double-edged. There are also waddies and hunting
spears, ten to fifteen feet in length, and made of the tall straight-
grained Leptospermum, or tea-tree, of the colony.

In procuring foods the natives were agile and dexterous. The
opossum was hunted by the women, and in doing so they ascended
trees of an immense height. They first threw round the tree a
rope of kangaroo sinews twice its girth, which they held in one
hand ; then, having cut the first notch for the toe, they raised
themselves up by the rope, in an attitude sufficiently perpendicular
to carry the hatchet or the stone on the head ; they then cut a
second notch, and by a jerk of the bight of the rope raised it up ;
thus, step by step, they reached the branch, over which the loose end
of the rope being cast, they were enabled to draw themselves round.

The acquaintance of the aborigines with arts of any kind was
of the most limited description, being confined to the fabrication
of their simple arms, baskets, canoes, ropes of kangaroo sinews,
and necklaces. The baskets were made of the long leaves of a
cyperaceous plant called cutting-grass, very neatly woven together ;
and the necklaces of small, beautiful shells, iridescent, the purple
tint preponderating. In the natural state they have no great
beauty, but after the removal of their outer coating their appear-
ance was quite altered.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 605

Their corrobories and dances were attended by great numbers.
At these meetings they raised large fires, and continued dancing
till midnight. They first began with slow steps and soft tunes,
then advanced more quickly, when their voices became more
sharp and loud ; they then closed in upon the fire, and, keeping
close to the flame, appeared in considerable peril. These move-
ments they continued, shrieking and whooping, until thoroughly
exhausted. The dances were various: the emu dance, repre-
senting the motions of that bird; the horse dance (necessarily
modern) was performed by their trotting after each other in a
stooping posture, and holding the foremost by the loins; the
thunder-and-lightning dance was merely stamping the ground.

WIZARDS.

No pretensions to any kind of witchcraft seem to have ever
sprung up among these aborigines. The character of the tribe
was stamped, with very slight varieties, on all the individuals of
whom it was composed. In cases of sickness or violent pain
relief was generally sought by bleeding the sufferer, which was
effected by means of sharpened flint or crystals. No one claimed
to be better qualified than another to administer a cure. The
office of watching over the sick and dying was left to the women.

Several diseases prevailed among the natives, especially rheuma-
tism and inflammation, which were cured by gashes cut with
crystal. A loathsome eruption, of the nature of leprosy, was
relieved by wallowing in ashes; and the catarrh was often fatal.
Snake-bite was treated by boring the wound with a charred peg,
stufting it with fur, and then singeing to the level of the skin. As
charms, thigh-bones were fastened on the head in a triangle.
The sick were often deserted by the tribes, food being left within
their reach.

Two superstitious customs prevailed among them. One was
an anxiety to possess themselves of a bone from the skull or the
arms of their deceased relatives, which, sewn up in a piece of
skin, they wore around their necks, confessedly as a charm against
sickness or premature death. The other wasa fear of pronouncing
the name by which a deceased friend was known, as if his shade
might thus be offended. To introduce, for any purpose whatever,
the name of any one of their deceased relatives, called up at once
a frown of horror and indignation, from a fear that it would be
followed by some dire calamity.

DEATH.

When a death occurred in a tribe they placed the body upright.
in a hollow tree, and, having no fixed habitation, pursued their
way. When a year or so had passed, they would return to the

606 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

spot and burn the body, with the exception of the skull; this
they carried with them until they chanced to fall in with a
cemetery in which a number of skulls were heaped together,
when they added the one with them to the number, and covered
it up with bark, leaves, &c. They do not bury their dead in the
earth, nor is there any ground for supposing that either weapons
or food were placed in the tree with the corpse.

During the whole of the first night after the death of one of
their tribe they will sit round the body, using rapidly a low,
continuous wail or recitation to prevent the evil spirit from
taking it away. They were exceedingly jealous of this ceremony
being witnessed by strangers, but an opportunity was afforded to
Mr. R. H. Davies, to whose highly interesting account of the
aborigines I have been much indebted in the compilation of this
paper, of becoming an eye-witness of the proceedings during the
whole night.

According to Dr. Milligan, the dead were variously disposed of
by different tribes: by some the bodies were burnt, by others
placed in various attitudes in hollow trees and abandoned ; while
by others the dead bodies were thrown into holes made by the
casual uprooting of large trees, and partially covered with leaves
and rubbish.

When they go into mourning they rub themselves over with
white pipe-clay, giving them a ghastly appearance.

SPIRIT WORLD AND MYTHOLOGY.

The moral apprehensions which prevailed amongst the abori-
gines were peculiarly dark and meagre. It is remarkable that
a persuasion of their being ushered by death into a happier state
of existence was almost the only remnant of a primitive religion
which maintained a firm hold on their minds ; but their ideas of
a life beyond the grave were entirely of a sensual kind. To be
enabled to pursue the chase with unwearied ardour and unfailing
success, and to enjoy with unsated appetite the pleasures which
they counted on earth, were the chief elements which entered
into their picture of an elysium. While there was no term in
their vocabulary to designate the Supreme Being, they stood in
awe of an imaginary spirit, who was disposed to annoy and hurt
them. The appearance of this malignant demon in some horrible
form was especially dreaded by them in the season of night. They
seem to have thought the spirit world was above, and believed in
the continued existence of spirits, whom they called “ Rowra,”
and that the spirits of departed friends came and talked with
them, and that at death they joined them. Some imagined they
would go back to their own tribes, and that spirits came to them
before death and conversed with them.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 607

An excellent authority, Dr. Milligan, who lived in familiar
intercourse with the aborigines both at Flinders Island and
Oyster Cove, said he had ascertained that previous to their inter-
course with Europeans they distinctly entertained the idea of
immortality as regarded the soul or spirit of man. Their legends
proved also their belief in a host of malevolent spirits whose
abodes were caverns and dark recesses of the dense forests, clefts
in rocks on the mountain tops, &c. At the same time they
reposed unqualified trust in the tutular agencies of the spirits of
their departed friends. To these guardian spirits they gave the
generic name “ Warruwah,” an aboriginal term like the Latin
word wmbra, signifying shade, shadow, ghost or apparition.

PHILOLOGY.

According to Strzelecki, the language of the aborigines was
highly sonorous and euphonious, and he would class it among
those called transpositive—those which are‘independent of articles
and pronouns, the case and person being determined by the
difference in the inflexion.

R. H. Davies remarks that the language of the natives is very
soft and liquid, as loro-loubra, a white woman ; loro-whanga, a
white mountain ; ringarooma, booby alla, &c. The dialects are
numerous, and the language in different parts of the island appears
to be wholly different ; to the westward they call water ‘“ mocha”
and “‘mogana”; to the eastward, “lina.” The aborigines acquired
great facility in pronouncing English words, but they could not
pronounce the hard letters as d and s: ; doctor they pronounced
“togata” or “tokatu”; sugar, “tuguna”; tea, “ teana.”

The best authority, however, on ane dee and language of
the aboriginal tribes of Tasmania was the late Dr. Joseph
Milligan, F.L.S., who was for some time in charge of the
establishment at Flinders Island, and subsequently, upon the
removal of the natives to the mainland, became medical superin-
tendent to the settlement at Oyster Cove. Dr. Milligan com-
municated to the Royal Society of Tasmania a copious vocabulary
of dialects of aboriginal tribes of Tasmania, tabulated alpha-
betically, together with numerous short sentences in the native
language, with their English equivalents, and also some names of
places and persons in both languages, the whole paper extending
over 36 pages, and printed in the Transactions of that Society for
the year 1854.

Dr. Milligan explains that perfect confidence may be placed
by ethnologists in the words and sentences thus recorded by the
method which he adopted of submitting them to several
aborigines, first giving the English words and then taking down
from them the corresponding native words. This, of course,
he remarks, was a most tedious method to pursue, but it was the
only plan which gave a fair chance of precision and truthfulness.

608 PROCEEDINGS OF SECUION G.

The aborigines had no words to express abstract ideas, or any
powers of generalisation—as, for instance, they had names for
each variety of gum-tree and wattle-tree, &c., but they had no
equivalent for the expression “‘a tree ;” neither could they express
abstract qualities, such as hard, soft, warm, cold, long, short,
round, &. For “hard” they would say ‘like a stone;” for
“tall” they would say “long legs ;’ and for “round” they said
‘like a ball,” ‘like the moon,” and so on.

Their numeration was limited to five, and when these were
exhausted, the word “ many ” covers all in excess of that number.
They are thus expressed :—

One Me bar ses ... Marrawah

Two aoe as ae ... Piawah

IMOURRE dae Bae Bee ... Luwah

Four Sie bes iB ... Puguntawulliawah
Five A Ch ay: .. Puyganna marah
Many (a great number) ... Luawah

Few es a ba ... Luowa.

A few English sentences translated :—

Give me a stone =p ... Lonna tyennabeah

Give him a stone sok ... Lonna tyennamibeah

I give you some water ... Lina tyennamibeah

Give me some bread ... ... Tyanna miapa pannaboona
We drink water... jae ... Loa liyé

This water is salt Av ... Lia noateyé

That waterisfresh ... ... Liana elubana

The woman makes a basket ... Lowanna olle tubbrana.

List of words for the English :—

Man Sc 35 aa ... Puygaunah
Woman ... “is age ... Lowanna or Lowa
Head ap Abs i .. Oolumpta

Hair of head .... a ... Poinglyenna
Hye ay at re ... Mongténa

Nose ae os aad .. Munuua

Tongue ... ete nee ... Kayena

Ear a ae sat .. Mungenna

Handi *.. Si His ... Riéna

Thumb _... HE oF ... Rianaoonta

Foot At ea SE .. Luygana

Water «... ifs cht ... lLiena

Sun Be sae <a ... Pugganoobranah
Moon ... it Ses .. Wiggeteena
Blood (my) a BES ... Warrgata meena
Fire Ae ee was .. Zonna
Father... yap ane ... Noonalmena
Mother ... bis ig .. Neingmenna

Son Ae dot ne .. Malangaua
Daughter sia ae ... Neautyména
Brother (little) as ... Nietta ména
Brother (big) ... LED .. Puggana Tuantittyah

Sister shh. 4 rr’ ... Nowantareena.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 609

Some verbs :—

Give de 24 $43 ... Lonna

Take BA; ene a. ... Nuuné
Make... sf at ... Wurrangaté
Burn “A oh we ... Punna

See BA a, Br. .. Mougtone

Hear S22 ae Se ... Toienook buorack
Go <fe ee ae ... Zuwé

kill ae See Le ... Mienémiento.

Not possessing a key to the etymology of aboriginal words, or
to the conjugation and declension of the verbs cited as examples,
I have only been enabled to meet the other requirements of the
Section by giving specimens of the aboriginal language with the
corresponding English words and sentences.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

The following is a list of all books containing information
about the Tasmanian aborigines and their language :—

1. Agnew, Hon. J. W., M.D.—“ The Last of the Tasmanians.”
Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science,
Sydney, 1888.

BackuHouss, J AmMES.—‘“‘ Narrative of a Visit to the Australian
Colonies.” London, 1843.

3. BackHousE, JAMES, and TyLor, CHaries.—‘‘ The Life and
Labours of George Washington Walker, of Hobart Town,
Tasmania.” London, 1862.

bo

4, Barnarp, James, V.P.—‘‘ Notes on the Last Living Aboriginal
of Tasmania.” Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society
of Tasmania, 1889.

5. Bonwick, James.— “The Daily Life and Origin of the
Tasmanians.” London, 1870.

6. Bonwick, James.—‘‘ The Last of the Tasmanians; and the
Black War of Van Diemen’s Land.” London, 1870.

7. Bonwick, JAmEs.—‘‘The Lost Tasmanian Race.” London,
1884.

8. Caper, J. E.—‘‘ Some Account of the Wars, Extirpation
Habits, &c., of the Native Tribes of Tasmania.” 1875.

9. CHauncey, H. pr.—‘‘ Recherches sur les Dialectes Tas-
maniens, Vocabularius Frangais-Tasmanien et Tasmanien-

Frangais.” Alengon, 1880.

10. Crozet.— Nouveau Voyage a la Mer de Sud, commencé
sous les orders de M. Marion. Relation redigée d’apreés
les journaux de M. Crozet.” Paris, 1783. (Pp. 26-31.
The first meeting of Tasmanian aborigines with Europeans
in 1772. The result was a fatal encounter).
mM

610
i:

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

i,

18.

gh

23.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

Cook, Capt. James.—‘‘ A Voyage to the Pacific Ocean in
the Years 1776-1780.” (Third Voyage). 3 vols. and
Atlas. London, 1784. (Vol. i, pp. 96-103 and 111-117,
with short list of native words).

Davis, Jos—EPH Barnard, M.D., F.R.S.—‘“On the
Osteology and Peculiarities of the Tasmanians, a Race of
Men recently become Extinct.” Haarlem, De Erven
Loosjes, 1874.

Davies, R. H.—‘‘On the Aborigines of Van Diemen’s
Land.” Zasmanian Journal of Natural Science, vol. i,
pp. 409-420. Hobart Town, 1846.

Dove, Rev. T.—‘ Moral and Social Characteristics of the
Aborigines of Tasmania, as gathered froin intercourse
with the surviving remnant of them, now located on
Flinders Island.” Zasmanian Journal of Natural Science,
vol. i., pp. 247-254. Hobart Town, 1842.

Fenton, James.—“‘ The History of Tasmania from its
Discovery in 1642 to the Present Time.” Hobart, 1884.
Fietp, Barron.—‘ Geographical Memoirs on New South

Wales,” &c. London, 1828. (Contains a paper on the
aborigines of New South Wales and Van Diemen’s Land).

Freycinet, L., et Parovu, F.—‘‘ Voyage de découvertes aux
Terres Australes, sur le Géographie et Naturalistes.”
Deux tomes et atlas. Paris, 1809-16.

Frienp, Lizut. M. C., R.N.—‘On the Decrease of the
Aborigines of Australia, &e.” Zasmanian Journal of
Natural Sctence, vol. 3, pp. 239-242. Hobart Town,
1849.

JEFFREYS, Lieut. Cu.— “Geographical and Descriptive

Delineations of the Island of Van Diemen’s Land.”
London, 1820.

. LABILLARDIERE.—‘“ Relation du Voyage a la recherche de La

Perouse; fait pendant les auriees, 1791-1794.” Two
tomes et atlas. Paris, 1800.

. Mexvitte, Henry.—‘‘ The History of the Island of Van

Dieman’s Land from the year 1824 to 1835.” Hobart
Town, 1835.

. Minuiean, JosepH, F.L.8.—‘‘On the Dialects and Language

of the Aboriginal Tribes of Tasmania, and on their
Manners and Customs.” Papers Royal Society of Tas-
mania, vol. 3, pp. 239-282. Hobart Town, 1858.

Smytu, R. Broucu.—‘The Aborigines of Victoria; with
Notes relating to the Habits of the Natives of other parts

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 611

of Australia and Tasmania.” Two vols. Melbourne,
1878.

24. Srrzevecki, P. E. De.—‘‘ Physical Description of New
South Wales and Van Diemen’s Land.” Longman and
Co., London, 1845.

25. West, Joun.—‘ History of Tasmania.” Two vols. Laun-
ceston, 1852.

26. ‘Copies of Correspondence between Lieutenant-Governor
Arthur and the Secretary of State for the Colonies on the
military operations lately carried on against the aboriginal
inhabitants of Van Diemen’s Land.” Ordered by the
House of Commons to be printed, 23rd September, 1831.

2.—TOTEMS IN MELANESIA.
By the Rev. R. H. Coprineroy, D.D.

THE word Totem is now very commonly used in the description of
the ways of life by uncivilised people. The Totem, originally a
mark of family or tribe among the Indians of North America,
has been recognised far away from the birth-place of its name.
Totemism has come to be the name of a system of savage beliefs
and practices, and also of a system of arranging and interpreting
such beliefs and practices. Both Totems and Totemism have an
acknowledged place in the anthropology of Australia ; the present
paper will contain an attempt to ascertain whether a place is
equally due to them in Melanesia.

Mr. J. S. Frazer, of Trinity College, Cambridge, the writer of
the article “‘Totemism,” in the new edition of the Zxcyclopedia
Britannica, gives the following descriptions and definitions of a
Totem? :—‘“1. A Totem isa class of material objects which a
savage regards with superstitious respect, believing that there
exists between him and every member of the class an intimate
and altogether special relation. 2. The connection between a
man and his Totem is mutually beneficent ; the Totem protects
the man, and the man shows his respect for the Totem in various
ways, by not killing it if it be an animal, and not cutting or
gathering it if it bea plant. 3. A Totem is never an isolated
individual, but always a class of objects. 4. Totems being either
common to a clan, or to to a sex, or belonging to a single indi-
vidual, the clan Totem is reverenced by a body of men and women
who call themselves by the name of the Totem, believe themselves
to be of one blood, descendants of a common ancestor, 5. The
members of a Totem clan call themselves by the name of their

t“Totemism.” Edinburgh: A.and C. Black, 1887.
*M2

612 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

Totem, and commonly believe themselves to be actually descended
from it. 6. Believing himself to be descended from, and there-
fore akin to, his Totem, the savage will not, asa rule, kill nor
eat it.”

Looking for Totems answering to this description of them in
Melanesia, I find them in a paper by Mr. Danks, read before the
British Association at Bath in 1888. He describes Totems as he
finds them in New Britain. Having no knowledge, however, of
these things myself, I make no comment on tbem further than to
observe that I believe that it must be right to interpret them
according to the analogy which they bear to what has been
observed in other parts of Melanesia.

Passing on to what I have myself observed and enquired into,
1 will arrange beliefs and customs in Melanesia which seem to
belong to Totemism according to five examples :—l. In the
island of Aurora, in the New Hebrides, mothers sometimes have
a fancy, before the birth of a child, that the infant is connected
in its origin with a cocoanut or breadfruit, or some such object,
a connection which the natives express by saying that the
children are a kind of echo of such things. The child, therefore,
is taught not to eat that in which it has had its origin, and is
told, what the mothers entirely believe, that to eat it will bring
disease. In the Banks’ Islands a man will get a notion that he
is connected in origin with a cuttle-fish, for example, or a crab,
which he sees when he dives into a pool among the coral rocks.
He will say that the creature is his “beginning.” 2. In the
Banks’ Islands, again, some men had a persuasion that there was
something, generally something animate, which was peculiarly
and intimately connected with himself, something either shown
him by another in that character, or discovered under some
circumstances by himself. Such a thing a man believed to be a
kind of reflection of his own personality ; he and it would live,
flourish, suffer and die together. 3. In the island of Ulawa, in
the Solomon group, it was observed that the people of a part of
it would not eat bananas, and had ceased to plant them. The
reason they gave for this was that to eat bananas would be
displeasing to the objects of their worship. In the neighbouring
part of Malanta it was found to be not unusual for a great man,
before his death, to announce that after death he should be in or
associated with some such thing as the banana, for example,
which the people afterwards would not eat, because to eat it
would be like eating him. 4. In the before-mentioned island of
Aurora there are families within the two great exogamous
divisions of the people. One of these is named from the octopus.
If anyone of another family wished to get octopus for food he
would ask one of this family to go to the part of the beach to
which the family was said to have originally belonged, and
standing there, to cry out, “So-and-so wants octopus.” Then

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 613

plenty would be got. 5. In Florida, of the Solomon group,
the people are divided into several exogamous clans, each
of which has at least one object which is prohibited to all
its members. Thus the members of one division may not
eat the giant clam, and the forbidden food of another is
the common fruit-eating pigeon. One of these clans is
named after a fishing hawk, another after a species of
crab, and the crab clan may not eat the crab. A member of one
of these clans would not hesitate in saying that the thing he
might not eat was his ancestor. In a book called “ Percy Pomo”
(which describes, in fact, native life in this island), an old
native is represented as horror-struck at the sight of dark
blue trousers, because some part of the inside of the shark, of a
dark-blue colour, was a forbidden thing to his family.

It is easy to see a Totem in each of these examples. An
European observer would now be pretty certain to describe them
as Totems. A boy in a mission school in Aurora would be
observed to refuse to eat breadfruit; a strange phenomenon,
which would call for explanation. The explanation given would
be understood to be that the origin of the boy was the breadfruit.
Similar explanations would connect other boys with other articles
of food. ‘They could not, under penalty of sickness or death, eat
those things from which they drew their origin or beginning.

A Banks’ Islander would be found to have a snake, lizard, or
what not, closely connected with his life ; his origin or beginning
of life would be said to be in it ; he would be seen to have great
respect for it and care for its well-being, and to believe in a
certain influence exercised by it over him. This would be his
Totem.

When the people of Ulawa were found to view the eating of
bananas with horror, because to eat them would be the same
thing as eating their ancestor, the banana would be pronounced
to be the Totem of the natives of Ulawa.

Clearest of all would be the Totems of the people of Florida,
where one of the crab family might not eat the crab, and where
the prohibition of some living object to the members of each clan
would be explained by the belief that such object was the ancestor
of the clan.

But however readily these things may adjust themselves to a
system of Totemism, as conceived in the European observer’s
mind, it is the conception of them in the native mind, which is
really of value ; and this is not very easy to apprehend. Investi-
gation and examination does not seem to me to bring out more
clearly the character of a Totem in any one of these examples.
In Aurora and the Banks’ Islands the objects regarded as the
origin or beginning of those who so regard them are in no way
family or tribal marks ; they belong entirely to individuals. The
family in Aurora named after the octopus, though it is believed

614 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

to have some connection with that creature, has no hesitation in
eating it, and does not regard it as its origin. The octopus,
therefore, is not the Totem of the octopus family. A closer
acquaintance with the Florida customs raises many difficulties.
It is true that the crab clan does not eat the crab, but the clan
named after the fish-hawk has no objections whatever to eating
that bird, and does not eat the pigeon ; the crab clan, also, is as
careful not to eat one kind of parrot as it is to avoid the kind of
crab from which it takes its name. Moreover, only two clans out
of six are named after living creatures ; and there is good reason
to believe that the practice of prohibiting some one or more things
to all the members of a clan is very much later that the forma-
tion of these clans in their present shape. Men alive in Ysabel,
very close to Florida, within the last few years could remember
when these prohibitions were introduced among themselves, and
knew from what quarter they were introduced. Again, it is
most important to observe that the worship of the people in the
Solomon Islands is directed to those who may be called, though
hardly in the common sense of the word, their ancestors, that is,
to such of their deceased predecessors as are believed to be now
potent in their disembodied state, whose names are known. When
they speak of the crab, or the clam, as being ancestors, they mean
not an ancestor whose name was crab or clam, but someone of a
previous generation, now deceased, whose name is well remem-
bered, who was a man, not a crab or clam, when alive, and now
is disembodied as regards his human form, but is in some way
embodied in one of those creatures. They do not in the least
believe that a crab or a clam begat them or their fathers ; they
do not in the least believe that the beings once embodied like
themselves were ever anything but men, or that they are, when
now disembodied, anything else than what they expect to be
themselves after their decease, that is, ghosts. As, then, the crab,
or clam, is not really an ancestor in the flesh, so the ancestor is
not a god.

The explanation of the Ulawa practice of rejecting bananas as
food is happily at hand as a matter of history. A powerful man
not long ago made it known before his death that after his
decease he should be ina banana. The proof of the novelty of
this prohibition was found in the abundance of bananas round the
village, in which none were eaten. That, then, could not be a
Totem which had but lately assumed its special character in con-
sequence of the arbitrary selection of a well-remembered man,
although it might well be that some native would explain the
reason of his not eating bananas to be that his ancestor (rather,
grandfather, great-uncle, &c.) was a banana.

It appears, therefore, that in Melanesia a woman’s fancy before
her child is born will sometimes connect her child with some
object, which the child is taught afterwards to regard as closely

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 615

related to him; it should be rather said, perhaps, that her fancy
connects him with some class of objects, all of which he equally
regards. If it be convenient to call that object a Totem, the
word must be used with the understanding that no family or tribe
mark is meant, and that the origin of the connection is in the
fancy of a mother. If the creature with which the Banks’
Islander believes himself somehow to be connected in the origin
of his life is different from this, it is only that the connection
starts from a fancy conceived by himself or suggested by another ;
the connection is with the single life of the individual man—there
is no true Totem. The case of the forbidden food of the Florida
clans comes very much nearer to a case of Totemism, though Mr.
Frazer's definitions are by no means satisfactory ; but the Florida
practice is explained by that of Ulawa and Malomba. The fact
that the members of each clan abstain from eating something, or
more than one thing, which represents to them some ancestor,
can be accounted for on the supposition that such an ancestor
himself associated his memory with that object. It is, indeed,
difficult to believe that any people could seriously think them-
selves the offspring, however remotely, of a clam or a crab or a
banana ; the statement that they make, however, means not that
a banana was their ancestor, but that their ancestor is a banana.

I conclude, therefore, that to arrange certain Melanesian customs
according to a system of Totemism is not difficult, but that to
examine them and find true Totems is not easy. It may be that
customs in other parts of the world which have been set down to
Totemism have been too hastily so characterised ; or it may be
that the definition of what constitutes a Totem will have to be so
altered as to carry the application of the name very far away
from that to which it originally and properly belonged. In that
case it may be doubtful whether the large use now made of the
words Totem and Totemism has been happily begun. In any
case these Melanesian examples may be useful, as showing how
what really are Totems may have arisen ; they throw some light
upon that condition of the uncivilised mind in which it seems to
be natural to men to conceive some special relation to exist
between themselves and some object with which they have no
physical connection.

3.—THE AINUS OF NORTH JAPAN.

By Proressor ODLUM.

616 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

4.—THE FOUNTAIN OF “THE MIST.”—A RARO-
TONGAN MYTH.

By the Rev. Wittiam Wyarr Gixt, LL.D.

THE central mountain of Rarotonga is about 3,000 feet above the
level of the sea. On account of its being usually enveloped in
cloud and mist, it is appropriately named “ Te kou,” z.e., “The
Mist.” Unlike most of the other mountains of Rarotonga, which
terminate in almost inaccessible peaks, ‘The Mist” seems per-
fectly level, as if its summit had been sliced off. From the
centre—a weird spot, shut in on all sides by rank vegetation—
gushes forth a copious and never-failing fountain. Two species
of fish are found in it; one, called the ‘“karaea,” about eighteen
inches in length, of a yellow colour, and somewhat resembling a
lizard; the other, a little fish known at Rarotonga as the
“taputapu.” How did these fish get there? The natives
absurdly imagine that there is a subterranean communication
with the ocean, as both are found in salt water.

To this day a hot controversy rages as to the real proprietor of
this fountain. Makea, the queen on the northern side of Raro-
tonga, asserts that it is hers, because it originally flowed down
her side of “The Mist.” The Ngatangiia queens are content to
point to the stream actually leaping over the cliff on their (the
eastern) side of the majestic mountain. The true history of this
ancient feud is supposed to be given in the following myth, which
I derived from the sage Tearikitaraaere :—

There once lived at Avarua, close to the sea, a divinity named
“The Tongan” (Tonga-iti) and his wife Rangatira,{ usually
known as “The Beauty” (Te Ari) One day “The Beauty” said
to her husband, ‘“‘ What a lovely creature is yon spotted lizard!
Would that you were like him !”

Tn a moment the complaisant husband entered the lizard. But
when the fickle beauty perceived that her once noble husband
had actually changed into a crawling reptile, she vented her
disgust in the well-known song—

“The fair Rangatira is angry with the Tongan.
Disgusted at his altered form.
She will henceforth deem herself a widow

At this the crafty husband remarked, “What a beautiful
cuttle-fish is that I see yonder on the reef! I wish you would
enter it!” Pleased at this fancy, Rangatira at once did so, but
only to earn the disgust of her husband. In her turn she was
greatly vexed, and, intent on immediate revenge, she dived to the

{??

t Chief or chieftainess.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 617

very depths of the ocean, little thinking that she was closely
followed by her husband. On reaching the very foundations of
Rarotonga, she elave a hole in the solid rock and earth until she
actually emerged at the very crest of the mountain of ‘The
Mist.” “Ah!” thought the chagrined beauty, ‘‘my husband
will never find out my hiding-place.” Scarcely had she uttered
these words when she discovered her faithful Tongan (Tonga-iti)
at her side, in outward appearance resembling a lizard and a fish ;
so that, whilst she had merely preserved her cuttle-fish form, he
had changed his into that of a sea-lizard, to enable him to give
chase to his runaway spouse.

For awhile they lived pleasantly together in the spring on the
top of ‘The Mist,” which thenceforth was called “‘ The Fountain
of the Followed One (Aruea).” It is also denominated “ The
Fountain of Rangatira,” inasmuch as she first made the waters to
well up from the heart of the mountain. Facetiously it is also
known as “The Shaggy Mouth of the Mist,” in allusion to the
tall trees and ferns surrounding it.

After a time, becoming weary of their solitary life on the
mountain-top, they resolved to return to their old abode near the
sea. They accordingly left the fountain in charge of Niu and
Nana, 7.e., the “taputapu ” and the “ karaea,” or lizard-fish. But
unluckily for their own interests, they omitted to give instructions
to these guardians. However, a long reed, which had the
wonderful virtue of directing the course of the stream, was
inserted in the hole through which the waters rushed. The upper
end of the reed was inclined towards the north, so that a stream
of crystal water now for the first time hurried on towards the
home of these gods} at Avarua.

Shortly after, Toutika (= Hit-the-mark?) made his appearance
on the crest of “The Mist,” and found a copious stream flowing
in a northerly direction. Addressing the sparkling, gushing
fountain, Toutika inquired whether there were any guardians
there. A voice from the depths of the waters answered, “ Yes ;
here are two fairies, Niu and Nana.” ‘ Who placed you there ?”
“The Tongan deity and his wife.” ‘‘ Where are they gone?”
“To guide the course of the stream to their home at Avarua.”
“ Well, then,” said the crafty Toutika, “should they come back
and speak to you, be sure to remain silent, or I will kill you
both. When I speak respond at once.” Niu and Nana agreed
to this. Toutika now altered the direction of the long reed to
due east, and the obedient waters at once abandoned their former
channel, and flowed towards Ngatangiia. The successful inter-
loper ran on with the stream, to watch the leaping of the waters
from the precipice in the direction of his home.

The lizard god and his mate, the cuttle-tish, finding the waters

t Tongaiti and Rangatira, 4 Or, “ Point aright,’ doubtless in allusion to this myth.

618 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

suddenly fail, hurried back to the fountain to ascertain the cause.
They discovered that the direction of the long wonder-working
reed had been altered. They soon came upon the unblushing
Toutika, and high words ensued. The lizard and cuttle-fish gods
claimed the fountain as theirs. Toutika as positively claimed it
as his. Toutika demanded proof. Said the Avaruan divinities,
“We have appointed two servants of ours as guardians of this
spring.” It was accordingly agreed that to them the final appeal
should be made, and the party to whom these fairies might
respond should be regarded as the true lord of the fountain. The
lizard and the cuttle-fish gods then confidently and in unison
chaunted to the guardians of the spring, but there was no response
whatever.

Toutika now exultingly exclaimed, “Did I not tell you that
the water is not yours?” The Avaruan divinities faintly said to
the interloper, “It is your turn to address the fairies of the
spring.” Toutika sang these words—

“Oh, Niu! oh, Nana! come forth from your hiding-place!
Transform yourselves into a stream, a vast volume of water,
And leap, leap with resplendent brilliancy, oh, Niu !”

At this the waters, which had entirely ceased to flow during
the long dispute of the gods, rushed forth from their secret hiding-
place, and quickly moved on to the edge of the cliff towards
Ngatangiia, to which the reed still kept pointing. Stung with
disappointment and rage, the lizard and cuttle-fish gods chased
the advancing stream in the vain hope of checking its progress.
But without heeding their futile attempts, the stream rushed on
and on, until, reaching the perpendicular cliff, it took a wild and
defiant leap far down into the deep gorge at the base of the
eastern side of the mountain. The angry Avaruan gods dared
not follow the beautiful waterfall through fear of being dashed to
pieces, so they slunk back as best they could to their own terri-
tory near the sea. The dejected lizard god, Tonga-iti, was only
too glad to sun himself after his long and bootless journey ; hence
it has come to pass that all his descendants are yellow, sallow-
looking, spiritless reptiles, who can find nothing better to do than
to bask through the livelong day in the sun. Thus shamet has
caused the pretty spots of their ancestor to change into a dirty
yellow complexion.

As for Rangatira (the cuttlefish god), she was so utterly
wearied with travelling through fern and grass from the summit
of “The Mist,” that she gladly rested in a shady spot, thenceforth
named “ Parai,” or “ Resting-place.”

Such is the myth connected with the fountain of ‘The Mist.”
The “ Parai” referred to is the ancient “resting” or burial-place
of the Makea kings, who, down to 1823, worshipped the cuttle-fish,

t The Hervey Islanders speak of a person being “ yellow with shame”; and not without
reason, as paleness thus shows itself on their dark skins.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 619

About half a mile from “ Parai,” close to the usual landing-
place, is a remarkable natural basin of fresh water, called “‘ The
cuttle-fish stream.” At certain seasons the water assumes a dark,

.cloudy appearance, as if a cuttle-fish had ejected its ink into the
stream. Yet in the course of a day or two the water again
becomes clear, and sailors fill their water-casks as before. Doubt-
less this is owing to the presence of cuttle-fish, who come out of
the sea there to spawn.

The stream which leaps from the precipitous eastern side of
“The Mist” flows into the ocean by three channels; so that it.
may be fairly said that the fountain referred to in the preceding
myth is the unfailing source of the water-supply of the beautiful
island of Rarotonga.

The following invocation to the divinities worshipped by the
Makea tribe at Rarotonga was invariably used by the master of
the ceremonies as a preliminary to all state feasts until the
subversion of idolatry in 1823. As the name of each god was
pronounced with a loud voice and in the prescribed order, a
portion of food was thrown into the bush. The divinities were
believed to feed at dusk upon fhe essence of these offerings, the
visible part being devoured by rats.

The reader will note that two of the gods (Tonga-iti and
Toutika) invoked, are referred to in the preceding myth. This.
will show that the myth was not intended merely as a pleasant
fairy story, but was to their minds the veritable history of a
quarrel between the great divinities of Rarotonga, which, however;
ended disastrously for the Makea tribe.

. E pure kat (= Prayer before a feast).

To kai, e Marumamao ! ds ... Marumamao (= Shadow, 7.e., pro-
tection, thrown from afar), here
is thy food; (O eat!).

To kai, e Tangaroa! Noe ... Tangaroa, here is thy food; (O eat !)..

To kai,e Eturere! ... ish ... Eturere* (= Falling-star). here is
thy food (O eat!).

To kai, e Tonga-iti! ... ua ... Tonga-iti (= Little Tongan), here
is thy food; (O eat!).

To kai,e Toutika! ... wie ... Toutika, here is thy food; (O eat!)..

To kai, eaku Atua, kai katoa mai! All (other) divinities worshipped by
me, here is your food; (O eat !).

When this was over, the chiefs, greater and lesser, were named.
in a prescribed order, and each took possession of the pile of food
allotted to him.

* A female divinity.

620 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

5.—OBSERVATIONS ON THE HILL TRIBES OF
NAVITILEVU, FIJI.

By the Rev. Arrnur J. Wess, of Goulburn, N.S.W.

Fist is an archipelago containing 220 islands, 80 of them
inhabited. Two of these, Na Vitilevu and Vanua Levu, are of
considerable size, and are not only largely peopled along the coast
line, but the hills and valleys of the interior are held by
mountaineers. The largest island, Na Vitilevu, has a numerous
hill population, of which very little was known until late years.
The country is extremely mountainous, but fertile, and abundantly
watered ; the food supply is large, and the air healthy ; and the
people are well developed, particularly so in the calves of their
legs, and are superior in physical energy to those of the coast.
The character of the land is sharply divided into the timbered
and grassy divisions, and the people are divided into two colours,
the black and the red men, the latter, by tradition, being descen-
dants of a Tongan party once cast upon the shores of Nadroga,
on the west coast. The black race, again, is divided into a class
of tall, handsome natives, and a class of smaller, less pleasing
folk. There are reasons for believing the mountaineers to be the
oldest inhabitants of the country, having been, in all probability,
the first settlers on the coast, and presumably driven by later
arrivals back into the hills. Some communities among them
claim to have come from people who have long been settled on
the sea shore, and tribes on the coast claim to have descended
from others in the hills. But on the south-west part of the great
island are people who seem to be distinct in some respects from
the rest of the Fijians, not only in speech, but in temperament
and habits, and in the very shape of their houses. Their huts on
the south-west end of Na Vitilevu are square, with one central
post, and a round-shaped roof ; the dwellings everywhere else in
Fiji being more akin to European shape. A remnant of a tribe
still exists in the middle of the island, called Na Kai Navitilevu
(the people of Navitilevu). Whether this fact indicates that they
were the original holders of the island is a matter of conjecture.
Many of the men are fine looking, though in their heathen state
frequently characterised by a peculiarly furtive and savage glance.
The women, as a rule, are remarkably plain, and in many cases
ugly, their hard life no doubt contributing to this. The hill
languages strike the ear as less euphonious than the other dialects
of Fiji; they are harder to understand, and peculiarly difficult to
imitate. To hear a mountaineer speak first his own fafozs, and
then the smoother dialect of Bau or Rewa, would make the
listener doubt as to whether it was the same man speaking. They

Se | ee ee

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 621k

have a curious fashion of sounding a ‘“ w”* after the “k,” so that
“ Na ka ko ya” of Bau would be “ Na kwa kwo ya” at Namosi.
Similar words to those spoken on the coast are sometimes used
in a somewhat different sense. At Bau they say “ vondo,” of the
act of going on board a canoe. In the hills of Serua “vondo” is
applied to the act of ascending a hill. Of course, the same action
of the leg is involved in each instance. Words, too, of an innocent
meaning at the eastern end are vilely significant in the interior
of the country. One remarkable fact may be touched in this
connection, that the mountain people have a word for the sea,
“ tathi,” which is allied to, if not identical with, a similar word
found all through Polynesia, but nowhere else in Fiji.t They, too,
have words of their own for introduced animals, where the tribes
of the littoral and smaller islands have only names derived from
the European, such as ‘“‘nggou,” the mountaineer’s name for pig,
which everywhere else in the group is “ vuaka,” from “ porker.”

Their villages were mostly perched on most inaccessible peaks
and precipices, very romantic to look at, but, as I found from
experience, rather distressing to gain. These eyries were skilfully
fortified with palisades and galleries for sharpshooters, which,
with their well-chosen strategic position, rendered some of them
traditionally impregnable; and until the introduction of Euro-
pean arms of precision, and the leadership of English officers,
they were never taken. I have even seen fortified places on a
plain so surrounded by moats, where the mud was armed with.
stakes and split bamboos, and so encompassed with clay ramparts
and stout palisades line within line, that the taking of them in
purely native warfare was a very tedious or very fatal under-
taking. I saw one village of the tribe of Navunanggumu, called
Waini makutu (water of content), where the mountain stream
had been most ingeniously diverted into the circular moat, in
which it was swirling round the town on its onward progress
through the country to the sea, and thus forming a perpetual
defence to the people. An officer in the English army, who had
to take some of these forts of the hillmen, expressed to me his
surprise at the skill and science of the engineering they displayed.
Covered galleries and lanes, and curious platforms for sentinels
and marksmen, were also features in these works. Some of these
mountain strongholds J found had suggestive names, such as
‘Na Vere” (The Plot), “Na Laba” (The Murder), “ Lawaki’
(Cunning), while the inhabitants, male and female, rejoiced in
appellations curious, terrible, or obscene. The history of the
people here is crystallised in their names. On the other hand, I
observed that many of the mountain villages were poetically
called after trees, “‘ Namoli,” “Na Vunibua,” ‘ Nakuluva.”

* This is the sound which is written g by the Melanesian Mission. It isa queer compound.
of kpw or kbw, the por b varying in distinctness, sometimes quite inaudible.
+ Excepting in one or two places on the coast.

629 : PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

The mountaineers were unceasingly at war with each other,
but since 1868 seemed to unite more to fight the people of the
coast. For some years they terrorized Navitilevu. <A stratagem
in which they were peculiarly effective, particularly when dealing
with expeditions from the seaboard and other islands, was the
““Undu.” Decoying their foes into a ravine, they allowed them
to get well in, where they had ambuscades planted on either side ;
a considerable part of the force then closed in the rear, and an
attack was made in the front, followed up by simultaneous
charges on each flank. The invading party, disconcerted, turned
and ran, when they were thrown into utter panic by finding their
retreat blocked. A massacre easily ensued. Several of these
mountain man-traps have been shown me where great slaughter
was done, and the coast tribes, I found, greatly feared the high-
Jand “ Undu,” as a mode of tactics peculiar to the interior tribes.
Even on more level country these people could resort to peculiar
decoy methods to lure opponents into an ambush. Apart from
the use of arms, the mountaineers prepared themselves for battle
by rites of zrvaudnerability, thus striking terror into their enemies,
while sustaining their own courage with the thought. For days
before a fight the warriors would steadily prepare themselves by
songs and chants in honour of ‘Na kalouvatu” (Stone God),
which was their war-god, the Deity being held to enter into a
selected stone taken from the larger water-worn pebbles of a
running stream. For hours night after night would their chants
be heard, accompanied by the monotonous booming of large
bamboos struck upon the ground, and such sounds would strike
mysterious fears into the coast people who had come to attack
them. Certain pleasures and foods were rigorously abstained
from, and the rubbing of the body with prescribed leaves was a
later part of the performance. At length one man would exclaim
that the demon had entered into him, and that he was now in-
vulnerable ; no weapon formed against him should prosper, the
battle-axe would bound back from his toughened skin, the musket
bullet would flatten against his body, and the spear-point glance
harmlessly aside.

In the last war of the mountaineers they put the Vodevode
(“leaping aside” of lethal weapons) to a practical test. At
Vatuvoko, a hill town near the mouth of the Segatoka River, the
men were in the Bure (men’s house) chanting the Vodevode song
to the weird bamboo accompaniment when a warrior deemed
himself possessed by the Aadouvatu. He bent low and sprang
through the doorway, then moved about making sharp, nervous
exclamations. The Vuniduvu (priest of the ceremonies) followed
from the Bure, and fired a gun at him to prove how impervious
he was to ball. This much-desired fact was demonstrated by the
bullet striking him fair in the chest, and— passing right through
him. He fell prone in the arena but the ball sped through the

.

ee ee ee

—_—-

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 623

reed wall of the Bure, and hit a boy within, who was doing the
invocation chant and beating his bamboo upon the ground. The
lad fell back, breathing quick, and the people cried out that he
was possessed; but he was dying. When they saw the blood
flowing they then woke up to the fact. The Vuniduvu then
professed to be possessed, ran backwards, shaking all over his
frame with simulated ‘ possession,” and as soon as he reached the
bushes, ran at full speed from the scene. This belief in the
Vodevode proved, as I had abundant opportunities of observing,
a most obstinate infatuation. I pointed out a young man with a
gunshot wound through the neck, who, a few days before, had
been in the invulnerable condition, and asked how they accounted
for his hurt. ‘‘He had broken the /aéu, and eaten bananas”
was the reply. Another warrior limped past, with a hole in his
thigh. “He had connection with a woman just before the fight,”
they explained, “and that destroyed the charm.” These people.
are full of explanations as to failures. Another of the beliefs of
the people is that in sprites or fairies. ‘“ Veli” they call them.
A Veli they describe as a little hairy figure carrying a spear. A
similar belief is to be found in Melanesia, and also in British
Venezuela, and Brazilian Guiana, where the Indians tell of a
wild hairy man, who they call “didi”; short, thick-set, powerful,
his body covered with hair, and who lives in the forest. The
Fijians avow that the Ve/zs produce the echoes, and I was told,
when in the hills, that at the town of Nasaucoko was a woman
who had been under their power for some months. When in the
district of Wainimala, at the foot of the Dividing Range, a thick
wood was shown where the secret rites of the “ Nanga,” or
“Mbaki,” were performed. It was extremely difticult to extract
from the natives any information as to these. They resemble those
of Freemasonry in their initiations and mysteries, and the secret
was kept until lately with a like marvellous success. The secret
mysteries of the Vazga, practised for years before the open demon-
stration ; the stone enclosures containing men of different grades
of initiation ; the central mound, with the boar’s head upon the
top, dedicate to the demon ; the extraordinary proceedings that
form a part of the more public ceremonies surpassing and
forbidding description, together with the magic charm that the
whole affair is supposed to exert upon the health of the ruling
chief, make it a most interesting study, particularly when taken
in conjunction with the “ Duk Duk” of the Duke of York’s
Group and other secret societies throughout Polynesia.

The mountaineers practice circumcision and some very horrible
surgical rites, such as the patients rarely recover from. They
also tattoo women, first in their private parts and then at the
corners of the mouth; the latter tattoo marks being indicative of
the existence of more elaborate tattooing in the former locality.

624 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

A social peculiarity, distinguishing the hill men from those of
the coast and the lesser islands, is their Bure life, or clubs.
These again distinguish the tribes inhabiting the wooded half of
the island of Navitilevu from the people of Navosa, or the grassy
districs. The distinctive mountain Aure is a long building,* the
largest in the village; and some villages have two or three.
Ranged along the walls the chiefs and elders of the tribe have
their places. Stalls are fitted up, with fire-places between ; grass
is laid down, and on that a mat, and here the occupants lie at
ease, resting their arms on the poles that form the top of the low
stalls, and exposing their bodies to the genial warmth of the
burning logs in the fire-places—for the night-air of those hill
regions is chilly. Here, in the dure, they eat, drink yanggona,t
smoke, discuss local matters and such news from other parts of
the country as filtrates to them, and fall asleep one after another
at their own sweet will. The institution is a most sociable one
for the men. What of family life there is exists during the day,
for married men have their small houses, some having more than
one, in which they meet their wives and children; a good
part of their day, too, is spent in the woods, where they have
gardens at a considerable distance from the village. At night
the men congregate together in the club-houses. The club, that
recognised offspring of our civilised life, has its analogue in the
so-called barbarous life of the Fijian mountaineer ; and there is
really something very cosy, sociable, and jolly about this com-
fortable Highland Club.

Another building, without which a mountain town would have
been incomplete, was the Bure alow (spirit bure or temple).
These were picturesque erections, perched on very high mounds, {
and further conspicuous by tall, narrow roofs, somewhat suggestive
of a pagoda. The last I saw was in the village of Bengga, on the
head-waters of the Navua River. It was small and entirely new,
and had just been built for a war begun with Namosi. It was
very neat and carefully built, and stood upon a high foundation
formed of pebbles from the stream hard by. Close to it stood an
orange-tree, from which depended a sacred axe brightly gleaming
in the sun. I was told that on special occasions the priest of the
temple would take down this weapon, and entering into the
Bure Kalou, rub it with certain leaves to “make it kill.” During
my stay in this village the axe zas taken down and carried into the
temple under suspicious circumstances, but for sundry reasons we
did not wait for developments. Another temple that I saw was
at Narokorokoyawa, on the Wai-ni-mala ; the building was larger
and older than the one at Beqa—the interior was very unattrac-
tive, but at the door hung two large shells of the conch species,

f=) :
called “ Davui” by the natives. These were suspended by stout,

* This is the Long House of the Banks’ Islanders, the N. A. Indians, and other tribes.
+ Kaya, the piper methysticum. + The teocallis of Mexico, the “ high places” of Scripture.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 625

elaborately-plaited ropes of cocoanut-fibre, and were the gods of
the place. According to the chief, one was a god and the other
a goddess ; he had known them to engage in a sharp altercation,
and, on the eve of an event of great tribal importance, the shells
had grown strangely restless, climbed the upright post at one end
of the interior of the temple, and made their way along the
ridge-pole. The god and goddess were deities of war, and when
the Nuya Malu warriors were about to attack, these divine shells
were blown, and the noise reverberated through the hills and
struck terror into the souls of those who were awaiting the
onset. The tribe having then reeently professed Christianity, I
was able to purchase these curiosities, and took them with me
down the Waidina. My lads amused themselves with sounding
the gods when we came near to a village, and the people turned
out in excitement to look at these dread powers, for the report of
our bearing the shells preceded us. It was like the Egyptians
running along the banks of the Nile to view their old Pharaohs
floated down in charge of the archeologists who had exhumed the
mumimy-cases.

The hill men have their amusements, principal among which
are war-dances, in which they decidedly excel. The dance with
war fans is a wild proceeding, carried on with great vigour, and
in curious evolutions. The spear dance is exceedingly graceful,
though at times verging on the alarming; but the club dance
surpasses anything of the kind done by natives from anywhere
else in Fiji. For agility and rapidity of spring, for wild, terrific
bounds (to say nothing of ear-piercing shouts and yells), for
vigour of execution, for grace and power of movement, a club
dance by the Kai Namosi could scarcely be equalled.

In their manners the tribes differ much. Those living in the
wooded half of Na Vitilevu possess an aristocracy, show very great
respect to chiefs, and the latter are severely exacting in matters
of etiquette. The people, on the other hand, living on the
Sigatoka River and the grass country of Navosa are more of a
democracy, pay less attention to such chiefs as they have, and
are uncouth in their manner altogether. They have fewer words
and acts denoting respect, nor have the chiefs anything like the
same influence. All alike were polygamists, and gave their
wives a hard time of it by making them beasts of burden, on
Petruchio’s maxim, that “women are made to bear.” I have
seen a procession of women going in single file through the woods,
bent double under heavy loads, while the lord and husband of
the lot marched with stately masculine dignity behind, carrying
a spear. A chief explained to me that every additional wife
meant an increased food supply, as there was one more tiller of
the soil added to the establishment. As a result of this condition
of things the women rapidly look old, and are then very ugly,

the old hags being perfectly hideous. Even the younger women
¥N

626 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

lack the comeliness of their better-treated sisters in the other
parts of Fiji. Cannibalism prevailed amongst the mountaineers,
as it previously did throughout Fiji generally, but the hills were
the last place in which it disappeared. When the dreaded Nuya
Malu warriors came as allies to Soloira, an abundant feast was
provided for them, in which figured several roast pigs ; but the
“friends” murmured that that was not a feast for warriors, and
asked why no human bodies were provided for them. Human
flesh was then obtained for their sustenance, but as none of the
enemy had been sufficiently accommodating to come within the
power of the Soloira club-men, the source from whence the
stimulating banquet was furnished can be surmised. The
mountain men were not fastidious where human meat was
concerned ; they have dug up bodies that had been buried for
days, and eaten parts of them done up into puddings. On their
war marches, when they have killed victims, they have been
known to cut up the bodies and carry portions in their “kit ” for
provender on the way, as with other forms of food. In eating
human flesh the chiefs used wooden forks, and for human flesh
alone. Why this distinction I could never learn, except that the
pieces being boiled in large quantities of broth the fork was used
to secure the pieces of meat, and draw them up from the liquid.
The flesh was sometimes baked first and boiled afterwards. In
special cases, where a particular enmity existed against a certain
chief, who had been slain but buried by his friends, a party has
gone at night, after the fighting had ceased for a few days, and
exhumed the body ; then, taking a living man, they have bound
the corpse to him upon his back, feet to feet, middle to middle,
arms to arms, head to head, and then the man walks, a ghastly
double, into the village. Cannibal preparations are at once made,
and the feast held on the morrow. The rites and practice of
cannibalism have now entirely ceased in Fiji, and during the
present decade the avowed heathenism of the hill tribes has been
completely abandoned. Fiji, in all her islands, and from the coast
of Na Vitilevu to the remotest parts of the interior, is a Christian
country, with mission schools throughout the territory, and
churches and native pastors.

6.—SOME BELIEFS AND CUSTOMS OF THE NEW
BRITAIN PEOPLE.

