Cee ae:

=

Sab
met

Rae

*”

NS

‘at
2 =
>"

. “ ‘ Saal oie so 8 : .
| semaiitnhabgresnoreermalyttnonat tees ee teh 9 ate teeet e eRe NET AERP I Ne reRSFON Fett TES 5 nt OT RS a = ET A EIEN AE RR FAS eT eR apn Nm NE ee Se ee ee re pt er ert at te rte ne ap errr i rae Praga Re gn — pean nea ree penetra mad

ae dprepnsipiced vig ne sakde Sate indatenTactanentnaset din parisien hysodsr reais Some cater wh nema tienen gpa ene ole acer areti ORE parry pg mero cuneate setae asi ga ait mene aprtaproaing ean meter ipa tn eh arent pone ape apse enone ere g

<a wtespetion:
ee Ree ee mre arene er eT I A I ET LT LI A FE C= I a ee pn eR EE TR EE I RO LR RE RT OE A RO

. “

n Tier lh inet sitesi. oD pe 4 ‘ : we XY < ae er Cs

ie 35
7m

7) Ae
=. -
ae?
ns
‘
“
-
=
‘
.
2
‘

j Des, - :
= ¢ : iz
f .
4 ‘si {
“ae ~
&
‘
r \
5 i
i
. y
j ‘
' ae
u
\
: - re
a -
+ ‘
»
*
»
1
nk ”
< .
“ : re
¥ a ‘
!
‘
.
i
, »:
4 ‘
‘ees oa a
‘ ‘ ad
/ «
f ’
J .
+ Ui -
. “ : ’
- 6
Ls
, 4 -
= Py . ‘
‘
,
i ; .
’ '
: - ' - ‘ ‘ /

REPORT at ~ iat ea
fa, # We, EVN
‘ 3| \SRARs Ne
OF THE Ls Pe
@ i

SEYENTH MEETING ‘¢ 2S

OF THE

AUSTRALASIAN ASSOCIATION

FOR THE

ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE,

HELD AT

SYDNEY, 1696

A. LIVERSIDGE, MA, EL Ds, fOEGS.

Spdnep :

PUBLISHED BY. THE ASSOCIATION
23397

PLEASE address all communications to—
THE PERMANENT Hon. SECRETARY,
THE AUSTRALASIAN ASSOCIATION,
THE UNIVERSITY, GLEBE,
SypNEY, New SoutH WALEs.

SYDNEY :
WILLIAM APPLEGATE GULLICK, GOVERNMENT PRINTER, PHILLIP-STREET.

1898.

r;

Sint j rcs

: PAGE.
Officers and Council and Members of Committees ... ai oa xiii
Local Committee and Delegate Members bf a ... XiV-XV
Presidents, Vice- Presidents, and Secretaries of Scations pes we. XVI-XVil
Objects and Rules of the Association ... = oF XVili-xxil

Presidents, Vice-Presidents, Secretaries, and Tei ers, tom the
commencement no . Xili-xxvi

Presidents, Vice-Presidents, ol oa pe Secon from fhe
commencement ee ea < ai ae om XXV1i-XXXVi
List of Evening Lectures si sis is as oy) OXI
Statement of Receipts and apenditace : XXXViil-x]

Table showing Attendances and Receipts and Sums Paid or Voted
for Scientific Purposes ris xli

Extracts from the Minutes of the Meeting = the Gena \Council,
held 6th January, 1898 __... és xhi

Extracts from the Minutes of the Meeting of ihe Generals Council,
held 10th January, 1898... a xii

Extracts from the Minutes of the Meeting of the General Gaenei
held 18th January, 1898... ae ese ; Phe si xliv
Address to Her Majesty the Queen .., m a he ihe xlyv
Committees of Investigation Appointed a : ae , xlvi
Recommendations Agreed to by the General Conceal ar eine xlvili
Report of the Baron von Mueller Memorial Committee _... xlix

Report of the International Catalogue of Scientitic Literature
Committee... Be ie aon bis Ne xlix
General Programme for the Mecuas va she < ae ats 1-li
Errata et eeeerda sas wie ie AS _ er oe lii

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.
Address by the President, Professor A. LiversitpcE, M.A., LL.D.,
REPORTS OF RESEARCH COMMITTEES.
1, On Seismological Phenomena in Australasia

2. On our Knowledge of the Thermo-dynamices of the Moltaic Cell 71

3. On the Composition and Properties of the Mineral Waters of
Australasia... 87

4. On the Occurrence of ‘Glacial Boulder ae fellow Cliff, lerawn
Point Station, Finke Valley, Central Australia ae 109

5. On the Evidence of Glacial Action in the Port Victor and
Inman Valley Districts, South Australia use 114
6. List of Vernacular Names for Australian Birds... wie ih 128

28510

Vv CONTENTS.

PROCKEDINGS OF THE SECTIONS. -

[An asterisk signifies that the title only is printed. ]

Section A.—ASTRONOMY, MATHEMATICS, AND PHYSICS.

FRIDAY, 7TH JANUARY, 1898.

Address by P. Baraccut, F.R.A.S., &c., President of the Section ...

Monpay, 10TH JANUARY, 1898,

*], Four Theorems in Spherical Harmonics. By C. CoLErmpeE
Farm; Bsc. ..

2, Some Expressions for the Component of the Magnetic Force
Perpendicular to the Axis in the Interior of Solenoids. Bo C.
COLERIDGE Farr, B.Sc.

3. On Magnetic Hy steresis Losses in n Feebly Magnetic and in
Diamagnetic Substances. By Miss F. Martin and Professor
R. THRELFALL, M.A.

4. The Trigonometrical Survey of New South ‘Wales, ‘with mention
of Similar Surveys in the other Colonies. By TB, FURBER,
RAGS: 5 Ua.

5. The Description of a New Tide- predicting “Machine. By Captain
A. INGLIS

6. The Tides of South Australia. By R. W. CHAPMAN, M. Ne
B.C.E., and Captain A. Ineris -

*7. Notes on the Vertical Component of ‘the Motion of the Earth’s
Atmosphere, and an Exhibit, viz., a Wind Vane, showing
Vertical Motions of the Air. By Major-General Scuaw, CNBa ce

8. Experiments on Some Electrical Properties of Purified Sulphur.
By Professor R. THrReELFALL, M.A., and J. BERNARD ALLEN,
B.Sc. ie es x A:

TuESDAY, llrH JANvuARy, 1898.

ao: Results from Various-sized Rain-Gauges. By H. C. KIpp1e,
10. Cloud oinveneaoe in Victoria. By P. Baraccut, F.R.A.S....
11. The Testing of Reflecting Surfaces. By P. Baraccut, F.R.A.S.
#12. A General Expression for Flow in Tubes. By G. H. Knrppzs,
WR ASSs, Lee.
13. The Source of the Periodic Waves which are recorded from
time to time on the Sydney and Newcastle Tide-Gauges. By
H. C. Russet, C.M.G., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., &. ...
*14. Notes on Comparisons of Steel and Iron Lineal Standards for
Geodetic Purposes. By D. M. Mairianp, L.S. ie

PAGE.

CONTENTS.

Section B.—CHEMISTRY.

FRIDAY, 7TH JANUARY, 1898.
1,..On the Colouring Matters of Wines. By M. Biunno ... a
#2. The Molecular Mechanism of an Pps ela By W. ©:
Hamtet, F.1.C., F.C.S.
3. On the Colouring Matter of Eriococcus Eucalypti, ‘and Notes on
the Wax of Ceroplastes Rubens. By E. H. Gurney, F.C.S

SaturDAY, 8TH JANUARY, 1898.

. Metallurgical Methods in use at Broken Halls, By. G. H.
“BLAKEMORE. ce
. The Russell Process (of Silver Lixiviation) in Australia. By
“ Epaar Hat., and KE. 8. Srmupson, B.E...
. The Occurrence of og ae Deposits at the Jenolan Cav es,
N.S. Wales. By J. C. H. Mineaye, F.C.S.
7. Notes and Analyses - some New South Wales Phosphatic

Minerals and Phosphatic Deposits. By J.C. H. Mrycaye, F.C.S.

a oO

Monpay, 10TH JANUARY, 1898.
*§. On Modern Methods of Teaching Chemistry. By W. J. CLunres
Ross, B.Sc.
9. On “Red Rain” Dust. By T. STEEL, F.C.S , ELS,
10. The Water of the Water Vine. By W. M. DoneErry, F.C.S
11. The Estimation of Wheatmeal in "Oatinet by a Gravimetric
Process. By W. M. Donerrty, F.C
12. On Manganese Nodules found at Onybyiaumbas By W.
Donerry, F.C.S. : :
*13. Notes on the Constitution of Gluten. By F.B. Gurnrir, F.C.S.
*14. Notes on some Simple Laboratory Contrivances. By A. N.
PEARSON... : i Sf aoe co als a mae

Section C.—GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

SATURDAY, 8TH JANUARY, 1898.

Address by Captain BSW. Hurroy, HRs: 08.G.S:, ge President
of the Section ... : air es

Monpay, 10TH JANUARY, 1898.

1. On the Glacial Beds of Toolleen, Coleraine, and Wanda Dale.
By Evetyy G. Hoee, M.A..

2. Further Evidence as to the Glacial Action in the Bacchus Marsh
District, Victoria. By C. C. BrirrLeBanKk, G. Sweet, F.G.S.,
and Professor T. W. i. Davip, B.A., F.G.S.

*3, Notes on the Geology and Mineral Deposits of Portions of
Western Australia. By E. F. Prrrman, A.R.S.M.

*4, The Early History of Tin. By S. B. J. Skertcuty, B.Sc. ...

*5, The Pleistocene History of "Worthiern Asia. “By ‘St (Bs id:
SKERTCHLY, B.Sc... = fi oe aA me i

*6. The Bdellium of Seripture. “By S. B. J. SkERTcHLY, B.Sc. ...

-*7, The Artesian Water Bearing Beds of N. 8. Wales. By the
Rev. J. Mitne Curran, F.G.S._.. fe aa

*8. Notes on Bondi Dyke and Prismatic Sandstone. By R. L.
Jack, F.G.8., F.R.G.S.

*9, Notes on the Physiography ‘of the Parish of St. "George, N. 8.
Wales. By E. J. Sraruamo ...

*10. Notes of a : Gealagieal Reconnaissance on the Mount Kosciusko
Plateau. By the Rev. J. MILNE CurRRAN, F.G.S. in

340

vi

Hl

12.

13.
14.

15.

16.
elvis
18.

Belg:

CONTENTS.

TurspDAy, lltTH JANUARY, 1898.

Contributions to the Geology of Mount Kosciusko and the
Indi-Monaro track, N.S.W. By A. E. Kitson, F.G.8., and
W. THORN ap

Notes on Samples of Rocks collected by A. E. Kitson and
Ne horns) ByeAe We Elowamn He Gass es. ;
On Oligoclase Felspar, from Mt. a se Victoria. By A. W.
Howrirt, F.G.S.

Note on the Occurrence of | Fulgurites _ in the Sandhills at
Kensington and Bondi, in N. S. W ales ; ; with a Bibliography of
Fulgurites. By G. H. Knyipps, F.R.A.S., L.S., J. W. Grim-
SHAW, M. Inst. C.E., and Rev. J. Minne CurRAN, F.G.S.

Notes on Some New South Wales Rocks. By W. J. CLuNIES
Ross, B.Sc. Hee ae fen i, Y ae ahr

WEDNESDAY, 12TH JANUARY, 1898.

Notes on the Australian Tzeniopterideze. By W. 8. Dun

Ore Deposits of the Silver Spur. By H.G.Sroxes ... 508
An Examination of the Tasmanian Cae Record. By T.
S. Hatt, M.A. sae
On the Geology ‘of the Cow Flat District, near Bathurst. By
A. C. ANDREWS, B.A. oat : nei!

Srecrion D.—BIOLOGY.

FRIDAY, 7TH JANUARY, 1898.

Address by Acting-Professor C. J. Marrin, D.Sc., M.B., &c.,

iw)

4.

5.
6.

Ld

i.

8.
$).

President of the Section

Botanical Papers.

. A few words about the Flora of the Islands of Torres Straits

and the Mainland about Somerset. By F. M. Batuey, F.L.S. ...
Notes on Plants of the Rabbit-infested Country, Bulloo River,
South-west Queensland ; with Photographic Illustrations. By
J. F. Battery ... ;

. Notes on the Plants Indigenous to the North-West Portion of
"the Colony of Victoria. By Sr. ELoy D’Atton ...

Notes on the Flora of Bathurst, N. 8S. Wales. By Ww. J.
CiuntEs Ross, B.Sc. ...

A Statistical Account of Australian Fungi. By D. McAtprne.
Underground Fungi of Tasmania. By L. Ropway F
The Algae of Victoria. By H. T. Tispaut, F.LSS. Bc
On the Occurrence of Hucalyptus pulverulenta in Victoria. By
A. W. Howirr, F.G.S.

Short Dichotomous Key to the hitherto known Species of
Eucalyptus. By J. G. Lurumany, F.L.S.

10. Notes on some Eucalypts of the New England Table-land. By

NUE

J. H. Marven, F.L.S.

A Review of the Characters available for the Classification of
the Eucalypts, with a Synopsis of the Species arranged on a
Carpological basis. By Professor Ratpu Tare, F.G.S., F.L.S.

PAGE,

377
384

403

CONTENTS

12. Host Plants of some Australian Loranthaceew. By Professor
Ra.pwH Tarte, F.G.S., F.L.S.. ae

13. On the Methods of Fertilization of some Australian Plants, By
A. G. HAMILTON ,

14, Notes on the Fertilization of some North Australian Plants.
By N. HovrzE’ ~..

15. Peculiarities of the Flowers of the Order Proteacece By Jou
SHIRLEY, B.Se.... aes

16. The Temperature of Plants. “By Ww. Sovrrer..

*17, On the Growth of Vegetal Galls. By W. W. FROGGATT.

Zoological Papers.

A Letter respecting the proposed Biological Station and Fish
Hatchery, near Dunedin, New Zealand. By G. M. THomson :

1, The Nests and Eggs of the Honey-eaters, or pepbagous Birds
of Australia. By. Aid CAMPBELL, FL. Ss.

2, Notes and Observations on the Range of Vision in some
Araneide. By W. J. Rarnpow ;

3. On the egisplantation of the Recurrent Laryngeal Nerve. By
T. BH. Macponatp, M.B., Ch.M. _...

*4, Notes Explanatory of an Exhibit of a Series of Sections of
Brains of Marsupials, with remarks on the Phy stoloey of the
Brain. By J. Fuasuman, M.D., Ch.M. ...

*5, The Distribution of Lizards in the Pacific. By A HS, Lucas,
MARC Sct =e.

*§. Notes Explanatory of an Exhibit of some interesting Australian
Fishes, and of the jaws of an apparently undescribed Shark.
By J. Doveras OcILBy :

*7, Exhibit of an Album containing illustrated articles on Economic
Ornithology. By A. J. NortH, C.M.Z.S..

*8, On some points of interest in the Structure of certain Coccids.
By C. FuLuer ...

*9, On Sight- and Smell- feeding i in Australian Fishes. By ‘GREGG
Witson, M.A., D.Sce., Ph. D. ae oat

*10. Exhibit of Enlarged Models of Australian Plants. By, K, T,
Baker, F.L.S. . ane ie

*11. Notes on the Histology of Podocarpus. “By A. “Hes: Lucas,
MEA.. B.S¢, sc

#12. Notes Explanatory of an Exhibit of a finely preserved s¢ series of
specimens of Peripatus and Land Planarians. By T. STEEt,
| Sa Cs seem Og] Wr ere He Be a

Section E.—GEOGRAPHY.
FriIpay, 7TH JANUARY, 1898.

Address by Sir James Hector, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S., President
of the Section ... ed has

Monpay, 10TH JANUARY, 1898.

1, Sixty Years’ Progress of Geographical Discovery, ree 97. By
A. C. MacponaLD, F.R.G.S., F.R. Hist. S., F.LL,
. Over Land and Sea ; or, Dr. Andrée’s Aerial Voyage ‘to ne North
Pole. By A.C. MAcpoNAtp, F.R.G.S., F.R. Hist. 8., &e.

Vil

PAGE,

665

Vill

CONTENTS.

WEDNESDAY, 12TH JANUARY, 1898.

. Remarks on Central Australia, suggesting Further Exploration,

By W. H. TrerKens

A Gontibation to Australian Oceanography. By THos. WALKER

Fow.er, M.C.E., F.R.G.S., F.G.8., &e. ... 153
The Determination of Heights by "Barometric Methods. By
THos. WALKER FOWLER, M. C.E., F.R.G.S., F.G.S., &e. ;

. Antarctic and Southern Exploration, By the Hon. P. G. Kine,

M.L.C., F.R.G S.

7. The Discov very of New Guinea es Antonio D’Abreu. By Sie

McCiymont, M.A.

Section F.—ETHNOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY.

SATURDAY, 8TH JANUARY, 1898.

Address by A. W. Howirt, F.G.S., &c., President of the Section...

Alle

9
-_

3.
*4,

eo

SDs

70:

FRIDAY, 7TH JANUARY, 1898.

Le Dieu, la Nature, PAme. By Monsieur D. Marceron

The Mythology of the Efatese. By Rev. Dr. MacponaLp
Notes on Some Customs and Pe of the Maori. By
Eispon BEst ... Ds snc ote hen
Pictorial Art of the Australian’ Aborigines. By R. H.
Matuews, L.S8. os 8 Nos a0
Australian Initiation Ceremonies. “By R. H. Maruews, L.S....

SATURDAY, 8TH JANUARY, 1898.
The Dialectical Changes of the Indo-Polynesians. By Rev. 8.

Mownpay, 10rH JANuARY, 1898.

. The Life History of a Savage. By Rev. Dr. Gro. Brown
. The Disappearance of Native Races in general, and of the Fijians

in particular. By H. H. THIELE ...

. Notes of a recent Journey to New Guinea and New Britain.

By Rev. Dr. Gro. BRown ...

. A Female Hermit of the South Pacific, with her s song. “By the

late Rev. Dr. W. W. Git, B.A.

. Concerning Unga as a term for Slave in 1 Rarotonga. ” By the

late Rev. Dr. W. W. Git, B.A.

. Tahitian and Hawaiian Tattooing. “By Miss Tevrra Heyy...
“13:

Black, White, and Red, as Symbols. Eye JOHN eee IBSAGS
inane

. Lhe Geogr aphical Know ledge of the ‘Poly nesians. el S. Percy

SmitH, F.R.G.S.

TuESDAY, llrH JANUARY, 1898S.

. The Oceanic Family of Languages. By Rev. Dr. MACDONALD.
. Some Anthropographic Notes on the Tannese, New Hebrides.

By Rev. W. W. Gray.

. Proposal for a Bureau of “Ethnology in in Australasia. ‘By A.

HAMILTON wae Re fan ‘ne ie oan ie

CONTENTS.

*18, Old Samoan Amusements. By Rey. J. B. Starr ; :

*19, Australian Cave Paintings and Rock Carvings, with supposed
Traces of Polynesian Art. By Rev. J. B. Starr.. :

20. The Syllabic Characters found on the headgear of a figure painted

on the wall of a cave found by Sir George Grey on the Glenelg

River, in N. W. Australia. BY Rev. JOHN CAMPBELL, B.A.

WEDNESDAY, 12TH JANUARY, 1898.

*21. Some Indian Words of ee used by the Australian
Tribes. By Joun Fraser, B.A., ee

*22. Notes on the Rock Carvings of renee Aborigines in the
Wollombi District, N.S. Wales. By W. J. ENRIGHT ...

23. Vocabularies of the Geelong and Colac Tribes. Collected in 1840.
By Joun J. Cary... : oe és

Section G.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND AGRICULTURE.

FRIDAY, 7TH JANUARY, 1898.
Address by R. M. i ceca F.L.S., F.S.S., &c., President of the

Section

Economic Science Papers.

Monpay, 10rH JANvuARY, 1898.

1. Democracy and the Voice of eee oe W. JetHROo Brown,
M.A., LL.D. iis ; ; re

TuEsDAY, llr JaANvARY, 1898.

2. The Practical Application of Economics. ByALFRED DE Lissa
3. The Advantages of a Federal Union. By W. JetHRo Brown,
EVIE Ds ois
“4. Federation and Responsible Government. By A, B. Pippts GTON,
Tek, ANS SN) Oe és ie - ;

WEDNESDAY, 12TH JANUARY, 1898.
*5. Some Thoughts on Social Evolution. By Rev. J. C. CorLerte,
D.D

6. Criminal Responsibility: A Chapter from a Criminal Code. By
Hon. Sir Samvuet GrirrirH, G.C.M.G., M.A. ...
*7, An Introduction to Political Economy. By Sir R. es BAKER,
K.C.M.G.
8. The Federation of British Australasia: A Sketch, froma Political
and Economic Point of View. By J. T. WALKER

*9. State Aid to Agriculture and Industry. By H. L. E. Rurmyina
“10. Notes on a Statistical Comparison of the Australian Railways
with the Canadian Railways. By W. WALKER ... 506 bite

1x
PAGE.

837
837

838

839
840
840

873

884

885
893
894

894
895
904

904
907

907

x CONTENTS.

Agriculture Papers.
Monpay, 10rn January, 1898.

. The Making and Improvement of Wheats for Australian Condi-
tions: Details of the W ork, its Aims, and Matters of Interest
connected with it. By Wm. Farrer, M.A

. Bacteriology in Relation to Australian Dairying. By M. A.
“OCALLAGHAN ...

. The Propagation of Fruit Trees. By A. H. BENSON, M.R.A.C.
Graminese of Western Australia. By F. Turner, F.L.S.
E.R.ELS: ve ane dine aA
Salsolaceew of Western Australia. "By F, Turner, F.L.S.,
HARES: ave
. The Supposed Poisonous Plants of Western Australia. eo FE.
“TURNER, F.L.S., F.R.H.S. nog a Sap 54 Ess

Tuespay, llr JANUARY, 1898.
. Applied Entomology in Western Australia. By C. FuLuEr ...
. Economic Entomology. By W. W. Froaeartrt ...
On the Pine Trees of N. 8. W ales. By R. T. BAKER, ELS.
*10, Milk Analysisin its Relation to the Butter and Cheese Industries.
By H. W. Ports, F.C.S. e: a aan boc
11. Wine Culture in New South Wales. By F. B. Kynepon,
M.R.A.C. Sat
12. The Colour of. Flowers, and its Influence on Bee-life. By
ALBERT GALE ... 36
13. Experiments with Fodder Plants, ‘Native and Imported. By
D. McALPINE ... ho
14, The Mesquit Tree (Pr osopis dulcis) and its Sw eet Pods. By Hi Dae
STEEL, F.C.S., F.L.S. . :
15. Note on the Correspondence between the Results of Chemical
Analysis of a Soil and its Productiveness. By A. N. PEARSON..

_—

i)

we

OU

a>

SHA

WEDNESDAY, 12TH JANUARY 1898.

16. The pene Feeding of Working Horses. By T, U. Watton,
Biscy etal Cy wh. Cass
*17. The aoe Tek: : How its Progress Southwards inight be
Prevented, By J. P. DowLIne ... :
18. The Farmers’ Weights and Measures. "By “HENRY Lorp,
Gail C a:
19. Forestry in N. S. Wales. By Ww. s. CaMpBert, PES
20. Farmers’ Institutes. By W. 8S. CAMPBELL, F. LS.
21. Note on Hmex Australis. By R. HELMS...

Section H.—ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE.

Fripay, 7TH JANUARY, 1898.

Address by A. B. Moncrierr, M. Inst. C.E., M. Am. Soe. C.E., &e.,
President of the Section

SATURDAY, 8TH JANUARY, 1898.

1, Notes on the Principles adie in Constructing Unballasted
Lines of Railwaysin N.S. Wales. By H. Deanu, M.A., M. Inst.
C.E., Engineer-in-Chief, Railways Construction, N. 5. Wales .

2. The Commercial Conditions governing Railway Extension in
Australia. By C. O. Burcx, M.Inst. C.E.

3. On the ieapid Erection of a Steel Viaduct to replace a Timber
Structure on the N.S. Wales eyo By W. SHELLSHEAR,
M. Inst. C.E. : as ee ee a0

PAGE,

967

977
979

983

CONTENTS. xi

Monpay, 10TH JANUARY, 1898. PAGE.
4, Narrow Gauge Railways. By F. Back, A.I.C.E., F.S.S.,
General Manager, Tasmanian Government Railways __... 986
5. Notes on the Action of Certain Explosives. By F. Marcuant,
Meinst.€:H. ... 988

6. Some Remarks on Details of Hospital Construction and Lay
Management. By C. E. Owrn Smyru, Superintendent of

Public Buildings, Adelaide ... sa awe ook ae 1.989
7. Architecture ‘and the Allied Arts in N.S. Wales. By J. B.

BaRLow . 991
8. The Or namental Treatment of Iron and Steel i in Building Work.

By JAMES NANGLE ... ° 88 3 5 OEE

Turspay, llrH JANvuARy, 1898.

9. Notes on the Recent Fire at Melbourne. By Joun SuLMAN,
F.R.I.B.A. 5 995

10. A Review of some of the Conditions of Building Construction

and Requirements in ee can Past and Present. HED G. ALLAN
MANSFIELD a - a8 sat : ss «» 1005

WEDNESDAY, 12TH JANUARY, 1898.

11. The Grotesque in Modern Developments of the Picturesque.
By Howarp JosELAND Sy Bes wed a ae ... 1009
12. Coal-mining in N.S. Wales. By J. H. Ronaupson _... ae) LOU

Section I.—SANITARY SCIENCE AND HYGIENE.

SatTurDAY, STH JANUARY, 1898.

Address by Hon. ALLAN erm M.L.C., een bp Dea y
&e., President of the Section.. : ae oe cee LOM

FrIpay, 7TH JANUARY, 1898.

1. On the History and Prevalence of Tepes in Australia. By
ie AsHBuRTON THompson, M.D. . 1040
. Short Description of a New Method of Pr eparing ‘and Preservi ing
re ienical and Pathological Tissues, with special reference to
their Colour Preservation. By Sypnry Jamieson, M.B. (Edin.),

M.R.C.S. (Eng.) es aM sss 20° 1052
3. Tuberculosis i the Public Health. “By GEORGE LANE
Mo.titxs, M.A., M.D. 10&4

4. A Brief Sketch of the History of Small- “pox and Vaccination in
New South Wales. By Frank Tipswe tt, M.B., Ch.M. (Syd.),
D.P.H. (Camb.) te me a: Shs Shs aoe OSS

Section J.—MENTAL SCIENCE AND EDUCATION.

FRIDAY, 7TH JANUARY, 1898.

Address by JoHN Surtrtry, B.Se., President of the Section .. ae LOGS
*1. The Relation of Ethics to Political Economy. By As ee
THos. Rosepy, M.A., LL.D., F.R.A.S. ... 1083

*2. The Ethical’ Klement in Education. By the Rev. Gxo.
LITTLEMORE ... ae : See eres 560

Xi CONTENTS.

SATURDAY, 8TH JANUARY,’ 1898.

3. English Theories of Individual Freedom. By the Rey. Jas.
Hit, M.A. ae oar er nce oe
*4, Idealism in Ethics and Religion. By the Rev. A. J. GRIFFITH,

Monpay, 10rH January, 1898.

5. The Psychology of Attention. By Rev. N. J. Cocks, M.A. ..
*6. The Place of Museums in as) Education. By Miss L.
Macponabp, M.A... re oe
af AN ae Permanent Place of Literature in Education. By the Rev.
C. J. Prescott, M.A.. se nhc om
*8. The Function of Classical Study - in Education. By) Ee ave
[Ene Asters Wie AC metre S00 soe oa Bop 50t nao 500

TuESDAY, lltH JANUARY, 1898.

9. Fact and Idea. By C. J. BrenNAN, M.A.
*10. Socialism in Education. By P. F. Row anp, B.A.
11. The Financial Aspects of Secondary Education. By P. ANSELL
Ropin, M.A... ae
*12, The State and Secondary Education. By W. ia “ATKINS, B.A
*13. Scientific Methods as ‘seperd to Modern Education. By Miss
K. A. BADHAM.. ; aoe 50 Sac eile

WEDNESDAY, 127TH JANUARY, 1898.

*14. Is there a Science of Education? By Mrs. W. L. Atkins, B.A
15. A New Educational Experiment : Special Schools in Genny
and England. By Miss M. Honpee.. : Sat
*16. Teaching versus Education. By Miss H. C. Newcomn | bas
#17. The Rationale of Miraculous Cures in Modern Days. By Dr.
S. T. Kwaces ... Sb ate
*18. Evolution and Sociology. By Dr. T. F. Macponap .

THURSDAY, 13TH JANUARY, 1898.

*19. State Technical Education by a system of meng: ee Results.
By Professor D. C. SELMAN ...
*20. Friedrich Nietzsche. By C. J. BRENN AN, M.A..

Index to Authors

Index to Subjects and Proceedings

List of Members for the Sydney (1898) Session...

List of Societies and Public Institutions to which the Report i is
presented

Donations to the Library of the Australasian Association since 1895

Précis of previous Volumes of Reports 1888-95.. :

PAGE,

1083
1083

1084
1093
1093
1093

1093
1100

1101
1106
1107

1107

1107
1113

1113.
1113

1114
1114

1115
aly
1125

1139
1148
1157

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL xu

Officers for the Sydney Session of the Association

JANUARY, 1898.

PATRON:
His Excellency the Right Hon. Henry Ropert Branp, VIScoUNT
HAMPDEN.
PRESIDENT:

Professor A, LiverstpGkE, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.

ViceE-PRESIDENTS:

H. C. Russet, C.M.G., B.A., F-R.S:, F.R.A-S.
Sir James Hector, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S.
Professor Ratpu TATE, F.G.S., F.L.S.

The Hon. A. C. Grecory, C.M.G., M.L.C.

PERMANENT Hon. SECRETARY:
Professor A. LiversipGE, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S;

GENERAL TREASURER:
H. C. Russett, C.M.G., B.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.

SECRETARIES FOR THE OTHER COLONIES:

E. F. J. Love, M.A., F.R.A.S., The University, Melbourne.
Captain F. W. Hurton, F.R.S., Christchurch, N.Z.
ALEXANDER Mormon, F.L.S., The Museum, Hobart.
Professor E. H. Rennie, M.A., D.Sc., Adelaide University.
Professor W. H. Brace, M.A., The University, Adelaide.
JoHN SutrR.ey, B.Se., District Inspector of Schools, Brisbane,

Ex-Orricio MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL:

The Council consists of the following:—(1) present and former
Presidents, Vice-Presidents, Treasurers, and Secretaries of the
Association, and present and former Presidents, Vice-Presidents,
and Secretaries of the Sections ; (2) Authors of Reports or of
Papers published in extenso in the Annual Reports of the Associa«
tion.

TRUSTEES (PERMANENT):

H. C. Russeiz, C.M.G., B.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
ik} LJ. Bummey, ©.M.-G.,.EOR:S., FOR.A:S:
Professor A. LiversipcE, M.A., LL.D. F.R.S.

AUDITORS:
R. Tesce, F.I.A. R. A. DALLEN.

X1V OFFICERS AND COUNCIL.

PUBLICATION COMMITTEE,

The President, the Hon. General Treasurer, and the Secretaries of the
Sections.

RECOMMENDATION COMMITTEE:

The President, the Permanent Hon. Secretary, the past Presidents,
and the past General Secretaries,

COMMITTEE FOR BUILDINGS AND Rooms, EVENING LECTURES
AND SOIREES:

H. E. Barrr, M.A.; R. R. Garran, B.A.; F. B. Guturiz, F.C.S. ;

G. H. Kyipss, F.R.AGS: 5 KE. EF. Prrewan, AJRS.M. 3) EEC:
Russet, C.M.G., F.R.S.; J. A. ScHoFIELD, A.R.S.M., F.C.S. ;
T. W. E. Davin, B.A., F.G.S.; W. A. HasweEtt, D.Sc., F.R.S. ;
A. LiversipGr, LL.D., F.R.S. ; W. H. Warren, M. Inst. C.E. ;

J. T. Witson, M.B., C.M.

ExCURSIONS COMMITTEE:

H. Deane, M.A., M. Inst. C.E. ; J. W. GrimsHaw, M. Inst. C.E. ;
W. M. Hamtet, F.1.C., F.C.S. ; G. H. Knipss, F.R.A.S.; J.
MAIDEN, F.G-S. >; H. C) Russerm, C:MiG., FRiS.s) LaeWeeke
Davin, B.A., F.G.S.; W. A. Haswett, D.Se., F.R.S.; A.

Liversipcz, LL.D., F.R.S.

LocaL COMMITTEE:
By Rule 11 the Local Committee consists of the Members of Council

resident in New South Wales, viz. :—

ANDERSON, H. C. L., M.A.
ANDERSON, Professor F., M.A.
BAAN, dle Ri beAGee hime
BELLEMEY, R. T., M.P.S.
Coox, W. E., M.E.

Crumme_r, H. S. W.

Davin, Professor, B.A., F.G.S.

Deanet, H., M.A., M. Inst. C.E.

Der Lissa, A.

Dixon, W. A., F.C.S.

Ea, Rev. S.

FARRER, W., M.A.
FLETCHER, J. J., M.A., B.Sc.
FRASER, J., B.A., LL.D.

GaRRAN, Hon. A., LL.D., M.A.

. GARRAN, R. R., B.A.
GRIMSHAW, J. W., M. Inst. C.E.
GUTHRIE, F. B., F.C.S.

Hamner, W. M:, FC, EsC:S.

Haswe tt, Prof., D.Sc., F.B.S.
Kent, H. C., M.A.

Kine, Hon. P. G., M.L.C.
Knipps, G. H., F.R.A.S.
Knox, E. W., J.P.
LiversipGr, A., LL.D., F.R.S.

MacLavrtn, H. N., M.D., LL.D.

McMiiuan, W., M.P.

MarIpen, J. H., F.L.S.

MANN, John

MANSFIELD, G. A.

MINGAY-E, Jia ©. Hl. , HECrs:

PEDEN, J. B., B.A.

PicgtENiT, W. C.

Pirrman, E. F., A.R.S.M.

PLUMMER, J.

PoLiock, J. A., B.Se.

Roserts, Sir A., M.R.C.S.

Ross, W. J., Clunies, B.Sc.

RussELL, H. C., C.M.G., F.R.S.

Sacu, A. J., F.C.S.

Scorr, Professor W., M.A.

SmitH, Hon. Syd., M.L.A.

Stuart, Prof. T. P. A., M.D:

SULMAN, J., F.R.L B.A.

TEECE, R., F.1.A.

TuHompson, J. Ashburton, M.D.

THRELFALL, Professor R., M.A.

TIpswELL, F., M.B., D.P.H.

TurRNER, F., F.L.S., F.R.H.S.

WarREN, Prof. W. H., M. Inst.
C.K.

Wiutson, Professor J. T., M.B.

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL. Sav

MEMBERS OF COUNCIL NOMINATED BY SOCIETIES:

NEW SOUTH WALES.
Bartow, J. B. (The Institute of Architects, N.S. W.)
Docker, His Hon. Judge E. B., M.A. (The Royal Society of N.S. W.)
DuckwortH, A. (The Economic Association of N.S. W.)

Furper, T. F., F.R.A.S. (The Royal Society of N.S.W. and The
Institution of Surveyors of N.S.W.)

HALuican, G. H., C.1i. (The Institution of Surveyors of N.S. W.)
Hep.iey, Charles, F.L.S. (The Linnean Society of N.S.W.)
Norton, James, LL.D., M.L.C. (The Linnean Society of N.S. W.)
Quaire, F. H., M.A., M.D. (The Royal Society of N.S.W.)

RosEespy, The Rev. Thomas, M.A., LL.D., F.R.A.S. (The British
Astronomical Association of N.S.W.)

Wricut, H. A., M.R.C.S. (The Royal Society of N.S. W.)

VICTORIA.

Baraccut, P., F.R.A.S. (The Royal Society of Victoria).

Kernot, Prof. W. C., M.A., C.E. (The Royal Geographical Society of
Australasia, Melbourne Branch).

SHEPHARD, John (The Field Naturalists’ Club of Victoria).

SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

Barnes, C. H., L.S. (The S. A. Institute of Surveyors).

BLACKBURN, The Rev.

Rr eae Sana J. (The Royal Society of South Australia).

QUEENSLAND.
Pounp, C. J., F.R.M.S. (The Royal Society of Queensland).

NEW ZEALAND.
Gray, George, F.C.S. (The Phil. Inst. of Canterbury, Christchurch),

TASMANIA.

i ee PLS. (The Royal Society of Tasmania)

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL.

XVi

TUR]
uyor f aUUINID “AA “8 “FT

OS"

WW Ou “PL
“S"l'd ‘wopren ‘Hf
Sa osd “WW
Tease “VW “AA JOId
‘Ww ‘Oy ‘Vv ‘UvUy {Ig

a a Soa “va
pared “GM “iL ‘Jord
‘S'0'd

“OTM S°UeH ITM

‘ory
/S'v'ad ®qqy “HD
+09 'g “ooTpog mnyqay *¢
WW “WePMGL “YL “Jord |

‘SOL ‘prewop
SOM, Wee el
“O"T'W ‘Sury +p ‘d ‘u0H

OS" “WN “20Y79LT “CL

- SSO Pee 1
WS)" “UTOMOH “A

O0'd “VIN ‘eruueyy
‘HA ‘Fold = *’S'd‘W
‘Aowgpo_g ‘yy, paeyory

; VW
aqATT “TL JOld SW
‘AvNVOW “XeTW “jOIg
§ ‘SV au: Ow iT
“IO AI “CT “WL

“WAR *f D Jord Sarpy

‘CNS UO WOM

TIG [orserersereescrsccessesersseee Kudpis0eg— mq WOT}909

‘10qooHE «= SOUR"

OO" “OW
acanocnunonadonhoodbooda riencabaD AS0porg—" w01y09g

‘SOU “SU
UWA, (MM “qQ “JOrg [ts ABoperourpyy pure ABopoog—'p uorjoog

sence reer eeeeeerereeeeeseeece Ayystumayo—'g WO1}09G

*soIsAY T

‘OW UW A Mpovrieg ‘g |jpue ‘sonvuroyyeyy ‘Autou0Isy—'y UwoTqOeG

*SOLIvJII0Ng

*SJUAPISAIg-901 A.

‘squopIsolg *suoTqo0g

"S6SL ‘ONILAAIA) AANGAG S3HL LV SNOILOSG 4O SFIYVLEYOSSG ANV ‘SLNAGISSYdg-F30IA ‘SLNAGISAY_

XV11

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL.

, iy Mal
‘V'g TAeg "aL SVv'e
‘ueped “€ ‘f * ‘VW
‘uosiopuy slouRig ‘jold

‘Hdd “WYO

“ON Teaspyy yea

‘VIN ‘U9 ‘0 ‘H
A ‘WOW TN “HO

‘VW 0Y HY aT
“WIN ‘uve “yw ‘uoTT

“(TW ‘uosduroyy,
uojanqysy ‘ff f'q'W
fw fadaoyysuradg
"Mf AWN “OrpreH “C

“OSU “OD “98
‘WW “Tania A “HM F941
‘ ppysuryy “vy §'a'O

‘agg ‘Aoparyg uyor |'* worvonpryy pure sdouat0g [eyUEP—'f WOTZDeG

‘d0a1 “OTN
‘qpoqduey uvpy ‘UoPT oy, |" ouersAPT pur oous1og Areyueg—'T uoryo0g

"H'O ‘909 ‘WV ‘WW “HO

“4SUT “JX “aveysmiry “Ay “P| 9SUT IN WIN Someody “A |9SUT “IN ‘Yormouopy “Gg *W |" eANqooqpYOLy pue Suloeulsuy— 'Y{ Wo1yo9g

‘S'O'd “oqany “df

‘A'TT Vg ‘toseag uyor

WN Stodae gy
"M FOS TN “UOITEYS “I
SAIN SURTLENOTN “MA
CWA AV Td 9990
Dt) aie elt. CW
‘uLIMeTyOVIy “N “EL ‘aoyT

Geis Vv IN
‘uosty "IT ‘Aey VN
‘qoouedg UIMpTeg "AA “Jord

"S'S ‘oamyno
“orp ‘moysuyor "PL “Yi-Msy pue souoIng ououdsy—"'y) UOI}OIgG

‘SOW “WMO AA WV |) ASopodoayyuy pue ASojouyy™—"q Woryo0g

*solavyjoroag

*syUIpISAg-d0l A

*s]UOpISalg *suolqoeg

“panwyuUuogIq—SNOILodg 10 SAINVIAYOAg ANV ‘SENTCISAY-AOl A. ‘SINACISAU

XVill OBJECTS AND RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.

Obiects and Rules of the Association.

[Carried at the Christchurch Session in January, 1891; submitted and
confirmed at the Hobart Session, January, 1892; amended at the
Sydney Session, January, 1898.] The 1898 amendments are in italics.

OBJECTS OF THE ASSOCIATION.

The objects of the Association are to give a stronger impulse and a more
systematic direction to scientific inquiry ; to promote the intercourse of
those who cultivate science in different parts of the Australasian Colonies
and in other countries; to obtain more general attention to the objects of
science, and a removal of any disadvantages of a public kind which may
impede its progress.

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.

MEMBERS AND ASSOCIATES.

1. Members shall be elected by the Council. The annual subscription
shall be £1; but after 30th June, 1895, members will be required to pay an
entrance fee of £1 in addition.

[Amended as follows :—Members shall be elected by the Council. }
2. The annual subscription shall be £1, due on the Ist July in each year.

[Amended as follows -—The subscription shall be £1 for cach Session, to be
paid in advance. |

3. A member may at any time become a Life Member by one payment of
£10, in lieu of future annual subscriptions.

[Amended as follows :—A member may at any time become a Life Member
by one payment of £10, in lieu of future subscriptions. |

4, Members who fail to pay their subscriptions before the Annual Session
of the Association cease to be members, but may rejoin by paying the
entrance fee in addition to the annual subscription.

5. The Local Committee may admit any person as an Associate for the
year on the payment of £1.

6. Associates are eligible to serve on the Local Reception Committee,
but are not eligible to hold any other office, and they are not entitled to
receive gratuitously the publications of the Association.

[Rules 4, 5, and 6 are rescinded. ]

7. Ladies’ tickets (admitting the holders to the General and Sectional
Meetings, as well as the Evening Entertainments) may be obtained by full
members on payment of 5s. for each ticket. Ladies may also become either
Members or Associates on the same terms as gentlemen.

[Amended as follows :—Ladics tickets (admitting the holders to the General
and Sectional Mectings as well as the Evening Entertainments) may be obtained
by full members on payment of 10s. for each ticket. Ladies may also become
members on the same terms as gentlemen. |

OBJECTS AND RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. xix

SESSIONS.

8. The Association shall meet in Session periodically for one week or
longer. The place of meeting shall be appointed by the Council two years
in advance, and the arrangements for it shall be entrusted to the Local
Committee.

CouNCIL.

9. There shall be a Council consisting of the following :—(1) Present
and former Presidents, Vice-Presidents, Treasurers and Secretaries of the
Association, and present and former Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and
Secretaries of the Sections. (2) Authors of Reports or of Papers published
in extenso in the Annual Reports of the Association.

[Amended as follows :—There shall be a Council consisting of the follow-
ing :—{1) Present and former Presidents, Vice-Presidents, Treasurers and
Secretaries of the Association, and present and former Presidents, Vice-
Presidents, and Secretaries of the Sections. (2) Members of the Association
delegated to the Council by Scientific Societies. ]

10. The Council shall meet only during the Session of the Association,
and during that period shall be called together at least twice.

LocaL COMMITTEES.

11. In the intervals between the Sessions of the Association its affairs
shall be managed in the various Colonies by Local Committees. The Local
Committee of each Colony shall consist of the Members of Council resident
in that Colony.

OFFICERS.

12. The President, five Vice-Presidents (elected from amongst former
Presidents), a General Treasurer, one or more General Secretaries and Local
Secretaries shall be appointed for each Session by the Council.

13. The Governor of the Colony in which the Session is held shall be ex-
officio a Vice-President. [This Rule is rescinded.]

RECEPTION COMMITTEE.

14. The Local Committee of the Colony in which the Session is to be held
shall appoint a Reception Committee to assist in making arrangements for
the reception and entertainment of the visitors. This Committee shall
have power to add to its number.

OFFIce.
15. The permanent Office of the Association shall be in Sydney.

Money AFFAIRS OF THE ASSOCIATION.

16. The financia] year shall end on the 30th June.

17. All sums received for life subscriptions and for entrance fees shall be
invested in the names of three Trustees appointed by the Council, and the
interest only, arising from such investment, shall be applied to the uses of
the Association.

18, The subscriptions shall be collected by the Local Secretary in each
Colony, and shall be forwarded by him to the General Treasurer.

19. The Local Committees shall not have power to expend money without
the authority of the Council, with the exception of the Local Committee of
the Colony in which the next ensuing Session is to be held, which shall
have power to expend money collected or otherwise obtained in that Colony.
Such disbursements shall be audited, and the Balance-sheet and the surplus
funds forwarded to the General Treasurer.

20. All cheques shall be signed either by the General Treasurer and the
General Secretary or by the Local Treasurer and the Secretary of the Colony
in which the ensuing Session is to be held.

xX OBJECTS AND RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.

21. Whenever the balance in the hands of the Banker shall exceed the
sum requisite for the probable or current expenses of the Association, the
Council shall invest the excess in the names of the Trustees.

22. The whole of the accounts of the Association—i.e., the local as well
as the general accounts—shall be audited annually by two Auditors appointed
by the Council; and the Balance-sheet shall be submitted to the Council at
its first meeting thereafter.

MONEY GRANTS.

23. Committees and individuals to whom grants of money have been
entrusted are required to present to the following meeting a report of the
progress which has been made, together with a statement of the sums which
have been expended. Any balance shall be returned to the General Trea-
surer.

24. In each Committee the Secretary is the only person entitled to call
on the Treasurer for such portions of the sums granted as may from time
to time be required.

25. In grants of money to Committees, or to individuals, the Association
does not contemplate the payment of personal expenses to the members or
to the individual.

SECTIONS OF THE ASSOCIATION.

26. The following Sections shall be constituted :—
A.—Astronomy, Mathematics, and Physics.
B,—Chemistry.

C.—Geology and Mineralogy.
D.—Biology.

#.—Geography.

F.—Kthnology and Anthropology.
G.—Economic Science and Agriculture.

H,—Engineering and Architecture.
I.—Sanitary Science and Hygiene.
J.—Mental Science and Education.

SECTIONAL. COMMITTEES.

27. The President of each Section shall take the chair and proceed with
the business of the Section at 1] a.m. precisely. In the middle of the day
an adjournment for luncheon shall be made; and at 4 p.m. the Sections
shall close.

28. [Formerly No. 33.] On the second and following days the Sectional
Committees shall meet at 10 a.m.

29. The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the several Sec-
tions shall be nominated by the Local Committee of the Colony in which
the next ensuing Session of the Association is to be held, and shall have
power to act until their election is contirmed by the Council. The Sectional
Presidents of former years shall be ex officio Members of. the Organising
Committees. From the time of their nomination, which shall take place as
soon as possible after the Session of the Association, they shall be regarded
as an Organising Committee, for the purpose of obtaining information upon
papers likely to be submitted to the Sections, and for the general further-
ance of the work of the Sectional Committees.

30. The Sectional Committees shall have power to add to their number.

READING AND PUBLICATION OF PAPERS.

31. The Committees for the several Sections shall determine the accept-
ance of papers before the beginning of the Session. It is therefore desirable,
in order to give an opportunity to the Committees of doing justice to the
several communications, that each author should prepare an abstract of his
paper, of a length suitable for insertion in the published Transactions,

OBJECTS AND RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. <x]

Reports, or Proceedings of the Association, and that he should send it,
together with the original paper, to the Secretary of the Section before
which it is to be read, so that it may reach him at least a fortnight before
the Session.

32. Members may communicate to the Sections the papers of non-mem-
bers.

33. The author of any paper is at liberty to reserve his right of property
therein.

34. No report, paper, or abstract shall be inserted in the annual volume
unless it be handed to the Secretary before the conclusion of the Session.

35. The Sectional Committees shall report to the Publication Committee
what papers it is thought advisable to print.

36. They shall also take into consideration any suggestions which may
be offered for the advancement of science.

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

37. In recommending the appointment of Research Committees, all mem-
bers of such Committees shall be named, and one of them who has notified
his willingness to accept the office shall be appointed to act as Secretary.
The number of members appointed to serve on a Research Committee
should be as small as is consistent with its efficient working. Individuals
may be recommended to make reports.

38. All recommendations adopted by Sectional Committees shall be for-
warded without delay to the Recommendation Committee; unless this is
done the recommendation cannot be considered by the Council.

OFFICIAL JOURNAL.

39. At the close of each meeting the Sectional Secretaries shall correct,
on a copy of the official journal, the lists of papers which have been read,
and add to them those appointed to be read on the next day, and send the
same to the General Secretaries for printing,

RECOMMENDATION COMMITTEE.

40. The Council at its first meeting at each Session shall appoint a Com-
mittee of Recommendations to receive and consider the reports of the
Research Committees appointed at the last Session, and the recommenda-
tions from Sectional Committees. The Recommendation Committee shall
also report to the Council, at a subsequent meeting, the measures which
they would advise tobe adopted for the advancement of science.

41, All proposals for the appointment of Research Committees and for
grants of money (sce Rules 23 to 25) must be sent in through the Recom-
mendation Committee.

PUBLICATION COMMITTEE.

42. The Council shall each Session elect a Publication Committee, which
shall receive the recommendation of the Sectional Committees with regard
to publication of papers, and decide finally upon the matter to be printed
in the volume of Transactions, Reports, or Proceedings.

ALTERATION OF RULES.

43. No alteration of the Rules shall be made unless due notice of all such
additions or alterations shall have been given at one Annual Meeting and
carried at a subsequent Annual Meeting of the Council.

[Amended as follows :—No alteration of the Rules shall be made unless
due notice of all such additions or alterations shall have been given at one
meeting and carried at another meeting of the Council, held during a subse-
quent Session of the Association. |

XXil OBJECTS AND RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.

INDEX TO RULES.

RULE

Mibstracts Of Papers ing sisvoc sos cdacsuaseonesete none season eeeneetns 31
Wadmission or Wiembers’ <ce-.ccesscecttee teen cectoe eeete mene 1
5 badly, Mem bers ivsaiccmorescsaeassauecsieete mentees ad
PAMiGeration OfMUles sc concise toncash aemeetaee Seianneeer ete eae 43
PATTEALS (OP SUDSCLIPLIODSsaa.asier pis ceiclateceser eee enen seeeeieeeeeee +:
Associates ........... SARA BENG S alone Setse ene Hie oe aan eet Pies haa DGsid.
Anrditorsand AurditiofeAccouttisers-sessasascese nacre cement 19, 20
Committees, Local! |... 2is5 sessacacse-n eee eee eee 5, 11; 14.909; 29
ne Oxrgamisin peerercaecsee ners Senesatenbcusenaateceepices 29

3 Priblicabion 25sec esesce cocoa seco eee ooaees 42

a RECOMMENDATION Hy.ceemeeee ieee eee eet D denenetenee 38, 40, 41

59 Reception vic sarcstaseraccasssssscsdec-murcune cece 14

ars RieSsear.climmee snes eeecmeee ees Ret sasreie us Oa nae eotion ence 25, 37, 40, 41

53 Hechlonalleesawisaaesatocat eee eee eee 27—30, 35, 36

Cray oVorT 0 Rane nar cairns Oat Pama Ben Er eee uae ADP ORR PE cia re 9, 10
Welepate Menihers :ssi.i0.icsees caine dodlavguy: sce mannnwedses daseemseapte 9
Mitral ce HES? Mavscacsectaseacndeemrce oes aten emcee ae eee 1 eae a7
Election of New Members............ enec nase ree eee nas 1
Bunds;eMianavementiot na. qcucseceeeccetemecaeeeeeee te eeeeree 16—25
GeneraleS ceretanys.i.8535 anisekoeenacatetsee ne caus emmtoneaeaaune 20, 24, 34, 39
Gemeral simon saner sS9,pcoce peat ne onium enceeeas cece aie emacs 18, 19, 20, 23, 24
Ceramtsror MOM Gy 75:5 ah oi danctveletias ten decent canamosiadars oolneraancene 23-—25, 41
ekeR Nem bers eeeintcen cass ib rc aon ceraacesec sek saeeehen celonceniaee 3
itSISUDSerIpPLONS? . 21. .cwsoace ste es san eaesteoone rotor nn semeaineons 35 17
ocallConimnibieess.. 0s. «tonsa swans sedus« eaaameaaoieatins Seo 5, 1, 14S aloe
HA OCAlES Geretariess oes. ce sagace teas ewe ee eas ee one Se doe eaeate 18, 24, 34
Bo calplrcasurers | cssen ce ast Gepite soci ease te Ose one a ase eee 20, 24
IMICebIN SION SESSIONS. Sec. s-e Maschuseseeee eet tees acer 8, 10, 27, 28
Members dimisstombolerssney acorns csenteeoe cece eee ceocee ee eee 1
af Dele pation 25x. t8.ke selsitet de ose sccenigacg.coeien Comes as 9

a Ura yaa eth es terascath an oatione apokelcaeoneoneate merase cs awiees 4

ap IDani Siero anenece ccaben oc DOL MEO oat ome HocaCE OBS Dosen 3

iG mey PASTAS <o. (i cua. sx sudwecerte doce scladeonaestuden aia aeeeasaec eee 16—25
Mon eyAG rants) ‘sa.c.scaeeaiietucmasedeun ete in saatteaeer mene ee eee 23—25, 41
Oi Ce tncca caso detente apse slat gabe oo ala seke vcleleeete eet oe 15
Ohi cesbeamers, =f cacacscchsecmuenwene ends eats a 12, 29
Ofireral Tio ummall se vacates det Soe se ene eas eee Me aes 39
Organising Committees yi. wacg cineca Paaisesnde eee canrqe hence aes 29
PADOLS 3 94 dese tech oua nate Naser Acute ae MER Me ince oe ene RE 31—36, 42
Personal Wxpenses: _ <1 cave vdicceh acsos sac oane iar odent neues 25
Proceedings, Reports, or Transactions ...........c0c0-s000 oe 6, 31, 42
Publication, Committee ete. se nascent eec eateries 42
Publication of Ra pers: .;-2acsaisesast-aalgedeveonds sachanteemecnanedte 31---36, 42
eeeption Commibhees) , « sicnicnis, se. anntie xehonsinesedtbindseashansinnsier 14
Recommendation Committees > 0. x0. ssss0-csocme ue osmees once 38, 40, 41
Reports, Proceedings, or Transactions ..............:sses0se0s 6, 31, 42
Research (Committees ace eee eee eee enero 95, 375 40
RamleseAl tera bioniOl-oncgcccrecdiseeeecene meee eee eee 43
echoes MUISbIOL Sic gdes. saad cceies Gs Shea eee ne eee eae 26
NEechionalnCommMiibees <accecrdaccs eee ee eee 27—30, 35, 36
PectionaliiSecretaries ts. lisence eee eae eee enone 29, 39
SESSIONS; (OT UM ECHINGS acac..edese sane slinadanaietoneeenensseenaaneee 8, 10, 27, 28
SNS GrIHONS) (. sohasos outanasadsceebomatsonne Bo gaese vane eee acess « Use Wicy levis Ws}
Transactions, Reports, or Proceedings ............sceseeeeeees 6, 31, 42

MEP USEEES A racerchoncecdaostsusaacalclo ounnet Geode ea eeee 17, 21

FROM THE COMMENCEMENT. Xxill

PSS METC, 5

PRESIDEN

a ss

(*AA'S"N)
‘SO'WW ‘Spoqoy poaly arg
‘(vIpeaysny yynog) "ogg
“WW ‘ormuey “ET “Hy Aossojorg
(Aouphs) ‘QT CW “VW
‘UlneypoeNy “N “HE ‘UoPy oy,
‘(Aoupd8) “O° W “OTT
‘Suu “J “AA AIG ‘WORT oN,
‘(BIt0JOIA) “OO
“WW ‘outlay "9 “AA Lossojorg
(“AA ‘S’N)
‘AW ‘sysuy somvp ‘uoxy oy,
‘(puvpea7 MON)'S'Y A “AW
“WOM ‘toq00H some arg
“STIIV A uygor uvul
-lopry ‘AoupAg fo aodvy oy,
‘(purl
“suoon)) “VIN ‘SIA 9 “AA ‘O
CAA'S'N) ‘8°Z ‘a (AA'S’N) “Jay ‘A0T
“S'TA'W ‘y0Mu0g es1004 |-1eq yorsopoayy IG ‘uoFT oy,
(“AA"S’N) ‘99g
CAA'S'N) (SOW ‘uOH] «Juouruog “Q'YyW *(e1ueUIst 7) *(Aoupdg) "wa WT
“TOM ‘purppryag “py alg |W “esprsasary ‘y aossejorg MOUSV “AA ‘ft Iq ‘WR ur Saad CV ‘TWessuy pH

"8881 ‘AANGAS

“IoINSVIL, ‘UOFT *SOLIVIOINIG “UOF{ “squapIsatg-d01A | *quopisaig
Se eee
“JUIWIOUIWIWO)

OY} WOIJ ‘STOINSVETL PUL ‘SOTILJEIIES ‘S]UIPISETY-99I A ‘S]UOpIserg

XX1V

PRESIDENTS, ETC., FROM THE COMMENCEMENT.

(ZN “qoanyoysiayg)

‘SN “199M "YH
CAS ND SW “SU
“We “O'W'O Tess0y ‘0 “A

(eIt0J01A) ‘S'V'U a “SU

©) TNO ‘AJOT [HL “e oA]
CA'S'N) ‘(S°WUW'

SFR G Ay Sonera *T[Assnyy 19) ‘H

“tal

“STIINSVILT, “UO,

‘(pure
MON) "SDT “WOWNA AA

(“AA SN)
“099 “UO, qZUOUCULL AT

ES ae | ‘ ‘WIN ‘9D PISIOAVT Nf

‘(eI[vaysnVW yQnog)
VW COW Suyiag 0
‘(purjsusend) “S77 iT
‘QUOS-OTTTARS “AA
“(BIL0Z91.A) “HO
“WYN “Qouray '—d “AA LOSsojorg
(‘AA‘S'N) ‘S'0'

Cg (UF

“aud “VIN ‘suqiy ‘y
*(VLUeUL
SUL) ‘“G' OM, “uoqprepx

‘O°O) “WY ug Aousppooxq siypy

“LESL ‘HOUNHOLSINHD

*(eMOQOIA) “WW
‘raouedg ULM p[eq * AA Lossajorg
(“AA*S*N) 028
‘uoyY = yuourUNeg “Oy
“WI ‘OSpISoavy] "VW dOssojor gy

‘O68! ‘AN

*(V110901 A )
HO CWIN ‘youtlayy 1ossojorg
*(purfsusen?)) “S'7 "7
“S'TW “Que y-oTTAeG “AN
‘(eITeaqsny Y4N0G)
‘AW “VW ‘Sums ‘0 “a
(purpee7 MON) “Sa “dW
“YAO M ‘OqoaPT Sov ATG
CACS'N) (Sd “OTT
“Wy ‘aspisdoary aossojorg
“(BIR
Sel) “COM ‘woyteH “OD
x) Qlaqoy IG AoUDT[OOXTT SUPT

yNOs 131A

(puvpeaz MON) SW COW
“TOM ‘doqooxY soumep ag

(er0701A) "C'Ud BW Sa
“oO TWOM “eypnyy uo A woaeg

‘SOLIVJAIOIG *UOTT

*SPUOPISAIg-901 A,

*‘quopIselg

“‘panuyjuoyI—SUaUASVAUT, GNV ‘SHIUVLAUOAG ‘SLNACISadYg-GoOIA ‘SLNACISaUg

xxV

PRESIDENTS, ETC., FROM THE COMMENCEMENT.

‘(vIpeagsny yqIN0g)

YNOD “Od “e10quryy
jo [AVY oy} “UOFT YSN ony,
*(VIURUIS® T,)

‘TOW “Moyle yy 41IQ OVW ALG
‘purr? MON) Wad CN
“WOW “10900 FT SOUIV? ATG

*(eITVaqsuy
Y4Nog) "WI ‘Ssvag. s0ssejyorg

(eITBaysny yNog) *(BI10901 A )
(eye = oS “WW ‘emmy jog saa “aud “D'W'O'H

“snVy YING) 9YySIAA “ype CA'S'N) ‘0g §=|[“aITNPT ‘uoA “yt UOAeg
CA'S'N) [oH queurmeg “Sy ('AA‘S'N) ‘SVN “SH

‘Vd “SW TWessny “OH [WW ‘eSpisieary “yaossojorg |“ w'g “OO ‘Tes80t ‘O ‘H
‘e6el ‘Jqiv1aaqy

¢ CAA'S'N)
Sau “ONO Tss0y ‘OH
*(vIpwaqsuy YIN)

UINGYyov[q svuoyy, *Aoy
(sey) ‘STW ‘uoqa0 py “Ww *(pur[suson?))

(S8Z) ‘S*O'U WE “TOMTPAA “A “CL CAAS'N) 999 "WOR [OLIN ‘uoyoN “y ‘uOH
CM'SN SVU SU puecung “ww “Sad "(B1104

“Wa “OND ‘essny ‘OH |espisteary = ‘Ws AOSSOJOUg |-o1A) JoUIOY “CO ‘AA IOSsoJOUg

‘zest ‘LYUVEOH

—————————— Eee

‘(eIpeaqsnuy YyNog) “ST yy
“oxy yp ‘oyu ydyey sossajorg

*(eravuse 7)
‘ATT “LOM “woyraey
"9 4) Woqoy arg Aous]Pooxny SIFT

“STOINSVIAT, “UOTT "SOLIvJaIoIg “UO FT *SJUNPISAt]-IOl A

“qUOPISOAT

‘PMUYUOI—SAAMOASVAUT, INV ‘SUIUVLAMOAG ‘SLNACISAUG-GOIA ‘SENACISAUg

ec ee

CAA'S'N) Aaveqosoog -uoFT
CM'S'N) SW ueueuneg “SM “OTT
“SW OW) Tessny "OH [WI sprsioary “vy aossojorg

PRESIDENTS, ETO., FROM THE COMMENCEMENT,

*(pury

-susond) “O'T'IN “DO'W'O
‘AtosaIxyy “QW ‘WOR «ONT,

‘(erpeaqany YINog) “oT WT
“ou ‘oyey, ydpey tossojorg

(purleezy MON) ‘STA CCN
“OTA O ST ‘10400 }{ SOULvE? IIG

“Wd “ONO ‘Tes80y "0 ‘A |
‘8681 ‘AINGAS

‘(elpeaqsny Yynog) “oT
“Quy iy ‘aqyey, ydyey 1ossajorg
(puelve7Z MeN) ‘SW A ON
“TOM ‘doqooyT souree Arg

*(VI1090T A )
Sod “aud “) WOM

(pur, = |eynp, ‘uoA 8 (WOIeg
-suaon) “WI “SIA Od “MM ‘DO CAA‘S’N) ‘SL
(puep | we “ON'O ‘TSU ‘0 “H
‘(purjsuoont)) |-suaont)) ‘og’ ‘Aoparyg uyor “(purty
‘OTN “aojt0N “WY “UOFT (‘AM ‘S'N) 909 ‘uOxT -susen’)) “q'O “O'N'O'D
CAS'N) WES VU = ffueurueg “SMa “aT [“a'o'p ‘uemon ord A
“SUD 'W') ‘Tessuy ‘OH IWIN eSpisieary “y tossoyorg
‘s6el ‘ANVaSiug

*‘s1oANSvoly, ‘UOTT *SOLIvjOIOIY *UOFT

XXV1

*S]UIPISATq-OOLA

‘

M
iW

‘SN N) Bs Mees ec 24 14
JW ‘ospisaoary “Wo aossojorg

‘(pueystoong)) ‘OT

Aqueyy arg =Aoueypooxnp «stpp [SD IN'C ‘Atosarg ‘9 “VW ‘UOH oT,

“quopIsold

“‘PanuyjuoI—SUAMASVAYT, GNV ‘SHIUVLAMOTG ‘SLNACISAUG-AOLA ‘SLNACISAN

AXVIL1

PRESIDENTS, ETC., OF THE SECTIONS.

‘SIS VW ‘Saqiuy “AD
OS" “YooTfod ny WV “fC
‘VW TPAD “Y tossajorg

‘S'O'S'W'd Uosmoyy “d *£

We ‘uvurdeyy ‘AA “37
‘ospluqooyg “TM
"NW “gqa0oyg uregdep
“VIN “PIOBID “DO “V
“VIN ‘purpioyyng "A
“WN *040T “fA

‘VW ‘TIPFoAG, “Y Aossejorg

‘WW “TAT “XL WL, tossojorg
‘WW ‘Avnyol, “Xopy tossejorg
“Sud “DW ‘ATE “fT a

“UOSPIAeG “WL
"VW {8°9poH “H ‘O
"SIN'M ‘osser yy Yuu
‘VN ‘Aoy0nI9 “fC *¢

SVG SU “VW
“OOM ‘PPL sepeyo stg
‘sos “d “V
‘qaeqoyyT Jo doysiqyory oy,
"V'IK “1900 ‘H “H ‘OD

‘VW IAT “WL tossajorg

ouInog

PN “SVM A ‘tpoowrg “gq
"RIUCUUSY J,

Sw ‘Avpnyoyy szepurxely

‘Souphg 9 WO
“ord Vo: “Teeny “oO “A

“Oprepapy

Sw ‘Ssvig ‘HE ‘AA Jossojorg
*OUAINOd TOT,

“Ww ‘AT ‘Wy ‘, rwossezorg
“Loupfg

“WIN ‘Weyl “YW awosseyorg

‘aTANOG

PW “Suwa ‘Ag “ef Lr “W

“SOISAHG GNYW ‘SOILVNNAHLVIA] ‘ANONOULSY—W NOILOaIS

Pee AA NT ‘KaupkQS—S6sl

“‘purysu,?) ourqsi1g—C6ST

‘ere foniefopy—k6ST
“CIUVUISBT, “4.1VqOF—Z6ST
‘ZN “YornyoysuuyO—T68T
“+ ‘OLA SoUINOg[eI{—O6ST

"AA 'S'N ‘AoupSg—sgst

*salivqor00g

*S]UIPISeTg-d01A,

*s]UOpIselg

“a0v[q pur ojvq

‘UOTILTOOSSY 9T[] JO SUOTIOIS VI} JO SOTILIGIVGS PUL ‘S]UIPISeTg-991\ ‘S}UIPISeTg

XXV111

PRESIDENTS, ETC., OF THE SECTIONS.

'S'O'ad “OT “eTWeH "IN “MA

*SUTYIVAA 95.1004)

‘OT “SO ‘Avauaory ‘pL,
SPIRO a, El

‘ST a sopdey, fv

‘SOW ‘Avary 95.1004)

ON’ “VIN ‘UOssvyl oUlIG "Jorg

‘SO “OT S°IWeH ‘TM

‘Sa W ‘Aowoypog *E ‘pyony
O9'C “WW ‘ormmeyy “Ha “yo1g

‘uRYUA, “Gd ‘W
‘ouTAIT AiuezT 08.1004)

‘uOSIOpPUDHT “gq '¢

‘VN ‘pueptoygng “yw
‘so ‘aunt StapAoxy “4
‘S'0' “PRelo “0 AL
‘SOUIOTQ) TONUIeG
‘W'S'E'V “PLB A

'S'O'd ‘400 ‘SM
‘SO “Woqteyorg “A “VW ‘Joug

‘SOW “3ORIG “UW 'O

"VIN ‘oruueyy “FT ‘Wf Tossojorg

= ‘Sd
“WI ‘espisieatyT “Ww ‘Jorg
‘oR WW “CO Ud ‘suIqIeyT “v

“ouphs “ory | ‘uaprey “HP

“aUINOd [ITT

“OTd “SOW “L8H “N ‘OD
*Koupkg
“SO “OT “ewer “IA “MA

‘“oUAMOg PAW SOS"
‘UOSSVIT OULIQ), LOssozorg

“WIN
‘aprepepy “o9'q

“WIN ‘otuuay FT ‘W rossojorg

“upoung, “WW
“os “orp Y “f Iossozorg

“AULSINAHO—G NOILISSG

“MSN ‘SoupsSg—ge6st

*puUvVysu,¢) ‘ouRqsiIg—cCGsT

seen ‘vV'S ‘oplejepy—E6S8I
‘CIUVUISV, ‘JAVqOFT—ZGST
‘ZN “YOINYOISIAy)— [6ST

AY ‘QUINOG[OIN—O6S8I

"ASN ‘Loupgy—sest

*sOLIvyoqo0g

“sJUOPISodg-901 A

“squopIsolg

‘O0N[q pur o4vq

“Paemriyjuogo— NOLLVIOOSSY AHL JO SNOILOAG AHL AO SAINVIGUOAS ANV ‘SINAGISUU G-AOL A ‘SENACISAY J

XX1X

PRESIDENTS, ETC., OF THE SECTIONS,

eT ce eee

WSU 'V “ueugytg “qa
SO Vide peg 7 “AY

"TOE “VIN SSoavoisiey “VAN

‘SOW “UNpoMoH *

‘MCTS “A
“Peeqsped “WL

‘SOU ‘sAuny (ai a(t

“Dulpayg soure pe

‘aunt ‘ospiaoyyy 4a0qoyy

‘SOU “ve Ty
‘S')'d ‘UIqOMOH "MA

‘AoZpryT ysouayy
‘weAa i WETTLAA

‘spuey "HOM

‘soyIed *A “f?

‘'S'O'WT ‘ouuing "7 ‘A ‘HH
SO

“OO 'IN'O'M ‘sro Aauo yy IG

"VW ‘Asou0squop *y
‘'S)'d “WW ‘suoydoqg +,

‘SOL Va Pe Ee
SO ST
“WW ‘seuoyy ‘q ‘WV tossojorg

08"
“WN DW 'D ‘A090 tossojorg

S') a
“Wg ‘pared YyWomospy “AA “LL

"purleeZ MON “ST
SECT eT ‘u0jN Ay * M ‘i tOssejorg

‘Aouphg “oq
“Wd PIP “OH “MAL, dossagorg

UOwUT PM “Std “CW
“WOM ‘oqoay, sowmep ‘arg

‘Aoupag “SOA
“W'd ‘DIAC "A “AA ‘IL tossojorg

“OUINOg

PW “S'D'A ‘Aeump, -y -y

“yoanyo
wy) “SZ NO “S'O'ad
“WW ‘Won “WA “Wf tosseforg

aueqslg “Oy

“SO WH “yore T yqazeqoy

“ADOIVHANIJA) GNY ADO1TOSH—D NOILIAS

“MM 'g'n ‘AoupAg-—gést

‘purjsa,?) ‘oueqs1aq@—c6gT

(rain "W'S ‘oprepepy—€6sl

‘VIURUUSeT, “41VqOF{—Z6ST

‘ZN “YountpoysyQ— 16ST

“OLA SOUMOq[OIY—O0G68T

“AA'SN ‘AoupAG—geetT

ch en IE 9 ek SO rk 2

*SOLIeqyadoeg

"SPU PISO g-001 A,

*s}UuapIsolg

‘aoUv[q puv oyvq

a Ne Se ee ee eee
“PANU4UOI—NOILVINOSSY AHL JO SNOILOGG AHL 40 SAIUVIGMOATG ANV ‘SINTGISHY -AOT A ‘SLNACISAUT

PRESIDENTS, ETC., OF THE SECTIONS.

XKX

OSE “WN “TOUSPLT “CL
"Sl ‘Wepre “H *£

‘SU “9S'd
“WIN ‘[JOMSPH “VW “AA dOssojorg
‘SPUOWILUIG “FT “fC
‘Aopieg “WT “£

‘EW “PUrpIO “TM

‘Sa'T ‘Avempoy "7
*IaBVIQ “CG ‘qd

‘S'T'd ‘uoswoyy, ‘WD
OS'E “WW ‘OqITD “OD

‘ST “O'S W ‘Apted *v
OS'C VW TPMStH VM JOld

09° “WN “TOYOTA “CL
oo /\ a! F@)
“TI ‘UOSTIAA “L “ff JOssojorg
“UFICIMTTOTL “AA
"S'T ‘Aopreg uosurpy “y
= SUH
“AW “ONO “US “DO ‘A
‘STW “0za19H ‘IW
‘VW ‘uanqyorTg * ‘pAcy
‘MOSUIIG snASHONY
"S'TIN'O ‘p19999d “VM
“Wy ‘essoery ouojog
“O'TyT y ‘SueuMesseyyD “WL
‘SL “Yary svuoyy,
SWA OW OM PME MUS
‘SWu
“oo'g ‘leyled “*f ‘J, 1ossejorg
Sal
“Wt ‘UOSTIM OOpliqoovig *¢
‘SO aCN
‘AVIAN CW “Hd

Poem eater eed eee enone nee

“WIN

‘ouIMOd AIT SON"

“OW ‘UIQIe, “fC “OQ tOssejorg
"yoanyoystayy) “ST

“oo'g ‘Apusg anyya1y 1ossojorg

‘ourqsiig “WW “STA “M “OD

‘OUINOKPT “WT
‘raouedg UIMp[eg ‘AA Lossojorg

‘Lauphg “og
“WTA ‘TPOMSVH “WV “AA Jossojorg

‘parpypony “ST
“WT ‘svuoyy, ‘q “VW 1ossosorg

“Oprepepy “SD
“ory ‘oyey, yey aossojorg

‘ADOTOIQN—"G NOILIAG

OT NS | ‘LauphQ—Q6st
“purysu,?) ‘ourqsiig—¢6s1

meres erreey OnTRIapW—E6ST

‘VIURIUSeY, “JIVqoF{T—ZG6ST

‘ZN “YounyoystyO—T68T

"OLA SOUINOgTETIT—O6ST
tee “MON ‘Loup&£S—Sest

“SalIvqyo1009

‘s]UOpIsadg-d01 A,

*s]UOpIselg

‘IOV puv oyvq

*panutjzuoI—NOILVIOOSSY BHL 10 SNOILNAG THLE f£O SAIUVLIAAOAGS ANV *‘SINDCISHUg -AOI A ‘SINGGISaY

XXX1

PRESIDENTS, ETC,, OF THE SECTIONS,

‘auRyy UYyOr

“Tou *M “S “H

‘phog ‘¢ ‘Vy soley

*souor "AA “f

‘V'e ‘Sunox “WA

OS “WW “Suey “WY

SOT “SOW A ‘SUIBMND “8 “D

‘SOU
“ST “S') Ua “UOpreln “H “¢£

‘SOW ‘preuoporyy “9 “VW

re ‘SD Ta
“TIN SU ') ‘qd ‘UR
‘OUDAC TT JSOUI
mC ie) “OVE qOT9S1Y I, S$ a
"CIN ‘YoneAA “N “C
“ONO “epson “AA *V
“AVIIN, Pav]
“OY TW'O'D JOPIA UL tS
“\ WOM ‘Hoduearg “g ug

‘VIN ‘Wsnouyjoo AA “| “fC ‘pAoyy
‘WIN “QuourtATOoW “We
“SOW WL ‘Tesunop “vy ‘WL

‘uvurdeyy “wy i

"SOWA “WHwug Aoreg *g

SOW ‘Prevopory “) “Vv
‘NU

‘ooseg pdOJMvIgQ JepuruU0D

‘SOUS OW SUBD 8 “1D

‘purleez MON CCW “ST
“Ny TOM ‘lojoozT souree aig

omMog PW “S37 “a Ud
“ON O'M OTN “A “Wf Woreg

“aWAINOG [OPW

“SOUL “predoporyl “0 ‘Vv

‘aTINO OTN “N'Y
‘ooseg pdojMerIg depuvurutog

‘aUINOd [OTT
“SOUS OW SUID SD

‘Aoupdg “Sa “ULSI, “HM

"WM “WMO “SOW
“ONO “qSorm0g uyor “uo

"‘AHdVHDOAH—y NOILOIS

“ASN ‘Loupsg—gest

“‘purxysu,?) SouRqstIg—CGE8T

"ess y7 +e COPTRIOPW—EGEST

‘erueusey, “aeqoH—Zé68T

‘ZN ‘qomnyosityQ—T68T

"OTA “ouInog{>]{—06ST

“AA 'S'N ‘AoupAS—gsst

“*SOTIvJIINNG

"SJUOPISOIG-d01 A

*squopIseig

‘o0v[q pur oyvq

y INUYUOI—NOILVIOOSSY DHL TO SNOILOTS AHL AO SAINVITMOAG GNV ‘SLNAGISHUG-AOIA “SLNACISAL
(EME

PRESIDENTS, ETC., OF THE SECTIONS,

XX X11

——————————— eee

ATT CV'g ‘taser uyor

UOJSOTY PTeqpoay

THOS *.L

‘SOW WOUTeM “Te

UOTE PT “W

‘V'IN ‘WOsty JoutlI0'T ‘paory
‘ATT CV 'e “toserg uyor

‘ATI VW ‘WOsty I ‘A0y
"VIN ‘toouody urmpreg “Aq ‘Jorg

"C'W ‘t01dqnery ydosor
‘OLIJoq SVULOYT,

‘dousi0 AA ‘yL
‘asnoyyzIVg “WL,
“AOIVSVIN “TW

“VW “ONL “WM “PAC

“paeuieg soure pr
"YAR[O VF100x) *paoyy

‘SOU W “avadory, preamp
‘SOW “Wex90H “WL

“O' LW ‘Tee ‘Gd “AM ‘WOR

‘SO “IM0H 'M CV

‘auINog
PH ‘SD'd “MoH "“M ‘V

‘aprepopy ‘dousa0 AQ sewoy J,

‘AoupAg ‘eA TonuIeg *paoy

*aTLANOd]9 TT
“Wy ‘“UOsIy aowoy ‘paoy

‘auInoq
PN “SOU “MOH “M 'V

WM “UR0g
“Ov LW ONO 8e10,7 "¢“UOH

‘Aouphg Tomy 'w

“ADOTOUGOYUHLNY GNY ADOIONHLY—' 4 NOILOIS

““A'S'N ‘SoupAg—ge6st

“purjsu,d) ‘ourqsitg—C6g

Peeb asleereS ‘oplejopy—E681

‘VIURUISeT, “QaIeqoy —Z6ST

"ZN “Yoanyoqstry—T6ST

‘OLA foUINOG|OIT—O6ST
“AKON ‘KoupAG—Sgst

ee ee eS

*SOLIeO100g

*SJUIPISAg-901 A,

‘squapIsorg

‘ddV[q puv 9}e(T

a
*Panurzju0O—NOILVIOOSSY FHL dO SNOILOUG ZHL dO SULUVLEMIAG ANV ‘SENGCISaY g-HOT A ‘SENACISaY

see

XXXI111

PRESIDENTS, ETC., OF THE SECTIONS,

‘SO “ouyny “qa
‘Vg ‘ueey “YY

‘(eINA[NOLSW) Toyynog wWeNITE A
(aouatog [e100g) “TT
“WW “woo “GY U0z0];91T

"IQSONT SSIIVG “GL

‘S'T iT Suoysuyor “TT “YY
‘Aopureyyog “EW

‘Vg ‘uopurig oyyeg op "vy
“VW ‘purpreyyng “v

‘SD "Ua ‘vopsny “YH

‘oA M “OD

“VIN ‘toate * AA

“OST ‘UOZTES “WW

"VT W “UTIL “AA

‘Vdd “VT a 0007, "y
C1001

“q'N ‘uluneyporyy ‘N “H ‘ao

“UBAL) uyor

"MOSIyV *XOLV

URITOYW 10490q

TeuucOon “HL |

‘OT W ‘ouudyy, “¢ “Vy “UOH
"BLIOJOL A,
“ey “ay ‘Sueppeyl uyor aig
‘o'> ‘uourkg “A '¢
US Tel
‘OQ’ ‘OLIMOT IOSsojolg
“OW'O ‘Aquzoog yersor
“AATIBO “f 'W
‘VH'IW ‘Usorg *¢ ‘N ‘aco
‘O'R “OVID “I “VY “WOH
RR CRES EGE tal mia\
‘ST ‘steavay, "T LM
je TAD
“VN “woysaIyTY “§ “f ‘Jorg

“q1eq0H
“SS CS" “uoysuyor “WY

‘AoupAg
"VIN £9900g 1098 Ay OSsajoIg

*Soupfg

ar ‘W ‘uosapuy "T 70) ‘H

‘AoupAg “yp ‘90007, “WY
‘apiepapy
POTN SUCH Og As) HOH

‘ROH “S"T A “Moysuyop “WY
“aug

PIN “DO W'O “to4eH “H ‘H

“AYNLINDIYSY GNW AONAISDG WIS0G—"5 NOILIAS

see MA ‘SN ‘KoupAS— 86ST

‘purlsu,?) ‘ouRqsiigg—CGST

"essere QnTeTapW—k6ST

‘eluvUsey, “IVeqOF{T—Z6S8T
‘TN ‘qornyoysiuy9O— 681
“OTA SouINog]eIT—O068T
“AN'gtn ‘Koup£G—geer

*solivqoroag

*SJUOPISOTq-901 A,

*s]UapIsolg

‘20¥[d par oe

‘PantyjUuoo—NOLLYINOSSY AHL FO SNOLLOAG AHL 40 SAIMVLAMOAG ANV ‘SENACISAU G-GOLA ‘SENACISHU

XXX1V

PRESIDENTS, ETC., OF THE SECTIONS.

‘VW “9 ‘0 “H
‘HOW TW

Sao “qsUy TT SAveysury “AA “fe

‘saOquUIVyD “AA IpPNVTD
‘DOTY “Moiy “Lf
"URION "VW

“OSPUPIA “AA “MA

‘TOT IN'Y ‘92009 “fe
“"H'O SosyoRy *O “WV

MOT “VIN ‘owed "A
Vala d weg uyor

OSUM ““H'O'9SUT TA
‘H CM «dossoporg
“PIeysuryn “Vv “YD
‘TO OSU TA WIN ‘ouva(,, eet
WW “HO ‘sdumd “9
“AQTIVN, prveyory
"HOU WV ‘Aprag ‘q “VW
‘AO SUL WW ‘Aoqtueqgs ‘9 “H
“p92 “HL
“T'O'FSUT IN Foouopwy “g “Vv
‘OCT WN ‘Urey, ‘¢ “aOF
‘TOTI'V “DO ‘souree “MA ‘0
roshey “i
‘WO “ureyoury sours
"H'O “qURLD “HO
‘HOT W “erg “NM
‘HO TW ‘Wed Jorden ‘oO
‘HOT W “Uosqodg “Wf
‘HOTIW “A'S Ud “COStIM “U
“ay 'C ‘svyoing ‘VW
‘A'O “380 “WW “SIP “(O ‘H

eter eeees eee eee eertereeerea

WOT AA

‘oplepapy “HO 0g “WY TT
“OO UL TW HOMO, “gq *V

“RIUVUISE J,
“mo 4suy' YL “ureyoulg seurve
*pur[re7z

MON CH'O'TW'V ‘9409 ‘CH

“purlVoz MON
“TO “MO TW ‘Ted widen ‘9

‘Aoupfg
a + ak fia a Oa ‘uvulpng uyor
‘AoupAg “nO SUT AL
‘GalieAA ‘HO “MM dossejorg

‘auIMOq PT “WO
SW “QOUIOS, “O “AA LOSsojorg

“AUNLOALIHOUW GNVY DNIYMSANIONG—# NOILIIS

“ASN Kouphg—ge6st

“purysu,?) ‘ouvqsligd—cggT

Treereyree COpDTRIOPW—E6SI

“eIULUISeT, “JVqOHT—ZG6SI

‘ZN “YounyosuyO—T6Sl

"OLA SouINOdTeIT—O6S8L
eee *M ‘Sg ‘N ‘foupkQ—ggst

*saravjor109g

*S}UOPISOT-901A

“sqUOpIsalg

‘aov[q pur ojeq

“panuyjuUuodj—NOILVIOOSSY YHL FO SNOILOTG AHL AO SATYVIAHONG ANV ‘SEINUCISUUG-BOL A, ‘SLNACISHU

XXXV

PRESIDENTS, ETC., OF THE SECTIONS.

; RG Gia:
WU CQ TWOMsprL young

‘CW prey prard

‘CW “PMO 1,

FRC “V

‘A'W ‘u04s80 “yf
‘SON a “DI “oudg *y “OH

‘uopsuky “gf “Wy
‘WO “AWN ‘UOSTIM “LL “£

‘CW ‘uosdwoyy, uojzanqysy “¢
CIN WW ‘odaoygsuridg “4 *¢
‘AW ‘oIprent “d

"TW ‘9TH OE
“TN ‘199 [RG aC | ‘WV
‘SOWA ‘sso, URIATA “A WI

‘A'W ‘TPM OCH
‘OL W ‘TWeqduey ueypy ‘woH

‘a'W ‘UNGID ‘O “A
‘aw ‘pavuiegd 7 6)
‘O"T'W ‘YsAq *°O ‘d “COR

‘CW TEM PeN ‘0
“ayONoZ op “T
‘d’'IW ‘99099 “Hf ‘£ Jossojorg

“y'O ‘uopi0y “9
‘4qsInyoyV ‘qd "V

opreppy “Sd T'1 dN
“OT W Teqdueg uvlpy ‘uo

*OUIMO [OPT Soroarn “CW
“ww ‘edzoyysundg “mM ‘Lf

‘qaBqoyy “ney “VW

‘AoupAg “ad "4s8Uy TW
TdlIt\ “HO ‘MM dossoforg

‘oplvpopy og (ig INE

“QW TWeqdwep uvypy ‘uo
‘AoupAs “Hd

“q'w ‘uosdwmoyy, wojanqysy ‘¢

‘ounqsiug ““q'IW “yjorourg “¢

“ANSISAH GNYW SONSIDG AYVLINYVS—] NOILOAS

"rms ny ‘AoupsQ—g6st

‘purysu,() ‘ounqsg—¢6sT

seenee Vv ‘a ‘aplejepY— E68

‘eruUBUsey, ‘41VqOH—Z68T

‘ZN “YounyoqsttyO— 681
“Ord “OUTNOqTSIT—O6ST

ASNT ‘foupAQ—Sgst

*soLTeqoI00g

*S] UA PISATq-O9T A,

*S]UOpISATg

*a0v[q puv ayeq

"pantjU0I—NOILVIOOSSY AHL FO SNOOTY AHL JO SUIUVLAYOAY ANV ‘SLNAGISUUG-H01A ‘SINUGISMUg ;

XXXV1

PRESIDENTS, ETC., OF THE SECTIONS.

Sa aiayen ORNeCu Ta se
‘Vd “aopeg ‘g “£
‘VW ‘dosiopuy siouerg ‘Jorg

‘(uolyvonpy) Aosdwog *f

*(e0UdING

[eqyUoT) “Wg SYooopoo My T

af

"V'g “Tequng "vy ‘¢
"Vd ‘Sunox “¢ “Yl
HOMO Lai
“VIN “WOSTIMA “W
‘yqiug uoskuusy,
"d'WW ‘Aquoxy stnoryT

‘a1Oyoquoy, YT “A

*so1v301009

‘VIN 0" ‘H ‘YW

ATT “VW ‘wearey ‘Vy ‘u0oH

‘Ainqpeig seuoyyy,

‘suoydaqg uoqunig *f

‘WW 0" “H preurseyy
‘VTW

‘ETT “Vg ‘sourkg ‘fp +7, ‘uoyy

‘OS'd “Wg ‘AopaeH “y “f

TI! “d “H

WV W ‘108 [nog “A “Wf "Jorg
“ALTO GL

‘ABM dOI]SNE-JOI LOUOFT SIFT

“‘Suno X [assy

“YS[OYy SeMOYy, pacyy

‘CW ‘Mousy “yy ‘¢ ‘uOoR

“UOSC ‘ON ‘sn “[[epuay, WO

‘VIN ‘Wepsey “AA “yf AOssojorg

‘OU SN] “OYIV[O uogpimepZ “f

‘VIN ‘toyony, Lossojorg

‘ourqslg “og'g ‘foparyg uyor

‘foupfg OWT

‘Mostopuy slourty Jossejorg

“auINOd]9 |
“Q'TT ‘oney Aruep s0ssojorg

“9UINOG]P TA
“WW ‘SIO, ‘| ‘W JOssejo1g

‘ourqsiig “WW “oy ‘HY
‘MtqoH “Ov TW
‘MOUSW "AA ‘f ‘UOTT

“oplepopy “IT
“WN ‘les[nog "A ‘WY IOssojorg

“aw

"NOILVONGY ANY JON3I9S IWLN3INI—'p NOILoOaS

ee ee

“S]UOPISAAg-901 A

‘s}UapIsatg

"'"AA'S'N ‘Aoupsg—gest

‘purjsu,d ‘ourqsirg —cggT

boooad ‘Vv ‘g ‘aplelapy—E6SI

“BIUvUISeY, “JIVqo]T—Z6ST

‘ZN ‘Yornyoys1ayQ—T68T
‘OLA ‘ouINog|eaI{—O6ST

“M'S'N ‘Aoupég—geer

‘aoe pue ayeq

a ee

*PANUNU0I—~—NOLLVIOOSSY GHL 40 SNOILOGG AHL LO SHIYVLAMOTG ANY ‘SENACISAUG-AOI A. ‘SINGGISaU

Date and Place.

LIST OF EVENING LECTURES.

XXXVii

List of Evening Lectures.

Lecturer.

Subject of Discourse.

Christchurch
(1891)

Adelaide......
(1893)

Brisbane......
(1895)

eee

Sir James Hector, K.C.M.G.,
MAD, HRS:

Prof. W. Baldwin Spencer,
M.A.

Gaebine Mannenmn gs. cc<cns reser

W. Saville Kent, F.L.S.,
F.Z.S.

G. F. Tendall, Bac.

(Oxon.)

Mus.

C. W. Adams
J. B. Walker

Cy Wie deaVis; MEAG 2.2 oes
K. C. Sterling, C.M.G., M.D.,
F.R.S.

H. C. Russell, C.M.G., B.A.,
F.R.S., F.R.A.S.

Dre Ne Cobbs iene se sersaees
Prof. W. Baldwin Spencer,
M.A.

Sir James Hector, K.C.M.G.,
M.D., F.R.S.

J. A. Pollock, B. Sc.

The Volcanic Eruptions of
the Hot Lake District of
New Zealand.

On his recent Discoveries on
the Pineal Eye.

The Glaciers of the Tasman
Valley.

Oysters and Oyster Culture
in Australia.

The History of Vocal Music.

The Great Sutherland Water-
falls.
Early Hobart.

The Diprotodon and _its

Times.
Prehistoric Man.

Star Depths.
Looking Forward.
The Centre of Australia.

Antarctica and the Islands
of the Far South.

Electric Signalling without

Wires.

RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE.

woe

XXXVH1

ca 48) Cah) BF 6 9 6 IF

0 L410 "**spuey § AIINSVALT, [LOOT gs ss

OL6 g sie * aprvjepy Jo yurg urooureg “*

8 ra dg. NODABR OG SS ODN ODet Ob eponD ao saupsg 0} qyeadd “cc “POL Bs) 9F—oourpeg cal

0 a, 0 wee eee eee Pee Aaupsg 0} WIe.1.59[9,T, “ce

0 i 0 ee oe? wee eee aI9ANSvIAL, “uOeT ‘sanuqsod “ce

0 6 v4 ee Pe ee V's ‘Wasysarp F “e

0 OLG tr erereereeeess+(squgulasTqqoApe) “W's ‘lagsubayy

6 GLO Mi: ant eae reeees ({79U0TZRIS) Tesn0qow pue spurg ‘

@. hot AO UDOo TOO 0D DU DOUO OULYOR sasvqsod ‘ aluuay "Jold “cc

(Car £14919008 Aq ‘sdureys—sosuodxo Trews Aapung ‘‘ 00 29 Zisisieiele sieieisieie uorssog (96g) Soupag “ “ “
6 SET aah bag Rave g ‘oqUIg JUOUIUATIAON Aq o.6AVYO BAYXY Ss ON OMIGY eile meee UOISSOg (S681) « oprelepy ‘suonydyosqns * S681
(i) v4. 0) Se eee ees eeee PO OCIIOAOS. Si(aXofe| anbeyp ag S68T 29 F mpobece BRIS nC CIEE OOIDELES - soURleE OL GST
SDSS ae 0) Gy Gy

‘wiTvHLSNY HLNOS

ta Se Se eee ee eee eee

LT GlLor |F T cLoOD OIF "PL “SEL I1F—oourreg ‘Aq

Faas Ne | oe Mee oe * sung {oN UI poureyzor oourleg ‘‘ Ws

Che ee See | em "77 90yyo Aoupsg 0} oSuvyoxe puv onboyy * oe 9 & OF PSN. * WOISssag (g68T) Aoupdg Oy suondiosqng * R681
oO W & eee ee ee ee ee eet tence ease se ceee sosuodxo [vrouay Ag ‘oun og San) aL alee | | oO Sc re a eae sone - gouvleg Og, G68
“pi sis “868T ‘ps F

"WINOLOIA

“

‘S68L ‘OS FNAL OL “CEST ‘OF INO

‘e6er ‘MOTSses AoUpAS ‘SJeaTS soueTeg

XXXIX

RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE.

sigh x
"setttese= soSuvyoxo puv popoo[[oo suordiiosqng OF!) 86ST

sreesesss goo LoupAg 03 onbayD Sq | GST

"VINWINSV_L

8

sH
oF

= F ‘pO ‘89 OLF—9ouLeg “Iq

9 9 OL To eeeeceeeceee**NUBlVAZ MON UI pourvjer soured ‘*
0 9 ZG ee ed eee aoyjo Aoupsg on onbayo “
OL G A . eee eee eee ee ay ATOUOTYCYS “
9 9 0 ee ed steessssssonbayd uO sosUBYOX “ce 9 8 ee ed Broo cleinie) iefemasicreimeerieit STOMA LLOSONS “ee S68T.
e 6L 2 i a a ary eee eee oa sosvysog Aq S68T Recieon. Aes see ee eee ca aouvleg, OJ, G68L
iD) tBt Pps
“GNVIVS2 MIAN
0 0 TS 5 OO Ge ae:
t SL LP tte ee eens ee eee ee "7°" 90T70 Aoupag on anbayo “c
OG ee ee lela iavevbiste-s a etal mile! sliele,oibe 'eLeliv (ely aourysissv [wont (73
é ie a i a ie a oar i ey hy) ‘se]Noa19 uo so5vysog Ag S68T 0 0 TS ween ewes TITS OHIO (a (0) (2127 Aaupdg) suorqydiaosqng OL S68T
DB or
P'S F
8) ‘GNVISN33aNO “LT

*‘PANUYUOI—GST ‘NOISSTG AUNGAY ‘SLATHG AONVIVG

‘l9dnsvaly, ‘UOH “TTASSAY (O “H

‘NATTIVG “WV Laadoy
‘aqoaa yy, CUVHO]Y]

—‘j0a1109 punoy puv poyipny

0 6 PP LF 0 6 GHP IIF
0 6 GL ‘trees s-sSutpaa001g JO ‘S[OA JO Sales WlOI ce
0 0 O88 vrrrsseresesss SHOIQALIOSGNS SLIGQULIUL OJ] PoATaoayy
0 6 ZF SOOO CHO GROOOONOOOOO YY “SON yue_ Ul oouLleg “cc G 610 ttre teseessses esses qunooay SUTYIO MA WOT] YstO Ss
0 0 OOF ‘T CC 955 WOW UO JUdTUYSOAUT Ag oun 0g L 0 66g see . ates 9) 007) cre f OL aune 0g
OO) IS nie? 'R68E_ Fp SF “8681
“LNNODOW LNAWLSAANI
is GB LL 920UF & LL 920 UF
i= ——— pate ee
ai gq” y 180
15) I 7Iz S60 ODD LOHHODOBE “puny ul courreg
= BSL RL (ccc S68 ‘og oun
ov ‘soItM ‘S "N Jo yurg Ul aoue[vg
= 0 6 3F reeseees lgumoooy quourseauy 07 ‘ssurpedo () 6 rat sedges eseii ts iste sdulpa0001d 10, "S[OA JO SOTVs ULOALT
nm -O1q JO ‘S[OA JO sa[vs puv SuOry Gy (che trai Boo . vrrssss 955710 UO 4Sa.l0qUy
“oe -dyosqns Sloquiaut of] JO Aojsuvay, 9 IT OL trresees |eeeses (ERT) UOISSAg OUTgSIAg WOd]
a ¢ 610 seeeeeee fee tereeeeeeeeseraumMoOQOY JUITHYSOAUL 0 8 619
[on] 9 8 ee @ i {) ee cece RIULUIST, 6c “ce
=) 0 0 ¢E PicatleRersiebapskensce ose * 919009 [OJv4AIpIVT OMOMEGG "'* puvjvaz Man SS Ut
x 9 8 09 ‘oss 9 Surqaout ye sasuadxe [vtauayx) 0 0 Os ‘ees ouimoqay GG
ae OT GI OSL ip tye J Slee isere OU C STIG me GG
fon] We ¥aie tg) a SUP LCT puv suole1odep Jo OATFT G) 4 vas srreess* anivjapy UlOly suondiiosqng
ical 0 0 & ci ovislisiiavahatalrs iD OOO DOD OOOD yooqpurH 0 0 Of ad oe suolditosqns S1IquWaul IVT
TE s98 ine pooh igs sosuodxa A7}0q 0 0 TOP [7 ttt suodiiosqns sioqumoy, oF
1 0 09 svavss siete lelescis cic ‘saSUBYOXe pue sasv4sod ZS Sl orl |———_——
OL SL 08 a (o/s) ele 610 ers\\ele elsiejeisie +++ Sursiqoapy i (TI IGOR OGD Tey roa GON Gay GE AL
G¢ 3 906 | ttt 7) Atauoreys puv suru -VA4sny Jo yu [vIo1wiM0;y OG
0 11 £92 \(S68L ‘og 9UNL WO.AJ) BOULYSISS” [COLI[O Aq joune 0g I &L 68L |S6st ‘T Ainge ‘solv ‘S'N Uv UI soUrT[Vg | oun Og
TD Gy ‘Piss As: ‘S68L JP S F ‘Pp SS F *S6ST
“LO "S681 ‘ANNf HLOS OL ‘S6SL ‘ANNE HLOS ‘SYNLIGNAdXA GNW SldIFoay 40 LNAWSALVLS ‘Ad

x]

‘QOUITIS JO JUOWIBOUPAPY

OY} IOJ UOTILIOOSSY ULISLTRIISNY OY} ILM JUNOIY UL JomMsvol], “WOH oY],

xli

ATTENDANCES AND RECEIPTS.

‘UOTIJALIOSNS “SOT PIvd e
*A[UO puv[sudan? ul Seoinos [jv Woy ft

‘uoIdiosqns ‘sg pie z
"Iz Japun syqnod ‘squepnys L

‘uorydrsosqns ‘s0z pred 1
“ATWO S9dANOS ULITVAISNY YANO wo x

= _ (lest | ‘SU OR CO CATT [Sere Ad yynog
0.0 8/9 BISIS | 99 | FOL | eef eqrry ‘ospsxoary “y| Sy espisreary “y | wey oupdy *+-wep—gegt
‘OTN
% ye OT+ "VIN ‘STA OP 'M ‘DO “SOWA OW’ | ‘puepsusangy
0 0 OL;% 4 ssst | a9 2cel ogg ‘Aapatyg uyor ‘K1050IN) “(CD *W “UOFT ‘oueqsiig |"**'Uer—GCG8T
‘VW ‘Sstig "HM CS Se RIN
0 0 0€/0 Z Y9GFx | SSP 2IZI_ | 49g =| 2S" ‘etuuey “HY “So ‘oye, ydyey |yynog ‘epreppy|'"ydog—¢es
(AMAL ae sO) 331
| “UOgTIMIE HT“) 10 qOY *CIUVUISE J,
ta CeO cee=ci00G ee oe ei ST ‘uoj10yy “Vv Ig AouaT[eoxyy STH “qauqoH |" 'Ut~—ZEST
"S'Z'W'O ‘SU
“Sod “Sa “CTW “OW! |purlvez Mon
0n0 Gal 2, Sr ssz, ose sour U0FNAT “AA “YL ureqdrdy “1OpOFT SOULE AIG | ‘TPOINYoOysSLIGD |*** ‘Ue eP— [GEST
ra
‘VW “qd “)'N'O's "RIIOJOT A
di 0. 0 180'Z| cOrT|| x18 TSO‘T| “1eouedg urmpreg “AA ‘T9T[ON UOA uOAvg | — ‘ouanoq]oyy |" ‘UeL—(6ST
SMa “ATI ‘Sd “Wa | SeTeAA WMG | ( dag Sgsr
eee 0 8 ses | Oss oF cos “WW ‘ospisaaary “VV |W ‘Tessuy ‘OH | “aN ‘Aoupdg | U-Sny
‘Dp Ss F ‘Pp "Ss F
‘sosoding “SUIQOOWY 944 “SoIpvy_ aioe 2
sopuatraes sare aes [RO : E *£149109S “quapisarldg “Buyqooyy Jo aovrq jo oee
swung qunowy Aq papueyy

‘sosoding OlTUatIs
OJ powoA JO preg sums pure ‘sidts9ey pure ssoUepUe1V SUTLMOYS oTqL]

xlii EXTRACTS FROM THE MINUTES.

Extracts from the Minutes

OF THE

First MEETING OF THE GENERAL COUNCIL OF THE AUSTRALASIAN
ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, SEVENTH
SESSION, HELD IN THE GREAT HALL OF THE UNIVERSITY,
SYDNEY, ON THURSDAY, JANUARY 6TH, 1898, AT 4 P.M.

Mr. H. C. Russet, Vice-President, was voted to the Chair. About sixty
members were present.

It was proposed by Professor Ralph Tate (South Australia) and seconded
by Mr. R. M. Johnston (Tasmania) that (1) the arrangements for the Session
made by the Sydney Council, and (2) the nomination of Officers by it be
approved of. The motion was carried unanimously.

On the motion of the Chairman, the 404 new candidates for membership
who had paid their subscriptions for the Sydney Session were elected
members,

The Hon. Treasurer stated that the balance-sheet for the Sydney Session,
1898, would be submitted later on.

A Recommendation Committee, consisting of the President, the per-
manent Hon. Secretary, the past Presidents, and past General Secretaries,
was appointed, upon the motion of Professor McAulay (Tasmania), seconded
by Sir James Hector (New Zealand).

Professor Liversidge gave notice of proposed alterations in Rules 1, 7, 9,
and 13.

It was proposed by Mr. W. M. Hamlet (New South Wales), seconded by
Professor T. W. E.. David (New South Wales), that the following Com-
mittee be appointed to suggest means for the establishment of a memorial
in honour of the late Baron von Mueller:—-Professor Ralph Tate (South
Australia), Professor W. Baldwin Spencer (Victoria), Mr. F. M. Bailey
(Queensland), Professor A. Liversidge and Mr. J. H. Maiden (New South
Wales), Mr. R. M. Johnston (Tasmania), Mr. A. Morton (Tasmania), and
Captain F, W. Hutton (New Zealand).

Reports were presented from Research Committees appointed to inquire
upon :—
(1) Seismological Phenomena in Australasia (Mr. Geo. Hogben).

(2) Our knowledge of the Thermodynamics of the Voltaic Cell (Mr. J.
A. Pollock),

(3) On the Composition and Properties of the Mineral Waters of Aus-
tralasia (Mr. Geo. Gray).

(4) On the occurrence of Glacial Boulders at Yellow Cliff, Crown Point
Station, Finke Valley, Central Australia (Professor T. W. E.
David).

(5) On the evidence of Glacial Action in the Port Victor and Inman
Valley Districts, South Australia (Professor T. W. E. David).

(6) ie of Vernacular Names of Australian Birds (Mr. A. J. Camps
ell).

EXTRACTS FROM THE MINUTES. xlili

It was proposed by Mr. A. Morton (Tasmania), and seconded by Mr. R.
M. Johnston (Tasmania), that the next place of meeting, i.¢e., the Ninth
Session, in 1902, after the Melbourne Session in 1900, should be Hobart
(Tasmania). This was postponed for consideration at the next meeting of
the Council.

It was announced by Professor Liversidge that communications had been
received from the Royal Society of London regarding the compilation of
the Australasian portion of an International catalogue of scientific literature,
and he moved that an Advisory Committee, with power to add to its
number, be appointed, consisting of the following representatives from all
the colonies :—Sir James Hector (New Zealand), Mr. J. Stirling (Victoria),
Professor E. H. Rennie (South Australia), Professor W. Baldwin Spencer
(Victoria), Mr. R. L. Jack (Queensland), Mr. T. S. Hall (Victoria), Mr. A.
Morton (Tasmania), Professor Ralph Tate (South Australia), Mr. W.
Howchin (South Australia), Mr. John Shirley (Queensland), and the mover.
The motion was carried unanimously.

SECOND MEETING OF THE GENERAL COUNCIL, HELD IN THE
GREAT HALL, AT THE UNIVERSITY, ON Monpbay, JANUARY
10TH, 1898, aT 4 P.M.

The President (Professor Liversidge) in the Chair. About thirty-five
members were present.

The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed.

Professor W. C. Kernot (Victoria) moved, and Mr. A. C. Macdonald
(Victoria) seconded, that Mr. R. L. J. Ellery, C.M.G., F.R.S., be elected
President, and Professor W. Baldwin Spencer and Mr. E. F. J. Love be
elected Joint Hon. Secretaries for the ensuing Session of the Australasian
Association for the Advancement of Science, to be held in Melbourne in
1900. Professor W. Baldwin Spencer (Victoria) moved, and Professor
W. C. Kernot (Victoria) seconded, that Mr. C. R. Blackett be Hon.
Treasurer. Both motions were carried unanimously.

On the motion of Sir James Hector, F.R.S. (New Zealand), seconded by
Captain F. W. Hutton, F.R.S. (New Zealand), it was resolved that the
place for the Session next following that of the Melbourne meeting be
Hobart (Tasmania), in 1902.

It was resolved that the following gentlemen constitute the Publication
Committee, viz.:—The President, the Hon. General Treasurer, and the
Secretaries of the ten Sections. This was carried unanimously.

It was resolved that all the words in Rule 1 after ‘‘ Council’ be omitted,
and that Rules 4, 5, 6 be omitted entirely, and that ‘‘ten shillings” be
substituted for ‘‘ five shillings” in Rule 7.

/

It was resolved that the second clause of Rule 9—7.e., ‘‘ Authors of reports
or of papers published in extenso in the Annual Reports of the Association, ”—
be omitted, and that the words ‘‘ and members of the Association delegated
by Scientific Societies ” be substituted. It was also agreed that Rule 13
be omitted, and that the permanent Hon. Secretary be authorised to make
all necessary consequential alterations in the Rules.

xliv EXTRACTS FROM THE MINUTES.

THIRD MEETING OF THE GENERAL COUNCIL, HELD AT THE
UNIVERSITY, ON THURSDAY, JANUARY 13TH, 1898, AT NOON.

The President (Professor Liversidge) in the Chair. About fifty members
were present.

The Report of the Recommendation Committee was presented and
adopted. (For particulars see pages xlvi-xlviii.)

The Report of the Baron von Mueller Memorial Committee (see page
xlix) was considered.

The Report of the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature Com-
mittee (see page xlix) was considered and adopted.

Messrs. R. Teece and R. A. Dallen were re-elected as honorary auditors.

VoTES OF THANKS

Were moved, and carried unanimously, to the following :—

(1.) To the Senate of the Sydney University, for the use of the University
buildings during the Session.

(2.) To the Commissioners of the Queensland, New South Wales, Victorian,
South Australian, and Tasmanian Railways, for concessions in
railway fares granted to members; and to the Commissioners of the
New South Wales Railways for a free train to members to visit the
Blue Mountains.

(3.) To the Adelaide Steamship Co., the A.U.S. Navigation Co., the Union
Steamship Co., Messrs. Howard Smith and Sons, and Messrs.
Huddart, Parker, for concessions in steamer fares.

(4.) To Mr. John Howell, Managing Director of the Smeltmg Company of
Australia, for an invitation to visit the works of the Company at
Dapto; and to Mr. E. W. Knox, J.P., for an invitation to visit the
Works of the Colonial Sugar Company at Pyrmont.

(5.) To the Royal Society of New South Wales, for a Conversazione ; the
Sydney Liedertafel, for a Concert; Mrs. H. C. Russell, for a Garden
Party ; and to Miss L. Macdonald, and the Victoria Ladies’ Club,
for ‘‘ At Homes” to members.

(6.) To Sir James Hector, Professor W. Baldwin Spencer, and Mr. J. A.
Pollock, for Lectures delivered during the Session.

(7.) To the Sydney Press, for assistance rendered by publishing reports of
the proceedings of the Session.

(8.) To Mr. J. Witter Allworth, Acting Chief-Surveyor of the Department
of Lands; to Mr. W. C. Piguenit, and to Mr. W. L. Vernon,
Government Architect, for assistance rendered.

(9.) To Professor A. Liversidge, President and permanent Hon. Secretary,
for the services he had rendered to the Association as President and
General Secretary for the Sydney Session.

(10.) A special vote of thanks was passed on behalf of the visiting members
from the other colonies and New South Wales country districts, to
all those hosts and hostesses who had so kindly afforded private
hospitality to visitors during the Sydney Session.

Resolved,—That Professor Liversidge, the President, be authorised to
sign the Minutes of this final meeting of the General Council for the Sydney
Session of 1898.

EXTRACTS FROM THE MINUTES. xly

ADDRESS TO THE QUEEN.

Professor Liversidge stated that the following Address to the Queen was
being prepared for presentation, on behalf of the Association :—

‘Sydney, January, 1898.
‘© Her Most Gracious MaAJEsty,

‘“*VICTORIA, QUEEN OF THE UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT
BRITAIN AND IRELAND, AND ITS DEPENDENCIES: EMPRESS
or InpIA.

‘* May it please Your Majesty :
‘© We, the President and Council of the Australasian Association for the
Advancement of Science, on behalf of the Members resident in the Austra-
lian Colonies, in Tasmania, in New Zealand, and in Fiji (now assembled in
Session in Sydney), approach Your Majesty to express our deep affection
and loyalty, and to offer to Your Majesty our heartfelt congratulations on
the completion of the 60th year of Your Majesty’s beneficent and illustrious
reign, during which so much has been done for the advancement of Science,
and the well-being of Your Majesty’s happy, united, and prosperous people.

‘“©On behalf of and in the name of the Australasian Association
for the Advancement of Science, —
“A, LIVERSIDGE,
‘* President.”

To which the following reply has since been received :—

SSIs ‘* Government House, Sydney, 23rd June, 1898.
‘*T have the honour, by direction of His Excellency the Governor,
to inform you that a Despatch has been received, from the Secretary of
State for the Colonies, intimating that the Address from the Australasian
Association for the Advancement of Science has been duly laid before Her
Majesty.

‘““Her Majesty was pleased to command that Her warm thanks should
be conveyed to the Members of your Association for the kind expressions of
loyalty contained in the beautifully-illuminated address of congratulation.

‘*T have the honour to be, Sir,
‘““Your most obedient servant,
“HH. G. FEILDEN,
*¢ The President, ‘* Private Secretary.
‘¢ Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science,
“The University, Sydney.”

xlvi - COMMITTEES OF INVESTIGATION.

Committees of Investigation.

No. 1.-—CoMMITTEE UPON THE MacGnetic Survey or New
ZEALAND.

On the recommendation of Section A (Astronomy, Mathematics, and
Physics), it was agreed that,—in view of the recent investigation by Dr.
Adolf Schmidt, in which it is shown that the undertaking of systematic
magnetic observations in New Zealand, as the most suitable locality in
respect of the significance of the phenomena, is a work of great scientific
importance, an opinion also held previously by the Royal Society of London
and by the prominent magneticians of the British Association, and endorsed
by this Association,—this Association recommends that a magnetic survey
of the Colony, together with observations at a permanent station as far
south as possible, should be undertaken in New Zealand; and that a Com-
mittee, consisting of Mr. P. Baracchi, F.R.A.S., Mr. R. L. J. Ellery,
C.M.G., F.R.S., Sir Jas. Hector, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S., Mr. H. GC.
Russell, C.M.G., F.R.S., Sir Chas. Todd, K.C.M.G., F.R.A.S., and Mr.
C. C. Farr, B.Sc. (Christchurch, New Zealand), Hon. Sec., be appointed
to take such steps as are necessary to bring the matter to an issue.

No. 2.—SEISMOLOGICAL COMMITTEE.

On the recommendation of Section A (Astronomy, Mathematics, and
Physics), it was agreed that the following be the Seismological Committee
to report to the Melbourne Meeting in 1900:—New South Wales—Mr.
Mr. H. C. Russell, B.A., C.M.G., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.; Victoria—Mr. P.
Baracchi, F.R.A.S.; Mr. R. L. J. Ellery, C.M.G., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.;
8. Australia—Sir C. Todd, K.C.M.G., F.R.A.S. ; Queensland—Mr. R. L.
Jack, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. ; New Zealand—Sir Jas. Hector, K.C.M.G., M.D.,
F.R.S. ; Tasmania—Mr. A. B. Biggs; Prof. A. M‘Aulay, M.A:; West
Australia—Mr. W. E. Cooke, M.A.; and Mr. G. Hogben, M.A. (Timaru,
New Zealand), Secretary.

No. 3.—ComMITTEE ON THE MINERAL WATERS OF AUSTRALASIA.

On the recommendation of Section B (Chemistry), it was agreed that the
following be a Committee, with power to add to their number not more
than one representative for each colony not already represented, to continue
the investigation of the mineral waters of Australasia :—Professor Liver-
sidge, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. ; Professor Rennie, M.A., D.Sc. ; and Mr. G.
Gray, F.C.S, (Christchurch, New Zealand), Secretary.

No. 4.-CoMMITTEE ON PHOTOGRAPHIC GEOLOGICAL SURVEYS.

On the recommendation of Section C (Geology and Mineralogy), it was
agreed that the Committee appointed at the Session of 1892 to report
on ‘‘The Systematic Conduct of the Photographic Work of Geological
Surveys,” which presented a progress report at the 1893 Session, but
which had no opportunity to prepare a further report for presentation at
Brisbane in January, 1895, be re-appointed. The following gentlemen are
now appointed as members of this Committee :—Mr. P. Baracchi, F.R.A.S. ;
Professor T. W. E. David, B.A., F.G.S.; Mr. T. F.-Furber, F.R.A.S.,
L.S.; Sir Jas. Hector, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S.; Professor R. Tate,
F.G.S., F.L.S.; and Mr. J. H. Harvey (East Melbourne, Victoria),
Secretary.

COMMITTEES OF INVESTIGATION, x] vii

No 5.—CoMMITTEE ON AUSTRALASIAN BIOLOGICAL LITERATURE.

On the recommendation of Section D (Biology), it was agreed that the
following Committee, with power to add to its number one additional
member for each colony, be appointed to draw up a list of works and
papers relating to the Australian flora, to constitute Part I of a general
Australian Biological Bibliography :—Mr. F. M. Bailey, F.L.S.; Mr. J. G.
Luehmann, F.L.S.; Mr. J. H. Maiden, F.L.S.; Mr. Rodway; Professor
Tate, F.G.S., F.L.S.; and Mr. J. J. Fletcher, M.A., B.Sc. (Linnean
Society of N.S.W., Sydney), Secretary.

Recommendations agreed to.

SEISMOLOGICAL STATION.

No. 1.—On the recommendation of Section A (Astronomy, Mathematics,
and Physics), it was agreed that with a view to carrying out the work of
observing seismological phenomena all over the world, so urgently recom-
mended by the Seismological Committee of the British Association, the
Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science strongly urge
upon the New Zealand Government the desirability of equipping the station
named in the list of the International Seismological Committee with one of
the instruments approved by them and by the Seismological Committee
of the British Association. The station in question is Timaru, where a
qualified observer, Mr. George Hogben, resides, willing to take charge of
the instrument and to duly report results of observations taken,

NIAGNETIC RECORDS.

No. 2.—On the recommendation of Section A (Astronomy, Mathematics,
and: Physics), it was agreed that in view of the importance attached to
magnetic observations in the Southern Hemisphere, this Association regards
the publication of the Victorian Continuous Records of magnetic elements
as essential in the interests of magnetic science, and considers it very
desirable that those records should be made available for the work under-
taken by the Royal Society of London and the British Association,

SEISMOLOGICAL RECORDS.

No. 3.—On the recommendation of Section A (Astronomy, Mathematics,
and Physics), it was agreed to set apart £25 to be used (if necessary and if
the funds permit) towards the cost of setting up at Timaru, under the
charge of Mr. George Hogben, one of the horizontal pendulums recom-
mended by the Seismological Committee of the British Association and
the International Seismological Committee. (Note.—The last vote, £10,
granted to Mr. Hogben at the meeting of the Australasian Association for
the Advancement of Science, in 1895, has not been used.)

xlviil RECOMMENDATIONS AGREED TO.

BoRINGS AT FUNAFUTI.

No. 4.—On the recommendation of Section C (Geology and Mineralogy),
it was agreed that the Council of this Association bring under the notice
of the Government of New South Wales the importance of completing the
borings at Funafuti Atoll while the drilling apparatus remains on the
island, and while the old bore is in sufficiently good order to be utilised, as
is now the case.

PRISMATIC SANDSTONE QUARRY, BONDI.

No. 5.—On the recommendation of Section C (Geology and Mineralogy),
it was strongly recommended that the Government of New South Wales
be asked to acquire the quarry of prismatic sandstone at Bondi, with the
object of preserving it from destruction, as it is the best known example
of a remarkable geological occurrence.

SPELLING OF Native Names.

[The following recommendation on the spelling of Native Names was
forwarded by the Committee of Section F (Kthnology and Anthropology),
but it was received too late for consideration by the General Council :—
‘“‘We recommend to the General Council that communication be entered
into with the Governments of the respective colonies directing their atten-
tion to the desirability of the adoption by them of an uniform system
of spelling native words, either names of places or other names, in
accordance with the system adopted by the Royal Geographical Society
of England and the Admiralty.”’]

REPORTS OF COMMITTEES. xlix

Report of the Baron von Mueller Memorial
Committee,

Held at the Sydney University, on Wednesday, January 12th, 1898, con-
sisting of Mr. J. H. Maiden (N. 8. Wales), Professor W. Baldwin Spencer
(Victoria), Professor Ralph Tate (South Australia), Mr. F. M. Bailey
(Queensland), Captain F. W. Hutton (New Zealand), Messrs. R. M, Johnston
and A. Morton (Tasmania). Professor Liversidge presided. The following
resolutions were passed :—

(1.) That this Association places upon record its sense of the deep loss
sustained by the death of the late Baron von Mueller, and its high
appreciation both of his personal character and of the distinguished
services rendered by him to science.

(2.) That Professor Liversidge and Mr. J. H. Maiden be appointed to
officially represent the Association upon the Baron von Mueller
National Fund Committee.

Report of the Committee appointed of Represen-
tatives from all the Colonies to assist in the
Compilation of the Australasian portion of an
International Catalogue of Scientific Literature,
consisting of:—

Professor Liversidge (N. 8. Wales), Professor W. Baldwin Spencer, Messrs.
T. 8. Hall and J. Stirling (Victoria), Professors E. H. Rennie, Ralph Tate,
and Mr. W. Howchin (South Australia), Messrs. R. L. Jack and J. Shirley
(Queensland}, Sir James Hector (New Zealand), Mr, Alex. Morton (Tas-
mania).

The Committee met on Wednesday, January 12th, 1898, at the University.
Professor Liversidge presided.

The Committee came to the conclusion that at present it appeared most
convenient that some recognised society in each colony should collect all
necessary matter, and forward it to the central bureau in London. The
Committee of the Royal Society of London has been informed to that effect.

] GENERAL PROGRAMME.

General Programme

THURSDAY, JANUARY 6TH.

3 p.m.—Sectional Committees meet.

4 p.m,—First Meeting of General Council at the University.

8°30 p.m.—Inaugural Meeting, President’s Address at the University,
and Prof. Liversidge’s ‘‘ At Home.”

FRIDAY, JANUARY 7TH.

10 a.m.—Sectional Committees meet.

10°30 a.m. to 1 p.m,—Presidential Addresses and Papers in Sections.
Sections A and D at 10°30; Sections C and J at 11°30.

2 p.m, to 4 p.m.—Presidential Addresses and Papers in Sections E and
H at 2 p.m. ; Sections G and I at 3 p.m.

4 p.m.—Mrs. Russell’s Garden Party (limited to 200 invitations).

8°30 p.m.—Arrangements to be made.

SATURDAY, JANUARY 8TH.

10 a.m.—Sectional Committees meet.

10°30 a.m. to 1 p.m.—Presidential Address in Section F at 10°30 a.m. ;
Papers in Sections.

Afternoon Excursions.—See Hacursions Pamphlet and Notices.

Monpay, JANUARY 10TH.

10 a.m.—Sectional Committees meet.

10°30 a.m. to 1 p.m.—Sections meet for Reading of Papers, &e.

2 p.m. to 4 p.m.—Sections meet for Reading Papers, &e.

4 p.m.—Second Meeting of General Council at the University.

8°30 p.m.—Lecture by Professor W. Baldwin Spencer, M.A., on ‘‘ The
Centre of Australia.”

TUESDAY, JANUARY JITH.

10 a.m.—Sectional Committees meet.

10°30 a.m. to 1 p.m.—Sections meet for Reading of Papers, &c.

2 p.m. to 4 p.m.—Sections meet for Reading Papers, &c.

4 p.m. to 6 p.m.—‘‘At Home” by Miss Macdonald, M.A., at the
Women’s College, University.

8°30 p.m.—Concert by the Sydney Liedertafel,

WEDNESDAY, JANUARY 127TH.

10 a.m. —Sectional Committees meet.

10°30 a.m. to 1 p.m.—Sections meet for Reading of Papers, &e.

2 p.m.—Harbour Excursion.

8°30 p.m.—Lecture by Sir James Hector, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S., on
« Antarctica and the Islands of the Far South.”

GENERAL PROGRAMME. li

THURSDAY, JANUARY 13TH.

10 a.m.—Sectional Committees meet.

10°30 a.m. to 1 p.m.—Sections meet for Reading of Papers, &e.

12 noon—Third Meeting of General Council at the University.

Afternoon—Harbour and Dredging Excursion to Parramatta River.—
See Hacursions Pamphlet and Notices.

8 p.m.—Lecture to Working Men, by Mr. J. A. Pollock, B.Sc., on
** Electric Signalling without Wires.”

FrIpAy, JANUARY 14TH.

Excursions.—For particulars see Excursions Pamphlet and
Special Notices.
8°30 p.m.—Conversazione by the Royal Society of New South Wales.

SatTuRDAY, JANUARY 15TH.

Excursions.—See Haucursions Pamphlet and Special Notices.
National Park and Port Hacking.

SPECIAL SHORT EXCURSIONS.

. The Smelting Co. of Australia Works, at Dapto, on

Thursday, January 20th. By special
Cost, railway fare only. invitation.

B. The Colonial Sugar Refining Co. Works, at Pyrmont,

E. Garden Island. By special arrangement with the

F. Macquarie Lighthouse, by steamer. By special

K,

by tram. Jan. 13.
Arncliffe Sewerage Outfall; Dredging Operations, )

Cockatoo Dock; Monier Arches, Leichhardt, by Ganducted
tram. By special arrangement with the Public = re ee
Works Department. ‘he re ne eae
. Eveleigh Railway Workshops, by train ; Hawkesbury Ee ae ie
Bridge, by train; Power House, Rusheutters’ Bay, ingineering
f=)

by tram or ’bus; Redfern Electrical Works, by |
tram. By special arrangement with the N.S.W. |
Railway Commissioners.

Section of the
Association (H)
on dates from
Naval Department. January, 11th

to
arrangement with the Marine Board. January V7 th.

. Mort’s Dock, Balmain, by tram or boat. By special J

arrangement.

. Harpour Excursion—

Leave 2°30 p.m., Wednesday, January 12th. Return 6 p.m.
PARRAMATTA RIVER—

Leave 2 p.m., Thursday, January 13th. Return 6 p.m.
Nationat Park, Port Hackrine (Fishing and Botanical)—

Leaders: Fishing, Mr. J. J. Fletcher ; Botanical, Mr. J. H. Maiden.

Leave, January 15th, from Redfern Railway Station, 8°30 a.m.

Bonn, Coocrr, AND LA PERoUSE—

Leader, Mr, Charles Hedley. January 8th, 2 p.m. by waggonettes.
Wentworth Fatits—Free train, January 17th,

* JENOLAN CAves—January 18th.

Mount Koscrusko—January 19th.

hii

ERRATA ET CORRIGENDA.

Page 99, line 1, for ‘‘ Narrandara’”’ read ‘‘ Narrandera”

Page 127, line 22, for ‘‘ moutounées” read ‘* moutonnées”

Page 128, line 8, for ‘‘T. J. Parker, F.A.S.” read ‘*F.R.S.”

Page 365, line 22, yor ‘‘ Nothern Asia” read ‘‘ Northern”

Page 366, lines 3 and 15, for “J. M. Curran, F.R.G.S.” read “‘F.G.S.”
Page 366, line 9, for ‘‘ Physiology” read ‘‘ Physiography”

Page 366, line 13, for ‘‘ Geographical” read ‘‘ Geological”

Page 370 (opposite). Plate ‘‘ xviii B.” should read ‘* xviii A.”

Page 380, line 38, for ‘‘ aborescens” read ‘‘ arborescens”

Page 400, heading, for ‘‘ Teniopteride”’ read ‘‘ Teniopteridex”

HRRATA.

In List of Vernacular Names of Australian Birds.

Page 130, No. 324. (Hiatus.) Supply ‘‘Rafous Owl”

Page 133, No. 102. For ‘‘chloronata ” read ‘‘ chloronota ”

Page 135, No. 177. For “ Field-Lark ” read ‘‘ Field-Wren ”

Page 135, No. 199. or ‘‘ guttaralis” read ‘‘ gutturalis”’

Page 1385, No. 205. Sor ‘‘ castonothorax ” read ‘‘ castoneothorax ’
Page 138, Nos. 285 and 286. Tvranspose vernacular names.

Page 139, No. 333. or ‘‘ pencillata’ read ‘‘ penicillata ”

Page 140, No. 371. For ‘‘ guadragintus ” read ‘‘ quadragintus ”
Page 144, No. 461. or ‘ Psittenteles ” read ‘‘ Psitteuteles”
Page 145, No. 522. For ‘‘ Orange-throated” read ‘‘ Scarlet-chested ”
Page 147, No. 566. For ‘‘brachypus” read ‘ brachipus ”

Page 149, No, 608. For ‘‘Cladorhyncus” read ‘‘ Cladorhynchus ”

?

700 ACW EG ee be:

BY
A DY ERSIDGE, MUA. Ibid: PORS.,

PRESIDENT,

At the Seventh Session of the Australasian Association
for the Advancement of Science,

JANUARY 6, 1898.

First of all I wish to apologise for being a pluralist,
although I am one very much against my wish, as wel! as
against my principles—neither post can, however, I think,
be regarded as asinecure. As I said on a previous occasion,
it would have been ungracious on my part to have persisted
in my disinclination to accept the distinguished position in
which you have placed me to-night. With regard to the
other office, I found no one willing to relieve me, and I felt.
that 1t would be cowardly to slink away from its duties by
resigning ; under the circumstances, I can only hope that
the Association will not suffer in consequence.

This address, such as it is, has been prepared under
considerable difficulties, while occupied with many other
duties, and I beg your forbearance accordingly.

It is avery usual practice for the President of the British
Association to pass in review the advancements made in
science since the previous visit of the Association to the
particular town in which the meeting is being held, or else
to give an account of the progress made in his own spevial
branch of study.

The course followed by our own Presidents has usually
been to give an account of the history and progress in
Australia of some branch of science, such as Astronomy,

A

2 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

Geographical Exploration, or Geology. I shall not attempt
to do this for Australasian chemistry, because the chemical
work done here is perhaps both of too fragmentary and of
too technical a character for a general audience.

But first of all it is my painful duty to state that since
we last met we have lost three of our most prominent
officers.

SIR ROBERT GEORGE CROOKSHANK HAMILTON, K.C.B., LL.D.,

who was President of the Association of the 4th session,
held at Hobart, 1892, was born at Bressay, Shetland, and
educated at Aberdeen, and was Governor of Tasmania from
1886 to 1893.

Sir Robert did much to promote the advancement of
science in Tasmania, and was President of the Royal Society
of Tasmania, from 1886, until his retirement from the
Governorship in 1893. He took great interest in the
meeting of this Association, held in Hobart, in 1892, and
much of the success of that session was due to his personal
efforts in making the preliminary arrangements, and to the
active part he took in the proceedings of the Tasmanian
‘session. His death took place in London, in April, 1895.

BARON SIR FERDINAND VON MUELLER, K.C.M.G., F.R.S.,

who died last year, was our President at the Melbourne
session, the second meeting of this Association, and a most
helpful member in furthering our objects.

An account of the life and labour of the Baron would
take too long for such an occasion as this. The mere
enumeration of the titles of his works and papers run
into many pages of the Royal Society Catalogue of Scientific
Papers.

He was born at Rostock in 1825, educated in Schleswig, and
studied the botany of Schleswig and Holstein from 1840 to
1847. He came out to Australia in that year on account of
threatened lung trouble, and made botanical expeditions

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 3

through South Australia from 1848 to 1852. In 1852 he
was appoimted Government Botanist to Victoria, and held
the position until his death in 1896. He was occupied in
botanical exploration from 1852 till 1855, especially in the
Alpine regions, the vegetation of which was till then
unknown; he also made extensive explorations in the
northern parts of Australia, and accompanied the overland
expedition conducted by Mr. A. C. Gregory, our retiring
President.

While Government Botanist and Director of the Melbourne
Botanic Gardens from 1857 to 1873 he did much to intro-
duce new and useful plants into Victoria and to distribute
Australian plants to all parts of the world. He was a
member or honorary member of very many (150) scientific
societies, and received numerous Royal decorations and
similar honours. His loss to Australia is a very great one,
and the vacancy he has left amongst botanists here will be
hard to fill; in his capacity for work and devotion to it
he was one in millions. He was not less distinguished for
his amiability and generosity, and was almost too ready to
give from his very slender means to assist those in distress,
and for the advancement of botanical science.

The Government of Victoria provided a plot of ground
for his last resting-place, and funds are being collected for
the erection of amonument. It isalso proposed to establish
some permanent memorial of the Baron, and the members
of the Association will have an opportunity of subscribing
towards that very desirable object. Itis hoped that sufficient
funds will be collected to provide a bust, and to endow a
medal, prize, or scholarship in recognition of meritorious
botanical work carried out in these Colonies.

PROFESSOR T. JEFFREY PARKER, D.Sc., F.R.S.

We have by the lamented death of Professor Parker lost
the President elect for the Biological Section and our Local
Secretary for New Zealand, which latter office he has held
since Captain Hutton’s resignation in 1891.

4 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

Professor Parker was a younger son of the well-known
Dr. W. K. Parker, F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy in the
Royal College of Surgeons, and was born in London in
1850; he received his scientific education at the Royal
School of Mines, London, where we were friends and fellow-
students. He was Demonstrator of Biology under Professor
Huxley at the Royal School of Mines and Royal College
of Science; also Lecturer in Biology at Bedford College,
London ; an Examiner for the University of Aberdeen, and
for the Science and Art Department, South Kensington, and
came out to Otago University some seventeen years ago
(1880) as Professor of Biology and Curator of the Museum,
and was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1888.
His “ Zootomy” is a well-known practical hand-book for
students, and his “ Hlementary Lessons in Biology” is
deservedly popular; the latter has passed through several
editions, and has been translated into German. He was
also author of many papers published in various scientific
journals, including the Transactions of the Royal Society,
London, and he had in conjunction with Professor Haswell
just finished a text-book of zoology, probably one of the
best of its kind that has yet been written. Professor
Parker also introduced a valuable process for preserving
and exhibitme the cartilaginous skeletons of fishes, which
is now largely used in most museums in all parts of the
world.

Many of our biological members were looking forward to
meeting Professor Parker, some as old friends, while others
wished to make his acquaintance; all will regret his
absence most keenly.

He died on the seventh of November last, at the com-
paratively early age of 47, cut off in the full career of his
matured and best work.

Professor Parker’s work is probably far better known in
Europe and America than it is in Australasia, for the
number of people here who can appreciate work such as

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 5

his is necessarily very limited, but in later generations
there will probably be more to do so, for much of it is of
the kind which will survive and keep his memory green.

The Council has already sent a resolution of sympathy to
Professor Parker’s family, and many other scientific bodies
in Australia have also done so.

Inasmuch as our aims and objects are similar to those
of the British Association, our constitution having been
framed upon the same lines, it appears to be both desirable
and appropriate that our members should have some know-
ledge of what the parent institution has done, and is doing ;
hence, in the first instance, I wish to briefly draw your
attention to it; next, to touch upon certain matters con-
nected with the work of our own Association, for I think it
is very important that such topics should be referred to in
an address of this kind. The opening meeting of the session
is almost the only opportunity, and it is certainly the most
fitting occasion to review what we have accomplished and
to consider what we might do for the advancement of
science, especially as it 1s now ten years since we held our
first and inaugural meeting in Sydney. Personally, I am
inclined to think that matters of this sort are of even more
importance to our members, particularly to the new ones,
than an account of recent scientific discoveries, for such
can only be given in a very bald way, and, moreover, they
are duly chronicled in the scientific journals for the use of
specialists, and some sort of account of them is given in
magazines and newspapers for the benefit of the general
reader, whereas but little is published in a collective form
of the general work of such Associations as this.

Following next in order I think of referring to certain
other institutions for the advancement of science, and then
finally to say something about certain recent discoveries and
advances in chemistry.

6 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

The British Association was instituted at York in 1831,
at a meeting held at the suggestion of Sir David Brewster,
in the Hall of the Philosophical Society of Yorkshire, with
the title of “The British Association for the Advancement
of Science,” and its objects were “ to give a stronger im-
pulse and a more systematic direction to scientific inquiry ;
to promote the intercourse of those who cultivate science in
different parts of the British Empire with one another, and
with foreign philosophers; and to obtain a greater degree
of national attention to the objects of science and a remoyal of
any disadvantages of a public nature which impede its pro-
gress.” It has met regularly every year in some town of
the United Kingdom, except that in 1884 it met at Montreal,
in Canada, and in August last it again met in Canada,
this time in Toronto. The American Association held its
Session at about the same time at Detroit, so that the mem-
bers of both Associations might have opportunities to
meet.

The Mayor and Corporation of San Francisco invited the
members of the British, the American, and Australasian
Associations to meet together at San Francisco, after the
British and American Association meetings; the Austral-
asian Association was, unfortunately, unable to accept the
very cordial invitation to join in this first attempt at an
International gathering.

The Mayor’s letter of mvitation contains the followimg
passages :—
‘Tt is my sincere hope that San Francisco may have the

good and rare fortune to receive the visit of all three of
these distinguished bodies.

“Tts citizens will feel honoured in extending a generous
welcome to men eminent in the cause of truth and repre-
senting the three great branches of the Anglo-Saxon race.”

The British Association meets for a week or ten days
once a year. Its work is opened by an address from the

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 7

President on the evening of the first day; on the following
days the various sections commence their sittings, and their
work is, in each case, also opened by an address from their
respective Presidents ; next, papers and reports from the
various committees appointed to conduct scientific re-
searches during the preceding year are read, followed by
discussions upon the same. These discussions form one of
the most valuable features of the British Association’s
meetings.

The sectional meetings are held from 10 a.m. to 4°30 p.m.,
after which there are usually short excursions to places of
interest to the geologist, botanist, chemist, antiquarian, and
others, and in the evenings there are lectures and conver-
saziones ; also receptions and entertainments given by the
residents and local bodies to the members.

The social entertainments cannot be looked upon as mere
pleasure-making functions ; they perform a real part of the
work of the Association, as they enable the members to
meet, and make the acquaintance of others from outside of
their own special sections, and much good is done thereby,
as it tends to break down some of the barriers of
specialism.

The principal cities of the United Kingdom emulate one
another in the cordiality of their invitations for the Axssocia-
tion to become their guests; and the formal invitation is
sometimes made by a deputation consisting of the Mayor and
members of the Corporation, and prominent residents, sent
for that special purpose. Thus at the Liverpool meeting
there were deputations from the cities of Bristol and
Glasgow, to press their invitations. The local authorities
make arrangements to defray a large part of the expenses
of the meeting, and the whole of the expenses of the various
entertainments ; so that the income of the British Associa-
tion is free to be spent upon its scientific objects. The
meetings are arranged for two years in advance, and as
invitations are usually offered for several places at once, a
selection has to be made.

8 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

The meeting of the British Association is usually con-
sidered to be an advantage to the town visited, and the
surrounding district. One advantage is that local men
become better acquainted with those from other parts of
the kingdom and with foreign men of science, for it is one
of the good features of the British Association to invite a
certain number of distinguished foreigners as guests for
each meeting.

Museums, ancient monuments, cave-dwellings, and other
similar local objects of interest, if such exist, usually
receive attention, and in many cases with most beneficial
results.

~The peripatetic character of the British Association
meetings is one of its best and most useful features, and its
visit usually permanently raises the local interest in
scientific matters to a higher level.

The results of the work of the Session are printed in the
form of an Annual Report of 1,200 to 1,500 pages. In it
appear the addresses of the President and Presidents of the
sections ; also the reports of the Scientific Research Com-
mittees. On account of the great number of communica-
tions, papers read before the Sections are usually printed
in brief abstract, or the title only is given. The work done
covers nearly all branches of Science, and the Research
Committees have members carrying out investigations in
all parts of the world, and in some cases their labours extend
over many years.

The British Association has, since its foundation, granted
over £63,000 to assist individuals and committees in their
researches. The grants commenced in a very moderate
way, in 1854, with a vote of £20 for the investigation of
‘Tides ; since then they have gradually increased, and now
the amount usually exceeds £1,000 a year.

In 1899 the British Association is to meet at Dover, and
the French Association at Boulogne, on the opposite
coast, during the same week, with the express object of an

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. )

interchange of visits between the two Associations. ‘This
will do much to make the scientific men of the two countries
better acquainted with each other, and what is of more
importance, with each other’s work for the common end,
viz., The Advancement of Science.

THE AUSTRALASIAN ASSOCIATION.

The meetings of this Association are conducted upon
similar lines, but as our President and most of the officers
and members are necessarily resident, the visits of the
Association are not of so guest-like a character as those of
the British Association.

I need hardly remind you that the Australian Association
held its first meeting in Sydney, from 27th August to 5th
September, of the Centennial year, 1888, under the
Presidency of Mr. H. C. Russell, C.M.G., F.R.S., with a
roll of 850 full members. Meetings have since been held in
Melbourne in 1890, with 1,162 full members, when the late
Baron von Mueller, K.C.M.G., F.R.S., M. and Ph.D., was
President ; at Christchurch, N.Z., in 1891—President, Sir
James Hector, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S.; at Hobart, in
1892—-President, His Excellency Sir Robert Hamilton,
K.C.B., LL.D.; at Adelaide, in 1893—President, Prof.
Ralph Tate, F.G.S., F.L.S.; and at Brisbane, in 1895,
when the Hon. A. C. Gregory, C.M.G., M.L.C., F.R.G.S.,
was President.

The Government of New South Wales provided for the
printing of the first volume, and the Governments of
Victoria, Tasmania, New Zealand, South Australia, and
Queensland, have each in turn given liberal assistance, both
by money grants and in other ways, towards the expenses
of the Session, and by printing the volume of reports and
papers.

The Association has up to the present published 6 volumes
of reports, each of about 1,000 pages, containing much
important matter; it has appointed Committees for the

10

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

investigation of the following subjects; all have furnished
reports, which being of permanent value, have been

printed, viz. :—

I

on)

NI

The Establishment and Endowment of a Biological
Station for Australasia.

. Certain points in the Construction and Hygenic

Requirements of Places of Amusement in Sydney.

. A Census of Australasian Minerals.
. Glacial Evidence in Australasia, £20 granted

towards the expenses.
Town Sanitation.

. The Seismological Phenomena of Australasia (£10

granted in aid of this research).

. A Bibliography of the Australasian and Polynesian

Races.

. The question of Antarctic Exploration.
. The State and Progress of Chemical Science in

Australia, with special reference to Gold and
Silver Saving Appliances.

. The Question of Rust in Wheat.
. The Location and Laying-out of Towns.
. The Improvement of Museums as a means of

Popular Education.

. The Fertilisation of the Fig in the Australasian

Colonies.

. The Unification of Colours and Signs of Geological

Maps.

. The Tides of Australia (The Tides of the coast of

South Australia).

. Polynesian Bibliography, with special reference to

Philology.

. The Protection of Native Animals.
. Glacial Action in Australasia during Tertiary and

Post-Tertiary Eras.

. The Photographing of Geological Surveys.
. The best means of encouraging Psychophysical

and Psychometrical Investigation in Australia.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 1

It has also granted the sum of £25 towards the ascer-
tainment of movements of New Zealand glaciers, and £10
towards the cost of the erection at Timaru of the
Seismological instruments, presented by Dr. Von Rebeur-
Paschwitz. It has secured (1) from the New Zealand
Government the reservation of the Little Barrier Island,
and Resolution Island, Dusky Sound, as suitable localities
for the preservation of Native Flora and Fauna. (2) In
response to a recommendation from the 1891 Session, it
was agreed by the Lords of the Admiralty, that the sea
between New Zealand, and the islands to the N.W. of New
Zealand on the one hand, and Australia and Tasmania on
the other, be known as the 'asman Sea, and that the name
is to be entered on the Admiralty charts. (3) Further,
through the instrumentality of the Association, the New
Zealand Government has set apart Stephen’s Island, Cook
Strait, as a reserve for the Tuatara Lizard, and (4) Corre-
spondence has been received from the Governments of Tas-
mania, New South Wales, New Zealand, and Victoria, in
which sympathetic acknowledgment is expressed towards
the wishes of the Association in regard to resolutions, passed
at its last Session (in Brisbane), viz., to bring before the
Australasian Governments that it is desirable :—

(a) That a system of compulsory notice of infectious
diseases be introduced.

(b) That a system of Federal Quarantine be introduced.

(c) That stock, the milk or flesh of which is intended
for consumption, be examined by duly qualified
men, and slaughtered, if found Tuberculous or
Cancerous.

At the last Session (Brisbane, 1895) a number of research
committees were. appointed, some of which will report
during the present Session. Chief among these may be
mentioned :—

1. For the investigation of Glacial Deposits. (Reap-
pointed.)

12 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

2. The Seismological Committee, to investigate earth-
quake phenomena in Australasia. (Reappointed.)

3. To consider and report upon the Thermo-dynamics
of the Voltaic Cell.

4. The geology, land flora, land fauna, and natural
resources of the islands and islets of the Great
Barrier Reef.

5. The habits of the teredo, and the best means of
preserving timber or structures subject to the
action of tidal waters.

6. The Committee to give effect to the suggestions

contained in Sir Samuel Griffith’s paper entitled

“A Plea for the Study of the Unconscious Vital

Processes in the life of a community.”

AUSTRALIAN BENEFACTIONS TO SCIENCE.

In connection with the efforts made for the advancement
of science in Australia we should not overlook the recent
generous gift made by Mr. ’P. N. Russell of £50,000 for the
support of our Engineering School, for instruction in pure
and applied science. This is, perhaps, one of the best ways
ot supporting the objects of this Association, 7.e., by providing
a scientific training for students, who may develop into men
of science.

Then there is the bequest made by Sir Thos. Elder to the
Adelaide University, of which a large portion goes to support
the Mining and other scientific schools.

Also the scientific expedition to Central Australia, which
was despatched by Mr. Horn from Adelaide at great
expense. We shall have the pleasure of hearing of some of
the results of this act of public-spirited generosity from
Professor Spencer, who is kindly giving our members a
lecture upon Central Austraha.

Next there is the expedition from the Royal Society of
London, under Professor Sollas, to investigate the structure
of a coral reef by boring, to which this Colony contributed
liberally in men, money, and material.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 13

During the past year this has been supplemented by
another expedition from Sydney under the charge of
Professor David, largely at the cost of residents in this
Colony and the New South Wales Government. The Royal
Society of London has again provided a large portion of
the requisite funds.

I do not propose to go into the matter, as I have no
doubt a full report will, in due course, be issued by Professor
David ; meanwhile, I think we should express our pleasure
at the safe return of the expedition, and our gratification
at the success which has so far been achieved, especially as
the operations had to be carried out under considerable
difficulties.

PROVINCIAL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES AND INSTITUTIONS.

Outside the capital of New South Wales scientific societies
and institutions are practically non-existent, and I think
this is also the case with respect to the other colonies of
Australasia, except New Zealand.

New Zealand sets Australia a good example, for although
its population is only about one-half that of New South
Wales, it has comparatively large and active scientific
societies in Auckland, Christchurch, Dunedin, Napier, Nel-
son, Wellington, and Westland. All of these are separate
and independent societies, but collectively they form the
New Zealand Institute, centred in Wellington. Papers
read before the local societies, if of sufficient merit and
importance, are published in the Transactions of the
New Zealand Institute; this is an exceptionally wise
plan, for the smaller societies could not afford the expense
of publishing separate annual volumes ; further, the papers
are distributed more widely and a better standard can be
maintained. If there were similar local societies in Bathurst,
Broken Hill, Goulburn, Newcastle, and other towns in New
South Wales, which are quite as large as some of the New
Zealand towns, they could do much for the advancement
of science, and assist the aims and objects of this Association.

14 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

I have spoken more particularly of this Colony, but of
course the remarks also apply to the larger towns of the
other colonies, where there are no local sociéties. Such
societies could probably, if they existed and so wished,
be affiliated to the Royal Society of New South Wales
or of Victoria, South Australia, or Queensland, and to
this Association. The British Association has a system
of corresponding societies, who send delegates to its
meetings.

It is a very great pity that such societies do not exist in
our provinces, not only for the benefit of the local residents
but also for the cause of science generally.

At present this Association has to depend very largely
upon the members of the staffs of the universities, observa-
tories, museums, the geological surveys, and certain other
Government departments, and most of these, with the
exception of those resident in the capital in which the
Session is held, have to undertake a journey of 500 or 600
miles, or even 1,200 miles, as in the case of those who
attend from New Zealand, or who, living in Brisbane, attend
a meeting in Adelaide, or vice versa.

These very long distances are a great disadvantage to the
Association, for they mean a considerable expenditure of
time and money, and many are thereby debarred from
attending. It is largely due to these causes, as well as to
the limited number of working members, that we have had
most reluctantly to substitute biennial for annual sessions.
If we had more working members, and I think we shouid
eet them if there were local scientific societies scattered
through the Colonies, we should be able to resume our
annual meetings, and before very long we ought to be able
to hold our Sessions in towns like Ballaarat, Bathurst,
Bendigo, Goulburn, and Newcastle.

For the formation of local societies it is not necessary to
start with a large membership—the Royal Society of London
began with five or six only.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 15

It is, however, very gratifying, under the circumstances,
and with our comparatively limited population, that our
meetings are as well attended and successful as they are.

INTERNATIONAL CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE.

An International Conference was held in London in 1896,
from July 14th to 17th inclusive, for the purpose of
arranging for an International Catalogue of Scientific
Literature, which was attended by representatives nominated
by the Governments of most European countries, as well as
by those of America, Japan, Mexico, India, and the
Colonies. I had the privilege of attending this Conference,
first as one of the representatives of the Royal Society of
London, and afterwards as the representative of the New
South Wales Government.

The work intrusted to it is of a most important character,
and if carried to a successful issue will be of the utmost
benefit to workers in every branch of science, and one of
the greatest possible aids to its advancement.

In 1864 the Royal Society commenced its Catalogue of
Scientific Papers, arranged according to the names of the
authors, and it has now by the aid of Government grants
published eleven bulky volumes; it is found, however, that
a catalogue according to subjects is of even greater necessity;
but such an undertaking is beyond the power of any one
society or even country, hence the necessity for international
co-operation.

A committee was appointed by the Royal Society in 1893
to communicate with societies and institutions at home and
abroad with reference to the preparation, by international
co-operation, of complete catalogues of scientific literature,
arranged both according to subjects and authors.

A circular letter approved by the President and Council
was sent to 207 societies and institutions, and to the
Directors of Observatories and of Government Geological
Surveys, and a special letter was sent to the Smithsonian ,
Institute.

16 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

It was pointed out that the existing Catalogue of
Scientific Papers was limited to periodical scientific litera-
ture, and that the titles of books and monographs were
not included, also that the titles were arranged merely by
the authors’ names.

The replies were numerous, and in most cases warmly
supported the suggestions; they also referred in the highest
terms to the value of the Royal Society’s Catalogue of
Scientific Papers.

The Smithsonian Institute and other American bodies
also took up the matter most cordially, and offered many
valuable suggestions for carrying out the details of the
work.

After a report had been received from the Committee, the
Council of the Royal Society approached the Marquis of
Salisbury, the Minister for Foreign Affairs, and suggested
that the British Government should invite certain other
named Governments to appoint delegates to an international
conference for the purpose of considering the matter.

Favourable replies were received and a large number
of delegates appointed, all of whom attended the Conference
in July, 1896, except the delegate from Russia, who was
absent from illness.

The Right Hon. Sir John Gorst, Q.C., M.P. (V.P. of the
Committee of Council of Education), representing the
British Government, was unanimously elected Chairman,
and he afterwards welcomed the delegates.

Nearly all the resolutions are given (see page 51) because
they should be known by our members, in order that we
may be in a position to consider the matter, with the view,
if possible, of co-operating in so very important an under-
taking. Every person in Australasia and elsewhere who
is the author of a published paper upon any branch of pure
science should take an interest in this matter, because he
will in future probably be required to prepare an index of

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. 17

the contents of his paper for publication by this Committee, ;
or failing that to run the risk of his work being ignored.

A catalogue such as is proposed would be of even greater
value to students of science in Australasia than to those in
Europe and America, since we are so much farther removed
from the great centres of thought and activity, and, more-
over, we are debarred from access to any scientific lbrary
which can in any way be considered as complete, even in
any one department. From the proposed catalogue we
should be able to see what has been published, and having
learnt of the existence of a given memoir or treatise, we
should be in a better position to take steps to procure it ;
at present we are often in the dark, and have but imperfect
means of learning what has been published upon any
particular subject.

A long and instructive discussion took place over the
method of classification. It was considered by many that
the Dewey Decimal system could not be adopted unless
modified, although it is used by the International Con-
ference on Bibliography at Brussels and by many libraries ;
its merits for the use of librarians are not denied, but it is
not suitable for scientific catalogue purposes. Dr. Billings
stated that it is simply a shorthand method for the
classification of books on the shelves, and rapidly finding
them, and is not adopted in any Government Library in
America, nor in any University library except Albany and
Columbia, in both of which Mr. Dewey had been librarian.
Eventually the study of classification was referred to the
Committee of Organisation.

When the question of the language was under discussion,
Professor Mach, representing Austria, proposed the use of
English as the sole and only language, because English is
so widely spoken over the civilised world. . He said every-
one should respect his own nationality and his own language,
but before that they should consider the universal interest
of mankind. It was unanimously agreed, on the motion of
M. Deniker, representing France, and General Ferrero, the

B

18 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

Ttalian Ambassador, representing Italy, that the catalogue
should be in English.

Since the meeting of the Conference in July, 1896, “a
Provisional British Catalogue Committee” has been
appointed, which might be consulted by the Committee of
the Royal Society, on questions relating to the collection
and preparation of the material supplied by the scientific
literature of Great Britain and Ireland, and which might
ultimately develop ito the National Bureau for the United
Kingdom.

A committee of nearly forty representatives from the
principal British societies and libraries has been constituted.
This committee is to inform the Committee of the Royal
Society, —

Ist. As to the best method of collecting the material
for the catalogue in Great Britain and Ireland.

2nd. Whether each society will undertake the collection
and preparation of the material of the science
which it represents.

3rd. Whether each society will bear, either wholly or
in part, the expenses of such collection and prepar-
ation.

At the first meeting of the British Committee it was
practically agreed that all the special societies and insti-
tutions represented would co-operate in the work of the
International Catalogue.

In Austria and Germany conferences have been held of
representatives from the principal scientific societies and
institutions, and it has been agreed to co-operate in the
work; the Austrian Ministry of Education has in principle
expressed its willingness to further the work and to ensure
its due execution. The future action of the German Govern-
ment appears to be dependent upon the question of the
probable cost, and upon certain minor details. It has, how-
ever, probably decided by now. The steps to be taken by
the other Governments will also soon be known.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 19

In the interim statement from the Royal Society Com-
mittee, for the information of the delegates of the 1896
Conference, it is pomted out that ‘itis absolutely necessary
to each scientific society, and to the editors of every serial
scientific publication, to index for their own purposes what-
ever they publish, and the only change in the existing
system required for the purposes of the International Cata-
logue is that each paper shall be fully indexed at the time
it is passed for press.” If such material be forwarded at the
earliest possible moment to the body primarily interested
in its collection, and after revision to the Central Bureau,
no time need be lost.

Of course all material thus collected will have to be pre-
pared for publication on a uniform plan. It is pointed out
that under such a system the material will automatically flow
into the proper channels.

The committee regards it as essential that authors should
be requested to supply indexes of the subject-matter of
their papers ; some, of course, may supply too much infor-
mation, and others too little, but from the experience
already gained in the office of the Royal Society it is clearly
shown that the information supplied by the authors is of
the greatest value to the supervisors of the work of indexing.

The International Conference arranged that the Central
Bureau should issue the catalogue in book form from time
to time, in parts or divisions for the various branches of
science, and also, as promptly as possible, in the form of
“slips” or “cards.” The committee are of opinion that
the National Bureau of each constituent country should
prepare the slips ready for the slip catalogue.

The committee wish opinions upon the question as to
whether the co-operating countries should have the option
of printing and also of issuing the slips which it prepares
to subscribers within its own limits. This is a point which
might well be discussed here, together with others, during
the session of this Association.

20 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

The Senate and House of Representatives of the United
States have already voted the sum of $10,000, or £2,000, per
annum for the clerical and other expenses connected with
the cataloguing of the scientific publications of the United
States, the same to be expended under the direction of the
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institute.

Australasia ought certainly to do something towards the
cataloguing of its scientific publications, and in order that
the matter may be considered by representatives of the
principal Australasian Colonies, I have taken steps to bring
the question before the General Council during the present
session.

I have dwelt rather fully upon this subject of an Inter-
national Catalogue of scientific literature, because I think
that a session of the Australasian Association for the
Advancement of Science is the most favourable opportunity
of bringing the matter under the notice of those interested
in science in Australasia, and because I am strongly of
opinion that it is a work in which this Association, both
collectively and individually, should take an active part.

THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE.

It is satisfactory to find that the Imperial Institute,
London, is becoming an institution for the advancement of
science. When in London, in 1896, I had many opportu-
nities of seeing and inquiring into its working.

The Scientific Research Department, under Professor
Wyndham R. Dunstan, F.R.S., was opened in October,
1896. Towards this Department the Royal Commissioners
for the Exhibition of 1851 contribute £1,000 per year. The
Goldsmith’s Company has also made a second grant of
£1,000 towards providing the accommodation and equip-
ment; the Salters’ Company has founded a Research Fel-
lowship of £150 a year, and in October, 1896, the staff of
assistant chemists employed was increased to eleven. The
Government of India also gives an annual grant for research
work upon Indian medicinal plants, dyes, gums, tanning
materials, coal, and other products.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 74 I

Canadian and Cape minerals and other products have
been under investigation, also Cape and Australian wines
have been chemically examined and reported upon. Reports
from manufacturers and experts upon the probable com-
mercial value are also obtained at the same time.

Amongst the scientific referees are Prof. Church, F.R.S8.,
on cereals; Prof. Armstrong, F.R.S., on terpenes and
volatile oils; Prof. Unwin, F.R.S., and others, on the
strength of materials; and Prof. Judd, C.B., F.R.S., on
minerals.

There is a department for commercial intelligence, also for
collections of minerals and products from India, Canada,
Australia, and the other Colonies, which are utilised for
instruction by the curators lecturing upon their contents on
certain days, of which public notice is given.

Further free public lectures are given upon the Colonies,
and these are very largely attended by appreciative and
rapidly-increasing audiences, composed mainly of working-
men.

Collections of Colonial products are, where the supply of
material is sufficient, being made,up and distributed to
provincial districts. Twenty-four collections were sent out
last year, and more will be made up and sent out on receipt
of material from the Colonies. These will do much to dis-
seminate a knowledge of the Colonies throughout the United
Kingdom.

Further, there are courses of evening lectures once a
week for the Fellows and their friends during the winter.

A journal is published monthly, devoted to the work of
the Institute and to Indian and Colonial matters which are
likely to promote the objects of the institution.

There is no doubt that the institution is now fulfilling
one of its intended objects, and is becoming a most valuable
means of disseminating a knowledge of the products_and
manufactures of the Indian Empire and of

22 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

not only of a commercial but also of a scientific value, and
the Australasian Colonies ought to be particularly interested
in its work.

Like many another institutions, its income is inadequate
for the work in hand.

CHEMISTRY OF THE ANCIENTS.

I think we may include amongst the recent advancements
of science the six important volumes (2,600 pages) upon
the History of Chemistry, recently published by Prof.
Berthelot, of Paris (Perpetual Secretary of the Academy of
Science, and sometime Minister of Foreign Affairs), since
they form a notable addition to the history of chemistry,
and set us right upon many matters.

My remarks are condensed froma paper by Dr. Carrington
Bolton, read before the American Chemical Society, masmuch
as I have not had time to do much more than glance through
the volumes themselves. In them M. Berthelot gives an
account of the ancient Greek alchemists and of the
chemistry of the Middle Ages. These volumes contain
many of the most ancient Greek, Arabic, Syriac, and Latin
writings upon technical chemistry and alchemy, treasured
in the great national libraries of Hurope. The task must
have been an enormous one, and was, of course, only
possible with the assistance of scholars well versed in old
manuscripts in those languages, aided bv the substantial
assistance of the French Government.

Some of the Greco-Egyptian manuscripts have but little
bearing on chemistry, being devoted to magic, incantations,
dreams, signs, etc., but others relate to the working of
metals, and the preparation of gold and silver, of alloys, the
soldering and colouring of metals, and similar mdustrial
matters.

Berthelot thinks that the idea of the transmutation of
metals arose from the attempts of goldsmiths and others to

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 23

make fraudulent substitutes for gold and silver, and not, as
is commonly thought, from any scientific views concerning
the constitution of matter.

The Greek writers knew something of many ores, minerals,
and saline substances, but nothing of mineral acids and their
salts, nor had they any systematic scientific knowledge—
they merely knew more or less imperfectly certain isolated
facts and processes.

Berthelot traces the filtration of alchemy and allied
matters from the Greeks, through the Syrians to the Arabs.
The Arabian treatises, which found their way to Spain,
were translated into Latin; from these Latin translations the
natives of Europe acquired their knowledge of philosophy,
mathematics, alchemy, and medicine.

Some of the Greek knowledge of alchemy, however, was
translated directly into Latin during the time of the Roman
Empire; many of the writings are merely workshop receipts ;
one, a formula for working bronze, gives the origin of the
name bronze, 7.e., “ De Compositio Brandisii,” Brindes or
Brundusium ; Brindisi (modern), bemg in Pliny’s day
noted for metallic mirrors.

Berthelot found that the reputed Arabic originals of many
Latin translations never had any existence, and this is
especially the case with some of the chemical works supposed.
to have been written by Jébir ibn Hayyan (Abu Musa),
an Arabian physician, usually known as Geber.

Geber lived in the ninth century, and some of his writings
are preserved in Paris and Leyden, but they differ from the
versions attributed to him in Latin, French, German, and
Enghsh. The treatises on alchemy by Raymond Lully are
also spurious.

The Arabians have been given credit for chemical know-
ledge which belongs to a period 500 years later, and the
history of chemistry has been in consequence falsified to
that extent.

24 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

It may be remarked incidentally that the term ‘“ Phil-
osopher’s Stone” does not occur until the seventh century,
although the idea is much older.

The pretended translations from Arabic treatises into
Latin often contain references, to give them an air of
authority, to mythical persons, and these, by later writers,
are taken without verification, hence faith in the works of
Morien, Kalid, Zadith, and others, must be relinquished.

Jabir, or Geber, was the chief of the Arabic alchemists,
and is said with Oriental exaggeration to have been the
author of 500 treatises (six of these are collected and trans-
lated) ; he had knowledge of the hydrostatic balance, and
of many minerals, which he ingeniously classified; but he
makes no mention of the mineral acids, of silver nitrate,
and other chemicals with which he was supposed to be
acquainted.

In his “‘ Book of Mercy” he cynically says, “I saw that
persons engaged in attempts to manufacture gold and silver
were working ignorantly, and by wrong methods. I then
perceived that they were divided into two classes—the
dupers and the duped. I had pity for both of them.”

In connection with the foregoing, it may not be amiss
to refer to the account which Dr. Carrington Bolton gives
of two American cases of modern alchemy, for it certainly
‘shows in the latter of the two cases that similar ignorance
still exists, as in Greek and in medieval times.

In 1896, Dr. Stephen H. Emmens claimed to have con-
verted silver into gold, and still claims to be able to make
the conversion, mainly by ‘the combined effect of impact
and a very low temperature,” and he states that from 1
oz. of silver he can obtain $ oz. of gold, by which he makes
a profit of about 38 dollars, or 12s. wpon each oz. of silver
employed ; but, as the process is secret, there is no means
of verifying his statements, which have been running the
round of newspapers throughout the world.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. yes

Mr. E. C. Brice is the second claimant for a process of
converting base metals into precious ones; but, on putting
his process for transmuting lead, tin, antimony, and other
metals into gold to the proof, it was found that the base
metals used contained traces of gold, as they always do,
and that under the rigid supervision of the officials at the
Washington Mint, Mr. Brice obtained less gold from them
than the small quantities which they really did contain.

THE TEACHING OF CHEMISTRY.

The London County Council appointed a special com-
mittee of its Technical Education Board to inquire into the
teaching of chemistry, and after hearing evidence from
witnesses well versed both in the German and English
methods, and fully considering the results obtained, they
arrived at the following chief conclusions :—

Ist. That the teaching in schools should be solely of an
educational character, and should have no refer-
ence to practical, 7.e., technical application in
later life.

2nd. Chemistry, pure and simple, is a most valuable
means of education, and requires to be largely
imparted by means of laboratory work, i.e.,
experimental exercises.

ord. That too frequent examinations of young students
gives rise to great evils.

Ath. The preparation of the technological chemist
should extend over several years; it should be of
University standard and include original research.

A report to the Council on Hducation by Sir Philip
Magnus, and his colleagues on Technical Hducation in
Germany, supports the above-cited report, and it-lays great
stress upon the very great advantage which Germany has
derived from its systematic application of science to
industry.

26 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

Australia at present imports most of its scientific men,
but it is time that it set about educating its own in greater
numbers, and providing greater facilities and _ better-
equipped laboratories than the existing ones.

Our courses in science should all be of at least four years
in leneth, and then there should be im all subjects special
post-graduate and honour courses. Until this is done we
can hardly hope to tram our own teachers.

In this respect we are behind Europe and America, where
the courses for all professional and scientific schools are
usually from four to five years in length.

It has been said by a writer in the North American
Review :—“ It is fair to hold that the country that has the
best chemists will, in the long run, be the most prosperous
and the most powerful. It will have at the lowest cost the
best food, the best manufactured materials, the fewest
waste and unutilised forms of matter, the best guns, the
strongest explosives, and the most resistant armour.

“ Tts inhabitants will make the best use of their country’s
resources ; they will be the most healthy, the most free
from disease; they will oppose the least resistance to
favourable evolution ; they will be the most thrifty and the
least dependent upon other nations. ‘The education of the
people in chemistry and the physical sciences is the most
paying investment a country can make. Competition
to-day between nations is essentially a competition in the
sciences and application of chemistry.”

Students require to be taught not only the principles of
science, but also how to observe, how to use their hands,
and to reason and think accurately, and to gather their
information from various sources, for there are but few, if
any, text-books so well written as to be of equal value im
all parts. And especially should they have time and oppor-
tunity for some original or research work in order that they
may enlarge the borders of knowledge and contribute
something, however small, to the common stock, for, as

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 27

pointed out by Sir W. Roberts, M.D., science has one
advantage over literature and art, viz., that whatever
advance is made by a master mind can be used as a stepping-
stone for the next advance by those who come after him,
even if they be somewhat inferior; in art much depends
upon individual taste and skill, which cannot be placed on
record in black and white. By the study of the old master-
pieces an artist cannot set to work and make an advance
upon them; but in science a well-trained scientific man, if
he has the time and opportunity, can usually improve, even
if only to a sheht degree, upon the work of his predecessors.

Mere training and teaching for a degree is not sufficient ;
post-graduate work is essential if we wish to turn out
scientific men who will be able to “ advance Australia” by
developing its resources and improving the conditions of
life. It is not sufficient to merely instruct in the facts and
principles of scientific knowledge—it is most important
also to impart scientific habits of thought and methods,
especially with the object of making new investigations or
researches, so that the student may in turn be able to
acquire something more than he himself was taught, or
had learnt from books.

Our students cannot, as a rule, spare the time and money,
but have to put what knowledge they acquire to a money-
making use as soon as possible. The University greatly
needs funds for studentships, to be held by graduates, so
as to help a few of the most promising to spend an addi-
tional year or two in doing some real solid work, after they
have been duly trained in the lecture-room and laboratory,
for the first degree.

The arguments as to the necessity for students to do
some original work, wherever possible, apply still more
strongly to the teaching staff.

Professor Michael Foster, Secretary of the Royal Society,
in his address to the British Association at Toronto, says :—
‘“ Never so clearly has it been recognised that each post

28 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

for teaching is no less a post for learning, that among
academic duties the making of knowledge is as urgent as
the distributing of it, and that among professorial qualifi-
cations the gift of garnering in new truths is at least as
needful as facility in the didactic exposition of the old
ones.”

The proportion of professors and other teachers to the
number of students is much smaller in Australian than in
European Universities, and the time and facilities for
research are less.

From the report of the United States Commission for
Education, 1896, it appears there are seventy-five higher
seats of learning in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland,
haying altogether 5,963 professors, 67,062 students, and
6,628 foreign students.

In Germany there is one professor for 12:1 students, and
an average of 78°4 professors and 926°3 students (of whom
67:2 are foreigners) to each seat of learning. Austria has
one professor for 11°7 students. In Switzerland there is one
professor for 5:9 students.

Cambridge was about to make, in 1896, and probably
has made by this time, very important changes to encourage
the higher study of science, by establishing regulations for
the admission of graduates of other Universities, who are
not already members of the University, as ‘advanced
students,’ upon a superior footing to ordinary under-
graduates.

They may pursue courses of advanced study or research,
literary or scientific, under the direction of University
teachers, without following the usual courses of study and
examinations required for degrees in the University. They
may also become members of certain colleges without
fulfilling the conditions imposed on junior students, and
their college status is assimilated to that of students who
have taken their first degree in the University.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 29

SOME NEW CHEMICAL ELEMENTS.

Argon and helium are two of the latest additions to the
list of chemical elements, and Sir J. Norman Lockyer has
recently named a third, asterium.

Argon and helium have been captured, bottled, and
examined pretty thoroughly as far as their physical propor-
tions are concerned, but up to the present no chemical
properties have yet been detected as belonging to them, so
that although elements (i.e., they are not compound) it
seems paradoxical to speak of them as chemical elements—
yet it is convenient and quite right that they should be so
regarded.

You will all recollect that argon was discovered about
three years ago by Lord Rayleigh and Professor Ramsay ;
it is a constituent of the atmosphere to the extent of about
1 per cent.; it was almost discovered by Cavendish about
100 years previously, and had the spectroscope been known
in his time he certainly would have discovered it.

For some time it was thought that argon, although
clearly not a compound body, might be a mixture, but the
later experiments of Professors Ramsay and Norman Collie
have practically proved that argon is not a mixture, but a
simple substance, 7.e., an element, with a probable atomic
weight of 40.

The name helium was given by Professors Lockyer and
Frankland some thirty years ago to a supposed element in
the sun, the existence of which was indicated by a yellow
line (D3, wave length 5,875°982) in the solar spectrum.

In his search for argon, in the gases given off by certain
minerals when strongly heated, especially some containing
uranium, yttrium, and thorium, Professor Ramsay obtained
gases, which in the spectroscope gave certain characteristic
lines, especially the remarkably brilliant yellow helium line,
previously noticed by Professors Lockyer and Frankland in
1868 in the sun’s chromosphere.

30 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

Ramsay isolated the gas characterised by the bright
yellow line; there are also four other brilliant lines, viz., one
each in the red, green, blue, and violet, but the yellow is
the most important one. Its density was found to be
about 2, v.e., twice the density of hydrogen, the lightest
gas known; in common with argon it is a monatomic gas,
hence its atomic and molecular weights are identical, viz.,
about 4.

In his presidential address to the chemical section of the
British Association at the Toronto meeting, Professor
Ramsay points out that there should be an element between
helium and argon with an atomic weight of 20, and if it
consist of monatomic molecules, hke argon and helium, it
should have a density of 10; also that like helium and argon
it should be practically imert and devoid of chemical pro-
perties. He and his assistant, Dr. Morris Travers, have
been searching high and low for this element, but up the
present have not succeeded in finding it.

In their pursuit after the supposed third gas Ramsay and
Travers examined a vast number of minerals, and the gases
given off by sprmgs. They found that most minerals
evolve gas when heated, consisting for the most part of
hydrogen, mixed with carbon dioxide, and perhaps traces of
carbon monoxide, and nitrogen; many gave helium as well,
although in very small quantities. The helium like the
nitrogen is probably in combination and not merely occluded
or imprisoned.

Argon was only found in the mineral known as malacone,
and in a specimen of meteoric iron.

The gas from the mineral springs at Cauterets in the
Pyrenees was found to be rich in helium, but the unknown
gas was sought for in vain. The helium found in the gases
from springs may have been derived from minerals such as
cleveite and monazite, through which the water has per-
colated.

Helium has not been detected in the atmosphere, and it
is not likely to be found, for like hydrogen on account of

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 31

its low density and rapid motion, it would soon reach
the borders of our atmosphere, and leave the earth for
the sun or some heavenly body of greater mass than the
earth ; the sun has a mass 300,000 times that of the earth,
and we know that both hydrogen and helium are abundantly
present in its chromosphere—the moon is of small mass,
and is without an atmosphere even of the heavier gases.

Helium has not yet been liquefied ; its calculated boiling-
point is below —264° C., or at least 20° lower than that of
hydrogen, although it is twice the density of hydrogen;
this is probably accounted for by its molecule being
monatomic. [Helium has since been liquefied. |

Professors Ramsay and Collie found that the electric
spark traverses argon and helium much more readily than
it does oxygen or hydrogen, and that in fact it is not
necessary to render a helium tube vacuous in order to
obtain its spectrum ; the spark passes readily at the ordinary
atmospheric pressure.

It is well-known that hydrogen and carbon monoxide
pass through an iron tube heated to redness. The passage
of the latter gas through iron stoves is one of the causes of
the deleterious effects of closed iron stoves, when used in-
sufficiently-ventilated rooms. Hydrogen also passes through
warmed platinum and palladium, but neither argon nor
helium will do so, even at high temperatures ; this is another
proof of their inertness, for the hydrogen may pass through
by the formation of an easily-decomposed compound, or by
the gas being soluble in the metal.

Sir J. Norman Lockyer, in the Proceedings of the Royal
Society for September 10, 1897, suggests the name asterium
for the gas X detected in the spectra of the hottest stars
and sun.

He further states that the lines of helium, asterium, and
hydrogen are accompanied in the hottest stars by other
lines, which may represent other new gases of a similar
nature, or metals at a very high temperature.

32 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

The lines of hydrogen, helium, and asterium are found iv
the nebule with certain other bright lines’ of unknown
origin; these probably exist at a low temperature. The
unknown stellar lines are being sought for, and may be
found to occur in gases of terrestrial origin,

LIQUEFACTION OF GASES.

Since Faraday’s time no very great advance was made in
the liquefaction of gases until 1878, when Cailletet, of Paris,
and Pictet, of Geneva, almost simultaneously, but indepen-
dently, were successful in liquefying oxygen, nitrogen, and
other so-called permanent gases.

Cailletet submitted the cooled gas to very great pressure
and then suddenly released it, when the remainder of the
gas became sufficiently cooled by its rapid expansion to
hquety, and as the operation was conducted in glass tubes
the formation of the mist and liquid was readily seen.

Pictet used a different method, viz., that known as the
cascade or successive cycle process. Tor example, carbon
dioxide can be liquefied, and this on evaporation yields a
temperature of —80° C., or less, if its evaporation be increased
by the use of an air-pump. The liquid carbon dioxide can
thus be used to cool another and more volatile liquid, say
ethylene, which on evaporation yields a reduction in tem-
perature of —130°. Next the liquid ethylene is used for
cooling a gas still more difficult to liquefy, say oxygen.
The oxygen having been cooled down to —130° C. is readily
condensed to the liquid condition by a pressure of 20 or 30
atmospheres. On releasing the pressure and allowing the
oxygen to evaporate a reduction of —200° C. (when evapo-
rating quietly at ordinary pressure it is -185°) is obtained.
If the evaporation of the liquid oxygen be hastened by the
use of an air-pump a temperature of —220°, or even —225°,
may be produced.

Professor Dewar and others have since used processes in

which Pictet’s and Cailletet’s methods are more or less
combined.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 30

Nitrogen can be liquefied and solidified, its freezing-point
being —214°.

When air is solidified it appears to be a jelly-like sub-
stance, the liquid oxygen being held, as it were, in a spongy
mass of nitrogen. By the use of glass vessels with double
walls, with an insulating vacuum between them, Dewar has
succeededin restraining the evaporation of oxygen and similar
liquefied gases to such an extent that they can be retained
in open vessels for a comparatively long time, as when once
the glass vessel is cooled down the liquid oxygen merely
evaporates slowly from the surface ; hence the manipulation
is much simplified.

Hydrogen was found to be much more difficult to liquefy
than the other gases, and was first brought about in 1894,
its critical temperature being —240°. Dewar succeeded in
solidifying oxygen by means of a jet of liquid hydrogen..
On account of its rapid evaporation it cannot be collected
and handled like oxygen.*

It is only within the last few years that fluorine has been
obtained in the pure condition, simply because it destroyed
the material of the apparatus in which it was prepared ; but.
that difficulty has now been overcome—from the readiness
with which fluorine, under ordinary conditions, acts upon
glass and other substances. One of the early names given
to it was Phthor, or the Destroyer.

Fluorime has hitherto resisted all attempts to liquefy
it, but Professors Moissan and Dewar succeeded in April
last by using liquid oxygen as the refrigorant at a little
under the ordimary atmospheric pressure. It is a clear
pale yellowish fluid, which does not attack glass, although
its vapour does so with the greatest energy ; at low tem-
perature it can be stored and manipulated in glass vessels,
and at such low temperatures its chemical activity is so
much reduced that it has no action upon substances upon

* Since the above was written Professor Dewar has succeeded in liquefying
large quantities of hydrogen.

Cc

34 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

which at ordinary temperature it acts with explosive
violence. Cooled wood placed in it is untouched, but if a
drop of the liquid fall on to the floor it bursts into flame.

Tron, silicon, boron, sulphur, and phosphorus, and other
substances placed in liquid fluorine, after previous cooling
in liquid oxygen, do not burst into flame as they do in the
gaseous fluorine, but solid benzene and turpentine are
decomposed with incandescence and explosive violence.

The boiling-point of liquid fluorine is —187°; its density
is 1:14; it is soluble in all proportions in liquid air and
liquid oxygen. It does not solidify at —210°, and has
not yet been solidified. It has no absorption spectrum,
and is not magnetic. At —190° it has no action on dry
oxygen, water, or mercury, but reacts with incandescence
on hydrogen.

By passing fluorme through liquid oxygen an explosive
powder is produced; a hydrate of fluorine seems to be
produced from the minute crystals of ice present in the
liquid oxygen.

There are many other interesting points about fluorine
still to be worked out.

At the Chemical Society, on November 4, Professor
Dewar, after the paper upon liquid fluorine, gave another
paper upon the liquefaction of air and the detection of
impurities init; even after careful filtration liquid air yields
a deposit of solid carbon dioxide, and some organic matter ;
liquid air is always turbid unless perfectly pure.

He liquefied 80 litres of gas from a spring at Bath; the
liquid was turbid, and a yellowish brown carbonaceous
petroleum-like body was obtained from it; no trace of
oxygen was found in the gas, but argon was present.
Helium was found to be present in the original gas in the
proportion of 1 in 1,000, and was left as a non-liquefiable
residue.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 35

It is found that at the very low temperature of liquid
air that chemical action almost disappears, and that electric
resistance also decreases, and at such rate that the curves
indicate the total disappearance of the latter at what is
termed the absolute zero, 7.e.,—273° C. The tensile strength
of many metals is much increased.

Certain substances also lose their colour, e.g., flowers of
sulphur becomes white at —50° C, and photographic plates
lose their sensitiveness.

ARTIFICIAL DIAMONDS AND OTHER GEMS.

The preparation of artificial gems has long had an attrac-
tion for many chemists, and the preparation of artificial
diamonds (imitation diamonds are easily made out of glass
or paste) is now an accomplished fact, but at present they
have only been made of a very small size, and are value-
less as gems. It may, however, be possible to make larger
ones in course of time, but at present they have all been of
microscopic size.

But as diamond dust is very expensive, the smaller gems
will have a considerable market value if they can be made
cheaply enough.

It would take too long to describe all the different methods
employed to prepare artificial diamonds since the first
attempts were made by Wilson in 1850. Hannay, in 1880,
claimed to have made diamonds by submitting hydro-
carbons at a very great heat, in strong steel cylinders, to
the action of metals like lithium and magnesium.

About the same time Mactear also states that he had
obtained them ; clear, transparent, and with the form and
refractive power of the natural diamond, but small in size.

Prof. Moissan, in 18935, prepared artificial diamonds by
dissolving pure charcoal made from sugar in molten iron
in the electric furnace, and then suddenly cooling the
carburised iron in lead; the iron and impurities were
removed by acids, and minute crystals of diamond left.

86 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

Other observers have confirmed Prof. Moissan’s results.

Carbon can be converted into a gas, and if the carbon
could be maintained in the gaseous form and submitted to
a high pressure for a sufficient length of time, we might
obtain it in a liquid condition, and from that it might be
possible to set free the solid carbon in a transparent con-

dition, but, although the necessary temperature and pres--

sure can be obtained separately it may not be easy to
combine the two conditions.

Still another method for producing artificial diamonds has
been described by Dr. Q. Majorana before the Roman
Academy. He alleges that when carbon heated by the
electric arc is submitted to a pressure of 5,000 atmospheres
generated by an explosive compound in a confined space,
that graphite and amorphous carbon are formed, together
with minute crystals of diamond.

Minute diamonds are found in the residues left by cast
steel of various kinds when treated with nitric, hydrofluoric,
and sulphuric acids. Unhammered steel yielded iron
carbides, and several modifications of carbon, one of which
occurs crystallised in octohedra.

Rolled steel also yielded fragments of true diamonds. The
very minute fragments of diamonds were only visible under
magnifying powers of from 2,000 to 3,000 diameters, and
they were apparently attacked by strong oxidising agents.
Out of fifty varieties of steel examined by Leon Franck all
except a few yielded diamonds.

M. Rossel also obtained diamonds from steel, the largest
being ‘5 mm. in diameter.

Artificial rubies have now been made for some years,
but of small size and not fit for jewellery ; now, however,
they are in the market up to three dwts. in weight, and
possessing the colour, hardness, specific gravity, composition
and beauty of true rubies, but are distinguished from true
rubies by not containing fluid cavities.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 37

The former methods employed for making these gems
were difficult, slow, and expensive, but they can now oe
prepared by a simpler process, viz., by merely fus ng
alumina, mixed with a chromium salt to impart the red
colour, in the electric furnace.

ALUMINIUM.

Aluminium, which was, I think, first publicly shown
at the Paris Exhibition of 1855, and described as the
“silver from clay,” is now being manufactured on a large
scale at the Falls of Foyers, and the output is equal to and
perhaps greater than that of any other works—rendered
possible by the use of the Falls for generating electricity at
a cheap rate.

Until within quite recent years aluminium remained
almost a chemical curiosity. It is true that years ago it
was used for making small ornamental articles, and for
making an alloy with copper (aluminium bronze), but now
that the chemistry of its preparation is reduced to the
simple process of deoxidation in the electric furnace, it
can be obtained in a pure form at a very cheap rate.

The chief advantages of aluminium are its lightness or
low specific gravity, the readiness with which it forms most
valuable alloys, and its highly electro-positive character.

Aluminium is particularly adapted for culinary utensils
on account of its lightness, freedom from corrosion, and
great thermal conductivity. It is also used im place of the
expensive and heavy Solenhofen stone in “ Lithography.”
The stone requires a heavy and powerful machine; the
thin plates of aluminium do not, and, further, they can be
curved round cylinders and the “lithograph” can be
inserted with the type, and be printed from at the same
rate as the letter-press.

Aluminium is not only being used for army equipments,
but also for the construction of passenger railway carriages.
In France a train is being built in which all the parts usu-
ally made of brass, copper, or iron (except the axles, wheels,
springs, brake-beams, and couplings) are of aluminium,

38 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

the decrease in weight being about 1} tons, or on an
ordinary train of twenty carriages a reduction of 30 tons.
Tt has still to be seen whether aluminium will bear the
wear and tear of railway work. It has not, perhaps, made
such headway in boat-building as was anticipated, on
account of its corrosion by sea water.

DIFFUSION OF METALS.