By the Rev. B. Danks.

7.—THE ABORIGINES OF VICTORIA.
By the Rev. J. Maruew, M.A.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 627

8.—THE GENEALOGY OF THE KINGS OF RARO-
TONGA AND MANGATA, AS ILLUSTRATING
THE COLONISATION OF THAT ISLAND AND
THE HERVEY GROUP.

By the Rev. Witu1am Wyarr Gitt, LL.D.

ANYTHING that can throw light upon the original colonisation of
the South Pacific Islands must be of the deepest interest to
scientists. In the absence of books and inscriptions, we can only
look to the traditions of the islanders themselves. No surer
ground can be found than the well-preserved genealogies of the
reigning families.

In 1888 Great Britain annexed the Hervey Group, the prin-
cipal island of which is Rarotonga. I propose to give the
pedigree of the Makea and Tinomana regal families of Rarotonga.
These families claim to be descended from the renowned Makea
Karika, who, with Tangiia, centuries ago colonised Rarotonga.

Rarotonga was practically discovered by the late Rev. John
Willams in 1823. On that occasion he landed native teachers,
and thus introduced Christianity and civilisation.

Five years subsequently Mr. Williams, after paying a second
and prolonged visit to the queen-island of the Hervey Group,
sailed back to his own station at Raiatea, in the famous
Messenger of Peace, accompanied by Makea Davida, principal
king of Rarotonga at that date. Referring to this chief, Mr.
Williams writesj :—‘‘ The present Makea is the twenty-ninth of
that family.” Ina note he adds :—“* When we were departing for
Raiatea, the uncle of Makea, whom he had appointed Regent,
delivered a most interesting address, in which he enumerated the
ancestry of the king, commencing with Makea Karika, and for
every one of whom he had a peculiar designation descriptive of
his character, as was the case with the Pharaohs of Egypt. I
much regret that I did not obtain a correct report of this address,
as I listened to it with peculiar interest.”

In 1869 I endeavoured to ascertain whether this account of
the ancestry of the Makea kings was still extant. After many
inquiries, Teava, at that period native pastor at Avarua, placed in
my hands the greater part of the materials out of which the
following list is composed. For the subsidiary genealogy of the
kings of the split, or Puaikura, tribe I was indebted to Tinomana
Samuela, or Rongo-oe the Second, the brother and predecessor of
the present chieftainess.

All this information was imparted with a request for secrecy,
as the following pedigree is the native title to the kingly office

+ ‘‘ Missionary Enterprises,” page 199.
*N2

628 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

and ancestral lands. But so many years having elapsed, and the
Hervey Group having been annexed, there is no longer any reason
to fear inter-tribal war and dispossession. So that I now feel
justitied in putting this genealogy on permanent record for scien-
tific purposes. And for this special reason—it places beyond
the shadow of doubt the number of generations during which
Rarotonga has been inhabited by the present brown (Maori) race.

Now, in regard to this genealogy itself. The descent of these
kings is from father to son, excepting in the eleventh generation,
when “ Makea teina,” younger brother to the ‘‘ Makea Rongo-oe ”
who, by his arrogance and cruelty, split up the island into hostile
clans, was, “ by the fiat of the gods,” appointed king of the tribe
at Avarua. When Mr. Williams discovered Rarotonga in 1823,
Makea Pori and bis cousin, Makea Karika the Second, rezgnead"
jointly at “ Araitetonga” (the royal marae). The origin of this
dual kingship of later times in the family of Makea was merely
to make a suitable provision for the eldest sons of the two wives
of “Makea-patua-kino.” In consequence of this dual kingship,
Makea Davida, in 1828, was not (as Mr. Williams thought) the
29th, but the 25th in direct succession from Makea Karika, the
founder of the dynasty. If it were allowable, native fashion, to
add the names of the four other* jomt kings, Makea Davida
would be the 29th descendant of the famous Makea Karika, who
had reigned, representing, however, only 25 generations.t Native
etiquette made it imperative for the Regent to include the four
joint kings referred to. The custom has always obtained in the
“Tongan kingdom” (“te au o Tonga”) that whilst both kings
enjoyed regal honours, only one wielded authority, wielding it,
however, in the name of both Makeas.

Coming on to my own time, it may suffice to remark that
Makea Tevairua (who welcomed me in 1852) was sister to Makea
Davida (Mr. Williams’ friend in 1828); Makea Daniela and
Makea Abela were their younger brothers. So that, strangely
enough, four children of Makea Pori, who welcomed civilisation
in 1823, came to the throne. The present queen, Makea Takau,
is the only child of the Makea Davida who accompanied Mr,
Williams to Raiatea in 1828.

Allowing to each Makea a reign of twenty-five years, we obtain
a total of six hundred (or possibly 625) years from the landing of
Makea Karika on Rarotonga down to the accession of Makea
Pori and Makea Karika II., whom Mr. Williams found in posses-
sion of regal authority in 1823. Doubtless the first ten sovereigns
reigned longest and most happily, before the pride and cruelty of
‘“‘Rongo-oe” split up the island into hostile factions. The reader

*Makea Keu, Makea Tekao, Makea Karika II, one of reigning chiefs, who, in 1823,
welcomed Mr. Williams ; Makea Pa, who, with Makea Davida, reigned in 1828,

+ Or, with absolute correctness, the 24th, “ Makea teina”’ being younger brother (or more
probably cousin, “ teina,” meaning both) to “ Makea Rongo-oe.”

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 629

will bear in mind that twenty-four English sovereigns, from the
Norman Conquest to the death of Charles I., reigned Zess than
600 years.

The Makeas were held in great veneration by their vassals. In
1858 I asked a serf why he looked aside when interrogated by
Makea. The reply was—‘ Did not my father tell me never to
look Makea in the face, lest the regal glance should devour me ?”
The angry glance of a high chief was believed to induce that
frightful disease, /zpus, or cancer of the nose and face. So, too,
the thieving of food by the slaves who waited on them.

The mythical account of the origin of the regal name Makea is
this: “Atea* married Papa. To them were born Rongo and
Tane; also Ruenuku,} Tu-the Great (Tu-nui), Tangaroa, Teuira
(=the lightning), and Aa(=cyclone). The sign of royalty being
the (bow] of) intoxicating pepper, shouts ever following (the king).”

“ Now Rongo and Tane? said, Let us name our son The Saliva
(kea) of our mouths and the aching of our heads. Hence the
name Makea.”

“Ma” is a mere prefix, so that this regal title may be rendered
The Saliva and Head-ache of the gods !

Many have asked me whether I have discovered in the Hervey
Group any trace of a prior Negrillo people. My answer is, None
whatever. Indeed, I believe the idea of a black race formerly
overrunning the Eastern Pacific to be a pure fiction. When
Karika landed on Rarotonga he found a few JZaori, or brown,
people from Iva (=Nukuiva), originally from Avaiki. Their
chief was named Ata. These Maories were all—or nearly§ all—
slain by Karika. A d/ack aboriginal race was never heard of in
the Hervey Group. Some accounts assert that Ou and Ruariki
were the chiefs of these brown people from Iva, and that xo¢ one
was spared by Karika. It is well known that the Rarotongans
from time immemorial were addicted to killing and eating women ;
at Mangaia the rule was to spare women.

On the west of Rarotonga is now settled the smaller and, but
for Christianity, doomed tribe of Puaikura. In 1823 Mr.
Williams found Tinomana,|| the eighteenth in direct succession
from Karika, swaying its destinies. Allowing, as with the
Makeas, 25 years to the reign of each of that line of chiefs, we get
only 450 years. My own impression is that one or two links in this
genealogy are irrecoverably lost, owing to the perpetual slaughter
of their leading men—a slaughter which ceased only on the
acceptance of Christianity by the rulers of Rarotonga in 1823.

I infer, then, that Rarotonga was colonised by Karika and
Tangiia 600 years before the discovery of the island by Mr.

* Vutea or Avatea, 7.e., Noon.

+ The Ruanuka of Mangaian mythology.

ft Primary male gods of Polynesia.

§ The young women were spared as slave wives for the victors.

|| This same Tinomana was living in 1852, when I first visitel Rarotonga He was a most
interesting chief, and of commanding presence,

630 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

Williams, ze, about A.D. 1223, or.possibly a.p. 1198. This
conclusion was arrived at many years before I found that M.
Quatrefages, in his admirable book, entitled “The Human
Species” (page 194), places it in a.p. 1207. For the story of
Tangiia’s voyage to Rarotonga I must refer the student to my
‘“Myths and Songs” (pp. 23-4), and Williams’ “ Enterprises ”
(pp. 195-6). In their inter-tribal wars the numerous descendants
of Tangiia defeated the less numerous descendants of Karika in
many a conflict ; but the regal supremacy was allowed to remain
with the Makea Karika family.

In passing, I may mention the (tothe Kuropean mind) singular
circumstance that in 1823 Makea Tinirau and Makea Tekao were
both alive, but had voluntarily devolved the regal authority and
title upon their sons, Makea Pori and Makea Karika II. This,
however, is no uncommon occurrence amongst chiefs, greater and
lesser, of the Polynesian race.

But Karika found on the island a few brown people, ruled by
Ata, representing a single canoe-load from Iva. Allowing to
these prior JZaori settlers on Rarotonga a residence of 50 or 75
years (a period far too long, judging from what I have myself
seen of stray canoes in the South Pacitic), we may safely conclude
that Rarotonga has been inhabited somewhat less than 700 years
prior to its discovery by Williams in 1828.

In my “Life in the Southern Isles” (pp. 23-5) and ‘“ Historical
Sketches of Savage Life in, Polynesia” (pp. 227-9), I have given
historical data for my belief that the rest of the islands of the
Hervey Group have been inhabited only about six centuries. I
would especially commend to the student the wnguestionadbly
correct list of the three great orders of priests and the “rulers of
food ” on the island of Mangaia, given in ‘ Historical Sketches of
Savage Life” (pp. 227-8). Only twelve generations of the “ rulers
of food” have obtained on Mangaia, and fewer still of the priests
proper.

All the traditions of Eastern Polynesia point to a western
origin—Avaiki (=Savaii), Tonga, Rotumah, Upolu, Tutuila, and
Manu’a. Amid wonderful diversity of detail there is a unity of
tradition in regard to the western origin of their race.

After giving the genealogy of the kings of Rarotonga, I will
add the succession of the kings of Mangaia, to enable the reader
to judge for himself. I think it is evident from these lists that
Rarotonga was the first island of the Hervey Group that was
colonised. The island of Rarotonga, which towers 3000 feet
above the level of the ocean, is, of course, visible at a great
distance, and yet, strangely enough, escaped the eye of the
renowned Cook.

In passing, I may observe that the knowledge of the calendar
belonged exclusively to the kings proper of each island of the
Hervey Group, as they alone fixed the date of the various feasts

-
b
P
4

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 631

in honour of the gods. This was done by them as mouth-pieces
of the tutelar divinities. For others to keep the calendar was a
sin against the gods, to be punished with hydrocele. It was even
thus of old in the Tahitian and Society Groups. Very
appropriately, the calendar printed in Ellis’ book is said to have
been derived from Pomare, the sovereign of that day. Of course,
this fact is a guarantee for its correctness.

I.—Kings of Rarotonga, as given by the “wise men” of Makea
and Tinomana in r869.

1. Makea Karika, father of ... Makea-the-terrible. His wife was Ina-
nui-i-te-rangi = Ina-the-Great-and-Heavenly.

2. Makea Putakitetai ... Makea-lord-leading-captives.

3. Makeaiteau ... .. Makea-the-peaceful.

4. Makea noo marie . Makea-the quiet.

5. Makea puretu (= eee Makea-the-handsome.

6. Makea peau rango ... Makea-of-fly-like-wings, i.e., swift to
execute his purpose.

7. Makea teko nako ... Makea-the-ubiquitous (literally, “ hi-
ther, thither.

8. Makea te taiti ... ... Makea-the-fisherman.

9. Makeateratu ... ... Makea- ot tas—
tira.

10. Makea Rongo-oe Makea - Rongo- of -the-paddle. But
usually known as Te ariki ape tini = The- -king-with-many-
faults. Until his reign there was at Rarotonga but one king,
whose united and powerful tribe was named “ Takitumu,” or
* All-destroying.” A warrior, maternal uncle to Rongo-oe,
named Takaia, split the tribe into two hostile camps. Rongo-oe
remained king over the smaller or doomed portion, which took
the name of ‘“‘ Puaikura’’ at Arorangi. Makea’s portion was
named “Te au o- Tonga” =‘ The-Tongan-kingdom,” and
remained at Avarua, retaining the family marae “ Araitetonga”
= “ The-Tongan-Mediator ” (or ‘*‘ Warder-off-of-Tongans ”’).

11. Makea teina oe ... Makea-the-younger-brother.

12. Makea tumu pu ... ... Makea-of-the-(royal)-conch-shell.

13. Makea tinorei_... ... Makea-of-the-handsome-person.

14. Makeatariua ... ... Makea-the-dilatory.

15. Makea potiki ae ... Makes-the-youngest (a term of en-
dearment).

16. Makea manguneu ... Makea-the-thunderer.

17. Makea taik ix .... Makea-of-the-spear.

* To be distinguished from ra sun. It is merely an abbreviation of
“tira” mast.’ Because the first syllable is dropped, the nee
one (ra) is lengthened (ra). In New Zealand, “mast” is “tiratu”
“the mast that stands up” (masts were set up or lowered at pleasur Sia

632 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

18. Makeatukerae ... ... Makea-the-beloved (literally “ of-the-
eye-brows ”’).

19. Makea te rangi tu kivao ... Makea-the-solid-sky- standing -up-
outside.

20. Rangi Makea ... Heavenly Makea. Drowned in Lake

Tiriara, on the south of Mangaia.

21. Makea te patua kino ... Makea-badly-beaten. In his reign
another split took place, and thenceforth two Makeas reigned
jointly at ‘‘ Araitetonga,” the ,royal ‘‘ koutu”’ = “‘ marae,” or
idol-grove, of the Makea family.

> § Makea piniand ... ... Makea-the-sorrowful and
=a Makea keu Wf ... Makea-of-the-flaxen-hair.
23 Makea Tinirau and ... Makea-lord-of-all-fish and
F } Makea Tekao ate ... Makea-the-bud (= hope or glory of
the family).
24 Makea Pori and ... ... Makea-the-fat and
Makea Karika II. .. Makea-the-terrible, second of that

name. These were the reigning chiefs at Avarua in 1823, when
the Rev. John Williams conveyed the Gospel to Rarotonga.
Since then have reigned—

25 ( Makea Davida and ... Makea-David.
{ Makea Pa se ... Makea-the-defender.
26 ( Makea Te vairua and ... Makea-the-spirit and
( Makea Tuaivi os ... Makea-the-hill.
ae { Makea Daniela and ... Makea-Daniel and
“(0 Makea Tavake ... ... Makea-the-tropic-bird.
28 Makea Abela and the above- ( Makea-Abel and the above-named
4 \ named Makea Tavake _.,. ( Makea-T'avake.
29 Makea Takau and the above- ( Makea-Twenty and the above-named
named Makea Tavake. ( Makea Tavake. Both now living.

Kings of the “ Puatkura” tribe.

1. Rongo-oe, or Napa; otherwise named “ Te ariki ape tini” = “ The-
king-with many faults.”

2. Tamatoa ... sei ... The-brave-son.

3. Tekao ate She ... The-bud.

4, Papa (female) 508 ... Foundation.

5. Temutu ate ss ... The-end.

6. Enua tama nui Me. ... Land-full-of-offspring.

Ts ABW boc 500 cat ... Trembling.

8. Teauariki ... Lg ... Royal-domination.

Oe linoman aims Mighty-frame, or Wonder-work-

ing-body. In this king’s reign Christianity was introduced to
Rarotonga (z.e., 1823) “by the late Rev. John Williams. Tino-
mana represented the eighteenth generation from Karika. Some
say the nineteenth.

10. Tinomana te ariki tapu rangi... Tinomana-the-king-who-sustains-
the-sky. His baptised name was “ Setephano”’ = Stephen.

ae

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 633

Tinomana Rongo-oe II. His baptised name was “Samuela” =
Samuel.

Tinomana Mereane (= Mary Ann). Her baptised name was
«“Mereane” —Mary Ann. Wow living. She is the twentieth
direct descendant of Karika in the Rongo-oe line, being sister
(but by a different mother) to the previous sovereign. She is
niece to Makea Takau of Avarua.

Pedigree of Makea Takau, as given to me by herself in 1883.

Makea Karika se .... Makea-the-terrible.

Makea Putakitetai ... Makea-lord-leading-captives.

Makea te ariki akamataku ... Makea-the-kiny-striking-terror.

Makea Atea* rere ao ... Makea-Noon*-rushing-on-the-world

Makea te ariki iti au ... Mak ea-the-king-giving-peace.

Makea te arikinoo marie ... Makea-the-quiet-king.

Makeateratu ... .... Makea-(like)-the-upright-mast.

Makea Rongo-oet ... ... Makea-Rongot-of-the-paddle.

Makea vai katau ... .... Makea-of-the-right-wing.

Makea peau rango ... Makea-of-the-fly-like-wings.

Makea putua ariki ... Makea-the-feasted-king.

Makea tinorei ori ... Makea-of-the-handsome-person.

Rangi Makea ko Takaia ... Heavenly Makea or Takaia (who
went to Mangaia to wage war).

Makea tumu pu _... ... Makea-of - the - (royal) - conch - shell

(who went to Atiu to wage war).
Makea, who went to Tahiti on a peaceful errand.

Makea te arikiape tini ... Makea-the-king-with-many-faults.

Makea taruia We .... Makea-heaped-up.

Makea te-patua-kino ... Makea-badly-beaten.

Makea pini ae ... Makea-the-sorrowful.

Makea Tinirauft ... ... Makea-lordt-of-all-fish.

Makea Pori ch ... Makea the fat (who welcomed Mr.
Williams in 1823).

Makea Davida Ree ... Makea David.

Makea Tevairua ... ... Makea-the-spirit.

Makea Daniela _... ..Makea-Daniel.

Maker Abela as ... Makea-Abel.

* Atea =Vatea = Avatea — Noon. The full form is Avatea. This
Atea, or Vatea, is one of the great divinities of Polynesia. )

+ Rongo is the son of Atea, or Vatea, whose sanguinary worship was so
general in Eastern Polynesia. Rongo-oe probably means ‘‘ Rongo-the-
steersman,” z.e., of the ship of the state.

{ Tinirau was brother to Atea, Vatea, or. Avatea, and was lord of all
fish. This fish-god Tinirau, was accordingly one of the great primary
deities of Polynesia.

634 PROCEEDINGS OF ECTION G.
26. Makea Takau* ... ... Makea-Twenty,* now living.

There can be no doubt that the first list is the complete one.
In this latter account there is no reference to the dual kingship
at “Araitetonga.” It is confessed that Rarotongan Zzstory (so
far as Makea is concerned) begins with Karika ; but there is.
lying before me a list of purely mythological names, given
as ancestors of the Karika who sailed from Tonga, Rotuma,
Avaiki (=Savaii), and Manuka (the Manu’a cluster of three
islands, forming the eastern portion of the Samoan group. Some-
times Tau, the largest of these three islands, is called by Hervey
Islanders Manuka). It is believed that Karika made his final
start for the south-east and Rarotonga from the island of Tau or
Manw’a, where the marae of ‘“Salia” = “ Karika” may still be seen.
The place is called “ Rarotonga.” Tau is 700 miles north-west of
the island of Rarotonga.

Karika’s great double canoe, in which he made eight wonderful
voyages, had two masts, and carried (tradition says) 170 people
(okoitu). He gave to the queen-island of the Hervey Group, the
home of his descendants, its name ‘“ Rarotonga” =‘ (in memory
of) Western Tonga.” Karika selected as his followers the fleetest
runners and the bravest men of the various islands he touched at,
z.¢., of Tonga, Rotuma, Savaii, and Tau.

It is said that on the island of Rotuma is still shown the
“footprint of Salia”=Karika. And at the famous marae of
Opoa, in the island of Raiatea, “the stone-seat of Aria” =
Karika

IT.—Kings of Mangaia, Hervey Group.

The island of Mangaia was discovered by Captain Cook in 1777.

The sign of installation of the kings of Mangaia was to be
formally seated by the temporal lord, in the presence of the
leading under-chiets, upon “ the sacred sandstone” (fe kea tnamoa)
in Rongo’s marae (O-Rongo) on the seashore, facing the setting
sun. This was ¢#e/r equivalent of our coronation in Westminster
Abbey. The special duty of a king was by rhythmical prayerst
to Great Rongo to keep away evil-minded spirits (pa tuarangi)
that might injure the island. For this end the principal} king
(te artki patuta) lived in the interior, in the midst of abundance,
in the sacred district of Keia. His prayers (harakia) were
supposed to keep away bad spirits coming from the eas¢. On the

barren seashore, at O-Rongo, lived the secondary king (¢e ariki

pa tat), who kept away bad spirits coming from the west. Besides

* In the memory of “twenty ” heads obtained at Mangaia by Makea’s warriors generations.

ago. It isan ancient name. See my “Savage Life in Polynesia,” page 17.
+ Of great antiquity.
t Also called “the praying king” (te ariki karakia).

eee ee a ee ee ne ee a ee a

——

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 635

this primary ghostly function, many other important duties
devolved upon these royal personages (see “Myths and Songs,”
page 293, &c.).

T derived the following information (under promise of secrecy)
many years ago from my late valued friend, King Numangatini.
These lists are the most accurate now obtainable ; some points,
however are disputed. The kingly office was hereditary ; ; never-
theless the investiture rested with “the lord of Mangaia” for the
time being. A father might be set aside in favour of his eldest
son, or one brother in favour of another, for special reasons ; but
still it must be the same blood divine (as it was believed to be).
The shore king was not unfrequently an illegitimate child of a
great interior king. All kings were ex-officio high priests of Rongo
(=ara pia o Rongo), tutelar god of Mangaia.

Succession 07 Kings defending the Interior (= Te au ariki pa uta).

1. Rangi ae coe Shae

2. Te-akatauira-ariki ... The-arrived-king.

3. Te.mata-o-Tangaroa ... The-face-of-Tangaroa.

4, Te-upoku-rau... ... Two-hundred-heads.

5. Rua-ika I. ... Fish-hole i. Slain by Ngauta, when for
the first time “ lord of Mangaia.”

6. Rau-ue ... Gourd-leaf. Son of the shore king Vae-
rua-rau. The drum of peace for the Jast (seventh) “lordship ”
of Ngauta (enjoyed by Terea) was beaten by Rau-ue over the
body “of Inangaro.

7. Poa-iti 5 ... Small-scale. Reigned in the days of
Neangati.

8. Te-ao I. fe ... Day I. Reigned in the days of Mautara.

9. Rua-ikall. ..:. ... . Hish-hole IT.

10. Te-tipi ee .. The cutting (7.e., slaughtering).

11. Te-ao II. .. Day II. Died a.p. 1829. Professed
Christianity.

12. Nu-manga-tini Palm-of-many-branches (purely allego-
rical). Reigned from A.D. 1821 till his lamented death in 1878.

13.4 Ioane Terego ... ... John Trego, sox of Numangatini

14. ( Davida-iti bs ... David-the-younger, grandson of Numan-
gatini.

(Reign jointly now by will of the late king).

Succession of Kings defending the Shore (= Te au ariki pa tat).

DF! US .. Sew. From Rarotonga.

2. Tama-tapu... Sacred son. Son of preceding. Some say Te-pa
= The-defender, who was born on “the sacred sandstone” (te
kea inamoa).

Sy) \YERe Ie tac .. Beginning. Vari was sister to Te-pa.

036 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

4, Buanga .. Budding (a female).

5. Vaerua-rau ... Two-hundred-spirits. Son of Buanga. His son,
Rau-ue, was made principal (the sixth) king of Mangaia.
Deified after his violent death.

35 (Ouayey Sas .. The-ancient. Slain and eaten by his hereditary
foes in Mautara’s time.

7. Kai-au paku... Kingly-office-holder I. Also called Tuki-rangi =
Sky-striker. Son of Oito.

8. Tenio-pakari ... The-strong-toothed.

9. Kanune. In the days of Mautara. Slain by Raumea.

10 Te-ivi-rau .... Two-hundred-bones (7.e., relatives). Drowned at
sea when in chase of Paoa.

11. Kai-au II. .. Kingly-office-holder LI.

12. Numangatini. Appointed shore-king by Pangemiro in a.p. 1814.
When (in 1821) Teao was deposed, he became sole king of

Mangaia. The final word and collective kingly authority were
then vested by the conquering chiefs in Numangantini alone.

In the incessant fighting of Ngauta’s younger days the kingly
family was almost exterminated by their hereditary enemies, 7.¢.,
the Teipe and Tongan tribes, then masters of the island. Only a
royal female (Buanga) and her infant son (Vaeruarau) survived.
Even Vaeruarau was eventually murdered at the suggestion (not
by the hand) of Ngauta.

Even the shore-king, after he had been formally seated on the
sacred sandstone at O-Rongo, was so sacred (¢apuz) in the estima-
tion of the men of past generations that even “the lord of
Mangaia” approached him, not without an offering, oz all fours /
Yet, when the charm of peace had been broken by the wanton
shedding of human blood, this sanctity (tapu) departed, and the
shore-king went to his ancestral lands in the interior without
any special reverence being paid to him. So sacred were the
persons of the kings that no part of their bodies might be tattooed,
nor could they take part in actual warfare.

I would earnestly warn all students of these pages of the danger
of laying too great stress upon the meaning of these royal names.
In mythology nothing is more important than the study of names,
as showing how naturally the myth originated in the minds of
“the wise men” of past ages; but in Azsfory (which this un-
doubtedly is) nothing can be more misleading.

As to the origin of the people, the universal tradition of the
Hervey Islanders points to Avaiki (= Hawaiki, Hawaii, Savaiki,
Savaii) as the original home of their ancestors. Sometimes this
region is called “the night” (te po), z.e., the place where the sun
hides itself at night, or, in other words, “the west.” | Their
ancestors are said to have ‘come up,” 7.e., to Aave sailed eastward.
When a man died his spirit returned to Avaiki, z.e., the original
home of their ancestors in the region of sunset.

—_

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 637

Owing probably to the hiding of their dead in deep caves, so
numerous in these coral islands, Avaiki came to be conceived of
as a vast hollow beneath them.

In Avaiki are many regions, bearing separate names, but all to
be regarded as part of spirit-land. For example, spirits are said
to travel to Manuka (= Manw’a), or Tutuila, or Upolu, or Vavau,
or Tonga, or Iva, or Rotuma (=Rotumah), &e., &e., &e. The
problem now is to determine whence the Samoans (z.e., the clan
or family of Moa), sprang. This ‘“ Moa” is the hereditary king
of the Samoans, his residence being always on “Tau,” the largest
of the three islets collectively designated ‘“‘ Manu’a.”

9—NOTE ON THE USE OF GESTURE LANGUAGE.
IN AUSTRALIAN TRIBES.

By A. W. Howirr.

THE use of gestures accompanying, supplementing, or replacing
speech is, I doubt not, to some extent inherent in the human
race. Children make use naturally, or, as some might prefer to
say, instinctively, of certain simple signs. Deaf-mutes necessarily
use them to communicate their needs or wishes, and some simple
signs are so universally used that the term “ natural gestures” is
not inapplicable to them.

Moreover, the rudiments of gesture language may even be
observed among animals, and especially in those which have
been domesticated, and have become the conipanions of man.

It may be inferred that gesture language is of earlier origin.
than speech, and also would have been found, at one time, to be
more universal in the least advanced races of mankind. Whether
this is so or not | am not prepared to maintain, but this much
may be said, that with the exception of the Neapolitans, there
seems to be scarcely any civilised people who habitually use a
recognised code of signs having a settled meaning, whilst in savage
tribes the practice is very common.

It has been long known that gesture language was much used
among the North American Indians, and some remarkable state-
ments have been made as to the reasons for its use. Burton
attributed it to the paucity of language, which compelled the use
of supplementary signs. It was even said that certain tribes.
were not able to communicate freely unless when daylight
permitted the use of gestures. This statement has been completely
disposed of by the researches of American anthropologists,
especially those of Col. Garrick Mallery, to whose exhaustive
treatise upon his subject of %esture language the reader is.
referred.

638 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

Nor can it be said that the use of signs by the Australian
aborigines is in any way due to paucity of language, their languages
being fully competent to provide for every mental or material
necessity of their life. Those who have had an opportunity of
becoming intimately acquainted with these savages in their social
life will agree fully with me in this statement, and no one can
feel the slightest doubt who has heard one of their orators
addressing an assembly of the men, and with a flow of persuasive
eloquence moulding opinion to his will. Indeed, in some respects,
the languages of the Australian savages are more copious than
our own, for instance, in defining degrees of relationship, which
our tongue groups under the same term. It is somewhat remark-
able, and at the same time difficult, to explain, that the use of
gesture language varies so much in different tribes of this
continent. Some have a very extensive code of signs, which
admit of being so used as almost to amount to a medium of .
general communication. Other tribes have no more than those
gestures which may be considered as the general property of
mankind,

The occurrence or absence of gestures as an aid or substitute
for speech does not, so far as I can ascertain, depend upon social
status or the locality in which any given tribe lives. But, as_to
this, the materials which I have collected are certainly insufficient
to form a positive opinion, being few in number, and scattered
over a wide area. Yet, so far as I can venture to form an
opinion from my own observations, and from the statements made
to me by correspondents, the use of sign language 1s more common
in Central and Eastern Australia than in the south-eastern part
ot the continent. The very different degrees in which gesture
language is made use of may best be seen by taking a few
illustrations from tribes of my acquaintance.

The Kurnai of Gippsland had no gesture language, but they
made use of certain signs in lieu of words, when they were for
some reason or other prevented from using or were reluctant to
use the words themselves. Thus the messenger who conveyed
the news of death of some individual to his friends or kindred,
either spoke of the deceased in some roundabout manner, as the
‘father, brother, son” (as the case might be) of “that person”
(pointing to him) “is dead”; or, what was perhaps more common,
owing to the objection to refer to the dead, the messenger said,
naming the relationship, for instance, “the father of that one
is—,” here concluding the sentence by pointing with the fore-
finger to the ground or up to the sky. Thus intimating that he
was buried, or that he had gone up to the ‘ Leén wruk,” or
celestial land. I have observed that when the aborigines of
Victoria and New South Wales have spoken to me of the great
Supernatural Being in whom they believe as having once inhabited

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 639

the earth and now the sky,* they have either uttered the sacred
name with bated breath, or have used gestures signifying the
*‘ oreat old man up in the sky.”

If to this are added the signs for “come here,” “ go away,”
“there,” or “in that direction,” as indicated by the natural signs
of beckoning and pointing with the hand, the gesture language
of the Kurnai is almost exhausted.

The Woiwurung Kulin, who inhabited the Yarra watershed,
had a much more extensive code of signs, which are recorded
herein so far as I have been able to obtain them.

The tribes of the Barcoo delta have a most extensive system of
gestures, which, it seems, is able to completely take the place of
speech. According to Mr. Gason, whose authority on the Dieri
customs is beyond question, a widow is not permitted to speak
until the whole of the white clay which forms her “ mourning”
has come off without assistance. During this time (perhaps for
months) she communicates by gestures alone.

I have observed the extensive use of gestures in the tribes to
the northwards of the Dieri, and have learned from corres-
pondents that they are also practised to the west of Lake Eyre,
to the northward of it, at Port Essington, and also in Queens-
land. It may be assumed with safety that the use of gestures is
more or less general throughout Australia.

Some of the statements made by my correspondent, Rev. H.
Kempe, as to the gesture language used by the Aldolinga tribe
at the Finke River in South Australia, are both interesting and
suggestive. I have preferred to give these, with his illustrations
of their use 77 exfenso, rather than to embody werely the signs
themselves in the succeeding list. He says that the Aldolinga
have signs for nearly everything, but that it is difficult to describe
them, so as to convey the proper meaning to a stranger. They
have a sign for every animal. Jor instance, for the kangaroo,
the hand is held palm upwards and the fingers a little bent.
Movements are made with the hand to imitate the jumping of
the animal. For an emu the hand is held palm downwards, and
moved with an undulating motion from left to right. There are
signs for all the varieties of snakes. For instance, the sign for
the Ilyuralea (a poisonous one) is made by holding the bent
fingers upwards and making some horizontal circles with the
hand. For the carpet snake the hand is also held palm upwards,
with thumb and fingers sticking up, and the hand is moved by
successive jerks towards the person. For Patamanina, a poisonous
snake, the second finger of the right hand is held upwards and
moved in a vertical circle. For the native turkey, the bird’s
movements of its head are imitated by the second finger of the
“right hand.

* Buniil, or Mamangata, by the Kulin, and Munganngaur, by the Kurnai, mean Our Father.

640 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

There are also gestures appropriate to the four different class.
names of the Aldolinga tribe :—

Binanke __... ng} ... Lizard.
Burale cb sae a cuy )eAIIb:
Baltare ae 5Y. ... Haglehawk.
Kuamare be Wels ... Wallaby.

The sign for Binanke is that the right hand is moved up and
down several times in front of the face, with all the fingers bent
in towards the palm. For Burule, the same, but the second
finger is extended and closed again several times. For Baltare,
also, the same, but all fingers are extended, and the motion of
the hand thus imitates the flight of the eaglehawk. For Kamare,
the same, but the little finger “and third are kept pressed to the
palm, while the thumb and other two fingers are extended.

Mr. Kempe, also, in reply to my question whether a gesture
was known in this tribe indicating an offer of, or request for, a
temporary wife, replied that it was, and according to his descrip-
tion, it is precisely that which I have seen used by the Dieri and
other tribes in the Barcoo delta.

The systematic use of gestures by the Australian aborigines in
lieu of words, or in connection with speech, seems to have been
almost overlooked until lately by writers on the Australian
aborigines. It was observed that they used certain signs, such as
shaking or nodding the head to signify dissent or assent. Ex-
plorers have occasionally mentioned that the blackfellows they
met with used gestures to them, as, for instance, Sir Thomas
Mitchell, when travelling on the Thomson River.f But the idea
did not arise that in such cases these signs and gestures were not
merely the natural aids to speech, but, in fact, formed part of a
recognised and well-understood system of peel language, by
which these savages endeavoured to communicate with the white
strangers passing through their country, just as they’°would have
endeavoured to communicate with strangers of their own
colour.

The difficulty in the way of investigations into gesture language
are very great. The ordinary enquirer needs to be almost
specially trained in order to prevent his falling into errors in
interpreting or describing the signs made. I have found that,
unfortunately, there are but few who do not break down under
the process of preliminary instruction and the subsequent cross-
examination to which their statements must be subjected. There
is, moreover, always a danger that the blackfellow may misunder-
stand the meaning of the enquiry, and instead of giving such
signs as were recognised in his tribe, or of saying that there were

+ Stuart’s well-known statement that a blackfellow in the Northern Territory made
Masonic signs may be merely based upon a use of gesture language.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 641

none at all, will endeavour to give such a translation in signs
as seems to him best to express the reply to the question put to
him. .

I have not been able to do more than to superficially touch
upon this subject. I have recorded the few data which I have
been able to obtain, and I trust that now, when attention has
been drawn to the subject, those who are ina position to do
so will investigate the subject.

There are plenty of places in Australia where the aborigines
are numerous, and still sufficiently in their original condition to
maintain their old customs to a great extent.

In compiling the list of gestures given in this paper I have
recorded such as I have seen used myself, and also those for which
I have to thank the following correspondents :—Mr. Robinson, of
Coburg Peninsular, as to the Oirig tribe, Mr. Gason and the Rev.
H. Vogelsang as to the Dieri, the Rev. H. Kempe as to the
Aldolinga, and Mounted-constable Hewitt as to the Kuriwalu.

All.—Hold out the clenched hands and open and shut them
several times. Urunjeri.

All gone.—Extend both hands and arms as if in the act of
swimining, then point in the direction to which they have
gone. Diert. Hold out both hands with widely-
extended fingers, and the palms downwards in the direction
in which they have gone. A/dolinga.

All right.—Hold the hand out palm upwards, and describe several
horizontal circles with it. Aldolinga. Nod the head
twice. Azuriwalu.

Anger.—Pout the lips out. Deer Gason.

Attention /—Hold up the open hand, palm outwards, and move it
once or twice up and down. Woiwurng. Wave the
open hand, palm upwards, several times towards the body.
Kuriwalu. Wave the hand from the breast, and shake
the head. Awuriwadlu.

Lad.—Shake the hand, then throw both the hands out and over
the shoulder backwards. Ovrig.

Before.—Point forwards and a little downwards with the right
hand and forefinger. A/dolinga. Point with the hand in
front downwards. Dvzeri Vogelsang. Right hand brought
from the left shoulder across the body in front. Kuriwalu.

Behind.—Place left hand, fingers slightly closed, palm outwards,
behind the hip. - Urunjert. Point with the hand back-
wards. Dieri Vogelsang. Point with the hand extended
behind the body. A/dolinga. Waét the hand, fingers open,

*O

642 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

downwards, and to the rear. <Azwvriwalu. Point with
forefinger of right hand over the left shoulder. Oirig.

Be quiet.—Close the hand loosely, the fingers being towards your-
self, then make several motions with it downwards in front
of the body. Dyeri Vogelsang. Make several short move-
ments with the right hand in front towards the ground.
Yantruwunta. Make a motion with the clenched fist
from the mouth downwards. <A/dolinga.

Be gquick.—Hold out the hand and arm stiffly, and rather high.
Shake the hand several times as if flirting something off.
Dieri Vogelsang. Make a number of circular movements
from right to left in front of the body with the open hand,
palm downwards. A/dolinga. Wave the hand several
times to the body. <Awrizwadlu.

Big,—Extend both arms semi-circularly from the shoulders out-
wards, the fingers slightly crooked and separated, and at
the same height as the shoulders. Uvunjert. Mark with
the hand held horizontally to the ground the approximate
size intended. Dyzexi Vogelsang Strike with the clenched.
fist towards the ground; if for “very big” make a long
stroke. Dieri Gason. Shut both hands, excepting the fore-
fingers, with which indicate size by holding them apart. If
very big, then very wide. Awriwa/u. Hold up both hands
and arms in front forming a circle. Ovzvig.

Camp.—Chop twice with right hand at an angle of 45 deg. from
right to left in front of yourself. Then place forefinger of
right hand between the tips of first and second fingers of
left hand, simulating a ridge pole. Uvzajeri.

Come here !—Beckon with the open hand towards yourself.
Urunjeri. Point to the person with the right hand, then
point to theleft. Aldolinga. Beckon with the open hand
upwards and backwards. Orrig.

Danger.—Make a movement as of catching a fly close to the
mouth, and then squeezing it. Deri Gason. Place the
right hand in front of the body, and then step back a
pace or two. Auriwalu.

Day.—Point to the sun. Ovzrig.

Dead, death.-—Make a sign along the ground by drawing the fore-
finger along it. Dueri Vogelsang. Bring the hands
together, then make a movement with them as if of con-
cealing some thing small in the palms. Dvuevz Gason.
Stoop a little, and tap the ground with the back of the
hand. Yantruzwunta. Throw the head back, close the
eyes, and extend the arms and hands backwards. Oz7ig.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 643

Distance, far off.—If near, point a little way off. 1f far off,
point to the horizon. If very far, point above the horizon.
Urunjert.

Drink, drinking.—Imitate lifting water to the mouth with the
hand. Urusyeri. Place the thumb and forefingers of the
right hand together like a scoop, and carry the hand up to
the mouth. Dvierz Vogelsang. Tap the throat with the
forefinger and thumb, then point to the mouth. Oj/rig.
Throw the head back and carry the hand up to the mouth.
Kuriwalu.

£at.—Iift the hand to the mouth as if conveying food. Dveri
Vogelsang. Point to the mouth and go through the
motion of eating. Oirig.

Enemy (wild blackfellow).—(1), sign for man; (2), sign for far
off. Urunjeri. Right hand open, and palm downwards.
Move it two or three times vertically in front of the body.
Then repeat the same at the right side. KAwriwalu. Place
the hand, palm outwards, in front of the face, then turn
it several times from inwards to outwards. <A/dolinga.

Lnough.—Hold out the hands in the sign for “big,” “much,”
then point to yourself, and shake the head, or make the
sign for “none.” Uvunjert. Tap the stomach several
times gently with the flat hand, then wave the hand with
spread fingers outwards. Dvyeri Vogelsang. Tap mouth
with open hand, then wave the hand away. Xuriwalu.

Far away.—Snap the fingers in the direction indicated. Dvyeri
Vogelsang. Stretch the hand out full length, and snap
the fingers. <A/dolinga.

Grve me.—Hold out the hand at full length, palm up. Uvunjert.
Extend the hand, palm up, and then draw it back.
Diert Vogelsang. Right hand held out full length, fingers
a little bent. Auriwalu. Hold out the hand. Ojirig.

Glad.—Pat the breasts with both hands several times. Urunjert.

Good.—Make a trembling or vibrating motion with both hands,
palms inwards, in front of the face, which must have a
pleased expression. Dveri Vogelsang. Move the right hand,
palm upwards, up and down in front of the body, then
point downwards. A/dolinga. Make a slight movement
downwards with both hands, palms downwards, in front
of the body, at the same time inclining the head. Ovzrig.

Go away, go on /—Hand, with back to face, moved sharply out-
wards in a semicircle to full length of arm. Vantruwunta.
The hand is thrown sharply from the breast, palm inwards.
Kuriwalu. The hand is placed on the stomach, and

waved outwards and upwards. Ozrig. Hold up the hand
*o2

644 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

in front of the face, palm outwards, and make several
quick movements outwards from yourself. Dzeri Gason.
Point in the direction to go with the second finger of the
right hand. <A/dolinga.

Ffalt, stop.—Make a sign with the outstretched right hand to the
ground. Dieri Vogelsang. Rapidly move the right hand from
the breast, palm outwards, to the full length upwards,
then point to the ground. A/dolinga. Make three waves
towards the ground with the hand. Xurizwadlu.

Hlear.—Point to the ear with the forefinger of right hand.
Urunjert. Make a number of small circles with the finger
in front of theear. A/dolinga. Hold up the forefinger, and
then touch the ear. Ovrig. Fanning with the hand about
two inches distant from the ear means ‘“ I cannot hear you,”
“Say it again.” Dyzervt Gason. Extend the hand over the
head as high as possible ; stoop and reach as far out as
possible till the hand nearly touches the ground ; this means
“T hear you,” “I know what you mean.” These signs are
used when communicating from a distance. Dzert Gason.

Hungry.—Extend both arms upwards so as to show the stomach
drawn in. OUvunjert. Rub the open hand over the
stomach. Vantruwunta. Tap the stomach with the
finger, and then extend the open hand. Dzézeri Vogelsang.
Point to the stomach with bent fingers. A/dolinga. ‘Pat the
stomach with both hands, and throw the arms wide apart.
Oirig. Pat the stomach. Auriwalu.

J.—Point to the breast. Uvunjeri. ‘Pass the forefinger down
at a little distance from the forehead along the nose.
Dieri Vogelsang. Point to yourself. A/dolinga. Point to the
breast. Kuritwalu.

Kill,—Make several movements downwards with the fist, as if
striking violently. Dierd Vogelsang. Strike short blows with
one hand on the other. Dierd Gason. Hold the right hand
high over the head, with the palm downwards. Auriwalu.
Strike the head with the closed hand. Oz7ig.

Little, small.Hold up both hands about a foot apart, the palms
facing each other. Ovzvig.

Man.—Indieate with both hands the outline of a beard. The
size of the beard denotes the age—a great beard is a great
age, ze, an old man. Uvrumjert. Indicate the beard
with the right hand, as of passing the hand down it.
Dieri Vogelsang. Clutch the beard and shake it. Dzert
Gason. Close the right hand, except the middle finger, then
describe a small circle with it. Aldolinga. Point down
below the stomach. Oiz7ig.

ee ee ee

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 645

Night.—Point to the westward. Oizrig.

NVo, Not, None,—Shake the head. Uvunjeri. Shake the head
several times, or shake the hand several times, the hand
being raised about as high as the face and held loosely
pendant from the wrist. Dvzeri Vogelsang ; Yantruwunta.
Shake the head. Dyer Gason. Hold the right-hand palm
outwards, then point upwards. 4/do/inga. Shake the head
several times, then wave the hand from the breast palm
downwards. Kuriwalu. Throw the right hand upwards and
backwards, and jerk up the left shoulder. Ozrig.

Peace.—Hold up both hands at full length, open palms outwards
above the head. Yantruzwunta. Hand thrown forward
full length from the body, palm downwards, and head
bent down. <Kuriwalu. Throw the open hand from the
left shoulder round to right, and then pat the mouth
several times. Ovrig.

To Run.—Hold the arms bent at the elbows, with hand clenched
in front ; then describe small circles outwards, indicating
the movement of legs running. Uvrunjert.

To See.—Touch the eye with the forefinger, and then point in the
direction indicated. Uvunjeri. Describe a number of
small circles or a spiral with the finger from the eye, in
the direction indicated. Aldolinga. Nod the head and
touch the eye with the forefinger. Ovzrig.

Silence ! Say no more /—Thumb of each hand turned inwards, then
stoop and extend the hands full length. This also implies
a threat of strangling, and is used, for instance, by the old
men to the young men when they are misbehaving them-

selves. Dueri Gason.

Sit down.—Make the sign for “Halt!” Stop and point to the
ground. Uvunjeri. Extend the arm towards the ground,
and make two or three quick movements with the open
hand towards the ground. Vavntruzunta.

Sleep.—Incline the head upon the open hand towards the
shoulder. Uvunjert. Incline the head upon the palm of
the hand near the shoulder. Dyzeri Vogelsang. Lay the
head in the palm of the hand. Ozvig. Place left hand over
the eyes, and incline head on left hand. Auriwadlu.

Supreme Being (Bunjil).—(1) Make exaggerated sign for “old
man ;’ (2) make exaggerated sign for ‘“‘ big ;” (3) point to
the sky. OUvrunjeri. Similar gestures are made by the
Murring.

Thirsty.—Make the sign for “to drink,” then hold out the open
hand. Dvzeri Vogelsang. Point towards the stomach, and
then snap the fingers. A/dolinga. Scratch the throat.

646 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

Kuriwalu. Extend the hand and shake it, then touch the
mouth and throat. Oc7rig.

Where? What? Who? What ts it? &c.—Hold the right hand
opposite the left breast, palm downwards, then move the
hand upwards and outwards higher than the shoulder,
gradually turning the hand so that at last the palm is
upwards; or do this so that the movement of the hand
upwards and forwards only brings it level with the face.
Yantruwunta. Place right hand at left breast, palm out-
wards, then move it up at an angle of 45 deg. with the
horizon hold up for a moment, and let drop ; when moving
the hand also jerk up the chin. Uvunjert. Throw up the

hand higher than the head, then let it fall, palm upwards.

Dierit Gason.

Water—Same as “thirsty.” Orrig. Same as “to drink.”
Diert Vogelsang.

Woman.—Point with the finger of the right hand to the breast.
Urunjeri. Indicate the breasts with both hands. Dvzert
Vogelsang. Make a circle with the forefinger of each ‘hand
round the breast. Dyzert Gason.

Yes.—Nod the head. Uvrunjeri; Dieri ; Oirig. Make a move-
ment with the open hand towards the ground. <A/do-
linga.

10.—ON CERTAIN MUTILATIONS PRACTISED BY
NATIVES OF THE VITI ISLANDS.

By Boron 8. Cornry, Chief Medical Officer, Colony of Fiji.

THERE are one or two mutilations commonly practised by natives
of the Vit1 Islands, which, if they have been invested with a
measure of importance, viewed from a medical standpoint, to
which they have but slight claim, possess nevertheless a degree of
anthropological interest which may warrant their being described
and recorded in the presence of an Association for the advance-
ment of science.

The more noteworthy of these, because the most commonly
resorted to, and also the most “heroic,” is that designated in the
native language THoxKa Lost. It consists in passing a bougie or
sound into the male urethra as far as the membranous portion,
and in making an incision about an inch in length upon it from
without at the bulbous portion. A seton may or may not then
be passed in at the wound and out at the meatus, according to
the whim of the operator.

—_— <<

ha ow

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 647

THOKA Los! is done for various ailments or illnesses, generally in
cases of lumbar rheumatism and in the sequele of catarrhal
fever, such as haric pneumonia, mild but painful pleuritis, and
various neuralgic affections, and in disease of the sacro-iliac
synchondroses.

The usual explanation given by natives when interrogated as
to the rationale upon which this operation is recommended is
that by incising a dependent portion of the trunk, such as the
perineum, the abdomen is relieved from an accumulation of blood
about its fundus.

This theory, ingenious though it be, is, of course, as foolish in
conception as it is anatomically inconsistent. Yet many Fijian
natives, chiefs of intelligence among them, declare that their lives
have been saved by undergoing THoxka Lost, and that it is one of
the few really good methods of treatment handed down to them
by their medical experts from the dark ages of their history. The
fact that this grain amongst the chaff of the medizval lore of a
race of cannibals should rest upon a principle at variance with
the most rudimentary facts of human anatomy is to be explained
by their custom of cooking bodies as they still cook pigs—by
baking them whole in an oven or pit, lined and covered with
heated stones. This process prevented the natives from acquiring
any deeper knowledge of the human frame as a consequence of
their cannibal habits, than the average English housewife learns
from roasting a rabbit or a barn-door fowl of comparative
anatomy of the Leporid and the Gallinacee.

THOKA Los! is performed more commonly in certain districts of
Fiji than in others. The central and western provinces of the
main island are its strongholds, and it becomes less resorted to
towards the eastern portions of the group, where the admixture
with the Tongan race is more general. As the latter condition
markedly influences the colour of the skin, one may say, speaking
roughly, that the darker the prevailing tint of skin in any tribe
or matangga/?, the more commonly is THoxKa Los! likely to be met
with amongst its members.

Fijians, however, are not the only people who practise some
method of tampering with the urethra. Among certain tribes in
the west and north-western portions of Australia the urethra is
commonly laid open from the meatus backwards. In some tribes
the slit extends two or three inches; in others it is carried quite
to the scrotum. It is made on the under side of the organ, and
is not expected to re-unite, but leaves a mere groove in place of
the normal urethra, which becomes callous.

While the occurrence of so singular a practice in races as
widely separated, both geographically and ethnologically, as the
Fijians and the natives of north-western Australia is remarkable,
there are essential differences between the two procedures, Their
ethics are different, and their methods are dissimilar. With the

648 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

Australian blacks it is a mutilation, pure and simple. It is
performed at puberty as a regular function, and its occasion is
attended with much ceremony.

The Fijians, on the other hand, merely resort to their procedure
for the relief of pain or illness. With them it is a venesection,
and is in no way associated with any idea of conferring a ¢oga
virilis upon the sufferer.

The Australian lays open the urethra and leaves it so once for
all, whereas the Fijian expects the edges of his incision to re-unite,
and succeeds in procuring that desirable result, sometimes
operating upon the same patient three or four times. This is the
more surprising when the employment of the seton is borne in
mind. Yet perineal fistula is a thing never met with in the
Fijians, nor have I been able to hear of any case of cicatricial
contraction of the urethra in these natives, either after THoKA
Losi or from any other cause.

The staff used is made generally from a twig of the tree called
by the natives /osz/ost. Hence the term employed for the whole
operation, THOKA LOSI, which means piercing with /osz, or dost
piercing, Occasionally, however, if the /osz/osi be not at hand, a
reed is made use of instead, and answers equally well, save that
its point is less smooth, and requires greater care in passing. The
cutting instrument is generally a piece of sharp mussel or cockle-
shell, according to the locality, but occasionally a slip of bamboo.
Of late years, however, a piece of a broken glass-bottle has been
often employed, and is to be found in every village. The bast
from the well-known Vaz tree, hibiscus tiliaceus, forms a convenient
seton, being both tough and unirritating.

The Fijian applies no dressing after THoxa Lost, and I am afraid
T must admit that he does not even wash the parts. This is only
in accordance with his common custom of dating his convalescence
from an illness from his first bathing after it. Though some
urine naturally escapes during the first day or two through the
wound at the times when urine is (voluntarily) passed, the natural
opposition of the parts, and their elasticity, seem to be enough to
ensure the satisfactory completion of the healing process, and the
avoidance of fistula.

Another mutilation of the urethra practised by the natives of
Fiji, bearing a still greater similiarity than THoka Losi to that
inflicted in Western Australia, but also resorted to only as a
remedial measure, is the procedure known by the native name of
TayA NGALENGALE. It consists in incising the urethra at its
meatus to a point just behind the freenum preputi, including
division of its artery. This is allowed to bleed to an extent
varying from a mussel shellful to a cocoanut shellful (which
means the half of a cocoanut-shell used as a cup), that is to say,
from half an ounce to half a pint.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 649

The primary object of this operation seems to be blood-letting.
A cutting instrument is used for it similar to that employed in
THOKA LOSI, and in both the operators are men. I mention the
latter fact because in another proceeding, termed SILI NDAKU, or
Siti mu, performed both on women and on men, the operators
are women. This process, though it cannot be termed a mutila-
tion, is so strange a measure that it may be worth describing.
The first stage of it is the administration of a prolonged sitz-bath.
Afterwards the patient returns within doors, and sits on a mat
on the floor of the house, the old woman doctress taking up a
position immediately behind. She then, after oiling her fore-
tinger, proceeds to insert it for its whole length (from behind the
patient) into the rectum, passing it, of course, beyond the
sphincter, and retains it there for a space of about five minutes.
After its withdrawal the patient is told to lie down and to remain
in the house for two days. It does not appear that any scarifica-
tion with the finger-nail, or indeed any movement of the finger,
is practised during this singular proceeding, and it is not clear
what object it is expected to attain. It is administered in
epidemic catarrhal fever and various forms of pain in the back,
and is much more commonly resorted to in the eastern portions
of the group than THoxKa Lost is, though used in others as well.
The usual name by which it is known is simply “ The sitz bath,”
and in that portion of its ceremonies the virtues or the dangers of
SILINDAKU doubtless lie.

Other mutilations practised by the natives of the Viti Islands
are circumcision, tattooing, flattening of the occiput, the procura-
tion of raised scars as ornaments about the chest, shoulders, and
upper arms, various shavings of the head, especially in children,
and cuttings of the hair, perforation and dilatation of the lobe of
the ear, and the well-known amputation of one or more fingers or
finger-joints when mourning for a deceased relative. Tattooing
and finger-chopping have been much discouraged by the
missionaries, being regarded by them as associated with heathen-
ism. While, however, the tatooing of women, as formerly
practised, is now only seen in the persons of old people, a new
description of this ornamentation has lately become popular among
young men belonging to the best families. This consists in
blazoning the arms of Great Britain in lamp-black and carmine
upon the chest or upper-arm ; and sometimes the design is varied
by the employment of the American eagle-and-flag trophy instead.
The most remarkable feature about this modern innovation is the
exactness of the drawing. This is of a character that would do
credit to the tattooing artists of Japan or Malta, and led me at
first to suppose that it was the work of one man, probably a
foreigner. It proved, however, to be otherwise, and native dan-
dies tattoo each other with great skill.

650 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

Ear-piercing is not now done by natives of the coast tribes in
Fiji, and it is only among the old men in the mountain districts
that exaggerated instances of dilated lobes, such as are still
common in the Solomon Islands and many other parts of
Melanesia, are to be met with.

Raised scars are obtained by pressing some article, generally an
infant orange, or a number of them, about as large as a pea each,
into an incision made for their reception, and so by irritation
giving rise to exuberant granulations. But, very remarkably,
raised scars not infrequently result in natives of the Viti Islands
from simple wounds about the chest or shoulders, and from
vaccination. When produced designedly they are the result
rather of a youthful freak than of any definite object or in virtue
of any custom, and they do not represent any tribal mark or
Totem.

Flattening of the occiput is practised only in certain families
of high degree or relationship. It is effected by the pressure of
a roll of native cloth (masz) on the forehead of the infant, the
back of the head resting ona board. Its result is to make the
back of the head appear almost in a straight line with the neck
and to widen the skull. One of the most marked cases of this
deformation that I have seen, became at nine years of age
epileptic, developed epileptic insanity, at sixteen suffered from
almost incessant epileptiform convulsions, and soon afterwards
died (probably from starvation) after ten days’ trance.

With regard to this flattening of the occiput, I have more than
once suspected that it is practised only in those families whose
special physiognomy already shows a tendency towards that shape
of head which the artificial process in question intensifies. As
these particular families are the highest in the land, it is not
unreasonable to think that they may see in their peculiarity a
special and distinguishing type of beauty, and that they may wish
to exaggerate it artificially. Such a proceeding would be in
accord with the recognised principles of skull deformation in
other parts of the world, as reasoned out by students of anthro-
pology. It is merely applying in the present case to a few
families a principle which is known to influence whole races.

The principal point of interest, however, in the subject of this
paper is that already alluded to, namely, that mutilations of the
urethra are practised among the Fijians as a means of relief from
disease, though disease at a distal part of the body ; and mutila-
tions of a kindred character, though slightly different in detail,
are practised by certain tribes in the north and west portions of
Australia as a matter of general custom on arrival at the age of
puberty. The origin of this custom, often stated to lie in the
wish to keep down the population in an infertile country, admits
of the widest doubt. And it would probably not be warrantable
to hazard any opinion, without first making extensive observa-

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 651

tions and enquiry among the countless tribes of Africa, Mada-
gascar, and the Malay Archipelago, as to where these customs
sprang from, and as to what circumstances called them into
existence.

\

Addendum on the Surguwal Aspects of THOKA LOSI.

An operation such as THOKA LosI may appear coarse and inutile.
Tt has been customary, indeed, among surgeons in Fiji to regard
it, as performed by the Fijians, with aversion and contempt, and
to stigmatise by various uncomplimentary epithets all natives
who pose as its defenders. Those of the European lay community
who have any knowledge of THoxa Lost, whether from hearsay or
from observation, regard it as barbaric and unjustifiable, and
popularly believe that recovery after it is the exception rather
than the rule.

Amid this storm of opposition, THoKA Lost, though it affects but
a small and imperfectly-known handful of Her Majesty’s subjects,
deserves, perhaps, as a surgical proceeding a word of apology,
even though as a measure of medical treatment it may not be
deemed worthy of support nor even justifiable. Indeed, I am by
no means sure that its ill-repute amongst white people is deserved.
For, though in principle it is unreservedly fallacious, in its effects
it is at least free from many of the disastrous consequences with
which it has been charged. Only twenty European surgeons have
resided in the Viti Islands, and of this number but few have
mixed freely with the aboriginal race or learned sufficient of the
language and of the inner domestic life of the people to have
gained an opportunity of watching a case of THoKa Lost from its
beginning to the healing period. Such cases are, from their very
nature, not freely paraded, and a European surgeon is still less
likely than a non-professional person to have them exhibited to
his observation and, doubtless, adverse criticism. Moreover, the
native operator receives his training as a family prerogative.
It represents his stock-in-trade, by which he counts upon gaining
presents and property. And for these reasons he is never very
ready to afford another person any insight into his methods. It
is only after many years’ residence, therefore, and much intimacy
with individual natives from different parts of the group, that a
series of data, consisting of actual observations, can, in a matter
like THoKa tos, be collected.

From what I have seen, I have formed the opinion that it is
unfair to draw parallels, and then comparisons, between THOKA LOSI
and our own operation of perineal section. But this is what
commonly has been done in arriving at those condemnatory state-
ments which meet the traveller’s ear in reference to this subject.

652 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

Even external urethrotomy for old or impermeable stricture is not
a fair simile to use. The truer homologue, indeed (so far as
etiology and method, though not purpose, are concerned), is our
operation for incising the urethra in cases of impacted calculus or
foreign body. The latter operation is well known to be a simple
and safe proceeding—free, not only from the dangers more imme-
diately attending perinzal section and external urethrotomy for
stricture, but also from those risks which have to be run during
the healing process after those operations, both as regards sep-
ticemia and urinary fistula. Perineal section is said to be of
ancient date—practised even in the tenth century, A.D.—but was
for a long period a dreaded operation. Even now the conditions
which give rise to the need for its performance preclude our
deriving the full advantages of aseptic dressings after it. In the
native, however, upon shorn THOKA LOSI 1s about to be undertaken,
all the important dangers are absent. There is no hospital air ;
there is no extravasation of urine or other septic abomination in
possession of the field before the operation. The incision is made
through sound and uninflamed tissues. The patient has no
stricture to hinder healing or to complicate the after-treatment by
needing the retention of a catheter, and he is neither a drunkard
nor even a moderate user of alcohol. He is also a stranger to
syphilis, and his tissues possess a happy quality of healing readily
even after the most severe wounds. The disease against which
the THoKA LOsI is intended to militate has its seat at a distance
from the site of the operation, and is often in itself a more painful
than serious ailment.

For these reasons it has appeared to me that in the cases in
which THoka Lost has been followed by the death of the patient,
this consummation has been brought about, not by the THoxKa Lost,
but by the original disease, which it was intended, but failed, to
relieve. An examination into the circumstances of individual
cases has borne out this belief. The cases which have ended
fatally have been chiefly those of old men attacked by pneumonia
in the wake of influenza, which in Fiji is better described by its
i arrhal fever—and they have died with-
out hemorrhage or sloughing at the seat of operation, or
septiceemia. The successful cases, on the other hand, have
commonly been those of less acute diseases, chiefly making their
presence felt by pain lower down in the back than the bases of
the lungs—pain of a rheumatic nature, commonly enough met
with among a people who live in a rainy climate, dwell in damp
houses, dress without discrimination, and sleep in damp _ bed-
places, separated only from the earth by a scanty layer of
mouldering grass or cocoanut leaves. - Such, then, is the Fijian
operation of THoKA Lost—incision of the urethra. Let me not be
considered its advocate, nor even its avenger. I merely wish to
put forward an impartial criticism of a subject which has been

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 653-

much derided, but little studied, and which it has been the
fashion, through want of knowledge of its details, to ineonsis-
tently compare with a much more serious pathological condition
and remedial procedure.

11.—THE MARRIAGE LAWS OF THE ABORIGINES
OF NORTH-WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

By Hon. Joun Forrest, C.M.G., M.L.C.

THE marriage laws of the aborigines of Australia are fixed upon a
general plan which restricts, to a great extent, individual choice.

1. When I visited North-western Australia, in 1878, I found
that the aboriginals were divided into four families, the names of
which are Boorunggnoo-Banigher, Kimera and Paljarie. The two
first can intermarry, and the two last can also, but no other
alliance is possible ; for instance, if you meet a Boorunggnoo man,
his wife must be of the Banigher family, and the wife of a Kimera
could only belong to the Paljarie family, and wice versa.

2. The children, however, do not follow either the father’s or
mother’s family ; for instance, if the father were Boorunggnoo
the mother must be Banigher, and the children would be Kimera.
If, however, the father were Banigher, and the mother
Borunggnoo, the children would be Paljarie. Again, if the
father were Kimera, the mother must be Paljarie, and the
children would be Boorunggnoo ; but if the father were Paljarie,
and the mother Kimera, then the children would be Banigher..
By this means the relationship progresses, and it follows that

MALE. MALE AND FEMALE.
Boorunggnoo is father to a ... Kimera
Kimera is father to a Aa ... Boorungenoo.
Banigher is father to... 60 ... Paljarie.
Paljarie is father to Ee ac ... Banigher.
FEMALE. MALE AND FEMALE.
Boorunggnoo is mother to erg ... Paljarie.
Paljarie is mother to... ae ... Boorungenoo.
Banigher is mother to ... ape ... /Kimera.
Kimera is mother to... ee ... Banigher.

3. It therefore follows that the grandchild, in the male line, is
of the same family as his grandfather, and in the female line of
the same family as her grandmother. For instance, a man of the
Boorunggnoo family (whose wife, of course, must be of the
Banigher family) has a son, who would be Kimera, and his grand-
son (that is, of the Boorunggnoo) would be Boorunggnoo. The

654 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

direct line of male descent from a Boorunggnoo man would alter-
nate from Kimera to Boorunggnoo for ever.

4. But if the child of a Boorunggnoo man and a Banigher
woman were a girl, she would, of course, still be Kimera, but
would have to marry a Paljarie man, and her children would be
Banigher, being the same family as her grandmother ; and, there-
fore, in the direct female line from a Boorunggnoo man and a
Banigher woman, they would alternate between Kimera and
Banigher for ever.

5. In the same way the son of a Kimera man and a Paljarie
woman would, of course, be Boorunggnoo, and when he married
he must marry a Banigher woman, whose children would be
Kimera, the same as their paternal grandfather ; if, however, the
child of a Kimera man and a Paljarie woman were a girl, she
would still be Boorunggnoo, but would have to marry a Banigher
man, and her children would be Paljarie, the same as her maternal
grandmother. It, therefore, follows that the offspring from a
Kimera man and a Paljarie woman, in the male line, would alter-
nate from Boorunggnoo to Kimera for ever, and in the female line
from Boorunggnoo to Paljarie for ever. If, however, the parents
are reversed, and are a Paljarie man and a Kimera woman, the
offspring in the male line would alternate from Banigher to
Paljarie for ever, and in the female line from Banigher to Kimera
for ever,

6. Now, it follows that Boorunggnoos and Kimeras and
Banighers and Paljaries of both sexes mix together as fathers and
children of one family, although they may never have seen one
another before ; also, Boorunggnoos and Paljaries and Banighers
and Kimeras of both sexes mix together as mothers and children
of one family ; not so, however, Boorunggnoos and Banighers of
opposite sexes, or Kimeras and Paljaries of opposite sexes—for
these may marry, and very little acquaintanceship or intercourse
is allowed, and a great shyness is observed on both sides.

7. This is very noticeable when a stranger arrives, and I will
suppose that itis a young member of the Boorunggnoo family. As
soon as his family is ascertained, it follows that all the women of
the Boorunggnoo family are to him as sisters, all the women of the
Kimera family are to him as daughters, and all the women of the
Paljarie family are to him as mothers; and all these at once
gather round and welcome the stranger, without the slightest
restraint, being relatives whom he may not marry, although he
may never have seen them before, and with whom no relationship
whatever may exist. Not so, however, the Banigher women, who
are eligible to become his wife. They at once appear shy and
reserved, and do not join in the friendly welcome. This etiquette
is always observed, and is readily noticed.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 655

12.—_THE GENEALOGY OF THE KINGS AND
PRINCES OF SAMOA.

By Rev. Greorce Pratt.

(1).—InrRopuctTion.

I gor this “Genealogy of the Kings of Samoa” from Rey. T.
Powell, who was missionary of Manu’a; that was, perhaps,
some 35 years ago. He obtained it from the Keepers of the
Genealogies under a promise of not divulging it to Samoans. The
office of keeper was hereditary in one family. When pressed by
parties whom they could not well refuse, they were in the habit
of falsifying the account, so as to render them useless. The
father communicated the narrative to the son who was to be his
successor, and he committed it to memory from his father’s
mouth. Bards as such could not be hereditary, for even among
Samoans Joeta nascitur, non fit.

The poet composed his song as occasion called for it, line by
line, and as he recited it the young persons around held it in
their memory. Every chief has his praises sung—every event
brings forth anew song. Yet heavy tines cannot keep the poetic
fire from indulging in cutting sarcastic songs, and in war time
these are more stinging than gunshot wounds. As to the
chronicles themselves it is clear that, like the chronicles of the
kings of Israel, the chroniclers of different generations must have
added to the former accounts.

It is difficult even to guess the antiquity of these records,
because a brother often, nay, generally, succeeds a_ brother,
consequently the reigns do not represent generations. For
instance, two brothers of Malietoa succeeded him, one after the
death of the other. Then again, the narrative begins with myths ~
and the gods. “The eighth heaven,” like the third heaven of
the Hebrews, was the residence of the gods. Man, having grown
out of the earth, was necessitated to seek a wife from heaven. In
those days the heavens were thought so near to earth that they
could be reached by climbing into a tree. ‘The sacred fish” was
taken to Maileitele. Several fishes were considered sacred. A
turtle was caught and eaten by some villagers. instead of
being taken to their chief. The whole village was banished
in consequence.

MEANINGS OF SOME OF THE NAMES IN THE GENEALOGY OF THE
SaMoAN KINGS,

Alatana nae .» War-path,
Alvitasi ip -.. One-chief.
Falaleomalie ... ... Sweet-sounding mat.

Fuatanga ae
Ga’utala ‘ive
Tamafana mete
Langituavalu ...
Ib erin Were ma
Leifi-mouloto ...
Leitufia-o-Atua
Le-tagata ose
Le-tupu-fua .,..
Lotoma’a Se
Luafaletele ...
Marataanoa ©...
Maina. ... ae
Maileitele aah
Malaeta ak
Malietoa
Mata’afa
Mata’utia
Moegagogo
Nitoay Pe
Molioo ,..
Nofoasaefa
Paepaetele ‘
Paitomaleifi ...
Papaele
Papapala
Papatu ... F
Sitiara: meee te
Sinataufafa ..,
Sualauvi are
Taelalopuw’a
Taemoomanaia
*T'aemo’otele
Taeoalii
Teleipesega
Tonumaipe’a
Tusa

Tuala

Tualau ...
Tualupetu
Tuanwu
Tuapwu
“Ubbqeberil) Ge
Tupua ...

Tupo

Uitua Ae
Usufonoimanu
Veletalo-ola
Velova’a aS
Nonofo-i-fale-ese

My tale.

Warm fish.

Eighth heavens.

The chesnut.

Leifi of many hearts.

The three sides of Atua.
Man.

Grown from nothing.
Stony-hearted.

Two large houses.

Loose stone.

Shining.

Large-trap.

Sunny council meeting-place.
A proper warrior.
Canoe-fastenine.

Dreaded.

Pairing-of-culls.

Oil.

Take to the end.

Seat torn in four.

Large platform of stones.
Cooking-house and chesnut.
Earth rock.

Mud.

Standing rock.

White.

Sina riding pick-a-pack.
Juice of the vi-leaf.

Dung under the pu’a tree.
Dung of handsome lizard.
Dung of a great lizard.
Dung of chiefs.
Great-in-song.

Decision from Pe’a.
Equal.

Standing in the road.
Back of a leaf.

Back of a standing pigeon.
Back country.

Short back.

Long back.

Inage.

Standing up at night.
Going behind.

Go early to the council of birds.
Weeding flourishing taro.
Canoe shoved off.
Dwelling in strange houses.

* “Taemo’otele ”= Dung of the great lizard. Samoans were very fond of these filthy com-
binations of words in naming their children and towns. Several very obscene names still
obtain.

656 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.
Fatumanava-o-Upolu The motion of the heart of Upolu.
Fepuleai ... Commanding one and another.
Tologataua ... ... Deferrer of war.

Fonoso’oia_ a... ... Constantly holding councils.
... Gathering [of thatch].

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 657

(2).—THrz GENEALOGY OF PAPATU.

Papatu (Standing-rock) married Papaele (Earth-rock). Their son
Ma/’ataanoa (Loose-stone) married Papapala (Mud). Their son
Le-tagata (Man) was called Le-tupu-fua (Grown-from-nothing.)*

Le-tupu-fua married the daughter of Tagaloa-lagi,t Tama-o-itu-faiga.
Their son was Lu. King Lu, the king of heaven, was brought
down. His son was born, then the title “king of heaven” was
dropped, and he was called king of Atua.

Lu married Langituavalu (Eighth heavens), the daughter of the king of
heaven. Their son was king of Atua. But Lu died having the
title of king of Atua.

Tuapu’u (Short-back) became king. Tuapu’u died, and
Tua-umi (Long-back) became king. Tuaumi died, and

Tua-faiga became king. He was the son of Piliopo. Tuafaiga married
Lemaluitongapapa. Their son

Tuaefu married Sinataufafa. Their son

Uitua married Sinalei from Paepaetele. Their son

Leilua married Sinafetuga. Their son

Pulutua married Laualae. Their son

Sangapolutele married Luafaletele of Saana. Their son

Tualemoso married Feilivaa. Their son

Tuanuu married Sautala. Their son

Teneila married Senilafanga, of Moamoa. Their son

Tuloutele married Sina, of Lotoma’a. Their son

Maileitele married Utufau, of Satoi. Their son

Maileilealea, a chief who dwelt in Malaeta. The sacred fish was taken to
him by Velova/a.

Mailei married Siliiomanga. Their son

Taemootele married Ulufa’ana, of Manono. Their son

Siusau married Maina, of Mutilatii, the daughter of Fiame, of Muapai,
Their son

Taemoomanaia married Lepealali, of Fainiata. Their son

Leutelenaiite, that was the chief to whom was taken the fine matt of the
conquering party, the Fatafata, which was brought by the king of
Tonga when he came seeking his brother, Lautisilingia. Lautele
said that he would go to Tonga. Lautisilingia was under the deck
of the large double canoe. He rushed there with the dog Uilanei
and two men, Leamongia and Leatongia. Then he went there,
and he found that Leutele was right, and so he got the end of his
name, Leuteleleiite (the prophesier, or guesser).

Leutele married Lefetutafeilo, of Toamua. Their son

* This gives the origin of man, madefrom the earth. See Glossary.

+ The chief god.

} “The fine mat of the government, the Fatafata (breast).” These mats were very fine
and very old—age and patches increased their value. One was once valued at seventy
dollars, and was exchanged fora block of land. Each mat had its*name. They answered
the purpose of money, being used to pay carpenters, tattooers and fines.

*p

658 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

Aumuatagafa married Fala, of Aleipata. Their son was
Fonosooia.

Aumua married again, Sulumatai’a, of Alafaalava. Their son was
Tepuleai. This was the chief who was appointed to be king; but
Fonosooia was appointed by the chieftesses,* who had the right
and he was guarded by Ituau and Alatana.

Fepuleai married Utufaasili, the daughter of Funefeai, of Safune. Their
son was Tolongataua. That Utufaasili raised war, because
Funefeai was angry because they did not observe the customs in
the appointment of kings of Atua when they brought his fine
mats. Then Fepuleai told Utufaasili that she should go and meet
her family. ‘‘ Perhaps,” said he, “they will see that you are preg-
nant, and will have pity on you,and stop the war.”’ Then the chiefess
went to meet her family ; they met in the Tuamasanga. Funefeai
saw that she was with child, pitied her, and stopped the war. It
was on this account that this son of Utufaasili was called

Tolongataua. He married Lemulimatau, of Fagana. Their son was
Leaumualeuluai. Tolongataua again married Luafataalae. Their son was
Fatumanava-o-Upolu. Their daughter was Taelalopu’a.

These are the chiefs who fought.

Aumua was first appointed to be king, because he was weak; but the
other son, Fatumanava-o-Upolu, was at Siumu. Then Luafata was
appointed apparently as guardian of her son Fatumanava. The sea and
the earth and other things were tabooed by her.t The girl Taelalopu’a
heard that Aumua was proclaimed ; then she wept. Tolongataua said to
the girl, “‘ Hide your tears; do you weep? Who is this and who is that
who is proclaimed? Are they not all your brethren?” Then the girl
Taelalopu’a was named Teu-ia-lilo (Hideaway). The chief from Siumu
came and proclaimed Aumua. They fought, and Fatumanava-o-Upolu
was routed. Then Aumua took away the taboo of Luafata, the mother
of Fatumanava-o-Upolu. Then Leifi waited for the council to be held at
his meeting-place, Lalongafu’afu’a; but it was not held there, but at
the meeting-place inland. Leifi was angry because the council was held
in the wrong place,{ and he sent a message to Fatumanava-o-Upolu that
the troops should again assemble, and take sides with him. A battle
was fought, and Aumua was routed. Then Aumua said to his hinder
palankeen-bearers, ‘‘ Who is it that is pursuing us?” The palankeen-
bearers said it was Leifi. Then said the king, “‘ That is Leifi-mou-loto.§
He is fighting on that side.” This word of the king was the origin of
the name Leifi-mou-loto. Aumua and his troops were routed, and then a
council was held. Then Leifi said to the two chiefs, ‘‘ You two are
conquered, Let Aumua, who was appointed, be king, and you be kava-
chewers|| to Fatumanava-o-Upolu. As to the taboo of Luafata, that you,

* “The chieftesses who had the right.” Some of these ladies had great power, and the
names of such descended with the title.

+ “The sea and the earth were tabooed.” Fishing and working were prohibited. This
was often done on the death of a chief.

t “The meeting was held in the wrong place.” On this point they were very particular.
Some chiefs met in a private house at Manono to discuss the question of war. All the people
from al parts of Samoa were collected in the malae, or proper meeting-place in the open
air. A chief stood up, and in a loud voice asked if they were going to have a council in a
cooking-house.

§ Leifi of many hearts.
|| A term applied to young men.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 659

Aumua, took away, give all back to him; only the* herringt+ I willretain.”
This was agreed to. The taboo of Luafata gave origin to the name
Saluafatat ; but the old name of that village was Evaloa.

Aumua married Leatealele, of Malaepongaponga. Their son

Moaitele married Leaponga, daughter of Vaetui, of Sanga. Their sons
were Polailevao and Taumaoa.

Polailevao married Momoefuifatu. Their son was Fotuitama’i. That
was the chief who gave the royal title by which Leteleipesenga
had the privilege to help themselves to food. That was the chief
who married Tele, daughter of Leifi. She bore Puepuemai and
the girl Aliitasi. That was Fotuitama’i that had the taboo of
Puepuemai. The royal title left Le-alataua from Leteleipesenga,
and then

Samo became king. That was the chief to whom belonged the game of
tia§ in Tiasamo. All Atua went to build up the ground for that
tia; but Leifiand Salei-aumua did not go. It was known that
the ground for the game at Aleipata was not prepared. Samo was
angry because Atua was not one in building this ground for ti’a.
The title of Teleipesenga was given up, and

Faatufunga became king. That was the chief who was noted for his land,
having been buried with stones carried in men’s nostrils.)
Faatutuga was angry because Atua was not one in the work.
Leifi did not go to it. He said that he did not go because of what
the woman had said who had gone with her burden of thatch,
and all the young men had burst out into a laugh at her leaf-
girdle, which was bad. Then it was that she uttered the words,
“Don’t laugh at me; this is the consequence of your weak-
handedness. We are going to fierce Tonga|| with these burdens of
thatch.” Leifi heard her say this, and he told them to throw
down the stones,{] and come away to the east. Olapau then put

’ down the stones and came away. These are the stones by the
wall above Aufanga. The royal title departed from Faatufunga,
and Toeta became king. That was the chief to whom belonged
the swamp called the Swamp of Toeta; itis in Sataoa. That was
the swamp at which Atua was beaten, because they were not all
collected there, for Leifi and Saleaumua did not go. Toeta was
angry because Atua did not all come to his work. Again the
title was given to

Teleipesenga. Then the chief

Vaootui became king. This chief did not appoint some work to be done ;
but he said he would come and catch pigeons in Tuavao, in the
mountain of chiefs, and would raise war against Leifi, because he

* “Only the herring I will retain.” These were caught in large quantities, and a portion
of them was taken to chiefs even at a distant village, who had acquired the right to receive
them. On one occasion the customary offering was omitted. and the aggrieved chiefs
prepared for war, which was only averted by the submission of the offenders.

+ When herring was caught a portion was taken to the king.

t Sa is used for taboo.

§ “The game of tia.” The ground was made quite level, low places being filled up. The
game consisted in casting light darts on the ground, so that they rebounded and flew along
to a great distance.

||‘ We are going to fierce Tonga.” This wasa taunt to the young men for allowing them-
selves to be conquered and so submitting the females of their family to the degradation of
preparing thatch, and carrying it a great distance to their conquerors. This is expressed by
their taking it to Tonga.

¥ Stones with which to bury his land.

*p2

660 _ PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

persisted in not going to any work of the king’s. Leifi heard that
the king had come to catch pigeons at Tuavao and to raise war
against him; then he went to seek for troops. He was not received
by the district of Maae; then he went down to Falealili, neither
was he received there. He reached Salevalasi, and there he was
at length received by Tongaulupuaa and Falepuavavemoe. The
king and the conquering party, who were at Vaiugafa, heard that
Leiti’s request for troops had been granted at Salevalasi; then
the war was directed towards them. “They fought, and the king
and conquering party were defeated by Leifi and Salevalasi ; ; then
they became the conquered party. Having again obtained the
royal title, Mata’tia became king. He was the son of Lalovimama.

(3).—THE GENEALOGY OF LE-Samoa-Na-NGALo.

Le-Samoa-na-ngalo married the daughter of the king of Tonga. Their
son was Talapaitoitonga-na-mau, a second son, Lesanga-alala, and
a daughter, Ekemaunga-a-tuitonga. That was the child, Le-sanga-
alala, “who came off in anger to Samoa, and lived in his mother’ S
family at Safata.

Le-sanga-alala married the daughter of Malietoa. Their daughters
were Vaeotamasamoa and Hkemaunga-a-tuitonga, and a son,
Laloyimama.

Tonumaipea, of Satupaitea, married HEkemaunga-a-tuitonga, from
Levalasifainga, of Faletai.

Le-langi-ngalo, the son of Tangaloa-faaofonuu, married Vaeotama-samoa.
Their son was Tuiaana-tama-a-le- jangi, the chief of Tutuila and
Ape, who was stolen by Safata.

Lalovimama married Faatauemunga, of Fongaoloula. His son was
Matau’tia, who raised up the royal title when he had obtained it.
That was the chief who was also ill-used by Leifi and Tautoloia-le-
Valasi-fainaa, of Faletai, the child of the daughter of his father.
This chief soon died, but he left word that Leifi and Tautolo
should take compassion and complete his reign in the son of
Levalasi. The lady brought forth after the death of the chief,
and she called her child Tuimayave. Lesi was the name of a
Tonga man who took care of the boy Tuimavave while he was
small. That was Lesi, from whom sprang Salelesi. Tuimavave
soon died, and his successors were brought. First came

Siitu. He died, and then came

Silingatusa. These chiefs were called Mativa-i-lagi (Poor in praises).
There they le in the place of chiefs, because “they bad no family
to take their place when they died. Next to Silingatusa was the
lady Salamasina.

Fanga married To; they had one child, Sinatafua.

Tangatamatua married Sinatafua ; their child was Fusialangi.
Onafanuatele married Fusiailangi; their child was Faasilialangi.
Tuiaana-le-uo-tele married Faasilialangi; their child was Faalulumanga
Maalomaivao married Faalulumanga ; their child Fitimaula.

Tangaloa-faaofonuu married Fitimaula ; their child Selangi-ngato. That
was the chief to whom went the party seeking a chief.

Selangingato married Vaeotamasoa, the child of Lesangaalala, of Safata ;
their son was

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 661

Tui-Aana-tama-a-le-langi. He married Vaetoe, a Tongan lady. Their
son

Salamasina. That was the king that first united the chieftainship of
Atua and Aana, and the Tuamasanga. He was the king who held
the united titles.

Tapumanaia married Salamasina; their child was Fofoaivaoese.

Tauatama, from Niulaita, married Fofoaivaose; their first child was
Sina, their second Taufau, both girls.

(4).—THE GENEALOGY OF SINA.

Let the genealogy of Taufau come afterwards.

Toiaivao, from Saleaula, married Sina. Their son was Faumuina, who
had all the royal titles.

Faumuina married Tuuama, the trst chief of Sangana; their son
Samalaulu. Faumuina married again to Atamulau, a Tongan lady.
Their son was

Vaafusuanga. Faumuina married again to Falaleomalie, the daughter
of Mata’utia, of Aleipata. Their son was Fonoti. These were
the three wives of Faumuina. Their sons fought. It began with
friends. WVaafusuanga and his friend, Fonoti, and their friends
were constantly worsted. Then Fonoti saw that Samalaulu and
Vaafusuanga were on the same side, and he fled to come to Atua.
Then Misa and Aiono, and Taimalieutu and Fa/’ifa’i followed to
Manono. Then came Faleata, and found Veletaloola weeding taro.
Fonoti laughed because the tulafale* weeded the taro in a stoop-
ingt posture. Veletaloola turned and saw Fonoti; then at once
he abused him. Fonoti said, “ Do you abuse me? Do you think
you can assuage my anger?” Veletaloola asked what was the
cause of his anger. He told him that he had run away, that he
was going to be killed by his brothers and the conquering party.
Veletalo said to him, “ Go down towards the sea, to the house of
the gods, until the town holds a council.” Faleata held a council,
and received Fonoti. Then a battle was fought. Faleata met the
advanced guard of Samatau. Manoo asked, “ Whence are these ?”
Veletaloola answered, “I am Faleata.” Manoo said, “1 have
come here to search for the criminal. If he has run away down
below I will dig down below; if he has run away to the horizon I
will rend the heavens. You must be a brave man that you are
about to receive the sand (=—people as many as the sand) now
coming. Look at the bush; its leaves are men. Look at the sea;
it can no longer be seen for the men.” Immediately Manoo was
smitten by Veletaloola, and the troops were dispersed in the
middle of the road. It was the same with the troops in the bush;
there were Aiono and Misa and Taimalieutu. These were allotted
to Fa ifa’i. His road was the sea. That was the canoe of Fa’ifa’i;
it was called the one canoe of Fonoti. Vaafusuanga and Samalaulu
were conquered, and Fonoti was conqueror. Then

Fonoti became king, and Vaafusuanga was appointed by the king of
Aana to be the guide of travelling parties, and to sit with the
kava-chewers. That is the chief whose is the family of Salevalasi.
He, too, is the chief to whom belongs the town of Falefa, which
is called the town of Fonoti.

* Head of a family. 7 Considered to be indecent.

662 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

Fonoti married Fuatino, of Fasitootai. Their son was:

Muangututia. That was the chief whose is the family of Tuala. After
this chief was named the family of Tuala and the family of
Salevalasi in Lufilufi. .The family of Tuala was expelled when
the palankeen of Samataua came down towards the sea.
Muangututia married Fenunuivao, the daughter of Leutele, of
Falefa. ‘Their son was

Tupua. That was the chief who was lifted down by Salangi, the child
of Fuimaono. He is the chief whose is the family of Fuimaono.
Tupua married Monofo-i-fale-ese. Their son was Afoa-fouvale.
Tupua married again to Tualupetu, of Saleimoa, the daughter of
Pula; their son was Ngalumalemana. Tupua married again
Punipuao, the daughter of Alaiesa, of Falefa; their son was
Luafalemana.

Afoa was king first. He was jealous because he saw the people were
inclined to Ngalumalemana, as if he should be king. Afoa then
raised troops to wage war with Ngalumalemana. He came seeking
troops to Safata, but he was not received. Then was he dethroned,
and so he was called Afoa-fouvale (Afoa the rebel).

Ngalumalemana then became king. This king also had all the royal
titles. He was king of Aana, king of Atua, Tamasoalii, Gatoaitele.
Ngalumalemana married Leteleasau; their son was Nofoasaefa.
This was the chief who, while an untattooed lad, slew the kava-
chewers of Mataafa at Amaile. Negalumalemana also married
Sapi-o-amoa, of Solosolo, the daughter of Leota Toomaata; their
son was Tupolesava. That was the chief who was at variance
with V’amafana. Tupo had to depart to Tutuila, because he could
get no troops. Ngalumalemana again married Luafaletele, of
Saluafata, the daughter of Sangapolutele; their son was
Tualamasala. That was the chief who was heir to Pulumatau, and
Mata’utia and Tangaloa, the father of Sangapolu, of Saluafata.
Ngalumalemana married again to the daughter of Leleisuivao, of
Palauli. Their son was Tualau, and his sister Samalaulu.
Ngalumalemana married again to Sauimalae, the daughter of
Lilomaiava, of Falelatai. Their first son was Putefua and their
second I’amafana, also Taeoalii and Uaua, and a girl, Lanuola.
These were the wives of Nealumalemana.

Luafalemana married Galupuu, the daughter of Faleafanga, of Salani.
Their son was

Paitomaleifi. That chief was king after Ngalumalemana, only he had
~ not allthe royal titles—only king of Atua.

Usufonoimanu married Taualaivaa, the daughter of Tango, of Lepa.
Their son was

Leitufia-o-Atua, who married Tuioninimo, the daughter of Luatuao-
atua-nuu, of Saleimoa; their sons Matui and Nanotuu.
Ngalumalemana died, and Paitomaleifi became king. Then it was
passed on to

Faasulumaleilii. He became king of Atua. At this time

Nofoasaefa came from Savaii, and they gave him the title of Aana. He
was made king of Aana. But Atua was not of one mind concerning
Mataafa. Matua and Tusa did* not consent. Then came
Nofoasaefa to fight with Mataafa, because a private messenger
from Leifi and Tautolo had gone to him to say that Nofoasaefa
should come and be king of Atua, because they did not desire
Mataafa, who had disregarded their taboo, in that his canoes came

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 663

and went with songs. Then Nofoasaefa raised war. Sayaii and
Aana and the Tuamasanga were united. Then they went to seek
troops from Salefao and Falealili. Salefao was divided; some
were with Mataafa and some divided to Matua, who sought for
troops. Tafua stood up in Falealili, and said, ‘‘ Manusamoa points
to you as a destroyer, with whom dwell Matua and Alalamalae.”
Falealili had compassion, and favoured their application for
troops ; so also did Tusa. He sought troops, and was received hy
Solosolo and Saluafata, and all the fleet. The bulk of Atua were
with Leifi, and Tautolo and Tusa; and but few were with Mataafa,
only Falefa and Lufilufi and Samusu, and a part of Salefao and
Salevalasi. A battle was fought. Mataafa and his troops were
defeated, and Nofoasaefa was conqueror. That chief also had all
the titles. Nofoasaefa soon died, on account of his rebellions.
Again he raised war against Lealataua in Satupaitea, that he
might seize on the title of Tonumaipi’a. They fought, and this
chief died on Savaii. He was heir to Moengangongo. When
Nofoasaefa was dead, then Lufilufi held a council about a king,
They were unanimous for Tupo, but Tusa did not consent. Then
they sent ambassadors to Atua to calla council that they might
proclaim Tupo to be king of Atua. Tusa came journeying to the
east. He said, ‘“ The council have decided to proclaim Tupo king
of Atua, and I have agreed to it; but it is with you two to choose
a chief, and he shall be my chief.” Fuatanga and Tafua said,
“Our chief is he who is in Tiavea, in Salefaavale, ’amafana.”
Tusa said, “That is good; we have got our chief.” Then Tusa
went away. <A council was held, at which Atua was assembled.
The mat* was thrown down in front of Lufilufi. Tupo went and
sat on it. Manu’a stood up and said to Atua, ‘‘ That is our king ;
such is the result of our consultation.” Then a mat was thrown
down in front of the council-seat of Saleaaumua. IT’amafana went
and sat on it. Then stood up Tafua, and said, “That is my chief ;
but let our people choose one of these two chiefs.” Then stood up
Tusa, and said, “ That is also our chief.” So Tusa distinguished
as chief Pamafana. Leota, the first chief, then stood up, and
proclaimed T’amafana. Molioo also stood up, and said, “ That is
our chief Leifi and Tautolu.” So also said Saluafata. Each land
in all Atua was divided between Tamafana and Tupo. Atua,
however, leaned towards Pamafana, and but few were for Tupo.
The council broke up in confusion. Tamatfana went off at once
with Faleapuna to seek troops. He was received by the
Tuamasanga, so also by Aana and Manono and Savaii. Tupo
followed after, but he was not received. Then the war passed on,
and Tupo and his troops were swept away to Tutuila; so
TVamafana became king. He had all the royal titles. He was the
king to whom gods and men crowded. This chief died, and the
war, with the sea} as a border, was fought. The carrying of this
chief’st funeral bier was the cause of the war. This chief was
next before Malietoa, the father of Mole. He was also next before
Mataafa, the king of Atua. In the year of the Lord 1857 he
was proclaimed. He was also next before the chief Sualauvi. He
was king of Aana, Tamasoalii, and the Ngatoaitele. He also
became king of Atua in the year 1869. If he gets all Atua and
the Tuamasanga, then will he have all the royal titles like
Tamafana.

* Answering to a throne.
t The sea between Upolu and Savaii divided the combatants.
} Living chiefs were offended by the dead chief being carried ;ast them.

664 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

13.—NEW BRITAIN CUSTOMS.
By. Rev. J. H. Rickarp.

14.—THE PAPUAN RACE.
By Herr P. Wotrr.

15.—THE PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF MORALS,
By A. SurTHERLAND, M.A.

Section H.
SANITARY SCIENCE AND HYGIENE.

President of the Section: J. Ashburton Thompson, Esq.,
WOLD) 50 DRE

1.—_SANITATION IN SCHOOLS.
By F. A. Nyutasy, M.B., Cu.B.

[ Abstract. |

In the course of this paper the author indicated its great import-
ance, especially with regard to the spread of infectious diseases,
pointing out that no less than 74 State schools had to be closed
last year in Victoria owing to the prevalence of these complaints ;
33 being closed for diphtheria, 17 for hooping cough, 13 for
typhoid, 6 for scarlatina, 4 for opthalmia, and 1 for croup. In
addition to the ordinary measures of registration of affected pupils
and their exclusion from school for definite periods, provision
should also be made for their thorough disinfection by the aid of
disinfecting chambers ; and the construction of sanatoria in
connection with large boarding-schools was recommended as a
further aid to prevention. The architecture of schools was
made the subject of special reference, improved methods of venti-
lation, lighting, and warming, and the better construction of
seats and desks, being insisted upon. Defects in the ordinary
methods of physical education were alluded to, and the annual
medical inspection of all large schools by a competent Govern-
ment officer was recommended.

2.THE ETIOLOGY OF TYPHOID FEVER.
(With Chart).

By James Jamieson, M.D., Lecturer on Medicine, Melbourne
University ; Health Officer, City of Melbourne.

In spite of the attention which has long been given to questions
about the causation of typhoid, and the substantial additions
recently made to our knowledge of the subject, problems of
fundamental importance still remain unsettled.

It must be assumed, I think, that typhoid belongs to the great
class of diseases which owe their origin to minute organisms of
bacterial nature. It has further been shown, with a large
measure of probability at least, that the organism is a bacillus,
capable of multiplying and forming spores, not only in the body,
but on very varying media outside of it. So far, however, there

666 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H.

has been no satisfactory proof that the disease can be produced in
animals, either by the bacilli or their spores, whether they have
been introduced into the stomach with food, inoculated below the
skin, or injected into the blood. Till this link in the chain of
evidence has been supplied, the proof of a causal relation between
the organisms and the disease can hardly be looked on as perfect.
Assuming that the Bacillus typhosus, of Eberth and Gaffky, is the
true infecting agent, it is of importance to take note of its vital
properties. It grows freely on suitable media at ordinary room
temperatures, but has not been found to develop spores at a
lower temperature than 68 deg. F. (20 deg. C.) Spore formation
goes on most actively between 86 deg. and 104 deg. F. (30 deg.—
40 deg. C.), and it ceases at temperatures over 107-6 deg. F. (42 .
deg. C.) Organisms which grow in diverse media, and at such
varying temperatures, evidently possess a high degree of vitality.
The spores, especially, have great power of resistance, and they
have been kept in the dried condition for more than three
months, and then found to germinate freely. The most recent
researches, if they do not directly confirm, certainly do not con-
tradict the view generally held by sanitary authorities, that the
specific virus of typhoid grows and multiplies outside of the body,
in drains and cesspits, and possibly also in the soil and in water.
Whatever may be the case with the fully-developed bacilli, it may
be taken as certain that the spores will survive for a considerable
time, either in the moist or dry condition, and that on suitable
media they will germinate and multiply rapidly at ordinary
summer temperatures. That the spread of the disease is actually
due, in large measure, to this multiplication of the virus outside
of the body, and its conveyance in some way to susceptible per-
sons, is further confirmed by the following facts. It is possible
that the disease may spread directly from person to person, but
all medical authorities are agreed that this is not the ordinary
mode of infection ; the contrast, in this respect, between typhoid
and such diseases as measles and small-pox being very marked.
And further, the circumstance that typhoid is, in almost all
countries, a disease most prevalent in the late summer and autumn,
strongly suggests some affinity between it and the miasmatic
diseases, like the malarial fevers. And if anything further were
wanted to establish this, it would be found in the undoubted fact
that the prevalence of typhoid in towns or districts is very
largely dependent on their sanitary condition, accumulations of
filth and defective drainage favouring its spread, and improve-
ments in these respects tending greatly to keep it in check.

There is another point in connection with this question of
varying prevalence which is of importance. All epidemic diseases
have successive periods of greater and less degrees of severity,
both as regards prevalence and fatality. In the case of purely
contagious zymotics, like measles, the recurrence of severe out-

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. 667

breaks is generally supposed to be due chiefly to the accumula-
tion, in the intervals, of susceptible persons. It is doubtful,
however, whether this supplies a full explanation in the case,
even, of diseases of the type referred to. And where we have to
deal with a disease like typhoid, which attacks persons of all
ages, without showing any preference for children, such an
explanation is clearly quite inadequate.

About three years ago (Australian Medical Journal, January,
1887) I pointed out that through a long series of years there had
been a very marked and regular periodicity in the rise and decline
of the mortality from typhoid in Melbourne, severe outbreaks
being separated by intervals of about four years. I was not
aware at that time that any such peculiarity had previously been
noted, and no mention is made of it by Hirsch in his “‘ Handbook
of Geographical and Historical Pathology.” But im a lecture by
Dr. Port, delivered in Munich in 1880, I find the following state-
ment (Zur Aetiologie der Infections-Krankheiten, p. 129)—‘‘ In
each of our barracks there appears to be a certain regular succes-
- sion of good and bad years, which as different for the several
barracks. For the new barrack on the Isar, about which recol-
lections go somewhat further back than about the others, Dr.
Anderl believes that a five-yearly cycle must be fixed.” The
regular succession, at intervals of about four years, of periods of
rise and fall in the typhoid mortality of Melbourne, through a
long series of years, is very clearly shown in the accompanying
chart. On the same chart I have placed the curves of typhoid
mortality for Sydney, unfortunately for a shorter period, but for
as long a time as full information is obtainable. In the case of
Sydney there are indications of periodicity, though not sufficiently
distinct to ground any argument on. The remarkable parallelism
of the curves for the two cities, during the period 1876-82, is
suggestive of the operation of general conditions, of wide-reaching
nature, perhaps resembling those which permit the spread of
cholera, at particular periods, over great parts of the world. In
more recent years there has been approach to parallelism in the
curves for the two cities. In the last three years, too, there has
not been the previously observed regularity of the curves for
Melbourne. There has not been the anticipated decline after the
acme reached in 1887, and instead of a continued fall in 1889
there has been a second rise. This irregularity may possibly be
accounted for bya quite unprecedented amountof breaking-upof the
surface in almost all parts of the metropolis, not only for building
purposes, but in the construction of tramways, laying of wood-
paving, &c. Outbreaks of typhoid have been supposed to be
connected with similar causes in other cities. But supposing
there is such periodicity of recurrence as is shown in the chart,
there must be account taken of it in any inquiry into the general
causation of the disease.

668 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H.

There being practical unanimity among authorities about the
importance of local insanitary conditions, such as defective drain-
age, it is clearly of the utmost importance that there should be
definite knowledge about the way in which these conditions
operate. Direct contagion being relegated to a quite subordinate
place, we have left as possibilities the following, as modes of
conveyance of the virus :—

I. Contaminated water supply.
II. Accidental contamination of articles of food, and
especially milk.
III. Inhalation of emanations from the soil, or from cess-.
pits, drains, &e.

That typhoid not infrequently spreads through the medium of
contaminated water may be taken as proved. The most commonly
recognised mode of contamination is by the washing, into wells,
channels, or reservoirs, of the virus contained in the fecal dis-
charges of persons suffering from the disease. It is also probable
enough that not fresh discharges, but virus which has been
developed in the soil or in drains, soaks into wells or other recep-
tacles ; and by many it is held that it is only in this indirect way
that an undrained, filth-saturated soil favours great prevalence of
typhoid. This may readily enough be the case in small towns
and rural districts, where the water supply is derived from
streams or wells liable to impure soakage, and where the intro-
duction of a single case may supply a source of infection to soil
or water, or both, and so lead to quite an extensive outbreak.
But it is evident that the conditions are altogether different in a
town or city deriving its water supply from some outside source,
from which it is conveyed in pipes. Even then, of course, there
are two sources of danger—there may be contamination at the
head-waters ; or there may be occasional suction into the pipes
locally, where the supply is intermittent. In the case of Mel-
bourne it can be safely affirmed, I think, that the sources of its
water supply are better guarded than those of most large cities.
As the population in the gathering area is small, specific contami-
nation could take place only in an accidental way, to a slight

extent, and at comparatively long intervals.

Assuming the possibility, or even the probability, of this
specific contamination at the sources, it is apparent, however, that
its result would be a sudden outbreak of limited duration. The
annual outbreaks of the disease, with their beginnings in Novem-
ber, their steady increase till February or March, and their regular
decline during the late autumn and winter, are not explicable at
all on this assumption. The regularity of the rise and fall is
shown on the accompanying chart. The possibility of local con-
tamination by the suction of foul matter into the pipes, from the
soil or from the street channels, must also be admitted. But

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. 669

with such a constant high pressure in the pipes it is not easy to
believe that this mode of contamination can go on to a large
extent or that it can account for the regular recurrence and
equally regular rise and decline of our annual outbreaks. There
has been much controversy lately about the liability to contami-
nation of the water in street mains from the fire-plug openings.
About the possibility of this there need be no question, and about
the grossness of the sanitary fault of placing fire-plugs in or close
to street channels there can be no dispute. But that the great
prevalence of typhoid in Melbourne is to be explained in this way
is to me inconceivable. If there is any part of the metropolis in
which fire-plugs abound, and one constantly used for street-
watering purposes, it is the city proper. And yet, as I have
repeatedly pointed out in my official reports, the mortality from
typhoid in the city, year after year, is greatly below the average of
the whole metropolis. Im my report for the half-year ending
30th June, 1889, I was able to state that there had been no
undue prevalence of the disease in the particular district (East
Melbourne) whose water supply was specially declared to be con-
taminated. If, independently of introduction by the fire-plugs,
we are to assume the probability of contamination of the water
by entrance of infecting matter through the joints of pipes from
the soil, equal difficulties have to be faced. The disease is so
universally distributed over city and suburbs that it would be
necessary to assume an almost continuous suction into the pipes
going on in many places all over the metropolis. But this would
imply an equally extensive system of leakage from the pipes while
under ordinary pressure, and of that there is no evidence. Of
course, we have had the statement made that typhoid bacilli have
been found in the Yan Yean water, as it is drawn from the tap,
just as the same bacilli have been reported as existing in drinking-
water in various places in Europe. From equally competent
authority we have had the statement, however, that careful and
repeated investigation failed to discover them in water taken
from various places, both at the sources and in the city (vide
Final Report of the Sanitary Commission).