You know that if a cylinder, of a light gas like hydrogen,
be placed with its open mouth against the mouth of a
cylinder containing a heavy gas, like carbon dioxide, even
if the heavy gas be in the lower cylinder, that after a short
time it will be found that the heavy gas has ascended
against the force of gravity into the upper cylinder, and
that the light hydrogen has found its way down, and is
equally intermingled with the heavy carbon dioxide—this is
known as the diffusion of gases; the speed of diffusion of
gases 1s a regular one, and it takes place at a rate inversely
proportional to the square root of the density of the gases;
so also with miscible liquids, if you place a lght liquid
upon a heavy one, e.g., water upon a solution of copper
sulphate, you will see after a time that the heavy blue
liquid gradually rises against gravity, and spreads through
the colourless water. So, too, Prof. Roberts-Austen has
found, that if a cylinder of lead with a gold base be allowed
to stand at a temperature of boiling water, that in the
course of time a little of the heavy gold has diffused
upwards through the lead. The gold diffuses still more
rapidly at temperatures from 100° up to 150°, and, as might
be expected, still more rapidly in melted lead at 550°; the
diffusion can then be detected in a few days. Platinum
does not diffuse so rapidly as gold; its molecules are there-
fore probably more complex.

I do not know that any practical application has yet
been made of this fact, and some may accordingly ask what
is the use of the experiment? But many of the most valu-
able inventions of modern times have arisen from what
many regard as useless knowledge.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 39

Whether it is likely to be useful or not, it is a most won-
derful thing to find one metal travelling through another
solid metal, just as gases diffuse through gases, and liquids
through liquids—the motion is slower, it is true, but it
exists, and it is none the less marvellous. The wonder is
that the apparently rigid, solid, metallic molecules undergo a
motion of mechanical translation at all, 7.e., as distinguished
from a vibratory motion.

We are all well acquainted with the reverse of the above,
for when two metals are melted together and allowed
to cool slowly they often tend to separate. This is much
more easily accounted for, simce both metals have been in a
fluid and mobile condition and are free to rearrange them-
selves, i.e., the attraction between the molecules of a given
metal is greater than that between the molecules of certain
dissimilar metals.

ACETYLENE.

Two or three years ago it was only prepared in quite
small quantities for experimental purposes, and was only
known to chemists. It occurs in small quantity in coal gas,
and is one of the most powerful illuminants present in it.

Now, however, thanks to cheap electricity, a compound
of calcium and carbon, known as calcium carbide, is largely
manufactured. On the addition of water to this material
decomposition takes place, and acetylene is evolved.

It is true that acetylene is lable to explode, but only
when it is stored under pressure. So long as the pressure
is not much above that of the atmosphere, it appears to be
safe enough; it must not be subjected to either rapid
expansion or rapid condensation. In the liquid form it is
not so safe; but, if properly handled, it should be a safe
and an extremely useful illuminant for country and other
places where coal gas or electricity 1s not obtainable.

Acetylene is also of great interest from a purely scientific
point of view, as being the first and simplest synthesised
compounds of carbon and hydrogen. From it, as a starting-
point, other substances like alcohol, as well as complex

40 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

organic compounds, can be built up. Whether its cheapness
will be taken advantage of for such purposes is at present

doubtful.

A solution of acetylene in acetone appears to be less liable
to explode than liquid acetylene ; and, further, for the same
unit of pressure on the cylinder, a larger volume of acetylene
can be stored, 7.e., a solution in acetone contains more acety-
lene per unit of pressure than one of liquid acetylene.

There is no advantage in using liquid acetylene for
transport, for ] kilogramme (2°2 lb.) of calcium carbide only
occupies the volume of ‘45 litre, and yields °3 cubic metre
of acetylene, which, when liquefied, occupies twice the
volume of the carbide. To light a railway carriage with
200-candle power for ten hours requires about 15 cubic
metres of coal gas, about 8 of oil gas, but only 1°5 cubic
metres of acetylene.

ARTIFICIAL INDIGO.

Alizarin, the bright red dye from madder, has now been
made artificially from anthracene (formerly a waste pro-
duct from coal tar) for some years, and it has practically
superseded the use of madder for dyeing Turkey red, at a
saving to Hnglish calico printers and dyers of, perhaps,
£2,000,000 or £3,000,000 per annum.

Various methods for making indigo artificially have also
been worked out, and although they are successful enough
as laboratory experiments, they have not hitherto been
successful from a commercial poimt of view, because the
synthesised product costs more than the natural indigo.
Lately, however, the Badische Anilin und Soda Fabrik have
offered in the market an indigo which is said to be a coal-
tar derivative. It is admitted to bea better dye, but the
price is higher than that for the best natural indigo.

No details are given as to the method of manufacture ;
but, if it really be an artificial product, we may in time
expect it to be sold at a lower rate than natural indigo,
when indigo-planting may become a thing of the past, just

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 41

as madder-growing has become unprofitable, and, therefore,
practically extinct. In the absence of any description of
the reactions by which it is made, the report, I think,
requires confirmation.

TRANSPARENCY OF THE CHEMICAL ELEMENTS TO THE RONTGEN
: RAYS.

Réntgen found that the rays from a Crooke’s tube passed
freely through black card-board, which is impervious not
only to ordinary luminous and thermal rays, but also to the
other invisible rays beyond the violet end of the spectrum,
which are so active in producing fluorescence and photo-
graphic effects.

These invisible (X) rays passed freely through the
opaque card-board and produced luminous effects upon
screens coated with fluorescent substances, and, further,
photographs could be taken by their aid on ordinary plates ;
afterwards it was found that they would go through many
other substances, including sheets of metallic aluminium,
and that they were not deflected by a magnet. They also
dis-electrify an electrified body, and can neither be reflected
nor refracted.

Although a perfect deluge of papers and scientific litera-
ture upon the X and other rays has appeared within the
last two years, and an enormous number of people are
experimenting upon these rays—there are even special
Réntgen Ray Societies—yet I do not intend to go into the
general subject, as it belongs to the domain of physics
rather than chemistry—but as one of the most striking
properties of the rays is that they pass through plates of a
large number of metals, and still retaim their chemical
action upon salts of silver, and are capable of producing
photographic effects, they are of interest from a chemical
point of view.

The great interest and popularity which this subject so
suddenly acquired was undoubtedly largely due to the fact
that the flesh is more transparent to them than the bones
of the skeleton; hence it is easy to see the outlines of the

42 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

bones as shadows by means of suitable fluorescent screens,
and to take photographs of them or of solid foreign sub-
stances lodged in the body, such as bullets, or coins, which
have been accidentally swallowed. Such photographs are
now familiar to most of us; further, they have proved of
use in surgery, since by their means the positions of foreign
metallic bodies have been located, and the nature of certain
injuries to the bones have been rendered more or less visible.

These X rays are by no means the only invisible rays
known; there are several other kinds, viz., the ultra violet,
the infra red, the Hertzian waves, the kathode, the Lenard,
the Weidemann, the Becquerel, and other rays. All of
these, except perhaps the infra red and Hertzian, produce
photographic effects, and the kathode, the Lenard, Weide-
mann, Becquerel, and X rays pass through sheets of metallic
aluminium.

The X rays do not bring about the combination of hydro-
gen and chlorine, but the ultra violet and Becquerel rays do.

It appears to be quite clear that the origin of the X rays
is at the surface of the object upon which the kathode
rays impinge, 7.e., the metallic reflector or the walls of the

bulb.

One of the most recent and valuable accounts of the
physical properties of the Réntgen rays is that given by
Sir G. G. Stokes, Bart., F.R.S., before the Manchester
Literary and Philosophical Society (the Wilde lecture, 2nd
July, 1897), wherein he suggests that they may consist of
innumerable solitary transverse waves. Others, however,
contend that they are waves of but very short length.

Another use of the X rays to chemists has been shown
by Messrs. Heycock and Neville. Gold forms a solid alloy
with sodium ; if slices, about 12 mm., or about 4} inch, thick
of these opaque substances be examined by the X rays, the
individual crystals of gold alloy are clearly seen, as ,the
metallic sodium allows the X rays to pass through; hence
photographs can be obtained of the crystals of the gold and
sodium ailoy in black upon a light ground.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 43

They found by means of the X rays that the otherwise per-
fectly opaque alloy had an internal structure similar to that
of a saline solution from which crystals had separated, the
details being quite visible to the naked eye. They also
hope to obtain similar results with aluminium alloys, since
it is a metal also transparent to the X rays.

It is said that glass bulbs tinged with didymium chloride
give ared instead of a green phosphorescence, and yield rays
of twice the intensity of those from Crooke’s tubes made of
ordinary glass; hence the chemical composition of the glass
is a factor in their formation or transmission.

There appears to be avery close relationship between the
atomic weights of the elements and their permeability to
the X rays.

Lithium, with an atomic weight of 7,is more transparent
to them than sodium with an atomic weight of 23, and
sodium is in turn more permeable to them than potassium
with an atomic weight of 39. It has been found that a
plate of lithium must be ten times as thick to produce the
same amount of absorption as a plate of sodium. Hence
the chemist may use this property in determining doubtful
atomic weights.

C. Doelter finds that phenacite (beryllium silicate) is
always perfectly transparent; and that olivine, zoisite, and
sphene are, like calcite, almost opaque, and vesuvianite is
only slightly less so.

Diopside, hiddenite, and topaz are semi-transparent. The
diamond, sapphire, and ruby, both natural and artificial,
are almost transparent, but paste imitations are opaque, and
they are accordingly easily recognised by means of these
rays. In fact,all gems, except garnets and zircons, contain
elements of low atomic weight, and they are, therefore,
more or less transparent to the X rays, which thus afford
assistance in recognising them.

Doelter also finds that minerals with a greater density
than 5 seem to be opaque to the rays.

44, PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

Sulphur and arsenic compounds are the most opaque;
boron and aluminium compounds are, as a rule, amongst the
most transparent. Boric anhydride is even more transparent
than the diamond.

He has framed a scale of transparency for minerals :—
1, Diamond ; 2, Corundum; 3, Talc; 4, Quartz; 5, Rock-
salt; 6, Calcite; 7, Cerussite; 8, Realgar, which is quite
opaque.

Crystals only show slight differences when viewed in
various directions.

COLOUR PHOTOGRAPHY.

A great deal of interest is taken in this subject, and
repeated statements have been made durimg the last year
or two that success had at last been obtained; but up to
the present no one has succeeeed in taking and fixing
photographs in their natural colours, and on a single plate,
or by a single print. Mr. Ives takes three transparencies
from the same subject—one through an orange, one through
a green, and one through a blue screen ;—each is then
illuminated by the corresponding light, and the three
images superimposed, when a picture is presented im its
natural colours.

Dr. Joly, of Dublin, reproduces the colour by a single
negative by means of closely ruled red, blue, and green
coloured lines on revolving screens; but the colours are
only seen when the viewing screen isused. Another method
is to use coloured transparent inks (printed from three
negatives, taken by red, blue, and green lights respectively),
instead of coloured films.

Becquerel found, fifty years ago, that if a plate be
chloridised instead of iodised, and then exposed to white
light, it acquired a violet tint, and that in this condition,
on exposure to the solar spectrum, all the colours were
reproduced, but unfortunately they cannot be fixed.

Lippman has found that by reflection from a film of
mercury at the back of the negative he can obtain stationary

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 45

waves on the film, and that on development the silver is
deposited between the nodes; viewed in the usual way,
they are apparently ordinary negatives, but viewed at the
requisite angle such plates exhibit the natural tints.

Hence the production of nature-coloured photographs is
still a subject for investigation, for what is generally under-
stood by the term has not yet been attained.

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY AND SOME CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF
BACTERIA.

The application of chemistry to agriculture has had a
most marked effect upon the productiveness of the soil.
Without going into details, the cultivation of the sugar-beet
may be referred to. The original beet only yielded 2 or 3
per cent. of sugar, but now, by careful selection, cultivation,
and treatment of the juice, beets grown in Germany yield
10, and even 15 to 18 per cent. of sugar. The latter is
about equal to that from the sugar-cane. It is interesting
to note that the amount of sugar yielded by the beet stands
in close relation to the amount of potassium salts present.
Beet-sugar is said to be now cheaper in Germany than flour.

Bacteria seem also to take a very important part in opera-
tions which have been considered as due solely to chemical
action.

In the curing of tobacco leaf, it appears to be a well-
recognised fact that the presence of certain bacteria is
necessary for the preparation of leaf of high quality, and
some manufacturers sprinkle the leaf with pure cultures of
the requisite bacteria. The chemical changes which take
place m the manufacture of white-lead by the Dutch process
are also said to be due in part to bacteria, but this, I think,
requires confirmation.

In the manufacture of liquid glue, of wines, beer, etc.,
and the ripening of cheese and butter, the products are due
to the presence of certain bacteria, and in many cases the
desired result, flavour, odour, etc., can be obtained and
controlled by inoculation. By fermenting beer with wine

46 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

yeasts, beverages possessing the nutritious properties of
beer wort, with characters similar to wine, can be obtained.

The modern brewer uses pure cultivations of yeast, so as
to avoid the formation of undesirable products, and to
always ensure the production of beers of uniform quality,
taste, and odour.

Another example of valuable chemical processes brought
about by low organisms is Wehmer’s discovery that the
mould Citromyces will convert sugar to the extent of 50
per cent. of its weight into citric acid.

It might be said that these questions are not chemical
ones, but after all the products are truly and undoubted
chemical ones, though vital processes have been more or
less intimately connected in their formation.

A change appears to be coming over the views held in
regard to fermentation. The production of alcohol by the
yeast plant has been generally regarded, since the Liebig-
Pasteur controversy, as due to the vital processes of the
yeast plant, but recently it has been stated (by Buchner) to
be probably of a secondary nature, and to be due to the
excretion of a ferment by the yeast organisms, which can be
separated by means of great pressure ; this extract from
the yeast, termed zymase (an enzyme), like the living yeast
organisms, is said to cause the fermentation of sugar. This,
however, requires confirmation ; it is undoubtedly well worth
further investigation.

Wroblewski clams that he has isolated the active portion
of diastase (the greater part was found to be a carbohydrate
which yielded arabinose when boiled with acids), and found
that it has the properties of a proteid body. Although it
has for some time been regarded as a proteid, this is the
first experimental proof of its being one.

It appears to be now more or less well established that
the formation of soil from rocks of various kinds is not
entirely due to the action of frost, water, carbon dioxide,
and the accumulation of dead organic matter; but that the

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 47

disintegration of the mineral matter is also in part brought
about by the action of microscopic organisms and ferments.

It would appear that certain of the nitrifying organisms
(bacteria) obtain their nitrogen from the air and from the
traces of ammonia and other nitrogenous compounds present
in it—these nitrifying organisms are of the greatest impor-
tance in agriculture, since through their agency higher
forms of plant-life are supplied with suitable nitrogenous
food. Roughly, these may be divided, first, into organisms
which form ammonia or ammonium carbonate, from albu-
menous substances, which probably pass through the
intermediate condition of amides ; second, into those which
convert ammonium carbonate into nitrous acid; and third,
those which oxidise nitrous to nitric acid with rise of
temperature, the salts of the last being the most useful con-
dition of nitrogen as a plant-food, although plants also
absorb nitrogen in other forms. |

All these changes of course usually proceed simultaneously
in cultivated soil.

Laboratory experiments show that not only do bacteria
oxidise the carbon to carbon dioxide, and the nitrogen to
nitrous acid, and this in turn to nitric acid, but that they
also (B. mycoides) oxidise sulphur into sulphuric acid.

The oxidation of free nitrogen is brought about in at
least two ways: on the rootlets of certain plants, especially
amongst leguminous ones, nodules are found containing
large numbers of bacteria, accompained by accumulations
of nitrogen, apparently much greater than could have been
removed from the soil or from manures in the ordinary way,
and experiments seem to show that these accumulations are
due to the bacteria of the nodules oxidising and assimilating
atmospheric nitrogen.

Other organisms are also known which oxidise free nitro-
gen, but which do not give rise to nodules, so that cereals and
other plants, which do not form nodules on their rootlets,
also have supplies of accumulated oxidised nitrogen to draw

48 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

upon, and this accounts for the advantage of allowing fields
to lie fallow or in grass.

Bacteria do not appear to require carbonaceous food
beyond carbonates, and preferably bi-carbonates. For their
nitrogenous food, nitrogen, ammonia, nitrites and nitrates,
seem to be sufficient.

Bacteria can bring about the requisite chemical changes
in the dark, but green plants can only build up chemical
compounds from carbon dioxide and water in the presence
of hght.

The nitrogen oxides formed by electric discharges and
other means in the atmosphere, and carried down by rain,
are also of great importance and value. <A large amount
of the nitrous and nitric acids, nitrites and nitrates, present
in the soil are carried off by drainage, since they are all
very soluble in water.

The nitric acid in living plants is not carried off by water,
but is held’in some way at present unknown. Froma dead
plant it is readily extracted by water.

There are also other ferments present in soils which
reduce or destroy nitric acid, whereby it is lost; these are
known as denitrifymg ferments. Fortunately these imimi-
cal ones are usually present in smaller numbers than the
friendly ones ; the conditions favourable to these are also
well worthy of the closest investigation.

Nitrifying organisms are widely distributed; they are
found even on the bare mountain tops and in the deep-
seated chalk obtained from the deepest artesian wells.

The culture of the useful nitrifying organisms has become
a matter of business, and, under the name of nitragin, they
are put up in bottles for the market. Different cultivations
or varieties can be purchased to suit the particular soil or
kind of crop which it is desired to inoculate, but they do not
always appear to be successful.

Closely connected with the foregoing is the oceurrence of
nitrogen and other gases in rocks, @.e., as distinguished from

PRESIDEN?’S ADDRESS. 49

soils. Lately a great deal of attention has been given to
this subject; but it is by no means a new one, for Professor
Delesse published in the Ann. des Mines in 1860 a long
investigation upon the occurrence of nitrogen and organic
matters in rocks, entitled ‘De lazéte et des matiéres
organiques dans l’écorce terrestre.”

In this he gives the amount of nitrogen obtained from
104 varieties of crystalline and sedimentary rocks from
different parts of Europe, including various calcareous
rocks, grits, sandstones, marl, and alluvial soils.

They all yielded nitrogen ; most of them gave ammoniacal,
but others acid, products on distillation. Some gave acid
products at first, followed by alkaline ones, and a tarry
odour. The nitrogen was, doubtless in many cases, present
as organic compounds,

Some years ago, 1873-4, I examined a large number of
minerals and rocks for ‘organic matter,” and found that
rock-crystal, amethyst, topaz, and many other minerals
eave off gases and ammoniacal empyreumatic distillates, but
the investigation had to be laid aside, and the results have
not yet been published.

Hugo Erdmann (Ber., 1896, 29) has also found that a.
number of minerals which occur in ancient igneous rocks
evolve ammonia when warmed with pure soda solution, and
he has estimated the amounts; thus a mineral resembling
polycrase gave °028 per cent. of nitrogen evolved as,
ammonia. Another mineral resembling euxenite contains.
‘005 per cent. of nitrogen. He states that many other
minerals from the north of Europe also contain nitrogen,
such as ytterspar, euxenite, fergusonite, gadolinite, and
eschynite. Professors Ramsay and Tilden, working inde-
pendently, however, did not find nitrogen in most of the
minerals examined by them.

It was known that hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide,
carbon dioxide (in both the liquid and gaseous states),
nitrogen, and other gases occurred in rocks, but they found

D

50 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

hydrogen also present in a great many different varieties of
rocks, and in comparatively large proportions to the volume
of other gases; no free oxygen was found, hence it may be
that the hydrogen was originally present as water at a high
temperature, and that the oxygen has been removed by
metallic or other oxidisable substances. It may be that
the nascent hydrogen combines in part with nitrogen to
form ammonia, which would account for the presence of
ammonia in minerals and igneous rocks.

The presence of methane and other hydrocarbons, and of
petroleum in rocks, is thought to show that in the lower part
of the earth’s crust there exist metallic masses and com-
pounds of metals with carbon; for such when in contact
with water at a high temperature would give rise to metallic
oxides, and to gaseous and liquid hydrocarbons, as sug-
gested by Mendeléeff. This is also supported by Moissan’s
recent researches on the metallic carbides, and we have the
now familiar method of making an illuminating gas (acetylene)
by adding water to one of them, viz., calcium carbide.

There are many other matters of more or less general
interest in chemistry which might have been touched upon,
did time permit, such as the recent advances in our know-
ledge of Solar and Stellar chemistry ; the occurrence and
distribution of the rare elements, and especially of the rare
metals, because so many of them are now entering into daily
use—as in the case of other commodities the demand reacts
upon the supply—e.g., substances like thoria, a few years
ago only obtainable by the grain weight, are now produced
by the ton ; also upon cellulose and the manufacture from it
of the so-called artificial silk, but better termed imitation
silk, as it is of a totally different composition to true silk.

In conclusion, I sincerely trust that our non-resident
members will have no cause to regret their visit to Sydney,
in this the least pleasant part of the year, and that the
Session will be a profitable one to all concerned, and
especially that the work of the meeting will distinctly
mark an advancement of science in Australasia.

APPENDIX TO PRESIDEN1’S ADDRESS. iss

APPENDIX.

The following delegates attended the International
Scientific Catalogue Conference :—

Austria.—Prof. Ernst Mach (Mitglied der Kaiserlichen Akademie der
Wissenschaften, Vienna) ; Prof. Edmund Weiss (Mitglied der Kaiser-
lichen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Vienna).

Belgium.—M. H. La Fontaine (Membre de l'Institut International de
Bibliographie, Brussels) ; M. Paul Otlet (Membre de l'Institut Inter-
national de Bibliographie) ; M. de Wulf (Membre de l'Institut Inter-
national Bibliographie).

Denmark.—Prof. Christiansen (Universitet, Copenhagen).

France.—Prof. G. Darboux (Membre de l'Institut de France); Dr. J.
Deniker (Bibliothécaire, Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris).

Germany.—Prof. Walther Dyck (Mitglied der K, Bay. Akad. der Wiss. zu
Miinchen) ; Prof. Dziatzko (Direktor der Universitiits Bibliothek,
Gottingen); Prof. Van’t Hoff (Mitglied der K. P. Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin) ; Prof. Mobius (Mitglied der K. P. Akademie
der Wissenschaften zu Berlin) ; Prof. Schwalbe (Direktor, Berlin).

Greece.—M. Avierinos M. Averoff (Greek Consul at Edinburgh).

Hungary.—Dr. Theodore Duka (Membre Académie Hongroise des Sciences,
Buda-Pesth); Prof. August Heller (Librarian, Ungarische Akademie,
Buda-Pesth).

Italy.—General Annibale Ferrero (Italian Ambassador in London).

Japan.—Assistant Professor Hantaro Nagaoka (University, Tokio) ; Assist-
ant Professor Gakutaro Osawa (Medical College, Tokio).

Mexico.--Seiior Don Francisco del Paso y Troncoso.

Netherlands. —Prof. D. J. Korteweg (Universiteit, Amsterdam).

Norway.—De Jorgen Brunchorst (Secretary, Bergen Museum).

Sweden.—Dr. E. W. Dahlgren (Librarian, Kongl. Svenska Vetenskaps
Akademie, Stockholm),

Switzerland.—M. C. D. Bourcart (Swiss Minister in London) ; Prof. Dr. F.
A. Forel (Président du Comité Central de la Société Helévtique des
Sciences Naturelles).

United Kingdom.—

Representing the Government: Right Hon. Sir John E. Gorst, Q.C.,
M.P. (Vice-President of the Committee of Council on Education).

Representing the Royal Society of London: Prof. Michael Foster (Sec.
R.S.) ; Prof. H. E. Armstrong, F.R.S.; Mr. J. Norman Lockyer,
C.B., F.R.S. ; Dr. Ludwig Mond, F.R.S.; Prof. A. W. Riicker,
F.R.S.

United States.—Dr. John 8. Billings (U.S. Army) ; Prof. Simon Newcomb,
For. Mem. R.S. (U.S. Nautical Almanac Office).

Canada.—The Hon, Sir Donald A. Smith, G.C.M.G. (High Commissioner
for Canada),

Cape Colony.—Roland Trimen, Esq., F.R.S.; Dr, David Gill, F.R.S,

52 APPENDIX TO PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS,

India.—Lieut.-General Richard Strachey, R.E., F.R.S.

Natal.—Walter Peace, Esq., C.M.G. (the Agent-General for Natal).

New South Wales.—Prof, Liversidge, F.R.S.

New Zealand.—The Hon. W. P. Reeves (Agent-General for New Zealand).

Queensland.—Chas, S. Dicken, Esq., C.M.G. (Acting Agent-General for
Queensland).

The following are some of the resolutions agreed to :—

That each delegate shall have a vote in deciding all questions brought
before the Conference.

That it is desirable to compile and publish by means of some international
organisation a complete catalogue of scientific literature, arranged according
both to subject-matter and to authors’ names.

That in preparing such a catalogue, regard shall, in the first instance, be
had to the requirements of scientific investigators, to the end that these
may, by means of the catalogue, find out most easily what has been published
concerning any particular subject of enquiry.

That the administration of such a catalogue be entrusted to a representa-
tive body, hereinafter called the International Council, the members of
which shall be chosen as hereinafter provided.

That the final editing and the publication of the catalogue be entrusted
to an organisation, hereinafter called the Central International Bureau,
under the direction of the International Council.

16. That any country which shall declare its willingness to undertake the
task shall be entrusted with the duty of collecting, provisionally classifying,
and transmitting to the Central Bureau, in accordance with rules laid down
by the International Council, all the entries belonging to the scientific
literature of that country.

That in indexing according to subject-matter, regard shall be had, not
only to the title (of a paper or a book), but also to the nature of the contents.

That the catalogue shall comprise all published original contributions to
the branches of science hereinafter mentioned, whether appearing in
periodicals or in the publications of societies, or as independent pamphlets,
memoirs, or books.

That in each country the system of collecting and preparing material for
the catalogue shall be subject to the approval of the International Council.

That in judging whether a publication is to be considered as a contribution
to science suitable for entry in the catalogue, regard shall be had to its con-
tents, irrespective of the channel through which it is published.

That the Central Bureau shall issue the catalogue in the form of “ slips ”
or ‘‘cards,” the details of the cards to be hereinafter determined, and that
the issue take place as promptly as possible. Cards corresponding to any
one or more branches of science, or to sections of such sciences, shall be
supplied separately at the discretion of the Central Bureau.

That the Central Bureau shall also issue the catalogue in book form from
time to time, the entries being classified according to the rules to be herein-
after determined.

APPENDIX TO PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 53

That the issue in the book form shall be in parts corresponding to the
several branches of science, the several parts being supplied separately, at
the discretion and under the direction of the Central Bureau.

That a contribution to science for the purposes of the catalogue be con-
sidered to mean a contribution to the mathematical, physical, or natural
sciences, such as, for example, mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry,
mineralogy, geology, botany, mathematical and physical geography, zoology,
anatomy, physiology, general and experimental pathology, experimental
psychology and anthropology, to the exclusion of what are sometimes called
the applied sciences—the limits of the several sciences to be determined
hereafter.

31. That the Royal Society be requested to form a committee to study all
questions relating to the catalogue referred to it by the Conference, or
remaining undecided at the close of the present sittings of the Conference,
and to report thereon to the Governments concerned,

Since it is probable that, if organisations be established in accordance with
Resolution 16, the Guarantee Fund required for the Central Bureau can be
provided by voluntary subscriptions in various countries, this Conference
does not think it necessary at present to appeal to any of the Governments
represented at the Conference for financial aid to the Central Bureau.

The Conference being unable to accept any of the systems of classification
recently proposed, remits the study of classifications to the committee of
organisation.

The Belgian delegates expressly desired that it be placed on record that
they abstained from voting on this resolution.

That English be the language of the two catalogues, authors’ names and
titles being given only in the original languages, except when these belong
to a category to be determined by the International Council.

That it be left to the Committee (of the Royal Society) to suggest such
details as will render the catalogues of the greatest possible use to those
unfamiliar with English.

That it is desirable that the Royal Society should be informed, at a date
not later than January Ist, 1898, what steps (if any) are being taken, or are
likely to be taken, in the countries whose Governments are represented at
the Conference, towards establishing organisations for the purpose of securing
the end in view of Resolution 16.

That the delegates, in reporting to their respective Governments the
proceedings of the Conference, should call immediate attention to Resolutions
16 and 31.

That January Ist, 1900, be fixed as the date of the beginning of the
catalogue.

That the Royal Society be requested to undertake the editing, publica-
tion, and distribution of a verbatim report of the proceedings of the
Conference.

4

aie _ ; re, 7 a" a F vires. (te ae s
Pie gett +1 ;

REPORTS OF RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

- j
a + {
a oye : x S
eee ay ke ra
7 | 1
F ’
. = ms y
7 ? i} \
= sf ‘
4 4
: f
-
~ ‘ b
A ‘ J -
'
ed ji -~ 7
*
*
re:
es
¥
1 |
3
; . »
7 i; ,
i
»
_
4 y i & j
7 ite Ld
= a i - }
i
fi \ 0
7 - v 7 7]
FO a :
° . ' ‘

REPORTS OF RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

No. 1.—REPORT OF SEISMOLOGICAL COMMITTEE,

Members: Mr. A. B. Biggs (Launceston), Mr. R. J. L. Ellery
(Melbourne), Sir James Hector (Wellington), Mr. H. C,
Russell (Sydney), Sir C. Todd (Adelaide), Mr. G. Hogben,
Secretary (Timaru, N.Z.)

Ir is to be regretted that up to the present the observations of
earthquake phenomena in Australasia have been so fragmentary
and of so varying a character.

The Committee would emphasise the remarks of the President
of Section A, in reference to this matter, and also would call special
attention to a circular issued by the Seismological Committee of
the British Association, from which the following is an extract :—

“Tt has been established that the movements resulting from a
large earthquake originating in any one portion of the globe can,
with the aid of suitable instruments, be recorded at any other
portion of the same ; therefore, the Seismological Investigation
Committee of the British Association are desirous of your co-opera-
tion in an endeavour to extend and systematize the observation
of such disturbances, Similar instruments should be used at all
stations. The one recommended by this Committee is simple to
work, and furnishes results sufficiently accurate for the main
objects in view. . . . . Its cost, including photographic
material to last one year, packed for shipment, is about £50.
‘ F In case an instrument be established at your observa-
tor , we should ask that notes of disturbances having an earth-
quake character be sent to us for analysis and comparison with
the records from other stations. . . . . The first object we
have in view is to determine the velocity with which motion is
propagated round, or possibly throwgh, our earth. To attain this,
all that we require from a given station are the times at which
various phases of motion are recorded ; for which purpose, for
the present at least, we consider an instrument, recording a
single component of horizontal motion to be sufficient. Other
results which may be obtained from the proposed observations
are numerous.

58 RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

“ The foci of submarine disturbances, such, for example, as those
which from time to time have interfered with telegraph cables,
may possibly be determined, and new light thrown upon changes

taking place in ocean-beds. The records throw light upon certain
classes of disturbances now and then noted in magnetometers and
other instruments susceptible to slight movements, whilst local
changes of level, some of which may have a diurnal ee
may, “under certain conditions, become apparent.”

To carry out these aims it is highly desirable that some of the
instruments thus recommended should be set up at several places
in.Australasia. If not, the chain of observing stations round the
world will be broken, and the value of all the records be rendered
less by our neglect. It is obvious also, as is pointed out in a
circular issued by the International Seismological Committee, that
inevery country it is a necessary supplement to the proposed work
that all the local earthquakes should be observed as carefully and
accurately as possible, in order that seismic origins may be found,
and that a clear idea may be formed of the circumstances accom-
panyingany earthquake occurring therein. Muchofthis latter work
may be done without instruments, most easily at telegraph stations,
but also by any private person who has the means of checking
his times of observation with the standard time of the colony in
which he lives. This has been done systematically in New Zealand
since 1889, with the result that many of the origins are known,
the velocities of propagation have been ascertained for many of
the shocks, and in a few cases the probable depth of the centrum
has been found. The Committee are recommending an addition
to their number, so that there may be in every colony at least one
person responsible for doing this part of the work.* A copy of
the form usedn New Zealand is annexed below.

The New Zealand Government, on the recommendation of Sir
James Hector, has ordered two of the instruments approved by
the British Association Committee, and this Committee would
suggest that one of the instruments be placed under the charge of
the secretary.*

The most considerable earthquake in Australasia since the date
of our last report is that of the 10th May, 1897, which will form
the subject of a separate investigation by the secretary. A pre-
liminary examination of the facts points to a line of origin below
the sea-bed not far from the coast of South Australia, opposite
Beachport and Kingston, the movement being probably a more
or less deep fault movement. Severe earthquakes also occurred
in the Cook Strait area of New Zealand on 21st Sept., 1897, and
on 8th Dec., 1897. These are likewise still under examination.

* See list of Committees of Investigation appointed, and recommendations agreed to, by
the General Council, A.A.A.S., on 13th Jan., 1898.

wD

SEISMOLOGICAL PHENOMENA.

“UIULOD “WISTAG *09S—'sULIO} 1G 10 ‘gz ‘ZT SuturyyU0d SyOOd UI SI
ang

ON
ssaupp yw ou4

DAIOSGO OF PONsst Orv SUIIOJ Oso,

*paqgrtuo oq pmoys “4Y5I[s ANMOY ‘yooYs
*IDATOSGO YOR Jo AovANOO® [VNprAlpurl oyy uodn spusdap poder
JO AaqovIvyo a[qvifer oY} ¥vVyy Jovy oY} 0} poT[vo st uoIQUazyT

Inod puv ‘SUOIVAIASGO [ROLSO[OUISIAS JO WI9ySAS-p[IOM v JO 4Avd sv
waatasgg fo ainjoubry gnq ‘sedjasuioyy Ur A[UO you 9[qen[vA a1v SUIM{OI “"Z*N OUL—'A'N

(yooys wazfp Lo ‘Burunp ‘asofaq
pinay “ayjaya a7njs—asiou wayjO wo Hurjquuns
‘ moywaao fo worpaup ypn ‘spinby fo burypds
£ swowal quanbasqns wo snoiaaid <a) *syaeutayy "9

‘osvulvp aAtgonaqsay (/’)
*SSUTP]IN JO S[[VAr OY} UT syOVlo ‘sKauUTYO Jo [TVA (a)
‘sSuTpyIng
oJ oSvvp qnoyqIm ‘orued yuarouas ‘syjaq younyo jo
suloutd ‘aoqse[d jo [vg ‘sqoofqo apqvaouw Jo MOIYyIOAG (p)
‘SSUT[[AMP ALAYY daval SuOsaad
po[jreys 9tIOg = ‘sqNaAYs pues sooty Jo 9dUvqANYSIp O[CISTA
$ syoopo Jo Surddo4s ‘saotapuvy Jo uoTyeI[LOSO ‘sT[aq Jo
Susu [vlgues ! dao[sv asoyy JO Sutusyvae yerauay (9)
*s[[9q OULOS JO cULSUrIA ‘speq pus
ainjluiny Jo oouvqangstp fauodkr9Ao Aq AT[eaAoUas 4TO"T (Q)
‘SJUT[IO0 JO Suryorso ‘sMopura ‘s100p ‘syoalqo
a[qvaour Jo aouvqinysip { uoou ut suosied Aq 4[a,q (”)
: Ba ‘sqooynT *¢

‘yooys jo uolvinp quoreddy ‘F

"A'S 94 “HN

wy “MN 0} ‘W'S 6'4'a—uoro0arp quorrddy ‘¢
SoU

uvout ‘7'NY Aq poyltoA BVM YOOTD JOIN M ‘G

(anus fypy 40 saj4pnb ysaunou 07 awy UDauL
‘ZN ‘ajqussod {7) "Moos JO SuLUUISEq Jo OUIT], ‘T

[‘suoysanb Buraopjof oy) fo 2jn “0 fun fizaswoud womsun 030074)

68ST yooys fo ang

WZaNi 4e AMVOOHLAV

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

60

-_eooeeeere ee -_rrrrra — — ——— —————————————————— ————SSSSSSSSSSSSmmmsmmmmssssssssses

“OPIM
*A |pouedo aefe 1oop { uayeys ATataaas ‘029 ‘stoop { alaAog
‘TA 03 A |* °° Surlquina £ payygea “om ‘saoop { pousyeae saodaajg
‘TIL Meee ee ee get AS OOO aS OLIN A015)
‘snorAoid Surpquina
‘AI [10 S1OUI0IY ON ‘“pd]9}z¥VI SMOPUTM pu saoop ‘{ davyg
TW | Suryquina Aq papeoaad yooys yor = ‘davyg
YT fortes sees suoneaqra ayesapoyy
*yooys aqnop dawyg 9 “Ssuyquina pnoy
"AT [A104 £ pagepioso syoalqo papuadsns { payveao sSulpring
"ATOVIIE |. (PPM) ‘seqnutu g Ayny 10} suotyerqra
S/\j fl SUD COGOO COONS GpcCaDD COO iniC ii icicneec nena daeys aoyyey
YN Oh hae joe eneoezoo “*** TOIgOUL UT UOSIed v Aq YJaq “AU SIS
TD [ccc "=" SUOIyRAQIA oYLIOPOT
“AL . ° eee ete t etter een acces Surquna yysys { davyg
“HAL CCC cure 21¢.¢ poqiodaa yooys puoogs v { aldAag
ONT seeese sess divys sloulel} JUONbesqns puv snolae1ig
TA [cc uayorq Arayoo.10 $ paddoys syooyjo { ataAag
“AL [°° ~payggea sMopuIA pur saoop $ suoleaqia davyg
Ott |jeoomense 0090 Roos ooDdoGOR DAS cece eraeceeneree qusis
TT ra arquina 4usts ‘ SUOT}VAQIA 4ysry
( “SUL[QUINA PHOT pue suop
108) Joyyer Aq papadoid ‘suoyeaqira Moy v puv yjol davyg
“AT |"pal}}ea S19qgnyg ‘“soas ¢ Jo [vAtOZUT 4v SyOOYs davys OM],
‘TIT ee ee ae suor}eaqta pur sqjol davys
‘III CC ed ed Suljquina pnory
‘Avp Sulanp poztodada syoous 10yyO ‘seqnurwt aay A0y
‘AI
‘III
‘III
‘ETeog
[e104 -Issoy) “SsyIVUIY—spoyy
AqIsuaquy

* *M'N 9} “O'S V% |°* Japueuoioj |g *
trrogoas on [oc g puesy fo vp feo souregz |g
oe "soos G . see BANG 074 “a * (qnoqe) CL.9 . . “ 8 “oe
PERO ORIG ee) "MM 03 OD TORI OS NAO . . “ 8 “ce
+++ g998 eT so ea am = purppny |g ceqy
“** "S008 f Hooboncoge| a 8" gd 66-11
ess-soas | f § pue-N |Q.... a sce |f uMmoysudenyy | #z ff

**soas 0g ynoqy eeeeee "A'N 09 “MS cece cece ¥ 18 occe muesue yy 61 “

“MON

tresses sg098 OT [07 clas) pue 07° [oo 4V¥ 83% . 40 ryeundg 61 “

teeeeeeeegoag gg [oo aN OAS [otto eng | “ er

**s008 09 noqYy SOGOD EOE ON) on “A'S cee “V $P.G leuele “ FL “cc

se ee eee pene ae NOUS AARS . wee eee dO'IL . . “e jh “ec

** "S909 cL on SL see “AN on “MS te ewww ee Vv SLF . . IMUB.SOUT AA c “cc

trees Geos gg [oo NOM MS [oo wV ORT [tcc emmoyrey |Z

Spuodas [B1dAIG isis eisteleie "o> sV TPL |: mogsurpoA |g

““spuooas Map [rs ope ft av TRE [occ wos | Zz

sootes goa [oot sgogin foes av ORT [occcomouuarg |Z
stajaisiete "S098 OL ee ceee “N09 “A'S DOUIIOGs PPL aera) Muvsuv A, Zz Judy
see ewe *soas Z nae “MN 09 aS eee. DOD VAVAR “s*** oyvundg 62 ac“
eeeeee “S008 G ociceis erreNT OO! AACS scsiiOelereA TG eeee “ce 62 “
ee eed ‘00S T eae ‘Aa'N 02 °M'S OPDDOGS SE PAL DIE see. Muvsuv A, 0% “
Dey) g800819 ee [BOO "gd OF.Q [°° WORBUTTOM | ST “ARP
eee "S008 & . “* ‘A'N 03 °A'S see Bomar caG i) see sy & “e
670) 001016 S008 ¢ eee . 1S 09 "MN see . xd 92-6 wee INU¥B.OUB A 1G “e
testes agoag pT { Byer aes \ tees ygey [eco oyeundg | er
sew “soos 1 ween ‘AN 09 “A'S . oe ed £8.01 wae muvsuv A IL “ce
Seelela es 5 008 T Ce eT "N 03'S teenies ad 06-6 “e+ oxvundg 8 ‘ute

“FEST

‘(amry, UvOTL
‘uolvaNg ieee ZN) 048 Bane :
quaieddy uoTpoug qusieddy yo Suruuisaq dV ayeqy

JO OUILy,

‘Wd=d $‘W'V=V : poyliea oully, ,

“LEST “SNY—FEST ‘puL[vez AON UT syooyg oyenbyyaeg

61

SEISMOLOGICAL PHENOMENA,

‘II

“IA
‘IIL
‘I

Tl)
+°A J

‘IIL
‘I

“AI
‘TIL
“AL

TA
“Al
‘TIL
+ Til

“AI

“A 07 AI
“A

“AT 04 TIT
‘III
‘AI

‘TIT 09 AI

‘Teg
[010,J-Issoy)
Aqisuaquy

« divys 1sayyey ,,
‘payseus Atayoo19

| paqsiag sautmryo {§ paddoys yoofo aoyo : daeyg
|\sisiso heh ielvire a<ehalis/'e!wtsraraiie eee ewes ee ee . “* QUSIIS
i? . . . oo Sheraton oC

“syooys Yyoq UL Surpquina puv aowa.ay,
/SepoAv Sursuvy Jo uoyxryioso : pouoyeme saodacig

“** divys
eee eee qUSIS
"ROUBINGL

to ‘nioyryq ‘odney, ye 40} oN ‘davys $ SULUDA

“T94UL SYOOYS IOULUL UAAIS + YOOYS Ysa YIM Surpquinyy
CROOK Cri “* Surquima pnory
sess Hogar ssuly,

2EBOGIOG ORCA} Cl) | Gaia IAMEN\ e
BeeeCecccceeeeenntuesatee sees JAvVUIS LaYyey

eee eee ee CBU Gy

‘sotuvyy, puv vnodvsury A
ye Fly osye Sueyeys ATalovas sMOpULM pue sa00qy
sfeYe?uiialelatalafalvelelwtern/aitstalta * uayeys Ajaqaaas Surprmg

CO ROOM RC aC a Ce it nr a ar

‘Ul'e 9 pue F UBIAMJoq SYooys davys [eraAag
eee oe DIT ho sha (s)
ue 4 puv F usangoq syooys davys [vaoAag
“‘surcuvdmoooe Surjquma
JUSS ¢ 4y STs 09 divyg ‘ue 0g.g9 09 syooys s04yo puy

(oe

—

“*""S008 § 096

“*soas GT Jnoqy
spuodas [RlaAog

Heese eesg9g g
008 T

SOO <=) 1 4
DOOUL LOG HEY (ay

DOG EIBOG= Bye] =p

“yoo

if *soas ¢ ynoqy
Senses so ggas g

*so9S OT

Tress eegpag Gy

‘syIvuloy—syooyq

‘doeing
quoiweddy

*§ 07 (N

ree or og AL
tees 09 “a
* “M'S'03 ‘A'N
ree NT 09 “g
“AACN

“HS pur“ 0}
“MS 04 SEN

Pe AN og af
rer OM Og
“"M'S 03 ‘A'N

“A'S 01 "AN
Suen Ee

‘uoTqoalIg yuoreddy

4aV GC.P

4#V 1¢.F
rere 'y OG 5
ho WORT

tree ver

TV TZ

eee v ge.g
teesses gage

xV 66-01
#V 06-6
* «V 1G.F

Tete y OF.OT

ree y OGG

aa sey Orig
“"V OF-6
"Vv 09-21
Pree as a
Testa

tresses Tog

3¢ OLGL

VP
VEG?
Wig
“** 'V 08-g
rete vy gag

(ouly, uve

‘Z’ N)— 3o0ug

jo Suruurseg
Jo outty,

“**ugnow ser

“** yapraa[ngO

“+ BMT DOH
“* TMUBSUR AA

teen “

“++ qyeundo

“ MUBOUe A
“*Ugnowdsary

lier

f “* ‘@n.1040%
os Tnue.sUe MA
ynowATd MIN

“*** TOUSUTTIO AA
tess) UOSTON
“*** yqnoutdary
sr TMUBSUR AA

\ “* nungorny

oe “ce

“* Tapuvuo109
“*eNAT YL,

pue wsuvigiy A

‘ss s-eyOaW aL
“'* nunjgowny

; “Tapuvuo10y

‘20v[d

$e oune
ge
%
1G
IZ “e
SI “e
6 “
isi
f ae
“e
cet
8 “
8 Avy
“POST
‘aged

SS ee etn eee ee i ee OD | Se we

‘Panuij}WoI—PuR[vAZ MONT UL syooyg oyenbyyaegq

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

62

eee eee we BLOOD GODS ab rehq (Ss seen *soas G eee ete yd 69. seen “cc ¥ “sny
ed . **910Jaq SuTquiny tee ee "soos P eee %V OL. 4 eee ee ulpoundg 13 “oe
re wae ei TCLS ee . oa 3d 96-8 . BOG OO FO pate | ZL Ane
a? of Tire daeyg eee "8008 g . * 4d 8F-8 . . i g “ee
sheuG isfolenshole(eiekeieinke eseiohs # si spearnss sti ekeiegs tio eh CRA UT TTS eee eeee see eee dG.Z “Tqnoul any € “ec
ee ee trreressssssss Surws syoolqo papuedsng “S008 OT JNOqYV re "N 09'S SORE aA pes UOS|ON: 2 oe
eee a ey OSES OIIIOIHN CITT ep (S| roeesriciele BOSC stew eww nee "9 00 'N SOIT OESE i “'* UOUSUTI[OM g “ee
*STOUTIAY
snorAeid {.duljquind oataAos { uayeys sdurpjing |**°"****"soasZ of" '* “HS OF MN [°° 4d 0G-69.1 |*°****UTeyUusTg | g ounge
ed se ee eee soqols pur SOSSULS payeu CO DTECOTIAC Ta yay=| OL se eee “M'S on) ‘A'N eee «93-01 see IMUV.GUT MA 13 “e
oe core eee Seeceoca SECT OICECIC qu SUS “ "soas Z 01 T eset eens SelelehsieLGra (yl |e “** UOSTON 1% “cc
Pee eee weer ee ee ee areas SAO AU AAD OSMOSIS ot hh see *SO9S/0G Inoue on SSLODUNT TODO 9 rane | OddedoD sting 1G “cr
Pecsssissicesr eet? NoglO|OAC PUG PosgVULATaA | 20°45 ssoes OG supsyesane ck IKKE O Dt eV GOL |? uoysuryjam | 16
FAME OOS OOOO OTAGO “CG lrGzfofsl olbas) COL fs AI0 A ** "S098 Z 01 T oes TS OF “AN 2082 Glee Ne vainoyrey | 3 Avy
tee ween sisGhsienets isle Gsibis\ ueheinls Wieieleube'sel A TATT RY stews 098 T COR ROMO Nou ac | eee «V 9Z-0L “ee** ayeundg 0% "qa,
RIGS Bele RGesnla sR ticle ieie Joie (piel scien erecsanieye nardiel eieaero.° CORTBUTS TIDCOM ICHAT L see eee “M‘S 03 ‘AN wee ad OTL “Ugnoulsady) vale “uve
‘C681
‘(UOISSIPY UY. £9]89 AA ‘uvudeyy fsa) “payyqvassuryy "S098 OF
"AT |i uayeys asnoy + + SOPNUITH OAY UPYFTA SHOOYS daeys OMT, [pus "soas May V [°°"**" “A'N 07 “A'S Gg qnoqy |**°°:: it €%@ “4dag
Tiel lteesauaeexae 9[qnop pur Suppenty eee eee teens g qanoqy |r-t'': fT ‘ong | 2 Aqng
+°TIT ce se: divyg sees PRIME [Ppa eoooRnD “7 09 AA *¥ OF-9 “* urpeundg p “cc
‘TA “A0UId.14 WYy.STs Aq papaoaad § paddoys syoo0]o Jetaaadg |** ‘soas OZ 09 CT See AR OU SN ete Tare VAQ PEO) |(ae [LA GOneO ATL Tan | lr ‘s
HA [ASN Wooay ajquina Aq Surpeoedd : daeyg |** ‘soas og 09 gz |''(028) “M'S 02 "M'N [°° ** wV ORO [te to gnig | p ‘0a
“SYOOYS AIT[VUIS TTTUUIS OMY
Oj Aq peMoy[oy § Yooys ydnaqe uappus : peddoys yoojo aug |** ‘soas 0g 09 GT JEM pue rg” [ttt aves. [tt puvpyony | ez“
“AI szoalqo a[qvAott Jo aoUBqANASIp + ‘ staf uappns dievyg {°° ‘soos Z 09 T aisiate A: N 03 ‘G'S * ¥V GG-IL |°°***'eanoyrey | €g “AON
TMT (os aeeve . “+ qustg theses sg998 g #294900 “AVN * a 98.9 “ WUTayUaTE z “cc
TL SURO O COC ONC CO GO CRO nDe Stan domo dronGOTAMDKAO Al iE(S yd iecara ‘008 ¢ PORGREOTTOO TIT ar RICy vp SOO Ti aisdfe) soielcisiaeatrOST ON ra 490
‘TI SB UE Se SE AI OS ie te aE SOOO GRA ODOURS OANGSI ON Ie (NE teens) Ev OelaT 7" O09. SUTTTO AA 9 “
it qioys & [UN SuIsvasour A][enpeas sxoulasy }davyg |''''** ‘soos F PEO CBOSS SCS Ua GE OO ee ELLA A (etiaaane 6 ‘4adag
TIL) daeyg |'soes ¢ 10g youy TCOMPANG IA) rs ros aan |p uapdeatng | og “sny
“PO8L
(apeog iewaah ake uvoy
: ‘ = “UOTPVAN CT ‘ ‘Z’N)— 300U8 : .
De ae SMAIVUIY— SOIT yuoreddy uorpolg jueavddy jo Suruutsoq dvd ayeqd

‘panuruog—purlvoe7y MONT UL SyooyG oyvnbyyaeg

jo aut,

63

SEISMOLOGICAL PHENOMENA.

"TTT |Suoryeaqia 4U.sI[S MOJ B PIMOL[OF uoysojdxo pnor 19yyey oly sishelarere FO Te ONE OWL OMG SEARO RIUS Saco erie YUE - Te
TIL vis fevevevalc erere CONN uC ET ir St Meee TENT OMAR o. V ZP.0 Ar ‘ va “ec
‘IIL ed “ee “ oe eee eee “ULUL T we . “AN 02 “AAS se “VOLO wee “ hz [a3
TIL | °° Smomeaqrs ayjues Aq pamoyloy fatquina sory |* curt T Aptwon |" ON OT AA'S PEO DOO OO VAT SS 1 ONE POTEP LEAN tag,
=i) piel eae . COSI UOC GROTH OGIO GOUL Y bs ts, ppideitiae ss Shi] | eisxe.eva ste CO (0h Ay tena UIP [lA IZ “ec
+H ee eecee eee oe oe aes Sets tee "S008 |08-|" "°° “M'S 03 “UN phere ieaie nih Our; . ie ne ti IZ is
YUL [tenes eee reece aug: [orettsssggas g Horie ee vores wopt [eet uogSupom | Tz
“AL |'°°'* papgyva SMOpUIM pUv s10Op { aTquINA pnoy Aayqeyy |** ‘ult T Awan [°° **** “AN 07 (AL'S DOOM Ae NODOC Mabou pi etau ce
*194J8 SABP 9914} AO OAY AO} DATPORUT
[ie “oxy ‘omiesuoy, :orsuojoy 4e sdyspury asavy
Saormnd agi ouy pure 109VM _PIoo Suryyrua ‘adedg
pUv TAYBIIVA, U9IMJOq PUNOIS oY} UL SyoRID OFIV'T
‘qUOTUDAOU pAvMdn ue peY Yooys Joryo ayy, “(aaq
-utaydag U9F ,,{pasvod jou ,,,) 1aqyv SsAvp oJ ponuryUuoD
, Savoy AIBA,, 10 ,, AAVIY,, JFULSIO “UG FG.g puv “Ue
f1P-ZL U99Mjoq pajzou SyooYs udAas-AJQUAAM) ! 4U.SIU
[[@ osve0 Jou pIp syxooys oyz {4JoT systinog $ pourreye
sjeuutue { oruvd [eloues ! padingsaao sa[qey ! payseus
+ °JILA |Atayooro § [fay sXauuryo ayy [fe Apiwou fataAes AIDA | *** "S998 G " "M'S 09 ‘TON 4d OF-D s enipt tas Oy tee Bele
SANT We s\alujafnvnle Cian eon mame ens gear Mate Memes Hen eT Tye : “S995 & "A'S 09 ON CO! eee AEr (a BOOUDO (rehaittip LT ¢
‘LA |‘poddo4gs syooyo § Suna [joq-aay §10wi813 snoraaid fdavyg |" soas OF |G ON “s'* a 96.9 [''°° Inuvduem | JT
‘N
+°aAT [occ t davys § paaour yyeq ut raqyea { dure Sursutug |*********soas og |04 "§ wey Ol M W200 neyo) POUR CO ‘ainaqayginre |) pyr 9 L
‘AI Ce es EI ADE OPN o FG 18 (= Pah SS RXOS CROAT eee "M'S 09 ‘TN see 4d 6Z.9 SOT (lata t LT a3
“AI ee * “rns ** palgyed SMMOpULM “SS9] IO "S008 OE ed "Sg 09 ‘'N oa 4d 9%-9 is NYO’ MA 11 ee
TH Speen Sa Geer ewe nem neta noe eee Rees OF ATER ESE NG "1 7G.G aqaoquay | ZT
“LATO OMY TOYO £ aqquins qoury
"AI 04 ‘IIT |-Stp ® Aq paturduroooe puv 4ysty ysay fsyooys earyy, Ceretore pee PO VCO LTE | “"* ¢GG.q |°°****u0sfoqgAT | F
‘LI Sele h regres > ee STUB ULOODe PUR papaoard ¢ OSION |" ‘SoOesS MAJ WV] “°° * § puv'n * 4d £66.G DDCOM TA ohh Ilia
*[[ay sXauutryo
OMY £ IVOI PNOT 09 SUIsvaIOUT “4Avd ANI] YOOYS a10Joq
Surpquina pnoy {Tea “AN v UO Joyjour “eM ygnos
v uo poddogs 3yoo[o £ "AA 07 “GY WOA, SUNAS JAssoap CaN 04
‘TA |uo sdno {gavuis {surquina pnor Aq poruvduoooy wictereiolerere “MS 10) “AY pus ‘oT sees" 78a,g |°* YounyoIsMyO | 7 “any
“G6RT
“(ayvog : Coun uray
5 “uorqern ; "N)— ooUS t -
[PLO YT-ISSOY) *SyAVULDY—Soo A qu sti d ae uooaug yuaiwddy ue aia ae dv ayed
Ayisuaquy jo OUI,

‘panuyuo7—purlva7z MONT UL syooyg oyenbyyavg

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

G4

SAT SPODOGO I OGSHOMODSEUNOODOUAM Tae: AVRO) shMoyooaine Uo liea(s| SPs eSL COST ()TI seers 4A OF “TENT sscaalcicerea (NEG on 66 G “ce
—‘III sss cscsveleiegaraye sever oieleie/eTeleisheroteeuezehets)evcisreye clare ierereum enters ULSTER sec c esas theses oan Og “aN la FG UdoMeq ‘yqnouls[g MAN p “
“LOUD.
a[qeiapisuod { saynurUL FT ynoge Surysvy asrou ‘yooys
1ajyjye puv ailojoq Suljquinat panuyuod pur pnoy
“IA 0} °A |} UMOpP UMOTY SafoIqze OMZ 10 UO { pargyea ATaYOOID |o--* sods gy fo MON [tt gt eg ft’ fs Ja eG
*paqaodaa
‘TIL |syooys qusys qoyo ‘ Jowady snotaaad Ug Susus SOORICOM YF 9 | ae a ee DOOD aAuyAEAE [[oooSen “ g “
‘IIL SOUS SOC ORICHOGOGOHOOUOGG a Cores cehaliapaca) yan colle uhoiu cnt pal acs DO ODOOES Gani pp secret we eeee SOD Bh as Sed) tee ree “ec ra “
*‘poyvato SSuTpINg
“AI 04 ‘TIL £ towl0.14 puv Sulpquin.t 4y sys Aq popoooid ‘ daeyg sees *s008 G se wenn nee “M OM Tqp |PDOoCB.CH xV¥ 6. tees “ € “
“SuNAS sqoolqo Sursuvy
: 1omad} pu surquint pno, Aq papoooad : davys AtoA [tt *7** soas gt ft My OF fot? gv 88.31 |7°°°* ayvundg | ¢ .
“taAdosqo Aq 4[A} Jou ynq ‘saoygo Aq pagoda. ‘10q
+'IIL |-tuaqdog 498g 9ouIs (% GT 04 OT) SyOoYs [eAoAdg “davyg |** ‘soos peroaog foot OF AL | OV GB.ZT Qnoqy |'yynould,g MON | € se
+'T{] |(snoradad) Surpquuna oqyeaapout$ poyvaso Surppinqg! davyg |****** ‘soase@ t+ COO INO Fah POPP 22 eve BEALE |] 2 2080 G ss
+ TIT POD DOTCOORORTOOVODO GOON GANG Aye} GO SLiva(ohMadaee GNI Co] 4 CS) “+ ‘goas plo g tee “55 9 of @ [°° 203.6 gnOgy |°° “ V4 “ce
“TLL Pee eee ee ee eee meee ene Yyooys yysys $ Suyquina yysyg sisheensis. © SOO Bur, arr sieielel alow: qnoqy sees “ee “
“IOULAIY PUY SuTTquMa snoradaid
“AI jo[qvaapisuoo £ papqqer Atayooo pue payvato surpjing |********"soasg [os MN OF mS [oC vog.b [otto tt ayeundg | T “990
STITT huauaa estes 2 yaa SOOTLUACTA daeys puv squint ope1aposy ee eeceee BOGOR GrINAOM ONS) OO GeCepmenngtorense ooo muvsue Ay 6Z “
“sulyquina
“AT [OU * att a[qQvtopisuod soy Sunms sdwe : davyg |'*'*+* suas ot |'°*°** (MSOF HN [ooo gd OST |'ygnourdtg MON | 8 “
“UJOS WO BUO OST { S[Iejap OU ‘AaquIaydag
446z UO SyooYsS ANOJ Os[V ‘(snotaoad) Surpquina pnoy
paw Jouiel4 suoys {paaowt saimgord ‘sunas oop
“AL |‘poxvaso pur payor Surpring § yooys a[qnop davys BSN POS OS OON RIS}. |[PCOICO CANA NR ON Tqiqs} PO CBOO lake zap [9000 ss SZ
‘TI ee ee ee ee ee cece (snotaatd) 3 Ssuryquina pur 1oUIATy FUSS eee e tees 098 T a0 alejajas) vale “M 04 “a sence aV 02-6 eee “ec 8G ae
“(T) ugze “(T) u3¢% “(T)
Jaquiaydag Y4pz ‘syooys T2YIO “WoUuAvd jo sv “q10do.t
‘TIT |¥ 10938 Spuooas XIS 10 day oulaty pure sane Alu (eig(s} (JPOP M PO OCT HRY FA, |PPCDOGGIEG OVW Gi Gal |IPOODGO etree) |loooo oO eSiNtalgy || Ga |
AT Pace ca a aCe ei) SUOTIVAQIA davys pae arquina pnol AWGN ecce cece seen “TUN 04 “MS PECHUIONCICHCCG =; 1G.8 sess “e 7 “ce
‘TTT | suomeaqra may @ pure ‘4jof davys ‘atquina pnor 19qyey siatstere Shere ag ot NOP TIG See ead OS: Ou las ss @ ‘4dag
‘THE |. «suosaed Auvut Aq gyey S ,,dareys ,, 10 ,. 9USIIS ,, pa ot Scape helelals WStuprugnoqy |**** muvsur | Te “sny
“C68T.
‘(ayeog Pees (atu, LAN
Teuout-iss04p) ‘SyIVULOY-—SIOIYT Ry Hike qe ‘uoloaag quoreddy 4 ae ‘20Uld “oe,
: jo owt,

‘panw17U0I—pUv[vVaZ MON UL syooyY oyunbyqaegy

SEISMOLOGICAL PHENOMENA.

‘SUOTYLAQIA OYVIOPOPT “998 T UVTY SSOT JO S[VAIOQUT

+ "TIT 98 ‘(punors19pun sMo[q oy1]) SuUOIsO[dxO pno, aaty |'*soes og ynoqy |°"*"° * “G'N 09 “A'S ui e Gy
lec ccaes ae SUOTPVAQIA OYvIOPOLU UdYY f a[quIMa pnory [77s SOORICT iv" 72" ’-"d'N 09 (M'S sg T ‘4dag
Sie pe Oe Aas SUO!qBAQLA daeys May pur ‘uolso[dxe pnory “AN 09 (M'S ‘ Resta:

eh fH al baa si BO ea “"*"* 9srou ou ! suolgRAqIA daryg “'N 02 ‘AA'S Tnuvsuvay | 6G “ony

ONG Fil ooo Peg Re bene eee wee ee eee Surpring jo Suaryro Ra) qusis see eee “MOF “Tl eee oyrundd FS AVN

+ Tif ee me ee og a suomeiqia davys : oiquina prot DAs She SS TINTON AAI Bet a To a

— Tl oC SsuOTVAqLA MO] puv UOISO[dx9 pnory peletsiehe Sr NUOdUsALS muvsuva | 6L “qoaq

*\f, 1ojJv pure) o10Joq 1009.14
+°AT |pur Suyquuna posuojoad £ uayeys yonut “or ‘Ataxo0rg |**°"****"s0e8 OF |°°°"** “MN 09 “A'S |°* I 8P.2 Qnogy |*°**:* oxeundg | 02 “
SANT, || see cee "=" orquand ou $ poyggea om * BIOO) i * 2 "Soas Ge . ‘AN 02 ‘AL'S 7 Ty LIV cee IMUVSUL A, 0Z “cc
“IOV SONUIUT GT SLOWWIAY 99AY4 IO OMY | YOOYS 109]
puv a10joq qowUady pue surjquna pasuojord | pue
“AT a[qerepisuoo + ! syoafqo afqvaout JO souRqIngsIp ! * davys eensienels is Sienna pes "MN 09 “G'S [°°°*** 4d 65.8 “***sonvundg | 9 ‘S
“CLI tee weweee POOPIE REE CL Oo ALOR OOF So 0 or 2 AO utah (s o- ** S008 Z BRO OOE US Sos wath pag seeee xd 40-6 “uuoyuetg | 9f “ure
“968T
*(a07JV puv 910Joq) 1OWINY pur Saryq
“AT |-Wind ponutzuod Suoy { poyazva Adoyooio pue smopurAy |" ***s99se MAN M 09 O'S | xd 68-6 DIDO eb HOAAeKOS || (aye fe
“AL Oye eee aes ane woes oe TOT CLOAO NT UT UO 8.0; “suru @ A[AvaN . “slr NT OF “AL'S seererexel set Oak eae IMUBOUT AL 8 monya
+'III ee ee ee ey Se ec ued ges Be Beg ot ee ag eee eee ORT ay eee NSCOR IT eee * "M'S 03 “O'N OOOO Sif (aha eee “sree 6 oe
oTquINna Ou £ payygra sqy.SioM-Yses
“AT [paw ‘smopura ‘s100p : AT[enpvis popua Bey jig afs¢ [PA RBOP DOM tags) POOOCD Ae Ki Garo O/W\Is{ 22M OCTO. Aatsire “"* InuvdueA | G6 “AON
_ ‘Sayqrunas

+'TIL |puv rows, snoradid 4ysts f payvorio Sutpring fdaeyg jt tt tsoos PF [°° Dee AO Nsl i usec) CTE soles OVUM) GZ es

TIL BUSNSRE cher ee Sao ee gee une See Nera ee oe 2 CUI TTS ee se ewes "M'S 03 ‘ON Let ea) IS 4d SLT “ygaours|g MONT (14 “ce
["UO}SUTTJOA\ UT JUOSG IOAIOSGO ! NUSULAA 4¥ paztodoa SYOOYS 9914} 10qG0}00 YYST put pug useayog)
‘TLL POPLs eae Rath F221 $1422 LAL SEEAS LER SARARL Sabo LS eee ewes “008 T ee ey "M 03 “OL se neee 4d GG-P. see ee ii LT “ee

+ TIL Pod edns See eves tees s |< Doeywalo sous oUlpl len g pists slot e/<re gst Cyey Ze re ey “M 09 “Of eee 4d OF-G “e*"* oyvundg 11 «et

tue F Ye pagoda

+°TIL |300ys 19430 oo fostou pnoT Sa ar Bee ATR Ga Te Geeta p eeBOCKOL fag ciae AMIS) THON Fosceye xY POUL MUOMOULMT MONT |G umes

“10M ue ou
“AT |Snotiotd Aavoy fuoyvys sjyoafqo papuodsns { davyg |°- PROOSS, STS esc SAN OdcctTy [amelie ven Tp poeetainns ue Gl es
‘LIL er ee | Sul[quind 4ysys snoraoad MWe Or} 06 seis )eicsexe(e ss GR 7 ee M 0} “of eeeee *V L1E-6 * oyvundg ZL “490
“C6ST
‘(ojwag ook uvol
ae A = me colouen pata | ‘ - ‘Z’ N)-3P0"US : .
We a SYIVUIY—spooy aA quaaeddy uolqoorlg quoruddy jo SuruuiSoq a0Uld ord

jo oul,

‘PanUyUoI—puUv[vaT MONT UL SyooyY oyxenbyyceq

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

66

i

‘afquundr snoraoid-qysys £ yoofqo Lavay Aq

“AL |yona4s ySnoug sv poyvoio Surpjing { uoppns pue davug |" 00ST 7" Hite Wed ZC GulL tase OT GUNG OG)
‘TIL siefemrinteteisieeieasinis\eis\e rile scitih aie lo OR TOUOUMA USL S BODOTDOOE HEH sane TDC DON erent) SSOSHOOM TO EINE II (NE “6
‘uoTout ut suOsaed -
Aq yay ‘on Spayvato Surping ueyy ‘pavay spquina
AI |qounsip {Ave Sutsp Ajjenpeas ‘Aproys pue davyg |**°******s0as Og |**"*"* “AAS 09 “ON *** 1a $06.8 |°°°°** ouAOGSTy | TL “ony,
SNOW He eee J9-9 >> Furquuint pnoy !pexeerio surping-* davyg |9-+**"--ssoes eg) feces AN OFM | ve 8P-CE | exeundg | gg f
=—oift Coss es occ oode DAOC Rp oGanbod sah asiou ou £ 4UysYs A1d A, BROOSDONG REIT SUBSCODOOT OHV (oy Gap |OUPosoIG 00 4a fe DOOHOOD GEHL || {3 “6
*IOUI9AY PUL SuTTquina snotadid a[qviapisuoo
“AT |£sqoofqo a[qvaour Jo Sul[yqyvt puv SULSUIMS { oJelapoyy °° **'s0aS G09 Go fo CM OFM a 8ST ayevundg | p Ane
288000150 0UGUD SOON DOGOH DER CB OAD oD GURU Me GAi tS Selec SOORIOT nee RNG ON GANGS |e seals ve QT e() tees mursuv A 6 oaune
SIN TOL Tide [POPC OP GORE OU DAOGGNS yaya (: davys uoyy ‘ Surquna Aavay BOCOOS OSHA ATS (jyE |[PCOADOODOD SOR eToW|S| OOHIOS arya) ynowATq MON | 0G ART
"Th (Paes ose see Sutduvdwoooev ajquina pnoy & £4y5I[s SENOS RONG FOOD OAV Calon Te fap IPO POOROo Lair at) COBOODGD FUyaK HV € [udy
+ TI see SO OOURGO DOOD COUGoO OG ONDOUO GOOD Hy alariae olor GOKKITS| EODO00 COG EYS) Ent SOODDE GONE (onl SARA TS| TOO ODOO Sa Kr? sees muvsurv AA 1g ‘Av
‘astou OU { SIOT[OPULYD JO UOTIBAGIA § AaYOOID
i a Jo Surypyqyvt { qusutaaowu Suyvynpun ‘Apres aoe ple Saks Hs OB prsheiersieh SAK INT ee SOD ODOT at Ya [PSPC nahalojoorcentgy || rd -
. G0 00100 OUD DOD DOO UD OCHA ACOODO OO OH OUSCOOO OOOO iif: eeceee “soos Z coves eoare . FBNBOOUD Aaya tr eeeees TOSTS 13 ‘
AT Se ee ee I uayeys 1ayooro { daevyg Xcel ti o8)()G PODOGDIOAD, Geigy INP 12° Salim cnGEG SEnonO TCT 1% 73
SEAT (os YOOYS alOJoq ‘soos Z AO T Surpquuna {darys AqaA |e soaS HP OFAN | ad £6 Pe UTOMLE | |Z mies
Espn eet “++ suoreaqra Ysidaeys pu aqua pnory | (qnoqe) ‘soas Og °°" “AN OF CM'S [Td 6 | TnuesueAy | IT ® “
‘IIL cs ee ee ee dAIAIS SOT ee 220090 CANIS! Ie PAN piessliche 2D OC LG ee wee [aa 9 “ee
“AT |A[QUATOIA poyood Surpying {avapo uoroaarp Jo voueplag |°*°****SOOS GT | CANS OFTEN Pe BP eyeye | 9) qo
*(0US) ,, SOJNULUT E IO Z JO S[VAIOJUT 4V ;
— [IT |‘stowio.9 ySys pur sapquna pnoy aayyea AuoMy AT[N,, |Gova ‘soas Moy V |" “A'N OF "M'S | 08-6096 |°'°* InuvsueA | Fo “ULL
“L681
‘TI ey Sulpquunz yystys Aq paMo[[oy seers seer SOR eee eee ee "M 09 “7 seen ee ad O18 "777+" o9yvundg 1 “cc
+-TIT larquima ou § gfof sayjouy uoyy ‘suoreaqra Moy pure gfor |*" "°°" +" "S008 0B |" CUN OP CMS [a Sh fo Tnuesuey | 3 ‘Ad
+ TIL ee ee (atojaq) Surpquina pno| {davys seee ‘soos vale eee “MS oy “AN . eee 4¥V CLL ee uOsTANT 61 “AON
+ TIT |Surpquina puv 10ut044 snoradcad yySys poyvodo sarpying |**** Fes ||POOCCOOS SO CAV oMy dap [OOS OOO | rye "> 9yvundg | 9g. “S
"AI Oe ers 61) UR | “on ‘s100p udyy Salquina MO'T BODO O00 DUH Ib OIE eee eee “ACN 04 “M'S see e wees Vv GZ.G see TNUB.SUT A vale “ce
—'Ill DOOYOO ORT ROIOUNO OGL. CODOCOUO SOON OO Wp (fet) UAOhY EaLH (Sl ee ed "M 09 “OL ee dG.1 of "e's" TLOSTON p "490
SGT ee SUOIYTAQIA qUsty udqy £ arquina MOT Ooty Oe * "S908 OL eee ee ‘AN 04 “M'S Sn enele, d 9G.8 +. . “e 66 oe
TIT [oc suorgeaqia FYB Ueyy { UoTsojdxe pnoy |" "s008 OT | “UN OF MS [O88 Gz.6 | Muesuey | gs “qdag
“O68T
*(ayeog ‘uoneand) (out ay oN
ee) “‘SYIVULIY—SooH A qu sey ‘uoTqoortg yuorvddy A pee ‘90VT a4u(q

jo aug,

*“PenurjzUodI—Ppuesl[vaZ MON UL SYOOYS ayenbyyegq

67

SEISMOLOGICAL PHENOMENA.

“A 07 AI

‘AI

‘TI

“AI

“A 0} “AT

+°AI

“AI 09 “TIT

“(aywog
[9104 -1ss0y)
Ayisuoquy

*patqgea Joor uo
uoal £ yooys davys uoyy ‘Furssed apoyyaa jo sv apquuna
Japno, uayy ‘lapunyy guvystp Jo sv punos v ‘4sunT

“lopunyy
JULISIP OI] OULquNA MOT 7°30 ‘polzvA AdaxoorD

seeeeeresoesorrs Strrqund AO, Aq poruvdwuoooe Qusis

*pargqer
AABYOOIO PUT SMOPUTA £4.100 BOY] SuTTquins soy + 4qystys

treeeresee orqruns Aq poluvdwuooor ‘uoyvys oungIUIny

*poruvdtooov
apqtuna f osnoy ouo UT [AJ AO4Sv[d { popyzva ‘090 ‘s100q

“SuTquind Wayy

q10daa pnoy £ papaya {090 ‘stoop { davys ‘yooys afqnog

rereseereeseeessuoeys Sa[quy { A[JUdTOIA UOYCYS SOATAA

‘syIvWMay—spoyq

Ur)

eepee

*SOOS 0%

008 FT

‘008

"8098 ST 04 OL

tHe RDNg OT

Hees 8908 BT

rere eB DDS OT

ECO) OUTRAATG |
quoieddy

A

ures “WS 07 “MN

Pere se wnee

"M'S'S 09 “O'NON
teerer rg og en
“A'S 0} “M'N
mee" “A'S 09 CO'N

‘A'N 99 “A'S

“ON 09 “A'S

‘uoIpaug yuoaiwddy

"PORT ‘vIVajsny YyNog ur soyenbyyaeg

RODDOO OD a ieh aT

SOUDOOGrr ar i

Hrereeees 7g

sreeeeee TOROT

ad 86:01

#V §F-01

* ([vo0) SL-T

*(poylaay)
oUILL, UBT
aprivjopy ‘ouny,

sreees guUeqTOg
sree. UGIMUNE
“trees epunusy | IL ‘300
er eeae epunpng L “ec
vcr upundey | 4 ‘sny
“'eysnony Wwog |Z
*(OSnOTT
"T) tprog odup | 21 “avyy
(119, U9A0N)
S1oqVA AVC | FL “GoW
“POST
20U ‘oyvq

RESEARCH COMMITTEES,

68

“UUUMOL) “UISTAS 20

‘UOT{worysaAUT [vroods v Jo yoalqus yg st yorym ‘Av

UIOL UO doUEG.ANYSIp 9VOIS OYA Surpnyoxy »

wiliTeell essen ECO E “* SMOPULM 3OoYS £ 4ULSITS
ST Vale ee veeesss ss OSTOU SUITQUIME TQM f10td81g 4OUS
VIL | ot poygges uoat Joou S astou Surpquana *! towos.ay,
“Ti Cee er er i a a | USS
“UOIYUSUDS HULUMLIYOIS
“TIT 9} ‘IL | SOWJo MOTaq YSnoy} sv ostou pnoy $ rowdy 4I0Yg
TH | payggea smoputm { ostou pnoy § 4[ay Lowr.ay,
STM) |escarasatiss swcueieyelareln slate regeretersisroraievio's/atelens e/a cd\iiefax- yooys daryg
“TEL [°° fogye spuodes ]VadAos8 LOZ SuT[Quina YAM ‘IOWA,
TU sserssse ss TOpuNyy al] ostou pnor $ Sutppimq yooys
Oi. |OI Tee caSbOGoRS acATHGe Ss wen e we eee Suryquuna poy
a) ee a) spoys puv ssurppinq yoous
*sqSOU Ilo} JO Jno paud
“AL |-JUSLIY SolrvUvO pur pa]}ye1 SMopuUIA $ UaYLYS A1dyooID
FAT Pee "7" SMOPNIM JO SUITAQVI YONUL £ Yooys sasnoyyT
SATOMI ies -- "Ts Qioy Suryoor $ popyyer smopura ‘{19 yoo
SN ifm Poe SooenbOo ooo boo bu nOCSDGROUOTONO yooys sSurpying
“AT 03 JIT |'Aavay Ataa payqyer aopurpso duyy a9M09 £ yooys dueyg
TT | ssurppinqg yooys AQysys { sayquina pnot
Hine |Psssooow cana o« sete ween * Suryquima MOL £ 4a} cota,
TW ccc tts tt ss yooys Surprinq { estou Sayqumnyy
AP [rete eh eee eee eet eee ee Toutagg sy STIS
‘(oyvog
[910g -1ssoy) “SAIVULAY -- Joo
Aysuojuy

‘Wd = ‘d CW'Y = 'V S aully pavpurys

** "S098 CT 09 OT
bits esesgogg @
“*""s008 GL
“°° "S098 GT
“"*s008 g

‘O10 MOS

"S008 9
‘soos 08
‘soos ¢

"S008 0G

OINUTUL v J[VET
** “sos ¢ ynoqy
‘soos G ynoqy
teeeeee Uggs y
"7" "S998 8 04 ZG

micyaunena |
quouvddy

W'S 09 “AVN

‘quoirdde gon
ste ee oer OF TMA
* “WN °F "M'S
Ps on NT

“G'S OF “AVN

He oer On AL
“7 * WAALS JON

[9 UOAIS STe~MoyAVT

“Aq “N03 “MA Sq 'S

“N 04'S
“W'S 07 “MON
“A'S 09 “MON

* “WN 09 “A'S

qoajap you prnoy
** 91QBAIASGO JON
org 09 ALN
“++ -quoreddv yon

‘uotoomq quoavddy

" 19-8
" d TPF-0

"4 EFF-0
TevSO"
onda
“Vv OLP
“VILE
eae

VF yNoqy

OUT,

9 ynoq Vy
“8 gnoqy

OSpUg AVANT
“*** BpISpoO AA
Sees oe TORII NT
sores gpundvyy

ores epunpngy
CALCUL AL
IOY¥ MPT
BUvyLO
MULE ULLULY Ct
7 uTMARd 910g
rete ees proud
° ‘a
‘g ur Ajjuen
-asqns pur
‘£uO0]OO AIAO [[V

“*"* guoysprpy
“> UMoja.5.1004)

"o55 GIeqvUlM
Freese eptoan
‘asnoy,
-4Yysiy pury.1oq
“un yyaonN oda
kis WRU Ep
vs eueqpog

seers’ UCM”

‘a0Uld

awry

x LOST Ul elyergsny [ANOG Ur soyenbyyleny

SEISMOLOGICAL PHENOMENA. 69

VICTORIA AND TASMANIA.

The great South Australian earthquake, of May 10th, 1897, was
felt at several places in Victoria and Tasmania. The only other
shocks for the period recorded since the last report are slight
shocks at Harrow (4th June, 1897,) and at Omeo (5 a.m., 27th
September, 1897).

NEW SOUTH WALES.

No returns.

COMMITTEES.

RESEARCH

70

‘Arvqoto0g oy} 0} uoyeordde uo ‘yoafqns oy} ye Saryiom ouoduv Jo [esodstp

*WITHIOD *[otUSTag

ayy WW pooryd oq [ITA Avay ‘ayy Aq porddns syreyop 19430—"d'N

‘TA OFA

‘siv9at OM} IOJ JSOTAVIT 4YSNp Jo Tv} puv ‘snonurUod puv pnoy o19.K SUOIydNAD 94} Y19Z 0} UIST WoIg “4SUT HIST Joye oargou

Ce i a OIDAOS $saadoa]s 9YO MA

Ce ee ir i a i ie iris

syooys davys 00.147,

PIIBOOSIOVOGONOOUROOO GS Fray (2/6 (aH (SLLLCO) v
‘om ‘sdadaa[s ayOM {syooYs a1BAVS OAT, J
"esses SMOOYS FUSS Oat,

eee syooys davys daly

i ee er ray

te eeeeeeescecessevees savas HOOUS { a19A08 A[OZRAIOPO]
ee ey yooys oqnop $ AIIAIG

"III 94 II Ce SyOoYs IYSYS
"AI Simslases eceeheyshaia, shel saes eis, sheheceless!s}-cefe laa ‘asnoy yooys $ dieyg
‘dno1s ay} gnoysno1yy
4J2} are syooys gong ‘ow ‘surq ‘saj930q yosdn { sdno
‘ITA |JO 4no va} 4[Ids fsaajoys Yo syoo[D Moayy { a1dA08 AIO A
TTA [ooo tet ees tees ees* grag UO: Selsip poAout £ a10Aeg
JA ODA [ott t ttt ttt syueg raz@M yooys { saodoas ayo. { davyg
‘(eTwog
]9.10q-1Ss0y]) ‘SyIvMoy—s}o YT
Agtsuoquy

te here se RDag G
steers eeegogs ge

reese enegggg GT

“UTU FT OF *UIUU T

"S008 CP

“UOTIVAN(T,
quoirwddy

eee eee

veeeee NT OF A'S

6

wees “ce rai ES
G ‘
sees “ f T aT
age
weee ae 8Z “ce
eee “ cL Oe “
aeste cS |9T FT
nl §S'9'g “
eeee “c G "AON
sre" TSISVOM | GZ “490

*y99% pesveo uoldnag
oq 0} UBSEq OUTI[OA

S700 and Gaba0o60 deoGoe “ {eee

19h “ce

beer eee wee *"N 03'S BORO I DONG IE yan se eeee “ z “
ey "N 03'S eee ewes dG.G teense “ce Z "990

“M'N 03 “O'S WoL OODDODOD Areas) teen ee o 8 “
A°ANUN O24 H'S'S [OC GPO fcc" TSIseom | 9 any

“S681

‘uoTpoMG quaIeddy | “([eoo'T) owly, 90R[T aqrq

(‘Avr “AQ ‘Aoy Aq poqarodayz)
TA ‘1A ‘FTE abod wosf panuyuoo—egg] Sutmp ‘sopliqoFT MON ‘vuURy, ‘TISTSVO AA 4B sayenbyyaedg

THERMODYNAMICS OF THE YOLTAIC CELL. Ye:

No. 2.—“ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE THERMO-
DYNAMICS OF THE VOLTAIC CELL.”

Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Lyle, M.A.,
Mr. W. H. Steele, M.A., and Mr. E. F. J. Love, M.A.,
F.R.A.S8. (Secretary).

INTRODUCTORY NOTE.

Your secretary desires to report that, owing to the removal of
Mr. W. H. Steele from Melbourne, the active work of the Com-
mittee devolved on himself and Professor Lyle. The report which
follows was therefore drawn up by your secretary ; it was after-
wards discussed critically by Professor Lyle, for w vhose valuable
criticism your secretary desires to record his sincere thanks.

REPORT.

1. Preliminary.

The application of the laws of thermodynamics to the voltaic
cell was first made, in an incomplete manner, by Lord Kelvin,*
who showed that the e. m. f. of a Daniell’s cell could be deduced
with fair accuracy from the results of thermochemical experiments
and Faraday’s Laws of Electrolysis, by an application of the first
law of thermodynamics alone. In the second of the memoirs
referred to he shows, however, that this conclusion cannot be
regarded as general, pointing out that the ‘whole chemical
action” is not in general—and may possibly not be in any case—-
electrically efficient, owing to generation of heat within the cell.

The equation given by Lord Kelvin for the Daniell cell may be
written—

WS (S.6e): Ah toe ee CA)

the notation of which is too well known to require explanation.
In this form it was made the subject of investigation by many
observers, notably Favre, Raoult, and Braun ; they soon found
that it was far from general, and to Braunt belongs the credit of
being the first to suggest the application of the second law of
thermodynamics to explain the discrepancies. Almost immedi-
ately afterwards Willard Gibbs published his two epoch-making
memoirs{ on ‘The Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances,” in

* On the Mechanical Theory of Electrolysis.” Phil. Mag. Dec., 1851. ‘‘ Applications of
the Principle of Mechanical Effect to the Measurement of Electromotive Forces,” &c.
Phil. Mag. Dec., 1851.

+ Wied. Ann. V. , p- 182, 1878.

t Both are contained in Trans, Conn, Acad., iii, 1878.

72 . RESEARCH COMMITTEES.-

which a sound thermodynamical theory of the cell was first
propounded, Four years later, Helmholtz published the first of a
series of memoirs covering between them nearly the whole of the
subject. A report “On the present state of our knowledge of
the thermodynamics of the voltaic cell” is practically a summary
of the work of Helmholtz and his successors.

A word should be said as to the form this report has taken.
Tt practically amounts to a sketch of the theory of the subject,
pointing out in regard to each of its divisions the shares con-
tributed to it by the different investigators quoted. In this way
the advantage is gained of a uniform notation in the development
of the theory ; it is hoped that this will render the work more
valuable than a string of abstracts of papers arranged in order of
time would be.

2. The Potential Energy of a Reversible System.

Let the intrinsic energy of any reversible system of bodies be
denoted by U, heat supplied to the system by Q, temperature by
T, entropy by ¢, and the * parameters——independent of each
other and of the temperature—which define the state of the
system by p,, p., &e.; let the external work done in the variation
dp, of any parameter p, be denoted by P., dp, ;

then the first law of thermodynamics may be written—

AQ= sy aT +301 5 +P. bap, .. (1)

and the second law is expressed Ae
Ley OF 1 sn oU )
dja eed Dito Saisp thle (2)

fs
From (2) we obtain at once

ab tO ee

op, ‘TY Cop,
re Ss OT a, ae «an. @)
es I Car
whence
cp 6U
bp, Os P. )

Now suppose that the transformations considered all take place
a omar then (4) may be written

5 (Td De aus wee .. (Lbis)

* 7 must be finite and integral, but may be as large or small as we please. In ordinary
thermody: namics n=1, and p. =volume of unit mass.

THERMODYNAMICS OF THE VOLTAIC CELL. fa

To explain this relation ; let us suppose, for example, that p,
denotes a position co-ordinate; then dp, is a displacement, and
P, the corresponding force. We see at once that I'd — U is
numerically equal, but of opposite sign, to the potential energy
of the system. Since this always holds good so long as the
parameters are really independent—whatever their number or
nature may be—we thus arrive at the following general law :—

In any system of bodies the potential energy of isothermal
transformation is given by U — T ¢.

If therefore we wish to investigate the direction in which, or
the extent to which, any particular isothermal change will take
place, it is with this function U — T¢ that we have to deal, and
not—or at least, not directly—with the intrinsic energy or entropy
of the system.

3. The Application of the General Law to the determination of
Llectromotive Force.

Joule’s law tells us that if a quantity dq of positive electrification
traverse a circuit in which the e. m. f. is #, the energy liberated
isothermally in the circuit is # dq. By suitably arranging the
circuit, it is quite imaginably possible—and very nearly so in
practice—to obtain all this energy in the form of mechanical
work. Let us suppose the necessary arrangements for this
effected ; and let us further assume that no external work is done
except by the ec. m. f. If then the source of e. m.f. be a reversible
cell—z.e., if the transfer through it of a positive quantity d q in
the reverse direction undoes all the chemical and physical reactions
produced by the original transfer—we have at once :—

te sy .
B= —y (U—T¢) © (B)

as the thermodynamic equation of e. m. f.

This fundamental relation was first obtained by Willard
Gibbs* ; the more general relation (4 bis) was subsequently—but
independently—obtained by Helmholtz,+ who developed its
consequences in a series of memoirs. t

The quantity U—Tq has received different names from
different investigators. Gibbs calls it the “force-function for
constant temperature” ; Helmholtz, the “free energy” ; Duhem,
the ‘thermodynamic potential at constant volume.” ‘‘ Potential
energy of isothermal transformation’§ would probably be the best

*Trans. Conn. Acad. iii., p. 509, 1878.

+ See first of the memoirs cited in the ensuing note.

¢{ Sitzungsb. d. Akad. Wiss., Berlin, 1882; Monatsb. d. Akad. Wiss., Berlin, 1883;
Sitzungsb. d. Akad. Wiss., Berlin, 1887; Wissensechaftliche Abhandlungen von H. Helmholtz,
Vols. ii and iii ; translated in ‘*‘ Physical Memoirs” of the Physical Society of London, vol. i.

§ This is really equivalent to Gibbs’s name; but physicists are more likely to talk about
** potential energies” than about ‘‘ force functions.”

7A RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

name for it, were the phrase less cumbrous. The term “free
energy” has, however, become well established, and will therefore
be used in the rest of this report.

We will represent the free energy by F, so that
F =U —T@q;

we see at once that F depends only on the actual state of the
system, since U and ¢ do so depend.

4. Consequences of Equation (B), Electromotive Force and
Thermal Chemistry.

The first point to be noted here is that we have no direct
relation between E on the one hand and the differential coefficients
of U on the other—i.e., we cannot deduce E from thermochemical
data alone.* We require, in addition, to know the temperature
of the cell and the entropy changes brought about in it by the
passage of the current ; in fact, we can only calculate the e. m. f.
of arrangements for which we can determine beforehand the rate
of variation of F.

On the other hand, the converse problem—viz., the deduction,
from the electrical behaviour of the cell, of the rate of loss of
intrinsic energy during the passage of a current—is often
important, and can always be solved, since, as we proceed to show,
this rate of loss may be deduced from a knowledge of the e. m. f.
and its temperature variation.

Since F=U —T 4,

SOE cy OW nat Soh.
“sn on 8 Tow!
but, by equations (3),
6U do
ens UTM sate
Ou Ty
6k
Vine
6
or T & ey
* In other words, Lord Kelvin’s equation (A) is only true provided
do == (0)
oq i

a fact which at once explains and disposes of the long-standing difficulty as to the difference
between the so-called ‘‘ chemical” and ‘‘ voltaic ” heats.

THERMODYNAMICS OF THE VOLTAIC CELL. 75

Differentiating with respect to g we obtain
oe 6 UL T oe Gz

Sa. OD
= OF ONS.
== 7 (7) since F depends only
on the state of the system
but sa =—E
dE 6U :
-E—TSa a : seen (Oo)

In accordance with Faraday’s law — ae simply the algebraic
q
sum of the heats of formation of one electrochemical equivalent
of each of the active substances produced in the cell. Since the
heat evolved in any chemical reaction is, for a given temperature,
simply proportional to the amount of new substance produced, we
may write (5) thus

H = E—T 5 Be a ey (2),

where H denotes the net heat evolved by the formation of one
electrochemical equivalent of each of the active substances. H
is of course reckoned here in ergs. If now we denote by o the
electrochemical equivalent of hydrogen, and by J the mechanical
equivalent of heat, (C) paras

ee eS eee

Sr

where H' denotes the ee sum of the “heats of formation” —
as ordinarily tabulated—of the solutions in the cell. This calcu-
lation enables us to deduce thermochemical constants from
electrical data.

The equation (C) was established by Helmholtz* in the first
of the memoirs cited above, and is now well known as ‘“Helmholtz’s
Law.” It has been verified in a large number of cases, and now
takes rank as a well-attested physicallaw. The first experiments
on the subject are those of Czapskiy; these, however, did little
more than indicate the superiority of Helmholtz’s law over the
relation advanced by Lord Kelvin ; they cannot be looked on as
affording a rigorous verification. This has since been supplied by
Gockelt and Jahn§ ; the lastnamed observer determined by means

* Helmholtz’s method of investigation differs from that given here; but it seemed
advisable to show that the law is directly deducible from the properties of the function F,

7 Wied. Ann. xxi, p. 209.

¢ Wied. Ann. xxiv, p. 618.