About the possible detection of typhoid bacilli in drinking-
water there need be no dispute; but about the probability of
their occurrence and detection in such water as that of Melbourne
much may be said. It has been stated by Dr. H. Kowalsky, of
Vienna, that among more than 2000 specimens of water which he
had examined, these bacilli were found only in three, taken
respectively from a well, from a cistern, and from the Danube
water in Vienna. (Schmidt’s Jahrbiicher, No. 8—1889, from Wien
Klin. Wehnschr., I. 10-16, 1888.) Without disputing the
occurrence of outbreaks of typhoid due to the use of contaminated
water, I have nevertheless to repeat the opinion that the proba-
bilities against this mode of accounting for the prevalence of the

670 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H.

disease in Melbourne are great, and the evidence in support of
it unsatisfactory. i

As to the part played by contaminated milk in spreading the
disease, I do not propose to say much. Milk epidemics have
often been reported, especially in England ; though, in very many
cases, the evidence that the milk was specifically contaminated,
and that its use was the sole and efficient cause, was decidedly
insufficient. If this mode of propagation is at all common in
Melbourne there could hardly fail to be accumulation of evidence
of its occurrence. As a matter of fact, however, there has been
only one such outbreak investigated, and even in that mstance
there were great difficulties to be accounted for. (‘Transactions
of the Intercolonial Medical Congress, Vol. IL, p. 159.) After a
good deal of careful inquiry,’ carried on for a series of years, I
have been unable to discover a single instance of an outbreak
produced in that way.

In how far typhoid may be caused by the inhalation of emana-
tions from the soil, or from cesspits or drains, it is difficult to
determine with certainty. Among English authorities generally
there has always been a strong belief in the readiness with which
the disease is produced by the inhalation of sewer-gas. I am not
aware that the bacilli of typhoid have been found in the foul air
escaping from drains or sewers, or in the exhalations from a filth-
saturated soil. But it has been shown by Dr. J. D. Robertson
(British Medical Journal, 15th December, 1888) not only that
under particular conditions large numbers of bacteria escape from
the openings of sewers, but that bacilli preponderate among them,
as compared with the micro-organisms in the air of streets. In
some ways, even more important was the observation of Dr.
Henry Tomkins (S7itish Medical Journal, 25th August, 1888),
that in Leicester, which is notorious for the prevalence and
fatality of summer diarrhea, the air of the diarrhea districts of
the town contained three to six times as many micro-organisms or
their germs as the air of the non-affected districts. Meteorological
observations during the summer months of 1885, 1886, and 1887
showed that as soon as the earth, at a depth of one foot, reached
about 62 deg. F. the disease broke out.

As to the influence of sewer air in producing typhoid, the
observations of Dr. Alfred Carpenter, of Croydon, are of special
interest. He states (British Medical Journal, 22nd June, 1889),
that in three serious epidemics he became convinced that germs
were conveyed from the sewers by aérial means. He quotes, also,
the demonstration by Dr. Buchanan of the reason why fever
existed on one side of two or three streets and not on the other,
in which the water supply being the same and the sewer the same.
In the one set of cases the air was admitted into the houses from
the sewer, in the other it was not.

My own observations have led me to the conviction that, in

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. 671

most cases of localised outbreaks of typhoid in this city, there
existed marked and special defects of drainage, and very often
underground drains, which are too frequently badly laid, badly
tapped, and with no means of ventilation, except by the inlets
from yards or houses.

It is unnecessary to reiterate the proofs, so often supplied, that
the introduction of an efiicient system of underground drainage
has almost with certainty the effect of lessening rapidly the
prevalence of typhoid in a town or city. The effect may be
produced in more ways than one: in some cases, perhaps, by
diminished liability to contamination of the water supply ; but in
the case of large towns, with water conveyed by pipes from some
distant source, the probability rather is that the great and
continuous effect is due to purification of the soil, and consequent
prevention of the formation and escape of foul emanations.

But although it may be sufficient, for some purposes or on
some occasions, to determine that the medium for conveying the
poison was milk, water, or air, there are other points in connec-
tion with the natural history of the disease which any such
decision still leaves unsettled. Among the most important of
these is that which concerns the periodical recurrence of the
disease, whether it be the annual rise and fall, or the fluctuations
in the degree of prevalence, as observed through a series of years.
The annual fluctuations seem to occur in all parts of the world,
and the rule is for the disease to become increasingly frequent
during the late summer and autumn months. The tendency has
always been to account for this mainly by the rise of temperature,
and especially by the increased heat of the soil. This view is
considered to derive support from the discovery of the specific
bacillus, and the determination of the degree of heat at which
spore-formation takes place. This might be a fairly satisfactory
explanation if it were always true that the maximum prevalence
is in the late summer and early autumn. But, as a matter of
fact, this period of maximum intensity is not the same in all
countries, even under approximately similar latitudes. Taking
the continent of Europe, for instance, it has been found by Prof.
J. Soyka (Archiv. f. Hygiene, 1887, quoted in Schundts Jahrbiicher,
Bd. 220, No. 2) that the maximum of mortality falls on the
months of August to October in Berlin, Neufchatel, Lausanne,
Breslau, Frankfort-on-the-Main; September to November in
Hanover, Basel, Paris; October to January in Bern; JVovember
to March in Munich ; January to March in Prague; March to
May im Vienna. It is clear, therefore, that other considerations
besides mere temperature of air and soil have to be taken into
account. When it is also mentioned that in Christiana, with its
severe winters, the maximum prevalence of typhoid falls in the
months from November to January, it might be said, further,
that mere temperature by itself is of very slight importance,

672 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H.

whatever may be the case about the conditions necessary for the
germination of the bacillus, investigated by Eberth and Gaffky.

The alternative has been to lay stress on the varying degree of
dryness and dampness of the soil as being the real determining
cause of the seasonal variations. This is the well-known
Grundwasser theory, elaborated chiefly by the Munich school
of epidemiologists, the position taken being that the prevalence
ot typhoid in a locality, at different periods, varies inversely with
the high or low level of the subsoil water. This relation seems
to be well established, at least for some places, whatever be the
explanation. But the level of the subsoil water must depend on
the amount of rainfall at the locality, or on the level of the water
of a river on whose banks a town is built. In most places it
will depend on the rainfall ; andif the Grundwasser theory is
correct, a maximum prevalence of typhoid should fall, not only in
the dry season of the year, but epidemic periods should especially
be in dry years. Facts in support of both of these points were
collected by Prof. Soyka (loc. cit).

Another general condition that might be supposed to be of
importance, at least on the supposition that the disease may be
caused by emanations from the soil, is variation in the barometric
pressure. Where that pressure is low, exhalations will rise more
easily, and be more widely distributed.

The only other meteorological condition which has been
supposed to have influence on the spread of epidemic disease is
the presence or absence of ozone in the atmosphere. That, how-
ever, has not been made the subject of observation continuously
enough, or on a sutliciently large scale, to allow of very reliable
conclusions being based on it, and here there are no useful data
available.

Rather contradictory opinions have been expressed as to the
influence of meteorological conditions in determining the degree
of prevalence of typhoid in Melbourne. There has also been
some confusion, I think, caused by combining the terms “hot”
and “dry,” descriptive of the general peculiarities of particular
seasons as compared with others spoken of cool and moist. Often,
too, I fear that the opinions expressed have been based merely on
general impressions, and not on adequate or carefully-sifted
statistical data. As to the influence of temperature by itself,
what has been already said seems to be sufficient to show that it
can have little importance. Ii, in different towns in Europe, in
about the same latitude, typhoid is most prevalent in one during
the autumn, and in another in the depth of winter, it is hardly
conceivable that a difference of one or two degrees in the average
temperature of the summer months, or of the year, should be the
determining cause of the marked fluctuations found in the
mortality from it in Melbourne in successive years. Heat as a.
factor per se may therefore, I think, be disregarded.

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PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. 673

On the other hand, it might be expected, from what was said
about dampness of soil, that the influence of rainfall would be
marked ; and accordingly I have collected, in the following table,
the data on which to found a judgment

TABLE I.

Showing the number of days in which rain fell, the amount of
rainfall, and the mortality from typhoid per 100,000 persons in
Melbourne, in each of the years 1866-88 :—

| : 5 Mortality per
Days of Rain. | Tnches of Rain. 100,000 pacer:
1866 107 22°41 102°7
1867 BB? | 25°79 | 70°5
1868 120 1 18°27 69-2
1869 129 | 24°59 60°9
1870 129 33°76 85°8
1871 125 | 30°17 60.3
1872 136 | 32°52 49°7
1873 134 25°61 49°3
1874 134 28°10 89°6
1875 158 82°87 81:7
1876 134 | 24-04 64-7
1877 124. 24°10 99°3
1878 116 | 25°36 111°9
1879 127 19°28 73°6
1880 147 | 28°48 46°1
1881 134 | 24°08 aril
1882 Sil | 22°39 67:5
1883 130 | 23°71 90°6
1884 128 | 25°85 68°12
1885 123 | 26°94. 52°9
1886 128 | 2400 80-0
1887 153 32°39 86:3
1888 123 19°42 Mae
1889 ace £3) 123°6

The general impression conveyed by a glance at this table is
that dry years are by no means uniformly characterised by a high,
or wet years by a low, mortality. A comparison of the three
years 1870-72, and of the two last of the series, 1887-88, would
by itself, indeed, suffice to show that, between the year’s rain and
the year’s typhoid, there is no approach to uniformity of relation.
It may be interesting, however, to analyse the data contained in
the table, and in doing so I propose to give no further considera-
tion to the number of days on which rain fell.

In each of three years of the period there was less than 20
inches of rain, and in each of five years there was more than
30 inches, and the following tables give the particulars of these
dry and wet years respectively.

%
Q

674 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H.

Tasie II.

Showing amount of rainfall and mortality in exceptionally dry
years :—

Inches of Rain. |

Mortality per
100,000.

1868 18:27 69-2
1879 19°28 736
1888 19°42 dian,
Tasie ITI.
Showing amount of rainfall and mortality in exceptionally wet
years :—
Inches of Rain. Bei
1870 33°76 85'8
1871 30°17 60°3
1872 32°52 49°7
1875 32°87 81:7
1887 32°39 Ta

In the three dry years the average mortality was 73:5, and in
the five wet years about 71, in neither case greatly different from
the average of the whole period, which was about 74.

For further satisfaction, however, I have prepared the following
tables, contrasting years of low mortality, less than 50 per
100,000, with years of high mortality over 90 per 100,000.

TasBLe IV.
Showing amount of rainfall in years of low mortality :—
MereRoge T Inches of Rain.
1872 49°7 32°52
1873 49°3 25°61
1880 4671 28°48

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. 675

TABLE V.
Showing amount of rainfall in years of high mortality :—

meres Inches of Rain.
1866 | 102°7 | 22°41
1877 | 99:3 | 24-10
1878 | 111°9 25°36
1883 90°6 | 23-71
|

The years of exceptionally low mortality had thus, on the

average, a rainfall of 28:17 inches, while in those marked by

unusually high mortality the average was 23°89. The results

obtained by these different methods of contrasting the conditions

of different periods are not in very good account. Tables II. and
III. apparently proving little or nothing either way, while tables
IV. and V. rather support the view that a high mortality is
associated with slight rainfall, and wzce versa.

But the suggestion arises that there may be a fallacy in
comparing the rainfall of the whole year with the mortality from
typhoid, which is in large measure confined to less than one half

of it. Ifthe prevalence of typhoid is dependent on the amount

of rain at all, it seems probable that it should be influenced
specially by the summer rainfall, and less by that of the winter
months. I have, therefore, in the following tables presented
together the mortality of the year, along with the rainfall of its
first four months, January to April, and of the months of
Novemier and December preceding. For the sake of contrast
and comparison the four years of highest and lowest mortality

are presented separately.

Taste VI.
Showing amount of summer rainfall in years of low mortality :—
Mortality per Inches of Rain, Nov.
100,000. to April.
1872 49°7 | 1658
1873 49°3 , | 18°62
1879 46°1 | 1429
1881 5571 | 7-03

676 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H.

Taste VII.

Showing amount of summer rainfall in years of high mortality :—

Mortality per Inches of Rain, Nov.
100,000. to April.
1866 102:7 6°73 |
1877 99:3 17°52 |
1878 111-9 15°66
1883 90°6 14-03

It is not easy to find, in these tables, any confirmation of the
doctrine that the prevalence of typhoid stands related to the
rainfall, very low mortality in different years being the accompani-
ment, either of an exceptionally wet or an exceptionally dry
summer. In the same way, a very high mortality has fallen in
snmmers which also exhibited both extremes as regards rainfall.
In so far, therefore, as the level of the subsoil water can be
considered to vary with the amount of rainfall, it must be taken
as shown that the amount of typhoid in Melbourne does not
depend on the rise and fall of that level. This must be regarded
as proved in respect of successive years. It may almost be held
to be true even of the seasonal variations, since, as is shown by
the last tables VI. and VII., the summer rainfall of Melbourne
is equal to the average of the whole year, the supply by pipes
from without being much greater, quite a large proportion of it
soaking into the ground.

In how far variations in the barometric pressure have any
influence on the prevalence of typhoid remains to be shown. It
it does exert an influence it must be by favouring or checking the
escape of emanations from the soil ; and the effect must be direct,
i.e., the barometric pressure, on this hypothesis, ought to be excep-
tionally low in epidemic years. For the purpose of discovering
in how far this is the case, I have presented in two tables, to
correspond with VI. and VII., the barometric pressure given,
being the average of the mean pressures for the months November
to April.

Taste VIIL

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H.

677

Showing the average summer barometric pressure in years of

low mortality :—

Mortality per Average barometric
100,000. pressure.
1872 49°7 29°929
1873 - 49°3 29°941
1880 46°1 29°922
1881 551 29°978
TaBLE IX.

Showing the average summer barometric pressure in years of

high mortality :—

|

| Mortality per Average barometric
100,000. pressure,
1866 102-7 29°917
1877 99°3 30°026
1878 eae Ss 29°957
1883 90:6 29915

Unpleasant as it may be to have an ingenious hypothesis ex-
ploded, it must be admitted that no support is to be derived
from these tables for the suggestion that periods marked by low
barometric pressure should correspond with periods of high
typhoid mortality, the low pressure allowing free escape of
emanations from the soil. The years of highest mortality were,
of course, in two instances, 1869 and 1883, marked by a very
low average of barometric pressure ; but in another instance,
1877, that average was the highest of any of the years com-
pared. And further, if the averages for the two groups are
compared, it appears that for those in Table VIII. it was
29-942, and for those in Table IX. 29-953, practically the same,
any difference existing being against, rather than in favour of, the

hypothesis,

678 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H.

Though it is disappointing not to have been able to obtain
positive results after this rather laborious inquiry into the causes
of the annual and periodic fluctuations in the prevalence of
typhoid fever in Melbourne, it does not follow that it has been
without value. We always hear the hope. or even the positive
opinion, expressed, that a good hot wind will check the prevalence
of the disease ; or, on the contrary, that heavy rains will have the
same effect. It is well to know whether such opinions have any
good foundation ; and there may be positive gain in having the
mind disabused of unfounded notions as to the beneficial or
detrimental influence of general conditions, such as temperature,
rainfall, or barometric pressure, over which we have no control.
We are thrown back on the well-established facts that a filth-
saturated soil supplies a condition eminently favourable to the
spread of typhoid, and that a proper system of drainage, how-
ever it may operate, can be depended on to reduce, steadily and
to a large extent, the prevalence of the disease. The best possible
system of drainage cannot, of course, prevent danger arising from *
contamination of water or milk, or put an end to other possible
modes of communication. But, judging from experience gained
in the large cities of Europe, it may safely be said that no other
measure of precaution, no other sanitary improvement, can be
compared with this in certainty of effect. 1 do not believe that
the difficult questions just discussed are incapable of solution, and
if the varying prevalence of the disease, annual and periodic, is to
be explained at all, I still think that it must be by meteorological
considerations. The data at my disposal are insufficient, or are
not analysed with sufficient care to allow of positive conclusions.
But we know the direction in which to look for the remedy ; and
if we get the good result, we can afford to. wait for the
explanation.

3.—COOL HOUSES.
By James W. Barrett, M.D.

[ Adstract.

Tue author said that the object of the paper was to describe
simple methods by which Melbourne houses might be kept cool
during the summer. The cause of heating of the house was two-
fold; the heating of the roof and walls by the sun, and the
entrance into the house of hot air. A temperature of 70 with
the ordinary. degree of humidity was not unpleasant, and he found
from Mr. Ellery that on only fourteen nights during December,
January, and February did the temperature of the air between 8
p.m. and 12 p.m. exceed 70. Therefore, we might conclude
that on the great majority of nights cool fresh air could be

a See)

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. 679

obtained by opening windows, doors, fireplaces, and ventilators.
But the unpleasant nights passed were largely due to the heating
of the roof and walls by the sun, and it was this heating which it
was essential to avoid. This he had done by painting the roof
and exposed walls with a white paint. Simple experiments
undertaken to show the difference caused by painting the slates
resulted as follows :—The temperature of a painted slate at mid-
day on a bright summer’s day was about 30 deg. lower than an
unpainted one. The interior of flower-pots and boxes covered by
slates exposed to the sun at the same time of day differed by
from 10 to 18 deg. A house with roof and walls painted was
probably 10 deg. cooler than an unpainted one. Consequently,
to keep a house cool it was simply necessary to paint the roof and
walls, to keep all doors, ventilators, fireplaces, and windows shut
in the warm part of the day, and to open them at night. The
use of the electric light would greatly assist. If coolness was
desired on the few nights on which the air was hot, special venti-
lating apparatus must be provided. In the house in which he
(Dr. Barrett) lived, when the directions had been followed, the
temperature had not exceeded 76 deg. F., and was rarely above
70 deg.

- 4.—PURIFICATION OF SEWAGE.
By J. M. Smaiz, M.Inst.C.E., and W. L. p—E L. Roserts, C.E.

In his work on “Health and Life” B. W. Richardson, M.D.,
F.R.S., states that “An ancient ruler, no less ancient and no less
cunning a ruler than Cambyses himself, taught his son Cyrus
certain lessons in sanitary science, which he then considered much
needed, and instructed him as to his chief anxiety in connection
with his army, which should be the preservation of health; for,
says Cambyses, he should prevent the army falling into sickness
at all.” In addition to the above advice, he adds other observa-
tions, which shows to us that in Cambyses’ day (529 B.c.), in the
midst of a very high ancient civilisation, there was no special
exemption from the thousand natural ills that flesh is heir to.
The advice given by Cambyses to his son can well form a
subject worthy of serious consideration by those in authority and
charged with the well-being of communities forming a State. The
ancient law-giver (and no less a sanitarian) Moses enjoined upon
the Hebrews the “ necessity of disposing of the excretions of the
human body and other organic filth by burying the same in the
earth at places remote from habitations, without the camp.”
“Under the Mosaic dispensation sanitary laws were religiously
observed, and recent discoveries clearly show that the ancient
Jews possessed a clear knowledge of the necessity of removal of

680 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H.

all decomposing matter as expeditiously as possible to a place
outside their city, and that when so removed they knew how to
dispose of it.”— Baldwin Latham.

The question which appears to have occupied the attention of
the ancients is more intensified at the present day, owing to
changes of condition and other obvious causes. Notwithstanding
the numerous enquiries and scientific investigations, the general
opinion is that sewage and other organic filth is troublesome, and
should be got rid of as quickly as possible, and without endangering
the public health.

The question of disposal is very often surrounded with diffi-
culties and complications, and severely taxes the minds of the
authorities and pockets of the ratepayers.

Where a seaboard discharge, accompanied with favourable
circumstances, can be obtained, the problem is easily solved, but
where such facilities are not available other means of disposal
have to be obtained. Notwithstanding years of trials, investiga-
tion, and large expenditure, the authorities on the subject are at
variance as to the best means of overcoming the difficulty. Every
system has its enthusiastic advocates, each considering their
particular system as the only remedy for the evil.

In former years considerable value was attached to the sewage
as a manure, but experience has demonstrated the fallacy of such
value from a commercial standpoint.

The various systems which have been tried for purifying sewage
may be classified as under :—

I. Filtration.
II. Chemical treatment.
III. Irrigation.

I. The removal of impurities from crude sewage by means of
artificial filters has not been attended with such success as to lead
to its general adoption. The glutinous character of the sludge
entirely clogs the interstices of the filtering material and renders
it inoperative, and a nuisance is set up by the accumulation and
decomposition of the foul matter in the filter. The disposal of
the offensive solid is surrounded with difficulty, and the cost of
constantly cleansing and renewing the filtering material has led
to the system being regarded as impracticable and expensive.

Il. Purification by Chemical Treatment has been practically
tried in various ways, as well as chemically investigated.
Numerous patents have been taken out, but few have stood when
put to a practical test, and in many instances this result has not
been arrived at except by a large monetary expenditure.

The various chemicals used for precipitating and purifying
sewage are:—Lime; lime, with addition of magnesium chloride
and tar, known as Hille’s process ; milk of lime, with sulphate of
alumina, Anderson’s process; lime, with iron sulphate; also a

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. 681

process combining crude cake alum, blood, and clay, generally
known as the A.B.C. system. More recently experiments have
been made with a process combining milk of lime and herring-
brine. Of the various processes enumerated, Jime, in conjunction
with sulphates of iron and alumina, has, according to latest
accounts, given good results as far as a precipitating agent, but
no claim has been set up as a purifying agent; it has, however,
been claimed by the patentees of the process known as lime
combined with herring-brine, that a high standard of purity, as
well as efficient precipitation, has been obtained.

In a paper* read by W. J. Dibden, Esq., F.C.8., of the Metro-
politan Board of Works, on the disposal of sewage sludge, he
states that “the use of an excessive quantity of lime, whilst
having a temporary antiseptic action, is objectionable, by in-
creasing the quantity of putrescible matters in solution in the
effluent. One object claimed for the use of an excessive quantity
of lime, and also for some other substances, is that they destroy
the living organised bodies, such as bacteria, &c., which give rise
to the phenomena known as putrefaction.” Mr. Dibden considers
this question of such importance that he discusses it at some
length ; and as it opens up fruitful ground for consideration, his
opinions are given as recorded. Mr. Dibden states the researches
of Warringtont have demonstrated that the process known as
nitrification of the complex nitrogenous bodies existing in sewage
during its filtration through land is brought about by definite
organisms, who in their life processes feed upon the sewage
matters and evolve the nitrogen in the form of nitric acid.
As with the nitrogen, so it is with the carbon, which is
absorbed as food and evolved as carbonic acid. Without these
life processes, whether they be of an animal or of vegetable
nature, no destruction of the objectionable matters can take
place. As the very essence of sewage purification is the ultimate
destruction or resolution into other combinations of the unde-
sirable matters, it is evident that an antiseptic process is the very
reverse of the object to be aimed at. If a preservative process be
required, a receptacle should be provided for the preserved
matters, and in order to ensure that the antiseptic process should
be a continuous one any subsequent treatment or method of
disposal must avoid the destruction of the antiseptic employed. -
In the case of lime, which in strong solutions is a solvent of
organic structures, what time will elapse before its neutralization
by absorption of carbonic acid, and consequent loss of antiseptic
properties, after the discharge of the effluent into running water ?
Obviously, only a very limited period, after which the growth of
organisms so zealously destroyed will recommence, by reason of
the numerous spores in the water of the river and with the air

* Volume LXXXVIII.; Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers.
+ Journal of the Chemical Society, Vol. XLV., 1884. Transactions, p. 637.

682 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H.

with which it is constantly in contact, and there will thus be an
end to the antiseptic properties of the system.

Mr. Dibden further states that where it is advisable to increase
the effect of the lime, experience has shown that either sulphate
of alumina or sulphate of iron in various proportions are best
adapted for the purpose. The actual result of the combination of
lime and either of the salts of alumina or iron depends in a great
measure to the manner in which the lime is applied. Experiments
have shown the hme is best applied in the form of “milk of
lime.”

The discussion on the paper, from which the foregoing state-
ments have been quoted, is remarkable for the diversity of opinion
of the chemical experts as to the efficiency of chemicals in connec-
tion with purification and precipitation of sewage. The general
opinion, however, tends towards the fact that the questiom is
capable of more extended investigation. Whatever difference of
opinion may exist among chemists on the matter, sanitary
engineers are decidedly of opinion that before the effluent can be
considered up to a standard of purity to admit of it passing
into fresh-water streams, it should, subsequent to chemical treat-
ment, be passed over and filtered through land.

Mr. Dibden, when investigating the question for the Metro-
politan Board of Works, London, made over 500 different analyses
with 23 samples of London sewage, and treated them 25 different
ways, and the results of the investigation show that the use of a
larger quantity of chemicals would, independently of the expense
of dealing with the increased quantity of sludge—an important
consideration—have cost a great deal more than their worth.
The table accompanying Mr. Dibden’s paper shows that whether
he added 4:7 grains of chemicals, or 108 grains per gallon, at
costs respectively of 11d. per head and 4s. per head, it did not
make more than 20 per cent. difference in the amount of organic
matter removed.

The quality of sewage dealt with at an outfall varies con-
siderably during the twenty-four hours, and the difficulty with
chemical treatment is to apply the chemicals at all times so as to
obtain the desired result.

A few experiments were made at the Botany Sewage Works in
connection with the Sydney main drainage. The quantity of
chemicals used in the first instance was the same recommended
by Mr. Dibden for treating the London sewage, viz., 3:7 grains
of lime per gallon. This amount of chemicals, when mixed with
the sewage, had no visible effect in precipitation, and with regard
to purification the liquid was to all appearances as foul as it was
before the chemicals were put in. When it is considered that
there are 70,000 grains in a gallon, it is obvious that the homeo-
pathic dose of 4:7 grains would be useless for either clarification
or purification.

oe

PROCEEDINGS OF SZCTION H. 683

Further tests were made with increased quantities of lime alone
in the form of milk of lime. The precipitating action was good,
but the quantity used to obtain this result was so large in propor-
tion to the sewage dealt with, that the cost of the material and

machinery for mixing and agitating together, with the increased
bulk of the sludge, w vould far outw reigh any advantage obtained
in clarification or purification.

A further trial was made with milk of lime and sulphate of
iron in the proportion of two of the former to one of the latter.
In this case the quantity of chemicals used was such as would
make it expensive, and preclude its use ona large scale. The
result, however, as to a high standard of purification and clarifica-
tion was disappointing. It was found that the effluent could not
be let into a river, especially one from which a water supply
would be drawn, without danger.

In vol. XIII. of the Proceedings of the Association of
Municipal and Sanitary Engineers, Sir Robert Rawlinson, in
speaking on the chemical treatment of sewage, stated that “to
purify sewage by any known chemical process you must leave
the word purify out. When, again, as regards precipitation,
whatever action the precipitants may have in throwing down the
floating and floculent matter in sewage, seven-eighths of the
salts of sewage still remain. You may clarify sewage until
it is as bright as spring-water, and yet seven-eighths of the salts
which act injuriously when turned out into a water-course
remain in the clarified effluent.”

“ At Coventry, England, where £60,000 had been lost in
attempting to purify sewage, it was found, after a second company
had been tormed, with a subsidy of £1200 per annum from the
corporation, that it would have failed if they had not procured a
portion of valuable land over which the clarified sewage could
pass before it passed into the watercourse.”

In all the towns that have, in the past, attempted to purify
the sewage by chemical treatment, the greater number have
abandoned the process for one of disposal and filtration over land,
and in the light of experience which has been obtained in other
lands, as well as the successful issue of the experiments at
Adelaide and Sydney, the question of purification of sewage
should be easily solved. Where, however, suitable land is not

available, the question becomes narrowed down to the choice of

chemical treatment— Aeration process and by electrolysis.

Ill. Filtration through land is carried out by disposing of the
sewage, after screening off coarser matters, directly over land
specially prepared for it, or in combination with chemical or
mechanical precipitation. Except in special cases the latter
system is not resorted to.

In the case of the Sydney main drainage works the sewage has
to be screened, and the suspended matter precipitated in specially-

>

684 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H.

designed basins, on account of the sewage having to pass under
the bed of a navigable river by asyphon. The sludge is dredged
from these basins, and together with extraneous matter, which is
caught on the screens, is taken to the farm and dug in.

The farm is situated on a neck of land at the junction of Cook’s
River with Botany Bay. The formation is drift sand overlying
clay, which is at a considerable depth.

The sewage, after passing under the bed of the river, is
conveyed across the farm by a concrete carrier, on each side of
which is laid out the storm-water tanks and irrigation areas.

The irrigation areas lie between the main carrier and Cook’s
River. They are formed in terraces, and the sewage is applied
to the land by sluices in the main carrier and ordinary earth
channels, with subsidiary sluices made of timber. The daily
sewage is applied to the irrigation areas, the tanks on the opposite
side being reserved for storm-water.

The irrigation plots have been planted with sorghum, barley,
cabbages, swede turnips, and other vegetables, all of which thrive
very well and find a ready sale. Some of the storm-water tanks
have been planted with lucerne, the crop being watered with the
storm-water, which is turned into the tanks ; the growth has been
beyond expectation, considering the nature of the soil prior .to
being irrigated, the crop being capable of being cut once a month.

From a sanitary standpoint, the disposal of the sewage has
proved successful, the effluent water being analysed by the
Government Analyist every quarter. Appended hereto are
reports of Mr. Hamlet for July and September, 1889.

The question of disposal of sludge has to be considered in any
system of sewage disposal. This difficulty has been met in many
ways, viz.—l. By allowing the matter in suspension to precipitate
in specially-designed tanks, drawing off the supernatant water,
and allowing the sludge to dry, and afterwards dealt with; 2. To
precipitate the suspended matter by chemicals and sludge, dealt
with as above; 3. To carry out precipitation by either of the
above processes, and treat the sludge by “filter presses,” the
resultant being sludge cake. This has the advantage of the sludge
being easily handled if there is any demand for this description
of manure by farmers, market gardeners, or other agriculturists.
The simplest and best means of disposal of sludge is to dig it into
the ground if the land is available ; where such cannot be obtained
the question of disposal becomes more expensive, and the cost has to
be faced, as experience has demonstrated that no laboratory value
of the sludge can be obtained from those who are likely to use it.

The mode of disposal adopted at the Botany Sewage Works is
to precipitate the suspended matter by lime, the supernatant
water being lifted from the tanks to the syphon-well by an
“ejector.” The sludge is dredged out by a dam-dredger, and
deposited in trucks and conveyed to the farm and used as a top-
dressing and manure.

——

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. 685

The sewage was turned on to the farm in August, 1887, and
at the present time the character of the soil does not indicate any
great change, notwithstanding the quantity of sewage which it
has received.

The area cultivated and irrigated with liquid sewage was little
over two acres, the population draining into the main sewer being
estimated at 7000, so that each acre of land was absorbing the
sewage of about 3500 persons.

As before stated, the question of disposal has been solved
favourably from a sanitary point of view, and it accords with the
opinion of sanitary engineers who have had any experience in
the matter, that notwithstanding any prior treatment the sewage
should, as a final measure, be disposed over and filtered through
land.

The question of treatment of sewage by “ electrolysis” is dealt
with by Mr. Roberts, who is the patentee in the colonies for the
process. In connection with this system I merely wish to state
an opinion that the system is destined to supersede chemical treat-
ment, but where suitable land and circumstances are favourable
it will not hold good against land filtration.

Government Laboratory,
Sydney, 8th July, 1889.
Analysis of a sample of sewage effluent received from the Medical
Adviser, 21-6-89. Labelled No.1. Well 79 feet from tank.

Results expressed in |
Grains per Parts per |
gallon. 100,000.
Appearance in two-foot tube ... as .. | Brown peaty colour |
Odour on heating to 100 deg. Fahr. ... oi Slight
Chlorine as Chlorides... aa es 12°5 Lacs
Phosphoric Acid in Phosphates set a Trace
Nitrogen in Nitrates and Nitrites ... = — == |
Do. equivalent in Nitric Acid ... ee _ — |
| Do. existing as free Ammonia ... 653 934 |
Organic Nitrogen, or Albuminoid Ammonia.. ‘070 | "100 |
Oxygen absor bed in 15 min. at 80 deg. Fahr. — | —
Do. do. 4 hours do. 3°29 4:70 |
Hardness in degrees, Clark’s scale, before
boiling kas ae i re at _ —
Loss on ignition . ae a ee as 47 | 68
Poisonous metals — : None |
Total solid residue, dried at 220 deg. Fahr. 38°9 55:6 |
}

General observations on the character of the water: The effluent is of
such composition as may be passed into tidal rivers without causing a

muisance: (Signed) WILLIAM M. HAMLET,
Government Analyst.

nuisance.

Webb’s Grant, Botany, 4

686 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION

Hie

Government Laboratory,
Sydney, Sth July, 1889.
Analysis of a sample of sewage effluent received from the Medical

Adviser, 21-6-89. Labelled No. 2.

Appearance in two-foot tube ... :
Odour on heating to 100 deg. Fahy. ...
Chlorine as Chlorides
Phosphoric Acid in Phosphates
Nitrogen in Nitrates and Nitrites

Do. equivalent in Nitric Acid .

Do. existing as free Ammonia ...
Organic Nitrogen, or Albuminoid Ammonia...
Oxye en absorbed in 15 min. at 80 dee. Fahr.

De do. 4 hours do.
Hardness in degrees, Clark’s scale, before
boiling 4

Loss on ignition .
Poisonous metals
Total solid residue, dried at 220 deg. Fabr.

General observations on the character of the water:

Well 20 feet from tank.

Results expressed in

Grains per
gallon.

Brown pe

sh

The

Parts per
100,000,

aty tint
eht

13°80
ces

80
14

5°08

14°8
ne
43°6

composition

is such as to allow it to be passed into tidal rivers without causing a

(Siened) WILLIAM M. HAMLET, F.LC.,

Government Analyst.

Government Laboratory,
Sydney, 16th September, 1889.
Analysis of a mates of water received from the Sewerage Farm,

-9-89.

Labelled Effluent marked “ A. 3

Results expressed in

Grains per
gallon.

Appearance in two-foot tube ...
Odour on heating to 100 deg. Fahr.
Chlorine as Chlorides

Phosphoric Acid in Phosphates
Nitrogen in Nitrates and Nitrites

Do. equivalent in Nitric Acid ...

Do. existing as free Ammonia ... :
Organic Nitrogen or Albuminoid Ammonia...
Oxygen absorbed in 15 min. at 80 deg. Fahr.

Do. do. 4. hours do.

Hardness in degrees, Clark’s scale, before
boiling
Hardness
boiling
Poisonous metals
Total solid residue at 220 deg. ‘Fahr.

in degrees, Clark’s scale, after

No

Parts per
100,000.

31°36

General observations on the character of the

water :

44°8

The analysis

fl

el a

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H.

687

indicates that the effluent is undergoing the natural process of purifica-
tion by oxidation, and may be safely discharged into rivers without

causing a nuisance.

(Initd.) W. M. H.,

Government Analyst.

Government Laboratory,
Sydney, 16th September, 1889.
Analysis of a sample of water received from Sewerage Farm, Botany,

A-9-89. Labelled Effluent marked “ B.”

|

| Appearance in two-foot tube ... =

| Odour on heating to 100 deg. Fahr. ...

| Chlorine as Chlorides

| Phosphoric Acid in Phosphates

| Nitrogen in Nitrates and Nitrites

| Do. equivalent in Nitric Acid ...

Do. existing as free Ammonia ... ;

Organic Nitrogen, or Albuminoid Ammonia..
Oxygen absorbed in 15 min. at 80 deg. Fahr.

| Do. do. 4. hours do.

| Hardness in degrees, Clark’s scale, before
i boiling : ae ; ie
| Hardness in degrees, “Clark’s scale, after
| boiling . , be

Poisonous eaiaa: ,
| Total solid residue, dried at 220 deg. Fahr. .

Results expressed in

Grains per
gallon.

Parts per
100,000.

ne
48°0

General observations on the character of the water:

The analysis

indicates that the effluent is undergoing the natural process of purifica-
tion by oxidation, and may be safely discharged into rivers without

causing a nuisance.

5.—HEALTH LEGISLATION

By A. P. AkEHURST.

6.—DUTIES
By C. J. Eassie.

(Initd.) W. M. H.,

Government Analyst.

EN VICTORIA:

OF SANITARY INSPECTORS.

688 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H.

‘7.—HOUSEHOLD SANITATION.
By Grorce Gorpon, M.Inst.C.E.

| Abstract. |

THE requirements for a wholesome dwelling are—lst, a good site
and correct construction of the house ; 2nd, plenty of fresh air ;
3rd, a pure water supply; and 4th, the speedy, and as far as
practicable, automatic removal of all refuse.

Under the three first heads, which are not entirely in the
control of individuals, it is urged that where the ground-water
level, or a clay subsoil, is near the surface, the whole area occupied
by the house should be covered with a layer of concrete or asphalt,
and the space intervening between this layer and the floor joists
should be thoroughly ventilated. Hollow walls are recommended,
and when practicable such an aspect that the morning sun shall
shine into as many bedrooms and livingrooms as_ possible.
Thorough ventilation is insisted on, but no special arrangements
for artificial ventilation are needed, except in the case of buildings
inhabited by a great number of persons. It is pointed out that
where there is no town water supply a moderately roomy house
will generally, where the rainfall is 22 in. per annum, yield from.
the roof sufficient water for drinking and cooking, and partly for
washing purposes, and that an equal additional supply of inferior
water would sufiice for other purposes. Jron tanks above ground
are preferable to underground brick tanks, as being more easily
cleaned, and not liable to have the water contaminated by infil-
tration from surrounding soil. If the latter are used, they should
be at some distance from, and at a higher level, than the house
and outbuildings, the water being led in by a cast-iron pipe into
which the down pipes are fixed.

The special subject of the paper is the removal of all kinds of
refuse liquid, which can easily be removed by water without
manual labour, and solid, which it would be impossible so to
remove. ‘The first is practically all the water used in the estab-
lishment and fouled in the using, and coming from the kitchen or
scullery, bedrooms, water-closets, washhouse, and from the scrub-
bing of floors.

The principles on which the house drainage should be designed
are simple, viz., these :—There should be no stagnant fluids ; they
should be discharged into the sewers as quickly as possible, and
there should be no possibility of foul air from the pipes or sewers
entering the houses, that is to say, there should be no cesspits,
and all drains should be trapped. The use of water-closets is
advocated for town houses, wherever there is an underground
system of sewers, because they are the only unobjectionable means
of removing fecal matter, and their use adds little to the liquid

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. 689

refuse that has in any case to be disposed of—about one-sixth—
and the proportion to the quantity of water used becomes less as
this increases, which is the observed tendency in most town
supplies. When it can be conveniently arranged, the closets
should be against an outside wall, and the soil-pipe should be out-
side the wall, and should, in all cases, be carried up above the
roof, the connections with it and the closets being trapped.
Alongside the soil-pipe there should be a smaller ventilating-pipe,
into which the closet-traps are ventilated. The horizontal part
of the soil-pipe, called the “house drain,” should be carried by
the most direct line to the street sewer, but it should not pass
under the house. If this is unavoidable it should be of cast iron,
laid on a solid foundation. There should be an “air disconnec-
tion ” between the sewer and the house-drain, near their junction.
The waste-pipe, which disposes of the sewage from sinks, &c.,
should be treated in the same way; but at the foot of the pipe,
and near the wall of the house, there should be a disconnecting
trapped chamber, into which all the foul drainage from outhouses,
&c. (except closets), should also be led, preferably by open drains
of half-round glazed tiles, which are easily cleaned. Various
kinds of traps are described and illustrated by diagrams, and it
is pointed out that it is essential they should be ventilated in
order to prevent unsealing. Each trap should have a separate
connection with the waste-pipe, as, if several traps are on pipes
joined together below the trap, the action of one may unseal the
other.

The second kind of refuse, the solid waste, consisting of ashes,
cinders, bones, small rubbish, tins, sweepings, and such kitchen
waste as is intercepted by the strainers, should, in towns, be
placed in covered receptacles, and removed daily by the dustman
in a covered cart, and it is best disposed of by burning. Where
the water-closet system is inapplicable, either from want of a
proper water supply or of underground drainage, as in some
villages, barracks, country houses, &c., probably the best substi-
tute is the dry-earth closet, or the ‘‘Goux” pail system. Closets
should be detached from the house, and the pans should be made
so that the urine is carried off separately and led by pipes into
the drains carrying the other waste water or liquid sewage, and
conveyed to a distance from the house bya rapid current. Unless
this be done the so-called dry-earth system is little better than
the ordinary pail system, which has the great fault of keeping the
excreta for a considerable time, whereas they ought to be instantly
removed.

A system of house drainage, however well designed, may be
made worse than useless by bad construction or workmanship,
and it is suggested that only such plumbers as have been examined
on the principles of sanitary work, and have certificates of com-
petency and experience, should be allowed to carry out such

RE

690 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H.

works, and in case of negligence they should be liable to prosecu-
tion. In New York and other principal cities of the United
States of America the plans of the plumbing have to be approved
by an officer of the Board of Health, specially appointed for this
purpose. It is thought, what with these checks on defective
design and workmanship, the sanitary condition of dwellings
would be much improved.

8.—SCHOOL HYGIENE.

By E. G. Lecer Erson, L.R.C.P.

9.—HOUSEHOLD DRAINAGE: ITS PRINCIPLES.
By A. M. Henperson, C.E.

[ Adstract. |

HovusrnoLp drainage, regulated in Victoria by local municipal
officers, who are, as a rule, untrained in the work—result unsatis-
factory. Open drains insisted on, but great carelessness as to
quality of materials and permeability of the joints, which soon get
saturated with grease, urine, and filth. Interceptors not allowed
at junction of pipes and open drains, and hence fouling of the
pipes and return of bad gases.. Unfortunate that architects,
being in business competition, too often have to consider economy,
and often ignorant work being cheaper triumphs. Suggest regu-
lations compelling uniform work ; and as there will be underground
system in Melbourne within the next five years, regulations and
trained inspectors should be adopted now, and all new wastes and
drains for houses made on sanitary principles and suitable for new
system. New Health Act provides for registration of plumbers,
but training in sanitary principles first necessary.

Necessary to have good maintenance as well as good construc-
tion. Maintenance of house drains entirely neglected here ; often
clogged with years’ deposits. Cause of great part of typhoid.

Waste waters of two classes—continuous and intermittent.
Continuous include (a) bath and lavatory water, with no solid
matter, and often used for irrigation ; (4) pantry, scullery, and
laundry water, containing solid and greasy matter; (c) water
from slop-sinks and urinals, with no solid matter ; (@) from water-
closets, containing solid matter.

Intermittent include (e) pure water from roofs and tank over-
flows ; (f) fairly pure water from balconies, towers, flats, and

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. , 691

tank-flushes ; (g) overflows of trays under baths and lavatories ;
(2) trays under slop-sinks and closets.

Greatest dangers arise from intermittent wastes. Upper
ends generally open. Difficulty in securing interception.

Good drainage requires—

I.—Proper conductors to convey away the waste products
made with non-absorbent, non-corrosible material, and
joints—of sufficient (not too great) size and fall, and self-
cleansing form and easily accessible.

II.—Proper interceptors to prevent dangerous matter entering
or leaving the conductors. Made with non-absorbent,
non-corrosible materials and joints. Two classes. Self-
cleansing form as small as practicable for (q), (c), (2),
where gases only require interception, but not so self-
cleansing as to empty by momentum or suction. Non-
self-cleansing and of full size for (4) where solids and
gases require interception. As interception is generally
maintained by water, the surface should be as small as
possible to lessen evaporation.

III.—Proper disconnection to prevent pressure in the
conductor and aid in ventilation— consists in leaving out-
let end of each section of conductors open to the air-
generally discharging over open drains or over inter-
ceptors.

IV.—Proper ventilation to maintain interception, which
might be destroyed by suction where conductors unite
or strong flushes are used—and to oxygenise the inner
surface of conductors and render products of decompo-
sition innocuous. Upcasts should be carried well above
roofs and chimneys.

It is characteristic of intermittent drainage that the inlets are
open, so that interceptors must be fixed at outlets or at junction
with continuous drainage. In continuous drainage interceptors
should be fixed as near the inlets as possible.

Foregoing classification and notes especially useful as a basis
of criticism, and for instructions to inspectors.

10.—FACTS AND FIGURES RELATING TO
VACCINATION.

By A. J. Tayior.

692 e PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H.

11.—PREVENTIVE INOCULATION AGAINST
ANIMAL PLAGUES.

By O. Karz, Ph.D,

12.—MICRO-ORGANISMS AND HYGIENE.
By A. Surexps, M.D.

13.—CREMATION A SANITARY NECESSITY.
By H. K. Ruspev.

REPORT OF COMMITTEE No. 9.

Town Santtation.

Memepers or Commitrer :—Dr. Bancrorr, W. M. Hamurr, Sir James

Hector, Professor LiversipGz, Professor THRELFALL, Dr. SPRINGTHORPE,

Dr. Syms, Professor THomas, Professor Warren, and Hon. Dr.
CAMPBELL (Secretary).

Art the close of the last annual meeting, on the motion of Professor
Liversidge, the following gentlemen were appointed a committee
to report on “Town Sanitation,” viz. :—Dr. Bancroft, Hon. Dr.
Campbell, Mr. W. M. Hamlet, Sir James Hector, Professor
Liversidge, Professor Thomas, Professor. Threlfall, and Professor
Warren. Subsequently the names of Dr. Syme and Dr.
Springthorpe were added. In December Dr. Campbell agreed
to act as hon secretary.

On the Ist of February, after consultation with various members
of the committee, the secretary issued a letter to upwards of 200
medical practitioners and health officers in Australia and New
Zealand. ‘The letter asked for information respecting the sanitary
condition of the towns in which they either practised or held
health appointments. It was suggested that for the purpose of
classification the information should be given upon the following
lines, viz. :—

1. Site and soil.

2. Houses, their arrangement, material of construction}
regulations respecting houses unfit for occupation, overs
crowding, and lodging-houses.

The water supply.

The removal of refuse water, and of dry refuse.
The removal of excreta.

. The conservancy of the surface.

me oe. ee

The food supply—regulations respecting milk, slaughter-
houses and bake-houses.

8. The regulation of offensive or noxious trades, and the
overcrowding of factories.

694 TOWN SANITATION.

9. The arrest of infectious diseases. State views on the
compulsory notification of infectious diseases.

10. Disposal of the dead.
11. The supervision of nuisances.

12. Liability to outbreaks of special diseases, and their connec-
tion with any insanitary condition.

13. State suggestions as to the most suitable means of
improving the sanitation of your town, or, in your
opinion, the best system to be adopted to place it in a
reasonably sanitary condition.

14. Statistics as to population, death-rate, and general
character of the diseases which prevail.

The following gentlemen courteously favoured the committee
with replies :—Dr. Coppeadge (Roma), Dr. Vivian (Rockhampton),
Queensland; Dr. W. C. Aild (Kiama), Dr. W. J. Bassett
(Bathurst), Dr. W. Asher (Lithgow), New South Wales ; Dr. D.
F. Fleetwood (Warrnambool), Dr. H. H. Radcliffe (Ballarat),
Dr. H. H. Gordon (Clunes), Victoria; Dr. Markham (Port
Augusta), Dr. Mitchell (Port Adelaide), T. Farrell, Esq.
(Adelaide), South Australia; Dr. 8. H. Beard (Masterton),
Dr. Neil (Wellington), New Zealand; J. G. Bushman, Esq.
(Launceston), Tasmania.

Communications from other sources, in the shape of Health
Acts and reports of health boards, have also been received. The
committee desire to acknowledge their indebtedness to Dr.
Mitchell, Dr. Vivian, Dr. Neil, Dr. Radcliffe, Mr. Farrell, and
Mr. Bushman, for their admirable reports.

The paucity of the replies received, as well as the heavy labour
involved in an attempt to bring all the colonies under one report,
induces the committee to make the suggestion that in future the
work of any similar “town sanitation ” committee should for the
year be restricted to one colony, and, if possible, the colony in
which the annual meeting of the Association for that year shall
be held. It is further suggested that the honorary secretary
should be a resident of the same colony.

This suggestion, combined with the fact that the present
honorary secretary had before him ampler information respecting
the colony of South Australia than any other, the report has
been limited to the “‘town sanitation ” of that colony.

It may briefly be stated that the Health Acts of South Aus-
tralia are under the administration of a Central Board of Health,
the president being a Government officer. Appointments upon
the board are in the hands of the Cabinet. By a recent enact-
ment, all civic corporations and district councils are local boards
of health. Corporations have power to raise a special sanitary
rate, while both corporations and district councils may appoint

TOWN SANITATION. 695

. health officers, and may take proceedings against infringements
of their regulations.

The Act requires each local board to forward annually a report
to the Central Board. Any corporation, as a local health board,
failing to impose a health rate, or to appoint a medical health
officer when called upon by the Central Board, or failing to carry
out any instruction of the Central Board, may be summoned to
appear at the Supreme Court. In the case of district councils as
local health boards, if they refuse or neglect to comply with any
instruction of the Central Board, that board may do the thing
required to be done, and recover the expenses incurred from the
district council.

The administration, then, of the Health Acts is greatly sub-
divided, and is proportionately less effective. In proof of this
inference, it may be stated that the report of the Central Board
for 1888-9 says that, out of 173 local boards, no less than 112 had
failed to comply with the Act in the simple matter of sending an
annual report. In the same document it is further intimated
that several local boards had been guilty during the year of so
far neglecting to carry into effect their own regulations that the
Central Board was under the unpleasant necessity of issuing
peremptory orders upon them.

The sanitary condition of all the towns, whether under cor-
porate jurisdiction or under district councils, is therefore in the
hands of their respective local boards. Leaving out of view in
this report the city of Adelaide, which, with its numerous and
populous suburbs and its distinct deep drainage system, certainly
merits an exclusive report, the towns of South Australia range in
population from 8000 to 500. The committee consider that a
fair estimate of their sanitary condition may be arrived at by
dividing them into two classes—-those situated on the sea-board
and those inland. Of the first, Port Adelaide, Port Pirie, and
Port Augusta may be taken ; while, of the second, Gawler, Burra
and Clare may be selected to illustrate the position. The
respective sanitary conditions of these towns will give a fair
notion of the “town sanitation ” of the province.

Port Adelaide.

Port Adelaide was laid out in 1840, four years subsequent to
the founding of the colony. It lies about seven miles west of the
City of Adelaide, on an estuary of the Gulf of St. Vincent, called
the ‘‘ Port River.” It is the chief seaport. The river is subject
to tidal action. The “Port” may be regarded as consisting of
Port Adelaide proper, lying east of the river, and the Semaphore
lying on the west side. The population is about 8500. The site
is low, and in many places damp, much of the eastern portion
having been at one time covered by the tides. The river is now

696 TOWN SANITATION,

banked off, and the land behind is being gradually levelled up.
Port Adelaide proper has a honeycomb clay bottom, through
which the tides ebb and flow. Above is a layer of sand, rubbish
of various descriptions, and limestone silt, deposited from the
dredgings of the harbour. The western side has a hard clay
bottom, with a varying thickness of sand overlaid. Fresh
water is easily obtained in this sand. The eastern portion is the
old section of the town, and still retains among its modern and
substantial stone erections some of the primitive structures,
consisting of wood and galvanised iron. Some of these are highly
insanitary, being on the original swamp level, and now below the
surrounding street level. On the western site, while one portion
is unsatisfactory from very imperfect drainage and damp, the
houses on the whole are modern and substantially built, and free
from the unwholesome surroundings which affect the Port proper.

The water supply is mainly derived from the same source as
the City of Adelaide, viz., the reservoirs at the Torrens and Hope
valleys. The supply is very pure. The reticulation area, however,
does not extend to many of the more distant houses. These
obtain their supplies either from the roofs or surface wells. The
water in these wells being secured by soakage, is liable to contami-
nation. Outbreaks of typhoid or bowel derangement have been
traced to them.

The refuse water is conveyed in open water-tables to the
harbour. Sludge boxes, 2ft. x lft. 6in..x 2ft., are placed in
the course of these water-tables at the entrance to all culverts
and drains, and are periodically cleaned out. It is estimated
that at least 12 miles of these open drains has been constructed.
The site of the town being very little over the sea level, the
carrying out of a system of deep drainage would be very costly.
On the Semaphore, or western side, few streets, and consequently
few water-tables, have been fully constructed. The refuse water
is here allowed to pass into the sand, which, in view of the wells
above referred to, as well as the pollution of the soil, constitutes
a highly objectionable practice. It is a happy circumstance for
the health of the residents, as well as an attractive feature of the
locality, that a large number of trees and shrubs are planted
every year. They thrive well, and absorb the accumulated foul
soakage which lies on the clay bottom underneath the surface.

Dry refuse is removed weekly by itinerating carts, under a
contract with the local board. It is employed to fill up low-lying
levels alongside of the swampy ground to the north. The Cor-
poration have at times allowed it to be used for fillmg up hollow
sites in the town itself. The Health Officer states that in 1888
he attributed an outbreak of 15 cases of typhoid fever to this
cause

Cesspits are chiefly used. In about 50 instances earth-closets
have superseded the cesspit, and where properly attended to have

la

TOWN SANITATION. 697

given satisfaction. According to the provisions of the Health
Act, all cesspits must be water-tight, but the law is perfunctorily
enforced by the local board. In numerous cases the pits are
glaringly defective, being visibly influenced by the tides. In this
leaky condition they thoroughly saturate the surrounding soil,
The cost of emptying the pits seems to be the chief obstacle to an
efficient administration of the law, and the local board does not
appear to attach sufficient importance to this matter to induce
them to establish an organised system for the complete and fre-
quent removal of excreta. The contents of these cesspits are
cleared away at intervals much as the residents choose, although
by regulation it should be done at stated intervals. In several
parts of the town the pepper-tree is again a friend of the public
health, preventing many from reaping the harvest of their in-
difference and ignorance.

It may be said with regard to the inspection of food that it is
only nominal so far as the local board are concerned. In the case
of imported meat or other food it is different. This has to pass
an inspection by the Customs officers, a service of great moment
not merely to Port Adelaide, but to the whole colony.

Port Adelaide has no public abattoirs ; small cattle are allowed
to be slaughtered inside the limits of the town. Slaughtering-
places and butchers’ premises are subject to inspection. It must,
however, be admitted that not a few of them are left, particularly
in the summer months, to become sources of annoyance to the
neighbourhood.

The regulation of trades and trade premises seems to be con-
ducted on very general principles. Bakehouses are seldom looked
at; noxious trades are occasionally inspected, and where a glaring
instance is found of workmen being employed in ill-ventilated or
otherwise unhealthy buildings interference may take place.

No provision is made under the Health Acts for the early or
compulsory notification of infectious diseases, except smallpox,
cholera, plague, yellow fever, and leprosy. The speedy discovery
of infectious cases is therefore very difficult. When such cases
do become known to the local board, steps are promptly taken to
disinfect the premises and remove any known or suspected cause.
Isolation, except in the case of smallpox, cannot be enforced, as
there is no legal power and no accommodation to receive patients.
No doubt, in the event of any serious epidemic arising, temporary
premises would speedily be made available.

The ordinary practice of interment is followed. There are two
cemeteries, one almost disused, inside the Corporation boundary,
and another on the outskirts. The latter has a dry clay soil.
The water level is reached at a depth of 10 to 12 feet.:

The general work of inspection is carried out by a medical
health officer and two inspectors. The latter have too many
duties to perform to be able to give the requisite attention to

698 TOWN SANITATION.

sanitary work. Other duties as those of Town Surveyor, Inspector
of weights and measures, of lights on vehicles, of widths of tires,
of public conveyances, of lodging-houses, of storage of kerosene,
the registration of dogs, etc., are laid upon them. Efficiency
under such circumstances cannot be secured.

Port Pirie.

Port Pirie is situated about 150 miles north of Adelaide and
50 miles south of Port Augusta. It les ona small estuary of
Germein Bay, itself a part of Spencer’s Gulf. The population is
well over 1000, aitd from its business connection with the Barrier
silver mines, is rapidly on the increase. The site is only a few
feet above high-water level; it is consequently defective in
natural drainage. The buildings are nearly all of recent erection,
and fairly substantial. Its water supply is good ; originally it
was supplied from an expensively-constructed reservoir at Nels-
haby, some miles off; but latterly it has formed a connection
with the splendid Beetaloo Water Supply. Scavenging is carried
out effectively, and the disposal of refuse is strictly regulated.
No means are adopted by which foul water can be satisfactorily
disposed of. The primitive cesspit is well-nigh superseded by
the earth-closet, quite two-thirds of the residents using the latter.
The scavenging contractor attends to the pans. The regulations
bearing upon slaughter-houses, trades, lodging-houses, &e., are
fairly enforced. The sanitary staff consists of a medical health
officer and an inspector.

What must be regarded as a retrograde step was taken by this
corporation a short time ago. It indicates decisively how the
worthier interest of the public health is set aside by such local
bodies when confronted with the chances of material progress.
The Amended Health Act of 1882 admits of the creation of
manufacturing districts, the object being to free certain manu-
factories from the strict application of the Health Act of 1873
in several respects. These districts are proclaimed at the instance
of the Government on petition of the residents and the local
governing body. In this instance a petition was presented,
asking two things in addition to that of the formation of a manu-
facturing district. The first was that the clause in the Health
Act providing that corporations or local health boards shall have
power to order the removal of waste and foul water, and the
second, that clause 45, providing for a simple and inexpensive
legal process for securing compliance with the previously-men-
tioned clause, should not apply to this manufacturing district.
The Central Board of Health, in the future interests of Port
Pirie, strongly remonstrated against granting these two con-
cessions. The prospect of having smelting and other works
established prevailed against every other consideration, not

TOWN SANITATION. 699

merely with the local authority, but with the Government also,
and the full petition was granted. Under such circumstances,
all nuisances created by this manufacturing district are absolutely
without control. It may be urged that the power of inspection
remains to the Central Board ; but without the power of enforcing
its orders, inspection is to little purpose.

Port Augusta.

This town is situated (on the map) at the apex of Spencer's
Gulf. It is distant about 240 miles from Adelaide. It possesses
a fine harbour, and is regarded as the coming metropolis of the
north. On the completion of the railway system, which will
connect South Australia with every colony, all the lines will con-
verge to it. The population is just under 2000. The site is low
and difficult to drain. It has a sandy soil, with a sub-layer of
clay. It is laid out rectangularly, and the streets are mostly
formed and well-paved, with properly-constructed water-tables.
The buildings generally are substantial. The water supply is
fair, being obtained from a reservoir some 14 miles off. An
attempt is made to dispose of the foul water by leading it into a
number of deep subsidence wells. This is said to answer fairly.
Until recently these wells were not ventilated. In numerous
parts of the town the people are still permitted to throw refuse
water on the surrounding soil, which being of a sandy nature
allows the water to disappear readily. In hot weather, however,
the state of the soil brought about by this practice is unquestion-
ably the cause of numerous cases of intestinal inflammation among
children. A moderately efficient system of scavenging is in
operation, but the objectionable custom of filling up hollows with
dry rubbish is still followed. Privy-cesspools are practically
abolished in favour of the dry-earth system. No organised super-
vision of the system by the corporation exists as yet, and conse-
quently it is attended with nothing more than partial success.
The excreta are removed weekly, and buried outside the town in
trenches. Notwithstanding the large possibilities that exist for
improvement, the town is remarkably healthy, having a death-
rate of 13 to the 1000.

Gawler.

Gawler is situated 25 miles north of Adelaide, in close
proximity to the main northern line. Its population numbers
2000, and its houses 400. It occupies partly the face of a hill
and partly a flat. The arrangement of the streets is rectangular.
It is the centre of an agricultural district and the seat of the
famous foundry and machine-shop of Messrs. James Martin and
Co. The natural drainage is good. The soil is limestone in

700 TOWN SANITATION.

character. The principal streets are macadamised, the footpaths
are properly kerbed, and the water-tables well paved. The water
supply is derived from a well, sunk by the Government, on a
rising ground near the town, from whence reticulations are carried
over the greater portion of the town. Except in a few instances
on the west side, where a few soakage-wells are sunk, the waste
water is allowed to run into the water-tables, and thence into the
Para River. The ordinary cesspit and privy is in use, and many
of them possess the usual defects of being too large and full of
leaks, and of remaining too long a time unemptied. In a few
cases the earth-system is adopted, as at Messrs, James Martin
and Co.’s yard, where over 300 men and boys are employed. In
this instance the system is supervised by the company with
care and attention, and the best results are said to follow.
Slaughtering is not permitted within the boundary. There is a
medical health officer and an inspector of nuisances.

Burra.

The Burra township is distant 100 miles north of Adelaide.
When the famous “ Burra Burra” copper mines were in operation
it was the scene of great activity. Since their cessation the
population has greatly diminished. It now numbers some 2600
inhabitants. It is the centre of an agricultural district, and a
depét for cattle going to the far north, or southwards to the
Adelaide market. It has had railway communication with the
metropolis for many years. The town comprises several settle-
ments, each going by a differentname. The site is, on the whole,
good. The soil is hard and stoney, very unfavourable for absorp-
tion or percolation. The houses are fairly built and arranged.
In Kooringa they are closely packed, while at Redruth and
Aberdeen they are scattered. The water supply is from an old
mine called the “Bon Accord,” and is considered to be good. A
- supplementary supply has to be secured for the residents on what
is known as “The Flat,” where, unfortunately, the houses
are numerous and the cesspits, in many cases, nothing more than
large holes in the ground. A licensed nightman attends to the
cleaning of the cesspits, but as each resident has to pay the cost,
not as a rate, but directly to the nightman, he employs him as
seldom as possible. The waste water is allowed to pass into the
street water-tables, and thence into the ‘‘ Burra” Creek. Dry
refuse is removed periodically by an authorised scavenger, and
the excreta is deposited and trenched on a farm at some distance.
This part of the work is well done. Butchers’ premises are, on
the whole, well looked after. There is no medical health officer.
All sanitary work is done by an inspector under the direction of
the local health board.

TOWN SANITATION. 701

Clare.

Clare is some 80 miles northward of Adelaide, and about 20
miles westward of the northern main line of railway. It is the
centre of an agricultural and pastoral district, and contains 1100
inhabitants. It is regarded as the handsomest township in the
colony. The site is favourable, and the houses are, for the most
part, well-built stone structures, surrounded by gardens. The
soil is clayey, mixed with stones. Good natural drainage exists,
except for the main street. The water supply is obtained from
shallow wells, which, from the contiguity of numerous cesspits,
run great risk of contamination. Till recently, these cesspits
were mere holes in the ground. Within the last two years the
Central Board of Health has had to issue an order upon the local
board, requiring the immediate construction of all cesspits in
accordance with the provisions of the Health Act. Scavenging
is only partially attended to. Dry refuse is deposited outside
the boundary, and excreta upon an adjacent farm. No slaughtering
is permitted. An interesting convenience in the shape of a bath,
some 80 feet by 25 feet, exists for the public. The sanitary work
is in the hands of an inspector, who has a hundred and one other
duties besides.

The following facts indicate the extent to which the sanitary
schoolmaster has been abroad in some of these townships since
the passing of the Health Act of 1873. The Central Board of
Health report that, in 1888, a resident of Clare made a formal
complaint that the local board had failed to carry out their
sanitary duties, inasmuch as—1, nightsoil was allowed to be
carried through the street in the daytime; 2, that the so-called
earth-closets were defective; 3, that scavenging was limited to
the main street; and 4, that the removal of nightsoil was made
unnecessarily difficult and expensive. The chief inspector of the
Central Board confirmed these charges, and added that since his
previous visit no steps had been taken to rectify the condition of
the cesspits and protect the wells from contamination. In reply
to the Central Board, the local board forwarded the local inspec-
tor’s denial of the complaint, and his views on the requirements
of the situation. The Central Board issued a peremptory order
requiring immediate compliance with the Health Act, not only in
respect of the complaints made, but also in respect to the construc-
tion of cesspits. The local board immediately carried out the
order, and promised to continue its efforts to secure a good
sanitary condition of the town.

In connection with the natural history of the sanitary state of
the foregoing towns, a word or two is needful on the existence of
infectious diseases during the year ending, March, 1889. The
following table shows the fatal cases of enteric fever and diptheria,
the usual residences of the deceased being the towns named :—

702 TOWN SANITATION.

Towns. Enteric | Diphtheria.
Port Adelaide ... 1 8
Port Pirie tee 1 1
Port Augusta... 1 1
Gawler ©... 0 2 1
Burraneer sa 5 aes
Clare oe Sele — 1

It is unfortunate that no returns exist which would enable a
tabulated statement to be made of the number of persons attacked
in these localities. It is, however, useless to offer a surmise on
the basis of the death-rate; that is, to give a general average.
The main cause assigned for the presence of enteric fever in most
of these towns was the return from Broken Hill of residents who
had either visited the silver mines or had been employed as work-
men, and had contracted the disease there. Broken Hill, at that
time, was in a highly insanitary condition, and quite an epidemic
of typhoid prevailed. The Central Board of Health supports
this statement of the origin of numerous cases by communications
from medical health officers who had carefully traced their courses.
The large number at the Burra was doubtless due to the fact that
this town is the first on the way from Silverton to Adelaide
which possessed hospital accommodation for the treatment of
enteric fever.

DeatH Rate PER 1000 INHABITANTS.

Towns. 1884,. |; 1885.; |; 1886. | 1887..| 1888) ite meee
Port Adelaide ...| 15°99 | 15°6 | 15:6} 18:6 | 12°8 14°5
Port Pirie a) 33°0) | 2922") 924-40 S227 ea 25°3
Port Augusta... 39°5 | 30°5 | 31°8 | 36:2 | 342 34:4
Gawler... Pa lelichsy aie Sey sale Ay |) alley | alors) 14°4
| Burra ... ...{ 165 | 256) 241 | 126 | 18-4 194
Clare 700 vee LAS yd Gielk Cae TT Ors 13°5

TOWN SANITATION. 703

The towns above described are fairly typical of every township
of moderate size in South Australia. The facts stated concerning
them raise almost every question of a general character that is
touched upon in public hygiene. To utilise these facts it will be
needful to present a summarised review of them. This may be
done under the five following divisions :—

The work already accomplished.
Natural difficulties.

Obvious defects.

Local Health Boards.

The Health Acts.

oe

1.—THE WORK ALREADY ACCOMPLISHED.

The leading Health Act upon which all sanitary progress has
rested was passed in 1873, that is, 16 years ago. In that Act
civic bodies formed the local sanitary authorities. Two years ago
the Act was amended so as to include district councils as local
health boards. The territorial jurisdiction of the Central Board
by this extension to district councils became greatly circum-
scribed. Sufficient time has not elapsed to declare the wisdom or
otherwise by the Central and local boards of this step. The work

done during these 16 years has been most varied and beneficial.

The existence in itself of an active and fairly-organised system of
sanitary inspection has had a valuable educational influence upon
the public mind. In this connection the Central Board of Health
must be credited with a large amount of steady perseverance and
real tact.

The record of facts already presented in this report shows that
local sanitary authorities have pushed on the filling-in of all
swampy and low-lying portions of their respective towns. Old
land-marks, around which only too frequently converge insanitary
conditions, have been taken out of the way. Streets of good
width have been systematically laid out. They have been well
macadamised, and finished with water-tables and kerbing of a
substantial nature. Buildings consisting chiefly of stone, or of
brick, have been erected, and all with more or less regard to
hygienic conditions.

A considerable amount of attention has been given to supplying
pure water for domestic purposes. Large and expensive reser-
voirs have been constructed at Hope Valley and Thornden Park,
which, while furnishing a supply for the city of Adelaide, also
serves Port Adelaide. Smaller reservoirs have been formed for
Port Pirie and Port Augusta, and a deep well and a large tank
have been made to meet the requirements of Gawler. The Burra
authorities have taken advantage of an old mine from which to
draw a wholesome and ample supply.

704 TOWN SANITATION.

An attempt has been made in a few places to get rid of foul
water in a simple and inexpensive way. Wells have been sunk
to considerable depths, into which the foul water drains and
passes away by soakage. Where due attention is paid to the
ventilation of these wells, they are credited with a fair degree of
success.

In no town has dry refuse been allowed to accumulate.
Regulations controlling this matter have been strictly enforced.

So far as the employment of cesspits as part of a system for
the disposal of excreta can be brought under hygienic conditions,
fair efforts have been made to doso. They are small in size, and
water-tight. In some instances, as at Port Pirie and Gawler,
earth-closets have been substituted for many of the cesspits.
When the requirements of the dry-earth system, as at Gawler,
are carefully met, such as a good supply of dry earth, and regular
and frequent removal, it has proved a success.

Less disposition exists in the community now than formerly to
oppose sanitary work, and a freer readiness prevails among local
sanitary bodies to appoint inspectors, and even medical health
officers, when required by the Central Board.

Without, perhaps, having directly in view the beneficial more
than the artistic effects of tree-growth, several towns have
planted along their streets, and elsewhere, large numbers of
pepper and other varieties of trees and shrubs, with the happy
result of minimising the serious evils which arise from the
saturation of the soil with foul water.

2.—NATURAL DIFFICULTIES.

It is hardly necessary to say that towns placed near the sea
level are exceedingly difficult to drain. It is well known that
the rivers on which many towns similarly situated to Port
Adelaide and Port Pirie are generally only open sewers. But
this is not so in the case of either of these towns. The reason
for this may possibly be found in the two facts, that the popula-
tion has not reached such dimensions as to bring about this
undesirable state of things, and that further, as the rivers are
really arms of the sea, all sewage passing into them is immediately
subject to the chemical action of sea-water. All the ports
referred to are undrained, beyond what ordinary surface drainage
and a few subsidiary soakage wells can effect. At Port Adelaide
traps are constructed at points on the course of the water-tables,
to arrest the more solid portion of the fluid refuse, but beyond
this no attempt has been made to carry out any complete system
of drainage. The deep drainage of Port Adelaide has been
reported upon by engineers, and frequently discussed by the
town council, but only to be laid aside again. The full supply of
water which each of the ports and some other towns receives points
strongly to the necessity of a system of efficient deep drainage.

v

TOWN SANITATION. 705

3.—OBVIOUS DEFECTS.

In some towns, as Clare and the Burra, water-supplies for
domestic purposes are, in a number of instances, taken from wells
exposed to contamination. Cesspits of old standing, badly con-
structed originally, and permitting soakage, have been found in
close proximity to these wells. It is needless to say that the
contiguity of cesspits and wells under any circumstances is
extremely dangerous, and where, as in every instance in these
towns, supplies can be secured by the conservation of roof-water,
the practice of drawing water from such suspected wells is simply
criminal.

In the similar fact of preserving the air that is breathed from
pollution, we see the serious outrage that is committed against
the public health, in the habit of running filthy water into the
soil or throwing it persistently upon the surface. It is a matter
of regret that this practice should prevail so largely, and be over-
looked by all sanitary local bodies. Numerous cases of enteric
fever—the scourge of Australia—intestinal inflammation and
diptheria are undoubtedly traceable to this source. In this con-
nection the reflection thrusts itself upon us, that a critical
examination of the towns of South Australia reveals the fact that
the local authorities have yet much to learn and more to
accomplish in the direction of sanitation. Tree-planting, it is
true, modifies the insalubrity arising from this cause, but the fact
is indisputable that no real protection exists against some of the
most fatal and severe diseases that attack both old and young,
but especially the young, apart from a clean and wholesome soil.

In this connection another most subtle conspirator against the
public weal is the cesspit. Sanitary regulations may be all that
are desirable, but where cesspits are used, through invisible rents,
decay of structure and neglect, the soil may every day be
becoming more impregnated with filth. The only safeguard,
where the system cannot be supplemented by a better, is to place
the entire management, control and inspection in the hands of
the loca] authority. This is the position taken by an independent
authority where the water carriage system exists, and no reason
is at hand to show why the same authoritative control should
not extend to any other system. To leave to the unquickened
mind and biassed judgment of the ordinary householder the
management of so important a branch of public hygiene is simply,
from his point of view, to put within his reach the opportunity
of saving himself from a rate, which he would otherwise have to
pay, for he allows his cesspit to go uncleaned for an indefinite
period ; and, further, it is to permit failure to step in where
success is imperative. Small cesspits soundly constructed and
maintained, frequent cleansing and disinfection, a proper dis-

position of the excreta, and all carried into effect by the local
*s

706 TOWN SANITATION.

sanitary authority, constitute the elements of a good system.
This, however, most of the towns in South Australia have not
yet attained to.

Another obvious defect is, that. food supplies, such as milk,
meat and bread, are largely allowed to go without inspection. By
this indifference a subtle source of disease is left uncontrolled.
When once the importance of recent investigations in the con-
nection between tubercular disease and the ingestion of diseased
meat has been clearly realised by the public, we may see more
vigilance in this direction than at present exists.

The same indifference applies to trades and trade premises,
except such as are not within the scope of this report, viz., those
in the city of Adelaide and suburbs. It must, however, be said
that the manufacturing industries outside of this centre of
population are very limited in number, and not generally of an
obnoxious character.

4,.—-LoCAL BOARDS.

The circumstance that local boards change their Zexsonne/ more
or less every year is a serious obstacle to sanitary progress. The
members are elected primarily as civic or district councillors, and
mostly for reasons which have no direct relation to sanitary
matters. The most attractive quality which a candidate can
present toa local constituency is a profession of rigid economy,
and that simply means that neither increased taxation nor new-
fangled notions, as they are called, will be indulged in. The
broader principles and larger necessities of good government,
which certainly include systematic sanitation, have no place in
such mens programmes of progress. Hence the prospect of any
rapid expansion in sanitary efficiency is not to be looked for.
Short of local health boards being constituted on an independent
basis, only the rougher phases of sanitary work will be carried on.
Members of these boards should surely possess some acquaintance
with the elementary principles of sanitation, and certainly their
freedom of action should be secured to them on the basis of a
special sanitary rate. When we find local boards, such as Port
Pirie and Clare, disputing the authority of the Central Board on
matters which were patent to any tyro in sanitary knowledge,
the difficulties which bar the way to advancement are very
evident. The difficulties to be overcome then in the case of these
boards lie at the root. Their constitution must be changed. It
is not an ungenerous criticism to say that when material or
monetary interests conflict with even the crudest necessities of the
public health, these boards invariably lend the weight of their
influence to the material. They have yet to prove that they can
act from motives which spring from an intelligent apprehension
of those principles which lie at the foundation of a true providence
over the people.

TOWN SANITATION. 707

5.—THE HEALTH ACTS.

The health acts of the colony consist of the Drain Act of 1873,
two minor amending acts, and the District Councils Act of 1887.
Prior to the passing of the latter act, the Central Board had
direct jurisdiction outside the limits of all corporations. This
jurisdiction has been transferred by the act of 1887 almost
entirely to the district councils.

The existence of the Central Board began with the act of 1873,
and although it has been undoubtedly hampered in many impor-
tant directions by insufficient legal powers, it has overcome
numerous difficulties, and done a great deal of good work. It
cannot be questioned that it has been the means of sweeping away
the grosser and more palpable dangers to health, while it has
educated the people to believe in some degree in the real necessity
of public cleanliness.

The health acts are in several respects too tentative, notably
the District Councils Act just referred to. It may fairly be
doubted whether any colony, such as South Australia, should
commit the administration of its health acts so unreservedly to a
host of small and practically independent local bodies. Sanitary
knowledge is special and always in advance of public opinion, and
it would, therefore, seem to be more reasonable that a body of
men, fitted for the duty and free from popular influences, should
administer its laws.

This position leads to other prejudicial results, and among them
we may refer to the delay in the removal of nuisances. Many of
these boards meet only at intervals of a month, and as the
inspector must first report to his board, and receive his instruc-
tions to serve an order for abatement, weeks must sometimes pass
over before the removal takes place. Meanwhile, it can be
honestly said that the law is at work for its abatement. This
position of things can only be met by investing the inspector with
power to proceed at once on his own judgment against certain
infringements of the acts.

It may as well be noted here that the office of sanitary inspector
to these local boards would be materially strengthened, and
the work be more heartily and effectively done, if the appoint-
ment and removal of these officers were made subject to
confirmation by the Central Board, as in the case of medical
health officers.

The law is further in need of amendment in two other direc-
tions. First, with respect to the notification of infectious
diseases, and in the second place with regard to the possession by
the Central Board of the necessary legal power to deal with
outbreaks of such diseases. The compulsory notification of
infectious diseases formed part of an amending health act
recently before the Legislature, but the clauses having this object

*s2

708 TOWN SANITATION.

were struck out. The purpose of all sanitary work is doubtless
to bring about the extinction of preventible diseases, and if this
point is ever to be reached, then immediate, correct, and syste-
matic information as to the place where and when any outbreak
has arisen must be forthcoming. It is self-evident that unless
the information is speedily transmitted to the proper authority,
the opportunity is lost for the limitation or suppression of the
epidemic. This information cannot, however, be secured without
legislation. The committee admit that they are aware of the
difficulties that seem at present to surround the practical working
of the principle, but they are none the less strongly impressed
with the conviction that there exists a real necessity for compul-
sory notification being brought into operation.

Jointly with compulsory notification, the importance of legal
power being vested in the Central Board to deal with any outbreak
is likewise self-evident. The Central Board has power now to
deal with smallpox, cholera, plague, yellow fever, and leprosy.
Seeing, however, that but one of these diseases, viz., smallpox,
and that in a single instance only, has appeared in the colony,
while other preventible diseases are permitted to stalk abroad, it
is not an unfair inference to say, that with the appearance of
having some legislation, nothing is in reality laid down by the
law having the object of preventing the extension of infectious
diseases. It is to be feared that the indifference that prevails on
this point is due to the misconception that heavy expenses would
be entailed by carrying out stringent regulations of isolation and
quarantine. The actual outlay could not be large, while the
saving effected by the prevention of disease would be very great.

It is very desirable that the central authority should have a
full opportunity of demonstrating to the public the advantages of
checking outbreaks of infectious diseases in their initial stage.
If this could be done, assuredly the public interest in sanitary
work would be stimulated, and with every repetition of such
evidence the public mind would come to appreciate more keenly
the labours of sanitarians in seeking to secure to every member
of the community health and longevity.

It now only remains for the committee to state that the
following documents are on hand for reference should any future
committee, following up the “Town Sanitation” of the other
colonies, desire to do so on the lines suggested in the early part
of this report :—Reports on the towns of Roma, Rockhampton,
Queensland ; Kiama, Bathurst, Lithgow, New South Wales ;
Warrnambool, Ballarat, Clunes, Victoria ; Masterton, Wellington,
New Zealand ; Launceston, Tasmania. Also able reports from
Messrs. W. A. Billing, Esq., F.V.I.A., and Lloyd Taylor, Esq.,
F.R.I.B.A., architects of Melbourne, and George McRue, Esq.,
City Building Surveyor of Sydney, on the Building Acts of
Victoria and New South Wales respectively.

Section I.

LITERATURE AND FINE ARTIS.

President of the Section: Hon. J. W. Agnew, M.D., M.E.C.

1.—ART IN DAILY LIFE.
By Tuomas A. SIsLey.

[ Adstract. |

THE primary meaning of the word Art appears to be “ trained
skill guided by intelligence ;” and it is also applied in a general
sense to the various crafts which require trained skill, as well as
to the results produced. Thus we speak of the art of the gold-
smith or of the ironworker, of the art of painting, and of Japanese
art. But the term has also acquired a special meaning, so that it
is now commonly understood as referring to painting or sculpture,
unless modifying words are used. Indeed, the notion is generally
entertained in the present day that art has nothing to do with
utility, being concerned only with embellishment. The phrase,
“useful as well as ornamental,” shows the prevalence of this
mischievous and quite erroneous idea. We hear also a good deal
about art-furniture and art-fabrics—terms which imply the
assumption that art is a thing to be super-added, and that we
ought not to expect it,unless named in the specification.

Now, it is my purpose to show, in the first place, that art not
only can, but should be associated with utility—nay, more, that
useful things will be all the more useful in proportion as they are
truly artistic. The principle may be formulated in three canons,
as follows :—

1. The first artistic necessity is fitness. The beauty of an
object will always depend on suitability to its right purpose or
function.

‘2. All ornament that interferes with fitness, or is inconsistent
with it, is relatively bad, however beautiful in itself.

3. Nothing, however beautiful, can be artistic unless when put
to its right use amid its right surroundings.

To which may be added the corollary that shams must always
be wrong.

It will, of course, be understood that I do not claim originality
for the ideas involved in these three canons ; they are familiar to

710 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I

all students of art. Nor do I pretend to lay down dogmatic
rules; my object is merely to indicate the principles on which
my remarks are based. ‘ Beauty,” says Lessing, ‘of which we
derive our first notions from material objects, has universal laws,
which apply to many things—to actions and thoughts, as well as
to forms.” And I venture to assert that by applying the rules
here suggested we may all know whether our dwellings and
furniture, our gardens, our costumes, and even our manners and
speech, are in good taste, otherwise artistic, otherwise—for it is
the same thing—rightly pleasing.

Let us first give some attention to architecture, for two
reasons—because it is the oldest, the most important, and the
most universal of the fine arts, and because all other arts of
design are ancillary to it. In the introduction to his great work,
Mr. Fergusson points out that “two wholly different systems of
architecture have prevailed at different periods of the world’s
history. The first is that which prevailed everywhere down to
the time of the Reformation in the 16th century, and still pre-
vails in remote corners of the globe wherever European civilisa-
tion and its influences have not yet penetrated. The other is
that which was introduced with the revival of classic literature,
and still prevades all Europe, and wherever European influence
has established itself. In the first period the art consisted in
designing a building so as to be most suitable and convenient for
the purpose it was wanted for, in arranging the parts so as to
produce the most stately and ornamental effect consistent with
its uses, and applying to it such ornament as should express and
harmonise with the construction, and be appropriate to the
purposes of the building. No race, however rude or remote, has
failed, when working on this system, to produce buildings which
are admired by all who behold them, and are well worthy of the
most attentive consideration. The result of the other system is
widely different. From St. Peter’s at Rome to our own
Parliament Houses, not one building has been produced that is
admitted to have been entirely satisfactory, or which retains a
hold on general admiration.” And the reason of this, according
to Mr. Fergusson, lies in the fact “that no sham was ever
permanently successful, and that the attempt to reproduce any
style which belongs to a state of society totally different from
anything that now exists can never be a real or an earnest form
of art.”

The classic temple was built with one definite object, namely,
to contain the image of a god. We know not precisely how
these temples were lighted ; but certainly they had no windows.
In modern application, therefore, the whole thing is falsified and
the design debased. Gothic architecture belongs properly to
Catholicism ; the high altar was the leading motive in the
construction. Protestantism, which threw down the altar,

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I. Tit

abandoned the Gothic style, quite logically and consistently. We
have returned to it, through the influence, I believe, of the High
Church movement, which gave some cause for the revival by
restoring the altar. But, whatever may be said of churches, -
nothing can be more incongruous than the false classical or
pseudo-Gothic forms used for banks, law-courts, or town-halls, the
internal arrangements of which have little or no relation to
their external aspect. We see ringhieras from which no one
ever addresses the populace, balconies on which no one can sit
or walk, turrets from whose narrow loop-holes no watchman spies
the approaching enemy.

Coming now to private houses, we shall very commonly find
that the smaller are best in design, however infamous in con-
struction. Here cost and convenience are prime considerations ;
hence their style is more consistent with common sense, and
therefore with true art. But when something superior is con-
templated people too often go astray. Half-imitations of an
Ttalian villa, a French chateau, or an Elizabethan house, though
possibly handsome enough in themselves, are sure to be uncom-
fortable or to look pretentious and out of place, being more or
less unsuited to our climate and habits. And, since the style
must be modified so as to make the house habitable by modern
people, the result will be a mere counterfeit that cannot be
pleasing to good taste. Weshall see such bad solecisms as flights
of stairs crossing casements, and, still worse, that shocking device
of sham windows or blank window-spaces in the walls. Now,
the weather-board cottage is good in so far as it is a naturally
evolved style. And as the temple grew from the hollowed-out
trunk of a tree through the intermediate stage of the wooden
hut, so might a grand, appropriate, and harmonious order of
colonial domestic architecture proceed from the germ of the
weather-board shanty, by a series of simple, rational improve-
ments and extensions. In forming such a style, the bath-room
and the verandah, which are of especial importance in this
climate, ought, perhaps, to be first considered.

Let us now look at the interior of the ordinary modern house.
The diningroom, being constructed and furnished with one well-
defined, easily comprehended object, will generally be the best
apartment in the house. Men are in earnest about their meals ;
therefore we may expect to find a good solid table, chairs to
correspond, a convenient sideboard—and not much else, because
nothing else is wanted. Therein lies the secret why the dining-
room is usually a pleasant room. It has one distinct function,
and it is actually designed and furnished in strict accordance with
that function, because it is too important to be slighted. But in
the drawingroom we see what is achieved when something more
ethereal is aimed at, when considerations of adornment prevail
over considerations of utility. In a room the eye goes to the

112 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I.

hearth as it goes to a dwelling in a landscape. And there, in the
average house, we see scarce anything that is not false or absurd.
First the grate, of which there are three degrees—blacked iron,
bright steel, and iron framework with tiles inserted. The steel
grate is rare enough now, which is a good thing ; for it would be
hard to imagine anything more unsuitable to the purpose than
such a material, involving, as it does, constant care and labour,
and presenting, at its best, a cold and most unpleasant appearance.
The common iron grate, which has to be blacked and _ polished
with infinite pains, is an abomination of lower degree. Then there
is the superior fireplace, with tiles let in to an iron framework.
This appears to me the worst of all, because it is the most preten-
tious and insincere. Like the others, it represents the art of the
furnishing ironmonger. For when he saw that folk were disposed
to revive the good old fashion of the tiled hearth with the grate
standing in it, as properly distinct, he said, ““ Why go to so much
trouble and expense? I can supply the whole article in one piece,
with the tiles all stuck on; you have only to clap it in.” And
the public was delighted, because it always prefers elaborate
combinations and curious devices to what is natural and simple.

The mantelpiece, in its present form, is a modern innovation,
poorly imitated from the slab forming the top of the French stove.
But that is a natural, inevitable thing, and therefore does not cry
loudly for concealment or adornment, while our imperfect imita- _
tion is nothing if not a receptacle for ornaments. Drape and
arrange it as we may, it will never look anything better than a
quite unnecessary shelf for holding superfluous knick-knacks. The
overmantel hardly helps us out of the difficulty, This pigeon-
hole arrangement is at once thrown out of gear if a single article
is wanting in its place ; and it seems far too elaborate and formal
for the trifles that are usually displayed upon it, each in its own
compartment, as if they were of the highest value and importance.
In any case, detached ornaments are far more effective if placed
about with apparent carelessness ; too great a regard for orderly
arrangement suggests the museum or fine-art repository. Never-
theless, the overmantel is an improvement on the old chimney-
glass.

The excessive desire for ornament causes many mistakes.
Results would be far better if the principles of fitness, harmony,
simplicity, and truthfulness were constantly borne in mind. But
these are continually violated. For instance, few people with any
pretension to taste will puta plant growing in an ordinary garden-
pot in their rooms ; the common, ugly garden-pot must be placed
inside one of porcelain—something pretty, with flowers painted
on it. Now, note the absurdity of this practice. The designs on
the china vase, if good enough to be noticed, will confuse the eye
or else attract it quite away from the natural flower, which is the
real ornament ; if inferior, as they usually are, they are worse

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I. (le

than redundant. And is the plain garden-pot, simple in design,
unobtrusive and certainly not unpleasing in colour, such a hideous
object after all? In any case, we can substitute a somewhat
similar article in terra-cotta more elegant inform. There cannot
be harmony between the tints of the natural flowers, so pure,
soft, and brilliant, and the comparatively harsh and impure
colours of the porcelain-painter. Lastly, a pot for use inside a
pot for show is an arrangement that cannot be justified.

Among other notable examples of the tawdry effect produced
by undue striving after prettiness are the clocks which have for
their dial a willow-pattern plate, or a sham palette stuck on a
sham easel. Even if the form of the plate or the palette were
convenient for the purpose, it ought to be made clear that adapta-
tion was intended, not imitation. Jugs representing wicker-work
are very bad; and china porcupines with crocuses growing out of
them instead of quills are still worse. Everything must be made
to resemble something else—a pepper-pot like an owl with perfo-
rated cranium, salt-cellars like toy coal-scuttles, with little shovels,
and cruets like perambulators. All this is puerile, and utterly
futile. Then there is the favourite device of a little picture on a
little easel, with a coloured silk handkerchief thrown over the
corner. Surely that is not the proper place for the handkerchief ;
and it would be removed at once if the picture were worth
anything. But you may be quite sure it is not, for the whole
arrangement is a piece of of ridiculous affectation, impossible for
anyone having a right feeling for art.

The rage for drapery is not altogether surprising when we
consider what beautiful designs and colours are now used in
dyeing the most inexpensive textures; but it requires much
moderation. A draped flower-pot, for example, giving the
impression of a plant growing out of a silk bag, is the height of
inartistic absurdity—fit only for a conjuror’s table. As to
window-hangings, it is not creditable to upholsterers that they
should have returned of late years to those very artificial
arrangements, cut in stiff and awkward imitation of natural
folds. Here, again, we perceive the passion for concealment.
What need for hiding the curtain-pole? It need not be unsightly;
while the cumbrous apparatus used for concealing it accumulates
dust and obstructs the light and air.

Ideas of comfort and convenience, when carried to excess, are
inimical to good taste; and some hideous designs in furniture are
attributable to this source. The very worst example, perhaps, is
the 7éte-a-téfe ottoman or arm-chair. The modern practice of
nailing carpets all over the floor is probably due to the notion
that a loose carpet not extending to the walls on each side was
mean and incomplete. It is not immediately apparent how
principles of good taste apply here. But, bearing in mind that
the carpet is not a permanent feature, that it requires to be

714 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I.

frequently taken up for the sake of cleanliness, and that the
process of nailing and unnailing it is very laborious, we may
recognise that it is more consistent with fitness and simplicity
that the carpet should be merely laid down. And, that being so,
it is neither necessary nor desirable to cover the floor-space with
painful exactness.

Among other manifest faults in furnishing, I may mention the
application of unsuitable materials and the excessive use of
patterns. _ Brazen rods for supporting delicate sash-blinds, and
chains of brass or steel for looping up curtains, are as appropriate
as a two-inch cable for mooring a cock-boat. In ordinary rooms
you will find that wall-paper, curtains, carpet, upholstery, mats,
table-covers, drapery and other accessories, present, perhaps, a
dozen different patterns, or more. It would be wonderful if half
of them could be harmonious ; and the effect would be far more
pleasing and soothing to the eye if self-colours were used wherever
possible—for table-covers and curtains, at all events.

This excessive use of patterns arises from the notion that plain
things are not pleasing. The sense of form, which was paramount
with the Greeks and other artistic peoples, is now well-nigh lost ;
and the eye must be tickled with ornament. Thus we see spindle-
work applied at random to all articles of furniture, showing
woeful poverty of constructive design. Patterns and other
ornamental devices are also extensively used in order to conceal
or disguise inferiority of material.

The number of false contrivances and elaborate combinations
goes on increasing daily, in spite of pretended esthetic feeling.
It would almost appear that shams are loved for their own sweet
sake, as well as because they are considered more elegant than
plain reality. Many of them are mere survivals, portions of
complex constructions retained long after they have lost their use
or significance, like the heavy leather plastron, representing the
reverse of the old coat, which the French grenadiers and voltigeurs
used to button over their chests. Such things are continued in a
falsified form because people cannot bear to give up anything in
the nature of ornament ; although, rightly regarded, whatever has
become redundant is a disfigurement.

In our time the old national and local styles have almost all
died out ; so that we have to rely on thought and fancy instead
of habit, on selection instead of sound and wholesome tradition,
Therefore, we scour the earth and ransack antiquity to find what
will serve the turn, perhaps with violent modification ; and the
inordinate love of novelty prompts the selection of what is new
and striking, rather than of what is fit and harmonious. We
shall never do any good in this way, nor, indeed, until we first
consider our climate and other peculiar conditions, our social
state and our daily needs. Domestic art will never flourish until
it is founded on these and thoroughly in accordance with them,

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I. 715
nor until it abandons ignoble shams and foolish imitations,

keeping constantly in view simplicity, fitness, harmony, and
truth,

2.—THE MIDDLE VERB IN LATIN.
By Henry Betcuer, M.A., LL.D.

Section J.
ARCHITECTURE AND ENGINEERING.

President of the Section: Professor W. H. Warren, M.Inst.C.E.,
University of Sydney.

1—GAS-LIGHTING AND ITS FITTINGS.
By A. U. Lewis, B.A.

[ Abstract. |

THE paper commenced by describing and explaining gas itself,
and went on to show how the mysterious heavy gas bills are
caused. The writer pointed out that, owing to the different
altitudes to which the various gas companies have to supply gas,
* it is impossible for them to give consumers the pressure as it
should be—namely, half-inch, and that it rests, consequently,
with every individual consumer to regulate the supply for himself
by means of an automatic governor attached to the meter. The
author condemned the custom of employing plumbers for work in
connection with gas, and said that gasfitters only should be
entrusted with such work, as plumbers, taken as a whole, knew
little or nothing about the scientific principies of gas. <A
suggestion was made that architects should specify in every case
size of pipes and burners, etc., and that tenders be opened for
gasfitting as distinct from plumbing. Another matter of interest
broached was the vexed question of patent burners. Mr. Lewis
explained several of the best, more especially ‘ Stott’s” governor,
which he said met with most favour as being the cheapest and
most economical. He illustrated his remarks by several
interesting experiments with gas-lighting and trials of economical
appliances.

2.—NOTES ON TESTS AND SPECIFICATIONS OF
CAST AND WROUGHT IRON.

By Professor KErnot, M.A., C.E.

THESE materials are in such general use for engineering purposes,
and such great reliance is placed upon them in cases when failure
would involve disastrous consequences to life and property, that

-PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. Le

a proper system of specifications and tests becomes a matter of
the very highest practical moment. On the one hand, it is most
important that bad material should be rigorously excluded, while
on the other it is very desirable that the contractor or manu-
facturer should not be harassed by unreasonable and impracticable
requirements.

Anyone unacquainted with the details of engineering practice
might naturally suppose that this question had been threshed out
and standard specifications universally adopted long since. Such,
however, is not the case. The most inconsistent and various
tests have been, and are still in not a few cases, employed—some,
for example, so exacting that the very best and costliest qualities
can hardly reach the standard ; and others so lenient that none
but the most outrageously bad will be rejected.

In the hope of arousing discussion on this very important
question, and in some small measure helping to establish and
promote the general adoption of tests that shall be at once con-
sistent in themselves, reliable as securing the public safety, and
not unduly oppressive in their effect on the manufacturer, I have
in the present paper collected and commented upon such specifi-
cations as have come under my own notice, and shall conclude by
-proposing rules for general adoption.

First, as to cast-iron. This material is usually tested as a
beam, the test-piece being made either 1 inch square, or 2 inches
deep and | inch wide, and slightly over 3 feet long, supported on
knife edges 3 feet apart, and loaded at the centre. Such a test-
piece is easily made, and the load required for fracture is so
moderate that, in the absence of a proper testing-machine, extem-
porised appliances of a simple and inexpensive nature will suffice
—a practical convenience, as tests are often neglected which need
elaborate apparatus.

Now let us enquire what would be a reasonable central load for
a beam | inch square and 3 feet span to carry. Rankine, in his
“Qivil Engineering,” gives data from which I compute it at from
470 to 1036 lbs. for different qualities, the former result being hot
blast-iron that had been melted no less than eighteen times, while
the latter was for the same at its twelfth melting. Good cold
blast-iron gave 871 lbs.

Trautwine gives from 500 to 900 lbs. as the strength of a
similar beam, 700 being a fair average.

Stoney, in his work on “Strains,” gives 847 lbs.; and a
standard specification adopted by thirteen of the leading bridge
manufacturers of the United States takes 500 lbs. as the test load
of a bar 4 feet 6 inches span, which is equivalent to 750 lbs. on
3 feet.

The South Australian Railway Department, in several specifi-
cations of comparatively recent date, makes 7 cwt., or 784 lbs.,
the standard ; while the Victorian Water Supply Department, in

718 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J.

their specification for the Loddon Weir, are satisfied with 6 ewt.,
or 672 lbs. Some years ago I had the opportunity of testing a
large number of such bars of iron from four different Melbourne
foundries, using different brands of pig, and in one case old
American railway wheels. More than 60 bars were broken, half
being sand-castings and half chilled, and the results were very
uniform. In no case did a sound bar carry less than 700 lbs.,
while in only five cases did a sand-casting carry more than 900,
and in only two more than 1000 lbs., and but one chilled bar
reached 900 lbs. These experiments correspond well with the
South Australian specification, only six bars out of thirty-one
falling below it, and five of these being only a few pounds
deficient. If the test had been reduced from 7 ewt. to 750 lbs.,
the American figure, only one bar that was not visibly defective
would have failed to pass, and this test I would suggest as a
reasonable one to adopt in practice.

Some engineers prefer a larger test bar, and specify one 2
inches deep by 1 inch wide. J am inclined, on the whole, to
join in this preference, on the ground that such a bar approaches
more nearly to the dimensions of the objects for which the iron
is intended. The Victorian Railway Department for many years
has employed this size, and fixes 30 cwt. as the load, and so does
the Victorian Water Supply in their Goulburn Weir specification,
while the New South Wales Railway Department in the case of
Penrith Bridge asked for 27 cwt.. Now, all my experience leads
me to regard a 30 ewt. test as impracticably high. Theory would
lead us to conclude that bars of this latter size would be four
times as strong as the inch bars previously referred to, in which
case 28 cwt. or 3136 lbs. would be a fair test, corresponding to
that used’ in South Australia. All my experience with colonial
castings, however, leads me to the conclusion that a 2-inch by
l-inch bar is far from being four times as strong as one an inch
square, a conclusion that is not very astonishing when one con-
siders the nature of the material and the hardening effect of the
rapid cooling of the external skin. The results I have so far
obtained range for sound sand-castings from 2116 to 2850 Ilbs.,
and I do not think the standard should be fixed higher than
2450 lbs., or say 22 cwt., which is barely 3°3 times as much as
the smaller bars endure. Our president, Professor Warren,
informs me that he has never known such a bar to carry more
than 28 ewt., or 3136 lbs., and that 25 cwt. is a good test. My
own experience, as above stated, leads me to a still lower figure.

Some engineers specify not only a test load, but also a
deflection that must be reached before fracture, arguing that a
very hard iron might carry a large weight gradually applied, but
at the same time be so deficient in resilience as to be very easily
fractured by a blow. This view is, I think, reasonable, and from
my own experience I would suggest a 23-inch as the least allow-

lod

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. 719

abie deflection, when on the point of fracture, for a bar l-inch
square and 3 feet span,and ,°, for a bar 2-inches deep and the same
span. It is to be noted that the best results are obtained from
a test-bar when so placed that the side in tension is that which
was lowest in the mould during casting.

The test for wrought-iron is usually by direct tension, and,
unless the test-piece be made most undesirably small, requires
comparatively powerful appliances, such as are usually found only
in a well-equipped engineering laboratory. Such a laboratory
exists at the best engineering colleges, and also at important
arsenals and the works of some of the leading manufacturers in
Europe and America. The Universities of Sydney and Melbourne
are provided with these appliances, and are frequently. resorted to
by the colonial Governments and private engineers.

What, then, should be the specified tenacity of iron for bridge
and boiler work? The various authorities, English and American,
give from 44,800lbs., or 20 tons, to 60,000, or nearly 27 tons, per
square inch in various cases, the lower values being usual in plate
and the higher in bar iron, as is to be expected when the mode of
manufacture is considered. Further, with the same quality of
iron the tenacity of large masses is always somewhat less than
that of smaller or thinner portions, so that the same requirements
cannot be fairly made in the case of large and thick as in that of
smaller or thinner rods and plates. Again, mere tenacity, apart
from other properties, is not a sufficient criterion of quality, for,
as was pointed out by Kirkaldy about twenty years ago, a high
tenacity may be exhibited by a hard, brittle iron, utterly untrust-
worthy for bridge or boiler work ; consequently, the ductility
must be carefully observed and numerically determined.

Let us now, therefore, consider and compare a number of actual
specifications of iron. Those which merely state in vague terms
that the\material shall be of the best quality and subject to the
approval of the engineer may be at once dismissed as belonging
to a bygone chaotic era in engineering, and so may those others
which simply name the material supplied by some particular
manufacturer, followed by the words, “or of equal quality.”

The specification under which the majority of the railway
bridges in this country have been built reads as follows :—“ The
whole of the wrought iron used shall be of good quality, capable
of bearing compression equal to 16 tons per square inch, or a
tensile strain of 20 tons per square inch, without decreasing or
increasing more than 1-625th part of the length of any bar or
plate tested. Plates and bars will be selected by the super-
intending officer, which must be cut to the required form, and
submitted to the above-mentioned tests. The contractor will
have to find all labour, machines, and instruments required for
these experiments, and every lot of iron will be rejected the

720 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J.

specimen of which will not bear the prescribed compressive or
tensile strain.” Now, with reference to this specification, I have
to say that I have never tested, seen, or even heard of any kind
of iron that would comply with it, and I do not believe that such
a material has any existence. An English engineer of the highest
eminence, whose opinion upon it I sought, replied as follows :—
“There is one comfort about the specification you refer to giving
1-625th extension for 20 tons, namely, that no such iron could
have been manufactured, and therefore the bridges must have
been built of something else; let us hope good Staffordshire
iron.” What the bridges are made of I have no means of
knowing ; but this I do know, that of all the iron I have tested,
that which approached most nearly to this specification was hard,
brittle, and utterly unsuited for the construction of works upon
which the security of human life depends. All fairly good iron
extends more than thirty times as much as this extraordinary
specification permits.

About four years ago the construction branch of the Railway
Department gave up the preceding specification, and in lieu
thereof required the metal to endure a tension of 20 tons per
square inch, and to elongate at /east 7 per cent. Now, while the
old specification excluded all iron known to me, this, by a strange
contrast, includes almost all. I have never yet met with a
specimen of bar-iron that would not carry 20 tons per square
inch, and that did not elongate at least 7 per cent before
fracturing, and only two of plate-iron, and one of these was cut
from an exploded boiler of considerable age. The specification
is, in fact, absurdly lenient, and consequently affords no real
protection to the public.

The earlier specifications of the New South Wales Railway
Department were on the same lines as the first-mentioned
Victorian specification, requiring a hard, unyielding iron, and
expressly forbiddjng that quality of ductility which is now
recognised by all competent authorities as being so highly
desirable. At the Penrith Bridge, which was one of the earliest,
test-pieces, two inches wide and half an inch thick, were to be
cut from the plates, and when tested were not to stretch more
than one-eighth of an inch in seven inches with 18 tons, quarter
of an inch with 21 tons, half an inch with 23 tons, and three-
quarters of an inch with 24 tons, and were not to break with less
than 25 tons. (See Maw and Dredge, Road and Railway
Bridges, p. 9.) Now, whether this specification was enforced or
not I cannot say, but I think probably not, as plate-iron of 25
tons, or 56,000 lbs. per square inch tenacity, is a thing I know
of only by reading, and even that was accompanied by a ductility
far above what this specification permits. Still, this test is not so
utterly impracticable as the earlier Victorian one, as it permits at
20 tons per square inch about twenty times as much elongation.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. (Al

A more recent New South Wales railway specification gives
50,000 lbs. as the required tenacity of tee and angle iron, and
45,000 lbs. as that of plates along the grain, the contraction of
area at point of fracture being 15 per cent. in the first, and 10
per cent. in the second, and the elongation not less than nine or
more than 124 per cent. on a length of eight inches. It is also
demanded that no permanent set shall take place with 24,000 lbs.
per square inch. Now, this is 4 reasonable specification, showing
some knowledge of the properties and behaviour under stress of
the material. It also takes into account, as it should, the
difference of tenacity of bars and plates owing to the different
mode of manufacture. In these respects it contrasts most
favourably with those preceding.