§ Wied. Ann. xxviii, p. 21.

76 RISEARCH COMMITTEES.

of an ice calorimeter the heat evolved by the chemical actions
taking place in a large number of cells, whose e. m. f.’s he also
determined ; the temperature coefficients were then deduced for
the different cells, and found to be in good agreement with the

values determined directly, in some cases by Gockel, in others by
Jahn himself.

5. Electromotive Force and Peltier Effect.

It is now necessary to account for the energy dissipated in the
cell, other than that dissipated in accordance with Joule’s Law.

This dissipation of energy, denoted by —-T is obviously due to

oF
or
a reversible generation of heat; this Dene so, we see that if the
current through the cell be revers —the
energy which the rev ersing dynamo needs to expend ‘will be less
or greater than the mechanical equivalent of the heat absorbed in
the reversed chemical actions, according as the cell absorbs or
evolves heat reversibly in its direct action.

Now we know one such class of reversible heat actions in the
circuit, viz. :—thermoelectric actions at the various junctions of
dissimilar substances ; and we note at once that the mathematical
form taken by a thermoelectric e. m. f. is identical with that of the

ter For if «x denote the thermoelectric e. m.f. in a circuit

consisting of two substances whose junctions are maintained at
different temperatures, we know that II, the coefticient of the

Peltier effect at either junction, i

the temperature of the junction considered.

Now there are several such junctions in any voltaic cireuit ; if
then we denote by & (II) the sum of their Peltier effects we know
a priort that

5k <
ff eee SS (iM

To assume off hand that —T ss is equal to } (If) amounts to

asserting the absence of any source of reversible generation of
heat other than the Peltier effects; an assumption we have no
right to make—though it often was made—without experimental
ce This bee been supplied by Jahn* and Gill, who
independently measured the Peltier effects at the bounding surfaces

* Wied. Ann. xxxiv, p. 755; 1, p. 189. The second paper corrects some errors in the
first.
7 Wied. Ann. x], p. 115.

THERMODYNAMICS OF THE VOLTAIC CELL. TF

in different cells ; they find that for all the cases which they have
examined the equation

dE

5 T

holds good within the limits of experimental error.
Hence we obtain

= > (i)

Bees Ue

oq

an equation which Jahn* has applied to the determination of heats
of combustion. These investigations of Jahn and Gill cover
between them such a wide range of chemical actions as to warrant
us in regarding equation (D)—provisionally at least—as generally

applicable. +

PR yt ax, uD)

6. Llectromotive Force and Dissociation.

In a communication addressed to the Electrolysis Committee of
the British Association,{ Willard Gibbs expresses the relation
between e. m. f. and eke of formation in a different form.
Denoting by T, the “temperature of transformation” —z.e., the
temperature at which the chemical action which gives rise to the
current would go on indiscriminately in either directions—Gibbs
goes on to assume that the cell may be treated as a case of Carnot’s
cycle,|| and from this assumption he easily deduces—

E=H. =e’ (E)

where H has the same signification as in (C) and (D).

This equation is of great practical importance, inasmuch as if
any two of the quantities E, H, and T, be known the third
can be determined by applying it. Cohen‘) has verified it through-
out in several cases, and has made it the basis of an electrical
method of determining transformation temperatures, which gives
results in very close agreement with those obtained by other
methods, where such are applicable. WVan’t Hoff, Cohen, and
Bredig** in a joint memoir combine the equation of Gibbs with
that of Helmholtz and compare the results with experiment, thus
verifying both at once.

* Wied. Ann. xxxvii, p. 408.

7 This equation was indeed assumed by Lodge even before Jahn’s work had rendered the
assumpticn justifiable. See B. A. Report, 1887, p. 340.

t B. A. Rep. 1886, p. 888. See also a criticism by Prof. Lodge, B. A. Rep. 1887, p. 340 ;
and Prof. Gibbs's reply, B. A. Rep. 1888, p. 343.

§ The lowest temperature of complete dissociation of a chemical compound is a special
case of a transformation temperature.

|| Whether or no this assumption is in general justifiable seems to be a little doubtful ;
and, so far, Gibbs’ proof may be regarded as open to question. His result however appears,
as far as experiments have conducted us up to the present, to be quite correct.

J] Zeitsch. fiir Phys. Chem. xiv, pps. 53, 535; Cohen attributes the relation to Van’t
Hoff, but Gibbs’ investigation preceded Van ’t Hoff’s.

** Zeitsch. fiir phys. Chem. xvi, p. 453.

78 RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

7. Summary of Expressions for Electromotive Force.

We have now the following expressions for the relation between
the e. m. f. of a cell and various thermodynamic quantities :—

3 SE
E=— 5 (—Ts) =—37 re a)
SE su
oe es
B+3@)=—> =H an

The practical utility of the expressions (C), (D), and (E) has
been already indicated ; that of (B) is due to the fact that = is

sometimes calculable when nothing can be directly determined
with regard to ¢ and its differential coefficients.

8. Electromotive Lorce and Free Energy.

Helmholtz has calculated the variation of free energy due to
the passage of the current in two important cases, and compared
the results with experiment.

(2) Liquid cells.

At the surface of contact of two solutions, of the same electro-
lyte but of unequal strengths, an e. m. f. is set up ; if the circuit
be closed by means of nonpolarisable electrodes a current will
flow, and will go on flowing with gradually diminishing intensity
until the concentrations become equalised ; in this way work may
be obtained from the arrangement. The liquid cell thus con-
stituted is reversible ; for the passage of a current through it in
the opposite direction will set up a difference of concentration.
In this particular case, however, the results are complicated by
the Peltier effects ; Helmholtz eliminated these by employing two
calomel cells,* similar in all respects save that the solutions of
zine chloride contained in them were of different strengths ;
coupling these so as to oppose each other, the resulting e. m. f. is
the same as that of a liquid cell without Peltier eftects—since
every kind of junction is traversed in both directionst—a ‘ simple
liquid cell” as it may be termed; the only sources or sinks of
‘energy being (a) the solution of zine chloride in the weaker cell,
(4) its passage out of solution in the stronger.

* The calomcl cell is arranged thus—

Za | Zn Cl, | Hg, Cl, | H:

+ The inequality in the concentration of the zine chloride solutions does not give rise to
any difficulty, as experimenters agree in affirming that the Peltier effects at the boundary
of electrolytic solutions are (@) small, (0) independent of the concentration. The insoluble
character of the calomel also helps in the same direction.

THERMODYNAMICS OF THE YOLTAIC CELL. 79

Now suppose a quantity dq of electricity pass thrcugh the cells,
during which process an amount ds of the salt is dissolved in the
weaker solution, and passes out of solution in the stronger ; then
if « denote the electrochemical equivalent of the salt—z.e., the

é : ds
amount dissolved per unit current — then — = dq.
€

Hence in accordance with what has gone before—equation (B)—

éF oF
=—e

aot Saas ive

+

The quantity ee

cannot be directly calculated, but we may
e

determine it indirectly as follows :—

If a quantity of water dw be evaporated from the weaker
solution and condensed into the stronger, the work done is

= = dw. Now oF can be calculated from a knowledge of the
w w

maximum pressures of aqueous vapour above the solutions—this
calculation is given later—if then we can determine the relation

éF
and —— we can deduce the value of the former, and
s bw

consequently the e. m. f. of the liquid cell.

between

~

The required relation is obtained as follows :—-

Let us divide F into two parts, F, and F,, belonging respectively
to the weaker and stronger solutions.

ee ee oF,
bw ow ow
Let w and s denote the masses of water and salt in the weaker
solution.

w ; :
Put — = i; and let f, denote the work done in separating
8

unit mass of the solution into water and salt
-Fi=Wws)\fi=HesU +f
If we vary w by evaporation or condensation, keeping s constant,

we have

CO ee } oh
Se [a+)f | ine

ae, [G4tDA]

80 RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

If on the other hand we vary s by abstraction or addition of
salt, keeping w constant, we obtain

Ont 5
Sha +i) fits (A+ fh],

= (140) fra > (1 + 2) fil.
SS Ajay Se
os G=—h = [d+OA] = hw (8)

We must now determine oF, as a function of h. In the first

bw

place we observe that
ih
oF,
ie

where p denotes the vapour pressure and v the corresponding
specific volume. Then, as Helmholtz has shown in the second of
the memoirs above referred to, we may evaluate this integral as
follows :—

First, let the amount dw evaporate from pure water under
saturation pressure P and specific volume V; this does an
amount of work =P.V. dw.

The vapour is then expanded—out of contact with water—till
it attains the specific volume 7, and saturation pressure p,, of the
vapour overlying the solution; this does a further amount of

Vn
work = dw Wf p. dv.
V

Finally the vapour is compressed in contact with the solution
under constant pressure p, until it condenses. This absorbs

work = 7,,. %,. dw.
ony

ow

Vn
=—PYV =i. p.dv + pny
V

or, by partial integration

6 F, A 2 C7;
ae if .0 ap. 350 vee (7)

We can now determine an expression for the e. m. f. in terms of
calculable quantities.

THERMODYNAMICS OF THE VOLTAIC CELL. 81

v, and p areall functions of h, we may differentiate

equation (7) with respect to h, and we get
a i. 5 p

Sloe) ae OR
by (6) , :
api ERA typ
eaereyy oe
h=h
peor = Bienes aie
8s h=oo?

Similarly, if we denote the ratio of water to salt in the second
solution by k, we may show that—

— dF, cee dh.
és h=ceo”
SF SF, 3F a ae
: — — 2)\— ees
B= ee = —e(= re kt ea ee

We now have to evaluate the integral in equation (F). For
moderate temperatures the expression may be simplified, since the
density of saturated vapours is small at such temperatures, even
for pure water ; we may therefore assume that the aqueous vapour
obeys the laws of a perfect gas—an assumption which Regnault
has shown to hold good so long as the saturation density is small.

We have, therefore,
Ee Viceoek Ve pe
TM i t
where the capital letters refer to saturated vapour overlying pure
water, the small ones to that above a solution.

Hence equation (I) transforms into
meee eo 5, = oe ie

Helmholtz determined an rane formula expressing the
relation between p and h/ for zine chloride solutions, evaluated the
integral by its means, and deduced the values of E at O° C. for
pairs of solutions of various strengths; the calculated values agreed
very closely with those subsequently obtained by experiment.

* The analysis as given here is considerably altered from that in Helmholtz’s memoir, to
which Raynes has justly taken exception. (See ‘‘Physical Memoirs” of the Phy sical
Society, Vol. I, list of errata.) The final result is, however, the same in both cases.

F

82 RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

In an earlier memoir Helmholtz* had discussed the e. m. f. of
liquid cells from a different point of view. Taking such a cell as
Cu | Cu SO, dil | Cu SO, strong | Cu
he showed that the e. m. f. could be deduced thermcdynamically
from the vapour pressures, the electrcchemical equivalent of the
salt, and Hittorf’s migration constant. If we suppose 1 equivalent
of the salt to be dissolved in a quantity , of water in one
solution, and in w, in the other, and if » denote the migration

constant, Helmholtz finds
Pa
E = fiw. C2 ioldpe .o2 |) eee)
DP
For a moderate range of concentraticns the following relaticn
holds good—
b
Pp = =
w
where 6 is constant. In such cases (8) reduces to
w
—— BO Nae (lee aE) LOC eer

W,

P
The accuracy of the calculation of e. m. f.’s by this formula was
confirmed experimentally by J. Mosert; but, as Helmholtz
himself pointed out, the introduction into the theory of migration
constants—which are not known with any great accuracy §—is a
source of weakness in the method as far as the verification of the
thermodynamic theory is concerned, for which purpose he gives
the preference to the experiments with opposed cells.

This mode of investigation has however been applied by Moser ||
to the more accurate determination of migration constants, from
measurements of e. m. f., vapour pressure, and concentration ; but
very little has so far been done in this way, though it would seem
to open up a promising line of research.

(>) The relation between the e. m. f. required for the decom-
position of water and the pressure of the evolved gases.

In his third memoir on the “Thermodynamics of Chemical
Processes” Helmholtz treats this case at great length, obtaining
expressions for the free energies of water and of detonating gas,
and deducing the e. m. f. of agas-battery. All his results contain,
however, an arbitrary constant, so that only differences are of
any practical use; the calculations of e. m. f. possessing individually

* Monatsb. d. Akad. der Wiss., Berlin, 1877; Wied. Ann. iii, p. 201; Phil. Mag. [5], V., p. 348.

} The analysis is not reproduced, being quite straightforward ; the notation in the results
is altered to agree with that employed in the previous discussion.

¢ Wied. Ann. iii, p. 201.

§ We are indeed almost in the dark as to the relation between the migration constant and
the concentration.

|| Sitzungsb. d. k, Akad. der Wiss. Wien, Bd. xcii. Abth. ii, p. 652.

THERMODYNAMICS OF THE VOLTAIC CELL. 83

only a theoretical value—if that. The net result of the discussion
is a determination of the effect of pressure on the e. m. f. of a
Grove’s gas-battery ; as Helmholtz’s analysis is very cumbrous,
and as this is merely a special case of the problem discussed in
section 10—-where the whole question is shown to be susceptible
of very simple treatment—only the results are given here.

Let E, = e. m. f. under pressure p, of the mixed gases.
” EK, = e. m. f. ” P2 ” ”
= P, + po. 3 where

~

sS
S
~]

Pr = partial pressure due to hydrogen.
| - . oxygen.
Let a,, a, denote the atomic weights of hydrogen and oxygen.
» Un » Specific volumes % re

» € = electrochemical equivalent of water.

ee ie _— Po Vo
» R= ;R, =>

th, t
Then Helmholtz finds
B,—E,=10~%e. T{ Ry = tog eae “be, a (G)
20, a, FD Tern

In a fourth memoir* Helmholtz compares this Cane with the
results of his own experiments. The agreement is, to all appear-
ance, satisfactory ; but is in reality illusory, being due to an error
in computation. He shows that the formula simplifies into

5x10 —7 x 000009319 x Tx R, x log, (”")

Pi

BK, — E,

— 0-018868 log. (7)
L

and gives as the result of the calculation, when p,=10 mm. of
mercury, p,= 742 mm.,
EK, — E,=0°1305.

This agrees fairly well with his experiments; but it is not
correctly calculated. If we substitute the values of the logarithms
and work out the result we obtain—

E, — E,=0:0813,
which is not in agreement with Helmholtz’s observations, but

agrees well, as we shall tind in section 10, with the much more
extended researches of Gilbault.

* Sitzungsb. d. Akad. der Wiss., Berlin, 1887, p. 749 ; ‘‘ Physical Memoirs” of the Physical
Society of “London, Vol. i, p. 98.

D
=

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

Free Energy and Polarisation.

In an interesting memoir, Jahn and Schinrock* have investi-
gated the polarisation set up during the electrolysis of a solution
between platinum electrodes, from the point of view of changes
of free energy. They write down the terms which include the
changes of intrinsic energy and entropy due to every transforma-
tion which goes on, both at the anode and at the kathode, and
also in the body of the solution—owing to ionisation—and thus
obtain, in the simplest and most direct manner possible, an
expression for the change of the free energy of the system, in
terms of the changes both of its intrinsic energy and of the
entropies of its constituents. As the first attempt to apply the
laws of thermodynamics to the modern theory of electrolysis the
paper has great value ; the theoretical conclusions advanced in it
are, moreover, confirmed by experiment. The results may be
summed up as follows :—

(1.) The maximum polarisation for all salts formed from
heavy metals and the radicles of strong oxyacids is the
same.

(2.) The polarisation of a cell containing a dilute oxyacid
must be increased by increasing the external pressure ;
moreover it has the same value for all oxyacids, whether
strong or weak, at the same pressure.

(3.) The maximum polarisation in an oxyacid cell is inde-
pendent of the concentration of the acid solution.

(4.) The maximum polarisation in an alkaline solution is
identical with that in an oxyacid solution.

(5.) The maximum polarisation in a dilute salt solution will
always exceed that in the corresponding acid; the
difference between the two being equal to the change of
free energy brought about by the dissociation of water
into hydrogen and hydroxyl ions.

10. Relation between Electromotive Force and External Pressure.

Let the action of a cell result in the performance of external
work, not only in the circuit in accordance with Joule’s Law, but
also in changing its own volume against external pressure during
the passage “of the current. If no other work is done we may
write equation (2)—of eae a eae

iL fi 6U 8U
d dT ——.dv-+H.d dv
o=nisy +98 ots +E.dg+p
where p and v denote the ale pressure} and the volume of
the cell respectively.

¥* Zeitsch. ftir phys. Chem., xvi, p. 45.
+ Whether it be due to electrolytic gas or anything else.

THERMODYNAMICS OF THE YVOLTAIC CELL. 85

Hence we have
T.dpb—dU =E.dq+p.dv.

Subtract d (pv) from both sides ; we obtain

T.d¢dB—d U —d (pv) = E. dq—v. dp
or, for constant temperature

d(U—T q+ pv)* = —E.dq + v. dp.
Since the left-hand member of this equation is a perfect differential,
the right-hand member is also a perfect differential; hence we
obtain at once
dv
— (= p q const. =(s)p const,” °°" + (9)

From this equation we see that

(1.) If the volume of a cell is altered by the passage of a
current through it, the e. m. f. is a function of the
external pressure.

(2.) The e. m. f. increases with the pressure if the volume of
the cell diminishes when it generates a current ; and the
e. m. f. diminishes as the pressure rises if the volume of
the cell increases while the cell generates a current.

These laws were demonstrated—though by somewhat less direct
reasoning than that employed here—by Duhem.; They were
ae awards made the subject of an extended investigation by
Gilbault,{ whose valuable memoir has hitherto received far less
eeition eke it deserves.

In accordance with Faraday’s law equation (9) becomes, for
constant pressure,

Sv _ Hy—Y ‘
Saaiesia (7-P-)
where v, = initial volume of cell
v,=final 5
g =quantity of electrification which has traversed it
Hence gq —=— 4 — v,.
a) P

This equation is easily integrated for solids and liquids, seeing
that in them v, and v, are sensibly independent of the pressure ;
the integration is equally easy for gas-cells, provided we assume
Boyle’s law to hold good throughout the range of pressure
employed. We may therefore write for solids and liquids,

Bp Ey, ==) en eee oD)

* The function U—T g + p v is termed by Duhem the ‘thermodynamic potential at
constant pressure.”

+ Duhem ; ‘‘ Le Potential Thermodynamique et ses Applications,” p. 117.

t Ann. de la Fac. des Sci. de Toulouse, Vol. V, p. A5; C.R, 1891, p. 465.

86 RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

For gas-batteries, putting V=volume at one atmosphere pressure
of one electrochemical equivalent of gas, we obtain

EB, :2+ B, =sV. dog: sy, eae Wea a CRS)

Gilbault submitted equations (H) and (K) to the test of
experiment for a large number of cells, and over a range of
pressure from | to 500 atmospheres; and found a very satisfactory
agreement between the calculated and observed changes of e. m. f.
The change produced in the e. m. f. of a Daniell’s cell by applying
a pressure of 100 atmospheres is about the hundreth part of that
produced in Grove’s gas-battery ; it is, however, quite measurable,
and the results agree with theory equally well in both cases.
Small outstanding differences are ascribed by Gilbault, in the
case of solids and liquids, to secondary chemical actions, which—
though not fully investigated—were definitely shown to occur at
high pressures ; similar discrepancies in the case of gases are
ascribed partly to the cause abovementioned, partly to the failure
of Boyle’s Law.*

APPENDIX.

Ir seems only fair to point out that several of the results here exhibited as
deductions from the laws of thermodynamics can be obtained by totally
different methods, some of which may fairly claim a degree of generality
little, if at all, inferior to that possessed by the methods of thermo-
dynamics.

Thus the relation between thee. m. f. of a gas-cell and the external pressure
has been deduced by J. J. Thomson+ directly from the Lagrangian function
without subsidiary assumptions, thus proving it to be amenable to strictly
dynamical reasoning. Again, by combining with the principle of least
action the assumption—which has much to recommend it—that ‘‘the portion
of the energy of a system which contains the temperature as a factor is
essentially kinetic,’ Thomson has deducedt an expression practically
identical with equation (C), 2.e., with Helmholtz’s law. It must, however,
be admitted that, in view of the assumption which it contains, this part of
his investigation cannot Jay claim to the same strictly dynamical character
as the other.

Finally it may be mentioned that Nernst’s theory of electromotive force
leads directly to Helmholtz’s law§ ; but Nernst’s theory lacks the generality
possessed by those founded either on dynamical or thermodynamical
considerations.

* The e. m. f. of a gas-cell is equal and opposite to the counter-electromotive force of
polarisation in a water-voltameter at the same pressure; hence the relation between the
e. m. f. needed to decompose water and the pressure is given by equation (K). Substituting
the known value of V this becomes

dy
E, — E, = 0°018868 loge G y
0

which is identical with the result obtained by Helmholtz’s calculations. Gilbault verified
this expression over a tolerably wide range of pressures.

} ‘‘ Applications of Dynamics to Physics and Chemistry,” p. 86.

t ‘‘ Applications of Dynamics to Physics and Chemistry,” p. 98.

§ See Ostwald, ‘‘ Lehrbuch der allgemeinen Chemie,” vol. ii, pt. i, p. 859.

eal

MINERAL WATERS OF AUSTRALASIA. Q7

No. 3.—ON THE COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF
THE MINERAL WATERS OF AUSTRALASIA.

Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor A. Liversidge,
F.R.S., Mr. W. Skey, F.C.S., and Mr. G. Gray, F.CS.
(Secretary).

REPORT.

In the following Report, the composition only of the mineral
waters of Australasia is dealt with. Analyses have been collected
from all available sources, and the results arranged in geographi-
cally alphabetical order under the names of the respective colonies.
The list is necessarily incomplete, and the information given in
some cases is of a fragmentary character. Considerable work yet
requires to be done in the classification of the waters, and in
gathering information regarding their therapeutic qualities.

The results generally are expressed in grains per gallon, and
for the purpose of so doing it has been found necessary to recal-
culate them in some cases. With regard to the New Zealand
waters, the labour of collecting results has been much reduced by
a free use of the information given in the official Year Book, 1896,
which contains an article by Sir James Hector on the subject.

The thanks of the Committee are due to those gentlemen who
assisted by furnishing particulars relating to waters coming under
their notice.

NEW ZEALAND.

Abbotsford, Otago.—W. Skey. XVIIth Colonial Museum and
Laboratory Report, 1881-2, p. 54.

Acid chalybeate water.—Total solids, 304:01 grs. per gal.;
sulphuric acid, 191-87. Contains considerable quantity of ferrous
oxide and a little ferric oxide in combination with sulphuric acid,
also free sulphuric acid ; deposits basic peroxide of iron compound
on boiling.

Akitio, Wellington.—W. Skey. Transactions, New Zealand
Institute, vol. X, p. 447.

Chalybeate water.—Total solids, 37°65 grs. per gal.; lime,
13°14 ; soda, with a little potash, 4°68.; magnesia, 2°32 ; iron and
alumina, ‘93 ; carbonic acid combined, 9°57 ; sulphuric acid, 1:02 ;
chlorine, 1°84; silica, 4:15; charged with free carbonic acid.
Valuable as a tonic ; similar to the waters of Pyrmont (Waldeck),
and Recoaro (Venetia).

88 RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

Amberley, Canterbury.—A. W. Bickerton. New Zealand Offcial
Year Book, 1896, p. 434.

Chalybeate water.—Total solids, 37°6 grs. per gal. ; volatile,
8:8 ; chlorine, 10°5 ; carbonate of lime, 3°6 ; carbonate of magnesia,
2-2; iron protoxide, 2°3; soda, &c., 10-2. Contains a high pro-
portion of organic matter.

Auckland.—W. Skey. XVth Colonial Museum and Laboratory
Report, 1879-80, p. 43.

Alkaline water.—Total solids, 116-78 grs. per gal.; sodic bi-car-
bonate, 42°89 ; calcic bi-carbonate, 14:25 ; magnesia bi-carbonate,
45-15; sodic chloride, 3:81 ; aluminia oxide, ‘30 ; sedic sulphate,
04 ; silica, 10°31.

Bay of Islands, Auckland.—W. Skey. Transactions, New Zea-
land Institute, vol. X, 1877, p. £24.

Acid, sulphuretted, and chalybeate, water.—Total solids, 134°6
grs. per gal. ; fixed alkalies, 41°66 ; protoxide of iron, 2:23; lime,
5:97 ; magnesia, 1:15; silica, 3:10; sulphuric acid, 13°60; hydro-
chloric acid, 66°91. This water has a slight acid reaction and
strong odour of sulphuretted hydrogen ; forms a deposit of sulphur
and sulphates.

Blind Bay Estate, Lake Grassmere.—W.Skey. XXIXth Colonial
Museum and Laboratory Report, p. 20.

Total solids, 5:82 grs. per gal, consisting of sodic chloride, calcic
chloride, and sodic sulphate; contains also minute traces of
iodine combined with magnesia.

Cannibal Gorge, Reefton.—W. Skey. XXth Colonial Museum
and Laboratory Report, p. 52.

Sulphurettedand chalybeate water.—Total solids, 36°66. ; sodium
chloride, 18-02; calcium sulphate, 5-44 ; sodium sulphate, 2°20 ;
calcium sulphide, 2°81; magnesia sulphide, 1:26; carbonate of
iron, ‘91; silica, 6:02; sulphuretted hydrogen is present to the
extent of 6°91 grs. per gal.

Dungree.—W. Skey. XVIth Colonial Museum and Laboratory
Report, 1880-1, p. 47.

A chlorinated saline water, said to be avoided by cattle and
sheep.—Total solids 94:6 grs. per gal., mainly sodium chloride,
with chlorides and sulphates of the alkaline earths, a small
quantity of earthy carbonates, and a trace of magnesia iodide.
Reaction distinctly alkaline.

MINERAL WATERS OF AUSTRALASIA. 89

Gibson Station, Southland.—_W. Skey. Transactions, New Zealand
Institute, vol. X, 1877, p. 448.

Total solids, 26-0 grs. per gal. Fixed salts, 18°51, consisting of
alkaline chlorides and carbonates, with considerable quantity of
ferric salts. Volatile matter principally organic matter, 7:5 grs.
per gal. This water is said to be a specific for diarrhcea, probably
due to some astringent substance present in the organic matter.

Great Barrier Island.—C. P. Winkelmann. Transactions, New
Zealand Institute, vol. XTX, p. 3838.

(1.) Sulphuretted water, held by the natives to be a specific for
rheumatism ; acts internally as a mild aperient. Temperature,
186° F.

(2.) Sulphuretted water, considered by natives to be specially
useful in skin diseases. Temperature, 142° F.

Hanmer Plains, Nelson.—J. von Haast. Transactions, New Zea-
land Institute, vol. IIT, p. 293. Hector, Zbid, vol. III, p.
297. Skey, Jbid, vol. X, p. 447. Hector, New Zealand
Official Year Book, 1896, p. 433.

Sulphuretted and alkaline waters.—Ten springs, four cold and
six thermal, with temperatures ranging from 83° to 140° F. The
waters from the several springs are similar in composition.

Total solids, 77°38 grs. per gal.; sodium chloride, 62:09 ;
potassium chloride, -15 ; sodium sulphate, 7-48 ; sodium carbonate,
2°66 ; magnesium carbonate, 1°77 ; calcium carbonate, °55 ; ferrous
carbonate, -05; silica, 2°63, with traces of iodine, lithum, and
aluminium phosphate. Reaction strongly alkaline. The waters
smell strongly of sulphuretted hydrogen, which is present to the
extent of 2°19 grs. per gal. A sediment is formed consisting of
silica and free sulphur. Large quantities of free and albuminoid
ammonia are present, but the water is not injurious to drink, and,
in many cases, has been found beneficial. When used for bathing
purposes, the water is said to be useful in cases of rheumatism,
sciatica, gout, cutaneous diseases, nervous affections, insomnia,
chest complaints, and also for asthma (from Oct. to June only),
and psoriaris (from Sept. to April only).

Helensville—W. Skey. XXIIIrd Colonial Museum and
Laboratory Report, p. 68.

Chlorinated water.—Temperature, 140° F.; reaction very
alkaline ; total solids, 129°37 grs. per gal.; sodium chloride,
109-19 ; calcium chloride, 5:42; potassium chloride, 1:02 ;
calcium carbonate, 4:67 ; magnesium carbonate, 1:49; calcium
sulphate, 1:03; alumina, -45; silica, 6:10, with traces of iron.
oxides and magnesia iodide.

90 RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

Hokianga.—J. A. Pond. Transactions, New Zealand Institute,
vol. xz, p. B12:

-— =~

Chlorinated siliceous water.—-Total solids, 2937°55 grs. per gal. ;
sodium chloride, 2797°4; potassium chloride, 1:9; magnesium
carbonate, 18°71; soluble silica, 49°56; organic matter, 51:11,
with traces of lime, iron, and sulphuric anhydride.

Kopuowhara Mahia.—W. Skey. . X VIIth Colonial Museum
and Laboratory Report, p. 55; Jbid., x1xth, p. 39.

Chlorinated water.—Total solids, 1241-65 gers. per gal. ; sodium
chloride, 1027-6; potassium chloride, 2°99; calcium chloride,
177°82 ; calcium sulphate, 2°61; magnesium carbonate, 1°49 ;
calcium carbonate, 3°71; aluminum chloride, 16°42; aluminum
phosphate, -37; magnesium iodide, 2°98; silica, 5°60; ferric
chloride traces ; total iodine, 2:02 grs. per gal.

Kummerstein Whareama.—W. Skey. XX VIth Colonial Museum
and Laboratory Report, p. 37.

A chlorinated water of considerable strength, containing iodine
in notable quantity.

Makztu.—W. Skey. XXth Colonial Museum and Laboratory
Report, p. 52.

Acid water.—Total solids, 130°27 grs. per gal.; sulphuric acid
(free), 77°11; sodium sulphate, 8-21 ; potassium sulphate, traces ;
calcium sulphate, 5-42; magnesium sulphate, 1:39 ; alumina and
iron oxide, 12°18; silica, 25-96.

Masterton, Upper Tararu Road.—W. Skey. XX VIth Colonial
Museum and Laboratory Report, p. 38.
Sulphuretted chlorinated water.—Feeble alkaline reaction ;
Total solids, 224:3 grs. per gal.; organic matter, 3:2; sulphu-
retted hydrogen, 1-6.

Motukaramu.—Spring near the River Mokau.—W. Skey.
XXIInd Colonial Museum and Laboratory Report, p. 57.

A chlorinated. water containing iodine; total solids, 844 grs.
per gal.

Motuhora (Whale Island), Bay of Plenty.—J. A. Pond. Trans-
actions New Zealand Institute, vol. x1, p. 512.

Acid alum water.—Temperature, 198° F.; Total solids, 250°3
grs. per gal. ; sodium sulphate, 17:60; calcium sulphate, 7:52 ;
magnesium sulphate, 5-00; aluminium sulphate, 48-48 ; ferrous
sulphate, 9°38 ; sulphuric acid (free), 138-32 ; silica, 24:0.

MINERAL WATERS OF AUSTRALASIA, - OF

Mahuranga, Auckland.—J. Hector. Transactions New Zealand
Institute, vol. 1, p. 70, W. Skey ; Jbid. vol. x, p. 424.

Chlorinated saline waters, reported as a specific for rheuma-
tism.

(a) Cold spring temperature, 110° F. Total solids, 74 grs. per
gal.; chlorine, 22:4; sulphuric acid, 8°80; calcium oxide, 5:2 ;
magnesium oxide, 92; potassium oxide, 3:20; silica, 3-20; sodium
oxide and carbonic acid, 20°40 (undetermined).

(6) Hotspring temperature, 140 F. Total solids, 140-4 ; sodium
chloride, 85:2 ; calcium chloride, 16°8 ; magnesium chloride, 22:0 ;
silica, 3°60; with trace of potash, carbonic acid, and sulphuric
acid.

(c) Hot spring temperature, 141°6. ‘Total solids, 141°6 grs.
per gal., apparently of the same composition as (0).

Makaraka, Poverty Bay.—W. Skey. Colonial Museum and
Laboratory Report XXI, p. 52.

Chalybeate water from artesian well.—Total solids, 61:77 grs.
per gal. ; calcium chloride, 26°88 ; sodium chloride, 10°87 ; mag-
nesium chloride, 4°41 ; sodium sulphate, 5:22 ; calcium carbonate,
3°14 ; carbonate and chloride of iron, 7:24 ; silica, 4°01. Becomes
cloudy and deposits ferruginous sediment on standing.

Nukaka, Hawkes’ Bay.—H. Hill. Transactions, New Zealand
Institute, vol. XX VII, p. 478.

A chlorinated saline water, containing iodine. Temperature,
97°—116° F. Said to be a specific for rheumatism, lumbago,
&e. Analysis (G. Gray) unpublished. Total solids, 1,852°9 grs.
per gal.; sodium chloride, 1,196-3 ; potassium chloride, 11:19;
ferric chloride, 10:5; calcium chloride, 462-0 ; magnesium chloride,
26°6 ; silica, 19-6.

Napier, East coast of.—W. Skey. XXVIIIth Colonial Museum
and Laboratory Report, p. 23.

Chlorinated water ; feeble alkaline reaction. Total solids, 336
grs. per gal. ; principally sodium chloride, with small quantities of
lime and sulphuric acid ; iodine present in notable quantity.

Napier, McLean's Run.—W. Skey. IXth Colonial Museum
and Laboratory Report, p. 25.

Chlorinated alkaline water ; reaction slightly alkaline. Total
solids, 445:51 grs. per ga!.; sodium chloride, 392°59 ; potassium

92 RESEARCILE COMMITTEES.

chloride, 4:44 ; sodium sulphate, 1:26 ; sodium carbonate, 18°60 ;
magnesium carbonate, 15°83; calcium carbonate, 3:96 ; carbonate
of iron, 2°38; silica, 6°41. Contains both iodine and bromine.

Ohaeawai, Auckland.—J. Hector. New Zealand Official Year
Book, 1896, p. 426.

Acid aluminous water.—Temperature 60°—116° F. Total
solids, 134-4 ; deposits sulphur and alum on cooling. Mercury
in form of vapour is given off, which deposits cinnakar and
metallic mercury.

Ohura.—W. Skey. XXth Colonial Museum and Laboratory
Report, p. 52.

Chlorinated chalybeate water.—Total solids, 578-66 grs. per

gal. ; sodium chloride, 495-32 ; potassium chloride, 4°20; calcium

chloride, 55:96; magnesium chloride, 1:84; magnesium iodide,
62 ; calcium sulphate, 2:04 ; ferrous carbonate, 10°21 ; magnesium

carbonate, 5°40 ; silica, 5-07.

Onekiniki.rW. Skey. XXIXth Colonial Museum and
Laboratory Report, p. 19.

Chlorinated saline water.—Total solids, 198°95 grs. per gal. ;
sodium chloride (with a little potassium chloride), 155-78 ;
magnesium chloride, 1:14; magnesium iodide, traces; sodium
sulphate, 14:26; calcium sulphate, 3°47; sodium carbonate,
12-76; calcium carbonate, 1:19; iron and alumina, :21 ; silica,
10:14 ; sulphuretted hydrogen, -34 grs. per gal.

Onetapu Desert, Auckland (Wangaehu River)—W. Skey.
Transactions, New Zealand Institute, vol. 1, p. 28; Jbid.,
vol. x, p. 424.

Alum water, with acid reaction.—Total solids, 456 grs. per gal.,
mainly potash alum, and magnesium, and ferrous chlorides.

Otira Gorge.—G. Gray. Transactions, New Zealand Institute,
vol. xxil, p. 495.

Sulphuretted and siliceous water.—Specific gravity at 60° F.
100022 ; temperature, 87° F. (air, 61° F.) ; Total solids, 12-46
ers. per gal. ; potassium sulphate, 33; sodium sulphate, 3-99 ;
sodium chloride, -40 ; sodium sulphide, *45 ; sodium silicate, 4°26 ;
calcium silicate, °34; calcium carbonate, 1:14; magnesium
carbonate, -29; alumina, -21 ; free silica anhydride, 1:05 ; iodine,
bromine, and lithium absent.

MINERAL WATERS OF AUSTRALASIA. 93

Pahua, Wairarapa E.—W. Skey. Transactions, New Zealand
Institute, vol. x, p. 444; XIIth Colonial Museum and
Laboratory Report, p. 45.

Chlorinated saline water, containing free iodine ; reaction
distinctly alkaline.—Total solids, 1,474-09 grs. per gal. ; sodium
chloride, 1,305°32 ; potassium chloride, ‘50 ; magnesium chloride,
34:96 ; calcium chloride, 120-88 ; magnesium iodide, -58 ; mag-
nesium bromide, traces ; calcium sulphate, 3:02 ; aluminium
phosphate, *64; calcium phosphate ; -43 ; calcium bi-carbonate,
6°45 ; silica, 1-69 ; iodine free, 1°59. A very characteristic water
from the amount of free iodine it contains.

Pakaututu, Napier.—W. Skey. XXIXth Colonial Museum and
Laboratory Report, p. 19.

Two waters, containing respectively 20°12 and 14:3 grs. per
gal. of sodium chloride, with sulphuretted hydrogen and iodine in
sensible quantities.

Papawhaniki, near Gisborne.—W. Skey. XXIVth Colonial
Museum and Laboratory Report, p. 41.

A chlorinated saline water, feeble alkaline reaction.

Total solids, 764:5 grs. per gal., principally sodium chloride ;
iodine, 3°69 grs. per gal.

Puriri, Hikutaia, Auckland.—W. Skey. Transactions, New Zea-
land Institute, vol. x, p. 425. XVth Colonial Museum and
Laboratory Report, p. 45.

Alkaline water.—Specific gravity, 1-006; total solids, 537-11
grs. per gal.; sodium chloride, 21:93; sodium sulphate, -94 ;
potassium sulphate, 4:93; calcium bi-carbonate, 28-50 ; magnesium
bi-carbonate, 25°62; sodium bi-carbonate, 452°39; silica, 2°77.
Traces of magnesium iodide, ferrous carbonate, and lithia.

This water is highly sxrated with carbonic acid, and effervesces
strongly when escaping from the spring.

A second analysis, 1880, showed but little change in the nature
of the salts present, but that the water had become more concen-
trated. Total solids, 825-10 grs. per gal.

Rotorua District.—J. Hector. New Zealand Official Year Book,
1896, p. 429. <A. Ginders, zbid., p. 433,

See analyses, p. 100.

94 RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

Taupo.—W. Skey. XVilIth Colonial Museum and Laboratory
Report, p. 55, ibad, X Xth, p. 48.

See tables of analyses IJ, III, and IV, pages 102-4.

Te Aroha.—J. Hector. New Zealand Cfficial Year Book, 1896,
p. 427. XXITIrd Colonial Museum and Laboratory Report,
p. 00.

Alkaline carbonated waters, highly charged with carbonic acid.
Traces of lithia present. Similar and equal in strength to the
waters of Vichy and Chaudesargues, in France ; Bilin, Bohemia ;
and Ems, Nassau.

Analyses (see table V, page 105.)
No. 2 is noted for relieving rheumatism.
No. 8 affords relief in cases of dyspepsia.

No. 17 is used as an eyewash, and contains 1:4 grs. of sulphu-
retted hydrogen per gal.

No. 16. An acid water containing sulphuretted hydrogen, 1:91
grs. per gal.

Total solids, 11°35 grs. per gal. Sodium sulphate, 1°82 ; cal-
cium sulphate, -61 ; magnesium sulphate, :36: alumina and iron
sulphates, -20; silica, 7:04; free hydrochloric acid, 1°11; free
sulphuric acid, 21.

Te Aute.—W. Skey. XX VIth Colonial Museum and Laboratory
Report, p. 37.

A chlorinated water containing 342-42 ers. per gal. total solids,
including magnesium iodide, equivalent to 1:76 grs. of icdine
per gal.

Tologo Bay.—W. Skey. XVIth Colonial Museum and Labora-
tory Report, p. 47.

Chlorinated water.—Reaction slightly alkaline. Total solids,
754:19 gers. per gal. ; sodium chloride, 683-56 (with a little potassium
chloride) ; magnesium iodide, 1:11 ; sodium sulphate, 5:75 ; sodium
bi-carbonate, 12:96 ; calcium bi-carbonate, 28:14 ; magnesium bi-
carbonate, 17-28 ; alumina (with trace of iron), 2:15 ; silica, 3:24 ;
free iodine, trace.

Waikato.—Spring near Lake Whangape, west of Waikato River.
J. Hector. Transactions New Zealand Institute, vol. I, p. 71.

Alkaline water.—Temperature, 160—200° F. Total solids, 47-04
grs. per gal., consisting mainly of alkaline chlorides ; the remainder
calcium silicate and alkaline carbonates.

MINERAL WATERS OF AUSTRALASIA. 95

Waimate Block.—W. Skey. XVIIIth Colonial Museum and
Laboratory Report, p. 54.

Three chlorinated waters, distinct alkaline reaction and yellow
colour.

Analyses.
Grains per gallon.
if 2. 3
Sodium (a little potassium)......... | 147-48 192-08 269°51
RIM OPN ere siaciee st co senessesnsphacnasaser 23°52 25°48 25°48
IVT OTMERTAiselecant osiysidot 2) aisooscesereencna | uy 5°91 2°61
BAM TAINAN SUP Ey Picled «s-tichislel-\ottoislew one eidlen athe | - trace 2°86 trace
Tron oxides ..... Fare ete een joa ecsieer 2°94 | trace 2°25
(CoLEIRSATITANGY. A Ne A ce | 190°12 Saoele 524°30
OCHA Orr sees sie Sesoeiani sence wuteaie eee 34 1:98 “99
Siulllolnibinke Eel) Reanannsaccoeseor eee | 1-82 66 1°34
Camere totic ltcrisp concise sietlsicinsiennct | “89 22°54 784
368°05 586°63 834°32

Waipio, Poverty Bay.—W. Skey. XVIIth Colonial Museum
and Laboratory Report, p. 54.

Chlorinated water; feeble alkaline reaction. Total solids, 705-03
grains per gal. ; sodium chloride (potassium chloride a little),
593°41 ; calcium chloride, 82:20 ; magnesium iodide, °76 ; calcium
sulphate, 8:14; magnesium sulphate, 5-44 ; magnesium carbonate,
3°36 ; iron oxides, 5°84 ; silica, 5-88.

Wairarapa East.—W. Skey. XVth Colonial Museum and
Laboratory Report, p. 43.

4

A chlorinated water containing 267-2 grs. per gal. including
iodine, to the extent of a little above 1 gr. per gal.

Wairongoa.—North Taiera, Otago. A. G. Kidson Hunter, New
Zealand Official Year Book, 1896, p. 435.

A weak chalybeate water containing free carbonic acid. Total
solids, 14-00 grs. per gal. ; sodium carbonate, 2°22; sodium chloride,
2°35 ; potassium chloride, °31 ; calcium sulphate, 2°38; calcium
carbonate, 1-82 ; magnesium carbonate ; 1:00 ; ferrovs carhonate,
18 ; silica, 3-22; alumina ‘25. EVE ATS

he ba &5 Af
* x “2

96 RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

Waiwera, Auckland.—W. Skey. Transactions, New Zealand
Institute, Vol. X, p. 429.

Alkaline saline water.—Temperature 110° F. Total solids,
219-49 grs. per gal.; sodium chloride, 116-71; potassium chloride,
‘09 ; sodium sulphate. °38 ; sodium bi-carbonate, 87:51; calcium
bicarbonate, 10°69; magnesium bicarbonate, *95; iron bicar-
bonate, °68; silica, 2-46. Lithium, alumina, and magnesium iodide,
traces.

Said to be beneficial in cases of rheumatism, scrofula, and gout.

Wallingford Wellington.—W. Skey. Transactions, New Zealand
Institute, Vol. X, p. 444.

Chlorinated water containing 826 grs. per gal. total solids,
consisting of alkaline and earthy chlorides with traces of bromides
and iodides. Faintly acid reaction.

Wanganui.—W. Skey. XXIInd Colonial Museum and
Laboratory Report, p. 57.

Chlorinated waters containing iodine, feeble alkaline reaction.

(a) From the right bank, Wanganui River, near Papaite.
Total solids, 384:54 ers. per gal. ; sodium chloride, 313-41 ; sodium
sulphate, 3:20; calcium chloride, 11°69 ; magnesium chloride,
2:13 ; magnesium carbonate, 3°17 ; aluminium chloride, ‘91 ; iron
chloride trace, silica, 4:03.

(5) From a warm spring on the left bank of the Wanganui
River, opposite Whakapoko, 2 miles above Pipiriki. Total solids,
130-61 grs. per gal. ; sodium chloride, 121-88 ; calcium sulphate,
1:88; aluminium chloride, 1:22; sodium carbonate, -48; calcium
carbonate, ‘52; magnesium carbonate, 2°22 ; silica, 2.14.

(c) From a spring 2 miles above Pipiriki, on the right bank of
the Wanganui River. Total solids, 244-03 grs. per gal. ; sodium
chloride, 231:64; calcium sulphate, 3°19; aluminium chloride,
‘21; sodium carbonate, °83; calcium carbonate, 1-01; magnesium
carbonate, 3°16 ; silica, 3°99.

Wellington, Northern Boundary of.—W. Skey. Transactions,
New Zealand Institute, Vol. X, p. 446.

Chlorinated alkaline and chalybeate water.—Total solids, 444-71;
sodium chloride, 392°59; potassium chloride, 4:44,; sodium
sulphate, 1-26 ; sodium carbonate, 18-60; magnesium carbonate,
15-03; calcium carbonate, 3:96; iron carbonate, 2°38 ; silica,
6-41. Contains traces of bromine and iodine.

MINERAL WATERS OF AUSTRALASIA. 97

Whangarei.—J. A. Pond. Transactions, New Zealand Institute,
Vol. XI, p. 512. W.Skey. XITIth Colonial Museum and
Laboratory Report, p. 32.

Carbonated alkaline water, highly charged with carbonic acid.
Resembles the mineral water of Vichy in France.—Total solids,
216°17 gers. per gal. ; sodium chloride, 43°67 ; potassium chloride

5 5 ) Lae ee bf
traces ; sodium sulphate, 1°63; sodium bicarbonate, 58:25;
calcium bi-carbonate, 90°67 ; magnesium bi-carbonate, 4°39; iron
bi-carbonate, 5°75; silica, 13°81 ; aluminium phosphate, traces.
b) d p) P) 5)

Whareama, Masterton.—W. Skey. XXIIIrd Colonial Museum
and Laboratory Report, p. 69.

A sulphuretted chlorinated water, containing 316°36 grs. per
gal. total solids. Iodine, combined, ‘81; sulphuretted hydrogen,

1:76.

White Island or Whakaari.—J. Hector. Transactions, New
Zealand Institute, Vol. III, p. 282.
Acid waters.

(1) Lake.—Specific gravity, 1-088. Total solids, 13,638-1 grs.
per gal.; ferrous sulphate, 1059-8; sodium sulphate, 658-7;
potassium sulphate, 275-8 ; calcium sulphate, 235-9 ; magnesium
sulphate, 60-2; aluminium sulphate, 80°5; aluminium sesqui
chloride, 1703-1 ; silica, 21-7 ; hydrochloric acid (free), 9541-7.

(2) Fumerole.—Specific gravity, 1:003. Total solids, 205-80
grs. per gal. ; calcium sulphate, 11°62; sodium sulphate, -63 ;
magnesium sulphate, 2°94; ferrous sulphate, 2°38 ; silicic acid,
‘91; sulphuric acid (free), 1:12; hydrochloric acid (free), -98 ;
ammonia ; sulphurous, and phosphoric acids, traces.

Wickliffe Bay, Otago.—Black J. G. New Zealand Official Year
Book, 1896, p. 434.

Alkaline saline water.—Total solids, 276-7 grs. per gal.
Alkalies, 83:0; lime, 11:5; magnesia, 18:3; sulphuric acid
(combined), 39°53 ; chlorine, 112-0; carbonic acid (combined), 12°6.

SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

Communicated by J. W. Jones, Conservator of Water. Analyses
by G. A. Goyder, F.C.S.

Waters from the Central Australian Secondary Artesian
Basin. (Table VI, page 106.)

G

98 RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

Kalgoorlie and Coolgardie.—Communicated by F. 8. Earp, Ph.D.,
F.C.S.

(Table of analyses, VII, page 108.)

NEW SOUTH WALES.

Bungonia.—Rev. J. Milne Curran, Proceedings, Royal Society,
New South Wales, vol. xxvii, 1894, p. 54.

A carbonated alkaline water.—Total solids, 103-18 ; calcium
carbonate, 61°10 ; magnesium carbonate, 10°83 ; ferrous carbonate,
*30 ; sodium carbonate, ‘80; potassium carbonate, 6°26 ; sodium
chloride, 9:68; calcium sulphate, 1:97; silica, 1:47. Contains
free carbonic acid gas.

Ballimore.—J. C. H. Mingaye. IVth Report, Australasian
Association, 1892, p. 277, and Proceedings, Royal Society,
New South Wales, vol. xxvi1, pp. 115 and 102.

An alkaline water, highly charged with carbonic acid gas.—
Specific gravity at 65° F. 1:00359. Total solids, 224-62 grs. per
gal. ; sodium bicarbonate, 183-10 ; potassium bicarbonate, 12°82 ;
lithium bicarbonate, -05 ; calcium bicarbonate, 11:38 ; magnesium
bicarbonate, 9°36 ; strontium bicarbonate, trace ; iron bicarbonate,
‘70; sodium chloride, 6°92; alumina, trace ; silica, °28.

Jarvisfield, Picton.—A. J. Sach. IVth Report, Australasian
Association, 1892, p. 272, J.C. H. Mingaye; Jbid., p. 279,
and Proc. Royal Society, New South Wales, vol. xxv1, 1892,
p- 102.

Total solids, 182:56 grs. per gal.; magnesium bicarbonate,
31:22 ; calcium bicarbonate, 11:13 ; sodium chloride (with a little
potassium), 120-00; magnesium sulphate and chloride, 11°13 ;
silica, -33 ; calcium sulphate, °67 ; sodium nitrate, -28 (Sach).

Milparinka.—Communicated by A. H. Jackson, B.Se., F.C.S8.,
Melbourne.

Contains chlorides and sulphates of iron, lime, magnesium,
sodium, and a little alumina ; reaction acid; strongly constipative.
Horses and dogs will not drink the water unless perishing by
thirst.

J. C. H. Mingaye. Proceedings, Royal Society, New
South Wales, vol. xxv1, 1892, p. 101.

Chalybeate water, containing free carbonic acid gas.—Total
solids, 15°76 grs. per gal. ; iron bicarbonate, 5-98 ; magnesium
bicarbonate, 2°24 ; calcium bicarbonate, 2:04; sodium chloride,

2°15; potassium chloride, 2:04 ; magnesium chloride, 1:29.

Mittagong.

MINERAL WATERS OF AUSTRALASTA, 99

Narrandara.—Communicated by A. H. Jackson, B.Se., F.C.S.,
Melbourne.

Total solids, 256-4 grs. per gal.; sodium chloride, 132-4 ;
sodium sulphate, 93°72; magnesium sulphate 49:2 ; calcium
carbonate, 74°8; iron and alumina, 2°74; silica, &c., 3°94
reaction alkaline.

Rocky Flat, near Cooma (Monara district).—J. C. H. Mingaye.
Proceedings, Royal Society, New South Wales, vol. xxv1,
p. 103.

Alkaline water.—Total solids, 142°52 grs. per gallon ; sodium
bicarbonate, 45:29 ; potassium bicarbonate, 17°15 ; calcium bicar-
bonate, 52°08 ; magnesium bicarbonate, 22:40; strontium bicar-
bonate, strong trace; sodium chloride, 5:04 ; silica, 56; highly
charged with carbonic acid gas.

VICTORIA.

Castlemaine.—Communicated by A. H. Jackson, B.Sc., F.C.S.,
Melbourne.

Total solids, 165 grs. per gallon; sodium chloride, 101-05;
sodium sulphate, 17-5; sodium nitrate, 3-7; sodium carbonate,
5:4; magnesium carbonate, 11:1; calcium carbonate, 18-6; iron
and alumina, 4°25; silica, 1:4; reaction alkaline.

Corangamite Lake.—A.W. Craigand N. T. M. Wilsmore. IVth
Report, Australasian Association, 1884, p. 270.

Total solids, 3222-7 grs. per gallon. Calcium, 4:41 ; magnesium,
89-04 ; potassium, 27-09 ; sodium, 1130-15 ; sulphuric acid, 53-06 ;
chlorine, 1911:84; bromine, 7:14; contains free sulphuretted
hydrogen, carbonic acid, and lithium.

QUEENSLAND.

Communicated by R. L. Jack, F.G.S., F.R.S., Government
Geologist of Queensland.

Charleville (Artesian Bore.)—Water said to possess curative
properties in cases of ophthalmia, rheumatism, ulcerated sores, &e.

Helidon (Smith’s Well).—Report of J. B. Henderson, Hydraulic
Engineer, 1896, p. 114.
Chlorinated and carbonated water.—Total solids, 1027-6 grs.
per gallon ; sodium chloride, 578-0 ; magnesium carbonate, 205:0 ;
calcium carbonate, 88-0; iron oxide, 10°C.

100 RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

I.—Mineral Waters o!

Results expressed in grains per gallon.

Ti:
2|/e|ala|z
; 2)/2i|s |e4 a
Be Bie \a)/e 3 a
Name of Spring. q es os e = 3 2
iS io) ° iS) ° ° °
=] oO o o o o oO
3 E s S = =
e158 | S| B= | oe
Te Pupunitanga, Priest's Bath . 2... ce oc cieisiereo.0is 94-110 | 19°24] trace] 7:41] 3°03 | 21°67] 1° {
Waikupapapa, Saddler’s Bath ...............0.0 120 | 33-18 "26 | 2°44 "24 °32 | trace
Warkirihouy Vattss) ba bhiercereree sarc reloleiehelere ekeeroeere 112 | 32°87} 1°24) 4°93] 1°83] 33:22) 4-42
INearuapula, Gemini Bathe. ials <eleleleieiete steseelele eis 108 | 29°80 64] 6°87 31} .. | tragg
Toko; Postmagger’s! Babli mlecileri-racercele screenees 120 |45°09| °41] 2°45 30 | 1:34) “<7
Ail alicy SEVEN Opn bag onoodooadsconpoosUEccouboaUccooT 160 | 12°51 88) 2-21)" 1529 68} 315
Wife Winn OEM Soocee opeeacet eoucucosaeeacecoaD 90-112 4-78 13 | 2°04 “93 | trace
MIM Keabe yt Gress Sri Oe) aj0isy=sai.1- fakes ala levis ofe rele aie! Ve 160-212 | 12°66 59 | 1-01 69 | 11°22) 1°78
Sul phar Ba ys PEM eae ar atay- ttt tetcvors eieler teteyererereyererafere| feo = LOU) 8°37 ‘07 | 2°50 ‘93 | trace| 2°68
Berckaniasaeeee tty Seas). 0c aur eeneeae ee 130-150 |26°75{ .. | 2-45] 1°86] trace] “%
Whangapipiro, Mme. Rachel’s Bath .............- 170-210 HHS: |i es oe as a0 a
(OVER MIE Sear oococacscounco=-comacnduccsecescgs 140 ore 73 5-48
Hinemaru, Stonewall Jackson ..........c.sseeee0- 98-118 PRTG Be s ae fe Se
Matuatonga, Corlett’s Bath ............6e..scc0e- 172 He ea al eLORS2
Wihakarewarewa, Ulkore) cyccrr. cles terclsieielcleiciersieiel= = 96-120 | 13°47] .. an fe 55 D>
3 Moroteteaesea-e ss sseeceee eee a2 | 7-49| .. | .. | «— | 2a
ROGO ULNA PIG Be epee yaietelel-ceteia) aletalatcietotaieletelateinietetere Stag SON Merve D435) eters ale fa
SPAS sa Ue ect erete terete alee = Felon vel oka eee ole ishorete etaaetetote state 136-156 |10°31| .. ae nc ac 5
PaO UMN CO Ub Ul ereyetetoieketeteleverenersteleleletelekeleterelashetevaretsrtep) 90-108 7:06
Te Kawoanga, Cameron’s ...0... 20s g ces olan oe vinie 109-15 | 44°54] .. “6 as G6 Br
50 (PAITNKALTOrh aye atetepets cro roveueloveteloteretensrevors 204 | 29°14) .. a “3 fe Bc
(OM ong en cece canceOUC OT aC GDOr 80-109 | 23°71] .. Be ete « a

MINERAL WATERS OF AUSTRALASIA. . 101

the Rotorua District.
Analyst, W. Skey, F.C.S.

S
¢ o
= a o Sy
= =, ret 3 3 3 3 o = = e
<4 |% = S$ 1g ; 3 5 & = | © am 1d
= | = = zs Re} = 3 qj >) ie =
eS i| Ss & 5 S g 5) a 5 aS} 1S) : Ss =
53 Sd o = S AS | = | = nD 5) S
a 2 = iS 5 = eI S| < D | z Soe
a ue} =I i) mM 3 3 = > oO
a | >< eI = FI 3 g = & ae | @ B =) |S
a | o = | a = = = a 5 | 3 a Ba |8
o | o 5 3 = iS = 3 5p | cS) 5p Ss Bi | 2
Mra i o|l|sizl/sesialis g a | 3 3 3 | 8
& | & nm Ay R a oa) ie) = f=} ‘e) a i a |o
9312} 3°65|18'41| .. sn _ x ca oi oy ae = 96°77 | 2°98] 2°16
4:99] 7:49] 8:23] .. es es AJ sa of ens mM .: 56°45 | 3°61
4
30°32] 6:14/17°61| .. o eff si ie 2 mess ne .. | 18258] 3:02] _.
811} 6°76|12-01| .. a ws 2 a an eee ee ais 59°50 | trace
17°86 | 7°40|10-10] .. = =< a = 3 ee ne 2) 85°67 | 5:6
13°95 | 2°62/18°15| .. re Ee ik re P i he e 54-94
12°48] 3°82] 4:12] .. rt ah ae oe : 3 Bs . 29°51 | °98
77) 1:°63/12°40] .. i re Ms * FS eae ys ms 48°44 | 5°74
|18°02] 86/1008) .. rr a3 ee zy 33 ae e AJ 44°52 | 1:01
meeo 881817) 6s) .. Pe a * mY Boks ou 2 56-00
Ee -. | 18-21} 3°41] 69-43 | trace| 31°02] 4:24] 1:09] 2-41]! .. Sy Weasels.) ese
mie. 114-90) .. (60:44) .. | 8-38] .. 32) 142) .. | 1:04] 91:98] 5:52
-. | 8:29] 4:69| 93-46] trace} 6°41] 2°89] 1:02) 210] .. te ieareo ||| 5. cd
a as 66°44 29:27 672] 31) 113-27 | 2-21
- i 1-24 | 53°61 16°32] 1°61] 114 39 87-78
‘as 2 a 1-46 | 66°34 | trace| 2°08] 3°16] -76 ull se .. | 104:54
Meee | 853| 47) 6-25| .. | .. | asi! -z 99] .. | .. | 32°45
es | «. | 18°42] 2°08] 45-70] .. | 2°57] -34] -12 “Bib a 79°85 | .. ve
ce | -- | 5°55] 97/2904] .. | 32712] 1:62] -40 LN So x 78°33
«- | 592] 9:92] 1-67 | 12-04 62 | 5:22] 1:28] 80°51 | 4:42] .-
Chlorides.
“ee | 684) 18°02] 1-71} 46-42] .. mn by a 4:92] 2°66] 1°47] 110-48 | 4:84] ..
mmeeres|iss6| -77| .. | .. | .. | .c | .. 293 | 2-04| 1°62) 6019] 319] ..

COMMITTEES.

RESEARCH

102

92° AE PSP ae GS Ie 28 Neha || 2

oe | er) Wie] 2289 Ge | Giz |) Teka |] Chak
OF-F0L | 9-420] °° 96. | 26: | 19. | TS. 25

SCOR al TOT ean ROGaDe | GOsLe | Oren Soak :

** | 76.201 |66-ST| "°° | 6F- -* | Tp. |a0%tq | O13

; 26:97 |Sl.8T| “7 | SLL-| OFT |: ** |eovay | O12
86-88 |#9-2E] "7° | FS | 9-9 | 69. | 99. | 6-2
GON OL:cele seen | oak |66-6 | 90:9" || Gee BP
PL0ST | 99-6 | “°° | 20-8 | 68.8 | 80-T |. 90va9

ee lH rgers Wyetye|| SSCS learn || Wa |e? Ihe |) 1a
OG PGeiicr-O0 |) wale \NPGeh \06-Gi |atvaen|| (08: a
11-86 |79-9 | °°" | @9.T | F9.¢ | 00813) LP.

oo CHO |S || 8202 |) HS || Ge ** |aoesq | 10.3

mo | ascent) | POP | eYhIe || Grol! a0vd} | L0-

© | GES axa) POSS | TEBE |) Gees #3: || 86-0
erate Wise} || 222 I Gyaie I aay | Saks. |encROL || WSS

Te Gers W2c-9) | see2 ||| £853: 166-9) ||| F850 ||66-

: CHOOT OPM |eee | Ten Wl O0st |nOscn| One es

: C8-86T | 12-9 69. | SFT | TLh |-OLT | °

22 I Sian fall “7 1 69. | ZE-T | 84-9 | 20819

8-9 | GZ.9LT |¥0.26| ST-FOT | ** oD s

86-8 | 26-ZFL | 12-61] 17-81 y : :

mM

€ | ee Sa Sa a es

s =o io) EP Em ba Bo °

& on jaf, is Q n See Fo
5B ° 2 2. & =y Q

x ee > ts) (S}, 2 S) [=

% Q 8, Eg : 2 Sh

a Fs a: g, 5 2 | ¢

S 5 Bele B| 2

oO a 5

g :

"S'0'd ‘Aoxg MM “asd oUy

90-3 Sg rage) I XebIe || US: |) edie Poe eoh orp es OPYLEAL “TYMVIVAL | 2
26-8 “* * 6F-1 18.CF oa oe WIvaIyS oe 13
18-9 . . 2-1 OF.99 Orr WHO DMO sien ‘ON “e “ 03
99-9 : 16-1 | 19-69 OAT 86)" °° "2 T‘ON aornog 61
&9- 90-2 | 92.98 | °° |°'*' Sundgcerj-ea, = 81
68-1, 90vl} €0-FL seee Z ‘ON oe “ee LL
€6- aovty | 10.8 “TON Ie ‘O'V ‘tyryediem | OT
CE.Z | To, SOL |unreemtnrtsseet esters: remoyoy | oT
20-6 66 3.| 90-62L | 96E fo ‘ON a iat
69-6 ; oo Osi? | BIE |feoweecares T ‘ON a0In0g &L
79-8 . . 90vA4 19-1 90L ee . yoRurng “ ZL
68-8 : -* | 90vI9 | IG. 1 ia) Glee ipa Sumdg une sé IL

me : 90014 | 91-6 Quy aaltsugeiek weatys Ploo se OL
19-G BD 9081} | 28. OG eae Fee $ UOSIOY GoW ‘s Aayory 6
66-F . 90814 | $6.9 (oy Sh ean] eee ee OR elovoy ‘ayIyvunydO 8
ZO0-T oD vovry | 10-T race |feoan00 qeiq uo Suudg = ** 1
TL. : 96-2 | 69-T9T | SOL |" *" “oroyryautyQ 9
FET : ** | 70.€ | 92-88L | Z6T |" * UOIpNeD soy g
TL. : ** | $Le | 18-68L | OST [°° °° 27 9SAN S,MorD ‘oulyeny |
GP.9 S 90vIy €8. CLL 3 ng haa T9VCM AFT AL ‘TOMBALE AL €
€8-91 Ogee |G2-6h Ole |ESO:ca) (6S eee Toye MOTI X af j
91-92 | gg | 60-1 | 69-ST| 19-3 | 99-69 | EE | °°" '* 40qVMA MOVIL “Vaeyojoy | T

ine

n @ |) 2 a Q a 4

Ei Z|) 2 2, [2h 2 g

gh Wee g 8 g g 3

Bea a a: a a @

o 50 © @ o co) 2

° es || So 2 2 a . He ee mm

| eee Oo a ms m sutadg pue sy1[v00'T NC

ce} 3 a 2, So , ry

for 5 93 Q p> i— 2

= 2 5 rt B = a

i= B n i=} _ 5

= jor oS 5 iS t5

‘uoy[es aod sureas ur possoadxo sz[nsoy

‘suyeg sAopory (1) stoye Ay [erourpy, odney— TT

103

MINERAL WATERS OF AUSTRALASIA.

a 88-896 | $9.16] ~° | 29-6 | TFT ne ens “1 16-6 iy
aa €L-8L | 02. | TI- a ble : “ 166-8 | 90v1
IL-S9L | 68-8T FI-L | OF-Z 62-9 | PL.
GL-L6G | 10-ST}| “° | 09-L | 98-1 f i PLS | Ga.
3 GO0-GOL | SF-9T “ 10L-L | $61 . 06-9 | 90814
‘ ILSSL | 8-21 “ |9L6 | 04-1 : 4 FG-FL | 9OVAY
: OF-83 TLL 1 i Zz “| 08-6 | 20-6 | 90814
“* | PL-F1S | 6L-9T “ | TLL | 66-1 ia ~ | TPL | 9014
06-116 | $9-ST “ | %8-T | TL-6 . 16-9 | 62.
ce 66-68 | 10-6 PLS | FET ‘ e2 “* | T9-TL | 62-4
a G8-F& | £0-8 69-6 | OF-T ES 96-T | #0-
|
i GZ-09 | TT-02 | Z9- ~ | SF-IL | L9-€L | 66-6
a SP-SP | $5.1 | OF- F . “| @8-GT | 18-8 | £38 :
mM id z,
3S re) i (e) ie) ° bd =] ue] EACy
e| fe) |S |e| | eles) & | = | ee
oI Qe, 2 ° ° ° Bo | 3 & | Bo |
+ aS 5 ae Ee Ey WES || eS ° Bo |
on 3. gS (Pl n > ee ba) > Fr
me Be 8 i = g Q 4) —
e 6 > | 99 a. = a] © g &
“ 2 i = a & g i er 5
ow 5 a g is} E = & is
S E o> Uh sical zap ils al allies =
¢ a 5 a ; a

VIN JO Opltolqo

“UINTSOUS

st" "* Foog ousedurveyy BG

FLSL| LL-OL| 02-961 | GIG €1
19.1. |%9 | 80-1T | S4L |°*** ousedareyD 9194rT -: aL
PELL | 61-9 | ZOOZLE | OL | [00d 491g oP IL
10-11 | 1Z-FL | 00-041 | OIG jtaskapavan “ Or
#9-6 | 2-9 | 12-61L | Z1Z |laskayH yvo1y aps YyNOYG se 6
69-G | PL-OL| SP-OLL | USL |°*°*** YuUld eS i 8
TL. | o0v.14] 18.¢ 00g |" a7“ y
IL9 | $6.9 | 46-TLT | O9T |°°**** tear apis YON 9
FLL | 20-4 | 09-F4L | GIZ j4oskay AoW, twuva4g Me G
FL-6 | 99814} 61-6 80) Teall amos “** TeYOUIYOMTY “Tove AL | F
16-2 | 99V1}| 10-8 |POL-26, "°° TeyNY VULZLIY “AOATY OPVYLCAA | &
62. PLE “+ |s19y@ 4 Jo Surqoayy os 3
“+ | 90019] 28. “UlvaIg ULL ‘OMIeSuoy, tuvzyyoy | T
(@) Q ie} 4
Se) 8
a | 8 3 | 3
ov a oy @
o o o sy
2 = <3 a!
5 ay p 3 ‘Satidg puv Aq1[/eo0'T ‘ON
= | & = rj
Pall seek) eee |B
D =]
8 Z. 8 4
5

‘SO ‘A079 mM sdyeuy

‘aoT[ed aed sureas ut possoadxo sqpnsoy

‘Troyer AA (Z) Stay AA [esourpY Oduey— TTT

RESEARCI COMMITTEES.

104

i LEST | LT-6T}] “* | THT | IL-6 i a “ |6Lé | 19- OL-§ | 91-4 | &1-4 | 16-601 66L Re ee, ae cam OX aa AO)
fis c6-1F§ | OL-SL| “" | PLT | 20-8 af sid “116-5 | L8- GG.G | GL-FL| SF-eT | LL-18% 402 voesresssess tevureqrcuey | ST
** | 84-978 | GL-6L] ~° | 10-6 | ST-€ i % “* 106-8 | IL-T | 16-9 | T€-11 | FL-ST | €8-626 861 cones’ BlBY MNCL, | FL
£5 99-626 | TT-PL}| °° | 66-T | 71-6 “e “2 “* | 66-6 | T6- 6L-F | L1-FL | 1G-FL | TF. L716 Ost ae = HORE ERICE ICSI
ae 8F-F9S | 98-41) °° | $46 | PLP x *2 “* | 18:6 | 90-T | 60-9 | 9T-8T | 66-6 | F9-1T0E 891 Batata Nor re “TRJONLL | GL
Pd 88-L1T | 09-6T] °° | O8-L | G6. os a “* | TLL | 90819) 0-6 | TLL | F¥- | OT-L8 98 soeeeeeeee ss“ OVaTCYLMA | TT
ia 8G-E8T |F6-L | ~“" | 16-6 | 19.6 i. he “* | $8.6 | 90819 66.6 | 91-46 | 28-9 | 99-661 OIL sores ss THLOMOM VAT | OT
aD F8.1LF | 6-66] °° | 89-E | LT. “ a “* 116-T | #9-6 | 6L% | 96-ST | 91-61 | 02-768 | GLZ-806 "* BBUlOg 0} OL0YOIOY OF, | 6
a FP-LOV | OL-FG} ~° | 6-8 | 66-7 i: 35 “| 66-6 | 86-6 | 29-2 | 61-91 | LP-IL| LL-968 GST soreeesess Surg runmed | 8

¥ 00-196 | 61-Fo| “" | 11-6 | TL es + “" 129.6 | 00U14) T9-T | 60-9 | 64-6 | 4-106 OFT sreseesess Suridg odney | 4
- 10096 | L4T-86} “" | 88-6 | 09-6 me e “* | TPG | 00VI9 | LF-T | TL9 | 9T-OL} 29.006 GOL ee eee ATI STa 19 19
“us I6-FFS | 18-F2| ~° | 81-6 | 18-8 =e ig “* 108-F | 1436 | 96-F | 08-ET | ZT-8T | FL-89F | G6L-9ST sores Sundg surdyugod | g
ee O&-cEh | PLLE] ~* | 66-T | 19.6 - a “ 1ALS | 69-6 | 96-6 | 46-FL | 66-FL | 16-128 GéL ee ete Sutids TEAL |p
cs GLGEE | OTST} “* | LL-6 | 78-6 on a “170-6 | 0-8 | FL3 | 86-8 | 66.6 | 9.186 est ce Van thee lal ire
Se 68-1F§ | SEAT] °° | €2-6 | 09.4 es ee “| PLP | 8L-S | FOL | 4T-OL |} TL-OL | FL-062 6 soe OOD |
ee 60-298 | 22-8T} “" | 62-8 | 18-6 fa “* | 96-F | 1-9 | 10-L | STIL | G6-FL] LT. 108 OFT TO SEEHEEER TIE

> ‘ i
gezlo2 ary S a g Se ZS ES&S EIS aoe ge £8 3. go. 283. £28) 2.2 Bo8 ‘Buyudg pure Ag1e007T On
g s/he) * | 89 |e SiB. S12 SisBa\s SF e/PB 2 5é e|2 s|§ &) PF & |S
‘s'og ‘AoxS (AA “Qs4reuy ‘uoT[vs rod sureis ut possoadxo sqpnsoy

nuveyoy, (g) stoyV AA [erouTy, Odney— AT

105

MINERAL WATERS OF AUSTRALASTA.

_ 66
ie FL-E1 a
on 1G-F

O<<4 0 O™ seceee “cc

RID Sic

SSeéa5

S gca> COL “<“

mS Sgo | 99-9 :

) “ce

SAo2o, | 98-9

BS) EO IG Toles? es:

® pee ee

pices teenie IL-9 mn

ey To Ps

Bt Wee

(=a 00-9 i.

- eel :

EFSS5 | FF9

FoBerae | 0918

th 2.» ; 6s
oY OB, 10-2 a
Bah s PI-L
SEBS

‘
® S28 OL-9 »:
eee | eee te or
Zone 12-4 -
BEeas | Stl
Oo — —_ 2 a
coos 9G. 4 se0GL],

‘apIxO

“BOIL uody

“

*“SooUVL],

“CUILUNL YW

3L- TST 10-1 | 26-1 91-8 gS DES Peccyteelt ZL-ZLT
98-6 L3- £9. 36-8 phe alli ier Il: Te
=)
9L- T&S 19€ | 16-9 |9Lz | 2o8]| Ler | 09-F1F
$9126 | Gre | FIL 986 | BES | 19-3h | OLF0F
79-108 | €L-€ | IT-9 98-16 | 52.8 | L9.0P | 12.088
16-008 | 66:36 | 21S | 96.20 ae ORL? 18-088
PP-196 | 99-6 | TLS | I-02 “| 69.68 | 0-088
61-912 18-3 | £96 | 6L-6I ss | 5%.G8 =| 09-8F8
LI-108 19-3 | 6-6 | 91-23 ee rani? 19-8L¢
L6-1SF IGF | Led 16-26 | 96-T | 1-99 | 92-8L¢
03: FFF PEF | OF-L 40-68 | 9 3. | SI-L9 SI-F9¢
GL.66b | 666 | SLL | PLSe | PEE | €99 | Lesiy
Sickie:
sco | ste | 169 | c69¢ | FES | 189 | sbs69
6F-9FS | FIG | 29-b | OL6T | BE.S | tare | ZS-118
61-6aF 03-F | F3L 38-38 & | 1¢-09 LI- 149
63-93F 1S | StL 19.38 | 06-1 | ¢F-09 | 92.68¢
9¢-19F | 98:9 | LLOL | a8-8e | S41 | 39:09 | 66-98¢
“epog ‘wBISOUSL]y | “auu'y “epog | uinissvjog| “uinIpog “spr[og
jo JO jo jo jo Jo [RIVULYAT
ayeuogIvy | o}vUOgALH| oyvuUOGIVH)} oyvyd[ng | opmolyO | opuolyD [PIOL

"S'O'd ‘Aes (MA “yshTeuy

"S19]VM [VIOULP VYOLY 9T—' A

PIC Si
proo | LT
opanAo OI
6&T GT
col ial
OGL él
88 GL
88 IL
96 OL
GIL 6
601 8
98 L
FO 9
OOT G
cb P
aa &
GIL G
cOL I
‘a “duioy, | ‘on

‘uo][ed sod suread ut possordxo sqynsoxy

106

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

Results expressed in grains per gallon.

oO on

ben f

VI.—Waters from

N. Territory.

ak aie ne ac es nS aS
Name of Spring. Z z Z 2 52 Z 2 a3 53 Z 2
n a a n is) A 4

Stranyways Springs .......... 329°71 7°30 16°88 18°09 18°55
Bopeechee Springs ...........- 97°06 3°05 13°34
Mount Hamilton Spring......... 223°77 4°20 37°81
Coward Bore Hole ............ 172°24 2°90 19°63
Coward' Sprinter ern see 15805 3°20 20°59
HranCisiS prin opie ee er eee 290°11 6°10 “59 36°17 | 24°54
iBlanchelCupieere.ciee seta seer 215-28 4:10 15°47
Anna Creek Bore Hole ........ 286°93 4°80 27 35°02 22°61
NAO SNS! Seconencnosooodc 59°16 1°60 2°38
/Nxcooilitneh ESsopancouopocHoes 56°54 8°49 | 14°53 18°32 8°20
Indulkananc «5 <a) sierarecieleis clesis 47°53 2°51 83 16°43
Herrgott Springs .............. 73°77 3°45
Shallow well, n’r Herrgott Sp’s.. 88°84 2-78
Moun tebireelin on ersretercorecerete eres 46°55 “06 35°58 810
WattsiS pring seems cccieieretee 195°56 1°58 84°15
Mr. Wyly’s well at Farina ...... 1,301°59 1:07 60°60 255°61 98°92
Well on Reserve near Farina... . 265°08 18 32°05 23°80
MhesPeake weerrtaaeiyrceer ieee 124°19 3°30 48°56 8-40
@adna-Owlemnrry emotes 96°87 2°30 41°90 2°55
Andrawilla, Eleanor River...... 132 “90 “60
Healy Springs, Indulkana Sp’gs. 55°60 5°06 6°53 5°95 | 15°71
Oolarinna Soakage Well........ 59°46 9°19 8°40 10°20
Billa-kalina Springs, Strangways 271°47 2°69 36°53 5°20 “24
Sulphur Spring, Strangways 320°86 5°92 34°89 18°70 10°80 16
Nilpinna Spring] yyaceemerice cciee 116°40 3°35 25°46 9°56 21°49
Weeding) S princi e-em eee erect 135°62 3°88 | 26°21 25°47 | 38°39
ThakesHarty, Borenstein 28°28 1°75
Kopperamanna Bore .......... “Tr50 > | trace
Codnadatta Bore .............. 79°92 dc 20°05 10°55
Hamilton Creek Bore .... ....- 72°17 18-04 9°05
Coward Bore, 1 mile from No. 4. 168741 18°76 aK
Alton Downs, Herbert River, gaa) *5D 1455) 25 18°45 5

MINERAL WATERS

South Australia.

Sodium
Carbonate.

Sodium Bi-
carbonate.

41°21

Calcium
Carbonate.

bo
On
=
oO

5°25

OF AUSTRALASIA.

Analyst, G.

Magnesium
Carbonate.

4°43
9°90
10°29
9°48

12°11

3°96

19
2°03
171
8°40

13°61

20°36
5°12
4:28
1°54

Carbonate.

Tron

10°03

Sodium

Silicate.

Calcium
Silicate.

3°59

Magnesium
Silicate.

1°59

°25

Aluminium
Silicate.

107

A. Goyder, F.C.S.

o oO 3
£2 3A psa
416°53
178-28
wee | 308-47
252°74
239-22
373,61
282°40
366°33
125°73
114 | 130-27
1:00 83°23
3°49 "85 | 157-22
2°58 1°20 | 180'26
1:70 | 116°88
1°34 67 | 317°56
“30 “21 |1,767°84
‘49 | 374°92
03 35 | 207-21
06 “60 | 163°50
03 1°00 18°65
= 104°38
“05 PALA G L
“15 ‘90 | 366°15
trace 112 | 429-47
27 | 114 | 201-67
10 18 | 256°87
“05 12 110°51
69°44
125°59
11279
245°50

06

1°35

191°12

COMMITTEES,

RESEARCH

108

O-LEFE =| FEF | LF | 4-81 “| £L-891| °* | 0-988 | 0-48 a | 0-6LL6 CO ae eh Sao poce any
“L6ST ‘out poyuA qyNog snss01/)
0-200G | 0-GOT | 99823 | 0.4F 90 Ore PS NOLES | = O.OL |e08aa|(0.98ET “C68T ‘erpred[ooy * aul Ivgq wapjor)
0.981e am 107g - “ lg.g6t| °° logezlo.g9r| °° |Ozlae fun Hi treeseeteeeteretentes QagT
‘or[1008]8 y ‘OUT cats AN alpavespoog
0-SOTE oe ee USGS ae oa “1 0-06F | 0-FST | ° “| 0: 66F% 968T ‘erj1ooayeyy * SUTIN SOUNBAT
0-668 | 99%17| 0.0L POSSE O:907 | Se 0825). O:GOR) Ty as O:0G09is tases cine Settee NorTa0O gun
‘east ‘s URUUv FY ‘e10g] qUATUUAAO®)
0-LE8p |0-GE | 0.84 | 0-L2 ee OsLe “* 10-012] °° |0:49¢]0-86 |0-SPLE |° oI[1003Tey ‘cERT OT 8 UBUU FT
G-GL6E | €-CEL| 1-90 | 9-96 “". | &-06 “| 0-988 | 6-S6 ae “1 O-9L68 [es aTtoosyey “L687 ‘ouryy
pepuoyxa TH UMorq s,uvuuey
0-062 | 0-08G|0-FT | 0.cF Oke “10-016 | * | 0-68T | 9949 | 0.0696 ueeesess QrTOOS [VY “96ST
‘ayeqS TUM TH UWMoig s,ueuuep
0-08LE | G-C61|F-2S | OF-ST| L191 }0-GLT} ** | 0-828) °" so WON asker Pe seuss QT 0052
‘LOST ‘OUI TIT UMorg s.weuuezT
0:090F | 0-86 pit “5 - 0-297} *" |0-099|) °° wh | 09819) O.0108 [es ordoostey
‘C6ST ‘OUTTT [ITH UMorg s,uvuursy
8 iS) ice 29 = Q nm z Q == pe) nm
o Be | fF epee Seis) =a FE | 3B | € | $8 B. E
25 “ase Be. i=} =) 2 4. B a’. S 5
# a § 2 # e& a) fe E S “AqITCOO'TT
+ o < ch = S
" 5 = 5 g =

‘Cs “a

‘uoT[vs aod sureas ut passoadxo sqpnsoyy

‘Ud ‘dieg ‘g Wf) sppPey-ploy urryeajsny ysoA Worz stoye A, Jo stsk[eUy—TTA

GLACIAL BOULDERS—CENTRAL AUSTRALIA, 109

No. 4.—ON THE OCCURRENCE OF GLACIAL BOULDERS
AT YELLOW CLIFF, CROWN POINT STATION,
FINKE VALLEY, CENTRAL AUSTRALIA.

Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Captain Hutton,
F.R.S., Mr. R. L. Jack, F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Professor Tate,
F.G.S., Mr. R. M. Johnston, F.G.S., Mr. G. Sweet, F.G.S.,
Mr. J. Stirling, Mr. W. Howchin, F.G.S., Mr. E. G. Hogg,
M.A., Mr. E. J. Dunn, F.G.S., Mr. A. Montgomery, M.A.,
F.G.S., Mr. E. F. Pittman, Assoc. R.S.M., and Professor
David, B.A., F.G.S. (Secretary).

EVIDENCES OF GLACIAL ACTION IN CENTRAL AUSTRALIA,

I. Introduction.

Tue evidences herein described are supplied by a great number
of pebbles unmistakably grooved and striated by ice, several of
which are now exhibited.

The locality where the pebbles occur, Yellow Cliff, near Crown
Point, in the Valley of the Finke, Central Australia, was visited
by Professor Tate, in Company with Professor Baldwin Spencer,
on the occasion of the Horn Expedition in 1894. They both
observed then that some of the pebbles showed evidence of stri-
ation, though Professor Tate considered the evidence obtained at
the time insufficient to justify the conclusion that the striation
was ascribable to ice action, and consequently did not refer to
this in the account of the locality published in the Geological
Report of the Horn Expedition. Mr. J. A. Watt, M.A., B.Sc.,
also visited the locality, on the same expedition, and made the
following entry in his field-book, which he has allowed us to
copy :—

“ Before reaching Crown Point a peculiar structure is seen in
the small white and yellow kaolinised sandstone hills, the structure
simulating contortion, and probably due to settling of partially
consolidated material owing to the melting of ice.”

The locality is described as follows by Professor Tate and Mr.
Waitt* :—

“Yellow Cliff, at the S.E. bend of the Finke, near Crown
Point Head Station, which is about 50 feet high, consists o
yellow and buff sandstone, strongly false-bedded near the top,
intersected by vertical joints filled with limonite, enclosing pebbles
of Desert Sandstone and quartzite ranging from small gravel to
24 by 44 inches, occasionally 2 feet cube, the pebbles are some-

* Rep. Horn Scientific Expedition to Central Australia. Part III. Geology and Botany,
p. 72. London and Melbourne, March, 1896.

110 : RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

what rounded and smoothed, many of them are standing on edge.
At the east end of this bluff the sandstone is very tumultuously
bedded, and in its basal part contains a conglomerate of about
4 feet thick.”

This formation is grouped (op. cit.) under the head of Tertiary
river gravels.

Professor Baldwin Spencer, on the occasion of his second expe-
dition to Central Australa during 1896, being anxious to obtain
further evidence bearing on the possible glacial origin of the
pebbles, revisited the locality i in company with Mr. P. M. Byrne,
and together they succeeded in obtaining important evidence which
places ‘the glacial origin of the striz beyond dispute. They dis-
covered at Yellow Cliffa large number of pebbles glacially grooved
and striated, of which five specimens brought down and submitted
by Professor Spencer and Mr. Byrne to the Glacial Committee
are now exhibited.

II, Mode of Occurrence of the Glacial Pebbles.

The largest is 6 inches in diameter ; they are all of quartzite,
and of a reddish brown to brownish-grey colour. Four are
rounded, and one sub-angular; three of them have lost their
original upper surfaces through exfoliation. All exhibit glacial
striz more or less distinctly on their bottoms and sides. The
smallest pebble has been ground down to a flat surface, and has
been strongly striated and grooved by ice action. As regards
their mode of occurrence, it is stated that the pebbles, from ie inch
to 1 foot in diameter, occur in a layer from 2 to 3 feet thick,
imbedded in a sandy matrix overlying the soft, yellowish grey
sandstone, already referred to in the foregoing description. Their
level above the sea is about 1,000 feet. The general appearance
of Yellow Cliff is shown on the accompanying plate. The gla-
ciated pebbles may have weathered out of the sandy matrix in
which they now occur.

ITI. Stratigraphical Relations.

At Crown Point, in the same neighbourhood, Professor Spencer
and: Mire P.M. Byrne observed a formation which, judged on
lithological grounds only (as no fossils were found), appeared to be
identical with that under lying the stratum containing the glacial
pebbles. Whereas, however, the “ tumultuously bedded” sand-
stone at Yellow Cliff has only a general low angle of dip of from 2°
to 3°, it dips at Crown Point (if the above provisional lithological
correlation be correct) at 73°. At Crown Point the steeply-dipping
friable sandstone is unconformably capped by Desert Sandstone.
Mr. J. A. Watt states that he considers that the friable sandstone,
showing the tumultuous bedding at Yellow Cliff, is conformable to
the Desert Sandstone, the age of the Desert Sandstone (/. Tate and

FLV1d

*S3198Sd GSALVIOVID—AATIVA AMNI4 SSITQ MOTIZA

‘DIJDAJSNY JDAJUGD Ul UOLIY Jo1Iv/H UO aaz{IMUog

ayy JO Jogay
‘8681 ‘IIA ION ‘OS ‘AGY ‘OSSY NvIsvIvuLsAY

GLACIAL BOULDERS—CENTRAL AUSTRALIA. Lia

Watt) being Supra-Cretaceous, and f. R. L. Jack and R. Etheridge,
junior, Upper Cretaceous. The solution of this question as to the
supposed identity of the friable sandstone of Yellow Cliff with that
unconformably capped by Desert Sandstone at Crown Point is of
considerable importance as bearing on the probable geological
age of the glaciation. No glaciated pebbles were observed by
Professor Spencer or Mr. Byrne in the friable sandstone either
at Yellow Cliff or Crown Point, though some of its lower beds
contain a number of well-rolled quartz “pebbles an inch or so in
diameter, nor do they think that the glacial pebbles were derived
from a disintegration of the friable sandstones. Tf, therefore, the
friable sandstone which at Yellow Cliff immediately underlies
the 2 feet to 3 feet bed (out of which the glacial pebbles have
weathered) is identical with the steeply-dipping sandstone uncon-
formably capped by desert sandstone at Crown Point, then the
next formation below the glacial stratum at Yellow Cliff is
Pre- PUL Uses (Tate and Watt), or Pre-Upper-Cretaceous
(Jack and Etheridge), and judged by the degree of induration of
the beds is not likely to be as old as Carbonifer ous, though it may
possibly date back to the Permo-Carboniferous. The date of
glaciation of the pebbles, according to this view, may be carried
even as far back as the Permo- Carboniferous. If, however, the
view be adopted, that the Desert Sandstone and the friable kaolin
sandstone be conformable to one another, it is possible, though of
course it by no means follows, that the age of the latter is
Cretaceous. The fact, however, must be mentioned that in
some parts of Australia, especially in the western district
of New South Wales, as, for example, in the Gulgong and
Home Rule District, near Mudgee, the Permo-Carboniferous
strata are not only conformable with the Pliocene gold
gravels, but also very like lithologically, so that the gold-miners
have some difficulty at times in ascertaining in which “of the two

formations their gold-workings are situated. In other parts, how-
ever, of New South Wales, as in the Murrurundi district, there
is a marked unconformity between the Tertiary and Permo-Car-
boniferous rocks.

Possibly analogous conditions may obtain in Central Australia,
at Yellow Cliff and at Crown Point respectively, and the friable
kaolin sandstone at one point may be discordant, and at another

point concordant, with the Desert Sandstone.

In South Australia, also, the strata which contain the glaciated
boulders, fringing the coast, southerly and south east from Ade-
laide, at Hallet’s Cove, Inman Valley, Port Victor, and Cape
Jervis, are in places only slightly indurated, and there is no
marked unconformability between them and the overlying marine

Miocene beds, and yet there are reasonable grounds for believing g

1412 RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

that these glacial beds may be of Permo-Carboniferous age.
Stratigraphical and lithological evidence, therefore, is not opposed
to the theory that the friable kaolin sandstone may date back to
Permo-Carboniferous time.

The age, however, of the kaolin sandstone may not be by any
means synchronous with that of the overlying glacial deposit.
Professor Spencer and Mr. Byrne are of opinion that the glaciated
pebbles had not weathered out of the kaolin sandstone, and they
were unable to find any glaciated pebbles im sitw in the kaolin
sandstone.

There may not, however, be any considerable difference in the
age of the two deposits, and, in that case, they may both be
referable to some late portion of the Paleeozoic or some portion of
the Mesozoic era.*

IV. Geographical Position.

Yellow Cliff is on the right side of the Valley of the Finke, or
Larapinta, as the aborigines call it. It is situated in longitude
134° 5’ E., and latitude 26° S. With the exception, therefore,
of the very doubtful glacial localities in Brazil, it is nearer the
Equator than any other locality in the Southern Hemisphere
where undoubted traces of Pre-Tertiary glaciation have hitherto
been observed. In Southern Africa, the northernmost point to
which evidences of Pre-Tertiary glaciation have been traced, is,
as far as we are aware, the junction of the Vaal and Orange
Rivers, and Weltevreden’s Farm, near the same locality. At the
latter spot, Mr. E. J. Dunn, formerly Government Geologist of
Cape Colony, discovered glacial conglomerates, underlying sand-
stones containing Gangamopteris, and therefore referable to the
Dwyka Conglomerates, and at the former locality, in 1885, he
found a striated pavement. This is in latitude 29° 8., and longi-
tude about 23° 40’ E.

The age of this glaciation is Permo-Carboniferous.

Presumptive evidence of ice action far north in Australia, in
Pre-Tertiary time, has previously been adduced, from the Bowen
River Coal field, of Queensland, in latitude 23° §., longitude _
about 149° E.t

* Speaking for himself, the secretary is inclined to think that the association of glaciated
pebbles with the ‘ tumultuously-bedded ” kaolin sandstones is, in itself, evidence in favour
of the Permo-Carboniferous age of the glaciation. Nevertheless, the time which has elapsed
since Middle and Late Mesozoic, and even early Tertiary time, is so vast as to render it
impossible probably now to restore the past physical features of Central Australia as they
were in Jurassic, Cretaceous, or Eocene time. The possibility of the existence of inland
ranges in Australia, at any of the above-mentioned periods, sufficiently high to form a
gathering ground for glaciers, must not be excluded. He considers, however, that on the
whole, evidence at present, slender as it is, is in favour of a Permo-Carboniferous age for
these traces of glaciation in Central Australia.

+Report on the Bowen River Coal-field, by Robert L. Jack, p. 7, paragraph 39. By
authority : Brisbane, 1879.. Also Pres. Address to Geology Section, by T. W. Edgeworth
David: Austr. Assoc. Adyt. Sci. Brisbane, 1895. Vol. v1, pp. 63-64.

GLACIAL BOULDERS—CENTRAL AUSTRALTA. 1138

This evidence is in the form of erratics, up to 2 cubic feet in
capacity, sporadically distributed, or occurring in groups, in the

marine Permo-Carboniferous strata of the above coal-tield. As
however, none of the blocks hitherto found, exhibit glacial strie,
their glacial origin cannot, as yet, be said to have been demon-
strated. Mr. Jack has suggested as a possible alternative expla-
nation of the phenomena, that the blocks may have been entangled
in roots of floating trees, and have been subsequently dropped
from them. On the whole, however, the theory that they are ice-
borne, appears to us to afford a far more satisfactory explanation.

Mr. Jack states that in his middle, or marine, subdivision of
the Bowen series, the remains of trees are neither numerous nor
large (and this is the horizon to which the erratics belong), while
in the Upper Bowen Series (freshwater), which may be correlated
with the Newcastle Series of New South Wales, silicified tree
trunks of very large dimensions (up to 3 feet in diameter, and
over 40 feet long) are astonishingly numerous, and lie horizontally
embedded in the sandstone, which is suggestive of their drift
origin. The horizon of the drift timber, therefore, does not coincide
with the horizon of the erratics, another fact in favour of the
latter being ice-borne.

In the Northern Hemisphere traces of glacial action have been
met with even nearer the Equator than Crown Point or the Bowen
River Coal-field. Near the village of Trai, in Southern India,
striated and grooved rock pavements have been described by
Fedden, in latitude 19° 53’ N., at an elevation of 900 feet above
the sea. The Talchir boulder beds, in which erratics up to 30
tons in weight are embedded, extend to latitude 17° 20’ N.

V. Summary.

The discovery by Professor Spencer and Mr. P. M. Byrne, of
undoubted glaciated pebbles at Yellow Cliff, may therefore throw
important light on the extent Equatorwards of the carry of
glaciated rocks, possibly in Permo-Carboniferous time, unless the
glaciated blocks are the result of some local glaciation in Central
Australia, at some later period. It presents another inviting
tield of research among the many opened up by the Horn
Scientific Expedition.

More observations are now urgently needed to show the strati-
graphical relationships of the glacial pebbles, particularly to the
Desert Sandstone. The Glacial Committee desire to express their
thanks to Professor Spencer and Mr. P. M. Byrne, for kindly
placing their interesting collection and notes at the disposal of the
Glacial Committee.

114 RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

No. 5.—ON THE EVIDENCE OF GLACIAL ACTION IN
THE PORT VICTOR AND INMAN VALLEY DIS-
TRICTS, SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

Fourth Report of the Preceding Committee.

EVIDENCES OF GLACIATION IN THE INMAN VALLEY, YANKALILLA,
AND CAPE JERVIS DISTRICTS.

Physical Features.

THE localities referred to in the present notes are comprised
within the peninsula which forms the southern limits of the
Mount Lofty Ranges. The area is roughly triangular in outline,
with Port Victor and Normanville at the base and Cape Jervis
at the apex, and is bounded on the sea line by Encounter Bay.
Backstairs Passage, and the south-eastern portions of the Gulf
St. Vincent.

Between Port Victor and Normanville there is a stretch of rela-
tively low land broken up into minor hills and valleys, bounded on
the north and south by ranges of greater magnitude. This main
valley is divided transversely by the Bald Hills, which cross the
valley at two-thirds distance between Port Victor and Norman-
ville, and forms a water-parting between the seas on either side.

The Inman River takes its rise on the Bald Hills Watershed,
about 15 miles west of Port Victor, and empties its waters into
Encounter Bay. With its tributary, the Back Valley Creek, it
drains an area of about 50 square miles. The flats bordering the
river are of small extent, and the valley is occupied by undulating
hills that rise 200 feet or more above the level of the stream.

The Bungala River takes its rise on the western flanks of the
Bald Hills, and after passing through the township of Yankalilla
finds its outlet in the Gulf St. Vincent at Normanville, making a
course of 6 miles in length.

The main valley, including the country on both sides of the
Bald Hills Watershed, gives a length of 22 miles by road, and a
superficial area of a little over 100 square miles. The secondary
ranges of the valley, consisting mainly of newer deposits, do not
attain a height above sea level much exceeding 600 feet, whilst
the average elevation of the enclosing primary rocks is from
800 feet to 1,000 feet. The highlands which define the northern
and southern boundaries of the main valley consist of schistose
and other metamorphic rocks, and, as measured on the map, are
6 miles apart at the lower end of the valley (where the valley is
widest), but they converge on the western side, in the Hundred
of Yankalilla, and at two points the valley is narrowed to about
2 miles in diameter.

}
GLACIAL ACTION—SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 115

The physical features of the country lying between Yankalilla
and Cape Jervis can be best dealt with when the glacial evidences
of this district are described.

Glacial Features.—The Inman Valley.

The Inman Valley holds the first position in the history of
the discovery of proofs of former glaciation in Australia, and
Mr. Alfred R. C. Selwyn, at that time Government Geologist
of Victoria, had the honour of making this discovery. Whilst
travelling through the Inman Valley in 1859, engaged on a
cursory geological examination of the country under instructions
from the South Australian Government, Mr. Selwyn was fortunate
in observing a polished rock surface, which, to his practised eye,
exhibited clear proofs of glacial action. In his official report he
says: “At one point, in the bed of the Inman, I observed a
smooth striated and grooved rock surface, presenting every indi-
cation of glacial action. The bank of the creek showed a section
of clay and coarse gravel, or drift, composed of fragments of all
sizes, irregularly imbedded through the clay. The direction of
the grooves and scratches is east and west, in parallel lines, or
nearly at right angles to the strike of the rocks; and though
they follow the course of the stream, I do not think that they
could have been produced by the action of water, forcing pebbles
and boulders detached from the drift, along the bed of the stream.
This is the first und only instance of the kind I have met with
in Australia, and it at once attracted my attention, strongly
reminding me of the similar markings | had so frequently
observed in the mountain valleys of North Wales.”* Whilst
Selwyn made this striking discovery, he does not seem to have
noted the cognate evidences of glaciation in the extensive deposits
of drift, glaciated stones, and great erratics which form the chief
geological features of the valley.

In May, 1892, Mr. H. Y. L. Brown, Government Geologist,
S.A., published an official “Geological Report upon a Shale
Deposit in the Hundreds of Encounter Bay and Yankalilla,” in
which he says: “This formation consists of a jointed shale,
varying in colour from a bluish green to black, and interstratified
with them there are undulatory beds of sandstone and quartzose
sandstone, and occasionally limestone of irregular thickness. The
upper portion of this shale, which in some places exhibits a
concretionary structure, has become decomposed into clay, and
contains water-worn pebbles and boulders of granite, quartzite,
sandstone, ironstone, &e. Some of the boulders of granite are of
great size, and in character resemble the granite of Victor
Harbour. At one or two places on the Inman River there are

* Geological Notes of a Journey in South Australia from Cape Jervis to Mount Serle,
No. 20, p. 4.

116 RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

beds of sandstone grit and boulder sandstone, and these beds rest
on the primary rock (quartzite), from which they dip at angles
varying from 10° to 15°. They appear to be interstratified with
the shale.

“This shale deposit seems to occupy a basin beneath the
overlying Tertiary beds, and for that reason its extent cannot be
ascertained by a mere surface examination. * * * Asa
consequence of no fossiliferous remains having been so far met
with, no evidences are given of the geological age of this deposit,
but as it underlies Miocene Tertiary strata, it may be classed as
probably belonging to the older Tertiary or to the Mesozoic rocks.”

In relation to the surface geological features of the Inman
Valley, Mr. Brown states further, ‘Large boulders of granite,
sandstone, quartzite, quartz, &c., occur along the valley of the
Inman River, as well as in other parts of the area, embedded in
the clay-beds, and resting on the surface. The presence of these
boulders in the position in which they are found can be accounted
for only on the supposition that they have been transported from
their original position by glacial action.”

From the isolated position of this singular clay deposit, differing
as it does from all other local rocks, and its uniformly dark
colour, Mr. Brown suggested the possibility of its being coal-
bearing, and during the three years, 1892-95, the Victor Harbour
Coal Company tested it for this object. Three bores were put
down in the Back Valley in a lineal direction a mile or two apart.
No. 1 Bore reached a depth of 950 feet, and was stopped by
jamming of tools before the bed-rock was reached. No. 2 Bore
was also choked at a depth of 570 feet, and had to be abandoned.
No. 3 Bore recorded a depth of 975 feet, the last 11 feet of which
was supposed to be in bed-rock (primary). Particulars of this
bore will be given on a later page.

In 1895, in a paper read before the Royal Society, S.A., on
‘“‘ New facts bearing on the Glacial Features of Hallett’s Cove,*
one of us anticipated that these thick mudstones of the Inman
and associated valleys would prove to be of glacial origin, and in
age synchronous with the glaciation of Hallett’ s Cove, There is
now little doubt that this is actually the case.

In March last Mr. W. Howchin, F.G.8., of the local Glacial
Research Committee, together with Professor David (General
Secretary of Research Committee), and Mr. C. C. Brittlebank,
of Myrniong, Victoria, visited the Inman Valley and Norman-
ville with the intention of investigating the glacial features of the
neighbourhood, and more particularly bent on the re-discovery of
the polished glacial pavement referred to by Selwyn in his 1859
report. Starting from Port Victor, the occurrence of large

* Trans. Roy. Soc., S. Aus., Vol. XIX, p. 68.

*AATIVA NVWN[ 'MOOY Si\NAM1ES

‘W'S UOloY ]D19D/9 UO aapjimulog fo JAogay
“Il ALV1d ‘QE8I IIA TOA ‘OS ‘Ady ‘OSS NYISYIVuLShY

GLACIAL ACTION—SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 117

erratics became conspicuously evident, both by the roadside and
partly exposed in the cultivated ground on either side of the
valley. The lower reaches of the Inman River are much silted,
its waters flowing over a sandy bed, except where the stream has
cut its way by a narrow gorge through a spur of the hills and
flows between high per pendicular cliffs.

A little past the seventh milepost from Port Victor, the party
made for the river where a low exposure of the older rocks could
be seen in outcrop, distant about 248 yards from the public road.
This proved to be a very fine glaciated pavement, which we
immediately concluded must be “Selw yn’s Rock.” The bed-rock
is a very dense, dark-coloured siliceous quartzite, which at this
point occupies the entire bed of the stream. It dips in a direction
S. 55° E. at 26°. The principal polished face is on its northern,
or left bank, gently sloping to the bed of the river, and in a
position which must involve its submergence whenever the river
is in flood. The exposed portions of the polished pavement
measures over 20 feet in length and 6 feet in breadth. On the
water side it has been broken and eroded by the river action, and
to landward it has a cover of river silt several feet in height. By
clearing away the silty bank, the polished surface was seen to
underlie this cover for an unknown distance.

The glaciated pavement is not only highly polished, but deeply
grooved and striated. The strisw apparently belong to one system
and follow a uniform direction, with a bearing of W. 93° N.,
which agrees with the general trend of the main valley. The
grooves are broad rather. than deep, some of them measuring fully
2 inches in breadth (see pl. 2). A few yards higher up the
stream a smaller polished surface is seen on the southern bank,
where a washaway has exposed the bed-rock free from cover a few
yards away from the stream. The strize here have the same
general direction as on the larger polished face, which is diagonal
to the course of the stream, their trend being W. 12° N. Within
the limits of the current (as might be expected), the river-bed
has been eroded to an extent that has destroyed all evidences of
glacial action—the glaciated pavements, on either side of the
stream, being above all but abnormal floods. It is also evident
that at one time the polished rock has been covered by glacial
drift as the inequalities in the floor have been filled with a par-
ticularly compact sandstone, corresponding to the local arenaceous
drift, only of harder texture. Samples 6 inches thick were taken
from some of these depressions, and they are very suggestive of
having been formed as a moraine profonde. The aneroid reading
at this spot indicated a height of 200 feet above sea-level.

If this be the particular glaciated rock discovered by Selwyn,
it is evident that the bed of the stream has undergone some
changes in the interval. His description of the superficial deposits

118 RESEARCH. COMMITTEES.

of clay and stones resting on the polished rock agree very well
with the local drift, whilst the face of rock discovered by the
present writers was overlain by a bank of loose river silt. It is
quite possible that the bank of glacial drift has been washed away
and its place taken by more recent deposits, or otherwise the river
silt may have been washed up against the face of drift and thus
obscured it. No other examples of polished rock surfaces were
observed by us within the limits of the Inman Valley.

Close to this interesting spot, on the northern side of the
stream, there is a ridge about 100 feet high which is chiefly of
glacial origin. Large and very numerous erratics up to 12 ft. by
13 ft. by at least 3 ft., cover the sides of the hill, the larger
number being granite. In places the huge blocks of granite are
so closely heaped together that at first sight they were thought
to form a natural outcrop. A careful examination, however,
proved that this was not the case. Many of the large stones
were polished and faceted. These have evidently been weathered
out of an extensive bed of glacial drift which originally sub-
merged the hill. Interesting sections of the drift are exposed in
some of the lines of erosion cut in the hill sides by the mountain
torrents. At this place it is an indurated sandstone thickly
studded with erratics of all sizes and has a dip of 10° W.N.W.

At 94 miles from Port Victor an excellent section of the Drift
is seen in the bed of the stream, having a dip of 7° E.8.E., con-
taining numerous boulders of large size. One example of Port
Victor granite, which had been washed clear of the matrix,
measured 7 ft. by 6 ft., whilst others, almost equally as large,
were exposed im situ only partially separated from the drift in
which they were originally buried.

A quarter of a mile higher up the stream a good section of
drift is seen on the north bank, consisting of two very distinct
beds. The upper is a friable sand-rock carrying large boulders.
This bed has probably, to some extent, been rearranged, as it is a
softer stone than is usual with the drift of the locality, but the
included stones are mostly heavily striated and give no evidence
of river action. Subsequent to glaciation it is not unlikely that
the upper drift at this point has slid or been washed down from
the high ground on the northern banks. This boulder bed rests
on a dark mudstone containing few stones. The undisturbed
drift beds at this point gave the same dip as was found a little
lower down the stream, viz., 7° E.S.E., and showed a face 30 feet
in thickness.

About 150 yards higher up the valley the drift again shows
strongly in the bed of the stream as a white indurated sandstone
with irregular bands of conglomerate. Dip 8. 35° E. at 18°.
Here for some distance the bed of the river is almost choked
with an immense number of large boulders ; some of these, where

“AATIVA NVWN] OlLVHYNg

"W'S ‘UOlIY Jo1IDIg UO aajpimumog fo JAogay
V/1 FLY1d "BBSI IA TOA ‘OS ‘AGY ‘OOSSY NVISVIVULSNY

GLACIAL ACTION—SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 119

protected, showed distinct evidences of glaciation. About 200
yards still higher up the valley, where the main road almost
touches the stream, near the tenth milepost, a few very large
granite boulders occur in the bed of the river, some of which
have been drilled and blasted and the pieces utilised to protect
the banks from erosion. One of these,a pear-shaped mass, closely
resembles the Port Victor granites, and measures 11 ft. by 7 ft.
by 41 ft. The effect of weathering is seen in a partial exfoliation
of this large boulder, but in places it still retains the glacial polish
and grooving. A photograph of this erratic was taken by Pro-
fessor David. (Plate 3.)

From the tenth milepost the bed of the river continues to be
strewn with large travelled stones, chiefly granite ; one measured
8 ft. 6 in. by 5 ft. by 4 ft. 6 in. Another protruding from the
glacial Drift on the north bank measured 10 ft. by 7 ft. by 6 ft.
Another conspicuous example was of gneiss, giving a beautiful
illustration of augen structure, whilst the largest transported
stone seen in the bed of the river was observed a little west of
the Inman Valley Bridge, near the post-office, and measured
12 feet by 8 feet.

Nearer the source of the Inman the larger erratics are less
common, but at intervals the river flows over a_ bluish-black
glacial clay, or argillaceous sandstone, which is very soft, and,
apparently, destitute of stones, except some angular fragments of
decomposed shale, similar in colour and composition to the bed in
which they are included.

The Bald Hills, situated 15 miles from Port Victor, and 7
miles from Normanville, forms the watershed, as already stated,
between either sea, and divides the valley into an eastern and
western section. This transverse ridge is covered with a peculiar
soil, which is very black and deep, such as might be looked for
on low marshy ground, but very unusual on the crest of a range.
This peculiarity attracted the attention of Selwyn, who says :—
“‘T was unable to ascertain what rock it is that makes the rich
black soil of the Bald Hills, but I imagine it to be due to the
decomposition of the crystalline limestones, with the addition of
some hornblendic and micaceous rocks.”* As there are no local
limestones, and the bed-rock is a siliceous quartzite, it seems
impossible that the dark soil is the product of the decomposition
of the local rocks. It is more likely to have been derived from
the dark-coloured glacial clay, which can be traced to the eastern
flanks of the Bald Hills, and, doubtless, at one time covered their
summits. This is made the more plausible as there are abundant
evidences that the ice passed over the top of the Bald Hills at a
height of 640 feet above sea-level. A good section of drift with

* Op. cit. p. 4.

120 RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

stones is seen in a cutting by the road-side, just over the western
crest of the hill, whilst on the southern side of the road the steep
water-worn gullies are full of erratics and good sections of glacial
drift, a sitw with many ice-worn stones.

Here also, near the sixth milepost from Normanville, in the
upper waters of the Bungala River, two small faces of polished
pavement were recognised in a narrow mountain torrent. The
aneroid reading was 395 feet above sea-level, and the polished
rock is a hard and dark-coloured siliceous quartzite, identical in
character with the more important face in the Inman Valley.
The two polished slabs were in the same watercourse at slightly
different levels (about 20 feet), and on one of them is a conspicu-
ous vein of white quartz that has been planed down to the same
level as the quartzite matrix. The strike of the striz is E.24°S.,
and there is a continuous bed of glacial drift covering the rock
between the polished faces.

The gathering darkness prevented a close examination of the
country between the Bald Hills and Normanyille, and the bed of
the Bungala is much silted so as to obscure all but the most
recent deposits. On the following morning, however, a flying
visit was paid to the hills bordering the sea on the north side of
Normanville, when striated stones were picked up on the heights
with rearranged sandy material 200 feet above sea-level.

THE BACK VALLEY.

In a second visit to this neighbourhood, by one of us, observa-
tions have been made over a much wider area than that already
described. The Back Valley country runs parallel with the
Inman Valley, from which it is separated by a high ridge that is
continuous for about 6 miles. This dividing range was crossed
by following a district road that joins the main road about 74
miles from Yankalilla, passing the house of Mr. Thomas May field,
At an elevation of about 300 feet above the Inman a large

_rounded boulder of granite can be seen in a paddeck on left- hand
near to the fence. It measures 74 feet by 74 feet. Granitic
boulders continue to be seen up to the crest of the hill, estimated
to be 500 feet above the level of the Inman, and per haps 100 feet
higher than the road which passes over the Bald Hills. Near
the top of the hill there is a granite boulder 3 feet in diameter.

After passing the crest of “the hill the ground falls away, and
at about 100 feet less elevation the road passes along the summit
of one of the secondary ranges of the Black Valley “with a trend
S.S.E. and N.N.W. At the head of the road, near Mr. Marshall’s
house, a road cutting extends for about 100 yards, exhibiting
soft yellow sandstones, unstratified, but contorted. Strings ot
dark-coloured argillaceous material run most irregularly through
the stone, sometimes forming loops. No stones were actually

GLACIAL ACTION—SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 121

seen embedded in the sandstone, but striated pebbles were picked
up both on the natural surface of the ground as well as in the
loose sand of the road cutting, having, to all appearances, been
weathered out of the sandstone.

With the road still descending towards the valley, at a short
distance from the cutting just referred to, a second occurs of
precisely similar features associated with glaciated stones, and at
a further distance of a quarter of a mile a stony patch is exposed
on the northern slopes of the hill in the adjoining paddock, many
of the stones showing glacial features.

We descended to the Back Valley Creek to find the bores put
down in the neighbourhood by the Victor Harbour Coal Company,
but failed to discover them. The country is cut up into high
ridges and numerous narrow gullies, and densely covered with
scrub. The bed of the creek is shallow and much silted, and only
in two places was the yellow sandstone (? glacial drift) seen in
outcrop, and these were in conspicuous patches in the bed of the
creek.

It is to be regretted that no experienced person seems to have
examined the material taken from the bores referred to, and the
only information available as to the strata passed through is
contained in the log-book kept by the man in charge. The three
bores seem to have closely resembled each other in the nature of
the beds penetrated, and we subjoin particulars of No. 3 bore,
which was the deepest of the three :—

Nature of Strata. pices Ua ee ag
ity aba tts ae

SSUTELAC ER Cla Yarn ax sone ses cionacjorie Seieees Tesuctans oct Gahem ae seems 15 0 EW)
Sra CMementere ssc eh ntce onsets tee Seno Cen ener co tedoerodes 5p) 0 70 O
Sandstone rock ..c.ca).ccscess ees AN ROAD RE AA 0 8 70 8
Shaleswichelaverswon San claeeseentneneccecse tones nee 39 4 110 O
SANG SHON CERO Keener. eats ae ee toners eee hor See 0 6 110 6
Halerandesandls svcowssrassccsnceeen teak dened saenone eae ace 19) (Gy anleo) 20
SIDING IS HOMIE) TROLC) Feng RRM neem tek rarer ees ae Oe ee 0 9 130 9
Slralevamdlsand’s 2.5 <2..cces0ec0 eee Reales Pid ee lee ee: 1983 150 O
ANG SLOMeWOC eM M arcs e tank iadascnahhtes: Cate EEE 0 6 150 6
manduandy shal cacsnecsccssenciganescosse cael atch Soe mec GL Ges |) 212, 0
AMOS TOMEEOC Kags ate uas we ect oceieacion auton saree cee Renee (0) 214 O
Sand and shale—nearly all sand... ................ a Suiast PAL 235 0
Solid shale ......... i BRO EREE REE RE Chee na dec n eee (207-0 955-0
Sand) 2... Ted att dad os tC OR AAR CREAT HOARE EO ER ae cotibabnobacee 45 0 300 O
Slrall ever Gliese eae was sarersta eels aioste/e csr ae Glos seca See eee 6 O 306 0
Sandstone moc kamen eee cette at acactenceta sane ee eee 0 9 306 9
Sand and shale—nearly all sand ... ................600000- 193 3 500 0
Solid’ sand—almost'a sandstone .:............----<+ sees: 196 0 696 0
Sand and boulders, with occasional small bands of

Conglomerate aa ecece.eaeeuassser res scsea serene eee 268 0 964 0
Bineshard, rock. (primary, )c.ccn.! oseesoscese ee ogee aeeeee LO 975 0

Bore stopped.

122 RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

BALD HILLS AND YANKALILLA.

Followed the crest of the Bald Hills on north side of the public
road and observed granitic and other erratics scattered over the
fields of Mr. J. R. Kelly, M.P., at Cornhill, and picked up strongly-
glaciated quartz pebble near the source of the Inman, a little
above the Bald Hills post-ottice.

On the western slopes of the Bald Hills watershed, erratics are
common, especially in the tributaries of the Bungala River. Near
the fourth milepost from Yankalilla, 6 miles from Normanville,
there is a conspicuous face of drift on Mr. Capper’s ground, seen
from the road on the south bank of the creck near the house.
The section is about 200 yards long by 15 feet high, and consists
of soft, yellowish sandstone, studded with numerous erratics.

By far the largest and most interesting exposure of the glacial
beds of the neighbourhood i is seen in Wood’s Creek, about a mile
from the centre of the township of Yankalilla, and a few hundred
yards above the junction which the creek makes with the Bungala
River. For many years this stone has been worked as “the
Government quarry” for making and metalling the roads, the
quarry face extending 150 yards laterally, and has exposed a
thickness of stone of over 50 feet from the bed of the creek to
the top of the quarry. The stone is a white, yellow, and grey
sandstone, decomposing into loose sand near the surface, but, at
depth, passes into a compact grit. The bedding is a little uncer-
tain. On one side of the quarry, what appeared to be bedding
planes with a rolling curvature dipped towards the creek at an
angle of 20° N.N.W. The stone is conspicuously jointed both
vertically and obliquely, and where compact can only be won by
blasting. The bed is crowded with erratics of great variety, but
on account of the intimate union between the included stones and
the matrix, sometimes they can only be recognised by a close
examination of the face. Granite (of Port Victor type) is the
most common. One example of this kind was exposed on the
quarry face that gave the measurement 18 in. x 10in. Others
exhibited opalescent quartz as a constituent exactly corresponding
to a variety found at Port Elliot. Amongst the erratics were
also noticed mica schist, different coloured quartzites, quartz
pebbles, crystals of orthoclase, &e. The granite and schists have
undergone considerable decomposition, but most of the quartzites
and quartz pebbles retain striking evidences of glaciation. The
finer material consists of quartz sand, mostly rounded, strangely
intermixed as to size, whilst the cementing agent is apparently a
silicate resembling pipeclay, possibly the product of the grinding
down of the orthoclase of the granitic rocks. The junction between
the glacial beds and the older rocks is clearly exposed in the creek,
where the former are seen to rest unconformably on dark-coloured

GLACIAL ACTION—SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 123

quartzite, thickly penetrated with a network of syenitic and other
igneous veins. The bed-rock has a dip of 45° N.E., but is much
disturbed through igneous intrusions. So far as could be seen,
the bed-rock did not show glaciation at the line of contact between
it and the glacial drift. The indurated and jointed character of
the newer rocks is strongly suggestive of Paleozoic age.

A. little higher up stream the glacial beds run out, and are
replaced by the metamorphic rocks, but other outcrops were found
at several spots. Half a mile above the Government quarry two
angular pieces of yellow sandstone are seen jutting from the banks
on the east side, and a little higher up two patches im situ are
seen on the same side, one of them showing an outcrop of 9 yards
by 2 feet thick exposed from beneath the alluvial banks. Boulders
of the same material were found among the river gravel, at inter-
vals, to the bridge, which was as far as the stream was followed,
indicating further outcrops of the same rock in the upper reaches
of the creek.

FROM YANKALILLA TO CAPE JERVIS.

The journey from Yankalilla to Cape Jervis and back was done
in the day, and as it involved a distance of 46 miles no divergence
could be made from the road. The opportunities therefore for
examining the geological features of the country were extremely
restricted, and were confined to what caught the eye of the
observer from the conveyance. It is only fair to make this
statement, as otherwise, the evidence of glacial phenomena over
this country would no doubt have been recognised to a much
wider extent. Glacial deposits were seen in two cuttings on the
public road as follows :—

1. About 9 miles from Yankalilla and 1 mile south of Mr. E.
C. Kelly’s water-trough, the road passes through a clay cutting
about 8 feet high. On the eastern bank, near the top, an ice-
borne stone was recognised. It is a subangular block of red-
coloured quartzite, rough on some faces and highly polished and
striated on others. Measures 16 in. x. 12 in., with a circum-
ference of 32 in. x 31 in., and in weight is as much as a man can
lift from the ground.* Inthe same cutting, close to the preceding,
there is a much larger fragment of angular grey quartzite
measuring 2} ft. x 14 ft. No glaciation could be detected on the
surfaces of the stone exposed above the clay. Estimated height
above sea-level, 300 ft.

2. Another example of boulder clay was recognised on the
south side of Fowler’s Hill, just past the thirteenth milepost from
Yankalilla (59 miles from Adelaide). It occurs as a pocket in a
valley of erosion in calcareous shales near the top of the hill. It

* This erratic has been brought to Adelaide, and is now in the possession of Walter Howchin.

124 RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

is seen on the eastern side of the road only ; is 33 yards long,
12 ft. high, with base not exposed. The clay carries erratics
showing glaciation, which, though numerous are small, the largest
one noticed was a greenish quartzite, 12 in. x 6 in. striated.
Estimated height above sea-level, 500 ft.

CAPE JERVIS.

Selwyn, in his report already quoted, mentioned the occurrence
of granitic boulders in the fields at the Cape, which he thought
must have come from Kangaroo Island, but he failed to recognise
their significance in conjunction with the Till which has an
important local development. His observations, however, made
us the more anxious to see the locality, and we were rewarded in
finding the most extensive deposits of a genuine Till yet discovered
in South Australia.

The bed-rock consists of dark-coloured arenaceous shales and
schistose rocks, which, in outcrop, are much decomposed and
crumbling. They have a strike north and south, and an easterly
dip averaging about 45°. Their serrated edges occupy the beach
and in places rise a few feet above high-water mark.

Hills of morainic material, over 100 feet high, rise crescent-
shape behind the light-house and follow the nor thern trend of the

coast in a steep cliff face.

Large erratics occur in the light-house yard and can also be
seen. singly or in groups scattered over the sides of the hills as
viewed from the light-house buildings. In one granitic group I
counted thirty close together, partially weathered from the Till
in which they were imbedded. ‘The largest had an exposed face
of 5 feet. Near to these was a large block of grey quartzite stand-
ing is inches out of the ground, and strongly glaciated. <A short
distance away from this group was a large rounded boulder of
granite measuring 3 ft. 3 in., much weathered, and close by it a
large bluish-coloured quartzite with a mass of 7 ft. 6 in. x 3 ft.
9 in. exposed above the Till.

On the beach, north of the light-house, and near the commence-
ment of the high cliffs of Till, three large erratics occur close
together. (1) Granite, 4 ft. 6 in. x 2 ft. x 2 ft. 4 in., having a
flat fractured face extending over entire width of stone; (2)
granite, 5 ft. 3 in. x 2 ft. 6 in. also shows large fractured face ;
(3) quartzite, 4 ft. 3 in. x 2 ft. 6 in. x 2 ii, 10) s00,

The Till is unstratified and very characteristic. It varies in
colour from grey to almost black, and is full of boulders of all
sizes. About half a mile along the north beach from the light-
house a large granite boulder is seen fixed in Till on face of cliff,
4ft.x 5 ft. It is of coarse texture, and includes large rounded
crystals of orthoclase similar to the Port Victor granite. Not
much time could be devoted to the smaller erratics, but the occur-

GLACIAL ACTION—SOUTIL AUSTRALIA. 125

rence of rounded quartz-pebbles, especially on the hill sides, where
the rain had washed the soil away, is a peculiar feature. These
quartz pebbles, in common with most of the stones included in
the Till, show distinct evidences of glaciation.

The boulder clay rests unconformably on the edges of the
metamorphic rocks. No glaciated pavement could be seen, and
to all appearance the line of junction between the two formations
was rough and uneven. At the same time it must be said that
the examination was limited, and the bed-rock is so soft and friable
that it is not adapted for either taking or preserving a glacial
face.

The thickness of the Till bed at Cape Jervis is estimated at
something over 100 feet, and is capped by variegated (? miocene)
clays and travertine limestone. How far the boulder clay extends
along the coast in either direction we were unable to ascertain in
our hurried visit. The outcrop was followed along the northern
cliffs for about a mile from the light-house without coming to its
limits. At the furthest point reached the Till is a ver y black
clay, studded with stones in an irregular manner. A good section
is seen at this furthest point reached, in a deep washaway about
3 feet to 6 feet wide, and 15 feet deep.

SECTION AT CAPE JERVIS.

SFA LEVEL

Metamorphic Kocks... : a

EXTENT OF THE ICE-FIELD.

The country on the north side of Yankalilla has not been
examined for glacial features, but from what could be gathered
from observations made in a journey, by coach, over the “ground,

126 RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

it is highly probable that glacial deposits extend in a northerly
direction between Yankalilla and Myponga for a distance of
nearly 10 miles, and were bounded in that direction by the lofty
Sellicks Hill Range. The glaciation of the Cape Jervis Peninsula
has now been demonstrated on two sides of the geographical
triangle marked by Port Victor, Normanville, and Cape Jervis,
and we may safely conclude that practically the whole of the
country included within the area indicated has been visited by
ice, and can be estimated at about 300 square miles. This
estimate does not include the important outlier of glacial beds at
Hallett’s Cove, 45 miles further north than Normanville.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.

In our present limited knowledge of this great extinct ice-field
it would be rash to express a definite opinion either as to the
geological age of these deposits or the conditions under which the
glacial phenomena occurred. We may affirm, however,—

1. That the glaciation was on a scale of considerable nagnitude,
as may be inferred from the following facts :—

(a) The thickness of the Glacial Drift_—In the Back Valley
borings have disclosed a deposit which there can be little
doubt is of glacial origin, nearly 1,000 feet in thickness,
To this must be added the-wash these beds have under-
gone at the surface, which amounts apparently to over
600 feet, giving a total of tnore than | ,200 feet as the
original thickness of the glacial drift in the valleys
referred to. Even at so great a distance from the centre
of dispersion as Hallett’s Cove, there is a known thick-
ness of over 100 feet above sea-level, with an unknown
thickness below low-water mark, in the old valley now
occupied by the Gulf St. Vincent.

(b) The transporting power of the ice must have been great.
What may be regarded as the great glacial highways,—
the Inman and Bungala Valleys, Cape Jervis, and the
depression of Gulf St. Vincent,—are in places crowded
with very large erratics. There is a block moved by
ice action at Hallett’s Cove, equal to the size of a small
cottage, and on the beach below hundreds of travelled
stones that would weigh over a ton each.

2. As to the Geological Age, the capping of mottled clays resting
on the drift at Cape Jervis (as at Hallett’s Cove), is suggestive of
a Pre-Miocene age for the refrigeration of the Australian climate.
The section at Cape Jervis, has not, however, been closely
examined, and the evidence from that locality must be taken

GLACIAL ACTION—SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 127

subject to revision. The highly indurated and jointed features of
the deposits at Government quarry, Yankalilla, differ in these
respects from any known Tertiary rocks in South Australia, and
are suggestive of a higher geological age.

3. With regard to the stratigraphical characteristics,” much
remains to be done. The glacial drift, as developed in the Inman
and associated valleys, does not agree very closely with the typical
boulder clay of the Northern Hemisphere. It is more character-
istically arenaceous than argillaceous, varying from loose sand, to
sand-rock, sandstones, grits, and conglomerates. Even the so-
called “shales” in the Government Geologists Report, and the
borings of the Victor Harbour Coal Company, would seem to be
an arenaceous rock of a dark mud-stone character. The nearest
approach to a true clay deposit is got at Hallet’s Cove, and the
best example of Till—unstratified clay with glaciated stones
irregularly distributed through the mass—is found at Cape Jervis.

THE GLACIAL AGENT.

4. It is not attempted, at the present stage of observations, to
say positively whether the glacial phenomena were effected by
glacier, iceberg, or shore ice. The powerful ground glaciation in
the Inman, on the Bald Hills, and over a great extent of surface
at Hallett’s Cove, the roches moutounées (at the latter place
particularly), as well as the persistency and regularity of the
striz, would seem to demand land ice of considerable extent for
their production. If icebergs are assumed to be the cause of the
glacial phenomena, they must have been of local origin, as the
morainic material has evidently been gathered from our own
shores, whilst local icebergs would also require local glaciers to
give birth to them. Shore ice would certainly explain some of
the features, as, for example, the number of water-worn pebbles
which are found in the drift, both at the Cape and Inland. These
pebbles have certainly first been subjected to river or coastal attri-
tion, and have been subsequently faceted by ice movements. The
glacial beds in the Inman Valley have at present an elevation of
over 600 feet above sea-level. If, therefore, we admit the agency
of shore ice as the means of distribution, we must assume that
there has been since the days of glaciation an elevation of the
land in the neighbourhood at least equal to that mentioned above.
The facts are perhaps best explained by reference to a combination
of agencies rather than to a single form of ice action.

128 RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

No. 6.—LIST OF VERNACULAR NAMES FOR
AUSTRALIAN BIRDS.

Report of the committee, consisting of the Rev. H. Atkinson,
Dr. BR. AB Perks; Colonel Legge, F.L.S., M.B.0.U., Messrs.
Barnard, A. Vien MESS: Olina A. Morton: ELS, Ave
Campbell, F.L.S., C. W. De Vis, M.A., F. Cheeseman, F.L.S.,
A. J. North, F.L.S., and H. Thorpe, Professors W. Baldwin
Spencer, M.A., F. W. Hutton, F.R.S., T. J. Parker, F.R.S.,
Sir James Hector, F.R.S., and Dr. E. C. Stirling, F.R.S.,
(Secretary).

[Drawn up by Messrs, A. J. CAMPBELL, C. W. DE Vis, Colonel LEGGE,

and Dr. STIRLING. ]

THE need, for numerous reasons, of an acceptable ‘“ Vernacular

List” of Australian Birds’ names was first mentioned at the

Hobart meeting of the Science Association, 1892.

The following year, at the Adelaide meeting, a committee was
appointed to deal with the matter— Vide vol. V of the “ Proceed-
ings,” p. XXII.

The committee was found to be somewhat large, and, as the
list was to be purely an Australian one, the New Zealand mem-
bers were not consulted.

Colonel Legge (Tasmania) and Mr. A. J. Campbell (Victoria)
were deputed by the secretary of the committee to draw out a
preliminary list. After considerable research by these two
gentlemen the list was compiled, principally on the lines indicated
in Colonel Legge’s memorandum, published in vol. VI (Brisbane,
1895), p. 445, and was forwarded to Adelaide, August, 1894.

The list was then considered and finished, 30th November,
1894, by the south and western committee at Adelaide which
approved ¢ generally of the principles laid down in the preliminary
list and made the following suggestions :—That the final list be
issued in tabular form with noienenas to Gould’s Nos., in addition
to the scientific and vernacular names; that, where scientific
names have been altered, the older or more familiarly-known
terms be retained in brackets ; and that if any species appearing
on existing lists be omitted, a reason or reference should be stated
for such omission.

On the 11th December, 1894, or one month prior to the open-
ing of the next (Brisbane) Congress, the list was forwarded to Mr.
A. J. North at the Australian Museum as representative of the
New South Wales committee. Mr. North delegated his power to

Notre.—This list was adopted by The Australasian Association for the Advancement of
Science, at the Sy dney Congress, 1898, the basis of the classification being taken from the
ie Catalogue of Birds,” of the British Museum, in the order the volumes appeared, excepting
No. XXV. I, which is still unpublished.

VERNACULAR NAMES FOR AUSTRALIAN BIRDS. 125

Colonel Legge and Mr. Campbell (vide letter from the Curator,
Mr. R. Etheridge, junr.), and passed the list on to Mr. C. W. De
Vis, who represented Queensland. Mr. George Masters, another
member of the New South Wales committee, begged to decline
acting on account of his many engagements.

As little time remained for the consideration of the list at the
Brisbane Congress, Mr. De Vis (who stated that the Queensland
branch of the committee was prepared to adopt the principles of
popular nomenclature advocated in the preliminary list) suggested
that it should be brought up at the Sydney Congress (1898) for
final adoption, and that the main features of modern classification
should be introduced in whatever form the list might appear.

The ‘“ Vernacular List” is now presented for adoption, the
classification and scientific nomenclature being in accordance with
the “ Catalogue of Birds” of the British Museum, kindly extracted
for the committee by Mr. Ed. Degen.

E. C. Srrruine,
Secretary, Vernacular Names Committee.

ORDER—ACCIPITRES: BIRDS OF PREY.
Sub-order—Falcones: “ Falcons.”’

FAMILY—FALCONIDA: “HAWKS.”

SuB-FAMILY—ACCIPITRIN=: “ LONG-LEGGED Hawks.”

. Circus assimilis (jardinii). ‘Spotted Harrier.”

. Cireus gouldi (assimilis), “ Harrier” (Swamp-hawk).
Astur (Leucospiza) cinereus. ‘ Grey Goshawk.”

. Astur (Leucospiza) novee-hollandiz. ‘ White Goshawk.”
. Astur leucosomus. ‘“ Lesser White Goshawk.”

. Astur approximans. ‘“ Goshawk.”

Astur cruentus. ‘ Lesser Goshawk.”

Accipiter cirrhocephalus. “ Sparrow-hawk.”

ie
Mop mo bo

SuB-FAMILY-—BUTEONINE : “ BUZZARDS.”

8. Urospizias radiatus. ‘“ Red Goshawk.”

SUB-FAMILY—AQUILINE: “ EAGLEs.”
9. Uroaetus (Aquila) audax. ‘ Wedge-tailed Eagle” (Eagle-
hawk).
10. Niszetus (Aquila) morphnoides. “ Little Eagle.”
11. Haliaetus leucogaster. ‘‘ White-bellied Sea-Eagle.”
12. Haliastur girrenera. ‘“ White-headed Sea-Eagle.”

I

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

. Haliastur sphenurus. ‘“ Whistling Eagle.”

. Milvus affinis. ‘ Kite.”

. Lophoictinia (Milvus) isura. “ Square-tailed Kite.”

. Gypoictinia melanosterna. “ Black-breasted Buzzard.”
. Elanus axillaris. ‘ Black-shouldered Kite.”

. Elanus scriptus. ‘‘ Letter-winged Kite.”

SUB-FAMILY—F'ALCONINE : ‘‘ FALCONS.”

. Baza subcristata. ‘ Crested Hawk.”

. Falco melanogenys. ‘‘ Black-cheeked Falcon.”

. Falco hypoleucus. ‘Grey Falcon.”

2. Falco subniger. ‘ Black Falcon.”

. Falco lunulatus. “ Little Falcon.”

. Hieracidea berigora (occidentalis). ‘Striped Brown Hawk.”
. Mieracidea orientalis (berigora). “ Brown Hawk.”

Cerchneis (Tinnunculus) cenchroides. “ Kestrel.”

Sub-order—Pandiones: ‘‘Ospreys.”’

Pandion leucocephalus. ‘ Osprey” (Fish-hawk.”)

Sub-order—Striges: ‘‘ Owls,”’
FAMILY—BUBONIDA: “OWLS” PROPER.

SuB-FAMILY— BUBONINA.

28. Ninox boobook (’). ‘* Boobook Owl.”
29. Ninox ocellata. ‘ Marbled Owl.”

Ninox maculata. ‘“ Spotted Owl.”

. Ninox connivens. ‘ Winking Owl.”

. Ninox strenua (*). ‘‘ Powerful Owl.”

3 DA. Ninox humeralis,

33.

D4.
35.

Ninox peninsularis. ‘‘ Cape York Owl.”
Ninox occidentalis. ‘“ Western Winking Owl.”
Ninox lurida. ‘ Lurid Owl.”

FAMILY—STRIGIDA: “BARN OWLS.”

. Strix nove hollandiz. ‘‘ Chestnut-faced Owl.”
. Strix delicatula. ‘ Lesser Masked Owl.”

. Strix castanops. “ Masked Owl.”

. Strix tenebricosa. ‘‘Sooty Owl.”

. Strix candida. ‘Grass Owl.”

(1) Includes NV. marmoratus (Marbled Owl). (?) Includes NV. rufus (Rufous Owl).

VERNACULAR NAMES FOR AUSTRALIAN BIRDS. 131

ORDER--PASSERIFORMES: ‘“PERCHING BIRDS.”
Sub-order—Passeres.
FAMILY—CORVIDAL; “CROWS.”

SuB-FAMILY : CORVNINE: ‘‘ Crows” PROPER.

41. Corvus coronoides. ‘‘ Crow.”

42. Corone australis. ‘ Raven.”

43, Strepera graculina. “ Pied Crow-Shrike.”

44. Strepera arguta. ‘“ Hill Crow-Shrike.”

45. Strepera intermedia. ‘‘ Lesser Crow-Shrike.”

46. Strepera cuneicaudata. ‘ Grey Crow-Shrike.”

47. Strepera plumbea. ‘‘ Leaden Crow-Shrike.”

48. Strepera melanoptera. ‘ Black-winged Crow-Shrike.”
49, Strepera fuliginosa. ‘ Black Crow-Shrike.”

50. Struthidea cinerea. ‘Grey Jumper.”

SUB-FAMILY—FREGILINE : “ CHOUGHS.”
51. Corcorax melanorhamphus. ‘ White-winged Chough.”

FAMILY—PARADISEIDA: “BIRDS OF PARADISE.”
SUB-FAMILY—EPIMACHIN.

52. Ptilorhis paradisea. ‘“ Rifle-bird.”

53. Ptilorhis victoris. ‘* Victoria Rifle-bird.”

54. Ptilorhis alberti. ‘ Albert Rifle-bird,”
SuB-FAMILY—PARADISEINE.

55. Phonygama (Manucodia) gouldi. ‘ Manucode.”

FAMILY—ORIOLIDA: “ ORIOLES.”

56. Oriolus affinis. ‘‘ Northern Oriole.”

57. Oriolus flavicinctus. ‘ Yellow Oriole.”

58. Oriolus viridis. ‘‘ Oriole.”

59. Sphecotheres maxillaris. ‘ Fig-bird.”

60, Sphecotheres flaviventris. ‘“ Yellow-bellied Fig-bird.”

FAMILY—DICRURIDA: “DRONGOS.”
61. Chibia bracteata. ‘ Drongo.”

FAMILY—PRINOPIDZE: ‘ WOOD-SHRIK ES.”

SuB-FAMILY—PRINOPIN#.
62. Grallina picata. ‘“ Magpie Lark.”
63. Collyriocincla harmonica. ‘“ Grey Shrike-Thrush.”

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

. Collyriocincla rectirostris. ‘ Whistling Shrike-Thrush.”

. Collyriocincla brunnea ('). “ Brown Shrike-Thrush.”

. Collyriocincla rufiventris. ‘“ Buff-bellied Shrike-Thrush.”

. Collyriocincla pallidirostris. “ Pale-bellied Shrike-Thrush.”

Collyriocincla boweri (*). ‘* Bower Shrike-Thrush.”

. Collyriocincla cerviniventris. |‘ Fawn-breasted Shrike-

Thrush.”

. Pinarolestes parvulus. “ Little Shrike-Thrush.”
. Pinarolestes rufigaster (*). ‘ Rufus-breasted Shrike-Thrush.”

FAMILY—CAMPOPHAGIDA: “CUCKOO-SHRIKES.”

. Pteropodocys phasianella. ‘ Ground Cuckoo-Shrike.”

. Graucalus melanops. “ Black-faced Cuckoo-Shrike.”

. Graucalus parvirostris. ‘ Small-billed Cuckoo-Shrike.”

. Graucalus hypoleucus. ‘ White-bellied Cuckoo-Shrike.”

. Graucalus mentalis. ‘Little Cuckoo-Shrike.”

. Graucalus lineatus. ‘“ Barred Cuckoo-Shrike.”

. Edoliisoma (Campophaga) tenuirostre (jardinii). “ Cater-

pillar-eater.”

. Lalage (Campophaga) tricolor. White-shouldered Cater-

pular-eater.”

. Lalage (Campophaga) leucomelena (*). “ Pied Caterpillar-

eater.”

FAMILY—MUSCICAPIDAL: “ FLY-CATCHERS.”

. Micreeca fascinans. ‘“ Brown Fly-catcher.”

. Micreca assimilis. “ Lesser Brown Fly-catcher.”

. Micreeca flavigaster. ‘ Lemon-breasted Fly-catcher.”
. Micreeca pallida. ‘“ Pale Fly-catcher.”

5. Petreeca leggii (multicolor). Scarlet-breasted Robin.”
. Petreeca phenicea. ‘ Flame-breasted Robin.”

. Petrceca rhodinogastra. “ Pink-breasted Robin.”

. Petrceca rosea. ‘* Rose-breasted Robin.”

. Petreeca goodenovi. ‘ Red-capped Robin.”

. Petreeca ramsayi. ‘‘ Red-throated Robin.”

. Petreeca bicolor (cucullata). ‘ Hooded Robin.”

2. Petreeca picata. ‘ Pied Robin.”

. Petroeca vittata. ‘ Dusky Robin.”

. Smicrornis brevirostris. ‘ Short-billed Tree-Tit.”

. Smicrornis flavescens. ‘‘ Yellow-tinted Tree-Tit.

. Gerygone albigularis. ‘ White-throated Fly-eater.”

. Gerygone cinerascens. ‘Grey Fly-eater
. Pseudogerygone culicivora. ‘Southern Fly-eater.”

)

(‘) Includes C. superciliosa. (*) Includes C. sibila. 3) Includes C. parvissima.

(*) Includes Campephaga karu.

oo:
100.
101.
102.
103.
104.
105.
106.
107.
108.
109.
110.
IL.
112.
113.
114.
115.
LLG:
Hilvie
118.
iS
120.
121.
122.
123.
124.
125.
126.
aT
128.
129.
130.
131.
132.
133.

134.
135.
156.
137.
138.

139.
140.
141.

VERNACULAR NAMES FOR AUSTRALIAN BIRDS 133.

Pseudogerygone magnirostris. ‘ Large-billed Fly-eater.”

Pseudogerygone fusca. ‘ Brown Fly-eater.”

Pseudogerygone levigastra. “ Buffbreasted Fly-eater.”

Pseudogerygone chloronata. ‘‘Green-backed Fly-eater.”

Pseudogerygona personata ('). “ Black-throated Fly-eater.”

Peecilodryas nana. “ Little Robin.”

Peecilodryas superciliosa. ‘* White-browed Robin.”

Pecilodryas capito. ‘ Large-headed Robin.”

Pecilodryas cerviniventris. ‘“ Buff-sided Robin.”

Peecilodryas albifacies. ‘* White-faced Robin.”

Malurus cyaneus. ‘ Blue Wren.”

Malurus eyanochlamys. ‘Silvery Blue Wren.”

Malurus gouldi. “ Long-tailed Blue Wren.”

Malurus melanotus. ‘‘ Black-backed Wren.”

Malurus callainus. ‘Turquoise Wren.”

Malurus splendens. ‘‘ Banded Wren.”

Malurus leucopterus. ‘‘ White-winged Wren.”

Malurus leuconotus. ‘ White-backed Wren.”

Malurus elegans. ‘‘ Red-winged Wren.”

Malurus lamberti. ‘‘ Variegated Wren.”

Malurus amabilis (*), ‘ Lovely Wren.”

Malurus pulcherrimus. ‘ Blue-breasted Wren.”

Malurus coronatus. ‘ Purple-crowned Wren.”

Malurus dorsalis (cruentatus). ‘‘ Red-backed Wren.”

Mulurus cruentatus-bowerl. “ Bower Red-backed Wren.”

Malurus melanocephalus. “ Orange-backed Wren.”

Rhipidura albiscapa. “ White-shafted Fan-tail.”

Rhipidura preissi. ‘ Western Fan-tail.”

Rhipidura diemenensis. ‘ Dusky Fan-tail.”

Rhipidura rufifrons. ‘* Rufus Fan-tail.”

Rhipidura dryas. ‘ Wood Fan-tail.”

Rhipidura setosa (isura). “ Northern Fan-tail.”

Rhipidura albicauda. ‘* White-tailed Fan-tail.”

Rhipidura phasiana. ‘ Pheasant Fan-tail.”

Rhipidura (Sauloprocta) tricolor (motacilloides) (*). “ Black
and White Fan-tail.”

Myiagra rebecula (plumbea). ‘“ Leaden Fly-catcher.”

Myiagra concinna. ‘ Blue Fly-catcher.”

Myiagra nitida. ‘Satin Fly-catcher.”

Myiagyra latirostris. “ Broad-billed Fly-catcher.”

Macherorhynchus flaviventer. “Yellow-breasted Fly-
catcher.”

Sisura inquieta. ‘ Restless Fly-catcher.”

Sisura nana. “ Little Fly-catcher.”

Arses kaupi (*). ‘ Pied Fly-catcher.”

(‘) Includes G. flavida. (?) M. hypoleucos is the female of this species.

(8) Includes Sauloprocta picata—a smaller race. (+) Includes A. ter7@-regine.

134 RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

142. Arses lorealis. ‘ Frill-necked Fly-catcher.”

143. Piezorhynchus nitidus. ‘Shining Fly-catcher.”

144. Piezorhynchus gouldi (trivigata) ('). ‘‘Spectacled Fly-
catcher.”

145. Piezorhynchus leucotis. ‘ White-eared Fly-catcher.”

146. Monarcha melanopsis (carinata). ‘ Black-faced Fly-catcher.”

147. Monarcha canescens. “ Pearly Fly-catcher.”

FAMILY—TURDIDA: “TRUE THRUSHES.”

SUB-FAMILY—SYLVIIN/Z: ‘ WARBLERS.”

148. Acrocephalus longirostris. “‘ Long-billed Reed- Warbler.”
149. Acrocephalus australis. “ Reed-Warbler.”

SUB-FAMILY—TURDIN&: “ THRUSHES.”

150. Geocichla (Oreocincla) lunulata. ‘“ Ground-Thrush.”

151. Geocichla macrorhyncha. ‘“ Large-billed Ground-Thrush.”
152. Geocichla heinii. ‘‘ Russet-tailed Ground-Thrush.”

153. Geocichla cuneata. ‘‘ Broadbent Ground-Thrush.”

FAMILY—TIMELIIDA: “BABBLING THRUSHES.”

Sus-FamiILty—PriLoNoRHYNCHINE :* “ BoweEr-Birbs.”

154. Ptilonorhynchus violaceus. ‘‘ Satin Bower-bird.”

155, Aelurcedus maculosus. ‘‘ Spotted Cat-bird.”

156. Aelurcedus viridis. ‘‘ Cat-bird.”

157. Chlamydodera maculata. ‘“‘ Spotted Bower-bird.”

158. Chlamydodera guttata. ‘“ Yellow-spotted Bower-bird.”
159. Chlamydodera nuchalis. ‘‘ Great Bower-bird.”

160. Chlamydodera orientalis. ‘ Queensland Bower-bird.”
161. Chlamydodera cerviniventris. ‘“Fawn-breasted Bower-bird.”
162. Scenopeus dentirostris. “ Tooth-billed Bower-bird.”
163. Sericulus melinus. ‘ Regent-bird.”

164. Prionodura newtoniana. ‘ Golden Bower-bird.”

SUB-FAMILY—TIMELUNE: “ BABBLERS,” &c.

166. Stipiturus malachurus. ‘ Emu Wren.”

166. Sphenura brachyptera. “ Bristle-bird.”

167. Sphenura longirostris. ‘‘ Long-tailed Bristle-bird.”
168. Sphenura broadbenti. ‘ Rufous Bristle-bird.”
169. Amytis textilis. ‘ Grass-Wren.”

170. Amytis striata. “Striated Grass-Wren.”

171. Amytis macrura. ‘“ Large-tailed Grass-Wren.”
172. Amytis goyderi. ‘Goyder Grass- Wren.”

(‘) Includes P. albiventris.
* This family should probably follow the Paradiseid@ (Birds of Paradise).

173.
174.
175.
176.
177.
178.
. Acanthiza inornata. ‘‘ Plain-coloured Tit.”

. Acanthiza pusilla. “ Brown Tit.”

. Acanthiza diemenensis. “Brown-rumped Tit.” (Brown-tail.)
2. Acanthiza apicalis. ‘“ Broad-tailed Tit.”

. Acanthiza pyrrhopygia. “ Red-rumped Tit.”

. Acanthiza lineata. “Striated Tit.”

. Acanthiza uropygialis. ‘‘ Chestnut-rumped Tit.”

. Acanthiza chrysorrhoa. ‘ Yellow-rumped Tit.”

. Acanthiza reguloides. ‘ Buffrumped Tit.”

. Acanthiza squamata. ‘Scaly-breasted Tit.”

. Sericornis (Pyrrholemus) brunnea. ‘“ Red-throat.”

. Sericornis citreogularis. ‘ Yellow-throated Scrub-Wren.”

. Sericornis frontalis (*). “ White-browed Scrub-Wren.”

2. Sericornis magnirostris. ‘ Large-billed Scrub-Wren.”

. Sericornis levigastra. ‘‘ Buff-breasted Scrub-Wren.”

. Sericornis maculata. ‘‘ Spotted Scrub-Wren.”

. Sericornis (Acanthornis) magna. ‘‘ Scrub-Tit.”

}. Sericornis osculans. ‘‘Spotted-throated Scrub-Wren.”

. Sericornis humilis. ‘* Brown Scrub-Wren.”

. Sericornis minimus. “ Little Scrub-Wren.”

. Sericornis guttaralis. ‘ Collared Scrub-Wren.”

. Orthonyx spinicauda. ‘“ Spine-tailed Log-runner.”

. Orthonyx spaldingi. ‘* Black-headed Log-runner.”

. Cinclosoma punctatum ‘Spotted Ground-bird.”

. Cinclosoma castanonotum. ‘‘Chestnut-backed Ground-bird.”

VERNACULAR NAMES FOR AUSTRALIAN BIRDS. 135

Megalurus gramineus. ‘“‘ Grass-bird.”

= n a! * = ”
Megalurus galactotes. ‘ Tawny Grass-bird.
Origma rubricata. ‘* Rock-Warbler.”

o
Cisticola exilis.(') ‘* Grass-Warbler.”
Chthonicola sagittata. ‘* Little Field-Lark.”

fo)

Acanthiza nana. ‘ Little Tit.”

. Cinclosoma cinnamoneum. ‘ Cinnamon Ground-bird.”

. Cinclosoma castanothorax. ‘‘ Chestnut-breasted Ground-
bird.”

. Cinclosoma marginatum. ‘Northern or Black-vented
Ground-bird.”

206a. Pycnoptilus floccosus. ‘ Pilot-bird.”

207.

Drymacedus brunneopygius. ‘ Scrub-Robin.”

207A. Drymacedus pallidus. ‘‘ Pale Serub-Robin.”

208.
. Hylacola pyrrhopygia. ‘ Chestnut-rumped Ground-Wren.”
. Hylacola cauta. ‘ Red-rumped Ground-Wren.”

. Psophodes crepitans. ‘* Coachwhip-bird.”

. Psophodes nigrogularis. ‘ Black-throated Coachwhip-bird.”
. Pomatorhinus temporalis. ‘‘ Babbler.”

Drymacedus superciliaris. ‘ Eastern Scrub-Robin.”

() Includes C. magna, C. lineocapilla, Xe.
(2) Includes S. gulavis, from Kent Group, Bass Straits.

136
214.

215.
216.
217.
218.
219.
220.
221.
222.
223.

224.
225.

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

Pomatorhinus superciliosus. “ White-browed Babbler.”
Pomatorhinus ruticeps. ‘‘ Chestnut-crowned Babbler.”
Pomatorhinus rubeculus. ‘‘ Red-breasted Babbler.”
Cinclorhamphus cruralis ('). “ Brown Song-Lark.”
Cinclorhamphus rufescens. ‘‘ Rufous Song-Lark.”
Calamaunthus fuliginosus. ‘Striated Field-Wren.”
Calamanthus campestris. ‘ Field-Wren.”
Calamanthus isabellinus. ‘‘ Desert-Wren.”
Ephthianura albifrons. “ White-fronted Chat.”
Ephthianura tricolor. “ 'Tri-coloured Chat.”
Ephthianura aurifrons. ‘ Orange-fronted Chat.”
Ephthianura crocea. ‘‘ Yellow-breasted Chat.”

FAMILY—PARIDA: “ TIT-MICE.”

SUB-FAMILY—PARIN#.

226. Xerophila leucopsis. ‘‘ White-face.”

7. Xerophila pectoralis. ‘‘ Chestnut-breasted White-face.”
. Xerophila nigricincta. ‘ Black-banded White-face.”
. Sphenostoma cristatum. ‘“ Wedge-bill.”

FAMILY—LANIIDA: “CROW-SHRIKES.”

SUB-FAMILY—GYMNORHININE.

. Gymnorhina tibicen. ‘“ Black-backed Magpie.”

sxymnorhina leuconota. ‘ White-backed Magpie.”

. Gymnorhina hyperleuca. ‘“ Lesser White-backed Magpie.”
. Gymnorhina dorsalis. “ Long-billed Magpie.”

. Cracticus quoyi. “ Black Butcher-bird.”

. Cracticus nigrigularis. “‘ Black-throated Butcher-bird.”

Cracticus picatus. ‘‘ Pied Butcher-bird.”

. Cracticus leucopterus. ‘ White-winged Butcher-bird.”

. Cracticus argenteus. “ Silver-backed Butcher-bird.”

. Cracticus destructor. ‘ Butcher-bird.”

. Cracticus cinereus. ‘‘ Grey Butcher-bird.”

. Cracticus mentalis (spaldingi). “Spalding Butcher-bird.”
. Cracticus rufescens. ‘ Rufous Butcher-bird.”

SUB-FAMILY— PACHYCEPHALIN.

. Faleunculus frontatus. “‘ Yellow-bellied Shrike-Tit.”
. Falcunculus leucogaster. ‘“ White-bellied Shrike-Tit.”
. Oreoica cristata. ‘ Bell-bird.”

Kopsaltria australis. ‘“ Yellow-breasted Shrike-Robin.”

(‘) Includes C. cantillans.

bD bo bL© bo bo bo
Or St Ot Sr Or St
“IS OP & Lo

265.
266.
267.
268.
269.
270.
Dill.

VERNACULAR NAMES FOR AUSTRALIAN BIRDS. 137

‘ : : : - at
. Eopsaltria magnirostris.(*) “ Large-billed Shrike-Robin.
bs a . - . ”
. Eopsaltria chrysorhous. ‘‘ Yellow-rumped Shrike-Robin.
. Eopsaltria georgiana (griseogularis). “Grey-breasted Shrike-

Robin.”

. Eopsaltria pulverulenta. “ White-tailed Shrike-Robin.” |
. Eopsaltria gularis (leucogaster). ‘* White-breasted Shrike-

Robin.”

. Heteromyias cinereifrons. ‘ Ashy-fronted Fly-Robin.”

. Pachycephala melanura ('). ‘* Black-tailed Thickhead.”

4. Pachycephala gutturalis (*). “ White-throated Thickhead.”
. Pachycephala occidentalis. ‘‘ Western Thickhead.”

. Pachycephala glaucura. ‘“Grey-tailed Thickhead.”

. Pachycephala falcata. ‘ Northern Thickhead.”

258.
. Pachycephala rufiventris. ‘ Rufous-breasted Thickhead.”
. Pachycephala gilberti. ‘ Red-throated Thickhead.”

. Pachycephala olivacea. ‘ Olive Thickhead.”

2. Pachycephala simplex. ‘ Brown Thickhead.”

3. Pachycephala lanioides. “ White-bellied Thickhead.”

. Pachycephala fretorum. “Torres Straits Thickhead.”

Pachycephala pallida. “ Pale-breasted Thickhead.”

FA MILY—CERTHIIDA:

SUB-FAMILY—CERTHIN2®.

Climacteris melanura. ‘ Black-tailed Tree-creeper.”
Climacteris melanonotus. ‘‘ Black-backed Tree-creeper.”
Climacteris rufa. ‘ Rufous Tree-creeper.”

Climacteris leucopheea. ‘‘ White-throated Tree-creeper.”
Climacteris scandens. ‘ Brown Tree-creeper.”
Climacteris erythrops. ‘“ Red-browed Tree-creeper.”
Climacteris superciliosa. ‘‘ White-browed Tree-creeper.”

271a. Climacteris pyrrhonota. “ Red-backed Tree-creeper.”

SuB-FAMILY—SITTIN&!.

2. Sittella chrysoptera. “ Orange-winged Tree-runner.”
. Sittella leucocephala. ‘ White-headed Tree-runner.”
. Sittella albata. ‘“ Pied Tree-runner.”

. Sittella pileata. “ Black-capped Tree-runner.”

. Sittella tenuirostris. ‘Slender billed Tree-runner.”

. Sittella leucoptera. ‘“ White-winged Tree-runner.”

. Sittella striata. ‘Striated Tree-runner.”

FAMILY—NECTARINIDA: “SUN-BIRDS.”

. Cinnyris (Nectarinia) frenata. “ Sun-bird.”

* Same as H. chrysorrhous. (') Includes P. robusta.
(2) P. rufogularis is probably P. guttwralis in immature plumage.

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

FAMILY—MELIPHAGIDA: “HONEY-EATERS.”

280.
ate
282.
283.
284.
285.
286.

SuB-FAMILY—MYZOMELIN&.

Myzomela sanguinolenta. ‘‘ Sanguineous Honey-eater.”
Myzomela erythrocephala. ‘“ Red-headed Honey-eater.”
Myzomela nigra. “ Black Honey-eater.”

Myzomela pectoralis. ‘‘ Banded Honey-eater.”

Myzomela obscura. ‘ Dusky Honey-eater.”
Acanthorhynchus superciliosus. ‘ Spine-bill.”
Acanthorynchus tenuirostris ('). “ White-browed Spine-bill.”

SuB-FAMILY—ZOSTEROPIN.

. Zosterops ceerulescens (*). “* White-eye.”

. Zosterops ramsayi. ‘ Yellow-vented White-eye.”

. Zosterops gouldi. “ Green-backed White-eye.”

. Zosterops albiventer. ‘‘ Pale-bellied White-eye.”

. Zosterops lutea. ‘ Yellow White-eye.”

. Zosterops gulliveri. ‘Gulliver White-eye.”

. Melithreptus lunulatus. ‘* White-naped Honey-eater.”

. Melithrephus chloropsis. “ Western White-naped Honey-

eater.”

. Melithreptus albigularis. ‘‘ White-throated Honey-eater.”
. Melithreptus gularis. “ Black-chinned Honey-eater.”

. Melithreptus validirostris. ‘ Strong billed Honey-eater.”

. Melithreptus brevirostris. ‘‘ Brown-headed Honey-eater.”

. Melithreptus melanocephalus. ‘ Black-headed Honey-eater.”
. Melithreptus letior. ‘Golden-backed Honey-eater.”

. Melithreptus vinitinctus. ‘Gay Honey-eater.”

2. Plectorhynchus lanceolatus. ‘ Striped Honey-eater.”

SuB-FAMILY—MELIPHAGINAE.

. Glycyphila fulvifrons. ‘ Tawny-crowned Honey-eater.”

. Glycyphila albifrons. ‘* White-fronted Honey-eater.”

. Glycyphila fasciata. ‘ White-breasted Honey-eater.”

. Glycyphila ocularis. ‘ Brown Honey-eater.”

. Glycyphila subocularis. ‘ Least Honey-eater.”

. Glyeyphila modesta “ Brown-backed Honey-eater.”

. Glycyphila albiauricularis. “‘ Broadbent Honey-eater.”

. Entomophila picta. “ Painted Honey-eater.”

. Entomophila rufigularis. “ Red-throated Honey-eater.

. Entomophila albigularis. ‘ Rufous-breasted Honey-eater.”
. Entomophila (Lichnotentha) leucomelas. ‘Pied Honey-

eater.”

. Meliphaga phrygia. ‘‘ Warty-faced Honey-eater.”
5. Ptilotis analoga (notata). “‘ Yellow-spotted Honey-eater.”

(‘) Includes A. dubius, (*) Includes 7. westernensis.

316.
317.
318.
319.
320.
321.
322.
323.
324,
325.
326.
327.
328.
329.
330.
ddl.
332.
333,
oo4,
330.
336,
337.
338.
339.
340.
341.
342.
343.
344.
345,
346.
347.
348.
349.
350.
351.

352.
303.

354.
350.
356.
357.
358.

VERNACULAR NAMES FOR AUSTRALIAN BIRDS. 139

Ptilotis gracilis. ‘ Little Yellow-spotted Honey-eater.”

Ptilotis fusca. “ Fuscous Honey-eater.”

Ptilotis lewini. ‘ Yellow-eared Honey-eater.”

Ptilotis frenata. ‘ Bridled Honey-eater.”

Ptilotis flavistriata. ‘‘ Yellow-streaked Honey-eater.”

Ptilotis sonora. ‘‘ Singing Honey-eater.”

Ptilotis versicolor ('). ‘* Varied Honey-eater.”

Ptilotis chrysops. ‘* Yellow-faced Honey-eater.”

Ptilotis filigera. ‘ Streak-naped Honey-eater.”

Ptilotis flavigularis. ‘“ Yellow-throated Honey-eater.”

Ptilotis fasciogularis. ‘ Fasciated Honey-eater.”

Ptilotis leucotis. ‘“‘ White-eared Honey-eater.”

Ptilotis cockerelli. ‘‘ Cockerell Honey-eater.”

Ptilotis auricomis. ‘‘ Yellow-tufted Honey-eater.”

Ptilotis cassidix. ‘‘ Helmeted Honey-eater.”

Ptilotis cratitia (*). ‘ Wattle-cheeked Honey-eater.”

Ptilotis keartlandi. ‘ Keartland Honey-eater.”

Ptilotis pencillata. ‘ White-plumed Honey-eater.”

Ptilotis ornata. ‘‘ Yellow-plumed Honey-eater.”

Ptilotis plumula. ‘‘ Yellow-fronted Honey-eater.”

Ptilotis flavescens (*). Yellow Honey-eater.”

Ptilotis flava. ‘ Yellow-tinted Honey-eater.”

Ptilotis unicolor. ‘* White-gaped Honey-eater.”

Meliornis australasiana. ‘‘ Crescent Honey-eater.”

Meliornis nove hollandiz. ‘‘ White-bearded Honey-eater.”

Meliornis longirostris. ‘“ Long-billed Honey-eater.”

Meliornis sericea. ‘ White-cheeked Honey-eater.”

Meliornis mystacalis. ‘‘ Moustached Honey-eater.”

Manorhina melanophrys. ‘ Bell Minah.”

Manorhina (Myzantha) garrula. ‘ Noisy Minah.”

Manorhina (Myzantha) obscura. ‘ Dusky Minah.”

Manorhina (Myzantha) flavigula. ‘Yellow-throated Minah.

Manorhina (Myzantha) lutea. ‘ Yellow Minah.”

Acanthochera carunculata. ‘ Yellow Wattle-bird.”

Acanthochera inauris. ‘‘ Red Wattle-bird.”

Acanthochera (Anellobia) mellivora. ‘ Brush Wattle-
bird.”

Acanthochera (Anellobia) lunulata. ‘ Little Wattle-bird.”

Acanthochera(Acanthogenys) rufigularis. ‘“Spiney-cheeked
Honey-eater.”

Entomyza cyanotis. ‘‘ Blue-faced Honey-eater.”

Entomyza albipennis. ‘ White-quilled Honey-eater.”

Philemon corniculatus. ‘“ Friar-bird.”

Philemon argenticeps. ‘‘ Silvery-crowned Friar-bird.”

Philemon buceroides. ‘“ Helmeted Friar-bird.”

(1) P. macleayana. (?) Includes P. occidentalis. (3) Includes P. germana.

372.
373.
374,
375.
376.

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

. Philemon citreogularis. ‘ Yellow-throated Friar-bird.”
. Philemon sordidus. ‘ Little Friar-bird.”
. Philemon occidentalis. ‘ Western Friar-bird.”

FAMILY—DICAIDA: “FLOWER-PECK ERS.”

. Diceum hirundinaceum. “ Flower-pecker or Mistletoe-

bird.”

. Pardalotus ornatus (striatus). ‘‘ Red-tipped Pardalote.”

. Pardalotus assimilis. ‘ Orange-tipped Pardalote.”

. Pardalotus affinis. ‘“ Yellow-tipped Pardalote.”

. Pardalotus punctatus. “Spotted Pardalote.” (Diamond-

bird.)

. Pardalotus xanthopygius. ‘ Yellow-rumped Pardalote.”
. Pardalotus rubricatus. ‘ Red-browed Pardalote.”

9. Pardalotus melanocephalus. ‘‘ Black-headed Pardalote.”
. Pardolatus uropygialis. ‘ Chestnut-rumped Pardalote.”
. Pardalotus guadragintus. ‘“ Forty-spotted Pardalote.”

FAMILY—HIRUNDINIDA: “SWALLOWS.”

SuB-FAMILY—HIRUNDININE :. “ SwaALLows PROPER.”

Hirundo javanica. ‘ Eastern Swallow.”

Hirundo neoxena (frontalis). “‘ Swallow.”

Cheramceca leucosternum. ‘ Black and White Swallow.”
Petrochelidon nigricans. ‘Tree Martin.”

Petrochelidon (Lagenoplastes) ariel. “ Fairy Martin.”

FAMILY—MOTACILLIDA!: “WAGTAILS AND PIPITS.”

377

378.
379.
380.
381.
382.
383.
384.
385.
386.

387.

Anthus australis. ‘“ Pipit.”. ‘ Ground-lark.”

FAMILY—ARTAMIDA: “WOOD-SW ALLOWS.”

Artamus leucogaster. ‘“* White-rumped Wood-Swallow.”
Artamus superciliosus. ‘ White-browed Wood-Swallow.”
Artamus personatus. ‘“ Masked Wood-Swallow.”
Artamus cinereus. ‘ Grey-breasted Wood-Swallow.”
Artamus hypoleucus. ‘* White-bellied Wood-Swallow.”
Artamus melanops. “ Black-faced Wood-Swallow.”
Artamus sordidus. ‘ Wood-Swallow.”

Artamus minor. “ Little Wood-Swallow.”

Artamus venustus ('), ‘ White-vented Wood-Swallow.”

FAMILY—STURNIDAL: “STARLINGS.”
SUB-FAMILY—STURNIN&E.

”?

Calornis metallica. “Shining Starling.

(') Considered by some authorities to be A. cinereus.

VERNACULAR NAMES FOR AUSTRALIAN BIRDS.

FAMILY—PLOCEIDA: “WEAVERS.”
SuB-FAMILY— VIDUINZ.

. Staganopleura guttata. ‘‘ Spotted-sided Finch.”
. Zoneginthus bellus. ‘“ Fire-tailed Finch.”

. Zoneeginthus oculatus. ‘ Red-eared Finch.”

. Emblema picta. “ Painted Finch.”

. Teeniopygia castanotis. ‘‘ Chestnut-eared Finch.”
. Stictoptera bichenovii. ‘‘ Banded Finch.”

. Stictoptera annulosa. ‘ Black-ringed Finch.”

. Munia castaneithorax. ‘ Chestnut-breasted Finch.”
. Munia flaviprymna. ‘“ Yellow-rumped Finch.”

. Munia pectoralis. ‘“ White-breasted Finch.”

. Aidemosyne modesta. ‘ Plum-head Finch.”

. Aigintha temporalis. ‘ Red-browed Finch.”

. Bathilda ruficanda. ‘ Red-faced Finch.”

. Poephila acuticauda. ‘“ Long-tailed Finch.”

2. Poephila cincta. “ Black-throated Finch.”

3. Poephila personata. ‘ Masked Finch.”

. Poephila leucotis. ‘ White-eared Finch.”

. Poephila atropygialis. ‘ Black-rumped Finch.”
. Poephila gouldiz. ‘ Gouldian Finch.”

. Poephila mirabilis. ‘‘ Scarlet-headed Finch.”

. Neochmia phaeton. ‘ Crimson Finch.”

FAMILY—ALAUDIDA: “LARKS.”

. Mirafra horsfieldi. ‘ Bush-Lark.”
. Mirafra secunda. ‘“ Lesser Bush-Lark.”

FAMILY—ATRICHIIDA: “SCRUB-BIRDS.”

. Atrichia clamosa. ‘ Noisy Scrub-bird.”
. Atrichia rufescens. ‘ Rufous Scrub-bird.”

FAMILY—MENURIDA: “LYRE-BIRDS.”

. Menura superba. “ Lyre-bird.”
. Menura victorie. ‘ Victoria Lyre-bird.”
. Menura alberti. ‘“ Albert Lyre-bird.”

FAMILY—PITTIDA: “ ANT-THRUSHES.”

. Pitta strepitans ('). “Noisy Pitta.”
. Pitta mackloti. ‘ Blue-breasted Pitta.”
. Pitta iris. ‘“ Rainbow Pitta.”

(1) Includes P. stmillima.

141

142 RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

ORDER.—PICARIZ: « PICARIAN BIRDS.”
Sub-order—Coracie.

FAMIEY—_CY PSELID A: “SWirkts’
SUB-FAMILY-—CYPSELIN AE.

419. Micropus (Cypselus) pacificus. ‘ White-rumped Swift.”

SUB-FAMILY—CHAETURIN&E.

420. Cheetura caudacuta. ‘ Spine-tailed Swift.”
421. Callocalia francica. ‘“ Grey-rumped Swiftlet.”
422. Callocalia esculenta. ‘‘ Edible-nest Swiftlet.”

FAMILY—CAPRIMULGID : “GOAT-SUCKERS.”

SUB-FAMILY : CAPRIMULGIN/E.

423. Caprimulgus macrurus. ‘“ Large-tailed Nightjar.”
424, Eurostopus albigularis. ‘“ White-throated Nightjar.”
425, Eurostopus argus (guttatus). ‘Spotted Nightjar.”

FAMILY—PODARGIDE.

SuB-FAMILY—PoODARGINZ.

426. Podargus papuensis ('). ‘ Plumed Frogmouth.”
427, Podargus strigoides (*). “Tawny Frogmouth.”
428. Podargus phalenoides (°). “ Freckled Frogmouth.”
429. Podargus marmoratus. ‘ Marbled Frogmouth.”

SUB-FAMILY— /NGOTHELINE.
430. Aigotheles nove-hollandiz (*). ‘“ Owlet Nightjar.”

FAMILY—CORACIIDA : ‘“ ROLLERS.”

SUB-FAMILY—COoRACIINE.

431. Eurystomus australis. “ Roller or Dollar-bird.”

FAMILY—MEROPIDA‘: -“ BEE-EATERS.”

432. Merops ornatus. ‘ Bee-eater.”

(‘) Includes P. plumiferus. (7) Includes P. cuvieri and P. megacephalus.
(8) Includes P. brachypterus. (+) Includes 4. leucojaste,.

445,
446.
447.
448,
449.
450.
451.
452,
453.
454.

455.

456.
457.

458.

VERNACULAR NAMES FOR AUSTRALIAN BIRDS, 143

Sub-order—Halcyones.
FAMILY—ALCEDINIDA: “ KINGFISHERS,”

SuB-FAMILY—ALCEDININE.
Aleyone azurea ('). ‘ Blue Kingfisher.”

. Alcyone pulchra. ‘ Purple Kingfisher.”
. Alcyone pusilla. “ Little Kingfisher.”

SuB-FAMILY—DACELONIN-.

. Syma flavirostris. ‘ Yellow-billed Kingfisher.”

. Dacelo gigas. “ Brown Kingfisher ” (Laughing Jackass).
. Dacelo leachii. ‘‘ Leach Kingfisher.”

. Dacelo cervina (*). ‘“ Fawn-breasted Kingfisher.”

. Halcyon macleayi. ‘ Forest Kingfisher.”

. Halcyon pyrrhopygius. ‘ Red-backed Kingfisher.”

. Haleyon sanctus. ‘Sacred Kingfisher.”

. Halcyon sordidus. ‘ Mangrove Kingfisher.”

. Tanysiptera sylvia. ‘ White-tailed Kingfisher.”

Sub-order—Coccyges: ‘‘ Cuckoos,” &c.
FAMILY—CUCULIDA: “CUCKOOS.”
SuB-FAMILY—CucULINA.

Cuculus intermedius (canoroides). ‘ Oriental Cuckoo.”

Cuculus pallidus. ‘ Pallid Cuckoo.”

Cacomantis flabelliformis. “‘ Fan-tailed Cuckoo.”

Cacomantis variolosus (*). ‘* Square-tailed (Brush) Cuckoo.”

Cacomantis castaneiventris. ‘‘ Chestnut-breasted Cuckoo.”

Mesocalius palliolatus (osculaus). ‘‘ Black-eared Cuckoo.”

Chalcococeyx basalis. ‘ Narrow-billed Bronze-Cuckoo.”

Chalceocoecyx lucidus. ‘‘ Broad-billed Bronze-Cuckoo.”

Chaleococcyx plagosus. ‘‘ Bronze-Cuckoo.”

Chalcococeyx malayanus (minutillus) (*). ‘Little Bronze-
Cuckoo.”

Chalcococcyx peecilurus. ‘ Rufous-throated Bronze-
Cuckoo.”

Eudynamis cyanocephala (flindersi). ‘ Koel.”

Scythrops novee-hollandiz. ‘ Channel-bill.”

SUB-FAMILY—CENTROPODIN®.

Centropus phasianus (°). ‘‘ Coucal.”

(‘) Includes A. diemenensis. (2) Includes D. occidentalis.
(3) Includes C. insperatus and C. dumetorum. (4) Includes C. russatus.
(5) Includes C. macrourus and C. melanurus.

144

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

ORDER—PSITTACI: “ PARROTS.”

FAMILY—LORIIDA: “LORIES, OR BRUSH-TONGUED

484.
485.

PARROTS.”

. Trichoglossus novee-hollandiz (multicolor).(") “ Blue-bellied

Lorikeet.”

. Trichoglossus rubritorquis. ‘‘ Red-collared Lorikeet.”

. Psittenteles chlorolepidotus. ‘ Scaly-breasted Lorikeet.”

2. Ptilosclera versicolor. ‘ Varied Lorikeet.”

3. Glossopsittacus concinnus (australis). ‘f Musk Lorikeet.”

. Glossopsittacus porphyrocephalus. ‘ Purple-crowned Lori-

keet.”

. Glossopsittacus pusillus. ‘“ Little Lorikeet.”

FAMILY—CYCLOPSITTACID :

. Cyclopsittacus coxeni. ‘ Red-faced Lorilet.”
. Cyclopsittacus maccoyi. ‘‘ Blue-faced Lorilet.”

FAMILY—CACATUIDA:: “COCKATOOS.”

SuB-FAMILY—CACATUINA.

. Microglossus aterrimus. ‘“ Palm Cockatoo.”

. Calyptorhynchus baudini. ‘“ White-tailed Cockatoo.”

. Calyptorhynchus funereus. (*) ‘‘ Black Cockatoo.”

. Calyptorhynchus banksi. ‘ Banksian Cockatoo.”

. Calyptorhynchus macrorhynchus. ‘‘ Great-billed Cockatoo.”
3. Calyptorhynchus stellatus (naso). ‘ Red-tailed Cockatoo.”
. Calyptorhynchus viridis (leachi). ‘ Glossy Cockatoo.”

. Callocephalon galeatum. ‘‘ Gang-Gang Cockatoo.”

. Cacatua galerita. “ White Cockatoo.”

. Cacatua leadbeateri. ‘ Pink Cockatoo.”

. Cacatua gymnopis. ‘ Bare-eyed Cockatoo.”

. Cacatua sanguinea. ‘ Blood-stained Cockatoo.”

. Cacatua roseicapilla. ‘ Rose-breasted Cockatoo” (Galah).

. Licmetis nasica. ‘ Long-billed Cockatoo” (Corella).

. Licmetis pastinator. ‘“ Dampier Cockatoo.”

SuB-FAMILY—CALOPSITTACINE :

. Calopsittacus nove-hollandiz. ‘ Cockatoo Parrakeet.”

FAMILY—PSITTACIDA: PARROTS.
SuUB-FAMILY— PALXORNITHINE :

Polytelis barrabandi. “ Green-Leek Parrakeet.”
Polytelis alexandre. ‘‘ Alexandra Parrakeet.”

(1) 7. verreauxius, given in some works, may be a hybrid. (?) Includes C. xanothonotus.

486.

487.
488.
489.

490.
. Platycercus mastersianus. ‘‘ Masters Parrakeet.”

2. Platycercus nigrescens. ‘‘ Campbell Parrakeet.”

. Platycereus adelaide. ‘“ Adelaide Rosella.”

. Platycercus flaveolus. “ Yellow Parrakeet.”

. Platycercus flaviventris. ‘Green Parrakeet.”

. Platycercus pallidiceps. “ Pale-headed Parrakeet.”

. Platycercus amathusia. ‘“ Blue-cheeked Parrakeet.”

3. Platycercus browni (venustus). ‘Smutty Parrakeet.”

. Platycercus erythropeplus. ‘“ Red-backed Rosella.”

. Platycercus eximius. ‘“ Rosella.”

. Platycercus splendidus. ‘‘ Yellow-mantled Parrakeet.”

. Platycercus ignitus. ‘“ Fiery Parrakeet.”

. Platycercus icterotis. “‘ Yellow-cheeked Parrakeet.”

. Platycercus xanthogenys. (') ‘“ Red-mantled Parrakeet.”

. Porphyrocephalus spurius (pileatus). ‘ Red-capped Parra-

VERNACULAR NAMES FOR AUSTRALIAN BIRDS. 145

Polytelis melanura. ‘“ Black-tailed Parrakeet” (Rock-
Pebbler).
Ptistes erythropterus. ‘“ Red-winged Lory.”
Ptistes coccineopterus. “ Crimson-winged Lory.”
Aprosmictus cyanopygius.. ‘‘ King Lory.”
SuB-FAMILY—PLATYCERCINEZ: “‘ PARRAKEETS.”
Platycercus elegans (pennantii). ‘‘ Crimson Parrakeet.”
A S P

keet.”

. Barnardius (Platycercus) barnardi. ‘‘ Mallee Parrakeet.”
. Barnardius (Platycercus) semitorquatus. — “ Yellow-collared ’

Parrakeet.”

. Barnardius (Platycercus) zonarius. ‘ Yellow-banded Parra-

keet.”

. Psephotus hematorrhous. ‘ Crimson-bellied Parrakeet.”
. Psephotus xanthorrhous. ‘“ Yellow-vented Parrakeet.”

. Psephotus pallescens.

2. Psephotus pulcherrmus. “ Beautiful Parrakeet.”

. Psephotus chrysopterygius. ‘‘ Golden-shouldered Parrakeet.” ~
. Psephotus multicolor. “ Many-coloured Parrakeet.”

5. Psephotus hematonotus. ‘ Red-backed Parrakeet.”

. Neophema bourkei. ‘‘ Bourke Grass-Parrakeet.”

. Neophema venusta (aurantia). ‘ Blue-winged Grass-Parra-

keet.”

. Neophema elegans. ‘‘ Grass-Parrakeet.”

. Neophema chrysogastra. ‘“‘ Orange-bellied Grass-Parrakeet.”
. Neophema petrophila. ‘“ Rock Parrakeet.”

. Neophema pulchella. “ Red-shouldered Grass-Parrakeet.”

2. Neophema splendida. ‘“ Orange-throated Grass-Parrakeet.” ’
. Nanodes discolor. “ Swift Lorikeet.”

(1) Allied to P. icterotis. Habitat unknown.

146 RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

524. Melopsittacus undulatus. ‘ Betcherrygah,” or ‘‘ Warbling
Grass-Parrakeet.”

525. Pezoporus formosus. ‘Ground Parrakeet.”

526. Geopsittacus occidentalis. ‘ Night Parrakeet.”

ORDER—COLUMBZ: «PIGEONS AND DOVES.”
Sub-order—Columbe : “ Pigeons.”’

FAMILY—TRERONIDA:.

SUB-FAMILY—PTILOPODINE.

27. Ptilopus swainsoni. ‘ Red-crowned Fruit-Pigeon.”

28. Ptilopus ewingi. ‘“ Rose-crowned Fruit-Pigeon.”

29. Lamprotreron superbus. ‘ Purple-crowned Fruit-Pigeon.”
530. Megaloprepia magnifica. ‘ Purple-breasted Fruit-Pigeon.”
531. Megaloprepia assimilis. ‘ Allied Fruit-Pigeon.”

SUB-FAMILY—CARPOPHAGINZE.
532. Myristicivora spilorrhoa. ‘“ Nutmeg Pigeon.”
33. Lopholemus antarcticus. ‘'Topknot Pigeon.”

FAMILY—COLUMBID.
SuB-FAMILY—CoOLUMBIN.

534. Columba leucomela (norfolciensis). ‘“ White-headed Fruit-
Pigeon.”

SuB-FAMILY—M AcROPYGIINA.
535, Macropygia phasianella. ‘“ Pheasant-tailed Pigeon.”

FAMILY—PERISTERID.

SUB-FAMILY—GEOPELINE.

536. Geopelia humeralis. ‘“ Barred-shouldered Dove.”
537. Geopelia tranquilla ('). “Ground Dove.”
538. Geopelia cuneata. ‘ Little Dove.”

SUB-FAMILY—PHABIN&.

539. Chalcophaps chrysochlora (*). “ Little Green-Pigeon.”
540. Phaps chaleoptera. ‘ Bronze-wing.”
541. Phaps elegans. “ Brush Bronze-wing.
542. Histriophaps histrionica. ‘ Flock Pigeon.”

543. Petrophassa albipennis. ‘ Rock Pigeon.”

544. Geophaps scripta. “ Partridge Pigeon.”

545. Geophaps smithi. ‘ Naked-eyed Partridge-Pigeon.”
546. Lophophaps plumifera. ‘ Plumed Pigeon.”

”

() Includes C. placida. (?) Includes C. longirostris.

547.
548.
549,

550.

566.
567.
568.
569.
570.
O71.
572.

VERNACULAR NAMES FOR AUSTRALIAN BIRDS. 147

Lophophaps ferruginea. ‘‘ Red Plumed-Pigeon.”

Lophophaps leucogaster. “ White-bellied Plumed-Pigeon.”

Ocyphaps lophotes. ‘ Crested Pigeon.”
SuB-FAMILY—GEOTRYGONINE.

Leucosarcia picata. ‘ Wonga-Wonga Pigeon.”

ORDER—GALLINA: « GAME-BIRDS.”

Sub-order—Alectoropodes.
FAMILY—PHASIANIDA: “PHEASANTS, &c.”

. Coturnix pectoralis. ‘‘ Stubble Quail.”
. Syneecus australis (‘) ‘* Brown Quail.”
. Excalfactoria lineata (australis), ‘‘ Chestnut-bellied Quail.”

Sub-order—Peristeropodes.
FAMILY—MEGAPODIIDA: “ MEGAPODES.”

. Megapodius duperreyi (tumulus). “Scrub Fowl.”

. Lipoa ocellata. ‘“ Mallee Fowl.” (Native Pheasant.)
. Catheturus (Talegallus) lathami. ‘ Brush Turkey.”

. Catheturus purpureicollis. ‘‘ Barnard Brush-Turkey.”

ORDER—HEMIPODII: « HEMIPODES.”’
FAMILY—TURNICIDA: “ HEMIPODES.”

. Turnix maculosa (melanotus). ‘‘ Red-backed Quail.’
. Turnix melanogaster. ‘ Black-breasted Quail.”

9

. Turnix varia (*). ‘ Painted Quail.”

. Turnix castanonota. ‘ Chestnut-backed Quail.”
2. Turnix pyrrhothorax. ‘ Red-chested Quail.”

. Turnix velox. ‘ Little Quail.”

. Turnix leucogaster. ‘‘ White-bellied Quail.”