The South Australian Railway specifications for bridge iron
also bear evidence of careful consideration, and of progressive
modification with accumulating experience. That of the Terowie
and Pichi-Richi Railway, dated 1880, requires a tenacity of
22 tons, or 49,280 lbs., for general purpose iron, 21 tons, or
47,040 lbs., for plates, and 22 tons, or 49,280 lbs. for angle irons
for girder making, with 8-3 per cent. elongation, and 24 tons, or
53,760 lbs., for rivets and bolts, with 16-7 per cent. elongation;
while that of the Palmerston and Pine Creek Railway, dated
1885, is still more precise, requiring 21 tons, or 47,040 lbs., with
10 per cent. contraction for plates along the grain; 18 tons, or
40,320 lbs., with 5 per cent. contraction for plates across the
grain; 22 tons, or 49,280 lbs., with 15 per cent. contraction for
angle, channel, tee and girder iron and flats over six inches
wide ; and 24 tons, or 53,760 lbs., with 20 per cent. contraction
for round and square iron and flats under six inches wide ; while
for general purpose iron the requirement of the former specifica-
tion is repeated. In both these specifications there is a list of
names of recognised makers, from one or other of whom the
material must be obtained.

The most complete and elaborate specifications I have so far
met with are those agreed upon by thirteen of the leading
American bridge-building firms or companies, and which repre-
sents the result of an experience of bridge-building infinitely
‘ beyond what any other body of men can claim. They read as
follows :—

1. All wrought iron must be tough, ductile, fibrous, and of
uniform quality for each class, free from cinder pockets or
injurious flaws, buckles, blisters, or cracks. As the thickness of
the bars approaches the maximum that the rolls will produce, the
same perfection of finish will not be required as in the thinner
ones.

2. No specific process or provision of manufacture will be
demanded, provided the material fulfils the requirements of the
specification.

ayy

722 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J

3. The tensile strength, limit of elasticity, and ductility shall
be determined from a standard test-piece, not less than one-
quarter of an inch in thickness, cut from the full-size bar, and
planed or turned parallel if the cross-section is reduced; the
tangent between shoulders shall be at least twelve times its
shortest dimension, and the area of minimum cross-section in
either case shall not be less than one-quarter of a square inch, or
more than one square inch. Whenever practicable, two opposite
sides of the piece are to be left as they come from the rolls, but
the finish of the opposite sides must be the same in this respect.
A full-size bar, when not exceeding the above limitations, may be
used as its own test-piece. In determining the ductility, the
elongation shall be measured, after breaking, on an original length
the nearest multiple of a quarter of an inch to ten times the
shortest dimension of the test-piece (in which length must occur
the curve of reduction from stretch on both sides of the point of
fracture), but in no case on a shorter length than 5 inches.

4, All iron to be used in the tensile members of open trusses,
laterals, pins and bolts, except plate-iron over 8 inches wide and
shaped iron, must show by the standard test-pieces a tensile
strength in pounds per square inch of

7000 x area of original bar

52,000 — — (all in inches).

circumference of original bar

with an elastic limit not less than one-half the strength given by
this formula and an elongation of 20 per cent.

5, Plate-iron 24 inches wide and under, and more than 8 inches
wide, must show by the standard test-pieces a tensile strength of
48,000 pounds per square inch, with an elastic limit of not less
than 26,000 pounds per square inch, and an elongation of not less
than 12 per cent. All plates over 24 inches in width must have a
tensile strength not less than 46,000 pounds per square inch, with
an elastic limit of not less than 26,000 pounds per square inch.
Plates from 24 inches to 36 inches in width must have an elonga-
tion of not less than 10 per cent.; those from 36 inches to 48
inches in width, 8 per cent.; over 48 inches in width, 5 per
cent.

6. All shaped iron, and other iron not hereinbefore specified,
must show by the standard test-pieces a tensile strength in pounds
per square inch of

50,000 — 7000 x area of original bar

circumference of original bar

with an elastic limit of not less than one-half the strength given
by this formula, and an elongation of 15 per cent. for bars five-
eighths of an inch and less in thickness, and of 12 per cent. for
bars of greater thickness.

7. All plates, angles, &c., which are to be bent hot in the
manufacture must, in addition to the above requirements, be

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. 723

capable of bending sharply to a right angle at a working heat
without sign of fracture.

8. All rivet-iron must be tough and soft, and pieces the full
diameter of the rivet must be capable of bending cold until the
sides are in close contact without sign of fracture on the convex
side of the curve.

9. Alliron specified in clause 4 must bend cold 180 degrees,
without sign of fracture, to a curve, the inner radius of which
equals the thickness of the piece tested.

10. Specimens of full thickness, cut from plate-iron, or from
flanges or webs of shaped-iron, must stand bending cold through
90 degrees to a curve, the inner radius of which is one and a half
times its thickness, without sign of fracture.

11. For each contract four standard test-pieces, and one
additional for each 50,000 lbs. of wrought-iron, will, if required, be
furnished and tested by the contractor without charge, and if
any additional tests are required by the purchaser they will be
made for him at the rate of five dollars each ; or, if the contractor
desires additional tests, they shall be made at his own expense,
under the supervision of the purchaser, the quality of the material
to be determined by the result of all the tests in the manner set
forth in the following clause.

12. The respective requirements stated are for an average of
the tests for each, and the lot of bars or plates from which samples
were selected shall be accepted if the tests give such average
results ; but if any test-piece gives results more than 4 per cent.
below the requirements, the particular bar from which it was
taken may be rejected, but such test shall be included in making
the average. If any test-piece has a manifest flaw its test shall
not be considered.. For each bar thus giving results more than
4 per cent. below the requirements, tests from two additional bars
shall be furnished by the contractor without charge, and if in a
total of not more than ten tests, two bars (or for a larger number
of tests a proportionately greater number of bars) show results
more than 4 per cent. below the requirements, it shall be cause
for rejecting the lot from which the sample-bars were taken.
Such lots shall not exceed 20 tons in weight, and bars of a single
pattern, plates rolled in universal-mill or in grooves, and sheared-
plates, shall each constitute a separate lot.

13. The inspection and tests of the material will be made
promptly on its being rolled, and the quality determined before
it leaves the rolling-mill. All necessary facilities for this purpose
shall be afforded by the manufacturer; but if the inspector is
not present to make the necessary tests, after due notice given
him, then the contractor shall proceed to make such number of tests
of the iron then being rolled as may have been agreed upon ; or, in
absence of any special agreement, the number provided for in clause

11, and the quality of such material shall be determined thereby.
72

724 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J.

14. A variation in cross-section or weight of rolled material of
more than 2} */ from that specified may be cause for rejection.

Agreed to by the Keystone Bridge Co., Phenix Bridge Co.,
Union Bridge Co., Edge Moor Iron Co., New Jersey Steel and
Tron Co., Passaic Rolling Mill Co., Detroit Bridge and Iron
Works, Morse Bridge Co., Massilon Bridge Co., Cofrode and
Saylor, John F. Alden, C. J. Schutz, and D. H. Andrews.*

This American specification is most admirable in its complete-
ness, and deserving of the highest regard. Next in merit to it J
place the South Australian and recent New South Wales specifi-
cations, and the rest, in racing parlance, nowhere. Could the
American specification be generally introduced into Australian
practice it would be a very great advantage. I fear, however, its
elaboration and complication would be objected to by contractors.
As a concession, therefore, I would suggest a specification more
on the lines of the late South Australian ones, as follows :—

For Iron Bripcres, Rours AND SIMILAR STKUCTURES.

Tendoity, | | | ee ee

Round, square and flat iron, of

not more than 4 sq. in. section 50,009 lbs. 18 per cent.
Angle channel, tee and girder,

also flats of more than 4 sq. in.

tection ... a See oe 47,000 lbs. 7 12 per cent.
Plates under 24 in. wide along

agit one as ee are 45,000 Ibs. | 8 per cent.
Plates under 24 in. wide across

canal ape seh 3 Lae 40,000 lbs. 4. per cent.
Plates above 24 in. wide along

nvgehbal © 0h 3- ae a0 ... | 46,000 Ibs. 6 per cent.
Plates above 24 in. wide across

erainy er. ais a6 ab 40,000 lbs. | 3 per cent.

In compiling this proposed set of standards, I have followed
particulars given by all good authorities accessible to me, checked
by a number of original experiments of my own, made by means
of the University testing machine. In adopting elongation rather
than contraction of area as a measure of ductility, I have been
guided by the American practice, and also by my own experience,
which is that elongation can be measured with greater ease and

% Extracted from “General Specifications for Highway Bridges in Iron and Steel.” By
J. A. L. Waddell, Consulting Bridge Engineer, Kansas City, Mo., United States,

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. 725
certainty than contraction of area. I have left out the require-
ment as to elastic limit which occurs in the American specifica-
tions, because I fear it would be perplexing to the majority of
those that have to use the specifications, and further, because I
have never yet found an iron good in respect to tenacity and
elongation that was not also up to the American standard as to
elastic limit.

In actually testing the material certain precautions are neces-
sary. If possible, recourse should be had to a proper testing
machine, such as exists at the Sydney or Melbourne University.
Failing this, extemporised machines may be used, but in this case
great care must be taken to ensure absence of friction, accuracy
of leverage, and gradual application of load without shock or
vibration. The preparation of the test-pieces also requires care,
and my own experience of the difficulty of getting proper test-
pieces made, especially in the case of flat bars or plate-iron, has
induced me to have a special milling machine constructed,
whereby the test-pieces can be properly prepared under my own
supervision. Specimens of the work of this machine are upon
the table.

TABULAR STATEMENT OF SPECIFIED TESTS OF CAST AND
Wrovucut I[rRon.

1.—Cast IRon.

Rankine a a ie |, Salts 1 -Lanesg. || 470 to 1036
Trautwine 3 ft. 1 in. sq. 500 to 900
Stoney 3 ft. 1 in. sq 847
Victorian Water Supply 3 ft. 1 in. sq 672
South Australian Railways 3 ft. | lin.sq 784
American Bridge Companies | 4ft. 6in. | Tinisqes =| 500
Author’s own tests Sith: iin sage 700 to 1050
N.S.W. Railways—
Penrith Bridge 3 ft. | 2in.x lin. 3024.

| Victorian Water Supply 3 ft. | 2in.x.1in. 3360

Prof. Warren’s highest 3 ft. | 2in. xin. 3136

| Author’s own tests... 3 ft. | 2in.xlin. | 2116 to 2850

bo |
LS
for)

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J.

2.—WRovuguT [Ron.

| Tenacity. Elongation. Caner ees of
Victorian Railways-— | |
Ist specification ... | 44,800 | -16 per cent. =
Victorian Railways—
2nd specification ...| 44,800 7 rs =
N.S.W. Railways— |
Penrith Bridge .| 56,000 | 10 5 —_—
N.S.W. Railways—
Recent specification,
tee and angle ... | 50,000 | 9 to 123,, 15 per cent.
Plate ... aa 4, |) 45,000) | 9 todl2a.5 me lORies
South Australian Railways—
Earlier specification,
general purpose iron | 49,280 — as
Plates we .. | 47,040 8:3 3 ==
Angleirons ... zn OL 280) 8°3 on =
Rivets and bolts soa || Se erAale) 16°7 99 eas
Recent specification,
general purpose iron 49,280 — —
Plates along grain... | 47,040 — 10 per cent.
Plates across grain ... | 40,320 — Bee 6g
Angle channel, tee | |
girder & flats over6in. | 49,280 | = 15 ee
Round, square & flats |
under 6in. ... sso |) BSHAOO — 205 ae

For American tests, see body of paper.

3.—NOTES ON THE SUBJECT OF TOWN DRAINAGE.
By Witiiam Parker, Assoc, M.Inst.C.E.
[ Adstract. |
Tuer author points out that, while in the near future a proper
system for the conveyance and purification of sewage will be

adopted by all towns of any size in the colony, yet a considerable
time must elapse before this is done. In the meantime, a great

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. 127

deal of work will have to be carried out by the municipalities in
the extension and improvement of their present arrangements.
If this work is carried out piecemeal, as at present, it will be
almost impossible to incorporate it afterwards in general schemes
for applying the separate system. The author advocates an
intelligent foresight being now exercised, and, where possible,
complete schemes for sewerage being prepared, so that, as far as
possible, all future work could be carried out on permanent lines.
By this means it would be possible to avoid, in a great measure,
the heavy loss experienced at home in carrying out new sewerage
works, of having either to discard or radically alter existing
sewers. As the methods of purification best suited to this colony
are those of treatment upon land, preparations for the future
should include the early acquisition of sites for sewage farms.
In England enormous sums have had to be paid by some towns
to landowners holding the monopoly of land on which the sewage
of towns could be treated by gravitation, and in this colony sites
for sewage farms might now be obtained at prices much short of
those which will have to be paid in ten, or even five, years from
the present time.

4.—GAUGING OF RIVERS.
By Grorce Gorpon, M.Inst.C.E.

[ Abstract. |

THE object of the paper was to draw the attention of engineers
specially to some possible disturbing elements in the observations
from which the volume of discharge of large rivers is reckoned.
After describing the difficulty of obtaining accurate measure-
ments of the velocity by means of floats, and the superiority in
most cases of measurements made by current meters, notwith-
standing some difficulties inseparable from use of the latter, the
paper touched on the selection of such a site for the observations
as would reduce the errors to a minimum, and then proceeded to
treat of the disturbances in the gaugings caused by the curye
of the flood-wave, as well as by freshes in the tributaries
and by outflows from the main river into ana-branches and
swamps, and of the means of applying the necessary corrections,
as well as of some methods by which the observations are
facilitated. The author pointed out the necessity of frequently
repeated measurements of the sectional area and velocity
owing to the frequent changes of the river-bed during floods,
and expressed the opinion that bodies who had the control of
rivers should be required to furnish reliable returns of the
discharge of rivers at all times. A hope was also expressed that
the Governments of the colonies would in time be induced to
establish such recording stations on all the principal rivers as
would furnish results of observations that would be of use not
only for practical but also for scientitic purposes.

728 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J.

5.—IRRIGATION WORKS IN AUSTRALIA: HOW
THEY MAY BE MADE REMUNERATIVE.

By W. W. Cutcnern, M.Inst.0.E.
[ Adstract. |

1. THE main deductions on the points dealt with in this paper
may be briefly summarised as follows :—

(a) If irrigation is entirely optional, the landowners being
quite free to take the water or not as they like, the
revenue derived from water-rates is not likely to be
sufficient to pay interest as well as working expenses
for very many years to come.

(4) If irrigation be made in a measure compulsory, by the
landowners having to pay a general rate to enable the
Trusts to meet their engagements with the Government,
a speedy extension of irrigation may be expected.

(c) The general rate for the payment of interest should be
levied from the commencement of operations. It would
usually be a low rate at first, owing to payment of part
of the interest only being then required.

(2) The instalments of interest payable should increase
yearly by equal increments, and should not depend in
any way on the area irrigated.

(ec) The landowners must agree to pay two charges—one, a
general rate to meet interest on loan, to be paid by all ;
and the other to defray working expenses, to be paid by
those only to whom water is supplied.

(7) Further. concessions regarding payment of interest
should be made only on condition that a general rate is
levied to meet the charge.

(g) The appointment by the Government of experts, one to
advise the Trusts which are in difficulties how to regulate
their operations, and the other to advise the farmers
how to use the water, would probably do much good.

2. An endeavour was made’in the paper to show how the Trusts
may carry out the task which they undertook to perform, and for
which they have been constituted, in a manner that is likely to
result satisfactorily to all concerned. The works should be
managed on commercial principles, and not as ordinary municipal
institutions. A competent manager should be appointed, and
interfered with as little as possible. An Irrigation Trust, formed
under the Act, is really a company, the liability of which is
unlimited. All the landowners in the district are shareholders,

es

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. 729

and a general rate is merely a call made by the directors (who
are, in this case, termed commissioners) to meet certain liabilities.
The profits are obtained in the increased value of all property in
the district.

ea

*“3. The points that the Trusts need to bear in mind to enable
them to meet their liabilities, or, at least to put them in the best
position to do so, are—

(a) All the landowners should be prepared either to take
the water, or to dispose of their share to those who may
wish to take it.

(6) Water should be taken by the landowners in turn as
arranged by the Trust. All should take their chance
of any deficiency occurring on the dates fixed for them.

(c) Payment should be made for the water for the season,
whether used or not. ;

(Zz) In any case of special hardship, owing to a short supply,
the Trust might remit the whole or part of the water-
rates, but not the general rate to meet charges for
interest.

4. For adoption by the Trusts, the following suggestions are
made with a view of obtaining the best results :—

(az) Alloutlets to be designed to deliver, as nearly as possible,
the same quantity of water in a given time.

(4) The whole district to be subdivided into areas of a
convenient size, say for instance 80 acres, each to have
its own outlet. The large selections would then have
several outlets, while two or three of the small selec-
tions could have one outlet between them.

(c) Lists should be prepared at the commencement of a
season showing the dates on which each outlet could
be opened.

(2) Each outlet to be kept open (if required) for a certain
time only, say 24 hours, on the dates mentioned in the
list, and at all other times to remain closed.

5. The Victorian Irrigation Trusts were started on a system
that was_likely to lead to the best results. The Trusts seem,
however, to have failed to realise the magnitude of the task that
lay before them, and finding themselves in difficulties are now
asking for concessions from the Government, which, if granted
unconditionally, will not assist in improving matters. They are
more likely to induce greater laxity, and render further conces-
sions necessary at no distant period. Before concessions are
thought of in the case of any Trust, a special enquiry might well
be instituted with a view of ascertaining the causes of the Trust’s
inability to carry out its engagements.

730 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J.

6.—THE LAYING OUT OF TOWNS.
By Joun Surman, F.R.I.B.A.

A typicaL Australian town is made up, like a chessboard, of
a number of co-equal squares or rectangles. The chief merit
of such a plan is its simplicity, and the ease with which the
work of the surveyor can be performed. The defects are, how-
ever, many, and it is a thousand pities that a work of such great
importance to the future millions of Australia should be performed
with so little thought and care. Unfortunately, the plans of most
of our existing towns are fixed beyond the possibility of radical
alteration, but there are many more yet to be located where now
the gum-tree grows, and suburbs to be formed on sites at present
innocent of the surveyor’s peg. In these, at least, we may avoid
past errors, and make some attempt at a more rational system. How
such a desirable end is to be attained I hope to point out very
briefly under the five headings of ‘ Location,” ‘ Utilisation,”
‘“‘ Decoration,” ‘ Legislation,” and “ Realisation.”

LocaTIOoNn.

In the first place a town should only be laid out where the
conditions for its growth are present, such as a considerable area
of surrounding agricultural land, subterranean mineral wealth, or
at points suitable for trade, like the convergence of highways, an
important railway junction, or a point of shipment. Too often
these conditions are wanting, and then (if of Government origin)
it is a direct loss to the community; if privately promoted it is
still a loss, but indirectly through individuals. A comparison of
the country maps with the country itself will show many an
apparently extensive town still covered with thick brush from
which even the surveyor’s pegs have totally disappeared.
Granted, however, the necessary conditions for growth, the
natural healthiness of the site is the next point to consider.
Much may, no doubt, be done by the skill of engineers to
improve an unhealthy site; but in a new country, where the land
is practically unlimited, it is little short of a crime to permit any
town to be formed which, from its location, will encourage disease.
The most patent evils to guard against are swampy or flooded
land and an impervious sub-soil. Of the former there are by far
too many exAmples. I will describe one. In a rich, agricultural
district of the parent colony a Government township was laid out
many years ago on rising ground near the banks of a river. The
upset price was low, but just on the other side of the stream a
large area of land was possessed by a drunken old settler, which
was, however, flooded in wet seasons. So far as position was
concerned either bank would serve, as the river was bridged.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. tok

Cheapness, however, won the day, and the flooded land was
purchased in blocks at the price of a bottle of rum, by ignorant
new chums, and on it the town was built. Every few years the
river comes down a banker, covers the town several feet deep in
mud and water, and leaves behind a legacy of who can say how
much suffering and death. Now the inhabitants are petitioning
for extensive works of embankment, and in course of time will,
no doubt, obtain a large grant of public money for the purpose.
If surface unsuitability is thus ignored, what may we expect
when the subsoil is in question? Its importance as bearing on
the health of a town can scarcely be exaggerated, but it rarely
receives a thought. As a flagrant example, I will describe a
noted health resort. Picturesque hills surround a green valley on
almost every side Thesurface soil is loamy and fairly pervious, but
at eight to twelve feet in depth an impervious bed of clay under-
lies the whole of the valley. At any point water may be reached
by digging to that depth, and above this clay bed the town is
laid out. At present it is little more than a large village, but
when its vacant lots are filled up, and the surface soil is choked
by impurities, what will be the death-rate of that place? An
expensive system of Jand drainage at the public cost will be an
absolute necessity to palliate the evil of wrong selection, though it
can never be a cure, and the worst of it is that a few miles away,
on the most direct route, there is land possessing all the requisites
of a healthy site, except that of railway communication, which
was engineered on to the inferior land by political influence.
Assuming, however, the natural healthiness of the site, its
artificial preservation when occupied by a large population is the
next point to consider. Three conditions are essential viz.:—An
abundant supply of good water, at a sufficient elevation and
within a reasonable distance, adequate surface drainage for storm
waters, and levels that will permit of a system of underground
sewers with a suitable outlet and area of land for the disposal of
the effluents. How few of our towns possess all these, and how
many lack them ?

>
UTILISATION.

The typical mode of sub-division I have already alluded to,
and it is very useful from the “pay your money, take your
choice,” and “do as you like” point of view. Blind chance
in such a case determines the future of each street of block, and
the game of “beggar my neighbour” is too often played by
adjoining owners with opposing views or interests in the buildings
they erect. It isacase of individualism run mad. And with
no better result than that in the course of years, and after many
rebuildings, some kind of order and classification will have been
evolved out of the chaos of the commencement. Whereas it

Teo PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J,

should not be forgotten a modern town is an organism with
distinct functions for its different members requiring separate
treatment, and it is just as easy to allot these to suitable
positions at first, as to allow them to be shaken with more or less
difficulty into place, while the final result obtained under the
latter system is not to be compared with that of the first—either
on the score of convenience, utility, or beauty. It will be
conceded without dispute that the centre round which town life
revolves is the seat of its government, hence the town-hall should
be allotted the best and most central position. Closely adjoining
it sites should be reserved for other public buildings, such as the
post-office, court-house, and district land office, and near by
opportunities should be given for the erection of semi-public
buildings, such as banks, offices of public companies, theatres, and
places of amusement, hotels, clubs, and possibly one or two
churches, though the latter are best located in the residential
districts. The buildings most used by the population would thus
be grouped together, and a great saving in traffic effected, as
compared with the present plan of haphazard distribution. To
prevent congestion, the absolute centre should form an open
reserve, and from this broad and direct roads, or boulevards,
should radiate to the surrounding country, the railway station, or
navigable river. The exact lines these should take can only
be determined after careful study of each specific case.
Now fill in between these radiating boulevards with ordinary
streets, and with the addition of a few diagonal lines
we shall obtain a plan far more useful for inter-communication
than any arranged on a _ rectangular basis. In fact, it
will resemble that marvel of ingenuity, a spider’s web, than
which nothing could be better devised for rapid access to all
parts of its surface. Immediately around the central nucleus the
business quarters would be located, while retail trade would
naturally extend for some distance along the main arteries of
traffic; and farther out, as the spaces between the main lines
became wider, the residental quarters would find their place.
But these ehould not be extended too far without a break, and if
the admirable example of Adelaide could be followed by
introducing a belt of parklands, the gain to the health of the
town or city would be great. Beyond this belt of open ground,
as the town increased in size, suburbs would naturally spring up,
and these, according to local conditions of soil, elevation and
accessibility to rail or water communication, would naturally
subdivide themselves into residential or manufacturing. One of
the latter should, in all cases, be restricted to the use of noxious
trades. The question how far the heart of the town should be
placed from the railway or river is an open one, and it would
probably result, in many cases, that rail or river would form a
chord, cutting off a considerable part of the complete circle. The

ee

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. 733:

foregoing ideal sketch assumes a fairly level site, but where this
condition is absent the gradients should be most carefully con-
sidered. And here, again, the cast-iron uniformity of the chess-
board type shows its entire unsuitability to varying natural
conditions. I have in my mind’s eye ludicrous examples of this.
For instance, there is a fairly level cathedral city in New South
Wales, possessing towards one corner a steep hill from which
there is a beautiful view. This would have formed a most
admirable reserve, but it so happens that two streets intersect
exactly at the top of the hill. They are too steep for traftic, and
hence the town council is compelled to laboriously cut away the
very boon which nature had provided the city with. Again, at a
health resort on the Blue Mountains, most irregular and
diversified in contour, the chess-board plan has produced streets
up and down which it is difficult even to walk, and for horse
traffic they are practically impassable, whereas by the use of
curved roads following the natural configuration of the hills, easy
gradients could have been obtained at a tithe of the cost for
construction, and they would also have been immeasurably more
useful to the inhabitants.

DECORATION.

The beauty, or otherwise, of town or city must have an effect
on its inhabitants. The long, unlovely street pictured by our
poet laureate could not but depress even the least sensitive of its
residents, and the evil is aggravated when, as in a chess-board
city, the streets are all alike. Now, the “spider’s web” plan
possesses not only the advantage of convenience, but also of
variety, and we all know that “variety is charming.” Scarcely
any two of the blocks would be exactly the same size, the angles
made by the streets with each other would differ, and these
together with the trapezoidal allotments, would call for special
treatment. In the hands of an architect who knows how to use
it, an irregular site is a godsend. Such a site enables him to get
out of the beaten track, and design something fresh and original,
while even the tyro cannot make his structure absolutely like
everything else. Then as to the streets—their width should be
ample, both on the score of health and beauty, but they should
not be all the same. Taking one chain as a minimum for side
streets, three chains are not too great for the main arteries or
boulevards. This width would allow of their subdivision into
three roads, with intervening footpaths and rows of trees, the
central road being paved for heavy traflic and tram lines. There
are some examples of this type in Melbourne, and their manifold
advantages will be more and more appreciated as population
increases. And, in passing, let me pay a tribute of praise to the
vigorous way in which the municipal councils of Victoria have

734 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J.

carried out tree-planting in the streets, and in that respect
Ballarat may, I think, be awarded the place of honour. In com-
parison, the attempts made in the other colonies are but half
hearted, though I hope the time will soon come when they will
emulate the good example set by Victoria. Moreover, the intro-
duction of trees in large numbers in the heart of cities is a wise
sanitary precaution, for the carbonic acid gas human beings
exhale is absorbed by vegetation, which in turn gives off the
oxygen we need. Hitherto I have only referred to straight
streets set at irregular angles, let me now put in a word as to
the advantages of curved lines. | It is said that ‘“‘ Nature abhors
a straight line,” and so does art unless relieved by curves. As a
source of beauty the curved line is of inestimable value. Imagine
what Collins Street would be without its undulation of surface !
It is that which gives it the charm it possesses. On a level or
nearly level site a curve in plan may often be introduced with the
greatest advantage. It may be detined formally and regularly as
in a quadrant or circus, or so gentle in its sweep as to be scarcely
perceptible at the first glance. Of the former I may instance the
quadrant in Regent Street, London, and the latter that exquisite
example the High Street at Oxford. To carry the principle still
farther, a sinuous line may occasionally be found serviceable
where local conditions permit, and of this there is no finer speci-
men in the world than the Grand Canal at Venice, though to be
sure it is a water-way, but for all that is the chief street of the
city of the sea. The Strand in London is another example, and
even in this southern hemisphere I may refer with satisfaction to
the irregular lines of George and King Streets in Sydney. In all
these the continual unfolding of fresh views is the great charm,
and for my part I am devoutly thankful that one or two at least
of the old Sydney streets were formed by bullock-waggons rather
than by the surveyor’s chain. Their narrowness I do not defend,
but that is quite another matter. In planning a new town,
however, it should never be forgotten that a curve ought only to
be laid down when it serves a practical purpose, and in more
cases than at first appear likely it will be found to serve the
purposes of communication better than a straight line, especially
in easing off the connections of one street with another. I have
already alluded to reserves, and on this point there is usually
little fault to be found with Australian towns, as far as the mere
amount of them is concerned, but their shape is nearly always the
prosaic square or rectangle, in which there is no beauty. Further-
more, the worst is made of them by running roads along the four
sides, instead of leading up to them. Now, instead of this, in the
spider’s web plan there is the possibility of introducing reserves
of all shapes and sizes, and so securing variety of form. Again,
wherever a number of streets converge there should be an enlarge-
ment of the area, with a refuge in the centre. What this means

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. 735

in the future can only be realised by those who have seen and
observed the planning of the new quarters in the continental
cities of Europe. It is of the greatest value for traffic, and of
inestimable worth for architectural effect. And of these enlarge-
ments the central square or reserve would of necessity be the
finest. Such a grouping of public buildings around it as I have
suggested would give importance to even a small town, and form
another example of the value of combination as opposed to
separation. Together, their effect would be doubled; separated,
it would be halved.

LEGISLATION.

Where a new town is laid out on Government land it would be
easy to adopt a new system of planning, but I have little hope in
this direction. The bonds of routine are too strong. In those
laid out by private enterprise, the principal and, I may almost
say, only aim is to produce the greatest cash return at the lowest
outlay. At present it is believed this may be done by the
rectangular system. On the ground of the public health and
well-being, I think it is perfectly legitimate that the almost
absolute freedom to lay out a town anywhere, and in any fashion,
should be somewhat limited, and such limitation would prove in
the end a gain to the promoters as well as to the public. I would
therefore suggest the following regulations as reasonable :—1.
That the erection of buildings for human occupation be absolutely
prohibited on flooded land; 2. That no town be laid out on soil
of unhealthy character, such as a morass or over an impervious
subsoil; 3. That no title be registered for any allotment less than
1-20th of an acre in area, and that no lease containing a building
covenant be valid for any site of less area (the object of this
clause is to limit density of population and insanitary conditions) ;
4, That the area of streets and reserves be equal to one-third the
area leased or sold for occupation; 5. That no town or suburb
contain a greater area than one square mile, with a belt of
reserved land at least 3th of a mile in width between the same and
the adjoining suburb; 6. That before any land is sold or leased
in allotments, if less than one acre in area, official sanction to the
plans be obtained, and that this sanction be withheld unless a
satisfactory scheme of drainage and water supply be submitted at
the same time, but for future realisation. At the present time,
when it is beginning to be understood that the land is the heritage
of the whole people, and its absolute ownership is permitted to
individuals only as a matter of convenience, the right of the
community to enforce provisions against misuse is, I think,
undoubted ; and when this misuse takes so glaring a form as
originating conditions that must inevitably tend to produce
diseases it is the absolute duty of the State to interfere. As in
medicine, so in legislation, “‘ Prevention is better than cure.”

736 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J.

REALISATION.

The scheme I have propounded is no ideal one; it is quite
within the sphere of practical politics, and if anything is to be
done a commencement should be made at once. It is a matter
not only affecting one colony, but all, and the meeting of this
Association affords the opportunity to take action. A recom-
mendation to the Government of each colony from such a body
as the General Council, backed up by the personal influence of its
members, would at least secure attention. And if, at the same
time, the general public could be instructed through the Press, a
great advance would become possible, more especially as I believe
the time is ripe fora change. The evils of the old “ happy-go-
lucky” system are beginning to be felt, and already, in at least
two instances, private corporations are taking the initiative. I
refer to the well-arranged suburb of Kensington, near Sydney,
the plan of which I have carefully examined and can highly
recommend; and to that of Hopetoun, near Melbourne, of which
I know less. The plans of Kensington were designed by an
architect, laid out by a surveyor, and checked by an engineer.
This is as it should be. The architect is the one man who by
training and experience combines in himself a knowledge of all
the conditions of town-planning, and to him should be entrusted
the task of initiation. He is, or should be, conversant with all
kinds of buildings and their requirements, the general principles
of form and beauty, the devising of good lines of access and
communication, and the requirements of sanitary science. At
the same time, the surveyor should be jointly associated with the
architect, as he has a practical acquaintance with the details of
laying-out, and would naturally carry forward the scheme to
completion in the field ; while the engineer comes in as a valued
and necessary specialist on the questions of drainage and water
supply, &e. I therefore claim, on behalf of my professicn, the
honoured position we once occupied, but froin which we have been
too long excluded, viz., that of chief designers of our towns and
cities, and this claim is being recognised. Those shrewd business
men, the auctioneers and land agents of Melbourne and Sydney,
are beginning to appreciate the aid we can give, as they find that
it Jays. The field thus opening is one that will require the highest
skill, and may well satisfy the ambition of the most talented
among us; and if, at the same time, we can secure the aid of
such legislation as I have indicated, we may indulge in the hope
that the towns of the future will far surpass those of the present
in convenience, healthfulness, and beauty.

7.—ILLUMINATING PUBLIC CLOCKS.
By Sypney Gippons, F.C.8.

lod

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. 137

8._SAFETY APPLIANCES ON STEAM BOILERS.
By A. O. Sacuse, C.E., M.E., M.S.E., London, F.R.G.S.

[ Abstract. |

Tue paper refers particularly to the perfunctory manner and
“ penny-wise pound-foolish” policy in which steam boilers are
mounted with safety appliances. Mountings are sometimes used,
_ sometimes not (just in accordance with specifications), irrespective,
in most instances, of the exact capacity or requirements of the
special pattern of the boiler, its method of setting, quality, or
kind of fuel to be used, and other local peculiarities ; and thus it
is that the same sized mountings of orthodox patterns are placed
on boilers of different sizes and peculiarities.

The writer refers at length to the many defects in the design
and adjustment of such apparatus as are now in use, dilating
particularly on the unreliability of low water metallic plugs
and whistle alarms, and strongly deprecates the crass inatten-
tion to the safety valves, and the unsuitability of some of
the materials of their construction. He, moreover, advocates a
dual system of pressure gauge dials and water glasses; and
expresses a high opinion of the value of a late invention of an
automatic safety apparatus, which, by means of a float appliance,
ingeniously connected with a battery, an alarm is given to the
attendant when a “low” or “high” level of water or undue
pressure of steam is attained, and if required registering in a
manager’s office, or other convenient position, an undeniable
record of the height or pressure which the water or steam had
attained ; the probability of oxidation to contact points being
obviated in this invention by the use of diminutive mercury
baths. ‘

Such a system as the latter, he predicts, will be found very
valuable, as not only does its use call the immediate attention of
the stoker to a sense of his duty, by the alarm (which is
sounded at low water level, or undue pressure limit,) but, if this
is disregarded, a second alarm commences, and at the same time
records against him to his superior officer, thus bringing the
culprit immediately under the notice of his employer. Finally,
the author emphasises the importance of a strict care in specifying
all steam boiler safety fittings, and a close periodical scrutiny of
their adjustment and condition, and, in conclusion, advises all
intending users of steam to erect boilers of /arger capacity than
is actually requisite at the time, so that easy stoking, a thorough
combustion (and consequently an economy) of fuel will be
obtained over those steam boilers which have to be driven to
their utmost, and strained in being made to give forth their
maximum power.

*G

738 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J.

9.—COMPRESSED AIR AS A MECHANICAL MEDIUM
IN THE EVAPORATION OF LIQUIDS.

By A. O. Sacusz, C.E., M.E., M.S.E. Lond., F.R.G.S8., &e.

[ Abstract. |

In dealing with this subject, the author of the paper pointed out
that there was no thoroughly satisfactory system of evaporating
liquids at low temperatures yet.engineered. In the present method
of boiling by open heat at a minimum temperature of 212 deg. F.,
he explained that many liquids of commercial manufacture were
seriously damaged, principally by caramelisation, such as in the
manufacture of sugar, the concentration of milk, meat extracts,
and similar substances requiring condensation. After giving a
careful consideration to the vacuum-pan systems, the author
referred to extensive experiments conducted by him during the
past 12 years, in which he made use of compressed air, injected
into the body of a liquid (which was kept at a temperature of
150 to 170 deg.), to produce a mechanical or artificial ebullition.

The paper dwelt upon the success of these trials over the
vacuum process, and called attention to the advantage of this
system in regard to the liquid under treatment, being at all times
exposed to view, and skimming could be freely practised ; whilst
in existing vacuum “double” and “triple” effects the removal of
impurities was a matter of impossibility, which was most injurious
to the successful manufacture of many articles of food, and that
in some districts large quantities of cold water for vacuum main-
tenance were unobtainable.

But whilst giving the compressed-air process much praise, he
stated that the mechanisms now to be obtained for delivering
dry air under pressure were unsatisfactory ; and as air-pumps
were inefficacious for supplying large quantities of air, resort had
to be made to rotary blowers, which latter exhibited many dis-
advantages, principally on account of the great noise produced by
them when working. Contrary to his expectations, he found that
hot air when used produced less evaporative results than that
taken in from the ordinary atmosphere. He advocated a careful
research into the working of this peculiar system of evaporation,
and demonstrated what a boon its successful application would
prove to manufacturers dealing with liquid products requiring
condensation, and especially so to proprietors of small installa-
tions, where the heavy cost of purchase and working rendered the
adoption of the vacuum process prohibitive.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. 739

10.—CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE OF
METALLED ROADS.

By Wiuiam Bace, M.C.E.
| Abstract. |

In deciding what construction to adopt, one must consider the
nature and extent of the traffic upon a road. ~What is required,
in addition to a good route and easy gradients, is a smooth
surface, sound enough to carry the traffic, and one that can be
made and maintained at the least ultimate cost. Where traffic is
light the natural surface may answer, or by small expense in
drainage and formation may be made to answer; as the traffic
increases, 1t may be necessary to use selected local materials to
cover the formation ; and, where this is not sufficient, to metal.

As traftic becomes heavier, repairs and renewals become more
frequent, until the metalled surface no longer satisfies the require-
ment of a smooth surface, the traflic being frequently harassed
during the progress of repairs, and the ultimate cost comes to
exceed that of a more permanent road, such as stone, hardwood,
or asphalt paving upon a concrete foundation.

In constructing a metalled road, the bed below the road should
be sufficiently sound to bear the traftic without sinking, and can
generally be made so by draining and consolidating with roller,
or otherwise, before putting on the bed-metal. Where soft clay
or sand is met with, a layer of loam or turf, or even cut scrub, is
often sufficient to prevent it working up into the metal bed. It
is not an uncommon practice to cover sand with clay, but it makes
a very objectionable foundation. Sand itself is a good founda-
tion. It should be prevented from working up into the metal
from below, and the borders should be covered to prevent it
drifting on to the surface of the metal. The same curvature
should be given to the bed as you give to the finished surface of
the roadway ; a slope of about 1 in 30 from the edges is generally
sufficient, and the same slope should be given to the border, if
any, between the metal and the channel or water-table.

The bed-metal, when properly laid and consolidated, should be
permanent and require no maintenance; its duty is to act as a
foundation to bear and distribute the weight of the traffic. It
need not be of so hard a stone as the surface-metal, and is usually
broken to a larger gauge—3}-inch and 4-inch metal is very
commonly used, but a smaller size is better. It should be well
rolled when spread. The depth depends upon the nature of the
traffic and the soundness of the bed, but 5 inches is deep enough
in most cases. If schist or other soft stone be used it consoli-
dates more rapidly. Good schist metal is being extensively used
for bed-metal in many of our suburban streets, and gives very

*u2

740 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J.

good results, being cheaper than bluestone, more elastic, and
quite strong enough as a bearing surface. Occasionally pitching
is necessary where, with heavy traftic, the bed is too soft to bear
broken metal, but, if resorted to, should be proper Telford pitching,
wedge-shaped stones on edge, with the narrow edge uppermost,
laid in regular courses across the ro oad, breaking bond, and care-
fully hammer-packed with spalls. Rough-pitching is a good deal
used, but I cannot reconcile it with my notions of good road-
making.

The surface-metal should be of a hard and durable material,
and requires renewal from time to time as it is worn away by the
trafic. How to reduce this wear to a minimum is one of the
important problems of road-making, and can best be studied by
observing the chief causes of wear, especially those due to faulty
construction or insufficient care in maintenance. Until a road
is consolidated, the metal below the surface, as it is disturbed
by traffic, is being crushed and injured; after consolidation this
wear ceases as long as the upper surface or skin of the road
remains unbroken. Any loose stones, sand, mud, or water, lying
on the surface increase wear, and should not be allowed to
remain. Loose stones, projections and hollows also cause con-
cussion from wheels passing over them, and tend to wear and
break the surface.

The surface-metal should be broken to a small guage, 2-inch, or
at the most, 24-inch. Opinions differ as to the relative
advantages of machine-broken and hand-broken metal; the

oO
advantage of the former is that it costs less and consolidates more

rapidly i on the other hand, it is claimed that it is not so cubical
or durable as the latter, being injured by crushing in being
broken by machine. The hand-broken metal has to be crushed
by traflic or roller before it consolidates, and I doubt if it is then
any more durable.

The surface-metal should be spread and raked to its proper sec-
tion, the same transverse slope being given as to the bed; large stones
should be broken down with the hammer; the road should then be
rolled until consolidated, all hollows must be filled up as they appear,
and after partial consolidation, blinding added in sufficient quantity
to fill all interstices in the surface ; but care should be taken in the
selection of blinding-material. Screenings from the stone crusher
answer the purpose well, and so do some loams and marls; but
one often sees most objectionable material used, such as sand,
clay, or even the sweepings of gutters. During rolling in dry
weather it is often necessary to water. Want of sufficient rolling
is the cause of many of our bad roads; a steam-roller is much
more rapid and effectual than a horse-roller, and is an economical
investment for any municipality spending much money upon
metalled roads, if the bridges and roads are good enough for it to
travel upon.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. 741

Roads require constant care and attention to keep the surface
smooth. Remove loose stones, mud and dust, attend to hollows,
never allow water to stand on the surface, and by careful
attention to drains and culverts, keep the subsoil well drained
and the surface-water off the metal. Maintenance-metal should
be of small gauge, certainly not more than 2-inch, and is added
either by patching and darning, or by sheeting the whole surface ;
in either case the surface to be treated should be disturbed by
picking, and the patches of new metal should be frequently
attended to until they have consolidated. Autumn and winter
- are the seasons for systematic renewal and repair of road surface,
spring and summer best for construction.

The borders between the metal track and the water-tables or
channels should be kept in good order, to encourage light traffic
upon them. On many roads they cannot be used, owing to the
mitre drains not being covered.

In conclusion, I wish to draw special attention to the advantage
of using metal of small gauge, and of consolidating rapidly by
rolling and blinding, continuing the rolling until the road is
thoroughly consolidated, and not attempting to roll too great a
thickness of metal at once ; and to the great economy of constant
instead of periodic maintenance, and the employment of careful
and well-trained maintenance men.

11.—THE UTILISATION OF TIDAL ENERGY AS A
CONTINUOUS MOTIVE POWER.

By I. Diamant, C.E.
| Abstract. |

Various methods have been invented to utilise tidal energy as a
motive power, but up to the present time no great practical
utility has been obtained. There are two prominent difficulties
in utilising the power of the tides. i. The development of motive
power out of tidal energy is only possible in certain localities.
2. We depend on the fluctuations as well as on the variable
periodical returns of the tides. With regard to the first point, we
know that the progress made in using electricity modities these
conditions gradually, because the comparatively costless water-
power may be employed to generate electricity, which may be
conveniently conveyed or stored for consumption.

With regard to the second point, we know that whatever
means have been adopted, it was always necessary to allow a
certain period of rest for the motors in order to obtain any effec-
tive head between the restrained and free waters. On the other

742 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J.

hand, the tides have their own variable times, which do not
conform with the ordinary hours of everyday work. The object
of this invention is to overcome the last ditliculties, and its peculiar
feature is that the motors do their work continuously without
interruption, consequently we become independent of the daily
variations of the tides. This method consists essentially in the
employment of a pair of reservoirs formed by “dal dams,
constructed of shutters for the principal tidal dam to open and
close automatically at will, an arrangement proposed for the tur-
bines (similar to that adopted for accumulators), in forcing water
beneath their bearings so that they may be abie to follow the
changing level or the sea either gradually or at intervals. Each
dam is connected with turbines or other water motors arranged
to work ; when the water is flowing into as well as flowing out of
the said reservoirs.

Through gradual and alternate emptying and filling of these
two reservoirs the motors are kept in motion in a continuous
and uninterrupted manner. Both reservoirs are able to produce
a certain number of horsepower during thirty-six working hours.

The general remarks made by Mr. Diamant concern the con-
struction of the reservoirs, installation of motors, and the con-
struction of a temporary bridge along the breech of the principal
tidal dam in order to lower the caissons in an easy aud conveni-
ent manner.

12.—DEVELOPMENT OF ARCHITECTURE
AND ENGINEERING.

By F. C. JARRETT.

[ ddstract. |

As science is simply knowledge, the more lucidly that knowledge
is conveyed the more clearly does the writer evidence the mental
process by which he has worked. The advance of science has
been so rapid that we are apt to under-estimate the undiscovered
field still before us. Thomas Carlyle says, “The eye sees what it
brings the power to see.” This must be applied not only to the
work of the specialist who devotes a lifetime to the pursuit of
one study, but to the simplest forms of education which we know.
The power to see is, after all, the power which education gives us
to see. There is no practical end to discovery or study. Nature
is not exhausted. Discovery has recently given us gutta-percha,
asphaltum, and natural gas. Study has made iron trebly valuable
as steel in various forms. The whole history of the past, written
in stone, repeats to us ever the one lesson. Art is greater than

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. 743

science, for science discovers while art creates. What is man
without his shoes, his house, his clothing? Nature enables him
to adapt what she provides, and the development of this adapta-
tion is higher and higher refinement, and refinement is the
threshold of all discovery. The history of architecture and
engineering, written in the records of stone, and brick, and
cement, from whatever part of the world we select our study,
tells us that the advance from barbarism to civilisation was
recorded in the building and engineering work itself just as it
progressed. Greece has handed us down the purest examples of
her refinement, Rome of her grasp of sanitary science in the noble
aqueducts, and of the energy and. commercial progress of her
people in the causeways tothe city. The Hindoo, in his temples
of massive and solemn design, speaks of his estimate of nature
which surrounded him. The decadence and ruin of the Roman
Empire is shown in the almost complete loss of her architectural
and engineering greatness, and by the long period of sem-
barbarous rule which followed, and of the generations which came
and went before the skilled mason again left his almost indelible
record upon stone. Though the present teems with importance,
in the past we have cause and effect sketched out before us in
undeniable portraiture ; and while in the present we are creating
further illustrations for the ages to come, we are all too slavishly
following some of the lessons of the past, while we disregard the
more important altogether. Almost every man is guided by the
opinion of others. Opinion is generally a matter of education,
and we are constantly experiencing the fact that we have to
unlearn much, and that this is a harder process than to go from
absolute ignorance to knowledge. There is much which we have
to alter and adapt, and which on that account we neglect. We
slavishly copy “styles ;” we are not free to create. Education is
at fault here. Progress in the past shows that excellent work
was the outcome of the increasing intelligence or knowledge of
the people. Art was generally understood, the youth of the times
were educated carefully, and among those nations where the
masses of the people remained in ignorance the class of work
produced was inferior. We have, in some measure, recognised
the principle thus taught us in the compulsory education of
children for a certain number of years, and we can find a modern
instance of a nation having proved a nation of soldiers, since
every man is trained to service for a certain number of years.
We do not properly apply the lessons which thus surround us ;
we copy “styles” slavishly, and disfigure our streets with
inappropriate monuments of our wealth, and deaf to the history
which those styles repeat to us, we do not avail ourselves of the
methods by which those high states of architecture were reached.
The people reared the temples and churches and cathedrals of the
past because their religious teaching showed them that this was

744 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J.

required of them. The work displayed the fervency of the
workers—the fervency was the work of education. While the old
world surpassed us in the beauty and magnificence of its temples
and public buildings, its inhabitants knew nothing of the pleasures
and comforts of homes such as we enjoy. Athens, with its
Parthenon and its temples, had no house for prince or merchant
which could compare in comfort and convenience with the cottage
of the artisan, which lets to-day in and around this city for 10s.
to 15s. per week. This is called the iron age, because we have
adapted iron and steel to all forms of building construction in
place of the more massive and enduring works of stone of the
ages in which the very roofs were built of stone. Venice, with
its splendid public and private buildings, speaks to us of the
wealth of its inhabitants, and the foundations rising out of the
water itself are a marvel of the skill of builders whose stone
temples, resting upon them, are to-day almost untouched by time.
We have scarcely anything that is new. We find records of a
patent fire-proof wire lathing, dated 1797, and the page of history
has yet to be written which shall tell of the absolutely successful
application of fire-proof building materials. The worthy president
of this section, in a recent speech in Sydney, referred to the
registration of architects and engineers as a desirable thing, and
I make that remark the basis of an application of some thoughts
which this paper suggests. We require to make the knowledge
of these sciences of architecture and engineering a greater power
in our land. Can we do that by registration? I doubt it. Enact-
ments which constrain men in their occupations, or which make
it more difficult for them to develop such talents as they feel
themselves to possess in practising any avocation, are so un-English
that the public, whose will makes these enactments, are slow to
consent to them, or, in consenting to them, run to another
extreme, and create a greater evil. Registration may come by-
and-bye, and I hope it will; but the true basis of such a develop-
ment must be the education of the masses, the thorough training
of the artisans, and the introduction of building acts which will
compel the use, in the interests of health and happiness, of these
discoveries which science has handed down to us, or is still
opening to us day by day. Let it be made impossible for any
man to construct a building, however insignificant or wherever
situated, which shall be deficient in ample provision for lighting,
drainage, heating, and ventilation, or which is constructively
deficient in strength or in provisions in case of fire, and the
owners who need the services of architects will speedily discover
that their best interests lie in the employment of the highest skill
which is available. The processes which will lead to amendment
will be slow of achievement ; our people must be educated. A
great work was inaugurated in this city by the late Francis
Ormond, but the proper education of the artisan is of itself

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. 745

insufficient ; the men who direct the labours of these artisans
will need to be educated to a higher standard. The work must
commence at the bottom of the tree, and go steadily upward ;
there will always be plenty of room at the top. The chair of
architecture at our universities, and the professorship of
engineering, must denote the nationally recognised importance of
the education of these professions. It must become imperative,
from the irresistible force of custom, for the would-be architect or
engineer to pass a course of study, and come forth to the world
certificated as competent. This result cannot be achieved in a
day or a year, or a decade, but a generation may see much
accomplished. It must be achieved by the higher education of
the masses. Our public State schools should be the mediums
through which every boy and girl would be made acquainted with
the laws which govern health, and those which provide sufficient
ventilation, of others which guard against the dangers of inefficient
drainage and general sanitary provisions. They should be made
to understand that a non-observance of these laws which will be
treated as a misdemeanour and offence against society, which
cannot with impunity be disregarded. These are the only steps
by which the people of this great nation, the future federated
Australia, will be enabled to write a page in the world’s history
which will tell how science advanced, and how that advance
improved the building and engineering work of the twentieth
century. Much more may presently be done towards this in the
establishment of national institutes, of which this Association is
the type and, we hope, the parent of all. There should be one
institute of architects, with its provincial chapters, numerous
builders’ exchanges, with one national association holding an
annual convention ; an engineering institute which should be
Australasian, with vigorous offshoots in every city in the country
—and for an example we need only look to Newcastle in New
South Wales to-day—and a determined purpose in all these to make
the national] spirit of their work the predominant idea in their
discussions, and their central and, perhaps, annual gatherings, the
notches by which the next hundred years may record the fact
in stone and iron that Australasia was abreast and even ahead of
the rest of the world in its vigour, intelligence, and scientific
knowledge.