. Pedionomus torquatus. ‘ Plain Wanderer.”

ORDER—FULICARIA.
FAMILY—RALLIDAE: “RATLS.”

Hypotenidia (Rallus) brachypus. ‘“ Slate-breasted Rail.”
Hypoteenidia philippinensis. ‘‘ Pectoral Rail.”
Eulabeornis castaneiventris. ‘ Chestnut-bellied Rail.”
Rallina tricolor. ‘‘Red-necked Rail.”

Crex crex.().. “Corn Crake.”

Porzana fluminea. ‘Spotted Crake.”

Porzana palustris. ‘ Little Crake.”

(1 Includes 7’. diemenensis, S. sordidus, and S. cervinus. (?) Includes 7. ecintillans.

(8) A single specimen was obtained near Sydney, June, 1893.

148

Cr Or
as
He GO

Or St oF St St St Or
moonNnrInnr st

PH SOWA

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

. Porzana tabuensis. ‘ Spotless Crake.”
. Poliolimnas (Erythra) cinereus (quadristrigata). “ White-

browed Crake.”
Amaurornis moluccana ('). ‘* Rufous-tailed Moor-hen.”
Tribonyx mortieri. ‘ Native-hen.”
Microtribonyx ventralis. ‘‘ Black-tailed Native-hen.”
Gallinula tenebrosa. ‘ Black Moor-hen.”

. Porphyrio bellus. “ Blue Bald-Coot.”

Porphyrio melanonotus. ‘ Bald-Coot.”
Fulica australis. ‘‘ Coot.”

ORDER—ALECTORIDES.
FAMILY—GRUIDA: “CRANES.”

2. Antigone australasiana. ‘ Crane,” or ‘“‘ Native Companion.”
fo} b)

FAMILY—OTIDIDA: “BUSTARDS.”

3. Eupodotis australis. ‘ Bustard,” or “ Wild Turkey.”

ORDER—LIMICOL/E: « PLOVERS, &c.”
FAMILY—CDICNEMIDA: “ THICK-KNEES.”

. Burhinus (Cédicnemus) grallarius. ‘ Stone Plover.”
. Orthorhamphus (Esacus) magnirostris. ‘ Long-billed Stone-

iRlover:-

FAMILY—CURSORIIDA: “ COURSERS.”

Stiltia (Glareola) isabella (grallaria). ‘ Pratincole.”
Glareola orientalis. “ Oriental Pratincole.”

FAMILY—PARRIDAI: “ PARRAS.”

. Hydralector (Parra) gallinaceus. “‘ Comb-crested Jacana.”

FAMILY—CHARADRITDA: “ PLOVERS”
SUB-FAMILY—A RENARIIN®E.

. Arenaria (strepsilas) interpres. ‘‘ Turnstone.”

SuB-FAMILY—H @MATOPODINE : ‘‘ OYSTER-CATCHERS.”

. Hematopus longirostris. ‘‘ Pied Oyster-catcher.”
. Hematopus unicolor (°), “ Black Oyster-catcher.”

SuB-FAMILY— LOBIVANELLINAE.

. Erythrogonys cinctus. ‘ Red-kneed Dottrel.”
. Lobivanellus lobatus. ‘‘ Spur-winged Plover.”
. Lobivanellus miles. ‘‘ Masked Plover.”

(') Gallinula rujicrissa. 2) Includes H, ophthalimicus.

VERNACULAR NAMES FOR AUSTRALIAN BIRDS. 149

SuB-FAMILY—CHARADRIIN&.

. Zonifer (Sarciophorus) tricolor (pectoralis). “ Black-breasted

Plover.”

. Squatarola helvetica. ‘Grey Plover.”

. Charadrius dominicus (fulvus). ‘“ Lesser Golden Plover.”
. Ochthodromus bicinctas. ‘ Double-banded Dottrel.”

. Ochthodromus veredus. ‘‘ Oriental Dottrel.”

. Ochthodromus geoffroyi. “ Large Sand-Dottrel.”

. Ochthodromus mongolus('). ‘ Mongolian Sand-Dottrel.”

. Aigialitis hiaticola. ‘ Ringed Dottrel.”

. Adgialitis ruficapilla. “ Red-capped Dottrel.”

. Aigialitis melanops (nigrifrons). “ Black-fronted Dottrel.”
. Aigialitis cucullata (monacha). ‘“ Hooded Dottrel.”

SuB-FAMILY— PELTOHYATIN®.

. Peltohyas (Eudromias) australis. “ Dottrel.”

SuB-FAMILY—HIMANTOPODINE: “Sriits, &c.”

. Himantopus leucocephalus. “ White-headed Stilt.”
. Cladorhyncus leucocephalus. “ Banded Stilt.”
. Recurvirostra nove hollandiz. ‘ Red-necked Avocet.”

SUB-FAMILY—-TOTANIN.

. Numenius cyanopus. ‘ Curlew.”

. Numenius variegatus. ‘* Whimbrel.”

. Mesoscolopax minutus. ‘‘ Little Whimbrel.”

. Limosa nove zealandize. ‘ Barred-rumped Godwit.”

. Limosa limosa (melanuroides). ‘ Black-tailed Godwit.”
. Totanus stagnatilis. ‘ Little Greenshank.”

. Hecteractitis brevipes. ‘ Grey-rumped Sandpiper.”

. Hecteractitisincanus. “American Grey-rumped Sandpiper.”
. Tringoides hypoleucus. ‘ Common Sandpiper.”

. Terekia cinerea. ‘ Terek Sandpiper.”

. Glottis nebularius (glottoides). ‘“ Greenshank.”

. Bartramia longicauda. ‘ Bartram Sandpiper.”

SUB-FAMILY—SCOLOPACINE : ‘‘ SNIPES.”

. Calidris arenaria. ‘ Sanderling.”

. Limonites ruficollis. ‘“ Little Stint.”

. Heteropygia acuminata. ‘‘Sharp-tailed Stint.”

. Ancylochilus subarquatus. ‘‘ Curlew Stint.”

. Tringa canutus. “ Knot.”

. Tringa crassirostris. ‘‘ Great Sandpiper.”

. Gallinago australis. “ Snipe.”

. Rostratula (Rhyncheea) australis. ‘‘ Painted Snipe.”

(1) Includes Aigialitis mastersi.

150

650.
651.
652.

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

ORDER—GAVIZ: « SEA-BIRDS.”’
FAMILY—LARIDA: “GULLS AND TERNS.”

SUB-FAMILY—STERNINE : “ TERNS.”

- Hydrochelidon leucoptera ('). “ White-winged Tern.”
. Hydrochelidon hybrida. “ Marsh Tern.”

. Gelochelidon anglica (macrotarsa). ‘ Gull-billed Tern.”
. Hydroprogne caspia. “ Caspian Tern.”

. Sterna dougalli (*) (gracilis). “ Roseate Tern.”

. Sterna media. ‘ Lesser Crested Tern.”

. Sterna bergii (*). “Crested Tern.”

. Sterna frontalis. ‘ White-fronted Tern.”

. Sterna anestheta. ‘ Brown-winged Tern.”

. Sterna fuliginosa, ‘ Sooty Tern.”

. Sterna nereis (*). ‘ White-faced Ternlet.”

. Sterna sinensis. “ White-shafted Ternlet.”

. Sterna melanauchen. ‘ Black-naped Tern.”

. Procelsterna cinerea. “Grey Noddy.”

. Anous stolidus. “ Noddy.”

. Micranous tenuirostris. ‘‘ Lesser Noddy.”

- Micranous leucocapillus. “ White-capped Noddy.”

. Gygis candida. ‘“ White Tern.”

SUB-FAMILY—LARINE : “ GULLS.”

. Larus nove hollandiz (*). “Silver Gull”
. Gabianus (Larus) pacificus. ‘* Pacific Gull.”

SUB-FAMILY—STERCORARIIDE : “ SKuAs.”

Megalestris antartica. ‘ Skua.”
Stercorarius pomatorhinus. ‘ Pomarine Skua.”
Stercorarius crepidatus. ‘ Richardson Skua.”

ORDER—TUBINARES: «TUBE-NOSED SWIMMERS.”

653.
654.
655.
656.
657.

FAMILY—PROCELLARIIDA: “ PETRELS.”

SUB-FAMILY—OCEANITINE : “ StorM PETRELS.”

Oceanites oceanicus. ‘“ Yellow-webbed Storm-Petrel.”
Garrodia nereis. ‘‘ Grey-backed Storm-Petrel.”
Pelagodroma marina (fregata). “ White-faced Storm-Petrel.’
Cymodroma melanogaster. ‘‘ Black-bellied Storm-Petrel.”
Cymodroma grallaria. “ White-bellied Storm-Petrel.”

(1) It is doubtful whether this species should -be included.

(2) Includes S. nigrifrons. (8) Includes Thalasseus cristatus and 7’. poliocercus.

(4) Includes S. inconspicua. (5) Includes ZL. gouldi and L. longirostris.

683.

684.
685.
686.

687.

VERNACULAR NAMES FOR AUSTRALIAN BIRDS. 151

FAMILY—PUFFINIDA: “PETRELS &c.”

SuB-FAMILY—PUFFININ&.

. Puffinus chlororhynchus (sphenurus). ‘ Wedge-tailed

Petrel.”

. Puflinis assimilis (nugax). ‘‘ Allied Petrel.”
. Puftinus carneipes. ‘“‘ Fleshy-footed Petrel.”
. Puffinus tenuirostris (brevicandus). ‘Short-tailed Petrel

(Mutton-bird).”

. Puftinus leucomelas. ‘‘ White-fronted Petrel.”
. Paffinus griseus. ‘“ Sombre Petrel.”
. Puftfinus gavia. ‘ Forster Petrel.”

. Priofinus (Adamastor) cinereus. ‘ Brown Petrel.”

. Priocella glacialoides. ‘‘ Silver-grey Petrel.”

. Majaqueus eequinoctialis (conspicillatus). “‘ Spectacled
Petrel.”

. Majaqueus parkinsoni. ‘ Black Petrel.”

. CAstrelata macroptera. ‘‘ Great-winged Petrel.”

. Cistrelata lessoni (leucocephala). “ White-headed Petrel.”
. CAstrelata mollis. ‘‘Soft-plumaged Petrel.”

. Ckstrelata solandri. “‘ Brown-headed Petrel.”

. Cstrelata leucoptera ('). ‘‘ White-winged Petrel.”

. CMstrelata cooki. ‘ Cook Petrel.”

. Cistrelata rostrata. ‘ Peale Petrel.”

SUB-FAMILY—FULMARINZE: “ FULMARS.”

. Ossifraga gigantea. ‘ Giant Petrel.”

. Daption capensis. ‘Cape Petrel.”

. Halobeena cerulea. ‘“ Blue Petrel.”

. Prion vittatus. ‘‘ Broad-billed Dove-Petrel, or Prion.”
. Prion banksi. ‘ Banks Dove-Petrel, or Prion.”

. Prion desolatus (turtur). “ Dove-Petrel, or Prion.”

2. Prion ariel. ‘Fairy Dove-Petrel, or Prion.”

FAMILY—PELECANOIDID &.

Pelecanoides urinatrix. ‘Diving Petrel.”

FAMILY—DIOMEDEID: “ ALBATROSSES.”

Diomedea exulans. ‘‘ Wandering Albatross.”

Diomedea albatrus (brachyura). ‘ Short-tailed Albatross.”

Diomedea melanophrys. ‘ Black-browed Albatross” (Molly-
hawk).

Thalassogeron cautus. ‘ White-capped Albatross-”

() Includes Pterodroma atlantica.

152 ? RESEARCH COMMITTEES,

688. Thalassogeron culminatus. ‘ Flat-billed Albatross.”
689. Thalassogeron chlororhynchus. ‘ Yellow-nosed Albatross.”
690. Phoebetria fuliginosa. ‘Sooty Albatross.”

ORDER—HERODIONES: « HERONS.”

FAMILY.—-PLATALEIDA: “SPOONBILLS.”

691. Geronticus (Carphibis) spinicollis. ‘‘ Straw-necked Ibis.”
692. Threskiornis strictipennis. ‘ White Ibis.”

693. Ibis falcinellus. ‘“ Glossy Ibis.”

694. Platalea regia. “ Black-billed Spoonbill.”

695, Platalea flavipes. ‘ Yellow-billed Spoonbill.”

FAMILY—CICONIIDA: “STORKS.”
696. Xenorhynchus asiaticus. ‘‘ Black-necked Stork” (J abiru).

FAMILY—ARDEID4:: “ HERONS PROPER.”

697. Ardea cinerea. “ Grey Heron.”

698. Ardea sumatrana. ‘ Great-billed Heron.”

699. Ardea pacifica. ‘* White-necked Heron.”

700. Ardea nove hollandiz. ‘ White-fronted Heron.”
701. Herodias alba. ‘ White Egret.”

702. Herodias intermedia (egrettoides). ‘ Plumed Egret.”
703. Herodias melanopus. ‘“ Lesser Egret.”

704. Herodias garzetta. ‘“ Little Egret.”

705. Demiegretta asha. ‘ Ashy or Sombre Reef-Heron.”
706. Demiegretta picata. ‘ Pied Egret.”

707. Demiegretta sacra ('). ‘ Reef Heron.”

708. Nycticorax caledonicus. ‘ Night Heron.”

709. Botaurus poicilopterus. “‘ Bittern.”

710. Butoroides flavicollis. ‘ Black Bittern.”

711. Butoroides macrorhyncha. ‘ Thick-billed Bittern.”
712. Butoroides javanica, ‘Green Bittern.”

713. Ardetta minuta (pusilla). “ Little Bittern.”

ORDER—STEGANOPODES: “« PELICANS.”’
FAMILY—PELICANID4:: “ PELICANS.”

714. Pelecanus conspicillatus. ‘‘ Pelican.”

FAMILY—PLOTIDAE: “ DARTERS.”

. Plotus nove hollandiz ‘ Darter.”

“I
—_
OU

(‘) Includes D. jugularis and D. greyt.

VERNACULAR NAMES FOR AUSTRALIAN BIRDS. 153

FAMILY—PHALACORCORACIDZA: “CORMORANTS.”

716. Phalacrocorax nove hollandiz. ‘ Black Cormorant.”

717. Phalacorcorax varius. ‘ Pied Cormorant.”

718. Phalacorcorax leucogaster. ‘‘ White-breasted Cormorant.
7 : cols . . ”?

719. Phalacorcorax melanoleucus. Little Cormorant.

720. Phalacorcorax strictocephalus. ‘“ Little Black Cormorant.

FAMILY—FREGATIDZ: “FRIGATE-BIRDS.”
22. Tachypetes aquila. ‘“ Frigate-bird.”
23. Tachypetes minor. ‘ Lesser Frigate-bird.”
FAMILY—PHZTHONTID/A: “TROPIC-BIRDS.”
4. Phaéton rubricauda. ‘ Red-tailed Tropic-bird.”
5. Phaéton candidus. ‘ White-tailed Tropic-bird.”
FAMILY—SULIDA: “GANNETS.”

. Sula serrator (australis). “ Gannet.”

. Sula cyanops. “ Masked Gannet.”

. Sula leucogastra (fiber). ‘ Brown Gannet” (Booby).
. Sula piscator. ‘ Red-legged Gannet.”

“=I J -7 ~7
Lo bo bo bo

oie ei mor)

ORDER—PYGOPODES: « DIVING-BIRDS.”’
FAMILY—PODICIPEDID : “GREBES.”

730. Podiceps cristatus. ‘ Tippet Grebe.”
731. Podiceps nestor. ‘ Hoary-headed Grebe.”
732. Podiceps nove hollandiz. ‘ Black-throated Grebe.”

ORDER—IMPENNES: « PENGUINS.”
FAMILY—SPHENISCID/,

733. Catarractes chrysocome. ‘ Crested Penguin.”
734. Eudyptula minor. ‘ Little Penguin.”
735. Eudyptula undina. “ Fairy Penguin.”

ORDER—CHENOMORPH.
SUB-ORDER—ANSERES: ‘“ GEESE,” &C.

FAMILY—ANATIDA: “DUCKS.”

SUB-FAMILY—CYGNINZ: “Swans.”

736. Chenopis atrata. ‘ Black Swan.”

754,
755.

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

SuUB-FAMILY—ANSERANATINE.

. Anseranas semipalmata. ‘Pied Goose.”

SuB-FAMILY— PLECTROPTERIN®.

. Nettopus pulchellus. ‘‘ Green, Goose-Teal.”
. Nettopus albipennis. “ White-quilled Geose-Teal.”

SuB-FAMILY—CEREOPSINE.

. Cereopsis nove hollandiz. ‘Cape Barren Goose.”

SuB-FAMILY—CHENONETTINE

. Chenonetta (Chlamydochen) jubata. ‘Wood Duck or Maned

Goose.”
SuUB-FAMILY—ANATINZ.

. Dendrocyena arcuata (gouldi). ‘ Whistling-Duck.”

. Dendrocyena eytoni. ‘‘ Plumed Whistling-Duck.”

. Tadorna radjah. ‘ White-headed Shieldrake.”

. Casarca tadornoides. ‘‘ Shieldrake or Mountain Duck.”

. Anas superciliosa. ‘ Black Duck.”

’. Nettion (Anas) castaneum (punctata). “Teal.”

8. Nettion (Anas) gibberifrons. “Grey Teal.”

. Spatula clypeata. “Common Shoveller.”

. Spatula rhynchotis ‘Shoveller” (Blue: wing).

. Malacorhynchus membranaceus. ‘‘ Pink-eared Duck”

(Widgeon).

. Stictonetta nevosa. ‘ Freckled Duck.”

SUB-FAMILY—FULIGULINE.

. Nyroca australis. ‘ White-eyed Duck” (Hardhead)

SuUB-FAMILY—ERISMATURIN®.

Erismatura australis. ‘‘ Blue-billed Duck.”
Biziura lobata. ‘ Musk Duck.”

Sub-class—Ratite : “Struthious Birds.’’

ORDER—CASUARII.
FAMILY DROMAIDA: “EMUS.”

. Dromeus nove hollandie. ‘“ Emu.”
. Dromeeus irroratus. ‘Spotted Emu.”
. Dromeus ater. (Extinct.)

FAMILY—CASUARIIDA: “CASSOWARIES.”

. Casuarius australis. “ Cassowary.”

FROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTIONS.

ee er ee

PROCEEDINGS’ OF ‘THE’ SECTIONS.

SEcTION A.

ASTRONOMY, MATHEMATICS, AND
PHYSICS.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

By P. Baraccut, F.R.A.S., Government Astronomer, Melbourne.
(Delivered Friday, January 7, 1898. )

AsTRONOMY and terrestrial physics are, among others, branches
of knowledge for the advancement of which it is necessary that
every civilised country should contribute its share of scientific
activity. The study of astronomy embraces the entire vault of
the heavens, and the physical conditions of our terrestrial globe
can only be fully investigated by the observation and interpreta-
tion of phenomena occurring over the whole extent of its surface.

In these respects, the isolated position of our colonies in the
Southern Hemisphere imposes upon us the responsibility of obtain-
ing and supplying data for the progress and completion of general
researches and undertakings in which the rest of the world has
already done, or is doing, its part. We have not been idle, and:
looking back on the scientific work and enterprise of these
colonies in the past we may, not unnaturally, feel inclined to
think that we have done a great deal in a short space of time and
among the distracting influences and first necessities of colonial
development ; but if we consider what yet remains to be done, in
view of modern requirements, and in order to be able to reach,
and keep pace with, the more advanced workers, most of us will
feel oppressed and perplexed by the innumerable demands that
will be made upon us in the immediate future.

Of these demands, even of the most important of them, it is
well to be conscious that we can only attempt to satisfy a few,
and for this reason it becomes necessary from time to time to
decide as to their relative urgency in order to concentrate our
efforts in the accomplishment of what seems most desirable
according to circumstances.

158 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

With this end in view I propose to point out in this address
certain branches of astronomy and terrestrial physics which, in
my opinion, have the strongest claim to the immediate con-
sideration of the scientific workers of the Australasian colonies
and, in some cases, to the encouragement and support of their
Governments.

In astronomy, as practised in Australia, it is necessary to
distinguish the work of the fixed Observatories, maintained at the
public expense, from that of the private or amateur astronomers.

The National Observatories, of which there are four in Aus-
tralia, namely, Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide, and Perth—this last
having just been established—equipped as they are with fine
instr uments, modern apparatus and appliances of the best work-
manship attainable, with their staff of assistants, their extensive
libraries, their financial resources, and their facility of communi-
cation with the scientific world, possess the best conditions for
carrying on work of a fundamental character, methodically con-
tinued from day to day, and from year to year, on a relatively
large scale, with the highest degree of precision attainable with
the most perfect means, “for the eradual but steady accumulation
of long series of observations and records intended to serve the
purposes of working astronomers of the present and of the future,
or to form a part of general undertakings in co-operation with
other Observatories of the world.

Such, in fact, is the nature of our main contribution to
astronomy.

But in this respect the Australian Observatories, and probably
others, are looked upon as silent, isolated, and uninteresting
organisations, little understood, and much underrated by the
general public.

They are, however, fortunately or unfortunately, called upon
to discharge many other functions which bring them into a close
relation with the every-day life of their respective colonies. These
other non-astronomical functions are principally concerned with
local requirements for the service of the community, and absorb
no less than two-thirds of their total strength, the other third
being stolen by astronomy out of that part of a solar day during
which the public is asleep, and leaves the astronomers to do what
they please. I believe that in the mind of most people the
existence of the Observatories is justified only by those two-thirds
of their activity, and this is a danger which cannot be overlooked
by those who guard the interests of pure science. Such condi-
tions debar our colonial Observatories from engaging in the more
attractive and more speculative parts of astronomical research,
and make it necessary that our available astronomical strength
should be devoted almost solely to observations and preparation

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 159

of data which are more urgently needed, rather than to a more
adventurous exploration of the heavens, which, though it might
appeal with greater attractiveness to the popular tastes of the
age, can be postponed with less detriment to the best interests
of astronomical science.

Let us consider the situation.

Sidereal astronomy is well advanced in the Southern Hemi-
sphere. Indeed it was said, ten years ago, that we were ahead
of the Northern Hemisphere in point of exact star catalogues,
namely, that our skies were richer in accurately-determined
positions of landmarks, as Herschel put it, than the northern.

In many other respects, however, our knowledge of the southern
heavens is deficient, and there are, indeed, numerous paths which
still remain, some partly, some entirely, unexplored. Yet so far
as we in Australia are concerned, it seems to me that there can
be very little hesitation as to our best course, for the strongest
claims to our co-operation are advanced by celestial photography,
fundamental transit circle observations, and investigations for the
improvement of both these branches of astronomy, which should,
therefore, be the objects of our endeavours in the present and imme-
diate future. Indeed these cover a large field; but our share in
their general development is well defined, and upon it we may
safely devote all our forces with the certainty of doing what is
best for the present requirements of astronomy.

It is well known that at a Congress of the leading astrono-
mical authorities in the world, held in Paris in 1887, under the
auspices of the French Academy of Science, a great scheme was
proposed and decided, by which a permanent record of the
appearance of the heavens as could be grasped by the largest
modern telescopes would be left as our heritage to the future
generations of astronomers.

That the record should be so comprehensive as to give the
position of all stars from the brightest to the 11th order of mag-
nitude on Argelander scale with an accuracy as great or greater
than that of the best catalogues of our day, and a chart contain-
ing all stars down to the 14th magnitude. A project of this
nature was made possible only when photography had established
its capabilities in the service of astronomy. It would have been
beyond the powers of any single institution to accomplish such a
task, and the co-operation of Observatories in the Northern and
Southern Hemispheres was sought. Eighteen Observatories joined
in the undertaking, giving their pledge to execute their propor-
tionate share, submitting faithfully to the rules which would be
laid down by the congress for the realisation of a scheme which,
in point of breadth, thoroughness, and far-reaching influence,
must be recognised as the greatest ever initiated in the history
of astronomy.

160 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

The Sydney and Melbourne Observatories are among the
eighteen institutions participating in the work.

It is with a feeling of deep admiration that I think of the year
1887, when the directors of these two Australian Observatories,
with a truly scientific spirit, well knowing the difficulties to be
faced, secured the opportunity of rendering a great service to
science, and of raising the astronomical prestige of their institu-
tions to the honour and credit of the colonies by inducing their
Governments to permit and support their adherence to the
purposes of the Astrophotographic Congress, to associate with so
many distinguished workers in a common enterprise, which will
certainly leave its conspicuous mark among the many extra-
ordinary achievements of our time. You will observe that the
work consists of two distinct parts, namely, a catalogue and a
chart. Hach of these parts involves (for reasons to be given later)
the photographing of the whole extent of the celestial sphere
twice over; one series of negatives (catalogues) being obtained
with short exposures of a few minutes, about five minutes on an
average, while the exposure for the other series (chart) extends
from forty to ninety minutes.

For the purpose of allotting an approximate equal area to each
participating Observatory, the heavens were divided into eighteen
zones, bounded by parallels of declination, each zone being taken
complete charge of by each Observatory. Thus, Greenwich
and Melbourne have charge respectively of the North and South
Polar caps; Sydney has the zone adjoining that of Melbourne,
and the Helsingfors zone adjoins that of Greenwich.

The intermediate zones are taken up by four other Observatories
in the Southern Hemisphere and eleven others in the North.

The complete list is as follows, in order of latitude :—Green-
wich, Rome, Catania, Helsingfors, Potsdam, Oxford, Paris, Bor-
deaux, Toulouse, Alger, San Fernando, Tacubaia, Santiago, La
Plata Rio, Cape of Good Hope, Sydney, and Melbourne. The
Australian contribution alone is a little more than one-tenth of
the total.

The labours of the past years, and the progress made, place it
beyond reasonable doubt that the accomplishment of the under-
taking is within reach. It may, perhaps, be interesting to some
among you to know the principal features of the work, and the
first conditions laid out by the International Committee, which I
will attempt to describe very briefly, as follows :—AII the instru-
ments employed in these operations are of the same class and
optical dimensions, and each consists of a double telescope,
equatorially mounted, and forming a rigid system, one for photo-
graphing, provided with an objective of 13-0 inches aparture, and
the other for visual observations, with an objective of 10-1 inches,
both of the same focal length—approximately, 134 inches.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 161

The latter telescope is necessary in order to ascertain that the
region under exposure is accurately followed.

The photographic plates are 158 mm. square, and cover an area
of more than 6 degrees, of which 4 degrees only are used.

In order to define the centre and the orientation of the plate in
respect to the region photographed, a latent image of a reticule
is impressed on the plate before exposure.

This consists of a set of parallel lines at intervals of 5 milli-
meters, crossed at right angles by another similar set of lines. On
developing the plate “after exposure to the sky, an image of the
reticule is thus permanently secured.

The intersection of the central lines is taken as the centre of
the plate, or of the region photographed ; one of the central lines
represents the path of an equatorial star, and the other central
line at right angles to it consequently corresponds to a celestial
meridian. 11,027 plates are required to cover the whole sky
once, and the sky is accordingly subdivided for this purpose
into as many elementary areas, which are photographed one by
one.

The plan decided by a Special Commission of the Permanent
Committee for carrying out these operations was as follows :—-
Imagine parallels of declination to be traced on the celestial
sphere, 1 degree apart, from zero at the Equator, to 90 degrees at
the Poles. Then on and along the parallels of even degrees, mark
equidistant points at intervals of 2 degrees of a great circle.

These points correspond to the centres of the elementary areas.
which, in the photographs, are represented by the intersection of
the central lines of the reseau.

The 11,027 pictures thus obtained would comprise the whole
extent of the heavens. As we have seen above, it was prescribed
that the entire surface should be photographed a second time,
both for the short exposure and long exposure plates.

In the second series, instead of photographing the same elemen-
tary areas as in the first, the centres were marked on and along
the parallels of odd degrees of declination at intervals of 2 degrees
of a great circle, so arranged as to be coincident with the point
of junction of four adjoining plates of the first series.

Thus the stars which form their image near the corners of one
plate will also appear near the centre of another plate, which is
one of the many advantages of the method.

An area of 4 square degrees covers a square of 120 mm. on
the plates ; but the outer lines of the reseau enclose a square of
130 mm.; the photographs do, therefore, overlap to the extent of
5 mm. on each side.

The plan of distribution and arrangement of the centres of the
elementary regions is the same in both the catalogue, or short.
exposure plates, and the chart, or long exposure plate Adii A i

o

162 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

complete series consisting of 22,054 separate and independent
photographs.

It would be hardly appropriate to enter here into further
technicalities and details. Suflice it to say that, so far as securing
the negatives with the required precision and efficiency, all the
difficulties have been gradually conquered, and the work has pro-
ceeded satisfactorily for some years past.

One series, namely, that with short exposures, for the star
catalogue, has been accomplished by the majority of the co-operating
Observatories. Both Sydney and Melbourne terminated their
share some time since.

In regard to the second series, with long exposures for the
chart proper, a few Observatories are fast approaching completion,
some are making fair progress, and others (the South America
Observatory, for instance) have not yet commenced.

Sydney is well advanced ; but in Melbourne we have not been
able to go ahead with the desired speed lately, but the conditions
have greatly improved more recently, and the work is now pro-
ceeding quite satisfactorily.

As we are bound to complete our Australian share of astropho-
tographic work, let us see what still remains to be done in this
respect.

Actual photographic operation for the chart proper will occupy
at least four years. In the meantime, the negatives of the
catalogue or short exposure series require to be measured and
reduced.

The nature of the measurements consists in determining the
rectilinear coordinates of each star on each plate, taking the
centre of the plates as the origin.

The resolutions of the Conference held in Paris, in 1896,
demands that these co-ordinates shall be correctly determined
within 0:2”. That is the linear distances of a star from the
central lines of the reticule, as measured micrometrically, ovght to
be correct within 0-003 millimeters, which is equivalent to a little
more than ;>25,sth of an inch.

This is the maximum error allowable. Of these distances there
will be probably half a million to measure for the Australian
portion.

The measures are then to be subjected to various corrections,
and prepared for publication as early as possible. The labour
involved in these operations exceeds by far that required for the
whole actual photographing, and will take perhaps seven or eight
years to accomplish, provided a special bureau is created for the
purpose with half a dozen or more assistants.

This is not all. In order that the precise positions which the
stars actually occupy in the heavens may be deduced from the
position of their photographic images on the plates, it is necessary

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 163

to refer these images to the images of a number of stars within
the same respective regions which shall have been fundamentally
observed with our meridian circles, so that these may be used as
zero points not affected by the uncertainty of proper motion.

The Conference decided in 1896 that there should be ten such
zero points in each plate if possible.

We have, therefore, for the completion of the Australian part
of the photographic catalogue, to form a catalogue of some 12,000
or 13,000 stars, fundamentally observed with transit circles, and
reduced to the epoch 1900.

Owing to the great magnitude of these labours, the fear has
been felt in some quarters that the refinement sought for the
photographic catalogue is beyond our resources, and may indefi-
nitely retard the termination of the work. This apprehension is
not a fanciful one, and, as it arises from the practical view taken
of existing circumstances, it is likely to produce discouragement.
It may be that the intentions of the late Admiral Mouchez, the
originator of the astrophotographic scheme, and the ideas enter-
tained by the earlier Conferences, were not so ambitious ; but if
we look further ahead, and consider from a broad point of view
the purposes which the undertaking is intended to serve, there
seems to be but one satisfactory conclusion, namely, that delay
would be a lesser evil than want of refinement carried even to the
utmost degree.

The essential fact to be taken into account is, that this work
is, to a very great extent, for the service of the next generation of
astronomers, principally to enable them to solve more satisfactorily
than we can at present the great problems of sidereal astronomy,
which depend on the accuracy of a great number of relatively old
observations of star places.

Consequently it seems of paramount importance to attain in
the astrophotographic catalogue the highest possible precision,
even if it involved an excessive delay.

It must be borne in mind that the probable error of star
positions, as deduced from the photographic plates, cannot be of a
smaller magnitude than that of positions determined by meridian
observations.

The accidental errors which evade analysis leave their element
of doubt in observed star places, which will always remain with
the photographic positions as well. The systematic errors, though
capable of measurement and control to a great extent, are by no
means governed by constant and perfectly known laws, and do
not receive uniform treatment at the hands of all catalogue
makers and computers.

Some uncertainty is therefore involved also in the process of
reduction, which will also affect all the photographic positions

164 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

That the rectilinear co-ordinates can and will be measured on
the plates within the prescribed limit of 0-2”, there can be very
little doubt ; but if we desire the greatest possible precision in the
deduced stars places, our efforts must be directed to secure an
equivalent precision in the cases of the stars taken as zero points ;
and it seems necessary that whatever refinements may be devised
and introduced, their adoption should be general and strictly
uniform, for the influence of additional means and precautions for
eliminating systematic errors from meridian observations and
reductions would then be felt beneficially throughout the whole
range of fundamental astronomy of position.

It is appropiate to refer here to a proposal of Dr. Gill, made
some three years ago, which bears upon this subjeet.

Dr. Gill proposed that an International Congress of Astrono-
mers be held, to answer, among others, the following questions,
viz. :—“ Are astronomers prepared to enter upon a_ preliminary
study, discussion, and experiment on the practical methods by
which the art of observation may be raised to a higher level of
accuracy, and its results be derived and published in a more
systematic and homogeneous system ?”

In recent years it has been sought to improve the determina-
tions of star positions, by investigating certain minute errors
which had previously either remained unsuspected, or considered
too small for practical treatment. Among these may be classed
the latitude variation, and the changes of personal equation in
the same observer due to difference of star magnitude, declination,
or reversed direction of the apparent motion of the star across the
field of view.

On the other hand, it has been questioned whether it would be
advisable as yet to introduce the necessary corrections for these
errors, owing to the disturbing elements and uncertainties by
which their respective investigations may be affected, such, for
instance, as the irregular and undetected variation of temperature
of parts of the transit circles, the conditions of the observing
room, and physiological questions. These matters have been and
are being analy sed with extreme care by leading authorities in
the astronomical world, but the results have not so far been
finally accepted for general application.

Further improvements in the reduction of meridian observa-
tions have been looked for in another direction, namely, the
revision and redetermination of astronomical constants. With a
view (among other considerations) of deciding upon the adoption
by the National Ephemeries of a uniform system of these con-
stants, a Conference was held in Paris last year for the purpose
by the Directors of the National Ephemeries and other prominent
astronomers.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS, 165

The following values were adopted from 1900.

General precession ... ses ... 50°2453
Lunisolar precession aint ... 90°3684
ib) ape pe tad sep ee 20 on
Tee Pies aise sa nee a 20a
Solar Parallax sh ae a 8-80
Constant of Nutation a co 9:21
Constant of Aberration ... ee 20-47

The discussion by American astronomers which followed the
publication of the above results, especially in regard to the con-
stants of precession and aberration as adopted by the Conference,
shows how great is the importance to be attached to the expan-
sion of meridian observations, and how urgent the demands for
increased refinement in this class of work. It seems, therefore,
that in our immediate future we in Australia also must be deeply
concerned in fundamental astronomy of position.

The Adelaide and Perth Observatory could not perhaps have a
better opportunity of rendering extremely valuable service, the
one by continuing, and the other by joining in due course, in the
observation of zero stars for our astrophotographic plates, and to
carry on every investigation, according to modern methods, which
may tend to improve the observations and free the results from
every possible source of error.

Such assistance would be all the more valuable as it would
enable the required star places to be determined within a reason-
ably short interval from the epoch of reduction 1900, and would
certainly be in accordance with that system of astronomical
co-operation which is rendered so desirable and in fact necessary
by the great breadth of modern undertakings, of which the
Astronomische Gesellschaft and the astrophotographic scheme
are the uppermost exponents of our century.

It may be clearly concluded that the Observatories in Australia
need not introduce any more systematic work in their programme
for the immediate future than that already considered. Other
branches of astronomical research must be left, and recommended
to the amateur astronomers of the colonies.

The work of the amateur astronomer lies generally in the
direction most suitable to his tastes and means.

If he possess ability and enthusiasm he may indeed be reckoned
as a considerable factor in the advancement of his particular
sphere of action.

He may take up a subject—a single planet, for instance—and
devote all his available time to it, with a very strong probability
that he will materially advance our knowledge of that planet.

Many important and interesting paths of research are yet left
for exploration in our southern skies. | Here, again, co-operation

166 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

is to be recommended, although lately this course has not been
favourably regarded in some quarters. One of the fears is that
by mixing good and bad work the results bear the appearance of
mediocrity, and the value of the best work is thus greatly depre-
ciated, if not entirely lost. This is no doubt very true in parti-
cular cases, but not to such an extent as to render co-operation
such as is practised by the sections of the British Astronomical
Association undesirable.

A system which directs the forces of many enthusiastic workers
along distinct and controlled channels, all leading to the same
end, must be beneficial to the majority of persons concerned, and
could hardly fail to utilise energy with a maximum of efliciency.

The inferior amateur soon abandons a course in which he can
make no advance. What is mostly to be feared is absence of
definite purpose, and the surest remedy against this danger is co-
operation and co-ordination.

The best service that can be rendered to astronomy by the
amateurs in these colonies is to direct their efforts to a class or
classes of observations which cannot be made by observers in the
Northern Hemisphere.

Thus the systematic exploration of the more southern skies in
search of new objects ; accurate and extensive observations in
meteoric phenomena are very desirable.

If thestellarmagnitude of all the lucid stars south of declination—
30° ccould be determined with Pritchard Wedge Photometer—we
would have a uniform system of magnitudes complementary to the
Uranometria Nova Oxoniensis extending over the whole of the
heavens, which would be of the greatest value as an independent
series for comparison with the series determined with the meridian
Photometers of Prof. Pickering. There are several telescopes in
the colonies belonging to private institutions or persons which
could be successfully employed in the accomplishment of this task,
by judiciously distributing and co-ordinating the work.

These are mere suggestions of courses which seem most desirable
to follow.

It would be premature and inappropriate to go further into
these questions at present. The possibilities of the future in
regard to these and many other astronomical researches depending
on private institutions and amateurs can only be gauged by an
accurate knowledge of instrumental equipment, and the numerical
strength, quality, and zeal of the observers available. Such infor-
mation is not as yet completely obtainable.

‘The New South Wales branch of the British Astronomical
Association has led a good example, which has been followed by
Victoria, and may influence the other colonies to gather together
their amateur astronomers.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 167

There is consequently some reason to hope that amateur activity
may in the immediate future render valuable services in some of
these classes of astronomical observations in which the Government
Observatories are unable to take an active part.

Enough has been said, I think, to show in what direction
these colonies may co-operate in the best interests of astronomy
in proportion to their resources and circumstances.

I will now invite your attention to certain subjects of Terres-
trial Physics, which derive their great importance, not only from
purely scientific considerations, but from their more or less direct
bearing upon our material interests, and also, from the fact that in
very recent years, and at the present time, they have been taken up
with renewed vigour and determination in the hope of improving
our knowledge on many points which still remain unexplained.

Prominent among these subjects is Terrestrial Magnetism.

Nearly 300 years ago, Gilbert advanced his great theory “ Mag-
nus Magnes ipse est Globus Terrestris,” to account for the observed
phenomena of the freely suspended magnetised needle.

To this day science has not heen able to determine absolutely
whether this theory can be finally accepted as true.

Another theory is that which regards the earth’s magnetic field
as an induced one, ascribed to the action of electric currents cir-
culating within the earth’s crust.

But whether the earth acts as a great magnet, or as a great
electro-magnet, science is as yet unable to tell. As Dr. Bauer
puts it, no satisfactory answer has as yet been given to the question
“Ts the earth’s magnetism permanent, or induced ?”

Still more remote seems to be the probability of discovering the
origin of the earth’s magnetism, and the cause of its variations
and perturbations. Magnetic phenomena, as they occur on the
earth’s surface, appear to be related to solar activity, atmospheric
electricity, and possibly to other meteorological conditions, but the
nature of these relations is not known.

These are large theoretical problems awaiting solution in the
immediate future.

It has been urged that more systematic and careful observations
of earth’s currents should be made, as a part of the regular work
of magnetic observatories, and that magnetic exploration of the
atmospheric layers, and of the bottom of the sea, is as necessary as
the exploration of the earth’s surface for the solution of these
questions.

Of more practical importance, however, is the knowledge of the
distribution of the earth’s magnetism, and of the laws which
govern its variations ; for it is this knowledge that enables mag-
neticians to construct those magnetic charts which are of so great
a service to navigation and to land surveying, especially in new
countries.

168 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

And it is, moreover, from the steady increase of this knowledge
that we may hope to gain ground towards the solution of some of
the riddles mentioned above.

It is, in fact, recognised that the main purpose to which future
efforts should be directed is to expand and co-ordinate magnetic
work, the world over, for obtaining a more correct and complete
knowledge of the distribution of terrestrial magnetism and of its
variation. Observe that we require to investigate certain physical
conditions of our planet in their total effect—that is, regarding
the earth as a whole ; and this object can only be accomplished
by a complete magnetic service, carried on under uniform methods
for a continued period, forming a great net of: magnetic observa-
tories well distributed all over the terrestrial sphere.

But the realisation of these ideal conditions is, at least partly,
prevented by insuperable difficulties.

The seas, the deserts, and all inaccessible parts of the earth
would always cause large gaps in the plan of magnetic evidence.

The available opportunities, however, are by no means taken
full advantage of. The permanent magnetic observatories of the
world are, all but three, located in the Northern Hemisphere, and
by far the greater part of these are clustered in Europe. The
southernmost magnetic station is that at Melbourne, and the
great expanse between us and the Antarctic Pole gives no evidence
of its present magnetic conditions. Yet the possibilities of making
satisfactory progress rest with us.

Dr. Adolf Schmidt has investigated the question of the Lest
possible distribution of magnetic observatories, the combined
efforts of which should be brought to bear fully on the magnetic
problems of uppermost importance. He has shown that the
addition of very few permanent magnetic observatories would
very greatly improve the present conditions. Among the localities
where such additional magnetic observatories could render a signal
service to magnetic science, Australia and New Zealand are
specially pointed out. The great importance of a permanent
magnetic observatory in New Zealand has Jong been recognised
by leading magneticians, on account of its geographical position.

The establishment of such an observatory in the immediate
future seems to be a duty which New Zealand owes to the scientific
world, as it would be hardly justifiable for any country to deny
such a great service to science.

Indeed, the indifference of the colonies in terrestrial magnetism
has been publicly pointed out at Home, and has called forth a
well-merited reproach from scientific authorities.

The Melbourne Observatory occupies in this respect a very
humiliating position, for although a continuous record of the

values and variations of the magnetic elements has been most
carefully and industriously kept up for the last thirty years, no

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 169

results have as yet been deduced, and we are thus culpable of
holding back a great mass of valuable evidence which would
undoubtedly throw additional light on almost every problem of
terrestrial magnetism.

Hitherto we have dealt with terrestrial magnetism in its general
aspect or “in its totality.”

There remains the local aspect to be considered, namely, that
in which the magnetic operations are principally intended to
determine the magnetic conditions of a limited region in minute
detail, and constituting what are generally called “magnetic
surveys.”

Every magnetic survey of a country is not only of special
service to that country in regard to the requirements of the land
surveyor, the mining engineer, and the geologist, but forms a
distinct and much-valued contribution to magnetic science. In
these undertakings the field-work is carried on “by one or a number
of observers, who move from place to place with their portable
instruments, observing at selected stations the three magnetic
elements, namely, declination, horizontal intensity, and dip, also
noting and investigating disturbances in their relation to geolc-
gical features.

The selection and number of stations in a magnetic survey
depend upon the nature of the country and on the more or less
elaborate character which the survey is intended to possess.

It may be remarked that the more numerous the stations the
more complete will ke the survey, provided their distribution be
judicious ; indeed, there can be very little fear of erring in the
direction of making a magnetic survey too minute in detail.

From the field observations results are deduced to represent
the value of the magnetic elements for a common epoch, which is
called the epoch of the survey. For this purpose it is necessary
to know the variations and perturbations of the magnetic ele-
ments on the days of observation ; and this necessary information
is supplied by the permanent magnetic observatory, which is
taken as the base station of the survey, and where the registra-
tion of these variations is obtained photographically or by frequent
observations throughout the twenty-four hours of the day. It is
very desirable that the base station should not be too far removed
from the locality of the survey.

The next step is to plot on the map the isogonic, isoclinic, and
isodynamic lines, or lines of equal declination, inclination, and
force respectively.

After the lapse of time the direction of these lines becomes
affected by the secular variation, and the magnetic map requires
rectification ; but the secular variation can ‘only be determined
by a new ma gnetic survey of the same regions after an interval
of several years.

170 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

This necessity is amply illustrated by the magnetic survey of
the British Isles. The first of these surveys was executed i in the
years 1834~38, the second in 1857-62, and the last in the years
1884-88, and Sih es to the epoch 1886.

It may be appropriate to mention that two of these surveys
were recommended by the British Association for the Advance-
ment of Science.

Turning now to the Australasian colonies, we find a most
excellent magnetic survey of the colony of Victoria made by Dr.
Neumayer in the years 1858-1864. No other part of Australasia,
however, has been magnetically surveyed.

A new survey of the colony of Victoria is of the greatest
importance, as it would settle the question of the secular varia-
tion ; and with the greater facilities of the present, some defi-
ciencies which were inevitable in the first survey, owing to the
conditions of the colony forty years ago, could be remedied. A
magnetic survey of the whole of Australia, of Tasmania, and New
Zealand may at first sight appear to be a task of enormous mag-
nitude, yet it would be well worthy of these colonies to undertake
it ; and I consider that the present or immediate future offers
good opportunities for its initiation, for the following reasons,
namely :—

We have at present a large body of geodetic and land surveyors
whose services must gradually Teeente less and less required
within the special sphere of their calling, owing to the progressive
settlement of the country. Among these professional men it
would not be difficult to pick, say, half-a-dozen in each Colony
possessing the required aptitude for this delicate class of work.
‘The necessary training would be a matter of a few months, the
instruments a matter of a few hundreds of pounds for each
Government, and the field-work a matter of a few years.

Permanent magnetic observatories, in addition to Melbourne,
could be established with all desired security for efficiency at the
Sydney, Adelaide, and Perth Observatories, with little extra
yearly expense beyond the initial cost of the instruments.

Other permanent magnetic observatories would be required at
Brisbane, Port Darwin, Hobart, and at a southern place in New
Zealand. The last two would possess an additional importance
over the others, owing to the circumstance that Hobart is the site
where a valuable series of magnetic records was secured during
the years 1841-48 for the Royal Society of London, which would
be of immense advantage to deduce the values of secular varia-
tion, and New Zealand on account of its being the most southern
station of easy access in our hemisphere.

Port Darwin might not necessarily remain in activity after the
completion of the survey. Brisbane would always be of great
service—Ist, as a base station for its vast territories, where the

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 171

accurate knowledge of the magnetic meridian must be of a neces-
sity for its surveyors ; and second, for the great assistance it would
render to the sea-going magneticians in surveying vessels, who
require to verify their instruments by connecting their observa-
tions with as many permanent stations as can be obtained.

This last attribute of permanent magnetic observatories is
applicable to all the stations here contemplated.

These propositions for the expansion of magnetic work in Aus-
tralasia may appear exorbitant, and out of all proportion with
the resources of these colonies; but the science of terrestrial mag-
netism is now in a phase of remarkable activity in many parts of
the world, and we, by keeping out of its course, simply retard and
probably impede its progress.

This is therefore another task which will at least claim our
earnest attention in the immediate future, and we may rest
assured that by so doing we shall receive the approval and the
encouragement of all the authorities in this branch of terrestrial
physics, whose objects are so interesting, and whose laws are so
obscure.

The next subject to which I desire to draw your attention is
terrestrial gravitation, a force which, like terrestrial magnetism, is
obscure in its origin, but which is capable of exact measurement
at any accessible point of the earth’s surface, and its distribution
can therefore be ascertained.

If the earth were a regular and homogeneous spheroid, with a
smooth surface, we might expect that its attractive force would
vary uniformly, according to a simple law, from the Poles to the
Equator, and would have the same intensity at all places of equal
latitude ; so that it wé6uld be sufficient to determine its value at
one single point, in order to deduce its variation at any other.

But the ranges of mountains and deep oceans, the great
differences in the geological conditions of the earth’s crust, and
probably other irregularities in its figure, disturb this simple dis-
tribution, and cause variations and perturbations in the force of.
gravity, which cannot perhaps be represented by any mathematical
formula.

Consequently, if we desire to know its accurate value at any
given place, we must simply determine it by actual observation.

Hence the necessity of carrying on this class of observations in
every part of the world, in order to improve as much as possible
our information on a subject which can hardly be considered
secondary in importance to any other branch of terrestrial physics.

This importance may perhaps be better understood in its con-
nection with geodesy, and the figure and size of the earth.

It is well known that discrepancies in geodetic determinations
of latitudes and longitudes, when compared with corresponding
values from astronomical observations, are frequently considerable,

172 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

and that these and other uncertainties can be partly traced to
local variations of the force of gravity ; consequently the study of
these variations may not only assist in improving geodetic results,
but may also throw light on the geological conditions of the earth’s

crust to which the variations of gravity are no doubt related.

The figure and size of the earth are by no means settled
questions. We may know the length of its major and minor axes
within a few hundred feet ; but if we consider that upon these
data depends the accuracy of our astronomical constants and
magnitudes of the solar system, it seems very desirable to exhaust
all possible means of research to increase this accuracy.

More extended gravity observations, it is admitted, would be
of great service in further testing and probably improving the
value of the ellipticity or the flattening of the earth at the Poles,
and the method is more promising than others dependent on
geodetic ares, on precession and nutation, and on perturbations of
the moon. We have in the colonies splendid facilities to carry on
gravity operations along a meridian of some 30° in length, the
results of which would form a magnificent Australian contribu-
tion towards the determination of the figure of the earth.

Since the days of Bouguer Borda and other celebrated experi-
menters and inv estigators, accurate gravity determinations have
been made, hitherto generally by pendulum observations, under
two distinct methods, namely, the absolute method, which gives
the absolute value of the force of gravity at any given place, and
the differential method, which gives only its variation from place
to place.

The instruments used have varied from the nearest approach
to the ideal pendulum, as a heavy symmetrical mass attached to
a thin thread, to the convertible, reversible, and invariable
pendulums of Bessel and Kater.

It would be hardly appropriate at this late stage to enter fully
upon the many and ‘extremely interesting questions which arose
from a discussion of the results obtained in various parts of the
world, especially England, India, and Russia ; and I shall there-
fore pass on with all possible directness to the present and future
aspect of the case.

During the past few years a well-marked renewal of interest
in gravity work has taken place in Europe and America, which,
I consider, is partly due to the introduction of less ponderous
instruments, and improved methods of observation, which afford
greater facilities, conveniences, and rapidity in the execution of
gravity surveys.

Extensive operations have been carried on especially in Austria,
America, and France ; pendulums have been swung at the prin-
cipal sea-ports more usually frequented by warsbips ; and activity
is gradually extending.

PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS. ie

It is well it is so, for even the latest published results show
very clearly that much remains yet to be learnt from gravity
surveys, that existing data have not been fully utilised, and that
a great deal more of this work is required.

In the Southern Hemisphere very little indeed has been done in
regard to gravity research. There are only a few very scattered
determinations made by Austrian naval officers; but nothing
that I am aware of at any inland places. In Australia, previously
to 1893, we had an absolute determination of the value of g made
by Neumayer more than thirty years ago ; observations made with
Kater’s invariable pendulums by the American expedition sent
out to New, Zealand to observe the Transit of Venus in 1882 ; two
independent values for Melbourne and Sydney, determined by
Austrian naval officers with the invariable 1/2° pendulums of
Colonel Von Sternech ; and nothing more.

But we did not remain passive spectators of the interest taken
in other parts of the world in gravity investigations.

In 1893 the Royal Society oe Victoria created a committee,
styled “‘The Gravity Survey Committee,” for the purpose of
initiating and subsequently studying and suggesting the best
means to execute a gravity survey of Australia.

The first and most imporfant steps were soon taken.

Kater’s invariable pendulums were lent to us by the Royal
Society of London, with which a connection was made with the
base stations at Greenwich and Kew, and thus established a base
or zero point at Melbourne and another at Sydney, which will
enable us to carry on the survey entirely on the differential method
with any other independent instruments.

A set of three half-second pendulums, with all the necessary
accessory apparatus, were constructed at the Melbourne Observa-
tory, under Mr. Ellery’s supervision, possessing all the latest
improvements, and these our Mr. Love took to England in 1894,
and made another independent connection of Greenwich and Kew
with Melbourne, with satisfactory results.

This is the present state of gravity work in the colonies.

We have a well-determined zero point, and a complete set of
first-rate instruments, with which the gravity survey of this
continent can be executed with great facility, and within a
reasonable number of years.

It is therefore to be hoped that the Gravity Committee will
receive every encouragement and support for the accomplishment
of a task which will be a credit to the colonies and a benefit to
science.

Tcannot refrain from mentioning a wonderful piece of mechanism
invented by Professor Threlfall some years since, which has been
gradually improved by him and by Mr. Pollock, and submitted to
all possible tests.

174 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

Tt is called the gravimeter, and is intended to determine the
absolute value of the force of gravity.

It seems to have reached, or nearly reached, the state of per-
fection, and it is quite probable that it may put a very different
aspect on the future of gravity work.

Seismology is one more subject of terrestrial physics, which, as
it will necessitate more systematic and thorough investigation in
Australia in the immediate future, it is in accordance with the
pian of this address that I should mention it.

I know that there is already a committee for seismological
research, which was created by our Association, and that its
activity has been shown by its interesting reports presented at
our past meetings, and published in our volumes.

I may, however, be allowed to point out some new matters, with
the hope that my remarks on the subject may not be construed
as interfering with the functions of this worthy committee.

The seismological committee of the British Association for the
advancement of science some time ago addressed a circular to the
Australian Observatories, and, I suppose, to other Australasian
Institutions, in which we were requested to co-operate with other
parts of the world by securing instrumental records of the correct
times and phases of “earthquakes and tremors, stating also that
these records should be obtained with the same class of in-
struments.

The proposed instruments are intended to give a photographic
record of one horizontal component.

Hitherto in the Australian colonies there has been no attempt
made to carry on this class of observations in accordance with
any concerted method, and with sufiicient accuracy and complete-
ness to efficiently serve the purposes of modern research. It is to
be regretted that in recent investigations of earthquake periodicity,
and in the relation of earthquake frequency with barometric
conditions, the Australian contribution of data has been regarded
as somewhat uncertain or deficient.

These questions, in addition to that of the velocity of propaga-
tion, and many others more especially of a geological character,
are of the greatest interest, and I have no doubt that our
seismological committee will make suggestions in order that the
requests of the Home investigators may be complied with. The
seismological instruments we possess at present in the Australian
colonies are not, I am afraid, sufficiently sensitive. In Melbourne,
for instance, the seismograph of the Observatory is not so sensitive
as the unifilar and bifilar magnetographs.

Consequently the slight earth tremors, which are probably of
more frequent occurrence than we may suspect, evade observation ;
and these are of no less importance from the scientific point of
view than violent shocks.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 175

It seems very desirable that instruments of the form proposed
by the Home committee should be placed at the four Australian
Observatories—at Brisbane, Port Darwin, Tasmania, and New
Zealand, and that the observations and records should be brought
under a uniform and controlled system.

I must now conclude.

It has been my endeavour to show in what direction lay the
most urgent demands for scientific activity in these colonies con-
cerning some of the subjects within the scope of our section.

Whether we will be able to satisfy these demands in the
immediate future, depends, in the majority of cases here con-
templated, more on the attitude and support of the Australian
Governments than on personal exertions ; for which reason the
influence of the recommendations of this Section A, and, through
it, that of our Association in its total capacity, may be, and, it
is hoped, will be a determinant of success.

No. 1.—FOUR THEOREMS IN SPHERICAL
HARMONICS.

By C. CoLeripcr Farr, B.Sc.
(Read January 10, 1898.)

No. 2.—SOME EXPRESSIONS FOR THE COMPONENT
OF THE MAGNETIC FORCE PERPENDICULAR
TO THE AXIS IN THE INTERIOR OF SOLENOIDS.

By C. CoteripGe Farr, B.Sc.
(Read January 10, 1898.)
[ Abstract. |

In this paper the author investigates expressions for the radial
component of the magnetic force in the interior of a coil, and
shows that it can be expressed in terms of the differential coefti-
cients of the zonal harmonics. The discussion embodies six cases.
A table of the values of the first derivatives of the first seven
harmonics is given to facilitate numerical calculations.

176 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

No. 3—MAGNETIC HYSTERESIS LOSSES IN FEEBLY
MAGNETIC AND IN DIAMAGNETIC SUBSTANCES.

By Proressor THRELFALL, M.A., AND FLORENCE Marmin.
(Read January 10, 1898.)
| Abstract. |

THE paper describes an attempt made to measure the magnetic
losses in diamagnetic substances by suspending them in a rotating
magnetic field and measuring the deflection at any given value of
H. ‘The apparatus is described and some of the necessary pre-
cautions enumerated. The percentage of initial energy absorbed
at fields varying from 200 C.G.S. to 800 C.G.8. is given for
sulphur, selenium, and paraffin, and is shown to be about the same
for sulphur end paraffin (00004 and -000064 respectively) and
about ten times as great (0004) for selenium. The presence
of iron is shown to have no special effect unless in the metallic
state. Any want of homogeneity was found to very largely
increase the energy loss. This suggested that the loss depends
upon a boundary effect as well as upon the volume, though it is
not clear how this can be. That it isso appears, however, to be the
case from the fact that the deflection of a ferromagnetic glass bulb
is decreased by filling the bulb with a ferromagnetic liquid, and
increased by filling it with a diamagnetic liquid. The difficulties
encountered in endeavouring to measure the loss in bismuth by
this method are commented on.

No. 4—THE TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF NEW
SOUTH WALES, WITH MENTION OF SIMILAR
SURVEYS IN THE OTHER AUSTRALIAN
COLONIES.

By 2 2 BuRBER es bees, as.
(Read, January 10, 1898).

INTRODUCTORY.

In a return of the operations of the Trigonometrical Survey of
this Colony, published a couple of years back, it is mentioned
that in view of the accuracy attained in our primary triangulation.
a more rigorous method of computation, than had been before
used in our survey, had been applied in the reduction of the
meridian series south from the Lake George Base ; also that a
review had been made of the data afforded by the triangulation,

TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 177

as far as it had gone, in determining the dimensions of the
spheroid best conforming to the actual surface covered by the
survey. This work, together with some added since, seems to be
of sufficient importance to warrant reference to it in greater
detail than could be given in the return mentioned, and as some
interest may attach to a matter which is here, it is believed,
treated for the first time as far as this part of the world is con-
cerned, the following remarks have been prepared.

It is regretted that the practice followed in so many other
countries where work of this nature is proceeding, is not adhered
to by us. As a rule, publication of not only the results of a
survey but of the data and details of reduction is made elsew here,
the object being to enable the data to be combined with those
afforded by other surveys in order to secure the most reliable
results, and also to permit anyone desiring to use the survey at a
future time, when possibly the methods of reduction may be much
improved, to apply such improved methods to the original data.
Of course it will be understood that these remarks as to publica-
tion apply more particularly to the primary triangulation, for,
although the breaking down of that triangulation for the purposes
of governing chain surveys and aiding construction of maps is of
the highest importance, and in fact forms the bulk of the
work of a survey, yet it possesses little scientific interest. It is
hoped that in due course a full report of the primary triangulation,
such as is indicated above, may be published ; in the meantime
such details as may be included within the limits of a short paper
will be presented, giving first a short sketch of the progress of
the survey, which may be needed to assist in following the sub~
sequent matter and in estimating the value of the steps taken in.
carrying it out.

It is proposed also to give a brief description of the similar
surveys made or in progress in the other colonies. For information
regarding these the writer has to thank the Surveyors-General of
the several colonies ; the description of the Victorian work has,
however, been mainly drawn froma paper by Mr. R. L. J. Ellery,
C.M.G., F.R.S., published in the proceedings of the Victorian
Institute of Surveyors. The intention is to give here only such a
sketch of the work done by our neighbours as will enable the
general scope and methods to be gathered, though a study of the
history of higher surveying in these colonies forms an object.
lesson which should prove useful in guiding our future steps.

NEW SOUTH WALES—BASE LINES.

The trigonometrical survey of New South Wales had its in-
ception in 1867, when information was first sought with regard
to suitable sites for base lines ; the measurement of a base line at
Lake George being commenced in 1868, under the direction of the-

M

178 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

late Mr. G. R. Smalley. The work then done was, however,
abandoned in consequence of an abnormal rise in the lake by
which the line was covered in parts to a depth of 2 feet 6
inches, and in 1870 a new site, close to the former, was chosen by
the Surveyor-General, Mr. P. F. Adams, under whose supervision
the base was measured by Mr. A. C. Betts, work being commenced
on 31st October of that year. <A report of the mode of measure-
ment, with remarks as to the comparisons of the standard bar
with the wooden bars actually used on the base, will be found in
a return to Parliament, 3lst May, 1871. The standard bar is the
O.1.,, referred to at page 175 of Colonel Clarke’s work on the
comparison of standards, published in 1866. The difference
between the lengths of the base as found from the measurement
and re-measurement was ‘542 of an inch in the total length of five
and a half miles.

The extension of the triangulation from the base was cominenced
in 1876, in the beginning of which year Mr. W. J. Conder ob-
served the angles at the south end of the base ; observations of
angles at the “other stations shown on the accompanying map
(marked A) being made principally by the last named observer
and by Mr. J. Brooks at various dates, as the exigencies of the
service permitted.

The base line of verification at Richmond, shown on the map,
was measured by Mr. Conder in 1879-80, anda description of the
measurement, first with the wooden bars with which the length
of the Lake George base had been ascertained, and afterwards
with steel bars, will be found as an appendix to the annual report
of the Department of Lands for 1880. From this the following
details have been extracted. The standard bar, which was the
same as that used in 1870, is of cast-iron, about 10 feet long,
carrying microscopally fine spots near its extremities, and supplied
with thermometers to record the thermal state of the metal,
mechanical contrivances to prevent sag or distortion of the bar,
from unevenness in its supports, and with micrometer microscopes
for viewing the spots. The standard was received many years
ago from the Board of Ordnance in England, with its length
determined at standard temperature of 62° Fahr., and the co-
efficient of expansion as deduced from observations made with
the Imperial standard yard. The straight line joining the terminal
points of the base, which are about 7 miles apart, and are very
fine dots in small silver discs let into copper plugs in large stones
embedded in massive concrete foundations, was measured with
three rods or bars so nearly equal in length to the standard that
their difference could be determined with the micrometer micro-
scopes with great precision. The rods in use were of two kinds—
wood for the first measure, and steel for the re-measurement.
They were both used with the same apparatus, which may be

TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 179

thus briefly described :—Each bar, encased in a box 6 inches by
6 inches, a little less than 10 feet long, so that the ends project
slightly, is supported on two camels having three distinct motions
—yvertical, lateral, and longitudinal. At the leading end of each
box there is fixed a microscope of peculiar construction, admirably
adapted for the purpose, and possessing peculiar advantages over
any similar appliance. (See engraving appended marked B. )
Its special feature is that it consists of two distinct object-g glasses
fitted at the end of asingle tube, each glass having a wire in its
focus viewed at the same time by an eye-piece common to both
object-glasses, so that one of these wires, being brought by suit-
able screws into exact coincidence with the spot at the front end
of the bar to which it is attached, the rear end of the next bar
can be brought into coincidence with the other wire; thus, in
the process of measuring, the bars are never brought into actual
contact, but are separated by the exact distance between the two
wires of the microscope, which quantity had been determined
with precision by very powerful micrometer microscopes at the
Government Observatory. The great advantage of a microscope
of this description is that, the lines of sight being parallel, the
distance between two points in coincidence with the wires remains
the same at whatever distance the points may be from the object-
glasses. This contrivance was suggested by Mr. P. F. Adams,
in order to prevent errors arising from change of focus in the
microscopes formerly used on the Lake George base-line, and it
has proved thoroughly satisfactory.

In the actual measurement with the wooden bars, their lengths
were uniformly determined before and after each day’s work
by comparison with the standard, and the mean of these two
determinations was used as the length of the bar for the day.
The ground having been cleared and roughly levelled, each bar in
succession was then levelled, aligned, and brought into position
with reference to the proper wire of the microscopes, until the
three were laid, after which the first one laid was carried to the
front and so on till the end of the day’s work, when a point was
firmly placed in the ground immediately below the terminal point
of the foremost bar, accuracy of position of this point being secured
by suitable apparatus. During the whole process the bars were
protected from the direct rays of the sun by a succession of seven
frames running on wheels and covered with canvas, so as to form
one long tent, which was pushed along as the work proceeded.

The measurement with the steel rods was made in almost
exactly the same manner, the only difference being that the
lengths of these rods were deduced by computation from their
recorded temperatures when in use, instead of, as with the wooden
bars, assuming that the mean between the morning and evening
lengths would be equal to the mean length for the day. The steel

189 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

rods, which were three-eighths of an inch thick, were insulated
thermally by wrapping in blankets, the whole being covered by a
box with glass windows for reading thermometers placed within,
and almost in contact with the bar. Under these circumstances,
the steel was found to be affected only very slowly by changes in
the outside temperature. By systematically arranged comparisons
with the standard under as wide a range of temperature as was
practicable, the temperature at which the rods were of standard
length and the value of the co-efficient of expansion for each were
determined. The bars gave most. satisfactory results, but as an
additional precaution the comparisons with the standard were so
arranged as to be made under conditions as nearly as possible
those existing during the measurement. During the course of
the experiments some interesting information was obtained as to
what is technically known as “lag,” or the time which elapses
after a change has taken place in the temperature of the body
under investigation, before the full amount of this change can
produce its effect on the thermometer, the converse of the
problem usually met.

The following table shows the length of the line and the actuai
difference between the two measurements :—

Measurement and Re-measurement—Base of Verification,

Richmond.
Sochon: aaa ath Meee ee wa Pine Steel
Feet. Feet. Feet.
If 9696-95860 9696°98541 — ‘02681
IBLE. 6348 75810 6348 °73853 + *01957
Ge 5317:22788 5317-24112 == Olson
IAW, 5317°07039 5317:06660 + :00379
WA 5106°99705 5107:010S0 — ‘01375
Wak 5202:32449 520234920 — ‘02471
36989'33651 36989°39166 == Obol5
Mean length of base-line... .., 96989-36408 feet.

Difference between measurement
and re-measurement... ity 0-662 inch.

TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 181

COMPARISON OF BASES.

The combined errors of measurement of the two bases and of
the intervening triangulation, produced an apparent discrepancy
of only one and two thirds inches i in the length of the Lake George
base. The bases were assumed to be correct and an adjustment
of the triangles was made in order to eliminate this small, appar-
ent difference.

INSTRUMENTS.

Azimuthal directions have been measured with 18-inch altazi-
muth instruments made by Troughton and Simms, two of which
have been employed. The one generally used is an excellent
instrument with a 3-inch object-glass and filar micrometer eye-
piece, with eye-piece motion to view any part of the field. <A
level attachment is provided for the telescope to enable it to be
used in observation of latitude by the Talcott method. The
horizontal circle is firmly attached to the base of the instrument,
the telescope and four equidistant micrometers, by which the
circle is read, revolving upon its centre. Two lamps are used for
illumination, and by a system of prisms and reflectors the parts of
the horizontal circle immediately under the micrometers or the
similar parts of the vertical circle may be read at will. The
altazimuth is mounted on a steel cone, in place of the ordinary
wooden stand, the base of the cone being usually embedded in
cement upon a solid foundation, and the top of the cone furnished
with a movable ring, by which the whole instrument may be
revolved over the mark constituting the station. These marks
are made in metal plugs set where possible in solid rock and
otherwise in stone masses buried in the ground, the plug being
surmounted by a masonry, concrete, or rubble cairn on which is
erected a pile, usually of 4 in. x 4 in. pine, carrying metal vanes
of 3 feet or more radius.

With regard to instruments for work of this class reference
must be made to the recent report by Dr. Gill on the geodetic
survey of South Africa, which contains so much valuable matter
that it may be said to, in a manner, mark an epoch in geodesy.
In it mention is made of some points which will probably have an
important influence on the future methods of conducting the field
work of a triangulation, and not least among these is his discus-
sion of the relative values of large and small theodolites. In this
connection he states that during the course of the survey it was
shown that the accidental errors of pointing or reading were less
a be regarded than those caused by lateral refraction. Not only

vas it found that a change of wind was sometimes followed by
misksa change in the direction of a distant station, but that a

systematic difference, small but appreciable, existed between

182 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

directions measured after and before noon, and the general con-
clusion was come to that steps were to be taken to reduce the
effects of refraction by varying the conditions under which the
observations were made rather than by seeking precision from
extraordinary accuracy of the instruments used. In this view
a 10-inch theodolite was substituted by Dr. Gill for the 18-inch
instrument previously employed, and throughout the remainder
of the work morning and afternoon observations were combined,
the very satisfactory result being that with an instrument of
less than one-fourth the weight the probable error of an observed
angle was reduced from + 0-49" to + 0:33”. The question
of weight of instruments is so large a factor in the cost of sur-
vey, affecting as it does not only the expense of moving from
station to station but also the length of time occupied by the
work at each station, that anything which will serve to reduce
the weight of apparatus appreciably without militating against
the accuracy of the results demands fullest attention, and it is
with the hope that the subject will receive the general attention
it deserves that it is here introduced.

MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES.

The method of measuring angles, followed during the earlier
years of the survey of New South Wales, was to observe the direc-
tion of one point as a referring mark and then to sight to each
station consecutively in order of azimuth, completing the surround
by again observing the referring mark ; the instrument was then
reversed and the same round of stations was observed in this
position, similar rounds being taken after moving the graduated
circle so that each station was observed upon different parts of the
arc in order to eliminate graduation errors. About twenty
observations on to each station were deemed sufficient. In the
later angle measures, the method has been to reverse the telescope
after each round and observe in reverse order of azimuth back
to referring mark, twenty such double sets being altogether
observed on different parts of the circle.

COMPUTATION OF TRIANGULATION.

Prior to 1890, when the survey was resumed after having been in
abeyance some years, the azimuthal directions derived immediately
from the observations were tabulated, without adjustment for
correction of reading or bisection of referring mark, and Peirce’s
criterion was applied in order to determine whether any should be
rejected ; also, in the computation, no adjustment for “figure” con-
ditions was made except in the case of one or two quadrilaterals.
In the primary work done since the year named, the practice in

TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 183

other surveys of similar importance of making local adjustment and
permitting no rejections on account of apparent discordance has
been followed, and, in the series of triangles south from the
Lake George base to the boundary of the Colony, adjustment to
meet the geometrical conditions of such figure has been made by
the method of least squares. Owing to the need for attending to
the current work of the office and to the staff available for such
calculations being limited, none of the older work has been re-
computed.

ELEMENTS ADOPTED.

Upon the writer taking charge of the computation of the
survey some few years back it was found that the following
dimensions for the earth had been made use of in the previous
calculations, viz. :—

Major semi-axis = a@ = 20,923,134 feet.

Polar 35 = Cr 20 Gda,429)" #5,

e@- “© — -90665185
a

These appear to have been derived from Captain Clarke’s de-
termination of the elements of the figure of the earth which are
as follows :—

feet. metres.
Major semi-axis of equator (longitude 15° 34’ east) =a = 20,926,350 =6378294:0
Minor _,, A (oc: 105° 34’ ,, )=b=20,919,972=6376350°4
Polar semi-axis =c= 20,853,429 =6356068'1

It would seem that the equatorial diameter in longitude 152°
east had been calculated and adopted with the above polar dia-
meter as defining the spheroid of revolution on which to calculate
the work. The adoption of spheroidal elements seems advisable
for, notwithstanding that his determination, referred to above,
indicates the earth to be of an ellipsoidal figure, Col. Clarke in
1880, writes: “It is necessary to guard against the impression
that the figure of the equator is thus definitely fixed, for the
available data are far too slender to warrant such a conclusion.”
The assumption has then been made that the earth is a spheroid
of revolution with the first given set of elements and the com-
putations made therefrom. The values. given for a surface of
revolution by Clarke’s 1866 determination have been very generally
adopted as most nearly representing the data, and have for many
years been used on the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey
as well as elsewhere. As it may be of interest to compare the

184 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

dimensions arrived at by different authorities, the following are
tabulated :—

Date. Authority. Ellipticity. meh
MSO eh. \yvenlloyselie: “Susaanesoossuasonc 1 : 302'8 10,000,268
JS RIO) saaco oboe Schmidt eee eeeeeeeee 1 : 297°5 10,000,075
NESW ssooosnonae (MIB Yoo wonnteuiee aso eeene ace 1 : 299°3 10,000,976
NS oes senses IBGSSel nan ean eo eteaasne 299-2 10,000,856
ISIS sooanseouce Clarkersineierwenn cass ] : 298°1 10,001,515
UfSlOe souoonanne ce Piraittinns wscoscoeeeeeenece 1 : 295°3 10,001,924
NWS 6Gs-cre oct: Clarke Ran. nee aces 1 : 295 10,001,888
USGS ee IMBC? cadoo cousonoedccddac 1 : 288°5 10,001,714
WS Zeeanecsce: JOTERETINE Bq. cesugnoacodunenooc 1 : 289 10,000,218
NS Wuihasctedecaees Schottrent teeter eactiente 1 : 305°5 10,002,232
ihe aooogntosane Oran Beene sence cases 28655 10,000,681
SSOP eye. Clarkes avoir 1 : 293°5 10,001,869

For the four principal of these the following further details are
added :— .

Element.

Bessel, 1841.

Clarke, 1866.

Coast Survey,
1877.

Clarke, 1880.

Equatorial radius, a

6377397°2 M

6378206°4M

6378054°3M

| 6278248°5 M

Polar semi-axis, ¢ .... 6356079 M) 6356583°8M | 6357175 M | 6356514:‘7M
Compression a= 1] ; 299-15 1 ; 294-98 1 :305°48 1 : 293°5
Mean length of ade-) 111120°6M| 1111382-1M| 111135°9 111131°8

gree.

For the elements adopted, various functions much used in the
calculations have been tabulated ; these include, of course, the
logarithms of the radius of meridian curvature and of the normal
or radius of curvature in a plane at right angles to the meridian,
which are respectively represented by

2 GA Nees) aks. a

= (1 —e? sin® ¢)! : (1 —e? sin® )#
in which @ is the equatorial radius, e the eccentricity of the
elliptic meridian section, and ¢ is the latitude. Among other

functions tabulated was the logarithm of the quantity ==-,5——~ ,,
5 | Y INR sin1
which was required in the reduction of the spherical excess by

ab sin C , ; '
SA | mm which @ and 6 are sides of a
2 N BR sin’ ]
riangle, C is the angle included between them, an and R ar
triangle, C is tl el luded bet them, and N and R are
as above. The following more convenient expressions, however,

the formula, « =

TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 185

have been prepared for the computation of these and some few
other functions.

a@ = 6974378 yds. ) log. @ (in chains) = 5.5010828,009
b = 6951143 yds. { log. 6 (in chains) = 5.4996335,422

2_ 32 af
e a 006,651,861,006 ; log. e? = 3°8 229431, 658
1—-@= -993,348,138,994; log. (l—e?) = 1°9971014,825
Chains
then R = 316489°3 — 1584:2 cos2 @ + 3°3.cos4
[3°19981] [0°519]
= 5 at =e — R} x [3-6683547]
r RN e 2 2.90% =
a peas Nos 2a Sele res 2 COS 26 cos 2a=N (1—[8°8258417

cos 2p cos 2a +[5°65168] cos #p cos 4a — [7477] cos ° cos %a + etc.)

$ — ¢!=688'312 sin 26- 1-48 sin 4p + 003 sin 6
[2°8377851] [006012] [7407]

log. p = 9°999,277,185 + *000,724,834 cos 2 6 — 000,001,814 cos 4 ¢ +
[6°8602362] (4°25864]
000,000,004 cos 6 }
[1°602]
Length of merid® arc =316489°3 / — 1584°2 sin 7 cos 2 $y +-3°3 sin 2/ cos 4 $y
[5°5003590] [3:19981] [0-519]
Length of 1° of merid® = 5523-780 — 27-648 cos 2 gy + 0°115 cos 4 gy
[1-44167] [9-062]
Length of radius of parallel = 317281°44 cos @ — 264°58 cos 3 @ + 0.33 cos 5 @
[5°5014447 | [2°42256] {9:°519]
Length of 1° of longtitude = 5537°606 cos ¢-4°618 cos 3 @ + 0°006 cos 5 @
[3°7433221] [066444 ] [7'761]

1
Log. 2N Rein I” 4:0112320 + :0028985 cos 2 @ — “0000024 cos 4 }

[7°4621729] [43834]
= [8°6782856] cos @ — [1°2019649] cos 3} + [2°6004197] cos 5 p

“ = seml-axis major, ) = semi-axis minor, e = eccentricity.
ap re of curvature of meridian.

i

} normal,

"a = radius of curvature at azimuth a.

p = distance from centre to surface.

@ = geographical latitude.

g¢' = geocentric latitude.

¢) = mean of latitudes of terminals of are.

2 = amplitude of meridian are.

A = area in square miles of figure bounded by meridians and parallels 1°

apart.

186 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

ACCURACY, AS COMPARED WITH OTHER SURVEYS.

The errors of close of the triangles will be found on the accom-
panying map (Map A), and comparison of the errors with those
met in other surveys shows the work done here to be of a very
high degree of precision. The writer had an opportunity in
August, 1893, of making a comparison of the relative accuracy
of this and other surveys, principally those of Europe. Thanks
to valuable information received from Dr. Helmert, President of
the International Geodetic Association, it was possible to present
this in a very complete form, and though it was published as an
appendix to the departmental report of the work of the year
named, yet the results may not be without interest in this paper,
and it is therefore reproduced in part, some further information
being added from a similar comparison made by Dr. Gill and
published by him in 1896.

As a means of comparison, the criterion has been adhered to
which is now of general use, viz., General Ferrero’s “m,” which
may be taken as representing with close approximation the mean
error (as deduced from the closing errors of the various triangles
of each system) of the angles used in the sur vey. This quantity
is computed by the formula—

m= —

in which A is the closing error of the triangle and 72 the number
of triangles dealt with.

The following are the values of m :—

m.
“

Austro-Hungary, 1849-88, 674 triangles ........... cesses sereenens + 0°931
Bavaria, 1801-54, 337 a I Pl marsitenae tenn ee a, ea act aa + 1:'800
Belgium, 1851-73, 219 EN 1 Vala See NAS ae va ane + 0:890
Denmark, eUires 20 poet —eteBs toutes. chwocten wee naan + 0°788
cs 1837-47, 43 PRM ern eee moe eadacn Sarcoc + 0°893
SGT SAOS. MGs Beat srease kgscenes otoceodotoaaee + 0°442

France, old meridian series from Dunkirk to Fontainebleau and
Bourges, L792=1827, 10d triangles eeeece-vereecescr ee rrsece + 1:080
France, triangulation wv the parallels, 1804-27, 478 triangles + 1:900
39 “s connecting England, 1863, §& 53 .» a O10
», new meridian series, 1870-88, 119 triangles ............... + 0°560
Algerianand Tunis, since 1860, 140 ee EN ee Ty + 0°830
Great Britain, 1792-1852, 476 triangles aaa aac 2 01s ee Meee + 1:790
India, Dehra Dun, 80 triangles SHERROD tocaido ve attain deo lost stiontedenine + 0°780
», Gurhagarh meridian senles VOSttriangles) Sa-c.ccnscereeeeeeee + 0:930
»» Singi and Khaupisura meridian series, 101 triangles ...... + 1:215
ditalysli850=885 507i triangles acmacccnteeeees er ocaneeeer eee aeeeneeaeee + 0:940
Mecklenberg, 1854-60; 69 triangles 22.2. cmacccceeesnreucsecseeeeeeereee Se leisy
Norway, 1862-88 (nnmber of triangles unknown)......... dane cnn + 0°720
Portugal, 856-88, 139) triangles ..)sascusce auearsdncoeeaentnsesastarent == 1126
Prussia, land survey of Prussia, G38ttrianGles My ecccasceec cates + 0°567

NG East Prussian degree measurement, 29 triangles ........ + 0°688

TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 187

Me
Drnsstassl SiO S878 0 uitial CLES betcctr etc sacentdccsemesencomiassce nas! ssodennes + 0-432
1 Rhenish and Hessian series of the Geodetic Institute,

CAT inept cine eS eaenert asia leo aintae Santhosecncsnciuncadeab ncwesdece + 0°769
Roumania, 1855-57, and 1875-88, about 250 triangles ............ + 0°958
Russia, along 52nd parallel, 1827-85, 43 triangles sth Wir rk + 0-870

. A 5 1827-88, 38 Salt rsatctdcenepcctcd + 0:950

x 3 1827-88, 67 Ne anaes eer eanae HORE ae Wey,

, . J 1827-88, 64 Saree | Marectasas cr eecneant + 1:290

. a 1827-88, 84 hen nee Rete + 1:000

Saxony, MSG =7857 WOT tra GleSascemecccsirc ae daacnasasieuaaea quae ceactaetnoncr =E 10°350

South Africa, with 10-inch “Repsold theodolite, 134 triangles....., + 0°495

5 with 18-inch T. &S. FA 100 PP acta = O35

Maclear’s angles generally, 64 Ser Lereones + 1:140

Spain, "1868-76, 57 tr iangles Of the Wertdarcroup nn... cc.ss.eseoe ane + 0°610

Sweden, 1823-88, 384 triangles coo dOCRU A EOREE citc deRan dace Sunnnese cearpeere == 1470

Switzerland, 1854-68, 40 triangles ido ge ee Rae Aes ean a aa Se ES ED + 0°856

United States, Coast Survey, flat country, 198 triangles............ Se 11185
- San Francisco and Salt Lake, 31

PGIAMOVES* sicniscegisedganccmcmeeionies Ree once enaccad ween rears + 0°375
Wiortemiburne, 87888; S triangles 2... ncesanscevenes ie) ogeontecensers + 0°720

For New South Wales, as deduced from the 95 primary
triangles already observed,

m = + 0:469

while that value would be reduced to + 0°386 by the omission
of four triangles, in which the error is abnormally great, and
which would be rejected by Pierce’s criterion.

The above figures speak for themselves in showing that our
work is probably equal to that done in any part of the world.

LOCAL AND ‘“ FIGURE” ADJUSTMENTS.

South from the Lake George base the triangulation has been
reduced by (1) determination of the most probable directions at
each station with reference to the observations at that station
only, (2) formation of equations of condition for each geometrical
figure involved, using the angles between the directions derived
from the previous step, (3) reduction by the method of least
squares of the most probable corrections to satisfy the equations
of condition, which work forms the most laborious part of the
whole operation.

The mode of adjustment will be best followed from the accom-
panying example.

* This result is given, as showing some of the best work done in the United States,
though it includes the errors of only a small number of triangles. For the whole 229
triangles a value of + 1°110 is found for m. :

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

188

iii \|| “ese (ek vs fore [oss [oss [oss | + Pet. 6glez.11|p2-88'89.F6 92-95/Sh-21|6G-8>) 00-02

GL-8€|0L- TL 28-88 21. F 62-4F 0-L1'69-8F| BI-08 |
ele iia em:
Se lhe 3 dle a ee
OnIt] 7 | 7° | £e.2+] 983+
G9.T+|68:3+| °° | 88-T+] 861+

etalon lee adie aise 00-6 00-08
me aA Bt fy a 50 26-98, 00-08
as ** 116-1 66-92/60- LF) 18-21) FE-09) 00-08
GO-CF| °° |Z9-0F 99-96/9E-LF1ZL-81|F0-09) 00-08

oc oe D0 -+ log. s+ 08.08
00 ae ar Bo 60 + lon 7] $8 08
a "* 1G1.68/S9-9G/89-GF|TF-91/8L-8F| F9.86

LE OF) °° |16-8E/16.P3|TL-SF)20- 21/68 8h) 96-86

oe "* 166-L8/LP-66|L0-9F) ** 98-T& | 98-I—}| °* “i 88-8—| 60-6 — 00-0 "* 198.G8)19.13/1G-FF] °° on | 00-08
a “* |L6-88/GP-66/96- FP) ** “* | 99-G& | 99-G—| °° nid §T-8--| 18-6— 00-0 “* |19.98)92-0G/6S. TF} “* | 00-08

"> | ++ ltegelesozies.ce] «° | -° | PL.Te

FLL i me 10-T—| 9S. + 00-0 f ~* “* |L9-LE/61-SG/6T. TF] “| 00-08

- ** |PL-68/66-96/66-P| ** “* | 68-08 § 68-0—| °° ~ 6h | 66. = 00-0 ft ~* “* 1GG.86 OF PG OF- GP *” - | 00-06
oS “* 106-16/G9-GC/ST.SF} ** “* | 04-08 | OL-0—) °° i FE-G—| GG + 00-0 f ~* “* 10G-98/98-F6|SP- FF] *” “* | 00-08
a ee “* |LG.GGILT-SF] °° “* | SL-T& a oe a 6 00-0 f°" aa “* |PF- FG) FO-GF) ** | 00 08
eo 50 Be ar ais 90.28 ays 6 OG Be 00-0 : oe 30 bc “* lez.e1}09-96 00-08
Ee - “* 120-41 Gg. 18 Wee > 5a oe 00-0 | GP-98) °° ty - “* 16G-G1) “| 00-08

69.88] “" |80-LF) °° “" 1 88.86 se > WGA) |= 00-0 f - “* |CT-0F| °° |02-8h) ~~ “| 00 08

86-18/18-SZ|FO-2F| °° |16-6F| O€-86 } O4-IT+] °° cg. + | 76. +] 886+ 00-0 “* 180 G1/89-6E|10.26 FL-Sh] ~" {19.19 00-08

68-68/1Z-9E|18-9F| °° |L9-8F| £9-66 7 LE-0--) °° F9.T— | 20-T+} 10-L+ 00-0 60-01/92 $9.96 F1.9F| °° |F6-8F) 00-08

** 1GL-83/99.9F| °° |G8-Sh| $6.66 | 94-0+ Se ra cI. —|97-6+] ~° Z0-T+| 00-0 | oa “* |SP-FS|LF-LF} °° | 19.6% 00-08

** 10F-FZ/L9-GF/ZE-L1/6G-6F| 0-86 } 246-E+] °° 98.§4+- * F1-1+| 62-6+]| $8-14-| 09-6+| 00-0 “* 160-G1] °° |L€6-96 F¢-LF/66-61/61-1T9 00.08

en yy “* 118.61] °° | SE-86 | G9-T+] €8. 4 ae nt a te F0-F+| -° 00-0 |] 96-6€) ** ae i. ** J6P-12Z! °° | 00-08

ve fee fee PPT ee | oroe I trol es. —| be Gos |) or ‘a > loooltesel: |c: |e: |e: bo |e | oo.08

GZ-65} °° Be “* | 6F-66 f TG-0+] °° es GO-T-+| °* np ae 60-0 = 192-68)" ~ a ae + | 00 0€

a “* 16L1-88/69-FZ|66-€F| “° |60-6F| 88-08 # 88-0— ms (65 Sa AGS Aa 8§- —| 00-0 vg “* 1F8-16/99-G2|LL-EF} ~° |1Z-8h, 00-08

ie “* IPP.SSOL-GZILL-FF] °° |LL-6b) OF-O€ | OF-O0°-| ~*~” ne (Wp SfSlis saz GL. +] 00-0 ey “* $0. 88/9L-F2\TL-SF} ~° |TL-8F) 00-06

4 ** 100-OF|ZL-SZIF9. €F/08-91|20-6F| 99-08 | 99-0—] ~~ aie 04 +] 20. LLG TL. T—]| 80- 00-0 Cg oe 9¢.F6 80-SFIFL-G1/L¢-8h 00-08

me ** 16L-OF PF-FZIGL-FF|68-91/Z0-6F| 08-66 f OL0+] °° a GL.G+| IS. +] 98. —| FI. +} ST-I-+] 00-0 is F1.G6'68- FF/69-LL/EL-GF 00-08

ae ~ ie. “* 169.9] ~° |19-9F| $9.08 | F9-0— ee, * ya Seb ari” 9F-G—| 00-0 itp Ze "* |OL-9F] °° |&T-9F) 00-08

ae “* |PL- Lb) €L-66 | Le-0+] °° = (OF [Gate |e a “= 8g. —| 00-0 a oe | PL OF|) ss ie “*- 110-8F, CO-08

LL-GFLT-L1/ 10-8) 0S-TS } OS-T—} ~~" 90-6— | 08-I—] 64-I—] 86. —) 84-T—} 80-6 —| 00-0 “* 119.6 |F6-98|P8 GG L6-FF)19-ST|LE OF 00-08

18.9F VOL 6GHIKOS: One |(6=) a) 2k 08: +] Ty. =| 46-T+) ~" id 00-0 f P§-8E) ~° |FS-6E/Z6-FG AT. LP) °° “* | 00-08

LL-9F/EG-81] °* | €6-8@ | 20-T+] ~° ve > FL. +1 66-1+]| ST-2+] °° 00-0 MG po “121.86 F3-LF,09-61T| “* | 00-08

6G-9F|9G- LL FL-8SF| 60-0€ | 60-0—) ~*~ oa Pl. —| 86- —| GZ-I+]| 86. —| #S- —] 00-0 re “* 100-88 OF- PG 0S-9F LT-L1 S0-8F| 00-08

= wl a 2 = = ~ ~ Fad 4 wl o =

oo woe ma; ea as ne ro & ae ey a 2 S a 3! a=) S = oo & coe me ae a ne of =
SERB leo (SEIS las |RF| wot fs 5 & 5 5 = S| oS | oe ee law [as (as las |g
Gy [Poise [ee eS aS SE ees || eae iS e o Eb = = & 3 GI) | TS urivees Pd (eey Sn | ten SU
ob laP loa Dlos les |S (S81 co a 5 cs = = 8 ot lm © len Dles (ee |S ISB
mealed |me laf 146 S iNe 5 n Lz} c. ? } a = Ma lot lwo |e? | =o on | eS
teh || 4s} || SS IS |) SEN) rg § e 3, = 5 She) SEF | ea Sl oe |
g 5 He LT Ss ro) 5 uch ‘a 3 © =), ee MEP. al Fe

(26/F/E 4 Z6/G/0S ‘UOTJVadasqy JO 99% 5 F6 ‘ON *S YL /SL “SUL :syoorg “f “toadosqQ)

‘oysntosoy ‘aoyxyg “quowysntpy [eoory

~

TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 189

The figure to be adjusted is that shown on the below diagram
which is followed by a table of the locally adjusted bearings at
each station, each bearing being followed by the reciprocal of its
weight and its symbolical correction.

Purrorumba
le atm
Fan Iwyn2n
Alisle ye
je
/ 1s
eS
i |<
y L,
Na ea
< Yarrow Pre
Ternent | Lowden
HON |
(Tumanang

Umaralla

190 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

TWYNAM.
° / WV
IZUEROVIIMAD A nseeeocede de cece ceaeereeoneteee 296 30 18:5]
IL ONO KE8 3 ey aeemoc eee oer ooenee Danna ansuce cc 174 31 45°25
PYEUTOWA Piste ge ae teil Soe Sa OO eee ee 220 27 =8:04
PURRORUMBA.
AIRWAY DAIL, Zio civateainos siee'ssis ve sales ve sie wie sejanie 116 31 56°82
IV AA ETO Wao rece a seston, caesm cman ERE oe eee NSS. We DLs38o
Atria Siegen cont rahe sta mrare otove ee iolacs orcs metesoicte ae 236 34 43°11
YARROW.
TMeyy. yA ans errs Rerncm Sa cota a caete emer 40 27 10°17
WGowidlen=-Menacaceontecn eaeccuinnetbiontcne neato 109 3 35°87
MIN MOLLY: . veajti oseetes asus sot ananestesewacenasies 190 7 33°34
dl Nevaa sh ate eer eeen Sanpeeooseette va neo CReEncee 242 44 40°35
PANTS ITO Frey cnerctavat relent nine oie oe Nome omentnocen nel: Sills} GEL Bits
IBULLOLUIM Dai. cmecn occ n roc oreec eran ene 8 6 14:02
AINSLIE.
VEEL OW “askracaas gor saacccs nance aneeee eee aneets Isis) 2) aor 7
As) ac) id otter em esmere sneer rena insceadococaeTo 198 13 54:24
IPULLOLUM ba caccsse Cheaeiecccemenee te aeeceeee 56 34 45°58
LowWDEN.
ADURIMENAEY NE?” Gag “onsodcanaanonocee nooconocansoner 200 16 51°93
PRU CLV esa en cease arietens vcrananceeos ses 232 20 17°43
WEWSRONY cSaoononcee ate Aalto cae ec oeaane toate as PAY Bio} ll
ARYAN. soanooodcodoon oocossqon:0s0dees s00800 304 31 48°24
TENNENT
air icvcigtaavace coat outa oanceseneaestonien einai 176 57 56:03
Bimberi...... Fe ORC CTC yee oets 241 55 20°82
NGL aXSTaUe We aenasuoenenOaddoue: nodoBrcoaconbd dose ccs SMO MEO
WAON OWassaisian casera aaacat ineec Seeuosncriaeie eter 62 44 41°59
RINGER, “Wea see-taceuteiseloaeceoestnisiciemanetsrs 128 25 38°55
TINDERRY
MUMANMANG a: c sce. pesesegeretsastesses neces 107 26 30°92
Wamarallla.s scccsecosee ace ytaescctace meee ecn 167 53 24°68
(G1 Cry eee etre. annanenncancnotnenndace ace 223 10 30°98
1 Bvt 0101-) Gl RRR mn It ARe emma otina se Sear paGs 275 19 56°81
FTGUINEMUG © ce soeerscase cea oee eee 308 25 37:44
NALTO Wie iaciss sowag ccisce neice Becta ecto ecece LOW ies O02
TOW Oe Dai. ssancesseaeaceseroascnamecsartiaesonscr 52 20 22°86
TUMANANG
Wow.cdleneeeneessceer BOM ancora aracodonionocatc 20 16 51°96
[Dinara ley Gaaesponeeenaccacuasar cnnaocuctonnocaos 187 2 23°81
Clear eres: aswenae cana. ceceniumesuememe cee 248 49 35°33
ADWACIETEA? “np necaaooangoco sansnondaeancodooceooneT 287 26 25°32

iS

bow

oa oOo >
me Oo he
Ree

bore

aon ne Ee
wowrml dowry
me OO D1)
~~ SSE NSE NS

TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF NEW SOUTH WALES, 191

CLEAR,
? ad ale
enn enitt = <3 cccoccceeresecaeeee noone See eee es 356 57 55°47 :046 (36)
MING OW ascie as cm tcememeyacen aires deasaslenereias 43 10 32°64 -024 (87)
PMN ATA OS +) nies sorueteeepecesiee ans aessiensloos 68 49 43°39 -048 (38)
LUACO CITE US) Re Aaa ess sn 2 ne ee 139 19 57°09 -040 (39)
1 By 0011015): soe ae ARBRE eco cbc ScioncosOCORTTRCRe Ore 313 53 11°54 °024 (40)
UMARALLA
(CLSEIP Ging Rene eR Re Rp tn 50 oc0C8 BOER meeeames 319 19 52°49 -031 (41)
AMR OTD ssi sins so elemosetbratameeoiniisiagace/eesss 347 53 24°88 055 (42)
PIN ATI AN OY © ch sacasvei nae vaasmmceonseniiviecenslas 7 92:32:27 7026, (43)
From the above, the angle equations are—
I = + ‘825'+ (1) — (3) - (4) + (5) + (7) — (12)
II. 0= + ‘309 —- (5) + (6) — (11) + (12) + (18) —- (15)
TUE = — ‘807 — (10) + (11) (13) + (14) -— (22) + (28)
Ws O05 “783. —. (91) 2 (Or = C3). 42 (OY) = (29) 3180)
V.0= — ‘1383 - (2) +(8) - (7) +(8) — (18) + (19)
VI. 0 = + :162 —- (8) + (9) - (17) + (18) — (30) + (31)
VII. 0 = — 1:201 — (16) + (17) + (25) -- (31) + (32) — (85)
VIII. 0 = -— ‘379 — (25) + (27) -— (34) + (85) — (387) + (88)
IX. 0= — ‘701 + (20) — (24) — (27) + (29) — (36) + (37)
X. 0 = + °587 — (83) + (384) — (38) + (89) — (41) 4+ (43)
X1.0= -— ‘084 — (26) + (27) - (87) + (39) -— (41) 4+ (42)

And the side equations are—

XII. 0 = + 9:241 — 5-228(1) — 20-387(2) + 25 .615(3) — 7-005(4) +
25°667(5) — 18°662(6) + 15°303(13) — 12°294(14) — 2-909(15)
— 13°820(17) + ast) — 9:608(19) — 21:396(22) +
30°911(23) -— 9:515(24) - 11°338(29) + 34°548(30) —
23-210(31)

XIII. 0 = — 25-009 — 3:310(8) + 19°397(9) — 16-087(10) — 33°621(16)
+ 47-441(17) — 13°820(18) -— 18 604(20) — 9°515(23) +
98:119(24) + 1:045(32) — 26°363(34) + 25°318(35) —
20:184(36) + 64-023(37) — 43°839(38)

XIV. 0 = — 30°60] + 9:838(20) — 18-991(21) + 9°153(24) — 16°358(27)
+ 48°662(28) — 32°304(29) + 22°517(36) — +261(37) —
22-256(40)

XV. 0 = — 28-426 — 10°149(25) — 14°588(26) + 24°737(27) + 11-296(3)
— 37-659(34) + 26°363(35) + 19°531(41) — 38-683(42) +
19°152(43)

The corrections in terms of the correlatives and the normal
equations are given in the two following tables.

ra

LS

192)

PROCEEDINGS OF

sO) A I STATE ve PSU AS TESST TU TE SSS Tbe TH TUTTE TS STS SE ESWC dM Wh ae

SECTION A.

ceeeee

sees

eens

eee eee

wee ee

eeeres

eeneee

ween

seneee

see

ee eee

oe eee

peeves

ee eeee

eens

eee

sen eee

a eenee

eevee

ners

seeeee

beeeee

eens

teen

eo eeee

teens

eeeree

eens

ee eeee

Lee nee

eeeeee

eens

ween

teers

eeeeee

eres

we neee

peewee

veeeee

serene

soeeee

eee

seen

eee

brews

eeeeee

eee

ee eeee

eevee

ee eeee

eeneee

eeeeee

ee eeee

eee eee

Corrections in terms

et teee

eeeeee

eee

se eeee

ee neee

ee nee

sees

eeeeee

eee

eee eee

eeeeee

eee

seeeee

wees

ereree

Cannes

seceee

eeeere

betwee

eeneee

ne eeee

eens

Caves

eee

beeeee

ween

eeeeee

eee

eee

see eee

teens

eeeeee
eeenee
were
seneee
tonnes
tenes
weeeee
seeeee
eeenee
veeree
ween
eee
Seveee
bonnes
ee ee
veneee
sere
ween
seeee

eens

beens
ee eee
eee
eee
seers

seeeee
seeeee
eesree
beeen

TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

of the Correlatives :—

Ce

i er
CO ere
Ce es ee ir i)
eee wees
eee e ee eee
sete ween
eaten eee
wet ew wees
ett eee

Beeccccse | covccesve

eee eeeeee

eee ee wes

ee ween

eee e wees

sateen eee

thee wees

wre eeeeee

eee eeees

teens

= a
Ere... + °045
BEE. | ekseees
MMO4SG | ow. cas
. + UE eae
Bosco — ‘048
Mee cccs. + 040
ee | O31

Fee nnneee

eee eeeee

teens wee

ween wees

sete eeeee

tee wees

ween eeeee

eee eee

tee e wees

renee eens

ee eee eee

oe eee ee

— 104560
— °998963
+ *512300
— °1383095
+1°463019
— 410564

sete ewes
Cerne eees
eee een eee
ee wwe eee
eee eens

+ °198939
— ‘285062
— 110542
- “8t40
171400
— ‘586088
“Bite
494576
333025

ee eeeenes

fart

— *328802
+ 1°692852
— 1°369390

eect roee

+

see ee wees
Fee e wrens
ween eeene
seen en eee
enw newes
ween eeene

086060
*310352
836524

—1°311219

+

+

2°704137

“691000
Biibs

152240
984165

wenn w wees
eee eens
eee enee
sane ee nee
eee e ewes

— 1:186335
+ ‘708904

928464

+ 1°536552
— 2°104272

pee neseee

sere wees

seen n eee

seen eens

+ ‘157408
— 626703
Pes

— 605246
+1°508522
— ‘936816

eee ween
aren wees
Bete e eens
tee wees

+1°035782
— ‘006264

eet weneee

Sees 4
eee wees

tte wee

193

eee esene

ster ee eee
see eee eee
teen eneee

eee eeeeee

eee weeee

— ‘131937
— *262584
+ °915269:

+ "869792
— 1°694655
+ 738164

eee anes
teen eeeee
see eenee

tee eens

+ °605461
— 2°127565.
+ *497952:

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

194

CZ008F-§ +
86869. —
CSocrL-T —

TOTOLS- —-
GPREGE-§ +
osgTs¢. +

tee .
eee eeenee
ween seee

CEL866-6 —
GCOTEOIL-L —

een eenee
oe eee
seen eeee

weer eeeee

OFGFO9- +
CGc9FG. —

Ce

ber eeenee

TLILG3-T +
17470) (ee
SSOF6I-T +

#90. —

teeee ne

FSZFS9. +
TS8EZ9. +

eee eenee

ere eeeree

serene enee
bene eenee
eee eeeee

te reeeee

+ tenn Cee rennne

FLC6L6-

eee eeires eee wane

eee

seen See eeneer

cen Pen oeeees
Feeeweeee tee e eens
teense . eee eereee

eee eeneee

Seen eeree one

Ti

*suoTyenby [VULLONT

9GP-86 —- = 0'AX
109:08 = = 10) ASX
600-6 — = 0 ‘TITX
17-6 + = 0 TIX
= =O
“gg. ++ = 0'°X
102. -— =0
648: - = 0 TIA
role = = (0) INU
Nie ar = OTA
ello = = (0) TaN
CSLiss ed = =O) NT
AQ = = (0) SINE
608 +
Gos. +

195

GOGSiIG aan -
S9S9ES-T — | :
LSTEST-T + 1" i

GPRELG-L +
GPIOE9-L9 —

9f61L9-3 —

ELISSs.1 —
GS6869. —
CSAIL =

9Z0S9E-€9
0G9LGG-ST —
6OFFS6-F6F +

OL6IL6-FL —
69699T-S9T +
OG9LGG-ST —

LEOLLG-FGG +
OL6IL6-F1 —

9G0G9E-E9 + LE6LI6- +

eee eens

SOUTH WALES.

TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF NEW

meen | GPPELG-L +- | PIOEO-L9 — | TLOSS9-L96 + | Zzr00. + |" i ‘TIX
SLIsce-T — | 38686. - | agcges.T - ewe: | GOCE, TLO. + 190. — ‘ By ‘1X
OS6TL9-6 — nesses | pogstg. + veneers | THQ. + Log. + iaaacae «“ Yy
69ZST6- —- | E9G9Ec-T - | LOTEST-T + | E2zP00. + | 190 - a eet be "XI
CZOOSF-E + | 86862. - | S8CCFL-T - Seine eae MELO Oen te £60: — 190: — . TTA
Bavaccs soe | ozpggg.g — | ZoreoLT - wired epee Basti « TA
His aghcbin ane LT opepog, + | ezzore - patente pate woae digas « “A
eee eelethiadol + | eberOL0: =~ =|, 6076+ T+ ee Ss a POOr og “AI
Pnstulel: sadaeees | tetera, + | pegoras. & pert vopense reat « I
Tes tiasea sabmeainen as miehesrs || oreaeg = on vanes ecaeei « 1
Ete Nora aie Sea Gee. Pea vatisates Bate ppcepoce panuruoy *

rT

oe ol

7 oT

en

SOs

‘panuryuoo—suoryenby [VUULLO NT

196 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

The deduced values of the correlatives are—

7a I, = + 29375 1), = Glozal
I; = — 5:2687 I, = + 89930 I,, = — ‘0810
I, = + 49170 Ie = + 9478 i, 1087
T, = + -4582 Ip = +10°3610 1, = =-b 28278
Is,= + *4923 I,,.= — 8545 1). te 2526

These substituted in the equations to the corrections, give the
following values :—

(ly = —-1874 (16) = —-3065 (30) — '2585
(2) = +°0568 (17) = +°3179 (31) = —2464
(3) = +:°1142 (18) = +0507 (32) = +:1970
(4) = +1494 (19) = +:°0775 (33) = +°2855
(5) = -°2340 (20) = +4:2273 (34) = --4691
(6) = —-0826 (21) = —-2051 (35) = —-0628
(7) = —:1090 (22) = —-0987 (36) = —-1063
(8) = —-0607 (23) = +:0364 (37) = +:0250
(9) = +°0292 (24) = --2479 (38) = 4+:°1574
(10) = —-2037 (25) = +:°0713 (39) = +-2109
(11) = +°1833 (26) = —-1766 (40) = —°1748
(12) = +0811 (27) = —-0883 (41) =. ~:0105
(13) = —-1485 (28) = +4:°4937 (42) = -— +2003
(14) = +:°1362 (29) = +:0072 (43) = +:1036
(15) = +2092

which applied to the bearings give—

TWYNAM.
PUTT O RU Dae aesecs ceciasis solswiess ere sejaisie wis) sistas oteiwraisieleloeie'sloreate 296 30 18°373
Wicayy. lem cata oer ssindc mers domo nemes seein ne sleereistesiciatersveuieiiscie 174 31 45:°307
SVAALT ONVitens soins cicers ation ciadin wae sets staisietetsisisie sietcarmisiointe solojele Gls 220 27 8:154
PURRORUMBA.
MUSA HELIN < 25 -(2aiscisla Seleiseie siete asmielseamiceioelarieet-isinn eels “ssl 116 31 56°969
WHAT O WAS oe cma nneies Gar Sea eeieces ste BoeiEn oMrcbineeimanemenas 188 7 52:096
FAG TMS ITO Ae secs eos ecco see WORSE ROR eR ere eee ee ia aGis elsielatoins 236 34 43:027
YARROW.
STEW TLATING ss ajaiesictsite sstsiesisaeninesune Ue PaNsaa ence cies Wesiastme 40 27 10:061
I wy CL GU eee areelaiatore nists toeonGieten ne cinneree emcee Mawiece rene soeerisle 109 3 35°809
ANIAGIENTEAY. Gaasodacnanao5opanddadonocoDsconsaqcdsasacecdec000s03% 190 7 33°369
FRETS TGR <ctayeis hate siaiaicis careisie serstsiremeeototeve saiafarale ciate apeteleloronaicicloTace 242 44 40°146
IAUTASIT ON Ree coscagoe ne his ta schtiemte ease eae cemiec ee botmesenaes ene 818 41 3°433

i 2inhadayeoua0l of} Aaaunacrs Gane doneGanadurdeousacddonodcdeocsandoodac 8 6 147101

TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

AINSLIE.

VIGO We cacieciastoiss SSeS ae meee Se cLnee ae Sewaeicleids knsesibeisingaxeoese

eee Cee Tee eee eee eee eee eee See ee ee ee)

eee eee eee TT eee eee ee eee eee eee ee eee eee cece eee eee)

Tumanang
Tinderry
Yarrow

eee eee eee eee eee CCPC eee eee ee CP eee eee e ee errr ees
eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee ee eee ee eee eee eee
eee eee ee eee eee ee eee eee eee eee eee eee ee eee eee eee eee cere)

eer eee eee eee rece ee ee ee ee eee eee eee)

Yarrow

eee eee eee eC eee CeCe eee eee eee eee eee eee ee eee rere

eee Pee e Se eee ee eee eer eee eee eee eee eee ee eee)

Tumanang
Umaralla
Clear
Bimberi
Tennent
Yarrow

Lowden

ete eee eee eee ee eee eee ee eee
POORER Ee RHO Eee Bee eee tees eee eeeeeeeeeeee
ee ee eee ee eee eee eee eee eee ee eee ee Cee eee ee eee eer)
eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee e ee eee eee reer)
eee eee ee eee eee eee eee
eee ee eee eee eee ee eee eee ee eee! erry

eee eee eee eee eee eee Pe ee ee eee ee eee eee)

Lowden

Clear

eee eee ee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee Cee ee eee eee eee ee eee ey

Tennent
Tinderry
Tumanang
Umaralla
Bimberi

ee eee eee eee ee ee ee eee eee eee ee ey
eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee)

ee? eee eee eee eee eee eee ee eee eS eee eee ery
ee eee eee eee eee eee errr ry

eee eee ee eee eee ee eee eee ee eee eee er)

Clear
Tinderry
Tumanang

SOR Ree ee eee mee ere r reenter saree tweets SHEET Ee HHH EES

eee eee eee ee ee eee ee er

te eee ee eee

° , “

138 42 45°622
198 13 54°376
45739

51°624
17°748
35°161
48°318

200 16
232 20
289 3
31

56°257
20°615
ss Ae
41°626
38°302

30°991
24°503
30°892
57304
37°447
35°762
22°614

52°157
24:096
34°861
25°257

57 55°364
10 32°665
49 43°547
19 57°301
53 11°365

319 19 52°480
347 53 24°680
7 2 32°374

197

and the triangles are then found to close to within one-thousandth
of a second, while the values of the sides are accordant to the

ninth place in the logarithms.

198

The only other figure, any details of the adjustment of which

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

will be given, is that shown in below diagram.

Aosciusko

Q Warm brook

Gk

OS Ting! Ring!

The locally-adjusted directions, &c., are as follows :—

NUMBLA.
Hard sonia cee teccc ceca ceececcom conta tene 61 55 52°97
Bukalon gs inch. cscescoescccsareseccs eetereetes 119 54 56°11
fl Dibaves tel a in¥eall enareeeeosticasadaedder daadsesccecc 188 46 48°64
TEA KOhR i Rast cern asian a en ALS aaa RT ec 252 6 45°47
IROSCIUSKOe Aorseccsetesa erect Re oh eeer etter OAL Bil Odes
AV Vim LOOK» vonacceacmemeck sort ceeee en Creeee 13} PR} SHO
W AMBROOK
le hive keforn Ware remeon nese enadiconeooncbeanecoden 137 19 9:16
INimmb lat: tees ccetonceeeectee neon eerie 1932305435
IROSCIUBKO;.« wascecousiieeeeee eee earch 241 38 45:70
Hupbson
BU alOM Oy ices acionnes sents denior erence seete certs 180 41 58°84
ENS UTIND ateneeacmatcacaa esse oseeaen meee ete 241 55 49°35
IWiambroo ke weecaccccc canccsoree oem ceeCemee 317 19 10:27

Dn Hudson

5 Bukalong

TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

BUKALONG.

od biVeaTyl abcd Miaeameererpaneroeeponcet enc oceeecee 243 17 48°63 :040 (13)

AN tri sa1 0) Ea CRE eee eae Orne bccdc oSne ene ConERer rene 299 54 59°59 -O087 (14)

15 Gtk: (0. 7a ae Sere SES nS ke 0 42 9:30 ‘023 (15)
Trinecr RINGI

INT MDlaNsetonts. cic: eee eee mee econ 8 46 48:01 ‘017 (16)

Bula One ee. ose ee ee ee 63 17 48°26 ‘074 (17)

PAL Ot ee eetin. ccadedsadansadcamiadesddaddedeestests 302 12 48°40 -068 (18)

IROSCIUBICO). . se scasonseecmteoesoraeeecieaen te 327 52 30°44 -050 (19)
Kosctusko

BEI O Greeters eae Nicci coe Soo 188 8 30°12 ‘052 (20)

WW broo Kaeis.ccaasescasee etme ca weel esos 61 38 45:29 :092 (21)

IN(IMD Atseeetctctony csccee een ean eee PSI 2472 032) (22)

IM SUING cisisc0n-ceeceaycer eadeMoesieeacevees 147 52 38°85 -044 (23)

From the above the angle equations are—

0 = +-209+(1)- (6) -—(7)+(8)- a (LONE aco cleus ee ee est I

0 = — 392 —(1)+(2)—(10) + (11) — (14) + (15) oo. eee eee II

0 = -°511—-(2)+(3) — (18)+(14) - ce Vets CUT teeassncseedescese. IDOL

Ov 9 274 (3) (5b) (16), — (19) (22) 5( 28) vaste <cacesacesenes- IV

0 = —2°238 — (5) + (6) — (8) + (9) — (21) 4-(22) oo... cee ee ec ee ee eees Wi

and the side equations are—

O= + 4°993 + 1°416 (7) —3°295 (8) + 1-879 (9) +1°156 (10) — 1°705 (11)
+0°549 (12) +1°387 (13) — 2°564 (14) +1°177 (15) — 3931 (16) +1°501
+ 2°430 (19) +1°775 (21) —4°636 (22)+-2°8G61 (23).........ccc000 cove one

0= — 1°827 + 1-058 (3) — 3°620 (4) + 2562 (5) + -913 (16) + 3°469 (18)
— 4°382 (19) +1°985 (20) + °501 (22) — 2-486 (23)

eee

The calculated corrections from these are—

(1)—= — 0287
(2)= + -0451
(3)= + 0378
(4)= — 0279

(5)= — ‘1438
(6)= + :2383
(7)= — "1294
(8)= — "1160

+ *3442
“2982
1433
1877
“2280
2012
‘0778
0610

(9)=

(17)=+ 1505
(18)=+ -0492
(19)}=- °3177
(20)=+ -0215
(21)= - 1-0023
(22)=+ -3928
(23)=- -0788

199

(17)
VI

VII

200 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

which applied to the bearings give—

NUMBLA.
PETRI SOM reece ee tect tabessctelaiclersisiclaleiciusie diate a lstelatetenaboieasietsio 61 55 52°941
Balk alom oieree secesecocscebcsse visas dcuivieveeshnsiweswarnaen cs 119 54 56:155
ERIN CU PRAM OD Mere soca ciuis ssjomebtebloRsldetdem gules sGanes oe 188 46 48°678
TRO scope esa Se: Coat EERE ne et cd SnOC Caco ROMaaRONECACaeS 252 6 45°442
ESCO S CIEDSISO aerial ntacs oaicle Clasatesisve aetols a’scioe a oial tpetelealotere eatoieiatetars 291 31 22°106
NAPairmnlarO Kagess vebioc det sacidwonionconeewiewerutnencnus emcees 13 23 55:°258
W AMBROOK.
TODO IE Oh as canner nec ondes Ga cen SoH SES Crndnonaecpadochrcaannconers 137 19 9:031
SIN GEYTTA LD bel oat er Ae Acca ears ane eee ace couinsremeaerace 193 23 54:234
HGSCUIS RO snap eetaacto ceeriae wa Oe renciiecemeiaaseelee aoanecmenee 241 38 46:044
Hupson.
(Bukalompginycceccmensecteatenseciasecicerelsiteaclesereciceiiecises seer 180 41 58°542
IN mb ales eect anicaceec eens oaaon i onuine ee meneet coineeeemunlees 241 55 49°493
Via mr ols aescasacass dase ance ndecmoitsneaeenaenecanecdensteeces 317 19 10°458
BUKALONG.
Aisbaveat ] aitalea Ware Repern eaceemcrtancencecoacedeecr. eceece ney arn 243 17 48:402
IN uma bap ses cance osemouas umewarscinacateiseiaciarainae closures 299 54 59°791
AVES OM re craieesate ctaeec icree cle eTaceiee Glee riers cieldven sistas ersisiosatete ct 0 42 9:378
Tine RING.
ON uaa lai, oh. sasciossc sasha teams stsaaiaseeaien somoaaelansstreaeserlts 8 46 48:071
1BXTEENKOVANE?: caanacoancodeecoorconoce aeoeemndeeayarc Pineieaeeeuies 63 17 48°410
1211 Koy Hie een Re oR ene arg Ae ee Pace aaa an ae arene 302 12 48°449
AG OSCIUISIRO Ser Siiseisssk eared ecis/oloaectsaajiaileus sentiadaiee aelosiats 327 52 30°122
Kosclusko.
PG bi ccivesieceirer aeicae sano abe CERRO e ace eats 188 8 30:142
AW Vie Dro O kari: tererenerc caren CRIA CREE SEE 61 38 44°288
ANTM Leas 3, <sairsvoreciessrerete ercela elesiaetarxeiuvee wis eubsloncusenietecistectelseitr st buy Sy pile:
Mio Ten Gt. hai acomseon ce oenevaciacnsetenemine-npiccssieeean 147 52 38°771

and the triangles are then found to close.

The details of this figure are introduced, as they present a
feature of special interest.

The corrections to the figure Hudson, Bukalong, Tingi Ringi,
Kosciusko, Wambrook, had been before computed to illustrate a
report on the mode of reduction, station Pilot being excluded

TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 201

from the figure. The following is a comparison of the two
systems of corrections :—

Correction. Excluding Pilot. Including Pilot.
(1) — *030 — 029
(2) + 045 + 045
(3) + *029 + °039
(5) — ‘152 — ‘144
(6) + ‘240 + ‘238
(7) — ‘131 — 129
(8) — ‘103 — ‘116
(9) + °336 + "344
(10) — 302 — ‘298
(11) + +149 + 143
(12) + ‘182 + ‘188
(138) — 233 — '228
(14) + :215 + ‘201
(15) + 077 + ‘078
(16) + “065 + ‘061
(17) + +146 + +150
(19) — -290 = “318
(21) -—1-011 —1:002
(22) + 391 + 393
(23) — -055 — ‘079

Thus it is shown that in each case, although the conditions are
not the same, the same angle is proved by the principle of least
squares to be responsible for almost the whole of the abnormal
error of close in the triangle Numbla, Wambrook, Kosciusko.

GEODETIC POSITIONS.

For the reduction of the geodetic latitudes and longitudes of
the stations, the Sydney Observatory has been adopted as a zero
point, its accepted position being latitude 33° 51’ 41:1” S., longi-
tude 151° 12’ 23:1” E. Also the azimuth of the triangulation
has been referred to the known azimuth of the meridian mark of
the same Observatory. The formule used in calculating the
positions of the stations are—

S cos a
log (f:- $)=lgRa yt 29

S? sin *a tan ¢,

1 a WEES Real
Preeti. VNR ginal”
S sin a
432 = 28 N cos ¢! sin v) ein
1
a
log v =log ( sin 2 =e) ae

202 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

in which ¢ and ¢' are the latitudes of the points at the extremi-
ties of a line the azimuth of which is a; R is the radius of
curvature at the middle latitude; N, the normal; S is the
MS*
GNI
the modulus of the common system of logarithms. These formule
may be taken as precise enough for all distances up to 50 miles.
The deduced latitudes and longitudes are as given in the follow-
ing table which also includes the positions of some few points of
a western branch of the triangulation, not elsewhere mentioned
in this paper :—

length of the line ; f= =fsin *a; h=g sec*$'; and M is

Geodetic Latitudes and Longitudes.

Station. Latitude. Longitude.
PAINS ON a esnenecousnce soem eeeree Si KG IMIS SH 149 9 35°434
PANMeT gies Sees edes caaaisnanecn tens 3a) 09. 502720 150 45 43°425
AllianoyOnyiga, <2 5...c....6.see- Shy SAHT/ IL 149 33 54:960
Bal es eee nies cs acemeecaak ec eeeerne 338 26 52°417 150 14 26°805
iBarnentdiackesseeeeeeeeerenere 34 58 0°577 148 36 29°565
Base, L. George, South ......... Bi. Mey YN%b7o2 149 25 31:290
Base, Richmond, North ..... SoD OMMOOLO MS 150 46 42°075
Base, Richmond, South ...... 33 39 44:°628 150 40 58:°485
Bin done nydastisecheetencas sete 33 40 44°571 150 0 40°485
iBlackheathapeesecesec cence 33 38 38°943 150 17 9°375
IO WAIN eet sates csmene eer 384 46 47°550 148 49 56:°265
iBiweyMiountamleeseneeeeeeeeee ee 33 41 56°310 150 27 5°445
IB tifa Omens. ccaessece seen cues 34 34 54°814 148 51 47:°985
IBWKaONG biz accopeaceae. coho ne soes 36 48 28-070 149 9 35°882
IB ULrAE. ee each ee eee ee SAD OMECO Ol 147 59 58-065
Wastlemeaskrcn eee cathe eae ee 33 42 26°278 151 OF 5d:650
Chatone tesa niet ae eae ae 34) (55)945 7322 149 17 32°640
(OR One Bee aie nee ee a naemeae |e as Bi) ty, CULES 149 3 56°990
Wonder wt scchosnanscoessodeeeeeeee 33 26 19-047 150 39 1°380
Woon a BAerstascse ee 361d) 135396 149 4 47°384
Wopperbanmiayeeeece-seeeneer: 33 51 57°566 149 14 28°440
COLE Oi erancseacamssachenecece sae Si GS} aBsaSPall 148 48 41°790
Cullaringieens ecsssete eee ee 34 43 33°156 149 23 49°395
ID Evalbt oveesee carerapacondebennnovodocoe 34 6 24°468 148 56 23-700
Bur kalwatananesoucben Sseacoeetee 33) 52) 175954: 150 28 14°745
IME) aah” a aenerenconeterecpoecdsatonc 35 17 28°339 147 25 52:440
Ea Gene ree eno aseus tc ceneceeeteeer 33 46 41°588 149 29 39-240
(Clann ODM ences saeeenanccnes meoreee 33 57 49°317 151 6 49:110
Geeoulllalonioy pesssscseseeceeeee 34 19 13°269 148 42 25:080
Galoralltar ire 53. ho asscagdossteses 34 28 2:088 150 25 46:937
Gros eleeeecccctrdvcsctsesncenne 33 37 30°388 150 37 2°985
ETO Wand aaecncsccs ecsrorckonteesgen 33 49 13°904 149 3 20°460

TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 203

Geodetic Latitudes and Longitudes—continued.

Station. Latitude. Longitude.
° , ” ° , “
Eiudson'sukeale, G...cs.csssccsees 36 26 35°604 149 10 0:055
dlellOnemeestessocts oseees<aaaseemer 34 22 16:986 150 22 19°875
ATI SAN OOM Nadas aae. o> vs acetic 35 4 43°515 148 16 14°835
IREOSCMUS KO ee suiccicie « ses.sieslaecies wea 36 27 28°350 148 15 53:°434
Mein Di German icceceses cece atconeecer: 338 28 24:043 149 59 24-600
WOW Gliese acocker cons eswcheueases 35 30 13°010 149 35 0:056
NWOWICSIE Stet tnsc>. os oedssascaseawonece 8) Bi) Sil 98318; 149 48 45°945
IVIICATISUOEA te crtcnccssccececoneeaete 84 27 3:°499 149 45 16:290
IMAC QMARIC, Foc: edieucsseececwens 33 38 52°872 149 10 56-790
IME RROYOD, “ors eB Bepaoaone Be Oepepace 33 28 3:968 150 59 40:200
WVUGinn AIRY ae rasa coc sceasvesecacc soso 3p) U3) 45°387 148 7 37-080
Nita) Gaptenees tastes ccs nes esemese cece 33 48 26°329 150 ote Dis1D0
Wiig OOMEN +. cetasctes-deceeouen. 34 49 47:920 149 2 38:085
INIDTEEEN Ee Rb so ROBE BEER oceeaneceee 34 23 46°627 149 6 48°S810
INGUIN le ctossraensewatdthents ositcaa goes Al ey Gee's 148 45 18:975
IN irradia aiaeecancsuecesacescesecciose 34 29 42:942 150 6 58:440
Observatonyn.... vsccnecssse cases: 33 51 41:100 151 12 23°100
COAVGIOE eh cer eee ae 33 24 46°667 149 46 40°590
ILO Laem oestosncrekociiootber 36 45 21:°504 148 12 26:348
NOLES Meee Re ee oetiaie ecicsGenesbeets 33 53 36°834 UG BP styles
BOUIN MEE Nea cre thcsh ccs ecient ane sp) pp 7forilles 150 41 38°925
BROS PECUi en secnebs sia sinco se asenee se 33 49 10°480 150 55 38:'190
12 WeeOTANITN SY. Gocdcadeneeooroneobeee a5 9) 10-bit 149 22 48:780
IRGC * - Soke Moe aren Rad aR GEES eC RE® 33 44 31:'397 Wak 83 By /Se ti
ROCKS BE eter ener temsemeeckiteds see 33 26 31:016 149 24 26:070
UVM Rea ccceatewsiseceataciteraaesss 33 51 0:940 149 27 11°505
SSC OUb eens ecccicceciden wobieae sicvelae: SoMo) PEeELss 150 37 24°540
HIVETIR Deeg aeduschcessscenesteatce- 34 7 39-493 L5OF 2 75590
SPO IS dats cewsenscise cence 35. 5 45:054: 149 5 £7:860
SMOStiEUGEMascccses cach ccckscet onset. 37 10 33°405 149 § 10°866
Meninenibee eecatccccenascat seccetee: aby epi 7/XUB%9) 149 2 46:081
HINA OMY Pa ee sias seme ois ile 03 cata etess 35 41 58114 149 16 21°449
Abrinyegt 1ente¥eal: 6 scaGoaoq0bpaqoenenoene 36 59 59°385 148 40 42-404
“Novae al, Aa. aera Rn A 300 32 45440) 150 25 31:005
MMO MATIOH Ses Aetesieece welt denees elas 34 45 21°356 149 49 28-755
SIMIMNATIATI OS semaesseseadsece tsp se 35 45 2°244 149 28 18°822
MUTINY ONAN ee yeatee aa lseeiiteeleieestetstes 35) 14) 128925 148 30 6°540
PIMA cots acuciians «snedecastass 35 13 20°473 149 32 59:925
Wirrrarralllaererencctecit eeestesctcaros 36 11 56-006 149 24 13°848
Wal broolet say fh. cs. ccescssc een. 36 11 35:238 148 53 2°408
Narra wOlong) 2 oncc.cc.sesneee 33 2 44°885 151 15 59-115
Wiel seeeeesee cece ace ti eecoeh caer 34 fi olei0 149 I3 14-160
Wiheelot Hortume’ t2c...:sce-..0: Son (oa Gl55 147 33 38:415
Wailanist ass tcc .aeanes teen ateceec. 35 8 4:834 147 22 24-600
Wioronotar séscuhesh cesar 34) 7 753980 150 57 14°610
BYOTNO Wale cc hoe taco: 35) 25)56:922; 149 19 53:086
RaiVieTien eenacisase nace catencee nee 3b) 13) 2337701 147 50 11:190
AEGINEZO) A Sinaneedemeiasessesconecnac 82 59 10:242 150 51 11:970

204: PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

Having given the co-ordinates « and y of a point A, the
distance AB being equal to s, and the angle which AB makes
with the meridian of reference being represented by a, the co-
ordinates x, and y, of the point B, and also the back bearing a!
from B to A, are found by the formulee—

m y mn
q =YyYtn— 7 r
nn J 2 r* 6 r
Presid Se a Ue i!
9 6 r

m 2 mn

= + 180° — :

— r* sin | 3r* sin 1

in which r is the mean radius of the earth at latitude of point
midway between A and B (that is, square root of product of radii
of curvature of meridian and perpendicular to the meridian),
m= ssinaandn = s cosa.

ALTITUDES OF STATIONS.

The heights of the various stations of the survey are determined
from observations of the zenith distances of the surrounding
points, made at each station visited by the observing surveyor.
The simultaneous observation at each end of the line involved,
which is necessary to an ideal determination of relative heights
(for by that means only is it made certain that the co-efficients of
refraction at the two ends of the line are the same) has, of course,
been impracticable. The work, however, is performed always at
the same time of the day, so as to secure, as far as possible, the
same atmospheric conditions in the reciprocalfobservations. The
actual field work consists in the measurement, with a theodolite
having a 10-inch circle, of the elevations of all the stations in the
surround, noting, at the time of sighting to each, the reading of a
level the axis of which is in the direction of the line being sighted,
any variations of the level being subsequently applied to the
circle reading. The instrument is then reversed and a similar
round taken, each such pair of rounds constituting a set from
which the differences of height may be derived. The question
may arise whether the number of sets taken has not of recent
years been too much limited to give a reasonable assurance that
the mean result will represent anything corresponding to a mean
condition of the air, and though the resulting heights prove fairly
accurate yet improvement may be expected to follow an increase

TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 205

in the number of observations. There is little doubt that the
principal source of difficulty in trigonometrical levelling lies in the
considerable and irregular changes in the atmospheric refraction.
This cannot be better illustrated than by the experience obtained
in India, where apparent zenith distances of points only 10 or 12
miles away varied under certain circumstances through a range of
as much as nine minutes. At first sight it might appear to be
useless to go on duplicating such apparently wild observations,
yet consideration of the nature of the question will show that the
great range among the observations forms, itself, the reason for
extending them to cover a longer period of time. Bessel’s opinion
on this subject may be gathered from his estimate of the relative
weights* to be assigned to such observations, the principal factor
in the weight being n, n,, where n, and n, are the number of days
on which observations are made at opposite ends of the same line.

The differences of height are computed from the very con-
‘venient formula—

aes ater Ua (Ie oes ey

1

2 OU i

’ where hand h, are the heights respectively of the initial station and
that station the height of which is sought; € and @, are the reciprocal
zenith distances observed at each station ; s represents the hori-
zontal distance between the stations, and FR is the mean radius of
curvature of the surface in the vertical plane passing through the
two points. This formula involves only one trigonometrical
function, and the values of A + h, and s’* are readily obtained
2k 12
from tables prepared with arguments h + h, and log s respec-
tively. Considering the small number of observations referred to
above, the deduced heights agree remarkably well both amongst
themselves and in comparison with heights obtained by spirit-
levelling, principally the levelling made in connection with the
railway surveys. The only difference of any magnitude which has
been revealed has been near the northern limit of the survey,
where the heights of station Skeletar, close to Muswellbrook,
deduced trigonometrically and through the spirit-levelling, differ
by 9 feet. An adjustment to the railway levels has not in this
case been made, as sufficient confidence was not felt in the accuracy
of the railway levels. These were made some thirty years back,
not under Governmental control, but by a contractor, and the
writer is informed that where examined they have not been found

* Grademessung in Ostpreussen, p. 196.

206 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

trustworthy, errors of several feet having been discovered in
places. It is earnestly hoped that it will not be long before
spirit-levelling of precision is undertaken in this colony.

The approximate adjustment of errors of close in the altitudes
by a system of means, which on taking up the work it was found
had been followed, will be shortly replaced by reduction on the
principle of making the sums of the squares of the co-efficients of
refraction to be a minimum, recognising the refraction as the
main disturbing factor.

CO-EFFICIENT OF REFRACTION.

As a preliminary to the determination of the heights of stations
along the south coast in the counties of Camden, St. Vincent, and
Dampier, the co-efficient of refraction has been calculated from
the reciprocal observations on nearly a hundred lines. The mean
of all the values obtained is

Ke 12 162e- 0012,

In discussing these determinations the conclusion has been
arrived at that the generally accepted formula from which the
co-efficient is computed,

R Sin 1”

|e ara
Ss

(€ + & — 180°)

is inadequate, and may without great labour be much improved.
In analysing the south coast results it was observed that the
lower values were somewhat remarkably associated with the lines
of greatest slope and an endeavour was fruitlessly made to connect
the two conditions. It however suggested itself that as the
steepest lines were usually the shortest, a connection might be
found between the change of co-efficient and change of length in
the line. The co-efticients were accordingly grouped and gave the
following results :—

Under 10 miles. 10 to 15 miles. 15 to 20 miles. Over 20 miles.

I

K 096 ‘113 126 135

TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 207

Plotting these values and taking the average lengths of the
lines involved gives the following diagram, which points to the
conclusion that the value of the co-efficient may be very closely
represented, for distances of less than 30 miles by a circular curve.

0
wiles

SE/-

208 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

Analysis respecting the longer distances shows that, for lines
greater than 30 miles, K may be taken as uniformly equal to -135,
and for the results above outlined the co-efficient for shorter
distances will be best represented by the following expression, in
which D is the distance in miles :—

K = :135 — -000081 (380 — D)*.

Examination of some of the results obtained in the United
States* shows that they exhibit the same need for bringing the
distance in as a function, or what comes to the same thing, the
height of the ray above the ground, for it may be assumed to var
with the distance. It would seem then to be established that the
practice of using an average value derived from the formula

R — (ae Ae

will need modification. It is to be noted that, in the above dis-

cussion, Struves’ pressure factor » Where B represents the mean
reading, in English inches, of the barometer at the place of
observation, by which all co-efficients may be referred to sea level,
has not been applied, the area covered being nearly enough at the
one level to enable it to be disregarded without affecting the con-
clusions. It should be observed too, that the co-efficient deter-
mined above results, not the mean refraction, but the refraction
at the usual time of observation, 2 to 4 p.m., when though less
liable to fluctuation, it is really at one extreme of its daily
range.
In the absence of proper topographical surveys which would fix
the height of the ray above the surface, it is of some importance to
investigate the general effect of changing distance on the refraction.
This w {Il be seen when it is remembered that the co-efficient is
determinable only by the reciprocal observations which are usually
made only on the longer lines of the survey, and that it is, as a
rule, needed for application on the shorter lines, which are those
fixing stations from which no observations have been made. The
gre eat advance which photographic surveying has recently made
leads to the hope that it may be usefully applied to obtaining
such topographical information as is needed for a proper discussion
of terrestrial refraction, both vertical and lateral. In the course
of examining the refractions it has been a source of regret that
the few photographs from each station, which were needed for
this purpose, were not available. The usefulness of even such an
approximate topographic survey for affording other information
will be referred to later.

Ke—se——

*U.S.C. and G. 8. Report for 1876, p. 371.

TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 209

MINOR TRIANGULATIONS.

Before proceeding to the astronomical work of the survey it
may be mentioned that to meet various needs, independent
triangulations have been made at Sydney, Albury, and Newcastle,
which have afterwards been connected with the main triangulation.
These were founded upon bases measured with steel tapes, and
the comparisons of the lengths, made on connection, shows the
reliance which may be placed upon such tape measurements when
conducted with only ordinary care. Elsewhere in this paper
the main triangulation only is treated of ; the large amount of
minor work done may be estimated from the accompanying map
(marked “C”) which illustrates the detail triangulation of one of
the counties on the south coast. The whole extent of the survey
is shown roughly on map marked “ D,” the part covered by the
primary triangulation being distinguished by cross-hatching.

ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS.

During the progress of the survey, astronomical observations
of the latitudes and longitudes of a number of stations have been
made, and the azimuth of the work has also been referred to the
astronomical azimuth at a number of places. The stations at
which these determinations have been made are distinguished by
special symbols on map “A.” At each station visited the
horizontal direction of the magnetic needle is observed, but no
measures are made of dip or intensity, the other two elements
requisite in investigations of the earth’s magnetic force.

LONGITUDE OBSERVATIONS.

The adopted longitude of the initial point of the survey, the
Sydney Observatory, is 10h. 4m. 49°54s. east. This is the value
deduced from the connection between Australia and Asia effected
by Mr. Barrachi and Captain Darwin in 1883 when the difference
of longitude, Port Darwin to Singapore, was observed and the
connection of Port Darwin with Sydney was made. Since the
adoption of this value, other determinations of the longitude arcs
on the chain between Singapore and Greenwich have been made,
notably that recently completed by Captains Burrard and Lennox-
Conyngham, which gives a value for the longitude of Madras
differing by —0-308s. (4:62”) from the value, 5h. 20m. 59:42s.,
used for fixing the Australian longitudes. New measures of this
kind, of course, affect the Sydney longitude, and must be taken
into account whenever a re-discussion of the subject takes place,
but any alteration at present, to accord with these later determina-
tions, is to be deprecated ; in fact, considering the many and
remote causes of error in longitude observations over long lines, it

oO

210 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

is thought that alteration should be deferred until more definite
steps, either by improvement of methods or more reliable observa-
tion along the whole chain, materially add to the weight of

evidence before us.

The accompanying map (marked “K”) shows the positions of
stations, the longitude of which with respect to the Sydney
Observatory has been determined. Some of these have not been
connected with by triangulation, and their places were fixed
mainly for use in the construction of a map of the colony to take
the place of one which has been in use for the last twenty years
or more, and in which errors of as much as 8 or 10 miles have
been revealed by the trigonometrical survey. The method of
observing difference of longitude generally adopted in the United
States and other countries has been somewhat varied in this
Colony, and now it consists practically in causing the clock at
(say) Walgett to record on the chronograph at Sydney, whilst the
Sydney clock is recording on the same chronograph, and then the
Sydney clock records on the chronograph at Walgett, whilst the
clock there is recording its seconds. In this way it is possible
to get the difference between the two clocks within a hundredth
of a . second, and the problem is reduced to obtaining the actual
clock errors at the time of comparison, and thus the difference of
the time at the two places at the same absolute instant, and
herein lies the whole difficulty.

A programme is prepared of stars in groups of three or four,
at or near the zenith, and one or two circumpolar stars, one if
possible, being swb-polo. For this purpose those stars only are
used whose right ascensions are well determined. It is necessary
that the intervals between the stars should be as short as possible,
so as to eliminate unknown variations in the chronometer rate.
When possible the level is read, reversed, and read again just
before and after each star. The times of transit of the stars over
the wires are recorded on the barrel chronograph by the observer
pressing the signal-key, every individual second being automa-
tically “recorded by the chronometer. The instr ument is now
rotated through 180 degrees, and another group of stars observed
as before ; any error in collimation, and also inequality of pivots,
is thus eliminated, and a mean of the two corrections deduced
from these two groups is the clock correction at or about the
middle time of all the observations. This process is repeated
with two other groups of stars, and then, if practicable, clock
signals are exchanged with Sydney. The observations then pro-
ceed in same manner; that is, a group of stars, instrument
reversed, another group, instrument reversed, and so on, until, if
possible, a second exchange of signals is made, when two or more
groups will close the evening’s w ork, A single night’s work (says
Chauyenet), however, is not to be regarded as conclusive, although

TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. Paull

a large number of stars may have been observed and the results
appear very concordant ; for, experience shows that there are
always errors which are constant, or nearly so, for the same night,
and which do not appear to be represented in the corrections
computed and applied. Generally, signals were exchanged with
Sydney on from three to five nights.

LATITUDE OBSERVATIONS.

The astronomical observations for latitude are made by the
method of zenith pairs, the altazimuth being fitted also for use as
a zenith telescope ; thus we have combined in the one instrument
the means of determining latitude, time, astronomical azimuth,
direction and elevation of surrounding points. Results of the
observations for latitude at one station, Walgett, are given below.

Latitude— Walgett. Zenith pairs.
Observed by W. J. ConDER.

“ Mean
Date. Stars. Ohad Mean. Vn ie | v. ve,
1884. 30° 1’ 30”
18 Oct.| Cape 11,3441—11,400) 1°7
Ne) 5 ae a rr 1128}
20°; ” ” ” 2°93 506
22 ;, ” ” ” 311 Sa0
23 ” ” ” ” 1°55 PHT 2-236 4°72
Ses », 11,428—11,448) 1:17 ae
19 ,, » ” ” 0°73 °
20 ,, ” ” ” 2°90
21 99 ” 99 ” 0°86
22 5, ” ” ” 1°93
23 ” ” ” ” 3°10 n06 BoC Aen
24 ” ” a) ”9 2°18 1°84 2°646 4°87
19 ,, ” ” ” 151
20 9 99 99 ” 2:97
PAN oe ” ” ” 1°43 onic
22 ,, ” ” ” 2°26 Ade
23 ,, ”9 ” ” 164 90
24 ” ” ” ” STF 1°86 2°646 4:92
VO); », 11,476 —11,539| 2°94 ak
20S, ’ ” ” 3°58 ace
215; ” ” 2 2°54
22s ” ” ” Ze 5
23 ;, ” ” ” 2°88 an male
2b 5 ” ” ”) 2°35 2°88 | 2:449 7°05
OR. 3, 11,490—11,508} 0-25 ad e
20 ,, ” ” ” 2°08 |
74 l ”» ” ” 1:07

212

Date.

1884.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

Latitude—Walgett.

Stars.

Zenith pairs—continued.

Observed Mean’

Latitude.

Vn

Mean

x
Vn

Vv.

22 Oct.| Cape 11,490—11,508

24
19
20

9

”

29

be) be)

11,508—11,539

2) 2)

39 ”

” ”

be) ”
11,567—11,587

bP) 9

3” ”

” ”

> 9
11,567—11,610

be) ”

39 ”

3° 99

” ”

3° ”
11,633—11,652

2° >

” 29

39 ”)

oP) te)
11,707—11,746

33 3)

2? 99

29 ”

9 ”
11,783—11,799
LE) 33
be) 39
39 29
29 ””
11,833—11,869
39 Le)
be) br)

99 bed

11,919—11,961

30° 1’ 30”
2°17

SOSH KUANYNUDER GOK HMUWMHASDWARGAKRDES

NN WWNNWNWNWHHHNHNONWWNWOWNMWWIwWNNNwWNwrrPnNlntdy
WOON ERK HK ONO DOK HK OWOOR HNN ODDUANWANTUTIWODADUW-+10M

WweSKKEK SE KROH

1-48

2-96

2-86

vs
is
a
‘i

7-00

“8

i

“53

“in

“35

30

“69
“Ol
"42

“28

“37
"30

“io

Latitude— Walgett.

TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF NEW SOUTH WALES,

Zenith pairs—continued.

213

Date.

1884.
20 Oct.

Cape 11,919—11,961

9
”

Stars.

9)
bed

”

11,991—12, 016

3?

12, 134—12,150

12, 150—12,197

3)
2)
”
9

12,220—12,270

12,297—12, 338

be)
2?
39

29

12,381—12, 420

2)
9
”

9
9
99
”

2)

”
2?
29

”

Observed
Latitude.

30° 1’ 30”
2°88
1°85
3°17
2°57

1°63

AGSOHDMNO KUTA RAWS BO SHEN

WWWWHEHOMNONNHENNHEWRNONWHENWHEH DN we toton
POON M TAMA BR : re :
SCOSABSHALWAADRSSSORE ERE WONUNDEBHGHSADEE DOM

Mean.

ng
jes
on

Vn

2-449
2-449

9-449

Mean

x
Vn

5°93
5-14
6-00

5°44

5-46

“V1

“is

‘io

“08

1-06

v.

“Ol

“04

“01
“50

“01

214 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

Latitude— Walgett. Zenith pairs—continued.

Date. Stars. Opened Mean. | Jn x A wv’.

1884. 30m S04

24Oct.| Cape 12,381—12,420) 2°87 BIN || PATA) | 2 7/40)7/ 85 72

20 ,, meng oui 343) = 2 be Ue

21 ,, ” 0 Op 1°88

22 ” ” DD OD) 2°91

23, he Pe 370) ee. he ees |i...

24 ,, ‘5 Paar Dsl 2°85) || 2°236 6°37 ae | ay

WB} an », lll—164 3°01 ae ae A or se

24° Ap ne 1883 PPAlef |) die glet 3°07 14 02

DAL me », 132—l164 DRY. nae BS ae was

22 ” ” 2999 3°12

23 sae cde tas AcOR. Ain me i

Pan | os a AS eS 272 3:05 | 2:000 | 6:10 74 13)5)

a1. 990-268 1977 tee. _ Pee |” ao.

22 ,, ry) an SOD 2°66

23 |, : rn 3:07) al ee ie i ioe aa

DN b eee 2°87 2°69 | 2:000 5°38 38 14

2, 5, 268—306 1°36 ae ae Aa as ae

22 ” ” 2299 1°66

5B i eens 222 |... ei 18

24%, .. ssa 1:58 1°70 | 2°000 3°40 ‘61 coil

21 ,, , 352—386 0-60 | ... i |

22 ,, ” MD Pp 1°76

23 ,, ae sa 1:85 | ... et a ef.

D4 Rey me 0:50 | 1:18 | 2000 | 2:36 | 1:13 | 1:28

22 |, » 6352—401 Tedesco. i. cae ek ene

IE Ne 192 |... a On| sia ae

OA |, NS 0-65 | 1°30] 1-732 | 2-25 | 1-01 | 1-02
62°117 | 143-63 9:29

PSI

Tatitude; 302 153231") PE -12.0108-

MICROMETER VALUES IN LATITUDE OBSERVATIONS.

From the mode of observing it is to be noted that the accuracy
of the latitude results depend, to a large extent, on the value of
the micrometer screw, and, recognising this, it was asked some
time back that observations might be made to re-determine the
value, for verification of the adopted one which rested on measures
made as long ago as in 1882. As micrometers are so generally
used in astronomical work, as well as in other branches of physical
science, and since they are too generally relied on as being

TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 215

little liable to any appreciable change, it is thought the errors
found in this particular screw might with advantage be brought
under notice. It is clear that micrometers in frequent use need
examination at short intervals.

In the reduction of the value of the revolution of the latitude
micrometer screw it was recognised at the outset that there were
certain peculiarities which demanded that it should have more
detailed examination than is usually needed. The work, though
apparently most carefully carried out, evidenced the existence of
systematic error, which depended on the part of the screw used.

The results show that systematic corrections need to be made
to the micrometer readings. Each observation of time, after the
first one of each set, gives an equation of the form aa+by+n=o0
where « is a correction to the initial observation and y is a small
correction to an assumed value of the micrometer revolution.
Substituting the resulting values in the observation equations, the
residuals in the case of each set of observations exhibit changes
of which the following, which are the residuals in the case of star
Cape 1880, No. 6,703, observed 1896, February 19, are an
example :—

ee bee PhD iees
33 —1:29 26) — 0:09 19 +0°83 12 -0°30
32°5 — 1°40 25°5 — 0°31 18°5 + 0°36 11°5 0:00
32 -—1°47 25 +0°76 18 +1°57 1] -0-22
31-5 - 1:28 24°5+ 0°56 17°5+ 1°49 10:5 — 0°94
31 -—1'52 24 +0°47 Lyf ap llezes 10 -—0-64
30°5 — 0°67 23°5+1°17 1654117 9:5 —0°23
30 +0:17 23 +0°06 16 +1-12 9° — 0:93
29°5 — 1:09 22°5+1°40 15°5+0°52 8'5-—0°75
29 —0°38 22 +094 15 +0°06 8 -1°86
28:5+0°18 21°5+ 1°62 14°54 0°74 75 -—1°57
28 -0°'59 PA SE IL 14 +001 US aleils
27:5 -—0°76 20°5+0°81 13250219 6°5 — 1:33
27 -0°45 20 +1-77 13 —0'14 6 —1°16
26°5 — 0°41 195+ 1°69 12°5+0°80

The systematic nature of these residuals is plainly visible and
is Shown throughout the observations, the set given being merely
typical of what is revealed by all. So definite a curve is shown
by all that it was clear that a system of corrections of the form
x (20—R)’ could be determined, which would fairly represent the
observed facts. Such corrections have been computed, the con-
stant x being found to be 0’:014. These corrections, required at
each micrometer reading, are as follows, the first column giving
the reading of the micrometer, the second the correction in are,

216 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

and the third the same correction in terms of R. The corrections
for readings from 20 to 35 will be the same as those below, but
in reverse order :—

122. u R. u

5 + 3°150 + 0°054 13 + 0°686 + 0012
55 2°940 050 13°35 O88 ‘010
6 2°744 047 14 ‘504 ‘O69
6°5 2°548 043 14°5 *420 007
ai 2°366 “O40 15 “300 006
75 2°184 037 15°5 280 005
) 2°016 034 16 224 004
85 1°848 ‘O31 165 168 003
9 1-694 029 17 126 002
9°5 1°540 026 17°5 ‘084 ‘001
10 1°400 “024 18 056 ‘001
10°5 1260 021 18°5 028 “C00
11 1134 ‘019 19 ‘O14 000
11°5 1008 017 19°5 “O04 000
12 0°S96 015 20 ‘000 ‘000
12°5 0-784 013

It will be unnecessary to draw attention to the magnitude of
these corrections ; they are sufficiently startling. They are, how-
ever, fully borne out by the observations. For instance, to return
to the case of star 6703 for an example, the observations of this
star show that ten (10) revolutions of the screw in its different
parts represent the following angular intervals :

10 R. 10 R. “1OR:.
34 -—24 588 62 27°5-17°5 589°53 21°5—11°5 585*66) ~

17
33 —23 588°63 PH lly 589-01 21 —I1 585°39
32°5—22°5 591-08 26:°5-16°5 588°36 205-10°5 58552

382 —22 589°68 26 -16 588-49 20 -10 584°87
31°5-—21°5 590°18 25°5-15°5 588-08 19'5— 9'°5 585°36
31 -21 590°57 25 —15 586°58 19 - 9 58552
30°5-20°5 588-76 24:5-14°5 58746 185-— 85 586:17
_ 30 -—20 588°88 24 -—14 586°82 18 - 8 583°85
29°5-—19°5 590-05 23°5-13°5 585-92 17°5-— 775 584:22
A) il, 58849 23 =13 587:07 lyf = of 584°87
28:5-18°5 58746 22°5-12°5 586°68 16°5— 6°5 585°27
28 -18 589°53 22 -—12 586 04 16 - 6 585°00

The meaning of the above is that the result of measurement of
an angle by ten revolutions of the screw at one part of its length
differs by as much as 5 seconds from the result when another
part of the screw is used.

The effect of this error of screw on the observations ordinarily
made with this micrometer (zenith distance observations for lati-
tude) will of course not be so considerable as that just referred to,
as it is usual to set the telescope as nearly as possible at the mean
zenith distance of each pair of stars, so that the observations are
made pretty symmetrically with regard to the middle reading
(20 R) of the screw. This cannot always be done though, and in

TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 217

fact seldom is done exactly, and whenever the readings are not
equally distant, on opposite sides of 20 R, a correction is necessary.
In one case, an exceptional one certainly, it was found that the
difference of zenith distance required correction on this account
by as much as 12”. Although the effect of such errors would be
reduced by oriulsixedteien of many pairs of stars, as it would be
improbable that the error of screw would have the same sign
with each pair of stars; still it is shown clearly enough that this
is a source of error to be reckoned with, and it is one which will
most likely increase.
As to its cause there can be little doubt. Seeing the thousands
of measures made with the screw since 1882, when it was last
xamined, the wonder would be if by now the effects of wear
were not to be seen, and it is probable that wear zs the cause of
the different values given by different parts. If, as in the present
case, a screw is more frequently used in one part than in another,
and one side only of its thread is subject to friction owing to the
constant action of a spring, it seems patent that the consequent
wear must ultimately result in an appreciable alteration of the
position of the thread at the more used part relative to the thread
at the less used parts ; the interval on one side of the used part
being increased in length, and that on the other side decreased.
Such action would entirely account for the defect observed in this
screw. The middle of the screw is most used ; and the interval
from the middle to one end is found to have increased beyond the
value it had in 1882, while the other end has correspondingly
decreased.

TEMPERATURE EFFECT ON MICROMETER.

The values of the micrometer revolution, as derived from the
various stars, are as follows :—

From star 72, R=58"°629 From star 8914, R- 58”°672
»» 6703, R=58""728 , 9273, R=58""806
5 16380, R=58"'634 re 2452, R=58"'552

The mean is R=58"-670. It is noted that though the theoretical
probable errors of these values, arrived at from each individual
set, are only + °007, +°006, +°"003, +-"001, +-’002, and +-”003,
respectively, yet much larger differences are found between the
above determinations. This points to a divergence of the con-
ditions under which the observations were made, and it is to be
regretted that in such observations the temperature of the
instrument is not generally noted, in order that it might be
ascertained whether that is a disturbing element. In delicate
work of this kind some means should be found for ascertaining
the temperature of the instrument, as it must change not only
from the observer’s presence but from the effect of the actual

218 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

applications of his hand to the instrument. The one temperature
recorded was 35°; and if this was the air temperature, it is very
certain that that of the telescope was much higher, after being
touched as many as fifty times during the 20 minutes occupied
by the work.

In connection with the remarks on temperature, it is a some-
what significant fact that the values given in the preceding
paragraph seem to bear a direct relationship to the time occupied
over the observations, the lowest value being given by the set
which was the most rapidly made, and the highest by that which
took the longest time. Arranged in order of time occupied, they
are—

Star 2452 ... R=58":552 Star 8914 .... R=58":672
3) L6307 2 R=587-634 > 0103 2.) "R58 728
” he Wee R= 984629 os) 27d) San . R—OSe:806

So uniform are the progressions in time and value that it is
difficult to resist the conclusion that there is a connection between
them, and this is probably through the changes of temperature
caused by the proximity and touch of the observer.

DECLINATIONS OF STARS.

The effect of errors in the adopted declinations of the stars
observed is clearly seen in the latitude results, and wherever more
reliable declinations have been applied they have been much
improved. In connection with this it is apparent that a great
work remains to be done, in combining the positions given in the
various star catalogues; and attention may be drawn to the
reduction, by Dr. H. 8. Davis, of the declinations and proper
motions of stars required for the observation of variation of
latitude at New York.* Dr. Davis has brought together for some
fifty-six stars the work given in 130 catalogues, and so has
obtained declinations of enormously greater weight than could be
assigned to those given by any one observatory. For instance, in
the determination of » Geminorum, the data afforded by no less
than 1,748 observations has been availed of, yet in the previously
published catalogues the largest number brought together in a
form available for general use was 179. Though the observatories
all over the world have been at work gathering information for
many years, it yet remains to have the results combined. Rigorous
reductions of this kind no doubt involve a large amount of labour,
and it can hardly be proposed to at once enter on such a reduction
of all the star places. A first step, though, might be made
by subdividing the heavens into areas of, say, 5 degrees by 5
degrees, selecting the star in each subdivision which has been best

* See Contributions from the Observatory of Columbia College, New York. No. 8.
J. K. Rees, Director. Similar work has also been done by Dr. Auwers.

TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 219

determined in position (that is, observed at the largest number of
different observatories, not the one all the observations of which,
though numerous, may have all been made at only a few places),
reducing its place and proper motion rigorously, and determining,
by differences, the places of the principal other stars in the same
subdivision, using the selected star as a point of reference. In
this way the best information would be obtained for a large
number of stars distributed generally over the sky, and the tabular
positions of the remainder would be considerably improved with
comparatively moderate labour. A very necessary part of such a
work would be the discussion of the systematic errors of each
observatory.

AZIMUTH OBSERVATIONS.

Astronomical azimuths have been usually found by observation
of circumpolar stars at meridian transit.

CONNECTION OF THE ASTRONOMICAL AND GEODETIC RESULTS.

In a triangulation such as the one under review, extending from
latitude 33° to latitude 37°, and covering some 3 degrees of
longitude, comparison of the astronomically determined positions
with those obtained through the terrestrial measurements afford a
means of estimating the form of the surface covered by the survey,
and, when combined with other similar works, of determining the
dimensions and shape of the earth. The consideration of this
subject is, however, very largely influenced by the existence of
local attraction, by which the position of the apparent zenith at
any place is liable to be deflected to the extent of several seconds
of arc, owing to the irregular distribution of matter in the vicinity
of the point at which the astronomical observations are made, and,
even where the point may from its surroundings be apparently
free from any suspicion of local attraction, the apparent zenith
may be displaced. As evidence of this the following passage is
quoted from one of our highest authorities,* who writes :—“ This
amount indeed is often exceeded, and it is not uncommon to find,
as in the vicinity of Edinburgh, a deflection of gravity to the
extent of 5”, whilst in the counties of Banff and Elgin there are
cases of still larger deflections, the maximum of 10” being found
at the village of Portsoy. At the base of the Himalayas, where
we should naturally expect a large attraction, it amounts to about
30”, diminishing somewhat rapidly as the distance from the
mountains increases. A very remarkable instance of such irregu-
larities exists near Moscow, brought to light through the large
number of observed latitudes in that district. Drawing a line

* Geodesy, Colonel A. R. Clarke, Oxford, 1880, page 228.

220 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

nearly east and west through the city, this line for a length of
50 or 60 miles is the locus of the points at which the deflection
of the direction of gravity northwards is a maximum, amounting
to nearly 6” in the average, while along a parallel line 18 miles to
the south are found the points of maximum deflection southwards.
Midway between these lines are found the points of no deflection.
Thus there is plainly indicated the existence beneath the surface,
if not of a cavity, yet of a vast extent of matter of very small
density.”

The magnitude of some of the local deflections and the close
accord between those arrived at by observation and those given
by the triangulation of the Caucasus may be seen from the
following list, which has been taken from a valuable report on
gravity disturbances by Dr. Helmert.* It may be mentioned
that in the same report the accuracy of Clarke’s elements is
amply illustrated :—

Deviation from the Vertical in the Caucasus.

Latitude. D ea
Name Longi- i Differ-
F ; : tude. (Cone ence.
Astronomical.} Geodetic. Observed. puted.
° , u” ie} / “ ° , Y u u
Pestchanovkopsky | 46 14 45°81 46 14 48°70 | 41 6} — 2°89 0; — 2°89
TR UISSESV Ae merrcte etererecrs 45 8 1°97 45) 7 52731 41 56 + 9°66 + 10°83 —117
Jekaterinodar ....| 45 0 51:27 45 0 46°91 88 58] + 436] + 236 + 2°00
Georgiewsk ....:. 44 9 29°27 44 9 19°30 43 30 + 9°97 + 12:09 — 2°12
Ws NO? saan nb505007 43751) 22413 43 51 21:07 | 46 38 + 1°06 + 2°65 — 1°59
Jekaterinograd ....| 43 49 7°03 43 48 54°41 44 41 + 12°62 + 12°62 | Assumed
zero.
Alexandrowskaja..| 43 29 813 | 43 28 49°99 | 44 8) +1814] +1945 | —131
Wladikawkas...... 43 1 40°24 43 1 448 44 43 | + 35°76 | + 38°76 | — 3:00
PetrOwiske seen tee 42 59 36°7 42 59 18714 47 33 + 18°56 + 16°41 + 2°15

In our survey no attempt has been made to estimate the
deflections due to irregularities in the distribution of the adjacent
surface matter, owing probably to the labour involved in making
the necessary topographical surveys, and also to the doubt which
exists as to the radius within which such irregularities may be
considered as having effect.

Allusion has been made, when dealing with the altitudes of the
stations, tothe advantage which would be derivedfrom theexistence
of a photo-topographical survey in default of amore accurate survey,
but in connection with the determination of the distribution of
hill masses in the neighbourhood of the stations at which astro-
nomical observations have been made such a survey would also
prove of the highest value. In the absence of any means of
correcting for the local deflections of the zenith, it is certainly

* Comptes-Rendus des Séances de la Commission Permanente de l’Association Géodésique
Internationale, 4 ’Observatoire de Nice, 1887.

TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 221

advisable to follow the plan urged by General Walker* and
Dr. Gill.t The latter uses the following words :—

“The method of employing groups of neighbouring astrono-
mical stations instead of isolated stations is unquestionably the
best plan for dealing with the difficulty. Having regard to the
fact that the probable discordance produced by deviation of
the plumb line is far greater than the probable error of an astro-
nomical latitude as determined by observations of a single night,
it must be always more advantageous to observe for latitude on a
single night at each of five or six stations in the neighbourhood
of a principal point than to make a long series of observations at
any one point for the purpose of securing an accuracy in the
determination which is in great part nullified by unknown local
attraction.”

“And if this be true for meridian arcs, as General Walker’s
results (loc. cit.) have abundantly proved to be the case, it must
be equally true for longitude stations. Every principal longitude
station should therefore be surrounded by neighbouring stations
for the purpose of eliminating, or at the least diminishing the
effect of local attraction. The establishment of a longitude station
is an incomparably more laborious and costly matter than is that
of a latitude station ; it involves, for a like accuracy, a larger
number of observing nights, an exchange of instruments and
observers, and the cost probably of special wires, thus the labour
and cost render the method practically prohibitory.”

But the same end can be accomplished in a much simpler and
more accurate manner by means of azimuths. Whatever informa-
tion as to the amount and direction of local attraction can be
derived from observations of longitude, the same information can
also be derived from azimuths. If each principal longitude
station was surrounded by six symmetrically placed astronomical
stations, the lines joining the stations would form a regular
hexagon with a central point—a figure which is the most favour-
able possible for accurate geodetic measurement. If the
astronomical latitudes and longitudes of these points are then
determined, we have, from a discussion of the discordances
between the geodetic and astronomical results of the figure, all
the requisite data for computing the local attraction at the central
point, or rather, we secure all the advantages which would result
from a group of seven latitude and longitude stations. This
method would be entirely free from the objection which can fairly
be brought against the use of azimuths as a substitute for longitude
operations, viz., the accumulation of error which is inevitable in
long chains of triangulation.

* India’s Contributions to Geodesy. by General J. T. Walker, R.E., C.B., &c. Phil.
Trans., Vol. 186, pp. 778-787.
+ Report on Geodetic Survey of South Africa, 1896, already cited.

222 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

“The advances made in the construction of modern instruments,
and the employment of modern methods, render the execution of
such a plan far less troublesome and costly than formerly would
have been the case. An instrument like the 10-inch Repsold
theodolite, with its observing hut and observer, can be con-
veniently transported in a spring-cart with a pair of trotting
horses, the hooded cart forming a sleeping place for the observer
when necessary.”

“Taking from the data, the probable accidental error of a single
measurement of the difference of zenith distance of a pair of stars
as + 0”:40, and for the probable error of the tabular declination
of each star + 0:50 we have for the probable error of latitude,
determined from the single observation of a single pair of stars.

V/ (0:40)? + 202)? = 07-54

Thus from sixteen pairs of stars, observed on a single night, the
latitude can be determined with a probable error of

+ 0"-14
a result which is at least ten times smaller than the probable
deflection of the plumb-line at each station.”

“The probable error of azimuth from a single night’s observation,
derived from all the azimuth determinations made with the
Repsold theodolite at Port Elizabeth, Hanover, Kimberley, and
Tygerberg is

a=07-30
or if the result from the azimuth determination at Port Elizabeth
(the first station at which the instrument was used) be excluded,
the probable error of azimuth from a single night’s determination
becomes

sal) k
and this accuracy is abundantly sufficient.”

With an instrument and observatory thus easily transported
and erected (the same instrument being also available for measure-
ment of horizontal angles) and capable of giving results of all
requisite precision from the observations of a single evening, the
construction of a latitude and azimuth hexagon about each longi-
tude point would be a simple and inexpensive matter compared
with the labour of and cost involved in the astronomical deter-
minations of the longitude of the central point, and would give a
sevenfold value to the geodetic results.

ASTRONOMICAL AND GEODETIC RESULTS.

In places where investigations have been made it has, however,
been found that, notwithstanding such abnormal deflections of the
vertical as have been referred to, a discussion of the geodetic data
in connection with the astronomical observations, where these are

TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 223

judiciously spread over the area surveyed, gives, as a rule, a fairly
approximate value of the local disturbances. Such a discussion
may therefore be concluded to afford a means of arriving at the
general shape of the surface, independently of a consideration of
the purely local effects, provided that sufficient observations have
been made. From such a treatment the spheroidal figure best
according with the measurements made in the survey of Great
Britain and Ireland was determined, and a similar examination
has now been made to ascertain the spheroid best representing
the surface of this country.

The following tables show the astronomical latitudes, azimuths,
and longitudes at the observing stations, as well as the differences
between these and the similar elements deduced from the
triangulation.

Geodetic and Astronomical Data.

LATITUDE.
Station. Geodetic. Astronomical. G.—A.
° , u" ° , u

Obsenvatonry, ....cnse0ssc0e: 33 51 41° 1 |83 51 41° 1 | (assumed zero)
CEM Obre ceectttaccmecea scat 32 59 10:24 11:23 —0°99
Wrarrawolongs...cn.9-06 <0: 33 2 44:89 43°90 +0°99
IMIATOOGAY concn esceeasese cen se 38) 28) Bethy Doo —1°58
WONT ELE since nacsjeosite povens- 33 26 19:05 16°79 +2°26
Wastlew an castanmsccedeeseta xc 33 42 26:28 26°93 —0°65
Basesshichids Nev socecssescee 33 35 58:07 58°84 —0‘77
IBAsesEMICHGe SS. seaeneese cee 33 39 44°63 44°99 —0°36
OUT tects seve cde tee voiist 33. 330 (7°71 8°83 —1°12
SCOUbinE soe stenceecnsere en aan BB) ay BAY) 4°33 —2°'14
Bal dieawenr sant sneriessaicdes. 33 26 52°42 52°06 +0°36
Bind Omens were tesce vssvcnsons 33 40 44°57 42°50 +2:°07
ILE OF Diss caenconapodeoadeoone: 33 28 24:04 25°37 —1°33
WOW ESE cecescccnicslersuesenes SOOO MOlESL 25°04 +6:27
(OKWENY Scape nce iconn te anen tees 33 24 46°67 46:22 +0°45
OW aT dlenyceuscmasecncosessar: 33 49 13:90 18:07 —4:17
Buttalope ness necseastesediasses 34 34 54°81 50°95 +3°86
WYoronora “.1c...-.s- mee 34 7 5:98 5°39 +0°59
ellone tee ccrcsccecncee nen sce 34 22 16:99 12°80 +419
Gilonaltarceecessrsececencest: 34 28 2:09 27 +59:09 +3:00
TOW MAM Fs seceineiarescsisssieyin, ass 34 45 21°36 20°38 +0°98
Allianoyonyiga ............ 35 2 22°57 23°50 —0°93
Basen Geon Sevceccuccees Bis eh Sey 19-26 +3°21
AGITMANATI ON sate seiewisliee cela 35 45 2:24 0:98 +1:26
Wimarallaas.cneceres.maesc: 36 11 56-01 53°83 +2-18
Wiamlbrookeeeeesceseree 30m LIE opR24: 36°17 —0°93
@oomMaeankeorcesnceceoneee 36 15 13°40 11°94 +1°46
LUG Sone gasctsck cnin ease 36 26 35°60 35°77 —0°17
IN( ESTOS: “Gaesonuscecsnoatoacec 36 37) «65°74 9°12 —3'38
Bakalong so c.ccs.acsecse-csee 36 48 28:07 31:07 —3°00
Substitute ..... “Ae ancroenter. 37 «10 «33°40 38°40 —5-00
eN@mialatecscesctinise: casnesens 33 32. 45°44 45°96 —0°52

224, PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

Geodetic and Astronomical Data—continued.

AZIMUTH.
Line. Geodetic. Astronomical G.—A.
fe} / Ww ”
Yengo—Warrawolong .........-.00e 99-50 12:12 3°73 —1'61
NIKO OLA CASELE saecleecesienrenemeaae WS, 48) (59512 58°60 + 0°52
Gastle=— Rede gcenscasceneeeeceeeeeeeeee 129 30 28°84 28°76 +0:08
Base, Richd. N.—Meridian mark.) 180 0 1:13 0°49 +0°64
Base, Richd. S.—Mulgoa ......... NOG ei, 42°22 40°03 +2:19
Pound—Base, (Richd= Ss varceneueo 184 52 8:79 6°10 + 2°69
Bald Momialhy eee acenhcaccenecdeetee 1122). 1.26 732:29 31°49 +0°S0
Bind o—= Lambie wsuatseeressesceaiee 35) 5 30°08 32°27 —— 919
Lambie—Meridian mark ............ 179 59 57:48 60°S4 3°36
Mowes=—lamlbteraanereseteeeceeteeeeee HL 25) V3ieo4 44-28 —6'74
Ovens= Wamibierneescceneereeeanceeeer 108 48 20°89 29°54 —8'65
Macquarie—Howard ..........00655 211 30 39°55 49°41 —9°86
Howard—Meridian mark............ 179 59 51:08 59°16 —S8'08
IN@rrEawa—bultall Omeeeccceeeseee ees 998 4 24-99 29°86 —}'64
Buffalo—Meridian mark ............ Wi) 53) BioreY 62°16 —}5'84
Gannon— Lott saa.ccesewosseteerececes 316 53 0°38 1:70 —1 32
Gibraltar—Meridian mark ......... 179 59 45°31 43°01 +2°30
Allianoyonyiga—Meridian mark..| 180 O 1:12 |— 0°26 +1:38
Base, L. Geo. S.—Meridian mark.| 179 59 59°54 5702 +2°52
Ofer la hiolsyorn — pacaqansannooneor 218 4 42°58 32°24 +10°34
Wrantbroolk—Clear 22. ...ccceceesesers 25 10 7.02 10°13 +6°'88
Eid son-—=Uimanalilanaesesaceccsesecaces 38 13 8:29 0°89 + 7°40
INummola—“Enud Soni weceeeeesesteeseace: 62 19 27:11 19°17 +794
Bukalong—Substitute ............. 182 56 18°32 O77 +8°55
Substitute—Tingi Ringi ............ 295 30 26°84 14°91 +11°93
LONGITUDES.
Station. Geodetic. Astronomical. G.—A.
° ' uv ° 7 ” |

1 & ony rto | een een Ne eaccnGaetic 149 3 20°460 17°505 +2955
Tambien icnaesasccwnceccnart 149 59 24-600 25800 —1:200
Coomanencee, toueeeoecene 149 4 47°384 50°10 —2°716
(Oo Bueesecdeeoosdn|| = Ssonsccenoon 151 12 23:10 | (assumed zero)

Tt may be here remarked that in the latitude observations the
annual variation of latitude has not been allowed for ; as, although
its existence has been verified, its amount and period cannot as
yet be considered as ascertained.* Effect from this cause upon
the results obtained in the calculations about to be referred to
will, however, be inappreciable.

* Since the above was written, Dr. Chandler’s determination of an expression for the
variation of latitude has been published. Dr. Chandler's value seems likely to need little
f any modification, but it has not yet been used here.

TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 225

RELATION BETWEEN ASSUMED AND ACTUAL SURFACES.

It may be shown that the effect of projecting the points of a
triangulation upon a spheroid of reference which must, by the
method of the problem, differ only slightly from the actual
spheroid, will produce differences which are only of the second
order in comparison with the inclination of the surfaces to each
other, and further, that these differences are so small as to be
overwhelmed by other sources of error. Supposing, therefore,
that € and 7 are the inclinations between the surfaces at one
point, € in the direction of the meridian, and 7 in a plane at right
angles thereto, we are enabled by a comparison of the astronomical
and geodetic positions to express the € and 7’ belonging to any
other point in terms of € and y, and, by determining a set of
elements for the earth’s figure, such that the sum of the squares
of all the £s and 7’s is a minimum, we arrive at the most probable
shape of the surface. From this treatment there result for the
latitude, longitude, and azimuth observations, equations of the
following forms :—

f@=xn +AE+By+ Cu+Etnv

sec fy =x + A'E+ By + Cut Ev

tan f'n = «6 + A”E + Bn + Cu + E’v
in which zw is a correction on the assumed value of the major semi-
axis, and v a correction on the eccentricity of the elliptic meridian.

DIMENSIONS OF MOST PROBABLE SPHEROID.

Sixty-eight equations of the above form have been obtained,
from which, allowing the same weight to the longitude and azimuth
equations as to the latitude equations, normal equations are got
by the method of least squares, the solution of which gives the
following values :—

€ = — 0:45"; » = — 1:39"; w = + 0°550; v= + 1518.
With these values the elements of the spheroid would appear
to be :—

a = 6974378 + 1861 yards; e? = :0073875.

From an examination of the data we would be led to expect
that certain systematic influences would to some extent affect this
result, for it will be seen that in following the triangulation net
westerly from the Richmond base the Dividing Range is crossed,
and at all stations between Bindo and Buffalo the general in-
fluence of the mountain mass is shown by an easterly deflection
of the plumb line ; also in the southerly extension from the Lake
George base a similar deflection of opposite sign is shown, re-
sulting from the triangulation being located on the eastern slope
. of Monaro with the high mountain mass culminating in Mount
Kosciusko, the highest point in Australia, lying to the westward.

Pp

226 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

Again, too, the question of the relative weights of the azimuth
and ‘latitude observations are to be considered. It must be ad-
mitted that the equations to the latitude should have greater
weight than either those connected with the azimuth or with the
lon gitude observations, having in view the facts that in the azimuth
equations are contained any errors occurring in the transfer of
directions through so many different points, and that from the
nature of the longitude observations results of like precision to
those given by the latitude observations cannot be looked for.
The actual determination of relative weights to be applied to each
is, however, somewhat difficult of solkidarne and must, to a large
extent, be a matter of opinion. As judged though by the very
small errors of closure of the triangles, it would seem that the
error in carrying on azimuth must be relatively small, and that
the difference of weight to be assigned to the different classes of
data should not be so great as would, at first sight, appear to be
demanded.

Allowing half weight to the azimuth and latitude observations,
and omitting those azimuth observations which have been above
referred toas being influenced by systematic attractions and likely
to unduly affect the results, it is found that the values of & y, etc.,
become

€ = — 0-44", y = — 0:93", wu = + 0:395, and v = + 1-147.
From these are obtained— .

a = 6974378 yards + 1336; e? = 0072080.

These elements, it will be seen, more closely approximate to those
which were assumed for the spheroid of reference, and it is not
unlikely that even closer agreement will result from the further
extension of our tr iangulation northward.

It is necessary to add that all lengths arrived at are in terms of
the standard bar used in the base measurements, the length of
which, in comparison with the standards of other countries, as has
been before mentioned, is well determined by Colonel Clarke’s
observations. The information respecting such comparisons is of
great value, for it will enable the triangulation of this Colony,
which is in a latitude peculiarly favour able for the purpose, to be
combined with those of Europe, where the subject receives con-
siderable attention, surveys of high precision being now extended
over the whole of that continent. While the results given above
may be expected to indicate with fair precision the shape of the
surface covered by this survey, combination with those of other
countries is necessary for obtaining a fair value of the dimensions
of the earth as a whole.

No account of this survey would be complete which did not pay
some tribute to the skill, as an observer, of the late Mr. W. J.

TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 227

Conder, to whom is due in a great measure the high degree of
precision attained. The names of Messrs. P. F. Adams, late
Surveyor-General of the Colony, and H. C. Russell, C.M.G.,
F.R.S., must also be recorded in any such sketch as this. To the
former the very existence of the survey is in a large measure due,
and it owes much also to his wide practical knowledge and experl-
ence, while the latter has, during its whole progress, aided in
many ways where his scientific attainments were of the greatest
service.

QUEENSLAND.

The extent of the triangulation effected in Queensland is shown
by the accompanying map (marked F) from which it will be seen
that it covers nearly 3 degrees of latitude and 2 of longitude.
Unfortunately the further progress of the survey is held in
abeyance, having been stopped some few years back, when the
position of public and private finances alike demanded the stoppage
for the time being of all expenditure not absolutely necessary for
the maintenance of existence. As, however, our northern neigh-
bours now find themselves in as prosperous a condition as they
were then in the reverse, it is possible that this work, which is
agreed on all hands to form one of the best means of securing
economy in land administration, will be shortly resumed.

The base line from which lengths are derived is situated at
Jondaryan (see map), its whole extent of about 7 miles being
divided into ten sections. It is upon an open plain, the terminals
of which, Mounts Irving and Maria, are respectively 216 and 162
feet above the general level of the remainder. It was originally
proposed that measurement should be confined to the plain,
extension east and west to the hills named to be made by
triangulation ; but experience gained in the measurement showed
that the system adopted was capable of satisfactory application to
the inclined parts of the line, and the slopes were accordingly
measured also. The length was determined by two steel tapes,
each 100 feet long, which were compared with a steel bar floating
in mercury, carefully standardised by measurement against the
standard bars of New South Wales.

This bar had in 1883 a length of 99998581 feet at a tempera-
ture of 62° Fahrenheit, but subsequent reference (in 1895) to the
New South Wales bars would make it appear as though the
Queensland bar was slowly shortening. The tapes were con-
tained by wooden troughs to protect them from the sun and wind
the troughs resting on pegs placed so as to follow the general
slope of the ground, which was measured and allowed for in
the computations. The tapes were kept at a constant tension
of 20 lb. during use, and temperatures were obtained from five
thermometers distributed along the length of the tapes, it being

228 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. .

estimated that the adopted temperatures are probably not more
than one-fifth of a degree in error. Marks were made in copper
discs inserted in wooden pegs driven into the ground at each 100
feet, the distances between the tape-ends and the marks being
measured by micrometer microscopes. Three measurements were
made with each tape, each one distinct and independent, so that
every section was measured six times. For the whole base the
difference between the means of the three measures with each
tape amounted to 0-117 of an inch; a slightly greater difference
than this was, however, observed in the corresponding measures
of one of the sections—section 5. The lengths of the various
sections were compared by triangulation, and calculating one-
half of the base from the measurement, a difference of -936 of an
inch was shown. The base-line work was executed by Mr. A.
McDowall, the present Surveyor-General of Queensland, assisted
by Mr. R. Hoggan.

The instruments used in the angle measures were generally
10-inch theodolites by Troughton and Simms, read by two
micrometer microscopes to a second of are, but at a few of the
stations a 12-inch instrument by the same makérs was employed.
From two to eight readings were made on each of eleven different
parts of the graduated arc, the mean of the means in - each
position being used. The following are the closing errors of the
seventy-four measured triangles :—

Closing error. Number of triangles.
0” bo: a? 29
I? the 22? 29
2” to: 3” 11
Upwards of 3” 5

The maximum error of close was 3:90, and, computing m from
SACS ee ; :
m =(= ye it is found to be (+) 0”°95. The triangulation has
n

been calculated with elements given by Colonel James in the
account of the Ordnance Survey of Great Britain in 1858.

The astronomical datum is the position of the station at
Jimbour, as determined by Captain Morris, R.E., and Lieutenant
Darwin, when observing the Transit of Venus in 1882, the
longitude being measured by telegraphic exchange of time signals
with Sydney. Astronomical observations have been made at
stations, Bloodwood, Brisbane, Haystack, and Mount Domville.
The geodetic latitudes of these stations, minus the astronomical
positions, give the results —-02, +117, +5737, and — 117,
respectively, and the similar differences for the longitudes of the
first two of the stations named are +657 and —-05". The
azimuth datum was observed by meridian transits of circumpolar
stars at station Bloodwood, and the latitude of the same station

TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 229

was obtained by the Talcott method of zenith pairs, the other
latitude determinations being by measurement of circum-meridian
altitudes, and by prime vertical transits. In addition to the
astronomical observations at the stations connected with the
triangulation, observations have been made to determine the
latitude and longitude of a number of other points, distributed
over the area of the colony, and shown on the map marked F.

In connection with the survey of Brisbane a triangulation has
been made from a base 1,924 feet long, laid down in the Botanical
Gardens. The base was measured twice with one of the tapes
inentioned as being used on the Jondaryan base, and once with
the other of the same tapes, a fourth measurement being made
with a new tape. The angles were measured with 10-inch and
6-inch theodolites, and connection with the main triangulation
shows differences of four seconds in azimuth, and about four-fifths
of an inch per mile in length, representing a difference of about
three-tenths of an inch in the length of the Brisbane base.

The whole of the triangulation was in the executive charge of
Mr. R. Hoggan, who was assisted by Mr. R. McDowall.

VICTORIA.

The trigonometrical survey of Victoria was preceded by a
system of laying out on the ground, meridians and parallels of
latitude, by which it was expected to rapidly meet the demand
for land, which in 1857 the Survey Department found itself
unable to cope with. The intention was to surround large areas
by carefully fixed meridians and parallels, to subdivide these again
into blocks of one-tenth of a degree in each direction, the further
subdivision for alienation purposes being effected by contract.
This work was begun in 1858 under the direction of Mr. R. L. J.
Ellery, C.M.G., F.R.S., etce., the difference of longitude between
Williamstown Observatory and the first meridian line being laid
out on the ground by triangulation.

The general course followed was to determine the direction of
the true meridian by means of a transit instrument or an 18-inch
altazimuth, placing marks in the direction of the true north and
south at the greatest distances commanded by the observing
station. These varied from 5 to 20 miles, but intermediate points
were also marked where possible, the whole line being subse-
quently run and, if on Crown lands, cleared and marked. For
the chaining, the ordinary 66-foot chains were used, but distances
were controlled by a subsidiary chain of triangles with sides of
from 2 to 5 miles length, carried along the line from carefully
measured bases. The intersections of parallels with the meridians
were marked, and the parallels laid out both by offsets from
chords and from tangents at right angles to the meridian lines,

230 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

lengths along the parallels being, as with the other lines, checked
by triangle chains, the angles of which were measured with 8-inch
and 10-inch theodolites.

After a considerable amount of this work was done, it was
found that it was not proceeding expeditiously enough to meet
the calls upon it, principally because of the inadequate funds set
apart for the conduct of the scheme, and it was resolved to carry
on a primary triangulation so as to reach the more distant parts
of the colony, advantage being taken of a number of trigono-
metrical stations having been marked for such a purpose a few
years earlier by Captain Clarke, R.E., the then Surveyor-General.

In 1860, therefore, a base nearly 5 miles long was laid down on
the Werribree Plains, and measurement wasmade between January
and May of that year, an extension of the base of triangulation
to Green Hill, making the total length over 5} miles, being effected
shortly afterwards.

The actual measurement was made by the use of three iron rods,
the lengths of which were ascertained by micrometer comparisons
with the 10-foot ordnance standard lent by the New South Wales
Government, a similar standard for use in Victoria being subse-
quently obtained from the Ordnance Survey Department in
England. The bars were fitted with steel ends, one flat and the
other rounded to form a section of a sphere of 5 feet radius.
They were used by being placed in series, with distances of about
4 of an inch between the spherical end of the one and flat end of
the adjacent one, the distance of these two apart being obtained
by passing a wedge between them until contact with each other
was made, the position of the wedge at the time being read by
graduations made along its length. The wedge was of hard bell-
metal, 7 inches long by 2 broad and the inclination of the faces
was 30 minutes. The bars were kept level during the measure-
ment, change of height being seldom needed, as the difference of
height of the two ends of the base was only about 14 feet. A
re-measurement of part of the southern end was made following
the slopes of the ground, and on reduction the co-incidences were
such as to justify the assumption that by the original measure-
ment, the Werribree base was probably as accurate as any measured
up to that time. The total difference between the two values for
the southern part was 0-308 inches, or about 0°15 inches per mile.