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INDEX.

Aborigines of North-Western Australia, Marriage Laws of the,
“Hon. J. Forrest : cae

Aborigines of Tasmania, James Bad

Aborigines of Victoria, Rev. J. Mathew Fe
Acclimatisation in Victoria, W. H. D. Le Souef :
A@sculin in Bursaria spinosa, On the Occurrence of, Prof. mae
Agriculture and Engineering, Development of, F. C. Jarrett
Ainus of North Japan, Prof. Odlum

An Industrial Federal Debt, J. J. Fenton

Annelid Formation in Queensland, Notes on an, James Smith
Antarctic Exploration, Crawford Pasco

Antarctic Whaling in the Old Days, J. J. Shilling law

oe anion of Chemical Control to a Manufacturing Business,
Ed. W. Knox ...

Application of Photography is Gealngieal Work, J. H. Harvey
Arboriculture as a Science in Australia, Claims of, W. Brown
Arrangement of a Galvanometer, Remarks on the, E. F. J. Love...
Art in Daily Life, Thomas A. Sisley

Astacopsis bicarinatus, On some Points in the Morphology of, J. S.
Hart .. 0 :

Australian Gara Notes on, James Stirling
Australian Exploration, P. G. Mueller ft
Australian Lichenology, Rev. F. R. M. Wilson...
Australian Meteorites, A. Liversidge ...

Bursaria spinosa, On the occurrence of AMsculin in, Prof. Rennie ..,

Calculation, Aids to, J. J. Fenton
Cambrian Rocks of South Australia, Notes on -— Prof, Tate

Carboniferous Rocks of the rae alee District, Notes on ioe
J. H. Bignell ..

Cestode Scolex, An dpparentt? New Type of, Prof. W. re Hngwell
Chalk and Flints from the Solomon Islands, A. Liversidge
Chilobranchus rufus, Development of, Prof. Haswell

Cloud Observations, W. W. Culcheth . =:

Coalfields of New South Wales, ee of the, T. W. E. David
Coal: Its Origin and Process of Formation, James Melvin

466
549

487
365
459
439

748 INDEX.

Colouration of Geological Charts of Australia, Tasmania and New
Zealand, Unification of the, Arthur Everett,

Colouring Matter of Drosera whittakeri, Prof. Rennie
Coming Census. H. H. Hayter
Committees, see page iv.

Complete Census of the Flora of the Grampians and Pyrenees,
D. Sullivan st soe er

Composition of Lucerne, Wm. Mt Doherty

Compressed Air as a Mechanical Medium in the Sr a of
Liquids, A. O. Sachse ...

Construction and Maintenance of Metalled Roads, William Bage
Cool Houses, James W. Barrett

Co-operation : Distributive and Productive, w. Nutall . :
Correlation of the Coalfields of New South Wales, T. w. B. David
Cremation a Sanitary Necessity, H. K. Rusden

Critical List of the Australian Fauna and Flora, On tie Publica-
tion of a, Chas. T. Musson

Crystalline Rocks of Bethanga, Victoria, Notes on ine, Fredk.
Danvers Power }

Daviesia latifolia, Note on, J. Bosisto ...

Debt, An Industrial Federal, J. J. Fenton

Desert Sandstone of Central Australia, Prof. Tate

Designing of Transit Instruments, Prof. Kernot

Development of Agriculture and Engineering, F. C. Jarrett
Development of Chilobranchus rufus, William A. Haswell
Development of Quartzite, Maldon, Notes on the, Jno. Hornsby ...

Dipterous Fauna of Australia, Notes on the known, Frederick
A. A. Skuse a

Diseases of Plants, Mrs. Wm. Moret

Distribution of Land and Water on the Teraasbeeul Globe,
J.J. Wild

Drainage. Household, Its Pr Peisies is Mw. eendeene ee
Drosera whittakeri, On the Colouring Matter of, Prof. Rennie

Early Discovery, Exploration and ees enarirae! of Austra-
lia, A. C. Macdonald

Elastic Properties of Quartz Threads, R. Thr elfall

Estimation of Alkalies in Igneous cae Note on the, oe
Dennant ai oe :

Etiology of Typhoid Fever, ‘i ames Jamieson

Eulerian Equations of Haden ne itt Note on the, Alemania
McAulay :

Evaporation of Liquids, Compressed Air as a oe Aan wane
in the, A. O. Sachse

Examination of some Sand from Wastern ast alia, Notes on an,
A. H. Jackson.. aie aed

in

INDEX.

Experimental Cultivation of the Mother-of-Pearl Shell Meleagrina
margaritifera in Queensland, W. Saville-Kent

Facts and Figures Relating to Vaccination, A. J. Taylor
Fertilisation of Knightia, Notes on the, T. F. Cheeseman

Flora of the Grampians and Pyrenees, A complete Census of the,
D. Sullivan by

Fodder Plants and Grasses of auustenlins Fred. Maree
Forestry: Its Scope and Application, M. H. Clifford

Fountain of “The Mist.”—A Rarotongan ie Rey. William
Wyatt Gill

Fungi, New and Rare Species of bier ian, H. T. Tisdall

Fungoid Growths, On the removal of Gold from Suspension and
Solution by, Prof. Liversidge sos Ae oe

Galvanometer, Notes on the arrangement of a, E. F. J. Love

Gas Lightings and its Fittings, A. U. Lewis

Gauging of Rivers, George Gordon pe
Genealogy of the Kings and Princes of Samoa, eas George Pratt

Genealogy of the Kings of Rarotonga and Mangaia, as Illustrating
the Colonisation of that Island and the Hervey ORE: Rey.
William Wyatt Gill

Geographical Distribution of Land aa eee Water aan ieteatee
in Victoria, A. H. 8. Lucas

Geological Structure and Future Pepe: of tid Thames
“Goldfield, New Zealand, James Park

Gesture Language in Australian Tribes, Note on the Use of the,
A.W. Howitt. E 5

Glacial Pcualometaied of Victoria, E. J. Dede

Granite: Its Place Among, and its Connections with the Sedi-
mentary and Ioneous Rocks, J. G. O. Tepper

Grasses of Australia, Fodder Plants and, Fred. Turner ...
Gum of the Leopard-Tree, J. H. Maiden

Gums yielded by Two Species of Ceratopetalum, Observations on
the, J. H. Maiden E eh bs

Health Legislation in Victoria, A. P. Akehurst...
Hot Spring Waters, Notes on Some, A. Liversidge

Household Drainage: Its Principles, A. M. Henderson ...
Household Sanitation, George Gordon ...

Illuminating Public Clocks, Sydney Gibbons

Iron, Notes on Tests and ae of Cast and anes
Prof. Kernot ... aa

Irrigation Works in Australia: How ee may iy aa Remu-
nerative, W. W. Culcheth = ;

Knightia, Notes on the Fertilisation of, T. F. Cheeseman sel

750 INDEX.

Laws of Molecular Force, Further Investigations on the, William
Sutherland ase

Laying Out of Towns, John Salen
Leopard Tree, on the Gum of the, J. H. ishacey ust
Leucite and Nepheline Rocks of New South Wales, J. Milne Gasset

Light Producing Bacteria with Explanatory Notes and asian
ments, Demonstration of, Oscar Katz

Liquor Trade, Regulation of mS as a means of PaGnbune Tem-
perance, J. ‘B. Gregory .. :

Lucerne, On the composition of, Wm. M. Doherty
Mangaia (Hervey Islands), Rev. W. Wyatt Gill

Marriage Laws of the Aborigines of North-Western Sapihvine:
Hon. John Forrest ‘ F

Meat Supply, H. H. Hayter

Metamorphic Rocks of Omeo, Notes on tees A. W. Howitt
Metalled Roads, Construction and Maintenance of, W. Bage
Micro-Organisms and Hygiene, A. Shields

Middle Verb in Latin, Henry Belcher .. He
Morphology of Astacopsis bicarinatus, J. Stoptital Hart ..

Mother-of-Pearl] Shell, ge Pa Cultivation of the, W. Saville-
Kent..

Muscular Fibres of Porisains, Nee on pat Prof, iW; A Haswell

Mutilations Practiced by Natives of the Viti talaDese On a Cortes
Bolton S. Corney

Navitilevu, Observations on the Hill Tribes of, Rev. A. J. Webb...
New and Rare Species of Victorian Fungi, H. T. Tisdall

New Britain Customs, Rey J. H. Rickard

New Britain People, Some Beliefs and Customs of the, ie B. Danks

New Silver Fields at Mount Zeehan, Tasmania, Notes on oe
A. J. Taylor

New Victorian Alge, Dee eae of, 7 Brace Heel Wilson

Notes on Tests and pace atin of Cast and bia wi
Prof. Kernot .

Notes on the Subject of Town saiesitabe, William Dawes

Observations on the Hill Tribes of Navitilevu, Fiji, Rev. Arthur
J. Webb

Observations on the Tertiary ana Seah Tertiary Geology of South-
Western Victoria, John Dennant

Papuan Race, P. Wolff dat eee tee

Physical Conditions under which the Chief ‘Cea eee of
Tasmania and Victoria were Formed, 8. H. Wintle

Photography, Application of, to Geological work, J, H. Harvey ..,
Physiological Basis of Morals, A. Sutherland

PAGE

368
730

379
459

554

596
383
323

653
575
408
739
692
715
470

541
487

646 °

620
554
664
626

407
488

716
726
620
441
664

467

429
664

INDEX.

Plutonic and Metamorphic Rocks of Bathurst, New South Wal
W. J. Clunies Ross

Precipitation of Zinc Sulphide, Midows on athe, J. ‘3B. Kirkland

Preventive Inoculation Against Animal Plagues, O. Katz

Purification of Certain Substances, R. Threlfall

Purification of Sewage, J. M. Smail and W. L. de L. Roberts
Quartz Threads, Elastic Properties of, R. Threlfall

Regulation of the Liquor Trade as a Means of TREN PER
ance, J. B. Gregory

Growths, A. Liversidge
Reserve Industry as a Remedy for Hfaeeed Tdlenene, w. J. Gua

Removal of Gold from Suspension and Bolnfon Py Raed

Rivers, Gauging of, George Gordon

Safety Appliances on Steam Boilers, A. O. Sachse

Sand from Western eee Notes on an Examination of some,
A. H, Jackson..

Sanitary Inspectors, ae of, C. J. Teta
Sanitation in Schools, F. A. Nyulasy ...
School Hygiene, E. G. Leger Erson

Science and Agricultural Practice, Some Baba ee pane
between, G. W. Brown...

Settlement of an Industrial eo palaiies on the Lend, by ans of
Small Holdings, Hon. G. W. Cotton

Sewage, Purification of, J. M. Smail and W. L. de L. Babaets
Silver Ores of the Barrier, G. H. Blakemore

Some Beliefs and Customs of the New Britain People Rev.
B. Danks

Southern Whaling, S. W. varies

South Pacific Islands, Some ea Bhaeniew of the} oa
Samuel Ella ...

Spectra of Zinc and Gaping mots on ce J. 8. Kirkland
Steam Boilers, Safety Appliances on, A. O. Sachse

Tasmania, Aborigines of, James Barnard

Tasmanian Eucalypts, with Special Reference to a Supposed New
Species, Some Notes upon the Rarer Species of, G. S. Perrin

Teaching of Elementary Mathematics and Tee Some Remarks
on the, Rev. W. L. Bowditch é

Tertiary and Post-Tertiary Geology of South-Western 1 Victoria,
Observations on the, John Dennant

Thames Goldfield, On the Geological Structure and Future et
pects of the, James Park

Thermal Springs of the Pps emaeian River, Queensland, Rebate
L. Jack :

eee

752 INDEX.

Tidal Energy, Utilisation of, as a Continuous Motive Force,
J. Diamant ba ; 5a “

Toaripi and Koiari Tribes, Rev. James OBiledens

Totems in Melanesia, Rev. R. H. Codrington abt

Town Drainage, Notes on the Subject of, William Paes

Towns, Laying out of, John Sulman ES es

Transit Instruments, On the Designing of, Prof. Kono

Typhoid Fever, Etiology of, J. Jamieson

Unification of the Colouration of Geological Charts of Australia,
Tasmania, and New Zealand, Arthur Everett

Utilisation of Tidal Energy as a Continuous Motive Power,
I. Diamant Ser

Vaccination, Facts and Figures Relating to, A. J. Taylor :
Vegetable Food Stuffs of the Australian Aborigines, J. H. Maiden
Victoria, Aborigines of, Rev. J. Mathew

Zine and Cadmium, Notes on the Spectra of, J. B. Kirkland .
Zine Sulphide, Notes on the Precipitation of, J. B. Kirkland
Zoology of Houtman’s Abrolhos, Notes on the, A. J. Campbell

PAGE

741
311
611
726
730
366
665

456

741

691
558
626
395

397
492

AUTHORS.

Akehurst, A. P., Health Legislation in Victoria ai ete

Bage, William, Construction and Maintenance of Metalled Roads
Barnard, James, Aborigines of Tasmania

Barrett, James W., Cool Houses

Belcher, Henry, Middle Verb in Latin..

Bignell, J. H., Notes on the chewoniteroud Rocks of hag Cape
Otway District ss

Blakemore, G. H., Silver Ores of the ee ies
Bosisto, J., Note on Daviesia latifolia ...

Bowditch, Rev. W. L., Some Remarks on the Teaching of eaters
tary Mathematics and Physics ...

Brown, W., Claims of Aboriculture as a Science j in ere ia

Brown, G. W., Some Remarkable Agreements between Science and
Agricultural Practice ... an

Campbell, A. J., Notes on the Zoology of Houtman’s Abrolhos
Chalmers, Rev. James, Toaripi and Koiari Tribes

Cheeseman, 'T'’. F'., Notes on the Fertilisation of Knightia
Clifford, M. H., Forestry: Its Scope and Application
Codrington, Rev. R. H., Totems in Melanesia

Corney, Bolton S., On Certain Mutilations Practised by Natives
of the Viti Islands

Cotton, Hon. G. W., Settlement of an Care Population « on
the Land, by. Means of Small Holdings ...

Culcheth, W. W., Cloud Observations..

Culcheth, W. W., Irrigation Works in eects How they et
be made Remunerative

Curran, J. Milne, Leucite and N sail Rocks of New South Wales

Curry, W. J., A Reserve Industr y as a Bevis for , Enforced
Idleness

Danks, Rev. B., Some Beliefs and Customs of the New Britain

People zs

David, T. W. E., A Gora of fas Coalfields of New South
Wales A

Dennant, John, Note on the “Batimation of Alkalies in pdaestedl
Rocks

Dennant, John, Observations on the Tertiary ‘ait Post- -Tertiary
Geolosy of South-Western Victoria 06 is

Diamant, I., Utilisation of Tidal Hnergy as a Coltitruss

Motive Power Sa At ste ite ame
ey

441

741

754 INDEX.

Doherty, Wm. M., On the Composition of Lucerne
Dunn, E. J., Glacial Conglomerates of Victoria ae —

Kassie, C. J., Duties of Sanitary Inspectors

Ella, Rev. Samuel, Some Enya Phenomena of the South Pacific
Islands cats aa ac

Erson, E. G. Leger, School Hygidne

Everett, Arthur, Unification of the Gatgnestion of Geological
Charts of Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand..

Fenton, J. J., An Industrial Federal Debt
Fenton, J. J., Aids to Calculation

Forrest, Hon. John, Marriage Laws of the Aborigines “of Nom
Western Australia rte

Gibbons, Sydney, Illuminating Public Clocks ...

Gill, Rev. William igs Fountain of “The Mist. vy Bato:
tongan Myth ..

Gill, Rev. William Wyatt, Gerlebiog’ of the Kode of Bandtonial
and Mangaia, as Illustrating the Colonisation of that Island
and the Hervey Group...

Gill, Rev. W. Wyatt, Mangaia (Hervey Tela)
Gordon, George, Gauging of Rivers
Gordon, George, Household Sanitation

Gregory, J. B., Regulation of the Fat a ali ide as a "aes of
Promoting Temperance ess

Hart, J. Stephen, On some pointed in the Mor phology of Astacatsts
bicarinatus

Harvey, J. H., On the Application of Photography to Gcvlogeal
Work

Haswell, Prof. W. re bch ST ee an Type i eee. eae
Haswell, Prof. W. A., Notes on the Muscular Fibres of Peripatus
Haswell, Prof. W. A., On the Development of Chilobranchus rufus
Hayter, H. H., Coming Census

Hayter, H. H., Our Meat Supply

Henderson, A. M., Household Drainage: Its peiaetelés J of
Hornsby, Jno., Notes on the Development of Quartzite, Maldon re
Howitt, A. W., Notes on the Metamorphic Rocks of Omeo

Howitt, A. W., Note on the Use of Gesture Language in Austra-
lian Tribes ihe

Jack, Robert L., On the Thermal Bprings of the melihii AYER,
Queensland

Jackson, A. H., Notes on an Ee aaa Es of some ‘saga punks
Western Australia ;

Jamieson, James, Etiology of Typhoid nee
Jarrett, F. C., Development of Architecture and Tie patigtiee

INDEX.

Katz, Oscar, Demonstration of Light Producing Bacteria with
Explanatory Notes and Experiments

Katz, O., Preventive Inoculation Against Animal Pseacs
Kernot, Professor, Designing of Transit Instruments

Kernot, Prof., Notes on Tests and Specifications of Cast ey
Wrought Tron as

Kirkland, J. B., Note on the Precipitation of Zine Sulphide
Kirkland, J. B., Notes on the Spectra of Zine and Cadium

Knox, Ed. W., On an Application of Chemical Control to a Manu-
facturing Business he

Le Souef, W. H. D., Acclimatisation in Victoria

Lewis, A. U., Gas-Lighting and its Fittings

Liversidge, A., Australian Meteorites .. ;
Liversidge, A., Chalk and Flints from the errant Sctnads
Liversidge, A., Notes on some Hot Spring Waters

Liversidge, A., On the Removal of Gold from Eine te and
Solution by Fungoid Growths ...

Love, E. F. J.. Remarks on the Arrangement of a Gaivanilbler .

Lucas, A. H. 8., Geographical Distribution of Land and Fresh
Water Vertebrates in Victoria .

Macdonald, A. C., Early Discovery, pad oreuog and HDweee
Geography of Australia

Maiden, J. H., Observations on the eae Yielded a oi 0 Species
of Cebatopctalum

Maiden, J. H., On the Gum of the Peplend! Tree

Maiden, J. H., Vegetable Food Stuffs of the Australian ‘Aorighnlg
Martin, Mrs. Wim., Diseases of Plants..

Mathew, Rev. J., Aborigines of Victoria

McAulay, Alexander, Note on the Eulerian Equations e Hydro
namics

Melvin, James, rat: Tes Origin and Bipods of Fortiation
Mueller, P. G., Australian Exploration

Musson, Chas. T., On the Publication of a Critical List of the
Australian Fauna and Flora

Nutall, W., Co-operation: Distributive and Productive ..,
Nyulasy, F. A., Sanitation in Schools ...

Odlum, Prof., Ainus of North Japan

Park, James, On the Geological Structure and Future Prospects
, of the Thames Goldfield, New Zealand

Parker, William, Notes on the Subject of Town Drainage
Pasco, Commander Crawford, Antarctic Exploration

Perrin, G. S., Some Notes upon the Rarer Species of Tasmanian
Eucalypts, with Special Reference toa Supposed New Species

*y2

756 INDEX.

Power, Fredk. Danvers, Notes on the Crystalline Rocks of
Bethanga, Victoria och

Pratt, Rev. George, Genealogy of the Kings and Princes of Samoa

Rennie, Prof., On the Colouring Matter of Drosera whittakeri

Rennie, Prof. and Turner, E. F., On the occurrence of Alsculin in
Burscria spinosa

Rickard, Rey. J. H., New Britain eke

Ross, W. J. Clunies, Plutonic and aaah: ‘Ee of
Bathurst, New South Wales was

Rusden, H. K., Cremation a Sanitary Nboesoitry

Sachse, A. O., Compressed Air as a Mechanical Medium in the
Evaporation of Liquids.

Sachse, A. O., Safety Appliances on Steam Ealoas

Saville-Kent, W., On the Experimental Cultivation of the others
of-Pearl Shell Meleagrina margaritifera in Queensland

Shields, A., Micro-Organisms and Hygiene =f
Shillinglaw, J. J., Antarctic Whaling in the Old Days ...
Sisley, Thomas A., Art in Daily Life ...

Skuse, Frederick A. A., Notes on the Known Dipterous wane of
Australia

Smail, J. M., and Roberts, w. in de ie Pur anes of aoe tee
Smith, James, Notes on an Annelid Formation in Queensland
Stirling, James, Notes on Australian Caves

Sullivan, D., A omplate Census of the Flora of the Grampians
and Pyrenees .. :

Sulman, John, Laying Out of Te wd
Sutherland, A., Physiological Basis of Morals ...

Sutherland, William, Further Investigations on the Laws of
Molecular Force

Tate, Prof., Notes on the Cambrian Rocks of South Australia
Tate, Prof., On the Desert Sandstone of Central Australia
Taylor, A. J., Facts and Figures Relating to Vaccination

Taylor, A. J., Notes on the New Silver Fields at Mount Zeehan,
Tasmania

Tepper, J. G. O., Granite: Its Place atone a its Conviabeitee
with the Sedimentary and Igneous Rocks 24 x

Threlfall, R., Elastic Properties of Quartz Threads

Threlfall, R., On the Purification of Certain Substances i,
Tisdall, H. T., Notes on New and Rare Species of Victoria Pun
Turner, Fred., Fodder Plants and Grasses of Australia ...

Viney, S. W., Southern Whaling

INDEX. ToT

PAGE
Webb, Rev. Arthur J., Observations on the Hill Tribes of

Navitilevu, Fiji ss 620
Wild, J. J., On the Distribution of Land and Water on fe ieee

trial Globe... 574
Wilson, J. Bracebridge, Dein ipilors of New i toean ies 40 1488
Wilson, Rev. F. R. M., Australian Lichenology... 549
Wintle, 8S. H., Physical Conditions under which the Chief eu

Measures of Tasmania and Victoria were Formed 467

Wolff, P., Papuan Race ak bia aa pee . »~—664

ae on tia viol oi ooh fe uit wont wonbie of
- : cyohoacetoie, naileue a“ oe aL

, tid a, adhd fiskw ‘viahittyy eiraktibisot > ‘Le
: fy slut 5 aS “abinto 1 yaa ins iat

LIST OF MEMBERS, 1889.

Pa eed oS + a
a8ol” AAaa aye Og

. fc ?

a,

LIST OF MEMBERS, 18809.

Abbey, William, 336 George-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Abbott, Robert L. S., A.M.P. Buildings, Maryborough, Q.

Abbott, W. E., Abbotsford, Wingen. N.S.W.

Adams, C. W., Chief Surveyor, Dunedin, N.Z.

Adams, W. J., Whitmore, Wentworth-road, Burwood, N.S.W.

Agnew, Hon. J. W., M.D., M.E.C., Hobart, T.

Akehurst, A. P , Central Board of Health, Melbourne, V.

Alcock, Alfred, Corr’s Lane, Melbourne, V.

Aleorn, S. A., M.B., East Maitland, N.S.W.

Alexander, E. J., Allendale, V.

Alexander, Maurice, Akaroa, Auburn-road 8., Upper Hawthorn, V.

Alexander, Miss Rose, Akaroa, Auburn-road 8., Upper Hawthorn, V. |

Allen, H. B., M.D., Professor of Descriptive and Surgical Anatomy,
University of Melbourne, V.

Allen, W. W., Belmont Avenue, Kew, V.

Anderson, James, Eblana, corner of Napier and Cowper streets,
Footscray, V.

Anderson, William, Mines Department, Sydney, N.S.W.

Andrews, Henry, 46 Elizabeth-street, Melbourne, V.

Andrews, Thomas R., B.A., LL.B., Parkville Ladies’ College,
Melbourne, V.

Andrews, William, M.D., Wellington-parade, East Melbourne, V.

Angas, Hon. J. N., M.L.C., Collingrove, Angaston, S.A.

Annand, George, M.D., High-street, St. Kilda, V.

Archer, W. H., F.L.S., F.I.A., Alverno, Grace Park, Hawthorn, V.

Ashley, P. A., 479 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.

Ashton, J. R., Union Chambers, Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Astles, Harvey E., M.D., F.R.C.P.,61 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.

Atkinson, A. 8., Nelson, N.Z.

Atkinson, Thomas R., Park-street, Glebe, Hobart, T.

Attenborough, Mark, Waymouth-street, Adelaide, S.A.

Bage, Chas., M.A., M.D., Achernar, Toorak-road, South Yarra, V.
Bage, Edward, Cranford, Fulton Street, St. Kilda, V.
Bage, William, M.C.E., Elford, Fulton-street, St. Kilda, V.
Bagot, John, Adelaide Club, Adelaide, S.A.
Baker, Henry H., 251 Swanston-street, Melbourne, V.
Baker, Thomas, Yarra Grange, Bond-street, Abbotsford, V.
Balfour, Hon. James, M.L.C., 9 Queen-street, Melbourne, V.
Balls-Headley, Walter, M.A., M.D., Collins-street E., Melbourne, V.
Bamby, Alfred, Buckley-street, Footscray, V.
Barbour, R. Thomson, Commercial Bank Chambers, 335 Collins-

street, Melbourne, V.
Barker, John, jun., Queen-street, Melbourne, V.
Barker, Mrs., c/o Dr. J. T. Rudall, Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Barker, W., Bridport-street, Albert Park, V.
Barnard, F. G. A., High-street, Kew, V.
Barnard, Francis, High-street, Kew, V.
Barnard, James, Hobart, T.

3

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Barnard, Robert J. A., B.A., Queen’s College, University, Mel-
bourne, V.

Barnes, Benjamin, Aston, Queen’s-road, Melbourne, V.

Barnet, Nahum, Hotham-street, Balaclava, V.

Barrachi, Pietro, F.R.A.S., Observatory, Melbourne, V.

Barrett, J. W., M.D., F.R.C.S., Collins-street E., Melbourne, V.

Barton, Robert, Royal Mint, Melbourne, V.

Bate, Henry C., Stawell, V.

Batson, Arthur, 461 Rae-street, North Fitzroy, V.

Bayett, F., Kyneton, V.

Beal, Mrs., Lorne, V.

Beavis, John, School of Mines, Daylesford, V.

A Beckett, Edward F., University, Melbourne, V.

Belcher, Henry, LL.D., Dunedin, N.Z.

Belfield, A. H., Eversleigh, Dumaresq, N.S.W.

Bender, F., 236 George-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Benham, J. J., Adelaide, S.A.

Benham, Mrs. J. J., Adelaide, S.A.

Bennett, George, M.D., F.L.S.,167 William-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Bennett, Mrs. George, 167 William-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Bennie, Peter B., MA., M.B., 123 Collins-street, Melbourne, VY.

Bensusan, 8. L., 44 Castlereagh-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Bentley, Miss M. L., 71 Beach-street, Port Melbourne, V.

Berney, Augustus, 74 Alberto Terrace, Darlinghurst-road, Sydney,
N.S.W

Berney, George A., 74 Alberto Terrace, Darlinghurst-road, Sydney,
N.S.W.

Best, Dudley, 291 Little Collins-street, Melbourne, V.

Beyer, Emil, Hotel Victoria, Beaconsfield Parade, Albert Park, V.

Biggs, Alfred B., Savings Bank, Launceston, T.

Billing, R. Annesley, Seaforth, Esplanade, St. Kilda West, V.

Binnie, Richard, 276 George-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Binns, George J. F., F.G.S., Otago University, N.Z.

Binsted, W. H., Glenthorne, Petersham, N.S.W.

Black, A. Owen, Public School, Dubbo, N.S.W.

Black, Alexander, Surveyor General, Lands Department, Mel-
bourne, V.

Blaek, Sydney, Maitai Banks, Nelson, N.Z.

Blacket, Cyril, Tasman Park, St. George’s Basin, N.S.W.

Blackett, C. R., F.C.S8., Government Analyst, Lansdowne-street,
East Melbourne, V.

Blackwood, —, Montalto, Toorak, V.

Blackwood, Mrs., Montalto, Toorak, V.

Blake, Harry Z., Abouthis, Nizhtingale-street, Balaclava, V.

Blakemore, George H., 141 Albion-street, Surry Hills, N.S.W.

Blanche, Henry B., 1 Gladstone Terrace, Malvern, V.

Bland, R. H., Clunes, V.

Blashki, Aaron, 169 Clarence-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Bligh, William R., Longdown, Parramatta, N.S.W.

Bettger, Otto, Flinders-street, Adelaide, S.A.

Boland, J., Gertrude and Brunswick-streets, Fitzroy, V.

Bond, Albert, Bell’s Chambers, Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Bond, H. 8. S., Onslow Avenue, Elizabeth Bay, Sydney, N.S.W-.

Boon, G. J., A.I.A., 400 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.

Bosisto, Joseph, C.M.G., Church-street, Richmond, V.

Bostock, Miss Margaret, Faireleight, Alma Road, St. Kilda V.

Bousfield, Robert K., G.P.O., Box 912, Sydney, N.S.W.

Bowditch, Rev. W. L., M.A., Inisfail, Sydney-road, Parkville, V.

4

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Bowen, T. Aubrey, M.R.C.S., 8 Collins-street E., Melbourne, V.

Bowen, William, Aymestry, Brighton-road, St. Kilda, V.

Boyd, J. A., Ripple Creek, Herbert River, Q.

Braché, Jacob, C.E,, Northcote, Y.

Bradfield, John J. C., St. Andrew’s College, University, Sydney,
N.S.W.

Bradley, R. 8., Queen’s College, St. Kilda, V.

Bragato, Romeo, Board of Viticulture, Melbourne, V.

Bragg, W. H., M.A., Professor of Mathematics, University,
Adelaide, S.A.

Brain, Robert 8., 209 Sydney-road, Royal Park, Melbourne, V.

Brett, Captain E., Whaling-road, East St. Leonard’s, N.S.W.

Brett, Mrs. E., Whaling-road, East St. Leonards, N.S.W.

Brett, Percy R., Urana, N.S.W.

Broadbent, John, Myrtle Villa, Lygon-street, Carlton, V.

Broadhurst, R. Henson, jun., Bogalara, Creswick-street, Foots-
cray, V.

Brodribb, Thomas, Kew, V.

Brown, David, Kallara, Bourke, N.S.W.

Brown, E J., 486 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.

Brown, H. J., Newcastle, N.S.W.

Brown, H. Y. Lyell, F.G.S., Government Geologist, Adelaide, S.A.

Brown, J. Paterson, Murray-street, Caulfield, V.

Browne, Miss M, Hirst, Bella Vista, Parliament-place, Melbourne, V.

Browne, Mrs. John, c/o Salter Watts, Esq., Carre-road, Elstern-
wick, V.

Browne, William, The Hollies, Burke-road, Camberwell, V.

Brownless, A. C., C.M.G., M.D., LL.D., University, Melbourne, V.

Bulteau, A., Douglasdale, Glebe Point, Sydney, N.S.W.

Bundey, His Honour Mr. Justice, Supreme Court, Adelaide, S.A.

Burns, James, Bridge-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Bush, H., 60 Castlereagh-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Butterworth, A. R., Denman Chambers, Phillip-st., Sydney, N.S.W.

Biittner, Alexander, M.D., Villa Wiesbaden, 489 Victoria-parade,
East Melbourne, V.

Calder, W., Wright-street, South Melbourne, V.
Callaghan, James, Blanche Terrace, Victoria-street, Fitzroy, V.
Callaghan, William R., 179 Victoria Parade, Fitzroy, V.
Calvert, John J., Parliament House, Sydney, N.S.W.
Campbell, Allan, L.R.C.P., Yass, N.S.W.
Campbell, Hon. Allan, M.D., M.L.C., North-terrace, Adelaide, S.A.
Campbell, Archibald J., 4 Elm Grove, Armadale, V.
Campbell, Frederick A., C.E., F.R.G.S., Working Men’s College,
Melbourne, V.
Campbell, James, Tennyson-street, St. Kilda, V.
Cape, Alfred J., Edgecliffe-road, Sydney, N.S.W.
Cardew, John H., C.E., 3 & 4 Victoria Chambers, Elizabeth-
street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Carne, Joseph E., Department of Mines, Sydney, N.S.W.
Carolin, J. P., Mitchell-street, Sandhurst, V.
Carter, A. K., Cloncurry, Q.
Castner, J. L., 180 Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Catlett, W. H., F.L.S., F.R.G.S., Burwood-street, Burwood, N.S.W.
Chambers, John, jun., Napier, N.Z.
Chapman, James, C.E., Glenroy, V.
Chapman, Robert W., M.A., B.C.E., University, Adelaide, S.A.
Chard, J. S., Armidale, N.S.W.
5

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Chatfield, Samuel P., 5 Princes-street, North Sydney, N.S.W.

Chatfield, Captain W., Old Government House, Parramatta, N.S.W.

Cheong, Cheok H., Montgomery Villa, Gore-street, Fitzroy, V.

Chilton, Charles, District High School, Port Chalmers, N.Z.

Chisholm, Edwin, M.D., Victoria-street, Ashfield, N.S.W.

Chisholm, William, M.D., 199 Macquarie-street N., Sydney, N.S.W.

Clark, Hon. A. Inglis, Hobart, T.

Clark, A. W., Charters Towers, Q.

Clark, Donald, B.C.E., School of Mines, Bairnsdale, V.

Clarke, J. Hamilton, Mus. Bac., Melbourne, V.

Clarke, Miss Julie, Leura, Toorak, V.

Clarke, Hon. Sir William J., Bart., 48 Queen-street, Melbourne, V.

Clayton, Edward, sen., Riverside, Corowa, N.S.W.

Clemes, Samuel, Friends’ High School, Hobart, T.

Clendinnen, Fred J., M.D., 128 Malvern-road, South Yarra, V.

Clifford, M. H., 45 Queen-street, Melbourne, V.

Coane, J. M., Prell’s Buildings, Collins-street, Melbourne, V.

Coates, John, C.E., Planet Chambers, Collins-st., Melbourne, V.

Coates, W. J., 2 Melbourne Terrace, Drummond-street, Carlton, V-

Coghill, George, Burwood-road, Hawthorn, V.

Cole, Frank H., M.B., Ch.B., Ben-Werrin, Rathdowne-street,
Carlton, V.

Colenso, William, Napier, N.Z.

Colley, D. J. K., Royal Mint, Sydney, N.S.W.

Collie, Rev. R., F..8., Wellington-street, Newtown, N.S.W.

Collingridge, A., Parramatta-road, Ryde, N.S.W.

Collins, Arthur 8., Mt. Fyffe Station, Kaikoura, N.Z.

Comrie, Jas., Northfield, Kurrajong Heights, via Richmond, N.$.W.

Conder, William J., Cooma, N.S.W.

Conroy, J. M., Wingham, Manning River, N.S.W.

Cook, C. H. H., M.A. Professor of Mathematics and Natural
Philosophy, Canterbury College, Christchurch, N.Z.

Cooper, E., Tudor, Berkeley-street, Hawthorn, V.

Cooper, Rev., William, 136 Easey-street, Collingwood, V.

Copeland, Miss Annie, Homeopathic Hospital, St. Kilda Road
Me,lbourne, V.

Copeland Miss Kathleen, Drumlarney, Warragul, V.

Copeland’ Mrs. James, Drumlarney, Warragul, V.

Corlette, Rev. J. C., D.D., Goulburn, N.S.W.

Cornell, Henry, Irene, Barkly-square, East Richmond, V.

Corney, Hon. Bolton Glanville, Fiji.

Cornwall, W. E., M.A., Ormond College, University, Melbourne, VY.

Cornwell, Samuel, Australian Brewery, Bourke-street, Redfern,
N.S.W

Cottell, Caulfeild, Sevenoaks, Chomley-street, East Prahran, V.

Cotton, Hon. 8S. W., M.L.C., Adelaide, S.A.

Coutie, W. H., M.B., B.S., Warminster, Canterbury-road, Peter-
sham, N.S.W.

Cowderoy, Benjamin, 57 Queen-street, Melbourne, V.

Cox, Hon. G. H., M.L.C. Winbourn, Mulgoa, N.S.W.

Cox, J. Herbert, F.C.S., F.G.S., Waima, Wentworth-road, Point
Piper, Sydney, N.S.W.

Cox, James, M.B., 102 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.

Cox, Sydney T., Treasury, Sydney, N.S.W.

Cracknell, E. C., Telegraph Department, Sydney, N.S.W.

Crago, W. H., M.R.C.S., 82 William-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Craig, Andrew W., M.A., 77 Peel-street, North Melbourne, V.

Craig, Robert, Education Department, Melbourne, V.

6

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Craven, A. W., 123 Collins-street, W., Melbourne, V.

Crellin, William, 10 Market Buildings, William-street, Me 1-
bourne, V.

Crerar, Miss May R., Stawell, V.

Cresswell, Rev. Arthur W., M.A., Camberwell, V.

Culcheth, W. Wood, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.Met.Soc., 31 Temple Court
Melbourne, VY.

Currie, J. L., Eildon, Grey-street, St. Kilda, V.

Currie, W. J., 71 Princes-street, Kew, V.

Curtain, P. B., Merton, Queen’s Mansions, Beaconsfield Parade,
St. Kilda, V.

Curtis, Charles, 7 Motherwell-street, South Yarra, V.

Curtis, Walter S., Nelson, N.Z.

Daish, William, M.D., 837 Howe Crescent, South Melbourne, V.

Dallen, Robert A., University, Sydney, N.S.W.

Dalton, W. H., jun., 63 Queen-street, Melbourne, V.

Damman, George, c/o Swanston and Collins-streets, Melbourne, V.

Danks, A. T., 42 Bourke-street, W., Melbourne, V.

Danks, John, Merton Crescent, South Melbourne, V.

Dare, H. Harvey, Lugar Place, Waverley, N.S.W.

Darley, Cecil W., Birtley Place, Elizabeth Bay-road,Sydney,N.S.W.

Darley, Sir Frederick, Kt., Chief Justice, Sydney, N.S.W.

Darroch, John, St. Denis Lodge, Toorak, V.

Davenport, Arthur F., M.B., M.R.C.S., High-street, St. Kilda, V.

David, T. W. Edgeworth, B.A., F.G.S., Department of Mines,
Sydney, N.S.W.

Davies, E. H., 41 Palmerston-street, Carlton, V.

Davies, J. Hugh, Edgecombe, Were-street, Brighton, V.

Davis, Miss A., Brisbane House, 79 Stanley-street, Hyde Park,
Sydney, N.S.W.

Deane, H.,M.A.,M.Inst.C.E., Railway Department, Sydney, N.S.W.

De Garis, E. C., Chaffey’s Irrigation Offices, Swanston-street,
Melbourne, V.

Dendy, Arthur, M.Sc., F.L.S., University, Melbourne, V.

Dennant, John, F.G.S., Lyndhurst Crescent, Glenferrie, V.

De Vis, C. W., M.A., Queensland Museum, Brisbane, Q.

Diamant, Ignatius, Railway Department, Austral Chambers, Bris-
bane, Q.

Dickinson, Sidney, M.A., Bella Vista, Parliament Place, Mel-
bourne, V.

Dixon, Samuel, Royal Exchange, Adelaide, §.A.

Dixon, W. A., F.C.S., F.LC., Technical College, Sydney, N.S.W.

Dobbie, A. W., Gawler Place, Adelaide, S.A.

Docker, Mrs. Clarissa M., Carhallen, Granville, N.S.W.

Docker, Ernest B., M.A., D.C. Judge, Carhallen, Granville, N.S.W.

Dombrain, Ernest A., Glena, Victoria Road, Auburn, V.

Donaldson, John, Widows’ Fund L.A. Society, Collins-street,
Melbourne, V.

Du Faur, Eccleston, F.R.G.S., Box 690, G.P.O., Sydney, N.S.W.

Dunean, John J., M.P., Adelaide Club, Adelaide, S.A.

Dunn, Edward C., 70 Elizabeth-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Dunn, E. J., F.G.5., Roseneath, Pakington-street, Kew, V.

Dunn, Frederic, 306 Little Flinders-street, Melbourne, V.

Dunn, J. Macgregor, Milton-street, Ashfield, N.S.W.

Dunstan, Benjamin, c/o Messrs. Cox and Seaver, Hunter-street,
Sydney, N.S.W.

Dutton, C. B., Wowong, Brisbane, Q.

el

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Eassie, Charles J., Sanitary Inspector’s Office, Town Hall,
Fitzroy, V.

Edwards, James D. P., Arthur-street, Fairfield Park, V.

Edwards, Mrs. James D. P., Arthur-street, Fairfield Park, V.

Edwards, James R., Forbes, N.S.W.

Eldridge, W. Waters, Government Architect, T.

Elkington, J. §., M.A., LL.B., Professor of History and Political
Economy, University, Melbourne, V.

Ella, Rev. Samuel, Rathmore, Petersham, N.S.W.

Ellery, R. L. J., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Government Astronomer,
Observatory, Melbourne, V.

Elliott, Sizar, Were-street, Brighton Beach, Melbourne, V.

Ellis, J. 8. E., F.R.I.B.A., Equitable Chambers, 295 Pitt-street,
Sydney, N.S.W.

Ellison, John, Clarke Buildings, 430 Bourke-street, Melbourne, V.

Ellison, Mrs. John, Clarke Buildings, 430 Bourke-street, Mel-
bourne, V.

Elson, Laurence, 9 Queen-street, Melbourne, V.

Emmerton, Charles, Raveloe, Domain-road, South Yarra, V.

Erson, E. G. Leger, L.R.C.P.E., Chapel-street, Prahran, V.

Etheridge, R., jun., Government Paleontologist, Department of
Mines, Sydney, N.S.W.

Evans, Gowen, M.A., Melbourne Club, Collins-street, V.

Evans, James, Baliol-street, College Park, Adelaide, S.A.

Evans, Thomas, c/o Messrs. Evans and Evans, King William-
street, Adelaide, S.A.

Evans, William, Timaru, N.Z.

Everett, Arthur, Mines Department, Melbourne, V.

Faithfull, R. L., M.D., 5 Lyons Terrace, Hyde Park, Sydney, N.S.W.

Farr, Archdeacon, LL.D., St. Luke’s Parsonage, Whitmore-
square, Adelaide, 8.A.

Faul, J. W., Hargreave-street, Sandhurst, V.

Fennelly, Richard, C.E., Kilmore, V.

Fenton, J. J., Government Statist’s Office, Treasury Gardens,
Melbourne, V.

Fergus, Rev. R. Morrison, M.A., Mentone, V.

Fetherston, R. H., M.B., Ch.M., Women’s Hospital, Carlton, V.

Fiaschi, Thomas, M.D., 39 Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Fielder, Rev. Walter, Norwood, Mitchell-street, St. Kilda, V.

Finch, Charles A., 204 George-street W., Sydney, N.S.W.

Fink, B. J.. The Grange, Domain-road, South Yarra, V.

Fink, Harold, The Grange, Domain-road, South Yarra, V.

Fischer, Gustave, C.E., Railway Department, Sydney, N.S.W.

Fishbourne, J. R. Y., M.B., Ch.M., Moonee Ponds, V.

Fisher, Alexander, L.R.C.S.E., 98 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.

Fison, Rev. Lorimer, M.A., Essendon, V.

Fitts, F. A., c/o Dr. Hewlett, Nicholson-street, Fitzroy, V.

Fitzgerald, Thos. N., F.R.C.S.1., Lonsdale-street W., Melbourne, V.

Fleming, David, McKinnon-parade, North Adelaide, S.A.

Fletcher, A. W., B.A., B.Sc., Wavertree, Kent Town, Adelaide,
S.A.

Fletcher, J. ane: M.A., B.Sc., Linnean Hall, Elizabeth Bay, Sydney,
N.S

Fletcher, Se W. Roby, M.A., Wavertree, Kent Town, Adelaide,
Ss. ‘A.

Flett, W. Simpson, M.D., Mooroop, Auburn-road, Hawthorn, V

Foote, Henry, Outalpa, S.A.
8

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Ford, Rev. W. Charles, Sunbury, V.

Foreman, Joseph, M.R.C.S., 215 Macquarie-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Forrest, Hon. John, C.M.G., Perth, W.A.

Foster, Miss Mary, Ladies’ Gymnasium, Liverpool-street, Sydney,
N.S.W.

Fox, M. Philip, Ravensburg, Dandenong-road, Armadale, V.

Fox, William, Liebenhalle, Robe-street, St. Kilda, V.

Fox, William R., L.R.C.P.E., York House, Brunswick-street, North
Fitzroy, V.

Frackelton, Rev. W.S., B.Sc., Bachel Lodge, Randwick, Sydney,
N.S.W.

Franki, J. P., Mort’s Dock and Engineering Co., Balmain, N.S.W.

Fraser, John, LL.D., Carrington-road, Waverley, N.S.W.

Freehill, Francis B., M.A., 51 Castlereagh-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

French, Charles, F.L.S., Government Entomologist, Exhibition
Buildings, Melbourne, V.

Friend, Walter, 143 York-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Froggatt, Walter W., Linnean Hall, Elizabeth Bay, Sydney, N.S.W.

Frost, C., Mont Victor-road, East Kew, V.

Fryar, William, Petrie Terrace, Brisbane, Q.

Fuller, W., University, Adelaide, S.A.

Gabriel, Joseph, 293 Victoria-street, Abbotsford, V.

Gainford, John, Military-road, St. Leonards, N.S.W.

Gardiner, Rev. Andrew, Rixton House, Glebe Point, Sydney, N.S.W.

Gardner, William, Victoria Square, Adelaide, S.A.

Garland, William, 10 Imperial Chambers, 408 Collins-street,
Melbourne, V.

Garlick, D., Architect, Adelaide, S.A.

Garlick, T. W., North Bulli, N.S.W.

Garran, Hon. Andrew, LL.D., M.L.C., Strathmore, Glebe Point,
Sydney, N.S.W.

Garran, Mrs. M., Isham, Strathmore. Glebe Point, Sydney, N.S.W.

Garson, George, Railway Department, Ararat, V

Gibbons, Sydney, F.C.S., Faraday House, East Melbourne, V.

Gibbs, J. Burton, 84a Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Gifford, Algernon C., M.A., Christ’s College, Christchurch, N.Z.

Gill, G. R., Emu Creek, Walcha, N.S.W.

Gill, Harry P., School of Design, Adelaide, S.A.

Gill, Rev. W. Wyatt, LL.D., Perisca, Mlawarra Road, Marrickville,
N.S.W.

Gillies, William, M.A., Box Hill, V.

Glass, Mrs. James, Pyrmont, Flemington, V.

Godhber, J., 15 Market Buildings, Flinders-lane, Melbourne, V.

Godfrey, Fred. R., 15 Queen-street, Melbourne, V.

Goldstein, Lieut.-Colonel J. R. G., Titles Office, Melbourne, V.

Goodlett, John H., Canterbury House, Ashfield, N.S.W.

Gordon, George, C.E., 39 Queen-street, Melbourne, V.

Gosman, John, Burwood-road, Auburn, V.

‘Gotch, J. S., 109 Albert-street, East Melbourne, V.

Goyder, Alex. W., B,Sc., Adelaide, S.A.

Goyder, G. Woodroffe, Warrakilla, S.A.

Goyder, G. W., C.M.G., Surveyor-General, Adelaide, S.A.

Goyder, George, jun., F.C.S., Government Analyst, Adelaide, S.A.

Grant, Alexander, Botanic Gardens, Sydney, N.S.W.

Grant, Charles H., Main Line Railway, Hobart, T.

Grant, David, M.A , M.D., 16 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.

Gray, Geo., F.C.8., School of Agriculture, Lincoln, Canterbury, N.Z.

9

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Greenwood, John, Corner Hotel, Castlemaine, V.

Greville, Edward, Year Book of Australia, 374 George-streety,.
Sydney, N.S.W.

Greene, Molesworth, Greystones, Bacchus Marsh, V.

Gregory, J. Burslem, B.A., LL.M., 10 Selborne Chambers,
Melbourne, V.

Gregson, Francis John, Groveley, Waratah, N.S.W.

Griffith, Edward A., Federal Bank, South Melbourne, V.

Griffith, Sir Samuel, K.C.M.G., Q.C., Brisbane, Q.

Griffiths, G. S., F.G.8., F.R.G.S., Waratah, Washington-street,
Toorak, V.

Griffiths, Mrs. G. 8., Waratah, Washington-street, Toorak, Mel-
bourne, V.

Griffiths, John M., 290 Flinders-street, Melbourne, V.

Griffiths, Miss, Selhurst, Alma-road, St. Kilda, V.

Griffiths, Samuel, Selhurst, Alma-road, St. Kilda, V.

Guilfoyle, W. R., F.L.S., Botanical Gardens, Melbourne, V.

Gullett, Henry, Daily Telegraph Office, Sydney, N.S.W.

Gundersen, H., Consulate for Sweden and Norway, Melbourne, V.

Gurney, T. T., M.A., Professor of Mathematics and Natural
Philosophy, University, Sydney, N.S.W.

Gurney, Miss, Fern Bank, Edgecliffe Road, Sydney, N.S.W.

Haager, Eebert E., Princess-street, Ashfield, N.S.W.

Habbe, A, C., Jolimont Terrace, Jolimont, V.

Hage, John M., Daylesford, V.

Haig, William, M.D., 68 Bank-street E., South Melbourne, V.

Halford, Arthur, University, Melbourne, V.

Halford, George, M.B., Ch.B., University, Melbourne, V,

Halford, George B., M.D., F.R.C.P., Professor of General Anatomy
and Physiology, University, Melbourne, V.

Hall, Richard T., Hornsby, Launceston, T.

Hall, Robert, Morris-street, Williamstown, V.

Hall, Thomas S., M.A., School of Mines, Castlemaine, V.

Halley, Rev. J.J.,Coneregational Hall, Russell-street, Melbourne, V.

Halliday, Hon. William, M.L.C., Reform Club, Sydney, N.S.W.

Hamann, Adolph, F.C.S., School of Mines, Sandhurst, V.

Hammond, H. W., Burwood, N.S.W.,

Hamlet, W. M., F.C.S., F.I.C., Government Analyst, Treasury
Buildings, Sydney, N.S.W.

Harber, Alfred, Walsh-street, South Yarra, V.

Hardwick William G. T., 188 Missenden-road, Camperdown, N.S.W.

Hargreaves, W. A., B.A., Ormond College, Melkourne, V.

Harrison, George R., Marrickville, N.S.W.

Harrison, L. M., c/o Messrs. Harrison, Jones and Devlin, Circular
Quay, Sydney, N.S.W.

Hart, Ludovico W., 9 Tivoli Road, South Yarra, V.

Hart, J. Stephen, M.A., B.Sc., Wilson-street, Brighton, Y.

Hart, T. Stephen, Wilson-street, Brighton, V.

Hartung, Ernst, 22 Avoca-street, South Yarra, V.

Hartley, Stewart W., Morning Bulletin Office, Rockhampton, Qe,

Harvey, J. H., 97 V ictoria Parade, East Melbourne, V.

Hastie, Miss, Wallace-street, Toorak, V.

Hawkes, George W., 188 Childers-street, North Adelaide, S.A.

Hawkins, S. M., Ivanhoe, Manningtree-road, Hawthorn, V.

Haycroft, J. I., C.E., Council Chambers, Woollahra, N.S.W.

Hayter, Henry H., C.M.G., Government Statist, Treasury
Gardens, Melbourne, V.

10

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Hearn, Miss Charlotte, Alexandra College, Hamilton, V.
Hearn, Miss Henrietta, Alexandra College, Hamilton, V.
Heaton, Edward, 241 Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Hector, Sir James, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S., Director Geological’
Survey, N.Z.
Hedley, Charles, Elgin Cottage, Wickham-terrace, Brisbane, Q.
Heffernan, Edward B., M.D., 8 Brunswick-street, Fitzroy, V.
Heinbockel, Miss A. M., Bell Rock, Delbridge-street, Clifton Hill, V.
Henderson, A. M., Avoca-street, South Yarra, V.
Henderson, Arthur V., M.B., Ch.B., Burwood Avenue, Upper
Hawthorn, V.
Henderson, James, City Bank, Sydney, N.S.W.
Henderson, William, A.M.I.C.E., Water Supply Department.,
Treasury Gardens, Melbourne, V.
Hennell, E. Halford, Ringwood, V.
Henry, Louis, M.D., Sydney-road, Brunswick, V.
Henson, J. B., C.E., Lillington, Victoria-street, Ashfield, N.S.W.
Herlitz, Rev. Hermann, Gisborne-street, East Melbourne, V.
Heron, Mrs., Rossell, Blandsville Point, Gladesville, N.S.W.
Herring, Venerable Archdeacon, Beechworth House, Kilmore, V.
Hewlett, Thomas, M.R.C.S., 122 Nicholson-street, Fitzroy, V.
Higgins, A. Akin, Cook’s Tourist Agency, Collins-st., Melbourne, V.
Higgins, George, M.C.E., 476 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Higgins, Joseph F., C.E., Waverley-road, Malvern, V.
Higinbotham, His Honour Chief Justice, Supreme Court, Mel-
bourne, V.
Hill, G. R., Dandenong-road, Windsor, V.
Hills, Miss R. M., 48 Pitt-street, Redfern, N.S.W.
Hills, Robert, Allington, Elizabeth Bay, Sydney, N.S.W.
Hincheliff, Edwin, M.D., Sandhurst, V.
Hodges, His Honour Mr. Justice, Balaclava, V.
Hogg, Henry H., Melbourne Club, Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Hogg, Henry R., 19 Market Buildings, Melbourne, V.
Holle, J. F., Rockley, Elizabeth Bay, Sydney, N.S.W.
Holmes, William A., Victorian Railways, Spencer-st., Melbourne, V.
Holroyd, His Honour Mr. Justice, Fernacres, Alma-road, East
St. Kilda, V.
Holt, F. 8. E., Sutherland House, Sylvania, George’s River, N.S.W.
Hooper, Miss 8. R., Davington Park-road, Prahran, V.
Hordern, E. Carr, Cobham, Parramatta-road, Ashfield, N.S.W.
Howard, G. T., M.D., 226 Nicholson-street, North Fitzroy, V.
pean ai W., F.G.S., Bayview Terrace, Hawthorne-road, Caul-
eld, V.
at oe Annie, Bayview Terrace, Hawthorne-road, Caul-
eld, V.
Howitt, Miss Mary, Bayview Terrace, Hawthorne-road, Caulfield, V.
ae Miss Maude, Bayview Terrace, Hawthorne-road, Caul-
eld, V.
Hughes, Charles M., 112 Darlinghurst-road, Sydney, N.S.W.
Hulme, Joseph, 152 Roden-street, West Melbourne, Y.
Hume, John K., Beulah, Campbelltown, N.S.W.
Hunt, Edmond A., 34 Queen-street, Melbourne, Y.
Hunt, Miss Fanny E., B.Se., Superior Public School, Bourke—
street, Goulburn, N.S.W.
Hunt, Harry W., 317 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Hunt, J. Horbury, 85 Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Hunt, R., C.M.G., F.G.S8., Royal Mint, Sydney, N.S.W.
Huntsman, Thomas, 260 Nicholson-street, Fitzroy, V.
113

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Hurley, Thomas, 10 Albert-street, Windsor, V.

Husbands, Charles F.,1 Eldon Chambers, Bank Place, Collins-
street W., Melbourne, V.

Hutchinson, Jer., Rose-street, Armadale, V.

Hutchinson, W. A., Bond-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Hutton, F. W., F.G.S., C.M.Z.S., Professor of Biology, Canterbury
College, Christchurch, N.Z.

Ingamells, Miss A., Observatory, Melbourne, V.

Ingamells, Fred. N., Observatory, Melbourne, V.

Inglis, Hon. James, Sydney, N.S.W.

Ingram, Alexander, Hamilton, V.

Tredell, Charles L. M., M.D., 20 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Ivey, James, Ballarat, V.

Ivey, W. E., Agricultural College, Lincoln, N.Z.

Jack, Robert L, F.G.S. Government Geologist, Townsville, Q.

Jack, Mrs. R. L., Strathendrick, Townsville, Q.

Jack, William L., 423 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.

Jackson, A. H., B.Sc., F.C.S., Villa Mancunium, Dandenong road,
Caulfield, V.

Jackson, Fred E., 61 Chatsworth-road, Hawksburn, V.

Jacob, Albert F., Birkbeck, Fairfield, Southern Line, N.S.W.

Jacobs, Leslie R., 72 Queen Street, Melbourne, V.

Jacobs, Louis P., 72 Queen Street, Melbourne, V.

Jaggard, W. W. Rockhampton, Q.

Jakins, W. V., M.R.C.S., 165 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.

James, —, M.D., Milne Terrace, Moonta, S.A.

James, John W., 90 King-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

James, Miss S. H., Brisbane House, North Shore, Sydney,
N.S.W.

Jamieson, James, M.D., 56 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.

Jamieson, Matthew B., A.M.I.C.E., 39 Queen-street, Melbourne, V.

Jardine, Alex. W., Wandal, Rockhampton, Q.

Jarrett, F. C., 6 Clarence-street, Sydney, N.S,W.

Jefferis, Rev. James, LL.D., Newtown, Sydney, N.S.W.

Jennings, James, 211 Queen-street, Melbourne, V.

Jessop, J. A., Grenfell-street, Adelaide, S.A.

Johnson, F. M., 254 Albert-street, East Melbourne, V.

Johnson, Lil G., Esperance, Albert-street, East Melbourne, V.

Johnston, Harry F., Adelaide Terrace, Perth, W.A.

Johnston, Robert M., F.L.8., Hobart, T,

Johnstone, A. Clarence, St. Kilda, V.

Jones, Edward L., Brickley, Burwood, N.S.W.

Jones, Miss Gwendolen, 107 Leopold-street, South Yarra, V.

Jones, Isaac J., Ballarat Banking Co., Ballarat, V.

Jones, J. C., North Ilawarra A.M. Co., North Bulli, N.S.W.

Jones, P. Sydney, M.D., F.R.C.S., 16 College-st., Sydney, N.S.W.

Jones, Trevor, Tremayne, North Shore, N.S.W.

Jordan, C. R., 180 Flinders-lane, Melbourne, V.

Joseph, Hon. 8. A., M.L.C., Newhurst, Edgecliffe-road, Woollahra,
N.S.W.

Josephson, Thomas F., F.G.S., St. Killians, Bellevue Hill, Wooll-
ahra, N.S.W.

Joske, Madame, 14 Greville-street, Prahran, V.

Joske, Paul R., 58 Elizabeth-street, Melbourne, V.

Joske, Mrs. Rose, 58 Elizabeth-street, Melbourne, V.

Judd, Thomas, Park Hill, Kew, V.

12

- aiid a

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Kater, Henry E., Mount Broughton, Moss Vale, N.S.W.

Katz, Oscar, Ph.D., Linnean Hall, Elizabeth Bay, Sydney, N.S.W..

Kay, F. W., William-street, Norwood, 8.A.

Kay, Herbert, William-street, Norwood, S.A.

Keep, Ernest E., 1 St. James’ Buildings, William-street, Mel-
bourne, V.

Keily, John, Victoria Villa, River-street N., South Yarra, Y.

Kelby, G. W., c/o Messrs. C. & E. Millar, Palmerston, Northern
Territory, S.A.

Kelly, Rev. Robert, Moonta, S.A.

Kelly, T. H., 67 Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Kendall, William T., M.R.C.V.S., Veterinary College, Brunswick-
street, Fitzroy, V.

Kennedy, Rev. James, St. Ignatius, Richmond, V.

Kendrew, Rev. George, Adelaide, S.A.

Kenny, A. Leo., M.B., B.S., 70 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.

Kent, Harry C., Bell’s Chambers, Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Kent, W. Saville, F.L.S., F.Z.S., Commissioner of Fisheries,
Brisbane, Q.

Kenyon, A. S., Water Supply Department, Melbourne, V.

Kernot, Miss M. J., Fierenze, Sydney-road, Royal Park, V.

Kernot, W. C., M.A., C.E., Professor of Engineering, University,
Melbourne, V.

Kilpatrick, Robert, F.R.G.S., 233 Clarendon-street, South Mel-
bourne, V.

King, Arthur 8., Madford, Kew, V.

King, Miss Georgina, Homebush, N.S.W.

King, Hon. Philip G., M.L.C., Banksia, William-street, Double
Bay, Sydney, N.S.W.

King, W. Essington, Caroline-street, South Yarra, V.

Kinnear, Robert H., Toorak, V.

Kinross, Rev. John, D.D., St. Andrew’s College, University,
Sydney, N.S.W.

Kirkby, E. H., 49 Nelson Place, Williamstown, V.

Kirkland, John B., F.C.S., Moreland, Casselly Road, Brunswick, V.

Knaggs, Samuel T., M.D., 16 College-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Knibbs, G. H., Avoca House, Denison-road, Petersham, N.S.W.

Knight, Herbert, 406 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.

Knight, Rev. Samuel, 279 Victoria Parade, East Melbourne, V.

Knox, Hon. Edward, M.L.C., Fiona, Double Bay, Sydney, N.S.W.

Knox, Edward W., Rona, Bellevue Hill, Sydney, N.S.W.

Knox, William, 39 Queen-street, Melbourne, V.

Krause, F.M., C.E., F.G.S., Professor of Geology, School of Mines,
Ballarat, V.

Kreitmayer, Max, Abbotsford, V.

Kruse, John, 105 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.

Kynegdon, F.B., 69 Darlinghurst-road, Sydney, N.S.W.

Laing, R. M., M.A., Boys’ High School, Christchurch, N.Z.

Lamont, Rev. James, St. Stephen’s Manse, East Maitland,N.S.W.

Langdon, James H. C., A.M.I.C.E., Town Hall, Adelaide, S.A.

Langton, Hon. Edward, Collins-street, W., Melbourne, V.

Langtree, C. W., Public Service Board, Melbourne, V.

Larking, Richard J., 16 Queen-street, Melbourne, V.

Lassen, Madame Alma, German College, Wellington-st., St. Kilda, V.

Latta, George J., Mountsea, Burlington-road, Homebush, N.S.W.

Laurie, Henry, LL.D., Professor of Mental and Moral Philosophy,.
University, Melbourne, V.

13

LIST OF MEMBERS.

‘Laycock, George L., M.B., 77 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.

Leahy, John, Cloncurry, Q.

Leeper, Alexander, M.A., LL.D., Trinity College, University,
Melbourne, V.

Leeper, Mrs. Alex., Trinity College, University, Melbourne, V.

Le Fevre, Hon. George, M.D., M.L.C., 4 Collins-st., Melbourne, V.

Legge, Colonel W. Vincent, R.A., Barracks, Hobart, T.

Leibius, Adolph, M.A., Ph. D., Royal Mint, Sydney, N.S.W.

Lenehan, H. A., Observatory, Sydney, N.S.W.

Lethem, Charles B., Warwick, Q.

Lewis, Arthur U., B.A., 452 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.

Lewis, C. Norton, Stramore, Charles-street, Kew, V.

Lewis, Rev. Julius, St. Jude’s Vicarage, Carlton, V.

Lidgey, Ernest, c/o Messrs. Chambers and Seymour, Swanston-
street, Melbourne, V.

Lilley, Sir Charles, Kt., C.J., Brisbane, Q.

Linden, Otto, Fulton-street, East St. Kilda, V.

Lindon, Edward B., Albert-street, Brisbane, Q.

Lingen, J. T., M.A., 101 Elizabeth-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Littlejohns, William H., G.P.O., Melbourne, V.

Litton, Robert T., F.G.S., F.Z.S., 45 Queen-street, Melbourne, V.

Liversidge, Archibald, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry and
Mineralogy, University, Sydney, N.S.W.

Lloyd, Hon. G. A., M.L.C., Scotforth, Elizabeth Bay, Sydney,
N.S.W.

Login, John J., Bank of Victoria, Lygon-street, Carlton, V.

Long, Charles, Ivanhoe, Lygon-street, North Carlton, V.

Looney, Miss N. T., Norwood, St. Vincent-street, Albert Park, V

Lorimer, James, Bohemian Club, Collins-street, Melbourne, V.

Love, E. F. J., M.A., University, Melbourne, V.

Lowe, Edward, Wilga Downs, N.S.W.

Lueas, A. H. S., M.A., B.Sc., 5 Angelo-street, South Yarra, V.

Luehmann, J. G., Botanical Department, South Yarra, V.

Lupton, George, Woronganack, Fairmount Park, Hawthorn, V.

Lyle, Thomas R., M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy, University,
Melbourne, V.

Lyons, Charles, Imperial Chambers, Adelaide, S.A.

Lyons, Claud H., 184 Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Macartney, Miss Charlotte, Deanery, Melbourne, V.
Macartney, George, Victorian Railways, Melbourne, V.
Macdonald, Ebenezer, Kamilaroi, Darling Point, Sydney, N.S.W.
Macdonald, Alex. C., F.R.G.S., 433 Collins-street W. Melbourne, V.
Mace, Edward, Hobart, T.
MacFarland,J.H., M.A., Ormond College, University, Melbourne, V.
MacFarlane, Edward, Bourke, N.S.W.
MacGillivray, P. H., M.A., M.R.C.S:, Sandhurst, V.
MacGillivray, William D. K., Barkly-street, St. Kilda, V.
Mackay, Angus, F.C.S., Lizzielea, Duke-street, Balmain, N.S.W.
Mackellar, Hon. Charles K., M.L.C., Dunara, Rose Bay, Sydney,

N.S.W.
Mackenzie, John, F.G.S., Atheneum Club, Sydney, N.S.W.
Maclean, C. W., Marine Board, Melbourne, V.
Macpherson, John, Carlton, Sloane-street, Summer Hill, N.S.W.
Macully, Rev. Alex., Cullymort, Canterbury, V.
Maddrell, Robert, Bedervale, Braidwood, N.S.W.
Madsen, H. F., Hesselined House, Queen-street, Newtown, N.S.W,
Mayarey, Hon. Dr., Adelaide, S.A.

14

ef aa

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Maiden, J. H., F.C.S., F.L.S., Technological Museum, Sydney
N.S.W.

Main, T., Town Hall, Melbourne, V.

Mais, H. C., M. Inst. C.E., 61 Queen-street, Melbourne, V.

Maitland, D. M., Afreba, Stanmore-road, Sydney, N.S.W.

Makin, G. E., Market Square, Berrima, N.S.W.

Mann, J. Randall, 1 Gladstone Terrace, Leicester-street, Carlton, V.

Mann, Mrs. M. A., Gilbert-street, Latrobe, T.

Mann, Thomas, Gilbert-street, Latrobe, T.

Manning, Miss May L., Stanbury, Marrickville, Sydney, N.S.W.

Mansfield, G. Allen, 121 Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Manwaring, William, 447 Rathdowne-street, Carlton, V.

Marks, Edward L., F.C.S., Federal Coffee Palace, Collins-street,
Melbourne, V.

Marks, Percy J., 80 Victoria-street N., Darlinghurst, N.S.W.

Marks, W. B., 123 Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Marsland, Rev. J. A., Wesleyan Parsonage, Daylesford, V.

Martin, Mrs. F. N., Asling-street, North Brighton, V.

Martyn, John, M.A., Prell’s Buildings, Collins-street, Melbourne, V.

Martyn, James, Prell’s Buildings, Collins-street, Melbourne, V.

Masson, Orme, M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Chemistry, University,
Melbourne, V.

Matheson, Alex., Australian Club, Sydney, N.S.W.

Mathew, Rev. John, M.A., Coburg, V.

Mathews, L. 8., 156 King-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Matthews, Richard, 1 Hillside Terrace, Hoddle-st., Richmond, V.

Mathison, H. M., Aroona, Ebden-street, Elsternwick, V.

Maunsell, H. W., M.D., Dunedin, N.Z.

Maxwell, C. M., 76 Davey-street, Hobart, T.

McAlpine, Daniel, F.C.S., 5 Wallace-street, Toorak, V.

McAulay, Alex., M.A., Ormond College, University, Melbourne, V.

McClymont, James R., Koonya, T.

McCombe, A. G., 2 St. James’s Buildings, William-street, Mel-
bourne, V.

McCoy, Frederick, C.M.G., D.Se., F.R.S., Professor of Natural
Science, University, Melbourne, V.

McCutcheon, John W., Royal Mint, Sydney, N.S.W.

McDonald, J. Alex., M.Inst.C.E., Public Works Department,
Sydney, N.S.W.

McDougall, Miss, Summerlee, Riversdale-road, Hawthorn, V.

McDougall, Mrs., Riversdale-road, Hawthorn, V.

McDougall, P. R., Riversdale-road, Hawthorn, V.

MecFell, 87 Queen-street, Melbourne, V.

Mecllwraith, W. M., Morning Bulletin Office, Rockhampton, Q.

McKay, Alexander, F.G.S., Colonial Museum, Wellington, N.Z.

McKay, H. S., Liverpool, N.S.W.

McKay, Mrs. John, Netherlee, Burke-road, Malvern, V.

McKibbin, J. N., Mascotte, Kensington-road, South Yarra, V.

McLean, Oliver, c/o Messrs. McLean Bros. & Rigg, Melbourne, V.

McLeay, Hon. William, F.L.S., Sydney, N.S.W.

McMaster, Oswald, Exchange, Sydney, N.S.W.

MeMordie, D., B.E., M.Inst.C.E., Shalimar, Waverley, N.S.W.

McNeil, Neil, Penshurst, V.

McPetrie, Capt. Alexander, Rouse-street, Port Melbourne, V.

McPherson, Malcolm, Swanston-street, Melbourne, V.

Mein, His Honour Mr. Justice, Supreme Court, Brisbane, Q.

Meldrum, John W., Bank of South Australia, Adelaide, S.A.

Melvin, James, 255 Scotchmer-street, North Fitzroy, V.

15

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Mercer, Alexander, 7 Great Davis-street, South Yarra, V.

Merewether, Edward C., Castlefield, Bondi-road, Sydney, N.S.W.

Meyer, Felix, M.B., 123 Lygon-street, Carlton, V.

Midelton, Thomas, Chiltern, Stanmore, Sydney, N.S.W.

Miles, Frederick G., Town Hall, South Melbourne, V.

eee ce eee 3 Clarendon Terrace, Elizabeth-street, Syduey,.

Milford, Kearsey, Rockhampton, Q.

Millear, Miss, c/o Professor Masson, University, Melbourne, Y.

Miller, Robert, 72 Clarence-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Mills, Stephen, Aurelia, Croydon, N.S.W.

Milne, Sir William, K.B., Sunnyside, Adelaide, S.A.

Milson, James, Hlamang, St. Leonards, N.S.W.

Milton, George, 49 Swanston-street, Melbourne, V.

Milton, Mrs. George, 49 Swanston-street, Melbourne, V.

Mingaye, J. C. H., F.C.S., Mines Department, Sydney, N.S.W.

Miskin, W. H., F.E.S., Brisbane, Q.

Mitchell, J. S., Etham, Darling Point, Sydney, N.S.W.

Mitchell, John, Public School, Narellan, N.S.W.

Moat, W. Pollock, M.H.R., Te Kapa, Auckland, N.Z.

Moerlin, Carl, Observatory, Melbourne, V.

Montague, G., Railway Department, Melbourne, V.

Moore, F. B., Strahan, T.

Moore, George, M.D., Dickens-street, St. Kilda, V.

Moore, W. L., Exchange, Bridge-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Moors, E. M.,M.A.,Elphin Cottage, Boulevard, Petersham, N.S.W.

Moors, Henry, Chief Secretary’s Office, Melbourne, V.

Moran, His Eminence Cardinal, St. Mary’s Cathedral, Sydney,
N.S. W.

Morley, J. L., 199 Drummond-street, Carlton, V.

Morley, F., 312 Victoria-street, Darlinghurst, N.S.W.

Morris, Edward E., M.A., Professor of English, French, and
German Languages and Literatures, University, Mel-

bourne, V.

Morrison, Alexander, L.R.C.P.E., 472 Albert-street, East Mel-
bourne, V.

Morton, Alexander, F.L.S., Museum, Hobart, T.

Morton, H. Gordon, Numba, Shoalhaven, N.S.W.

Morton, W. H., Town Hall, Melbourne, V.

Moullin, James, The Hermitage, Brighton-road, South St.Kilda, V.

Moulton, —, Burwood, Hawthorn, V.

Mousley, Francis, Royal Mint, Melbourne, Vie

Mueller, Baron Ferdinand von, K.C.M.G., F.R.S., M. and Ph.D.,
Arnold-street, South Yarra, V.

Mueller, Paul G., P.O. Lower Mitcham, near Adelaide, S.A.

Mullens, Josiah, 92 Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Munday, John, Herberton, Q.

Murnin, M. E., Hisenfels, Nattai, N.S.W.

Murray, Hon. David, M.L.C., Adelaide, S.A.

Murray, Howatson S., Colonial Sugar Refining Co., Harwood,
Clarence River, N.S.W.

Murray, K. L., Victorian Railways, Spencer-street, Melbourne, V.

Murray, Reginald A. F., Mines Department, Melbourne, V.

Murray, Stuart, Water Supply Department, Melbourne, V.

Musgrove, James, Greenvale, V.

Musson, Charles F., F.L.S., Narrabri, Namoi River, N.S.W.

Nathan, A. W., 81 Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
16

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Neild, James E., M.D., 21 Spring-street, Melbourne, V.

Nesbit, E. Pariss, Gladstone Chambers, Pirie-street, Adelaide, S.A.
Newbatt, George, Newtown, Hobart, T.

Newbigin, Edward, Stella, Hunt-road, Prahran, V.

Nicholas, William, F.G.S., Auburn Grove, Armadale, V.
Nicolson, Sir Arthur, Esplanade, St. Kilda, V.

Nimmo, William, Melbourne Club, Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Norris, Charles S., Townsville, Q.

Norton, Albert, Speaker’s Room, Brisbane, Q.

Norton, Hon. James, M.L.C., 2 O’Connell-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Nuttall, William, Bay-street, North Brighton, V.

Nutter, C. J.. A.M.P. Society, Pittt-sreet, Sydney, N.S.W.
Nyulasy, Francis A., M.B., Ch.B., Toorak, Melbourne, V.
Nyulasy, Miss Margaret, Toorak, V.

Odlum, E., Cobourg, Ontario, Canada.

Officer, C. G. W., Orrong-road, Toorak, V.

Ogilvy, J. L., Commercial Bank, Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

O’Grady, Thomas R., Nanna Creek, Grafton, N.S.W.

Oliver, Mrs. Annie, Oakhurst, Blessineton-street, St. Kilda, V.

Oliver, Calder E., A.M.I.C.E., Water Supply Department, Yarra
Glen, V.

O’Reilly, Walter W., 197 Liverpool-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Ostermeyer, William, M.A., Lee-street, North Carlton, V.

Page, Thomas H., Toolern, Diggers’ Rest, V.

Palmer, Thomas, South Melbourne College, South Melbourne, V.

Panton, J. A., Carannya, Alexander-street, Hast St. Kilda, V.

Park, Archibald, Hobart, T.

Parker, William, A.M.I.C.E., Prell’s Buildings, Collins-street,
Melbourne, V. ‘

Paseo, Commander Crawford, R.N.,c/o A. C. Macdonald, 15 Market
Buildings, Collins-street, Melbourne, Y.

Parris, Fred., Goulburn Weir, Nagambie, V.

Paterson, Alexander, M.A., M.D., Hill Crest, Stanmore-road,
Petersham, Sydney, N.S.W.

Paul, Arthur W. L., C.H., Male-street, Middle Brighton, V.

Pearson, A. N., Government Agricultural Laboratory, 45 Queen-
street, Melbourne, V.

Pedley, P. R., 201 Macquarie-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Peipers, F., M.D., Collins-street E., Melbourne, V.

Perrin, George 8., F.L.S., Isabella-street, Malvern, V.

Perrin, Major H. W., Naval and Military Club, Collins-street,
Melbourne, V.

Peters, Alfred, Rosebank, Lygon-street, Carlton, V.

Petersern, W., 6 Queen-street, Melbourne, V.

Petherick, Percival E., St. James’s-street, Melbourne, VY:

Phelps, William, Carlisle-street, Hast St. Kilda, V.

Phillips, A. E., 39 Queen-street, Melbourne, V.

Phillips, Coleman, Dry River, Wairarapa, N.Z.

Phillips, Louis, c/o M. Moss and Co., Sydney, N.S.W.

Piguenit, W. C., Saintonge, Hunter’s Hill, Sydney, N.S.W.

Pillinger, John, Millbrook, Tunbridge, T.

Pitt, G. M., Pastoral Chambers, George-street, Sydney. N.S.W.

Pittmann, Edward F., Mines Department, Sydney, N.S.W.

Plowman, Sidney, F.R.C.S., College of Pharmacy, Melbourne, V.

Pollock, Arthur, University, Sydney, N.S.W.

Poole, W. B., Savines Bank, Adelaide, S.A.

17

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Poolman, 8., Colonial Sugar Co., O’Connell-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Porter, Edward, Cook’s River-road, Newtown, Sydney, N.S.W.

Porter, Thomas, Drummond-street, Ballarat, V.

Potter, Rev. William, F.R.G.S., Tamar House, South Melbourne, V.

Potts, H. W., 442 Bourke-street W., Melbourne, V.

Powell, Ernest J., Town Hall, Hawthorn, V.

Power, F. Danvers, Box 35, Exchange, Collins-street, Melbourne, V.

Power, Francis R., Royal Mint, Melbourne, V.

Prankerd, Peter D., c/o. Mr. F. Wright, Italian Consulate,
Adelaide, S.A.

Press, Henry, Quantock, Williamstown, V.

Priestly, A., Federal Bank, Collins-street, Melbourne, V.

Prince, James E., 1 Henry-street, Windsor. V.

Pritchard, Arthur F., 19 Macquarie-place, Sydney, N.S.W.

Pritchard, G. B., 668 Bourke-street, Melbourne, V.

Pritchard, William, 19 Macquarie-place, Sydney, N.S.W.

Prosser, E., Porthamel, Darling Point, Sydney, N.S.W.

Pullar, James, 419 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.

Pulver, Louis, Hebrew School, Sydney, N.S.W.

Purchas, Albert, C.E., 462 Little Collins-street, Melbourne, Y.

Purchas, Mrs., V. T., Fern Hill, Kew, V.

Puttmann, H. W., 479 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.

Quaife, W. F., M.B., Ch.M., Marathon, 195 Elizabeth-street,
Woollahra, N.S.W.
Quodling, W. H., Couranga, Redmyre, Boulevard,Strathfield, N.S.W

Rae, John, Hilton, Darlinghurst, N.S.W.

Ralston, Charles, 47 Armadale-street, Armadale, V.

Ramsay, David, junr., 129 Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Rands, W. H., Maryborough, Q.

Ratibek, Kund L., C.E., Water Supply Department, Brisbane, Q.

Rattray, James, Craighall, Dunedin, N.Z.

Raw, John T., Stanhope, Waterloo-street, Camberwell, V.

Raw, Whitfield, Stanhope, Waterloo-street, Camberwell, VY.

Redfearn, W., Condor-street, Burwood, N.S.W.

Regan, J. B., C.E., c/o Messrs. Falkingham and Sons, Railway
Station, 'Tooradin, V.

Reid, Mrs. Aenes, Merton House, Powlett-street, East Melbourne, V.

Reid, Rev. John, M.A., Luidore, Hotham-street, E. St. Kilda, V.

Reid, Robert, Merton House, Powlett-street, East Melbourne, V.

Reid W., Australian Joint Stock Bank, Sydney, N.S.W.

Renner, F. E,, M.D., Woolungar, S.A.

Rennick, Charles, Mercantile Finance and Agency Co., Elizabeth-
street, Melbourne, V.

Rennie, E. H., M.A., D.Se., Professor of Chemistry, University,
Adelaide, S.A.

Richards, R. W., Town Hall, Sydney, N.S.W.

Richardson, H. C., Architect, Adelaide, S.A.

Richardson, P. P., Manfred, Drumoyne, Sydney, N.S.W.

Riddell, Robert B., 6 Eastern Market Buildings, Bourke-street,
Melbourne, V.

Riddoch, John, Yallum, Penola, S.A.

Ridge, Samuel H., B.A., F.R.G.S., 257 Victoria-parade, East
Melbourne, V.

Ridge, Mrs. Susanna, 257 Victoria Parade, East Melbourne, Y.

Rigeall, Miss, The Hollies, Burke-road, Camberwell, V.

Riley, A. J., M.L.A., 'Tulloona, Burwood, N.S.W.

wobberds, John H,, 184 Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S.W,

18

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Roberts, A. E.; 121 Swan- street, Richmond, V.’

Roberts, Tom, Grosvenor Chambers, Collins-st. E., Melbourne, V.

Robertson, Dr. —, Adelaide, S.A.

Robertson, J. Steele, B.A., University, Melbourne, V.

Robertson, James, M.A., M.D., 19 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.

Robertson, James, 132 Elgin-street, Carlton, V.

Robertson, Rev. James T'., North Melbourne, V.

Robertson, Thomas, Hay, N.S.W.

Robertson, W. L., Inverary, South Yarra, V.

Rochford, James, C.E., Napier, N.Z.

Rodwell, Miss Florence M., Brisbane House, North Shore, Sydney,
N.S.W.

Roe, Reginald H., Brisbane House, North Shore, Sydney, N.S.W.

Roeder, Carl, Victoria-street, Sandhurst, V.

Rosales, Henry, C.H., Alta-Mira, Grandview Grove, Armadale, V.

Ross, Andrew, M.D., M.L.A., Molong, N.S.W.

Ross, Herbert H., St. Andrew’s College, University, Sydney, N.S.W.

Ross, Joseph B., M.D.. Chaucer-street, Moonee Ponds, V.

Ross, W. J. Clunies, B.Sc., F.G.S., Lambert-st., Bathurst, N.S.W.

Rowsell, W. H., 4 O’Connell-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Rudall, James T., F.R.C.S., Collins-street E., Melbourne, V.

Rule, Oliver R., Technological Museum, Melbourne, V.

Rundle, George E., F.R.C.S.E., 71c Darlinghurst-road, Sydney,
N.S.W.

Rusden, H. K., Ockley, Marlton Crescent, St. Kilda, V.

Russell, H. A., B.A., Observatory, Sydney, N.S.W.

Russell, H. C., B.A., F.R.S., Observatory, Sydney, N.S.W.

Russell, Thomas, Egoleen, Clendon-road, Toorak, V.

Russell, William C., Egoleen, Clendon-road, Toorak, V.

Russell, William, Semaphore Observatory, Adelaide, 8.A.

Rutherford, J. Schaw, The Island, Whangerei, N.Z.

Ryan, James P., F.R.C.S., 63 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.

Ryan, Martin J., M.B., Ch.B., Kyneton, V.

Ryan, Robert H., M.Inst.C.E., Veteran Hall, Prospect, N.S.W.

Sabelberg, J., 128 Queen-street, Melbourne, V.
Sach, A. J., Technical School, Goulburn, N.S.W.
Sachse, A. O., C.E., F.R.G.S., 454 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Sager, Edmund, Health Office, 127 Macquarie-st., Sydney, N.S.W.
Saunders, John H., M.B., B.S., Victoria House, Grey-street, St.
Kilda, V.
Sayce, O. A.,c/o Mr. Julius Levy, Flinders-lane W.,Melbourne, V.
Schomburg, R., Ph.D., Botanic Gardens, Adelaide, S.A.
Scott, Hon. Henry, M.L.C., Glen Osmond, Adelaide, S.A.
Scott, J. H., M.D., Professor of Anatomy, Otago University, N.Z.
Scott, J. R., C.E., Ware-street, Hobart, T.
Scott, J. R., c/o Mr. Richardson, Kyneton, V.
Scott, Robert, 16 Motherwell-street, South Yarra, V.
Scott, Walter, M.A., Professor of Classics, University, Sydney,
N.S.W.
Scott, William, Fletcher-street, Essendon, V.
Scott, Wm. H., C.E., Empire-buildings, Collins-st., Melbourne, V.
Searle, James, 27 Little Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Selby, G. W., 99 Queen-street, Melbourne, V.
Selby, G. W., jun., 99 Queen-street, Melbourne, V.
Serjeant, R. M., Yarrowee Hall, Yarrowee-parade, Ballarat, V
Service, John, L.R.C.P.E., Newtown, N.S.W.
Shand, J., M.D., University, Otago, N.Z.
19

b2

LIS? OF MEMBERS.

Sharpe, Andrew, Mines Department, Beechworth, v.

Shaw, Percy W., Railway Department, Sydney, N.S W.

Shellshear, Walter, A.M.I.C.E., Trentham, Holt-street, Petersham,
N.S.W.

Sherrard, J. E., Exhibition Buildings, Melbourne, V.

Shields, A., M.D., 601 Kine-street, West Melbourne, V.

Shillinglaw, Harry, F.R.G.S., College of Pharmacy, Melbourne, V.

Shillinglaw, John J., F.R.G.S., Dumbiedykes, Alma-road, Hast St.
Kilda, V

Shorter, John, Box 469 G.P.O., Sydney, N.S.W.

Shuge, James, Castlemaine, V.

Shuter, Charles, Malvern, V.

Shuter, Charles J., M.B., Kensington, V.

Silk, Harry, Toxteth, Park-street, Parkville, V.

Simms, William K., Pirie-street, Adelaide, S.A.

Sims, George Jno., 60 Market Buildings, William-st., Melbourne, V.

Simson, Augustus, Launceston, T.

Simson, Huntly S., Victoria School, Geelong, V.

Simson, Mrs. John, Trawalla, Toorak, V.

Simson, Miss M., Trawalla, 'Toorak, V.

Simson, Mrs. R., Leura, Toorak, V.

Sinclair, S., Australian Museum, Sydney, N.S.W.

Singleton, Miss M. W., Corinea, Mt. Erica, Prahran, V.

Sisley, Thomas A., 4 Albion-street, South Yarra, V.

Skey, William, Geological Survey, Wellington, N.Z.

Skuse, Fredk. A. A., Linnean Hall, Elizabeth Bay, Sydney, N.S.W.

Slatyer, C. H., 295 Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Smale, George, State School, P.O. Tylden South, V.

Smith, Alfred M., Professor of Natural Philsophy, School of
Mines, Ballarat, V.

Smith, B. A., Imperial Chambers, Bank Place, Collins-street W..,
Melbourne, V.

Smith, B. Doughty, F.I.A.V., Ashfield-road, Canterbury, V.

Smith, Edward, Commercial Bank, Adelaide. 8.A.

Smith, J. McGarvie, Denison-street, Woollahra, N.S.W.

Smith, James, Albert Park School, South Melbourne, V.

Smith, Mrs. Jessie K., School of Mines, Ballarat, V.

Smith, Louis L., L.8.A., Collins-street E., Melbourne, V.

Smith, R. Burdett, C.M.G., M.L.A., 203 Macquarie-street, Sydney,
N.S.W.

Smith, 8. Percy, F.R.G.8., Surveyor General, Wellington, N.Z.

Smith, Tennyson, Evening Standard office, Melbourne, V.

Solley, Robert, 237A Little Collins-street, Melbourne, V.

Souef, A. A. C. le, C.M.Z.S., Royal Park, Melbourne, V.

Souef, Dudley le, Royal Park, Melbourne, V.

Spedding, Jacque, Fehon-street, Yarraville, V.

Spencer, W. Baldwin, M.A., Professor of Biology, University,
Melbourne, V.

Springthorpe, J. W., M.A., M.D., Collins-street H., Melbourne, V.

Stamp, , Prell’s Buildings, Collins-street, Melbourne, V.

Stanbridge, Hon. W. E., M.L.C., Daylesford, V.

Starkey, J. Thomas, 37 Castlereagh-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Steane, George R. B., Cunningham-street, Northcote, V.

Steane, Samuel A., Erskine, Darling-street, Balmain, N.S.W.

Steel, Rev. Robert, DDE Lewington House, Pitt-street, Hast St.
Leonards, N.S.W.

Steel, Thomas, Sugar Works, Yarraville, V.

Steele, Miss Jeanie, Sale, Gippsland, V.

20

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Stephen, His Honour Mr. Justice, Supreme Court, Sydney, N.S.W.

Stephens, Thos., M.A., F.G.S., Education Department, Hobart, T.

Stephens, William J., M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy,
University, Sydney, N.S.W.

Stewart, Charles, M.C.E., Murphy-street, South Yarra, V.

Stewart, J. Douglas, Gower-street, Summer Hill, N.S.W.

Stewart, Hon. John, M.L.C., Summer Hill, N.S.W.

Stirling, Edward C., M.A., M.D., University, Adelaide, 8.A.

Stirling, James, F.G.S., F.L.S., Mines Department, Melbourne, V.

Stitt, J. E. A., 298 Murray-street, Hobart, T.

Stokell, R. W., Launceston, T.

Stone, W., Patterson-street, West Beach, St. Kilda, V.

Stott, Sydney, Millicent Avenue, Toorak, V.

Strachan, William, 395 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.

Strettle, W. 8., Rorymont, Boundary-road, Malvern, V.

Strong, Rev. Dr. Charles, M.A., Lansdowne-road, East St. Kilda, V.

Stuart, T. P. Anderson, M.D., C.M., Professor of Anatomy and
Physiology, University, Sydney, N.S.W.

Sturmer, Edwin, Nevada, Rosslyn, Dunedin, N.Z.

Sugden, Rev. HE. H., B.A., B.Sc., Queen’s College, University,
Melbourne, V.

Sulman, John, F.R.I.B.A., 375 George-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Sullivan, D., F.L.S., 2 Melbourne Terrace, Drummond-street,
Carlton, V.

Sutherland, Alexander, M.A., Carlton College, Royal Park, V.

Sutherland, Mrs. G., 1 Lytton-street, Carlton, V.

Sutherland, William, M.A., Lytton-street, Carlton, V.

Sweet, George, The Close, Brunswick, V.

Swift, James, Commercial Bank, South Melbourne, V.

Swinborne, Geo., C.E., Planet Chambers, Collins-st., Melbourne,V.

Swindley, William, Eccleston, Queen’s-terrace, Albert Park, V.

Syme, G. Alexander, M.A., North-road, Brighton, V.

Syme, G. Adlington, M.B., F.R.C.S., Colllns-st. E., Melbourne, V.

Symon, J. H., Q.C., Adelaide, 8.A.

Symon, W., M.A., Adelaide, S.A.

Symons, Rev. J. C., Glenferrie-road, Hawthorn, V.

Synnot, Monckton D., Sunbury, V.

Tait, James A., Ivanhoe, 151 Hotham-street, East Melbourne, V.

Tate, Frank, B.A., Avilion, Station-street, Box Hill, V.

‘Tate, Ralph, F.G.S., F.L.S., Professor of Natural Science, Univer-
sity, Adelaide, S.A.

Tate, Mrs. Ralph, University, Adelaide, 8.A.

‘Taylor, Alfred J., Tasmanian Public Library, Hobart, T.

Teece, R., F.I.A., 67 Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Tepper, J. G. O., F.L.S., Museum, Adelaide, S.A.

Thomas, A. P., M.A., F.L.8., Professor of Biology, Auckland, N.Z.

Thomas, Edward V., 145 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.

Thomas, Miss Emilie A., Versailles, Canterbury-road, Balywn, V.

Thomas, J. C., Port Melbourne, V.

Thomas, William M., Auburn, N.S.W.

Thomson, J. C., Dunedin Iron and Woodware Co., Dunedin, N.Z.

Thomson, John, c/o Kilpatrick & Co., 307 Collins-st., Melbourne, V.

Thompson, Dugald, 409 George-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Thompson, George M., F.L.8., High School, Newington, Dunedin,

N.Z.

Thompson, J. Ashburton, M.D., D.P.H., Health Department,
127 Macquarie-street N., Sydney, N.S.W.
21

LIS? OF MEMBERS.

Thompson, J. Henning, M.A., High School, Charles-street, Kew, V.

Thompson, R. O., Gas Works, South Melbourne, V.

Thorp, R. C., M.D., F.R.C.P., Roseneath, O’Connell-street, Parra-
matta, N.S.W.

Thornton, Rev. J. J., Brunswick-road, Brunswick, V.

Thow, William, Locomotive Department, Eveleigh, Sydney, N.S.W.

Threlfall, Richard, M.A., Professor of Physics, University, Sydney,
N.S.W.

Threlfall, Miss, Beaucliffe, Yanonabbe-road, Darling Point,
Sydney, N.S.W.

Threlfall, Mrs., Beaucliffe, Yanonabbe-road, Darling Point,
Sydney, N.S.W.

Tibbitts, W. H., M.R.C.S., Belchester, Manly, N.S.W.

Tidswell, Henry P., c’o Messrs. Tidswell, Wilson and Co., 68
Clarence-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Tietkens, W. H., Adelaide, S.A.

Tipping, J., 72 Henry-street, Windsor, V.

Tisdall, Henry T., F.L.5., Washington-street, Toorak, V.

Tisdall, Herbert W. L., B.C.E., Rosbercon, Washington-street,
Toorak, V.

Todd, Charles,C.M.G., F R.S., F.R.A.S., Observatory, Adelaide, S.A.

Toll, John J., M.D., Port Adelaide, S.A.

Topp, Charles A., M.A., LL.B., F.L.8., Training College,
University, Melbourne, V.

Touch, J. Edward, c/o Booth, McDonald and Co., Christchurch,
N.Z.

Townsend, Mrs. Anna G., 22 George-street, Fitzroy, V.

Townsend, J. William, 179 Elizabeth-street, Melbourne, V.

Townsend, Miss Jessie G., 22 George-street, Fitzroy, V.

Traill, J. Cuthbert, B.A., B.C.E., 525 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.

Traill, John, 525 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.

Travis, J.. Mines Department, Melbourne, V.

Tregarthen, Greville, Government Statist’s Office, 74 Bridge-street,
Sydney, N.S.W.

Trist, Henry, Stevedore-street, Williamstown, V.

Tritton, J. L., Goulburn, N.S.W.

Trotter, W., 104 Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Tucker, Thomas G., M.A., Professor of Classics, University, Mel-
bourne, V.

Turner, Duncan, L.R.C.S.E., 90 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.

Turner, Fred., F.R.H.S., Hyde Park, Sydney, N.S.W.

Turner, Harry, Cavendish Chambers, Grenfell-street, Adelaide, S.A.

Turner, Henry G., Commercial Bank, Collins-street W., Mel-
bourne, V.

Turner, Mrs. Henry, G., Commercial Bank, Collins-street W.,
Melbourne, V.

Turner, J. B. C., 90 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.

Turri, G. Garibaldi, 104 Elizabeth-street, Melbourne, V.

Tuxen, P. V., 456 Chancery Lane, Melbourne, V.

Twynam, Edward, Survey Department, Sydney, N.S.W.

Twynam, George E., M.R.C.S., 38 Bayswater-road, Darlinghurst,
N.S.W.

Tyas, J ohn W., University, Adelaide, S.A.

Uhr, Charles J. K., 93 Elizabeth-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Ulm, Emil, Consul for Bolivia, 36 High-street, Prahran, Vi

Ulrich, George H. F., F.G.S., Professor of ,Mining and Mineralogy,
Otago University, N.Z.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Urquhart, Arthur T. D., Auckland, N.Z.
Usher, J. E., M.D., F.R.G.S., Collins-street E., Melbourne, V.

Vale, Miss Grace, Mayfield, Church-street, Abbotsford, V.

Vale, Hon. W. M. K.., Mayfield, Church-street, Abbotsford, V.

Valentine, Charles J., Wellington-square, North Adelaide, S.A.

Vanse, A. J., Tempe, N.S.W.

Vasey, Thomas, Riversdale-road, Hawthorn, V.

Verdon, Edward de, Office of Titles, Queen-street, Melbourne, V. ont
Vicars, J ames, B.E., Ochil Bank, Palace-street, Ashfield, N.S. m @ ct. ite Ly
Vickery, Hon. E., M. L.C., Edina, Waverley, N.S.W.

Vickery, S. K., A.M.LC. E., Ararat, V. fm AS ‘@’ .?
Vay L ~ & & bso
Walch, James H. B., Holbrook Place, Hobart, T. S #
Walker, E. A., Cramer-street, Preston, V. bs @2aRy
Walker, F. W., 58 Castlereagh-street, Sydney, N.S.W. 5
Walker, J. T., Waltham Buildings, Bond-strect, Sydney, We a oo
Walker, James B., Mutual Provident Chambers, Hobart, T. r Ge
Walker, 8S. J., 60 Alfred-street, Prahran, V. 20”, ‘ey

Walker, W., Victorian Railways, Spencer-strect, Melbourne, wits

Wall, H. B. de la Poer, M A., Hamilton Colleve, Hamilton, V

Wallace, Frank H., B.A., White Street, Balmain, N.S.W.

Walsh, Fred, 26 Elizabeth-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Walsh, Rev. W. M., St. Joseph’s, Townsville, Q.

Walton, T. U., B.Sc., F.C.S., Colonial Sugar Co., Sydney, N.S.W.

Ward, W. F., Government Analyst, Hobart, T.

Ward-Cole, Miss, St. Ninian’s, Brighton, V.

Ward-Cole, Mrs., St. Ninian’s, Brighton, V.

Wark, William, Kurrajong Heights, N.S.W.

Wark, William, jun., Kurrajong Heights, N.S.W.

Warren, Mrs. A., Rosendale, Stanmore-road, Sydney, N.S.W.

Warren, W. H., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering, University,
Sydney, N.S.W.

Watson, Hon. J., Glenworth, Darling Pt., Sydney, N.S.W.

Watson, Robert, Victorian Railways, Spencer-street, Melbourne, V.

Waugh, Rev. J. 8., D.D., Hawthorn, V.

Way, His Honour Chief Justice, Adelaide, S.A.

Webster, —, M.D., Toorak-road, South Yarra, V.

Webster, John, Hokianga, N.Z.

Webster, Mrs. John, Bundalohn, Tennyson-street, St. Kilda, V.

Weir, John, 57 Little Flinders-street, Melbourne, V.

Wells, William E., 197 Clarendon-street, South Melbourne, V.

West, B. Edmund, Melbourne Club, Collins-street, Melbourne, Y.

West, James G., Mt. Leyshon, Charters Towers, Q.

West-Erskine, Hon. W. A. E., M.A., M.L.C., Adelaide Club,
Adelaide, S.A.

Weston, J. J., 29 O’Connell-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

White, E. J., F.R.A.S., Observatory, Melbourne, Y.

White, Rev. James S., M.A., LL.D., Gowrie, Singleton, N.S.W.

White, Mrs. Sarah E. C., Observatory, Melbourne, V.

Wiesener, T. F., 334 George-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Wiggs, Henry C., M.D., 220 Lygon-street, Carlton, V.

Wild, John J., Ph. D., F.R.G.S., 112 Drummond-st., Carlton, V.

Wilkinson, Charles S., F.G.S8., F.L.8., Mines Department,
Sydney, N.S.W.

Wilkinson, Edward, Town Hall, Melbourne, VY.

Wilkinson, John F., M.B., Ch. B., Bright, V.

Wilkinson, Rey. S., Regent House, Regent-st., Petersham, N.S.W.

23

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Williams, John, M.D., 59 Collins-street, Melbourne, V

Willsallen, T. P., Gunnibli, Gunnedah, N.S.W.

Wilshire, J. 'I’., M.L.A., Havilah, Emu-street, Burwood, N.S.W.

Wilson, Alexander, Portsand Harbours Department, Melbourne, V.

Wilson, Edwin L., 56 Market-street, Melbourne, V.

Wilson, Rev. F. R. M., Kew, V.

Wilson, J. Bracebridge, M.A., F.L.8., C.E. Grammar School,
Geelong, V.

Wilson, James J., M.B., C.M., University, Sydney, N.S.W.

Wilson, T. R., Chief Secretary's Office, Treasury, Melbourne, V.

Wilton, Wyn J. E., Elizabeth-street, Hobart, T.

Windeyer, His Honour Mr. Justice, Supreme Court, Sydney, N.S.W.

Wintle, 8. Henry, Eltinor, Park-street, Burnley, V.

Wise, Bernhard R., M.L.A., Carisbrook, 22 Macleay-street, Sydney,
N.S.W.

Wisewould, Frank, 93 William-street, Melbourne, V.

Wood, W. Atkinson, M.B., Ch.B., Corowa, Wattletree-road,
Malvern, V.

Woodhouse, E. B., Mt. Gilead, Campbelltown, N.S.W.

Woodthorpe, Rev. Robert A., B.A., St. Leonards, Sydney, N.S.W.

Wooleock, John L., Town Hall Chambers, Brisbane, Q.

Woolrych, F. B. W., 54 Watkin-street, Newtown, N.S.W.

Wotherspoon, Robert, C.E., Town Hall, Melbourne, V.

Wright, Frederick, Italian Consulate, Pirie street, Adelaide, S.A

Wricht, H. G. A., M.R.C.S., Wynyard Square, Sydney, N.S.W.

Wright, James H., Darlimurla, South Gippsland, V.

Wright, John, Forest Lodge, 67 Wentworth-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Wright, Robert, Carlton Terrace, Wynyard Square, Sydney, N.S.W.

Wylie, Alexander C., 41 Norwich Chambers, Hunter-street,
Sydney, N.S.W.

Wynne, Richard, Yarrawa, Mt. Wilson, N.S.W.

Yeates, Horatio, St. Kilda road, Melbourne, V.
Yeats, John, 71 Osborne-street, South Yarra, V.
Young, J. B, Sandhurst, V.

Yule, William, 47 William-street, Melbourne, V,

FORD & SON, Printers, 372 & 374 Drummond Street, Carlton, Melbourne,

SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OF MEMBERS.

Adair, J. F., Richmond-terrace, Sydney, N.S.W.

Barff, H. E., Toxteth-road, Glebe Point, N.S.W.

Fischer, C. F., M.R.C.S., Sydney, N.SW.

Josephson, J. P., Marrickville, Sydney, N.S.W.

Manning, Sir W., Sydney, N.S.W.

Mestayer, R. L., Parramatta-road, Sydney, N.S.W.

Moore, Ch., Director Bot. Gardens, Sydney, N.S.W.

Parker, T. J., F.R.S., Professor of Biology, Otago, N.Z.

Haswell, W. A., M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Biology, University of
Sydney, N.S.W.

Stillman, Henry T. W., Melbourne, V.

Purdie, A., M.A., University of Otago, N.Z.

Teape, Rev. W. M., Penola, S.A.

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