The terminals of the base were marked in a substantial manner,
and immediately on its completion, triangulation was carried
therefrom to the Western district by Mr. A. C. Allan, Messrs.
Penniger, Black, Petty, and others being similarly employed in
other districts. Considerable activity was shown for some time,
the greater part of the colony being within a few years covered
with a first class series of triangles, the last operation of the staff
being the demarcation in 1872 of the straight line from the

TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 231

Murray to Cape Howe, forming the boundary between the colony
and New South W ales. U Jpon this work, Messrs. Allan and
Black were engaged, the triangulation for this purpose being
extended to include ‘The Pilot ” and Mount Kosciusko in New
South Wales. The triangulation connecting the ends of the line
having been observed, the line itself was ranged on the ground to
the calculating bearing with the gratifying result that it reached
the coast within 7 inches of the marked terminal, a fitting tribute
to the skill, energy, and endurance of those in whose hands the
work had been placed.

SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

The first trigonometrical survey work in South Australia was
that commenced in 1840 by Colonel Frome, R.E., Surveyor-
General of the province, who, in the course of the three years
following, observed a network of triangles extending over the
hilly country—east, south, and north of Adelaide—from En-
counter Bay to the head of Spencer's Gulf. His base was
measured on the Adelaide Plains, west of the city, six inde-
pendent measurements being made; the instruments used being
a heavy steel chain of 100 feet length, and a lighter one 66 feet
long, with brazed rings. The adopted length of the base was
17,462°20 feet. Only ¢ one end of it can now be identified ; but
the brass standard then used for reference is still in a good state
of preservation at the Surveyor-General’s Office in Adelaide.

Observations for determination of the true meridian were made:
at four stations, with an altazimuth of English make, by J. D.
Potter, oyine a horizontal circle of 13 inches and a vertical
circle of 6} inches. Latitudes were found by meridian observa-
tions of the sun and fixed stars with the sextant, and several sets
of lunar observations were also taken for longitude. The hori-
zontal angles were almost all taken with 5-inch “Y” theodolites,
reading only to minutes. Six or eight rounds of angles were
observed (as instrumental bearings increasing towards the right
hand) at important stations, and three rounds for subsidiary
triangles, the vernier index being set differently for each consecu-
tive set. Reciprocal angles of elevation and depression were also
observed to the tops of all the stone piles which mark the
stations, thus enabling their elevation above sea level to be
calculated. The sides of the triangles range from about 6 to 16
miles, and the closing error of each from 3 to 10 seconds.

Work of a similar character was carried out from 1857 to
1860, under the direction of Colonel Freeling, R.E., Surveyor-
General, when, in order to fix the positions of pastoral leases in
various localities, over 100 miles apart, several base lines were
measured with ordinary surveying chains. Thus separate systems
of triangulation grew from these bases, which, while securing

232 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

their purpose satisfactorily, and possessing the merit of economy,
were not connected in such a manner as to allow of exact com-
parison of their respective base lines.

The instruments used on these surveys were 7-inch theodolites,
three rounds or sets of instrumental bearings were required to be
taken with the vernier set at 360°, 120°, and 240° respectively.
The length of the sides of the triangles ranged from 10 to 40
miles, and the closing error in some cases was as high as 15”.

Shortly after Mr. G. W. Goyder’s appointment as Surveyor-
General, the triangulation of the Eastern Plains and Gawler
Ranges was completed.

In 1873 by the exertions of Mr. A. B. Cooper, Deputy
Surveyor-General, the survey of the outlying districts was con-
tinued upon strictly geodetic lines, the forms of record and methods
of astronomical observations adopted being similar to those of the
Victorian Geodetic Survey. This class of work has been continued
uninterruptedly for twenty years covering about 1,000 miles of
country. Seven-inch theodolites have been chiefly used since 1873,
but good work giving errors of only one or two seconds per triangle
has been done with a smaller German theodolite by “ Ertel,”
having four verniers and an excellent telescope.

The latest base line was measured during 1880 on a level
flat 500 miles north of Adelaide. It was measured eight times
with deal bars, 10 links in length, brass capped, and twice with a
steel bar of the same length, all standard according to the brass
yard previously referred to. Numerous stout stakes were driven
into the ground in perfect alignment and to the same level; a
copper tack was inserted into every stake, and upon these the bars
were rested, and a fine line drawn at the end of each. Two sets
of measurements were made in summer and two in winter,
corrections for temperature being carefully applied. But the
wooden bars were found to shrink more than ;}, of an inch,
involving continual uncertainty. The length given by the steel
red alone, viz., 9,107:71 feet was, therefore, adopted. While the
line was in process of measurement, angles were taken at
appropriate distances to stations on neighbouring hills which
afforded facilities for extending the line.

Astronomical latitudes have been determined by meridian
passage of stars with both transit theodolite and sextant, which
differ from the calculated positions by from 2 to 16 seconds.
Some of these discrepancies are doubtless owing to deflection of
the plumb line, as the altitude of the country varies from a few
hundred to over 4,000 feet above sea level, but no systematic
effort has been made to determine the extent of disturbance due
to this cause. The observations for azimuth are taken at every
second or third station, either with a 7-inch “Y” or a smaller
transit theodolite ; a set consists of six or eight observations of

TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 233

circumpolar stars, many of these disagree with the calculated
bearings by nearly a minute either way, the cause of which is
believed to be largely due to an imperfect motion of the telescope
in the vertical plane, although precaution is taken to reverse the
alidade of the “ Y ” theodolite at each observation, and to change
the pivot ends of the cross axis of the telescope every alternate
observation made with the transit theodolite.

For the purposes of calculation the angles of every triangle
have been made to sum 180° plus their spherical excess by
adopting the arithmetical mean of the best observed values, and
solved as plane triangles. Only in special cases has the method
of “least squares ” been applied.

The greater part of the triangulation has been co-ordinated in
portions for plotting purposes upon different planes, the meridians
for which are connected with initial meridian of the Adelaide
observatory ; and a wide circuit of geodetic latitude, azimuth, and
longitude has been computed from these, Clarke’s elements of the
spheroid being used for the purpose.

In process of co-ordination it becomes evident that a polygonal
figure of about a dozen sides, comprising a surface of 500 square
miles or more, may be selected from any part of the more recent
work, of which the angles, if mathematically treated, will not be
found more than 5 seconds in error.

The trigonometrical survey of South Australia now embraces
about 175,000 square miles, having its greatest length in latitude
27°, stretching from the boundary of New South Wales to that
of Western Australia, 740 miles, and between the parallels of
latitude 36° and 26°, 688 miles upon the meridian of 139° east
longitude.

Particulars of Base Lines.

Locality. Length in feet. Date.
Oni therAdel ade WAM: se..c.Gra sec wovasecameeaees 17462:20 1840
INGarg Mites Ser eir...canhecitaahesscuecedandaomoamiaed 10560°00 1857
INBB got OrteAMeSta), sup ssidemasirttnssiewiasasce 23189°70 1859
INGE Olp Make SOTLEMS) secs ei cioio wes seresemierne eicieereee 105861°90 1860
INGA trae Na AMD) 9.) .orc:aersleesseiemtoliofioiionlaewien 58423 °20 1860
HasternyP anya rmen tecacmereasmesuaoen cacsennocear 42461°76 1862
HOO mn, Naf Adelaide s.icaccdeswewctesancseooes 9107°71 1880

From the above short account, which has been forwarded by
Mr. W. Strawbridge, the present Surveyor-General of that colony,
for the purposes of this paper, it will be seen that South Australia
possesses a survey, the character of which speaks well for those in
whose charge it has been placed. Though not, perhaps, carried out

234, PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

with all the precision necessary for the determination of the figure
of the earth, yet for all the purposes, and they are many, of the
management of the Crown estate, it is of the highest value. Its
limits are indicated roughly on the map marked D,

WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

The trigonometrical surveying done up to the present in
Western Australia consists almost entirely of long chains of
triangles, embracing a very large extent of the western sea-board,
and in some cases extending to a considerable distance inland.
The section between Fremantle and Geraldton was observed
some twenty years back, but the bulk of the remainder has been
carried out during the last seven or eight years. Owing to lack
of the slight additional means needed for undertaking an adequate
survey, the angles have been measured only with small instru-
ments, generally 6-inch theodolites, reading to 30 seconds, though
at some few places 8-inch theodolites, reading to 10 seconds, were
used,

Work of this character, if viewed as preliminary to a survey of
a better class, no doubt serves a useful purpose, as affording a
frame-work on which to build the rough maps required in the
early stages of the settlement of so vast a territory. It, however,
cannot fulfil properly that function of a triangulation which,
from an economic point of view, may be considered as one of the
main ones, namely, serving as a check on the field work, so as to
reduce to a minimum the cost of field inspection of the chain
surveys. To serve that purpose it is imperative that the trigono-
metrical survey should be indisputably better than the work it is
to control. From another point of view, also, it is to be desired
that, if undertaken at all, a trigonometrical survey should be
carried out with greater precision. The question of the calcula-
tion of the triangulation itself is what is referred to, for in work
of such approximate nature it cannot but be found that on joining
between the different bases and astronomical stations, discrepan-
cies of length, azimuth, and position are shown of such magnitude
that their proper distribution is beyond the reach of any systematic
method of adjustment, so that appeal has to be made to some
arbitrary means, always a most unsatisfactory resort.

Six bases have been measured, viz., at Perth, Wyndham in the
Pilbarra District, and on the Fitzroy and Ashburton Rivers.
Their lengths were obtained by the use of steel wires, 66 feet
long, fitted with knife edges at the ends, changes of temperature
being observed during the measurement, and allowed for.

Astronomical observations were taken at points about 200
miles apart, latitudes being determined by meridian altitudes of
stars and azimuths by observation of circumpolar stars at their

TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 235

greatest east and west elongations, but the instruments used were
only the same small ones employed in the terrestrial work. The
time is looked to, however, when the whole of the survey will be
the object of a little more consideration from those in charge of
the purse-strings, so that this extensive triangulation, which now,
with only one small gap, covers nearly 19 degrees of longitude
and 17 of latitude, may be made available not only for all the
needs of land administration, but also may be made to contribute
to our knowledge of earth shape and size.

TASMANIA,

The trigonometrical survey of this colony may be said to have
been initiated in 1849, when the first measurements were made
of a base line, nearly 4 miles in length, at Ralph’s Bay. Rods
of fir, each 15 feet long, protected by a covering case and insulat-
ing material, and fitted with brass caps at the ends, were used,
and the general slope of the ground was followed, corrections for
the inclinations of the rods being applied. The brass caps of the
ends of the adjacent bars were brought side by side, and a scale
fitted to one was read by a vernier engraved on the cap of the
next bar. The lengths of the rods were ascertained by comparison
with a 4-foot steel standard divided into inches and fortieths,
comparisons being made from time to time during the operations.
This was, at the time, the only standard in the colony ; but
shortly afterwards a 10-foot steel bar was obtained from England,
and on the older one being compared with it, the two were found
to be in such very close agreement, that Major Cotton stated in
a report of his on the subject in 1852, that the measurement
required no reduction on this account.

This later standard was one of those employed in base-line
measurement for the Ordnance Survey of Ireland. Its length,
therefore, may be assumed to have been well determined. The
same base was afterwards measured twice in 1851, when the
earlier results were found to differ from the mean of the later, by
about 10 inches; the mean of the later determinations, over
which greater precautions had been taken, and which differed
only by slightly more than an inch, was adopted.

A base of verification nearly 5 miles long was measured twice
by similar means, at Longford, on the Norfolk Plains, the two
measures differing only by 3} inches. The bases, which were
about 100 miles apart, were connected by a system of triangles,
the angles of which were measured by repetition with a 12-inch
altazimuth graduated to 10 seconds. The greatest error of close
on this system was 3:3, a result which points to the accuracy of
the instrument and to the care taken in making the observations.
A further proof of the accuracy of the work is given by the fact

236 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

that the measured length of the Longford base was found to differ
only 3} inches from that derived through the triangulation from
the original base. The principal triangles of this system are very
well conditioned ; but the same cannot be said of those by which
connection is made with the bases. A large number of other
triangles were observed with the same instrument, the error of
close generally not exceeding 2 seconds, and at every principal
station angles of elevation and depression were observed for
determining the heights.

The datum for the calcuiation of positions is at Hobart, the
latitude and azimuth at this point being determined by observa-
tions of o Octantis, and by observations of a number of other
circumpolar stars at greatest elongations. At four other stations
the latitudes and azimuths were determined simultaneously by
elongation observations, the differences between the observed and
geodetic results being as follows :—

Station, teal |) eee

DEOMEMABY? <..5.0.secsiascsccsiseoeeceens 42 42 38°8 42 42 38°27 | — 0°5
Browne Mountain, Jace seciemeriersacene 42°36) Tl 42 35 48°67 | — 19°0
Alem Viounibalneecnereeeecrccrscnecsces 42 14 28°9 42 14 7:43 | — 2ilk5
MoMertSmB liz c-cacccsenmecerenetencncs 41 56 18:2 4456 P37 —= 7A

° Astronomical Geodeti Diff
Lines. He yp Sotba rs [simu
° , u” ° ! uw u

Dromedary—Brown Mountain 69 23 19°4 69 23 30°8 | + 114
Brown Mountain—TableMountain| 321 30 11°8 SyAl GOesBIe, | + 21°4
Table Mountain—Brown Mountain| 141 46 13°2 14] 46 21:4 | + 8:2
Miller’s Bluff—Table Mountain ...| 184 52 21:0 184 52 35°5 | + 14°5
The method of latitude determination was not the most

satisfactory, but modification of the results on that account would
necessarily be small as compared with the above differences. It
would thus appear that either the elements of the earth’s figure

TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 237

assumed in the computations do not well represent the surface of
Tasmania, or that there are considerable local deviations of the
vertical. Possibly both these causes contribute in some degree ;
the latter may certainly be expected to have effect from the
rugged nature of the country covered by the survey. The
writer is unaware of the elements adopted, but in some of the
computations appended to Major Cotton’s account of the triangula-
tion, read in 1855 before the Royal Society of Tasmania, and from
which much of the above information has been drawn, a mean
radius of 20,887,457 feet has been used. The whole of the survey,
it should be stated, was executed by Mr. J. Sprent, under Major
Cotton’s direction.

For some thirty years or more no other application of the
trigonometrical survey appears to have been made, than by its aid
to construct a framework for the projection of a map of the
Colony, and on one occasion at least its general accuracy has been
assailed, for reference may be found in the Tasmanian Royal
Society’s Proceedings, as lately as the year 1881, to its having
been challenged by the late Mr. Calder, a former Surveyor-
General of the Colony. However, the opinion expressed by Mr.
Black, of Victoria, when, in 1883, reporting on the system of
surveying in Tasmania, seems a most feasible one. His view was
that ‘It is quite possible that the erroneous character of much
of the topography of Mr. Sprent’s map may have given rise to the
impression that the whole data is worthless ; but it by no means
follows that this is the case because some person evidently
imperfectly acquainted with the country has sketched the features
incorrectly.”

Some attempt has recently been made to put the triangulation
to some service, and during the years 1884-6 some forty of
the stations were rebuilt. Many others, however, are, it is
understood, not now recoverable. The cause of its having fallen
into desuetude was no doubt the fact that it was not combined
with a sufficient amount of minor triangulation to enable proper
connection of the chain surveys to be made, without having to
run traverses for long distances, and often into country presenting
the greatest difficulties in the way of chaining. The advantages
offered by a trigonometrical survey have now been fully recognised,
and some five base-lines have been measured for the purpose,
doubtless, of carrying out any future extensions on the New
Zealand scheme of initiating purely local systems which become
eventually joined into one comprehensive survey of the whole
country.

AUSTRALASIAN Assoc. Abv. Sc. VoL, VII, 1898. “A” PLATE IV.

Map
MAIN TRIANGULATION
__New South Wales

» longitude _

The Trigonometrical Survey of N. 8. Wales. By T. F. FURBER, F.R.A.S., LS.

AUSTRALASIAN Assoc. Ady. Sc. Vot. Vil, 1898 PLATE V.
ce B 9

Longitudinal Slide

Pian of Douste Microscope

Pram or Diaruracm
Showing pesitros of Hairs

(ross Slide

Stoe Evevation of Douate Microscope

Tube in Section

The Trigonometrical Survey of N. 8. Wales.
By T. F. FURBER, F.R.A.S., LS.

AUSTRALASIAN Assoc. Abv, $c. Vot. VII, 1898. = PLATE VI.

SISA}
SOIMARAURENAEHA NN) ng
CU AI

Drawinc N°] Showing posuion of Double Microscope

over Measuring Bar.

eur
TTA

——« =Duection of measurement

This Box contanng Measuring Bar he i ’
is capable of beng adjusted in all directions

by screms for the prupose. _ ae a2

The Trigonometrical Survey of N. 8. Wales.

By T. F. FURBER, F.R.A.S., L.S.

PLATE VII.

AUSTRALASIAN Assoc. Apv. Sc. VoL. Vil, 1898. ehy

a
7
—-
t

és

é Wie > arte f
y S74, \/ ry Ldp

Pe eZ 2 r =
be Na

The Trigonometrical Survey of N. S. Wales.
| By T. F. FURBER, F.R.A.S., L.S.

A

zy
y

NN

AUSTRALASIAN Assoc. Aov, Sc. VoL. VII, 1898. CD ae PLATE yt,

NORTHERN

TERRIT RY %

| san
0

Primary Triangulation shown thus ; AUST RALIA ——__| oN

Secondary do do do Wh

shewing
Minor to do do Will __ Areas of Triangulation —

Positions of Base Lines do do @

The Trigonometrical Survey of N. S. Wales.
By T. F. FURBER, F.R.A.S., LS

AUSTRALASIAN Assoc. Apv. Sc.

VoL. Vil, 1898,
(a; | ae

PLATE IX.

MAP
shening

LONGITU,
Nv

mOLATITODE swe

7 LAND

NEREEA TOW @

|
* on ceromy al
TOWNS Yiteg XE
We
sone ey

|
CARTERS Tomens®
ah
HM OND e MC NEN OLY
ea ly aes

SLANID
920% Rae

“LoNCUR RY °

w

ai Es. PocH, 2)
“aed gM

e SLICTHL
7AMBO @

@ANtr4L 74#00n

e
WARE 4V/LLE® © 70K,

| Stray e
}

2,
COMA ita e | 2; “one
}

Ona ning,
OA au, Awe naaas, a
— a

Paicerr
| S00 RAF

rik O r r
NEW SOUTH Wallns

© Cdr 14 PASALY

SELLER

| COaag e
| 4k Ry

SURNS i ‘BAR

/

°HLW/ N26)

W880
e

L277
SORA B/L
WANN OE

lenge “MDOP OL)
*rooncaere DCF Oy

NENT HORT)
SALAM oO sr

= rn,
4/ COR / A
MELBOURNE

Moke

{AM B/E
| MAp a a

® 0NyG
%, VAAN DENS

Who L4
p

STATIONS
Si Ie

By Ife F. FURBER, F.R.A.S., [eS:

AUSTRALASIAN Assoc. Apv. Sc. Vot. VII, 1898. “pe PLATE Xx.

TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY

oF

QUEENSLAND

The Trigonometrical Survey of N. 8. Wales.

A NEW TIDE-PREDICTING MACHINE. 239

No. 5.—DESCRIPTION OF A TIDE-PREDICTING
MACHINE.

By Captain A. INGLIs.
(Read, January 10, 1898.)

Tus machine differs from any other one that I know of in its
requiring only one set of gearing. The principle on which the
machine is founded is as follows:—A number of wooden tem-
plates are cut, each in the form of a sine curve, representing one of
the tidal components; these waves are of different lengths, but are
all pushed along vertically side by side at the same rate, being
supported by a frame or carrier moved forward by a rack and
pinion. A number of vertical plungers rest in a line on the top
of these templates, and are moved up and down as the curves
progress forward. The motion of the plungers are then com-
pounded by means of a fine wire passing over pulleys at the top
of each one, and under fixed pulleys between adjacent ones. The
compound portion is then communicated to an indicator, which
moves up and down alongside a vertical scale. The forward
movement of the carrier on components moves the clock, which
indicates the time. Thus the time and height can be read off at
once.

GENERAL Description.—The machine consists of a rectangular
frame, 4 feet long, 29 inches wide, and 10 inches high; in the
lower part of it is a groove in which the carrier moves. Across
the top at the middle of the frame is a beam with vertical
slots in it for the rods or plungers to move up and down in,
between each slot in the beam a pulley is fixed. In front of the
beam is the recorder with a scale on it, in this recorder is a
traveller, which carries a pencil on one side and pointer on the
other, the one for tracing the curve and the other for showing
the height on the scale. In front of the frame, between it and
the recorder, is a vertical slide holding the paper on which the
curve may be traced. The carrier is a flat frame with grooves in
the upper part of it,in which the curves or templates representing
the different components are fixed. On the lower side is a rack,
which, when acted on by a pinion, gives the carrier a rectilinear
motion through the frame. Underneath the carrier, and across
the frame, is a shaft with a crank outside. On this shaft three
pinions are fixed ; these give motion to the carrier, vertical slide,
and the clock respectively. The clock is fixed on top of the frame
above the shaft.

240 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

The curves or templates are each cut to represent a tidal com-
ponent, according to its wave length or speed. They are on the
scale of 1 inch to the mean solar hour (15°) and 1 inch to the
foot in amplitude, and are true sine curves. The wave length of
each component bears the same ratio to the solar tide, 82; as its
angular speed does to 15°.

The rods or plungers have each a pulley on the upper end, and
a hard smooth point on the other. They are placed in the slots in
the beam already mentioned, the lower end of each resting on a
component curve ; and we have already seen there is a fixed pulley
in the beam between each rod. A fine flexible wire is passed under
each pulley in the beam, and over each one on the rods, through
another in the recorder, and back through a larger fixed pulley at
the back end of the beam, then the two ends are joined, thus
forming and endless wire.

The larger pulley just mentioned is fixed to a plate, which is
movable backwards and forwards, for adjusting the index to the
mean level of the sea. The pulley is attached to the plate by a
fine screw, by which means a compensation is effected for the
annual and semi-annual tides, the amplitudes of which are treated
as constants for fourteen days, and graduations are made on the
plate for that purpose.

The machine is designed for twenty-three components, although
only sixteen have been used, the amplitude of the others being so
small that they may be neglected without any material error.

Each template or curve is fixed in the carrier at the proper
place according to its phase, that is, the first high water of each
component tide is placed a certain distance from the epoch or
starting point, determined by the previous harmonic analysis.
The handle being turned, the carrier, verticle slide, and clock are
set in motion, and the curves passing underneath the rods give
them a vertical harmonic motion, which is communicated to the
index by means of the endless wire. The pointer will then show
the height of tide at the time indicated by the clock, and the
curve will be traced on the paper attached to the vertical slide.

Tt will thus be seen that the machine continuously sums the
series and traces the curve.

The chief feature of this machine is that all the curves move
together at the same rate; the differences in speed being obtained
by the difference in the wave-length of the curves. After the
curves are once set, the working of the machine is very simple,
all that is required being to turn the handle and watch the
pointer ; when it stops rising it is high water, the time and height
can be read off and recorded at once. The same thing applies to
low water. If, as may be the case at neaps or “dodging” tide,
the pointer does not move much either up or down, and the time

‘SITONI “Y ulnigng Ag

‘QUIYID PY BULIIPAd-APl] Y

“IX FLV1d ‘Q681 IA TOA ‘OS ‘AGY ‘OOSSY NVISWIVELSAy

THE TIDES OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 241

of high or low water uncertain, the vertical slide can ke put in
and the curve traced, the time and height can then be measured
off.

When one of the carriers (of which there are three) is through
the frame it can be disconnected from the others and connected
up again at the other end, the curves are again placed in their
respective grooves, butting close up to the preceding ones, and so
on, forming a continuous chain of curves. With a little practice
this can be done expeditiously, and very little time lost.

By means of this machine the tides for a year can be predicted,
and a tide-table published at a comparatively small cost, because
the time and height can be read off and tabulated at once ready
for the printer.

In other tide-predicting machines where the motion of each
component is represented by an eccentric or crank and pinion, it
is necessary to drive each wheel at a different speed, and this
necessitates very complicated gearing. In this machine, how-
ever, all the components are driven along at the same speed, and
the machine is thereby greatly simplified. No matter how irre-
gularly the handle is turned the motion forward automatically
indicates the time.

The machine has been tested by setting it for a year that was
past, and the results compared with actuality. This comparison
showed that there was a probable error of from five to ten
minutes in time, and from 6 to 8 inches in height, which may be
considered very good for a place where the meteorological effects
bears such a large proportion to the ordinary rise and fall.

No. 6.—THE TIDES OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

_ By R. W. Cuarman, M.A., B.C.E., and Capt. A. Ineuis.

(Read January 10, 1898).

At the Adelaide meeting of the Association, we stated that we
were then engaged in making a second analysis of the Port
Adelaide tide curves. The work was soon afterwards completed,
and the results of the second analysis are stated in the following
table, side by side with the first ones. We found, however, that
through too blindly following certain wrong instructions in
“Baird’s Tide Manual,” that we had made an error of 180° in

Q

242 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

several of the phases in the first analysis, and we now give the
corrected results. They are stated in terms of the notation
adopted in the British Association reports. The larger com-
ponents show a very fair agreement in the two cases, but, as is to
be expected, the smaller ones do not agree so well. This has been
found to be the case at other places where the tides have been
analysed, notably in India ; the amplitudes being so small they
are confused with the meteorological effects.

Results of Harmonic Analysis of Port Adelaide Tides.

Analysis of Tide Curve for Analysis of Tide Curve for
12 months beginning midnight, 12 months beginning noon,
February 28, 1889. January 1, 1893.

Semi-range Semi-range

in feet. K in feet. K
eee eet 08 122° 06 108°
See een eG 180° 1°70 182°
unas EME 0 02 178° 04 194°
Ghee Mee cat setae pale aees teed ‘Ol 180°
DO GSC CRA AERO CHtRate "21 51° 22 62°
ow pee es 84 51° 82 54°
dae ae gsc eA eRe SHh. ene eee siesjenctars UL 165°
Race ccc aCe Cal Pam entioe ne aeacey aul me Caer ee “04 138°
WP eee siadacwarmeadttects 47 Wee *46 179°
M, Ol 24° 03 8°

BNiaes ae ane toeeeeue tet ie 7/ak 121° 1:69 119°
M; cfatelayereie.ejelejeelevelelovelsveisie|{limiivielays\sfe)sialetslors aheieieletele ‘06 99°
es a 02 176° 02 171°
MA eecchesccocssmecll! wetuscsctene. (Ill) vecmecscecnes ‘01 259°
ING cee cone 08 294° ‘10 198°
sews Gao eeTar a nll eeeateaeeteal ob | chaos emeutonss “12 140°
VIM Re Tera atacaisome sane Baccen ‘06 76°
OP sccncnes tans 53 34° +5ilt 30°
dF capeeannssncescnanre < aetewe 05 65°
(Ais eanacceebsoancisaegas| |) liconmpa noone owes ‘07 Sie
EPR ace che(ou tee aicicle Sec ia ra inlabeiatetuiatalcicisct aE Votes awerneitee “28 226°
DSM bed osctacsecodls peeoetecesden Tl Misdensennaer ‘10 67°
IVES wise trite tested uta eon aa ao aee ‘09 99°
Sa eanasscrnmontoscies 25 1322 36 121°
Saal cestoceeceacssens 17 WY 28 54°
IMISE ie sac ctenesuse eee 13 256° 11 254°
Mf 08 194° O04 168°
hit Coa eedeis Saran oars er 08 258° 06 143°

The behaviour of a wave in travelling up a gradually narrowing
channel is well exhibited in the tidal effects of Spencer and St.
Vincent Gulfs. The wave is propagated with a greater speed
along the deep water of the middle of the gulf than along the

THE TIDES OF SOUTH AUSTRALTA. 243

shallows at the sides, so that it is everywhere high water in the
middle of the gulf some considerable time (about one and a
quarter hour opposite the Semaphore) before it is high water
at the opposite points on the shore at each side. By the
time the wave has reached the head of St. Vincent Gulf,
the co-tidal line is practically parallel with the coast line
for some considerable distance all round, so that the wave
reaches Port Wakefield, at the head of the gulf, at the same
time as it reaches the Semaphore and Black Point at the
sides, and the time of high water is the same at the three
places. Further, as the wave travels up the gradually narrowing
gulf into shallower water, its speed diminishes but its height
increases ; so that the mean spring range of the water is 6 ft. at
Rapid Head, 8 ft. 3 in. at Port Adelaide, whilst at the head of
the gulf at Port Wakefield the range is 11 ft. Again, going up
Spencer Gulf the spring range is 5 ft. at Thistle Island, but
becomes increased to 12 ft. at Port Augusta. The tide enters
St. Vincent Gulf by the two channels round Kangaroo Island,
but unfortunately observations have not been taken at a sufficient
number of points round the island to enable us to trace ont the
co-tidal lines. It is peculiar that high water reaches Ante-
Chamber Bay one and three-quarter hour before it reaches Cape
Willoughby. Apparently when the tide enters the gulf there is
a strong current setting across from Sturt Bay on the peninsula,
to Hog Bay on the island, as has been evidenced on several
occasions by the way in which wreckage has been carried.

A peculiar tidal phenomenon takes place at Port Lincoln, which
was noticed by Flinders. He observed there that “the tide did
not exceed 34 feet, and that, as in Princess Royal Harbour, there
was only one high water in twenty-four hours, which took place
at night, about eleven hours after the moon’s passage over
the meridian. Yet at Thorny Passage, which is but a few
leagues distant, there were two sets daily. This difference
in so short a space appears extraordinary; but it may
perhaps be accounted for by the direction of the entrance
to the port, which is open to the N.E., from whence the ebb
comes.”* The suggestion here made by Flinders gives us
the explanation of the phenomenon, when we take into
account as well the diurnal inequality. Thus at Port Lincoln,
the observable tide is really the higher one of the two daily tides.
Owing to the direction of the outlet of the harbour the water
cannot get out freely, as the harbour catches the ebbing tide from
the gulf, with the result that the level of the water falls very
slowly ; so slowly in fact, that the second lower tide which follows
in the course of the day does not appreciably raise the level of the

Captain Flinders, Terr, Aust., Vol. I, p. 150.

24.4) PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

water, and so is not apparent as a tide. At Boston Bay there
are two tides with:a large diurnal inequality so marked as to
make it sometimes appear that there is only one tide in the day.

The absence at these ports of that intimate connection between
the time of high water and the time of the moon’s passage across
the meridian, which is so marked in the ports of the North
Atlantic, is well brought out in the accompanying diagram. In
this we have plotted curves, for Brest and for Port Adelaide,
showing the nature of the changes in the interval between the
moon’s meridian passage and high water on successive days at
these ports. The ordinates to the curve are drawn at equal
distances apart for successive tides, the length of the ordinate
representing the interval. The lower curve represents the result
in the case of Brest, and shows a regular wave lying wholly on
one side of the zero line. When, however, we attempt to do the
same thing with our Port Adelaide tides we find that instead of
getting a periodic curve the interval shows a continuous progres-
sion, as is exhibited on the same diagram by the upper curve.
In fact we have not the same number of tides in a month as there
are transits of the moon.

No. 7.—NOTES ON THE VERTICAL COMPONENT OF
THE MOTION OF THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE,
AND- A WIND-VANE, SHOWING VERTICAI
MOTIONS OF THE AIR.

By Masor-GenersL Scuaw, C.B.

(Read January 10, 1898. )

PLATE X11.

VoL. VII, 1898.

AUSTRALASIAN Assoc. Apv. Sc.

MOON'S MERIDIAN PASSAGE
EEE

LUNI-TIDAL INTERVAL

H
FEE
co

+ |

+

JL

lin
ssicritsstee
f

aire

+

Scss HHH eoect
EC

aap
eerie

stctet
Be
Fite
oe
a eae

HH
ScEaeoett

Sesiiitasatt

oon!

seed

|

iSSCaHHEH CEE
iieait
ieesatett

EEE
Ba

T

node

ue

20
a
a

|
TT TT TIA

—+.
BoDe! Part
Cee

GRESERR.Se

EEE
I
:
> i
EES
|

t
ial

FEEEEUUDDEN Nata feces

SEESHLEEeostaiittocet
SSEHiEScaisesotitTocd

Baaea
a a

Ss HEILSCEHHEHT ioe

ieaee
Bane

eet TT

ra

SrSHESeaiiincedt
att
rf

eine

isis

EEE
ae

seaasil

FEE
pete

Hee

ia

[Sea
}
if T
Pare
Pe

PERE EEE

HH
ats

scitt

PT tt TT t | |
4
4 a
a a a iE
ha

aa
ae

a
He
HHH
ial ane
SH

FH

i

Wy |
“ia |
ft ++
HEH | r
ae
TT
JESSE

‘|

piss
Be

=

~+

Hi
serarars
PEEEEHEEE HEHE

PEE

[Tt

Se
| |
BEpzaa

tA

PELE

:
FEET

itt
aie

ised

t
TI TTT
HH ol

FH
HH
sisi

aa |
Eo
Per

MOON'S MERIDIAN PASSAGE

The Tides of South Australia.

R. W. CHAPMAN and Captain INGLIS.

akad ; vac
sol kane Maen

_

ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF PURIFIED SULPHUR. 245

No. 8.—EXPERIMENTS ON SOME ELECTRICAL
PROPERTIES OF PURIFIED SULPHUR.

By Prorrssor THRELFALL, M.A., and J. Bernarp ALLEN, B.Sc.
(Read January 10, 1898. )

Norr.—The experiments described in this paper form part of a more
elaborate investigation. Other results of the investigation have already
been published ‘‘ The Electrical Properties of Pure Sulphur,” Threlfall and
Brearley, Phil. Trans. Vol. 187 (1896) A. In that paper many matters,
here merely referred to, are fully dealt with, e.g., the methods of purifying
the sulphur. Quantitative results are given for the conductivity of sulphur
under various conditions of solubility. Section III of this paper deals with
the general character of sulphur conductivity when the sulphur is much less
soluble. The general bearings of this section will be plainer if read in
connection with the paper above referred to.

SECTION I.—CONTACT FORCE BETWEEN DIFFERENT KINDS OF
SULPHUR.

Ir has been shown that when two metals are in electrical contact
a difference of potential exists between them. The same thing
has also been found to be true of different non-conductors. It
seemed probable, therefore, that a similar difference of potential
might occur between the same substance in different molecular
conditions. The following experiments were undertaken with a
view to determine whether any such voltage could be detected
between sulphur in the soluble and insoluble states.

As a first method an electrometer needle was made of sulphur,
half of it being soluble, and the other half insoluble. This was
hung within the quadrants of an electrometer, which were joined
in adjacent pairs, so as to be virtually semicircles at different
potentials. If, then, one end of the needle were at a higher
potential than the other, a deflection would be produced reversing
in direction upon interchanging the potentials of the semicircles.
As an alternative method sulphur quadrants were made, alternate
quadrants being formed of the soluble and insoluble modifications.
Above these was hung an ordinary electrometer needle. If any
voltage existed between the quadrants the needle would be
deflected from its position of equilibrium upon charging it.

The principal obvious source of error to be guarded against
was the disturbing effect of ordinary electrostatic induction. The
electrometer used was of the Clifton pattern. The case was lined
with tinfoil, except at the front and back, which were of glass.
Cardboard shutters covered with tinfoil were made to cover these

246 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

places, so that the inside could be perfectly screened from external
action. No difference of effect was at any time noticed upon
removing or replacing these shutters, so that the screening from
outside effects must have been sufficiently perfect.

The induction from the charged parts of the apparatus upon
the sulphur regarded as a conductor was shown in the course of
the experiments to have considerable effect, the conductor induc-
tion upon the insoluble parts being greater than upon the soluble,
as their conductivity is greater. This source of error was guarded
against in using the sulphur quadrants, as will be explained later,
but in using the sulphur needle the disturbing effect was con-
siderable. For if the semicircles were electrified oppositely, the
insoluble end of the needle would have its halves oppositely
charged by induction, the corresponding effect upon the soluble
end being much weaker, owing to difference of specific resistance
and specific inductive capacity, as has been stated. The effect of
induction would therefore be to subject the insoluble end of the
needle to two pulls in opposite directions. Any want of symmetry
might cause one of these pulls to be greater than the other, and
so a deflection might be produced due to induction alone. The
reversibility of such an effect would depend largely upon the
rapidity with which induction charges could distribute themselves
on the needle, and other things that cannot be determined. As
it is impossible to ensure perfect symmetry, some error is sure to
occur due to this cause; accordingly the results obtained with
the needle were unsatisfactory. Upon hanging the ordinary
needle in position and charging the quadrants, connected as
described, deflections of over 40° were obtained by induction
effects, but as the needle was connected with the condenser, the
case hardly corresponded to that of the sulphur needle. The
needles were cast in an aluminium mould. To make this two
pieces of aluminium plate 1 mm. in thickness were taken. From
one of these a piece was cut out resembling in shape half of an
electrometer needle. This plate was then sawn across so that it
could be removed from the sulphur in two pieces. The two
plates were then clamped together.

In order to obtain the soluble half of the needle the mould was
heated gradually on a brass plate with a gas flame till particles of
sulphur dropped on it began to melt. The flame was then
removed and sufficient sulphur placed in the mould to fill it to
the level of the second plate. After the sulphur was melted and
cooled the pieces of the upper plate were carefully removed. In
order to remove the sulphur needle from the second plate, the
latter was heated very gradually until the sulphur could just be
pushed off by means of a glass rod. The half needle thus obtained
was heated for some time in an air bath to a temperature of 108°
C. and then allowed to cool very slowly.

ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF PURIFIED SULPHUR. 247

To obtain the insoluble half the mould was prepared just as
before, the sulphur melted as in the previous case, but the
temperature was raised till the sulphur became thick and dark.
It was then suddenly quenched in water, left in the mould for
about half an hour till it became stiff enough for removal, and
taken off with a sharp knife.

The two halves of the needle were cemented together with
sulphur by means of a piece of hot aluminium. A fine fused
quartz-rod was fastened to the centre; to this was attached a
mirror, and the upper end was bent into the form of a hook.
This could be hung on to a glass hook suspended bifilarly above
the quadrants with silk, so that the needle could easily and
quickly be removed and replaced.

To make the sulphur quadrants a shallow zinc dish was pre-
pared, with a round hole at the centre, through which the wire
from the needle was allowed to pass. Four zinc partitions were
fitted in, dividing the dish into quadrants. The dish was heated
and two opposite quadrants filled with sulphur, the temperature
was raised till the sulphur was on the point of burning, when the
whole was cooled by plunging into water or laying the dish upon a
block of ice. ‘fhe partitions were removed, and the other quad-
rants were filled with soluble sulphur. This sulphur was first
annealed and then heated to the melting point, care being taken
not to heat it much above 128° CO,

The sulphur had to be freed from any free electrification due to
rubbing, or any cause other than contact difference of potential.
This was done by passing a flame over it several times. It was rather
difficult to do this with the needles without cracking them or
setting them on fire, so that no very complete series of results
could be obtained with the same needle.

The needle was first diselectrified and hung inside the quad-
rants. Upon connecting one (adjacent) pair with the case
and earth and bringing the other pair to a positive poten-
tial of about 50 volts by means of a storage battery there was a
deflection of the soluble end towards the charged pair of quad-
rants. When the electrification was transferred to the dther
pair of quadrants the deflection was reversed, that is to say, the
soluble end was still attracted towards the charged pair.

The deflection obtained in this way was very small, not more
than two or three divisions on the scale, placed 1 metre away.
To increase the deflection an electrophorus was used ; the results
were exactly similar but much larger. The needle was hung
above the quadrants, but the effects were not altered. In making
further alterations the needle broke.

The experiment was repeated with a new needle, but this time
exactly opposite results were obtained. The soluble end being
deflected towards the uncharged pair of quadrants. The effect

248 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

appeared to be reversible, but upon trying repeatedly the deflec-
tion became less regular, so that the deflection in one direction
was greater than that in the other. On leaving the apparatus
for an hour or two without disturbance and then repeating the
experiment a deflection was obtained which would not reverse-on
reversing the electrification of the quadrants. These experiments
with the needles showed that if there were any contact effect
constant in character the imperfections of the needle method were
such that it could not be satisfactorily established in this way.

The experiments with the quadrants were much more satisfac-
tory and consistent. for the first two sets of quadrants ordinary
roll sulphur was used. The first set was made in a dish 11 cm.
in diameter, the second was 11:5 em. in diameter.

The zine dish containing the quadrants was first of all placed
upon the brass quadrants of the instrument and the aluminium
needle hung immediately over them. The needle was charged, as
in the ordinary use of the instrument, through the sulphuric acid
of the condenser.

For the first few trials no very consistent results were obtained
owing, as it afterwards appeared, to insufficient diselectrification.
Using first a potential of 50 volts a small deflection towards the
insoluble quadrants was noticed when the charge on the needle
was positive and towards the soluble when the charge was
negative, but the deflection towards the insoluble was always
much smaller than that towards the soluble. On rotating the
quadrants through an angle of 90° the deflection was reversed.

The zine dish was insulated from the brass quadrants on mica
plates, and the potential used raised to 100 volts. In this case
the deflection could not be reversed by changing the sign of the
charge. The deflection was always towards the soluble quadrants,
being larger in one direction than the other. These results
showed that some disturbing influence was at. work, so the quad-
rants were taken off and thoroughly diselectrified.

Upon replacing them the electrophorus was used to charge the
needle. The deflection was then much larger: the spot could
easily be sent completely off the scale. The displacement was
now invariably towards the soluble quadrants, the charge being
positive. The quadrants were rotated repeatedly through 90°
each time, and every time the deflection was reversed. The
reversal showed that the deflection could not be due to induction:
or other effects between the needle, case, and brass quadrants, as
the only part moved was the sulphur dish. The deflection must
have been due to something in the sulphur. The case was: some-
times insulated and sometimes joined to earth. The quadrants
also were sometimes insulated on mica, but no alteration of the
effect was noticed ; the needle was always attracted towards the

ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES. OF PURIFIED SULPHUR. 249

soluble quadrants and repelled from the insoluble, the needle
being charged positively.

The second set of quadrants was then made, and the same
series of experiments was gone through. The quadrants were
diselectrified as usual and placed in position. Exactly the same
results were obtained as with the first set after diselectrification.
The electrophorus was first used for charging. There was. a
large deflection towards the soluble quadrants. On rotating
through 90° the deflection was reversed, still towards the soluble
quadrants. The rotation was performed repeatedly without any
contradictory result being obtained. The insulation of the case
and brass quadrants was altered without alteration of the result.
The battery being used to charge the needle a positive charge
gave a deflection in the same direction as before ; a negative
charge turned the needle towards the insoluble quadrants.

One of the insoluble quadrants was rubbed a little with a bit
of flannel, and the deflection on charging with the electrophorus
was reversed, turnirg towards the insoluble quadrants, and show-
ing that sufficient negative electricity is easily developed on the
insoluble sulphur, to overcome that on the soluble, due to contact
effect. This reversal of effect ceased after about fifteen minutes.

At one time, with these quadrants, we noticed a reversal of
the direction of deflection upon greatly increasing the charge ; but
this was much better seen, and further studied, with the third set
of quadrants.

The third set of quadrants was made in the same dish that was
used for the second, but greater care was taken in their manu-
facture. Instead of roll sulphur pure Chance Claus sulphur once
distilled was used. Much greater care was taken to ensure
perfect solubility in the soluble quadrants. The sulphur used for
them was very gradually heated to about 116° C. in an oil-bath,
several hours being consumed in the process. The sulphur was.
left for some time at this temperature, and then slowly cooled.
This process was repeated a second time. In order to melt it, it
was heated in the oil-bath again to 128° C., and then poured into
the zine dish. In order to obtain a smooth even surface, and to
distribute the sulphur over the quadrants, the surface had to be
smoothed by a piece of aluminium heated till particles of sulphur
would just melt on it.

Besides the diselectrification as before, this set was diselectrified
in-situ by means of a fine gas jet. In order to prevent the
possible electrifying effect of rubbing when rotating the zinc dish
upon some other substance, a zine plate, cut from the same piece
as that from which the dish was made, was placed beneath it, and
to vary the tests of reversibility, two mirrors, at right angles,
were fixed on to the needle-rod, so that the needle could be
rotated as well as the quadrants and its deflections observed.

250 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

The electrophorus was used to charge the needle. Upon a
charge being given, there was a deflection towards the soluble quad-
rants, as there had been before. On increasing the charge, the
deflection increased to the extent of about 123 divisions on the
scale. Still increasing the charge, the deflection began to
decrease, till at last the spot of light stood again at zero.
Still increasing the charge the deflection reached 130 divi-
sions on the other side of zero. On allowing the charge to
gradually dissipate, a reverse series of movements was gone
through ; the deflection towards the insoluble quadrants disap-
peared and changed back to the original direction. When it
reached eighty-five divisions in this direction it again altered the
direction of movement and gradually settled down to zero.

The needle was then rotated through 90°, everything else
remaining as before. On charging (positively) there was a large
deflection as before towards the soluble quadrants. When the
charge was increased, the deflection diminished again, and then a
deflection towards the insoluble quadrants took place, which was
increased to about 20° by sufficiently increasing the charge. On
allowing the charge to leak away, the effects were gone through
backwards just as before. Rotating the needle several times the
same results were obtained.

This reversal effect upon increasing the positive charge on the
needle could be accounted for by induction in the insoluble
quadrants. Insoluble sulphur has a higher specific inductive
capacity, and certainly a much higher electric conductivity than
the soluble modification. Surface charge, due to difference of
specific inductive capacity of sulphur from that of air, would,
therefore, be greater on the insoluble quadrants. Induction
charges, such as those formed in the ordinary way upon con-
ductors, would also be much more rapidly formed on the insoluble
sulphur ; they would also leak away more quickly.

Starting, then, with a negative charge on the soluble quadrants,
and a positive on the insoluble, due to the contact of the two
modifications, the deflection on giving the needle a positive charge
would be towards the soluble sulphur as usual. On increasing
the charge, the induced charge would begin to have effect. The
positive charge on the needle would induce a negative charge on
the upper surface of the insoluble quadrants, which would tend
to reverse the deflection, and when this induced charge became
sufficiently great would actually cause a reversal. On allowing
the charge to leak away, the induction charge would disappear,
and so the deflection would return to its original direction, but
would not attain its first maximum owing to the diminishing
charge on the needle.

To test whether this was the true explanation, it was con-
sidered that, if the needle were charged negatively, no such

ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF PURIFIED SULPHUR. 251

reversal should take place, as the direction would originally be in
the direction of the insoluble quadrants, and the induction charge
would tend the same way. To obtain a sufficiently great negative
charge, a small Wimshurst machine was used, with results that
had been anticipated. The deflection was towards the insoluble
quadrants, increasing with increasing charge, but no reversal of
the direction could be obtained.

The charging was repeated with rotation of the needle and of
the quadrants in all possible positions, but with the same effect
each time—deflection towards the insoluble with a negative charge,
and to the soluble with a positive charge, the latter of which
reversed in direction upon sufficiently increasing the charge.

Care had to be taken that the needle was well discharged
before every charging, as it was found that the residual charge of
the jar was sometimes sufficient when the needle bad been imper-
fectly discharged to re-charge it beyond the position of reversal.

The general conclusion arrived at, therefore, was that there is
a difference of potential set up upon contact between soluble and
insoluble sulphur, the positive charge being on the insoluble, and
the negative on the soluble. This conclusion was always con-
sistent with the results obtained with the sulphur quadrants
when care was taken to diselectrify them. All possible induction
effects were either eliminated by reversal or accounted for in the
phenomena observed. Although no consistent results were given
with the sulphur needles, it has been shown that this may easily
be due to the inherent defects of the method, and not to any
uncertainty as to the contact voltage under consideration.

It was not possible by this method to measure the difference
of potential obtained. As the proportion of insoluble sulphur
in the so-called insoluble quadrants is a very variable quantity,
decreasing slightly with a lapse of time, the voltage probably
varies largely also, so that a particular result would not have any
general applicability. To get an idea, however, of the voltage
noted, a Leclanché cell was used with the brass quadrants ; and it
was found that on charging the needle as before, deflections were
obtained not differing very widely from those given with the
sulphur quadrants. It is, therefore, probable that the voltage
developed between soluble and ordinarily insoluble sulphur
amount to something of the order of one volt.

The so-called insoluble sulphur is really a mixture of about 5
per cent. of insoluble with 95 per cent. of soluble sulphur, the
latter being at first mostly prismatic and afterwards mostly
octahedral. As no difference of effect was observed after several
days ageing of the quadrants, we may consider that the above
results are not dependent on the particular crystalline condition
of the soluble sulphur.

hs
Cu
bo

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

SECTION II.—ACTION OF LIGHT ON THE CONDUCTIVITY. OF
SULPHUR.

The action of light in reducing the resistance of selenium is
well known. Dr. Monckman (Phil. Proc., 1889) considers that
he has observed a similar effect with sulphur, but the observations
chronicled by him leave considerable doubt on the question. Of
his three sets of observations, the first points to a considerably
reduced resistance in the light; the second and third to a slight
increase of resistance. The conductivity varies considerably from
time to time. Dr. Monckman’s experiments can hardly, there-
fore, be considered conclusive, even assuming the purity of his
material.

Some experiments have been made by us to determine whether
light really has any appreciable effect upon the conductivity of
sulphur.

The first question to be considered was as to what molecular
modification should be used. Sulphur, in the soluble state, is at
the present limit of experimental method practically a perfect
non-conductor. Pure insoluble sulphur on the other hand cannot
be obtained in a film suitable for experiment. The only course
was, therefore, to use a mixture of soluble and insoluble sulphur,
for which some small conductivity has been proved. This being
so, it was obviously desirable to obtain the sulphur in the state
of greatest conductivity, and to this end the sulphur was prepared
with as great a proportion of insoluble sulphur as possible.*
Analyses made with two cells used, gave 21°35 and 14-96 as the
percentages of insoluble sulphur. The composition of the other
cells was probably within these limits. As regards quality,
the cells were made*from roll sulphur twice distilled, one or two,
however, being made from sulphur that had only been once
distilled.

Various experiments were made to determine what form of
sulphur resistance cell was most suitable, the following form
being finally adopted. A rectangular slab of sulphur was taken,
about 6 cm. long by 3 cm. broad, and from 3 to 4 mm. thick.
This was wound with two parallel spirals of thin platinum wire,
which were nowhere allowed to touch, but were wound as closely
as possible, the average distance between the spirals being a little
over 1 millimetre for most of the cells. After winding, a hot
glass rod was passed over the wire, which was thus pressed into
and covered with a thin film of sulphur. A large conducting
surface of sulphur is obtained in this way, which can easily be
exposed to light.

*It was thought at this time that the conductivity would be found to increase with the
proportion of insoluble sulphur pregent.

ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF PURIFIED SULPHUR. 250

The sulphur slabs were cast in little zinc moulds. These
were filled with sulphur, and heated till the sulphur was on
the point of bursting into flame; they were then plunged into
cold water. When the sulphur was sufliciently set, the dishes
were cut off with a knife. When quite hard, they were scraped
carefully all over to remove any surface contamination which
might have been caused by exposure during heating or by
immersion in the water. They were dried by warming and
leaving some hours over phosphorus pentoxide. The weakest part
of this method for the preparation of the cells is undoubtedly the
melting in of the wires by means of hot glass, for it is difficult to
ensure that the rod shall be perfectly clean, and the annealing
produced is quite uncertain.

At first the electrometer method was used to measure the
resistance of the cells, but no very satisfactory evidence was
obtained in this way. When a steady fall of electrometer
deflection was observed on _ short-circuiting the electrodes
through the sulphur, no constant difference in the rate of discharge
was detected on exposing the sulphur to light. Both sunlight,
gaslight, and magnesium light were used, but with entirely negative
results. These results were affected by the imperfect shielding
of-the sulphur from dusty air.

Most of the experiments were made by the galvanometric
method. The cells were hung by means of the ends of the
platinum wires in jars containing phosphorus pentoxide to ensure
dryness, the wires passing through small holes in the lids of the
jars. The battery and galvanometer were connected in simple
series with the cell. The battery consisted of forty Clark cells.

It was invariably found that when first the circuit was
completed there was great irregularity of conduction, and it was
only after some time—a time which varied from about an hour
with some cells to as much as a day with others—that a deflection
could be obtained sufficiently steady for the experiments to be
tried.

Remarkable changes in the conductivity were observed. As
regards the action of the light, however, the method of procedure
was very simple. A steady deflection having been obtained in a
darkened room, a piece of magnesium wire was lighted, so as to
shine on the sulphurcell. Any change in the conductivity should
have been accompanied by a change in the deflection. None was
in any case observed. Owing to changes of zero of the galvano-
meter, an apparent change of deflection to the extent of one or
two divisions was sometimes noticed, but after repeated trials this
change was found to be just as often in the direction of a decreased
deflection as of an increased one. During numerous trials,
however, when the galvanometer was exceptionally steady,
perfectly steady deflections were obtained, both before and after

254 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

the light was applied. In these cases no change of deflection
was ever noticed.

The voltage used was varied from that given by one Clark cell to
that of forty cells, acccording to the conductivity. The deflections
varied from 30 to over 150 mm., and as a variation of a couple of
divisions could be certainly measured, the experiments show that,
with sulphur in the form in which we have used it, light cannot
aftect the conductivity to the extent of more than 1 per cent.

SECTION III.—CONDUCTION IN SULPHUR OF HIGH INSOLUBILITY.

As has been already stated in experimenting upon the effect of
light upon the conductivity of sulphur, all the ordinary phenomena
of sulphur conduction were obtained, some of them in an appar-
ently exaggerated form. As considerable insolubility was obtained
in these experiments, the method used appeared well adapted for
extending the qualitative results obtained for the electric conduc-
tivity of sulphur of large solubility to sulphur of much less
solubility.

The form of sulphur conductor was, of course, made in the first
instance with a view to obtain as much conductivity as possible
in a sulphur cell that could be exposed to light without difficulty.
Various methods of winding platinum upon mica, &e., and covering
with sulphur were tried, in imitation of the cells made by Adams,
Bidwell, and others in the study of selenium. These cells were
finally rejected in favour of cells made in the way already described,
which were used throughout in the experiments with light.

On account of the possibility of contamination, however, the
results given by the cells made in the fashion described cannot be
relied upon as accurate. The general character of the phenomena
observed may, however, be given.

The different cells made differed widely in conductivity, with
some of them a single cell was sufticient to send the light spot the
whole length of the scale, while with others the whole battery of
forty cells was used, and the deflection then obtained was small.

The following facts appeared to be true of all the cells :—

1. The deflection which was obtained when the current was
first passed gradually diminished all the time the current
was running.

2. After this decrease of conductivity, if the direction of the
current through the sulphur was reversed, the deflection
was increased considerably.

3. When the number of cells in the battery was increased
the conductivity increased, some minutes elapsing gener-
ally before the maximum current was obtained. The
deflection then began to decrease again as usual.

ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF PURIFIED SULPHUR. 255

With most of the cells, but not all, the conduction obtained
exhibited the peculiar jumpy action before observed with sulphur.
When a steady deflection appeared to have been attained it would
suddenly increase to, perhaps, double its value, returning again
almost immediately to its former value.

Tn one case a cell that was being studied as it hung in undried
air gave this jumpy action, but when the air was dried with
phosphorus pentoxide no conductivity at all was obtained. It
appears, therefore, that this peculiar action may be sometimes due
to a surface conductivity, and is not perfectly characteristic of
sulphur.

The higher conductivity in one direction than the other at
once suggests the presence of an E.M.F. in the sulphur itself, and
of sufficient magnitude to give a current observable through the
galvanometer. With the first four cells no deflection could be
detected upon shortcireuiting the sulphur cell through the gal-
vanometer. Cell No. 5, which showed the relation between
conductivity and direction very markedly, the deflection in one
case being 30 in one direction and 560 in the other, gave a deflec-
tion of two divisions on shortcircuiting through the galvanometer.
Two more cells were then made as much alike as possible with a
view to determine to what extent time alone was responsible for
the changes of conductivity, and how much was due to the passage
of a current. In studying these cells, which had a much higher
conductivity than any of the others, the resistance being originally
6:2 and 7:4 megohms, it was found that they exhibited a con-
siderable back E.M.F. giving large deflections with the galvano-
meter. This contrast of properties with those previously made
was another indication that the method was uncertain.

On testing these cells with the quadrant electrometer they were
found to give a deflection of from thirty to thirty-five divisions,
z.e., about 1 volt. This was the same whether the five cells or
forty were used to produce the voltage and was not increased by
leaving the battery on for a lengthened period, indicating that the
polarisation was galvanic and not dielectric residual. The direction
of the voltage in the cell was reversible by leaving the battery in
series with it for about half a minute.

In order to get rid of some of the objections to this method of
manufacture a cell was made in the same way as regards winding,
&c., but instead of touching with hot glass the cell was dipped as
rapidly as possible into a bath of sulphur heated till it was as
thick as it was practicable to make it, so as not to melt the
sulphur slab in the process of immersion. The wires were thus
covered with sulphur, but the insolubility obtained in this way
was not so perfect as by the first method. A deflection of

256 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

eighteen divisions was obtained with this cell using a 40-cell Clark
battery, but the deflection rapidly decreased to zero, and after that
no conductivity could be detected.

In order to combine the advantages of the two methods, 7.e., to
have great insolubility and pure uncontaminated sulphur the
following method of manufacture was finally used for the sulphur
cell.

Two glass rods 7:7 cm. long and :45 cm. in diameter were fixed
parallel to one another, and with their centres 3 cm. apart by
means of two aluminium cross bars, through which the glass rods
passed. The length of the glass rods between the aluminium bars
was 6:2 cm., forming a sort of Oxford frame upon which to wind
the platinum wire. Each electrode was formed of twenty com-
plete turns of platinum wire wound upon this frame, the total
length of wire to each electrode being 160 cm. There were,
therefore, altogether forty complete turns at an average distance
of 1-5 mm. from one another. After the frame had been very
carefully cleaned the wire was wound on, the electrodes being
joined, one to each aluminium bar. ‘The frame was provided with
an aluminium handle about 6 cm. long.

The sulphur used for this cell was once distilled Chance sulphur.
This was heated to melting, and the frame immersed in it. The
temperature was then raised till the sulphur was so thick that on
withdrawing the frame the latter was covered thickly all over
with a mass of viscid sulphur. It was then suddenly immersed.
in distilled water and left till cold. In this way the whole frame
was covered with highly insoluble sulphur, the electrodes being
shielded from surface action by a thick coat of sulphur. The
conductivity of this cell was small in comparison with that given
by some of the cells obtained in the other way, another indication
that some at least of the cells had been spoilt by the glass-rod
process of burying the wires, for some of them were made with
pure sulphur.

The cell was first tested for polarisation by the quadrant electro-
meter. No certain positive effect could be observed, though
owing to the residual charges in the keys necessarily used, no
very satisfactory experiments could be made.

For the galvanometric study of the cell it was hung by means
of its electrodes in the thermostat.

With forty cells the elongation upon reversing the current
through the galvanometer was fourteen divisions. This elongation
fell regularly in half an hour to five divisions, the temperature
being 25°5°.

The oil-bath was then heated, the galvanometer throw every
few minutes being taken while the temperature was rising.

ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF PURIFIED SULPHUR. 257

The following table is sufficient to show the variation of con-
ductivity during heating :—

Time.

hh. am;

11°32
11:40
12:0
12°6
12°12
12°22

d G2 G9 Co G9 09 09 6 C9 LD BS OD
OP PB oo 0b te oO =
MAmawownr- 10

6°17

Temperature.

25°5

The cell was left to cool slowly.

The deflections obtained were steady ; at no time were sudden
variations observed comparable with the jumps observed before

with sulphur conduction.

Elongation on reversing through
galvanometer.

Elongation on stopping
the current.
620
606
634
548
389
Reversing as at first
526
315
112

The table given shows that there was only a small change of
conductivity upon increase of temperature until the temperature

R

258 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A,

was raised above 100°. While the annealing process was going on
there was an immense increase of conductivity. This might be due
either to the fact that the annealing was going on, or else merely to
the fact of the sulphur being at the high temperature in question.

In order to determine between these alternatives the cell was
again heated in the same manner as before and the galvanometer
kicks noticed.

At the temperature of the room no deflection at all could be
detected, the sulphur being probably almost completely soluble.

On heating, none of the former changes of conductivity could
be noticed. At 57:°5° C. the kick, or reversal, was 2 divisions,
and the reading the same very nearly all the time the cell was
being heated up to 110°, and after it started to cool again. The
elongations varied slightly between 1 and 3; but on account of the
smallness of the deflections, and the small movements of zero, the
variations may have been due to errors of reading as much as to
variation of the properties of the sulphur. They may also have been
caused by the intermittent conductionfrequently shown by sulphur,

No series of changes was gone through on this second heating
such as upon the first heating, showing that the great increase of
conductivity above 100° at the first heating was not due to the
temperature alone, but was due either to the fact that the process
of annealing and the change from insoluble to soluble sulphur
was actively going on, or to the fact that insoluble sulphur pos-
sesses the power of conduction when mixed with the soluble
variety. The experiment, as a test of whether the progress of the
change from insoluble to soluble was the real cause of the con-
ductivity, remains indecisive.

After again cooling, no current whatever could be detected
through the sulphur.

On testing its solubility, it was found that there was only a
trace of insoluble sulphur present.

An analysis of a piece of sulphur broken from the cell previous
to annealing gave as the composition 19°68 per cent. of insoluble
sulphur. Of the cells made by the first method two were analysed,
giving as their composition 15:69 and 21:35 per cent of insoluble.

Though the sulphur was considerably cracked after the first
annealing, it is probable that the separation of the sulphur from
the wires was not sufficient to account for the total change of
conductivity.

No. 9.—RESULTS FROM VARIOUS-SIZED RATIN-
GAUGES.

By H. C. Kippiz, F.R.MLS.
(Read January 11, 1898.)

CLOUD OBSERVATIONS IN VICTORIA. 259

No. 10.—CLOUD OBSERVATIONS IN VICTORIA.

By P. Baraccut, F.R.A.S8., Government Astronomer, Melbourne.
(Read January 11, 1898.)

Tu year 1897 has been called by some writers on Meteorological
subjects “The Cloud Year,” on account of the systematic obser-
vations of clouds which were carried on in nearly all the civilised
countries during that period, under a scheme laid out and finally
agreed upon, in all its detail, by the International Meteorological
Committee at its Upsala meeting in 1894. The object of the
scheme was to obtain more uniform and comprehensive data, to
serve as the basis for the furthur study of atmospheric conditions,
as indicated by the forms and movements of clouds.

All the Central Meteorological Institutions were asked to co
operate, and some of the Australian colonies promised to con-
tribute their share. The operations contemplated in the scheme
were of two distinct classes :—

Ist. Observations of form, direction of motion, and apparent
velocity of clouds, to be made three times daily, when
possible, by as many observers as could be recruited by
each institution ; the observations to be made without
instruments, or with the simple nephoscope.

2nd. Observations for the determination of the absolute
height and velocity of clouds, made with instruments of
precision, either visual or photographic.

It was further intimated that the operations were to commence
on May 1, 1896, and to be continued for twelve months; but the
period was afterwards altered from January 1 to December 31,
1897, owing to various countries being unable to commence at
the earlier date.

The fixed period was more particularly intended for the obser-
vations of the Ist class, and more latitude was given for the
absolute measurements.

In Victoria we have just concluded the first part of the work,
and the second part is still going on, and will probably be con-
tinued for some time longer, as the past experience has taught us
that it can be further improved.

It is not my purpose to discuss the complex problems for the
treatment of which the cloud scheme was initiated, nor to specu-
late on the possible advantages which many authorities expect to
derive from it for the advancement of meteorology, practical and
theoretical. I shall merely give a brief sketch of what has been
done in Victoria.

260 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

In order to secure observations of the first-class (non-instru-
mental) at various up-country places, a circular was issued towards
the end of 1895 inviting volunteer observers to join in the work,
and fifty-one names were enlisted. After preliminary instruc-
tions and practice, the work commenced on May 1, 1896, in
accordance with the original resolutions of the I.M.C.

On examining the returns of the first three months it was
found that a little more than one-third of the observations were
not sufficiently reliable, and the number of observers was reduced
to about thirty. Some of these continued their work till May,
1897, but only eighteen could be induced to extend their services
to the end of the year; so that for the cloud year proper we
have only the complete returns of eighteen observers, whose work
is regarded as being entirely satisfactory throughout.

The work of the other twelve observers, however, will be duly
utilised.

The returns contain records of observations made three times
daily whenever practicable, and give for each observation :—

Ist. The form of the cloud, in accordance with the classifica-
tion of the I.M.C., and identified by means of the
official cloud atlas.

2nd. The approximate position in azimuth and altitude.

3rd, The direction of motion within one point of the compass.

4th. The apparent velocity. This was estimated in terms of
a scale of 5, based on the time occupied by a selected
point in the cloud to move through an are of 15°.

5th. Special notes on cirrus clouds, the direction of cirrus
bands, the position of their vanishing points, &e.

6th. Direction and force of the surface wind, temperature of
air, weather characteristics, and general remarks.

There are some 20,000 such observations now ready for dis-
cussion ; but as they were concluded only a few days ago, there
has not been, nor will there be for some time, any opportunity of
arranging this great mass of records in proper form for the
deduction of results and publication in extenso as requested by
the committee.

For the second part of the work, namely, the determination
of absolute height and velocity, a pair of stations for simultaneous
observations were established, one being on the grounds of the
Melbourne Observatory, and the other on the roof of Parliament
House, at a distance of 6,820 feet, bearing N. 3° 38’ 51” W.

After due consideration of my means and circumstances, I
decided to adopt the photographic method which had been suc-
cessfully employed at the Kew Observatory some years ago.

This method alone makes it possible to conduct the operations
with all the required efficiency by means of a few simple and

CLOUD OBSERVATIONS IN VICTORIA. 261

fixed rules, which, once mastered, would require no further skill
or judgment in the operators 'at the instrument, but only a
methodical and conscientious attention to the rules. This was a
necessary condition which I had to take into account in deciding
upon my course.

IT will now describe the main principle on which the Kew
photographic method is based.

The absolute height and velocity of a cloud, provided it be
suitably situated, can be determined from two photographs of it
taken simultaneously with two cameras placed at a distance of
from a few hundred yards to 1 or 2 miles from each other, the
cameras being in all respects equal and rigidly mounted so as to
point accurately to their respective zenith—namely, having their
collimation axes truly vertical.

If two threads, at right-angle to each other, permanently fixed
in a plane parallel to and very near the sensitive film, in such a
way that the line passing through their intersection and the
optical centre of the objective, is maintained in an invariable
position relatively to the body of the camera, and falls perpen-
dicularly to the face of the plate, then, whenever a picture is
taken, these threads will be shadowgraphed on the plate, and the
image of their intersection may be adopted as the centre of
the plate. So that in all plates exposed in a truly horizontal
position, a point in the zenith would form its photographic image
at this fiducial centre. Such are the conditions required by the
Kew method.

Having photographed a cloud under these conditions we obtain
on each plate a picture of the cloud and an image of the respective
zenith of the two stations. Let us now superimpose the two
pictures, so as to make them coincide exactly.

To insure accuracy in this operation it would be necessary in
practice to take a contact print on glass of one picture, and super-
impose this positive on the negative of the other picture.

Then it is clear that the line joining the centres of the two
plates represents the photographic image of a line joining the
two zenithal points of the stations at the height of the cloud, and
the ratio of its length to the actual distance between the stations
would be the same as the ratio of the focal length of the objective
to the height of the cloud, and this height can thus be determined
from the data obtainable on the photographs. The process of
superposition is, however, somewhat unsatisfactory, and can be
obviated by orientating the cameras so that one of the fiducial
lines in each is made to coincide with the direction of the line
joining the stations.

It is then sufficient to measure on each negative the co-ordi-
nates of any corresponding point in the image of the cloud, taking
the centre of the plate as the origin.

262 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

This is the system adopted in Melbourne. To obtain the
absolute velocity of the cloud, we have only to take a second
picture at one or both stations after a short interval of (say) one
minute, and measure the displacement of the image which,
together with the known height and focal length of the apparatus,
determines the actual distance traversed by the cloud during the
interval between the exposures. I will now proceed to describe
the Melbourne arrangements for carrying out this work. I have
here a pattern of the body of the cameras, which will give you an
idea of their shape and dimensions.

The instruments are made of heavy cast-iron, and are similar
in every respect. Each consists, generally speaking (and disre-
garding particular detail), of a hollow frustrum of a pyramid with
a square base, and having a circular opening at the top, into
which the lens is fitted.

Once adjusted, the lens is permanently fixed, and intended to re-
main in an invariable position with regard to the body of the camera.
A shallow rectangular opening at the bottom of one side of the appa-
ratus serves to introduce the dark slide which carries the plates.

On the inner face of the base there are two guides, one of
which is plain, and one A-shaped on the top. On these rests the
dark slide when zz situ. I have here, also, one of the dark slides
for your inspection.

You will notice that the wooden parts are attached to a sub-
stantial brass frame, one side of which has a v-shaped groove all
along its length, with a stop at one end. This groove fits into
the guide within the camera, and thus the slide always occupies
an invariable position in respect to the body of the instrument.

The plate, which is a square, whose side is 158 mm., has two of
its contiguous edges grounded with a rounded corner between.

When ready for exposure it rests on three steel points, which
are fixed on the brass frame, and its two grounded edges are
brought in contact with three cylindrical studs, also fixed on the
brass frame, while two springs on the opposite sides keep it in
that position. So that the plate occupies always an invariable
position in respect to the slide, and consequently also in respect
to the body of the camera.

The fiducial lines, which are required to determine the centre
of the plate and its orientation, are obtained by means of a latent
image of a reseau impressed on the plate, which is developed
together with the cloud picture.

The reseau consists of two sets of parallel lines, 5 mm. apart,
one set being at right-angles to the other. The intersection of
the middle lines of the reseau form the centre of the plate.

The reseau process is exactly the same as it is practised in the
astrophotographie work of the Observatory, and it is therefore
unnecessary to describe it.

CLOUD OBSERVATIONS IN VICTORIA. 268

The lenses are “ Zeiss” anastigmat, series IV, No. 3, focal
length 4:41 inches, beautifully paired. :

The instrumental adjustments are—(lst) To make the optical
axes of the cameras truly vertical ; (2nd) To make one of the
central lines of the reseau at both stations coincident with the
base-line.

The first is made in two steps, as follows :—A small telescope, pro-
vided with a micrometer, is mounted vertically on an independent
tripod, looking downwards, with its objective a few inches above
the photographic lens and central with it. A small dish con-
taining mercury is then placed between the camera and the
telescope, and by means of a Bohnenberger eyepiece we observe
the reflected image of the telescope wires, and cause them to
coincide with their direct image. We have thus made the colli-
mation axis of the telescope truly vertical. The mercury dish is
now removed, and a plate containing a developed image of the
reseau is placed in the camera in the usual way as if it were
exposed for taking a cloud picture.

The centre of the plate is now illuminated by means of a
small electric lamp, and we look at it through the telescope.

If its image is coincident with the intersection of the wires in
the telescope, then the collimation axis of the camera must be
parallel to that of the telescope, and, therefore, truly vertical.

If it is not coincident, the required rectification is made with
three levelling screws provided for the purpose.

The second adjustment was made approximately in the first
instance by stretching a long wire between two poles on the base
line, and orientating the camera simply by the eye, and sub-
sequently, for further and more accurate verification and rectifi-
cation, simultaneous photographs of the sun were taken on every
possible opportunity. The azimuth adjustment is also verified by
the condition that the co-ordinate, at right angles to the direction
of the base line, ought to be the same in both pictures.

Both these adjustments are very constant, and there has hardly
been any necessity to make rectifications since last July.

With ordinary care, these adjustments, once made, remain
practically constant for a very long time.

The are value of 1 millimeter on the plate is about 35’.

The co-ordinates can be measured off the negatives, even
roughly, with compass or scale to within a couple of tenths of a
millimeter, and, if the cloud points selected for measurement were
sufficiently well-defined, the probable error of the co-ordinates
might be reduced to half that amount.

Such accuracy, however, is not attainable, owing to the nature
of the objects photographed. The pictures have no sharp out-
lines ; their structure is evanescent, and can hardly bear any
magnification.

264 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

On comparing two-paired pictures we can hardly find two
corresponding points which can be satisfactorily marked with the
fine point of a compass.

You often think you can do that on some better defined parts ;
but when the mark is to be made, you know it is only a question
of rough approximation.

Consequently it is unnecessary to attempt greater accuracy in
the measures than that obtainable with a scale of millimeters.
The photographic part of the work gave more trouble than the
instrumental questions. It was intended principally to deal with
the higher clouds, some classes of which are sometimes barely
visible against the deep blue sky.

Yellow screens of different densities were used, with stops no
greater than f/32 and exposures from 1/12 to 1/25*.

Many experiments were made to determine the best average
conditions, with a view to give the work as much uniformity as
possible. If it could have been carried on by the same two
operators throughout, much could have been left to their
experience and discretion, to suit the variable photographic
factors to the variable circumstances. But there were four
different operators at the far end station, away from the Observa-
tory, who took up weekly duty in turn, and with very little time
at their disposal.

It was essential also to avoid any interference with the camera
in order to preserve its adjustments, and to facilitate the opera-
tions as much as possible.

It would have been undesirable to vary the stop, the time of ex-
posure, and the screen in each case, and the desired effect had to be
obtained by an average constant combination of these quantities,
subject to alterations, only in very exceptional conditions.

Every possible combination was tried, and at last we found one
which seemed to act satisfactorily.

This was 1/25%, for the time of exposure f/25 stop, and a screen
of medium density call screen No. 2.

It has been possible hitherto to meet almost every exceptional
case by sometimes varying the exposure, very rarely using a
different screen, and never altering the stop.

In the earlier stages we used Ilford isochromatic plates, which,
however, gave continuous trouble and poor results.

The later plates employed were Ilford chromatic, of medium
rapidity, and these have given every satisfaction, and are in use
at present.

The negatives are slowly developed by the Metol-hydro-
quinone. The finer cirrus clouds sometimes taking forty minutes
or longer to develop.

The two stations are connected by telephone, and are also pro-
vided with a telegraph key and sounder, through which time-

AUSTRALASIAN Assoc. ADv. Sc. VoL. VII, 1898. PLATE Xili.

Cloud Observations tn Victoria.

By P. BARACCHI, F.R.A.S.

VIEW OF THE CLOUD CAMERA IN THE GROUNDS OF THE MELBOURNE OBSERVATORY

Showing the guides, C C, in the opening, R, for inserting the dark slide.

fem

i

AUSTRALASIAN Assoc. Abv. Sc. VoL. VII, 1898. PLATE XIV.

Cloud Observations in Victoria. By P. BARACCHI, FRA.

gener
se is

VIEW OF THE CLOUD CAMERA, SHOWING ARRANGEMENT OF APPARATUS FOR TESTING THE
VERTICALITY OF THE AXIS OF COLLIMATION.

A The camera, permanently pinned to the stone pier, B.
R The dark slide in position ; lid drawn out for exposure.
K Exposing shutter.
C Tripod for the support of testing apparatus.
S Levelling screws for the support of testing apparatus.
T Telescope.
H Micrometer carrying cross wires.
D Slow motion screws displacing the telescope m two directions, at right angles,
G Bohnenberger eye-piece.
W Telephone.
Y Ordinary telegraph key connected with the other station,
I Sounder for telegraphic communication.

7 Pr _
= ~
Ls
7 ¢
6 " “
- ="
= -»
a.
:
= 4
' >
=i 7
My
7
; 7
’ ir
. a i
:
i :
= :
Pi ; a
: . athe
=e
:
: : a , 3
; ?
5
4
t :

an mee re
7 a

cf - oe le oe i
eo . ‘ 7 _ iz P ar

is .

— —- 7

- cor

_
“) ,
oo © % 7 7 a :
.

= 7

- -

AUSTRALASIAN Assoc. ADv. Sc. VoL. VII, 1898. PLATE

Cloud Observations in Victoria.
By P. BARACCHI, F.R.A.S.

Plate No, 124 taken from the grounds of the Melbourne Observatory.

XV.

Pair of photographs taken simultaneously from the terminal stations.
Date, 25 October, 1897, 9h. 3lm. 30s. a.m. Exposure, 1-25 see.
Form Alto-Cumulus. Height of central parts, 21,780 feet.

AUSTRALASIAN Assoc. Apv. Sc. VoL. VII, 1898. PLATE XV.

Cloud Observations in Victoria.
By P. BARACCHI, F.R.A.S.

Plate No. i24 taken from the roof of Parliament House, Melbourne.

PHOTOGRAPHIC DETERMINATION OF CLOUD HEIGHT AND VELOCITY AT MELBOURNE.

CLOUD OBSERVATIONS IN VICTORIA. 265

signals or clock-beats are transmitted by the Observatory according
to a code, and the last of a set of five beats sent by hand indicates
the instant for exposure, which is made simultaneously by the
two observers by means of a Picard shutter worked instanta-
neously by the usual india-rubber ball method.

The ten pairs of photographs before you were selected amongst
the best and the worst. They are enlargements on bromide paper
twice the size of the negative. The heights of the respective
clouds were determined by measuring a few corresponding points
by a millimeter scale, and vary from 17,212 to 37,682 feet.

The fine cirri, though sometimes barely visible on prints, can be
measured fairly well; but the direct measures from the negatives
are far more satisfactory. Under ordinary conditions the highest
clouds can be measured within a probable error of 500 feet.

The illustrations (plates XIII, XIV and XV) show two views
of the cloud camera in use at the Melbourne Observatory, and a
pair of photographs of alto-cumulus cloud, taken simultaneously
from the terminal stations.

No. 11.—THE TESTING OF REFLECTING SURFACES.
By P. Barracui, F.R.A.S., &e.
[ Abstract. |

THE author, after a brief introduction on Focault’s methods of
testing reflecting concave surfaces used in various forms of reflect-
ing telescopes, deals with the optical theories upon which these
methods depend, and explains, by the aid of diagrams and records
of actual experience, how the arduous process of figuring a surface
into the required form can be safely guided by a knowledge of the
amount of aberration at the centre of curvature, measured in zones
over the whole surface at brief intervals during the last stages of
the work. This is followed by a description of the apparatus
with which these testings and measurements are made. (The
apparatus in actual use for this purpose at the Melbourne
Observatory was exhibited on the table for inspection.) The paper
then treats of the method for testing the combined effect of the
two reflecting surfaces of the Cassegrain telescope before they are
mounted in the tube. The arrangement of the mirrors under
test is represented in attached diagram, in which is traced the
path of the rays from their passage through a small diaphram
placed in front of the artificial source of light (a small kerosene
lamp), to their converging point at E where they enter the eye of
the observer.

The details of the special case of testing the two mirrors of the
Great Melbourne Telescope, as practised at the Melbourne Obser-
vatory, are given at length, showing the separate and combined

266 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

values of the aberrations of the two surfaces at their respective
centres of curvature, which determine their actual form, and
finally indicating the manner in which an error in the curvature
of one surface may be compensated by an appropriate correction
in the curvature of the other.

In diagram below, which shows the arrangement of the mirrors
under test, A is the primary or conave mirror 4 feet in diameter

ti &
ANIFE coce_ Qe
@ |

DIAGRAM SHOWING ARRANGEMENT OF MIRRORS OF THE GREAT MELBOURNE REFLECTOR DURING
THE PROCESS OF TESTING AT THEIR CENTRE OF CURVATURE.

and 366: inches focus (approximately). a is the secondary or
convex mirror 8 inches in diameter, and 74# inches focus. Lis the
source of light (a kerosene lamp) in front of which is placed a
small diaphram O, => inches aperture. E is the place of the
eye situated behind a small vertical knife-edge O', which is capable
of being moved with a gentle motion across the line of sight.
The diaphram O is located at the centre of curvature of the mirror
A, and the mirror a is so placed that its centre of curvature C is
at approximately the same distance from mirror A as the diaphram
O. Then the rays of light diverging from the aperture O fall on
mirror A, by which they are reflected towards the point C ; but
on encountering the surface a they are reflected back along the
fainter lines, diverging from C', and fall again slightly displaced
on mirror A, by which they are again reflected at a point O' near
the knife edge, from which point the observer views the effect
produced when the knife edge is being moved across. The form
of the surfaces is determined by the length of the radius of
curvature of each of their elementary zones. Wooden diaphrams
are accordingly placed before mirror A, by which the whole
reflecting surface can be subdivided into concentric rings 3 inches
wide, varying in diameter from 45 to 12 inches, one ring at a time

THE TESTING OF REFLECTING SURFACES. 267

being exposed in succession, while the rest of the surface respec-
tively remains covered. For each exposed zone the point is
found along the axis of mirror A, where the knife edge, on being
moved transversally across the path of the rays, shuts out the
light suddenly and symmetrically from the whole area of the
bright ring. This indicates that the knife edge crosses the cone
of rays, reflected by that ring, exactly at the vertex, and therefore
determines the centre of curvature of the ring. The amount of
longitudinal displacement of the knife edge, which is required in
order to meet in succession the vertex of the cone of rays
reflected by the other rings, determines the difference in the length
of the radius of curvature of the successive zones, which displace-
ment is capable of being accurately measured by a micrometer to
within + > ths. of an inch, or less.

In this manner the form of the primary mirror is first deter-
mined separately ; then the secondary mirror is introduced, as
shown in diagram, and new readings are taken for the combined
surfaces. From the data thus obtained, by eliminating the
observed aberrations for the great mirror, those of the convex
mirror, and thence its form, can be ascertained.

These observations are of extreme delicacy, and require to be
‘carried out in the middle of the night, when everything is quiet,
and a fairly uniform and constant temperature can be more
satisfactorily attained throughout the buildings where these tests
are made.

It is shown, in conclusion, that with the Cassegrain telescope
the best definition is obtainable when the form of the primary
mirror is a paraboloide, and that of the secondary a hyperbolide ;
that deviations from these forms in the two surfaces when acting
in combination, will generally tend to compensate each other, and
will be entirely neutralized when the amount of error in the
convex mirror is double that of the concave mirror. Consequently
an error in the concave mirror is doubled by a perfectly figured
convex mirror; also that an error in the convex mirror is not
altered in quantity by a perfectly-figured concave mirror, but is by
the latter changed in kind ; so that, if overcorrected, it would, in
conjunction with the concave, appear undercorrected, or give in
combination, the same image as an undercorrected concave surface
acting singly.

No. 12.—A GENERAL EXPRESSION FOR FLOW
IN TUBES.

By G. H. Kniss, F-R.A:S., LS.
(Read January 11, 1898.)

268 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

No. 13.—THE SOURCE OF THE PERIODIC WAVES
WHICH ARE RECORDED FROM TIME TO TIME
ON THE SYDNEY AND NEWCASTLE TIDE-
GAUGES.

By H. C. Russetz, C.M.G., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., de.
(Read January 11, 1898.)
[ Abstract. |

A.most from the first day the Sydney and Newcastle self-recording
tide-gauges were established—the former in 1867, the latter in
1871—LI have found on the daily record sheets from time to time
periodic waves recorded with the tidal curves. The period is
usually about twenty-six minutes. In 1868 we were surprised
by the records of waves of unusual dimensions, some of which
caused a rise and fall in Sydney harbour of 3 ft. 6 in. These
waves continued to reach our coast and record themselves for
four days, z.e., August 15, 16, 17, and 18. Such an unusual
display indicated unusual energy somewhere, and the waves were
soon explained by the news of the great earthquake at Arica,
in South America. One account, given to me by Captain
Conlon, who was passing Arica at the time, throws some light
upon the character of the waves. He was then the captain of a
large steamer running from London to San Francisco, and was
passing Arica at the time of the earthquake. ‘The shocks,” he
said, ‘‘ were extremely violent, and everything that was breakable
in the steamer, even to the binnacle lamps, was thrown down and
broken. It felt as if the steamer was struck violent blows from
below, which made her shiver from end to end as if she was going
to pieces.” From the shore mighty waves rolled away towards
Australia across the Pacific Ocean at the rate of 360 miles per
hour. At Sandwich Islands they were still 40 ft. high, and at
New Zealand they were 6 ft. and in Sydney, as stated above,
3 ft. 6 in.

In 1874 and 1877 and other years we have had similar waves,
and I have been able to trace them to reported earthquakes ; and
in the intervals between these larger disturbances we have had
recorded frequently periodic waves of the same character but
much less amplitude. At first these were credited to unknown
earthquakes, but from time to time instances occurred when
earthquakes took place and there were no periodic waves. Some
of these were evidently due to great storms in Tasman Sea, but

PERIODIC WAVES. 269

there were many not explained. Then came the great earth-
quake in New Zealand, on June 10, 1886, when the Pink Terraces
were destroyed, but no periodic waves were recorded ; the earth-
quakes in South Australia, August 22, 1896, and many others
which left no trace on our tide-gauges, although in the intervening
years many periodic waves were recorded. Captain Allan, the late
harbour-master at Newcastle, who had charge of the tide-gauge,
observed in a report to me “that when the tide-gauge sheet
showed sharp-pointed, oscillating marks, a gale followed within
forty-eight hours, accompanied with high tide and heavy sea.”
He continued :—“T also have observed that, although the tide-
sheet may show considerable oscillation of a rounded character, it
is not always followed by a gale. It is only when the pencil
shows sharp-pointed, zig-zag lines along the tide curve that a gale
may be looked for, and the more defined and the greater the range
of these zig-zag lines the heavier the coming gale.” The frequency
of these periodic waves had long before led me to look amongst
ordinary meteorological conditions for something which would
give rise to them; and the daily weather-chart, giving a synoptic
picture of all the weather conditions, made evident the possibility
of the origination of an impulse such as would generate waves.

About every seven days an anticyclone passes over Australia,
and between one area of high pressure on the next one, there is
always an area of low pressure called a A depression in which is
the lowest barometer, and the sides of the A have the steepest
grades, on the preceding side of the A are strong N. to N.E. winds,
and on the following side strong 8. to S.W. winds. The change
of winds is sudden and the southerly winds is one of the strongest
we have.

The barometer sometimes falls to 29:000. Under such a low
pressure the sea rises and currents set in on all sides except the
north, and there the mainland of Australia is found and cannot
supply the demand for water, so that the currents into the A set
in from the other sides. During this time the whole system is
travelling to the east, accelerating the currents into the centre,
until when it approaches Bass Straits all the easterly current is cut
off by Tasmania, except that which comes through Bass Straits ;
meantime the falling barometers have accelerated the constant
southerly set of the east coast current, making it a very strong
northerly current which meets the storm centre ; with its westerly
and southerly currents in Bass Straits, a confined area, in which by
the meeting of these currents, the waves are set in motion which
we find recorded on the gauge. This southerly setting current is so
vigorous that it continues to set to south in opposition to the
strongly opposing southerly winds which meet it as the centre of the
A depression passes. This fact is well known ; Captain Dawson
of H.M.S. “ Waterwitch” informed me that it was well known

270 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.

that the stronger the southerly wind the stronger was the current
setting south against it. The strength of the southerly depends:
upon the depth of the A depression, and the lower the barometers,
the more the southerly setting current is accelerated. The
theoretical condition given above therefore is in exact accordance
with the observed conditions.

This becomes more evident if the contour of the coast lines is
examined, for the south coast of Australia and the west coast of
Tasmania converge into a funnel-like area, in which the wind and
sea currents generated by the low pressure converge from opposite
directions, and meeting in this comparatively confined area generate
the periodic waves which are recorded on our tide-gauges at Sydney
and Newcastle.

We find that the lower the barometer in the A is as compared
with Sydney the greater are the waves recorded on the tide-gauge.

It is of importance to note here, that there may be a very low
depression travelling along the south coast rapidly, in some cases,
at twice the usual speed ; and when this is the case, as shown by
many instances carefully examined, there are no periodic waves,
such as are found when the low pressure is travelling slowly, and
the reason appears to be, that there is not time enough for the
ocean currents to be set in motion before the depression has
passed by ; barometers fall and rise as usual, but the ocean is not
sensibly affected, for water takes time to adjust itself to the varying
atmospheric pressure.

It is a strong confirmation of the foregoing theory to be able to
say, after a careful examination of the records since 1867, that 62
per cent. of the cases when periodic waves have been recorded on
our tide-gauges, they have been coincident with the passage of
A depressions such as I have described above.

The probability is that a number of periodic waves are set in
motion by storms in Tasman Sea, and of those recorded I have
traced 1 per cent. of them to that source, which is as much as
could be expected when we remember that in the past the logs of
vessels crossing that sea have not been recorded. In Lake George
T have had a self-recording anemometer and a tide-gauge at work
since the beginning of 1885, and there, periodic waves are very
frequently recorded, and clearly shown to be the result of violent
gusts or squalls of wind on the lake. Lake George is about 16
miles long (its length is affected by rain) with a depth where
deepest of about 20 feet. On the western side there are high
hills, and the lake is longest from north to south, so that the wind
generally blows up or down the Jake; and sometimes a squall of
wind will force the water to one end and make it as much as 18
inches above its normal level. The water then flows back and
keeps up its periodic motion, flowing backwards and forwards for
several days, with a period of 2 hour 11 minutes, the rise and

PERIODIC WAVES. 272

fall gradually decreasing, until the impulse is spent. I have
mentioned Lake George here only because the effects of gusts of
wind in producing periodic waves is so very clearly shown in the
records of the anemometer and lake gauge, that there can be no
doubt as to the connection between squalls of wind and these
waves, and the experience gained at Lake George has led me to
suppose that it is extremely probable that periodic waves are set
in motion by squalls of wind in Tasman Sea.

Upon comparing the reported earthquakes with our tide-gauge
records, I found 10 per cent. of the recorded periodic waves on
our tide-gauges coincident with earthquakes. We have thus
accounted for 73; that is, 10 from earthquakes, 62 from waves in
Bass Straits, and 1 from storm in Tasman Sea—in all 73 per cent.
of the periodic waves on our tide records—leaving 27 per cent.
unaccounted for. I feel sure that a more complete knowledge of
the meteorology of Tasman Sea would account for more than half
of the 27 per cent. at present unaccounted for.

No. 14—NOTES ON COMPARISONS OF STEEL AND
IRON LINEAL STANDARDS FOR - GEODETIC
PURPOSES.

By D. M.. Marruanp, LS.

(Read January 11, 1898.)

272 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

SECTION B.

CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY.

No. 1—ON THE COLOURING MATTERS OF WINES.

M. Biunno (Licenziato in Scienze), New South Wales Depart-
ment of Agriculture.

(Read, Friday, January 7, 1898.)
[ Abstract. |

Tue author refers to and discusses recent investigations in this
subject by M. Rosensthiel and Gautier.

It is well known that the juice, even of red grapes, is nearly
always colourless. This was attributed to the insolubility of the
colouring matter in water. Rosensthiel’s experiments have how-
ever shown that at a temperature between 50° and 70° Centigrade
the unfermented juice is capable of dissolving colouring matter.

These colouring matters are very unstable and are attacked by
nearly all metals. At such a temperature air is a remarkably
powerful decolouriser, and is capable of rendering the red colouring
matter insoluble in alcohol.

If unbroken grapes be heated to 50° Centigrade in a hermetically
closed vessel, the wine produced in crushing and fermenting these
grapes will not be red.

It is therefore necessary to exclude the air if the colouring
matters are to be kept unaltered.

These experiments are of practical importance, because the treat-
ment above described not only renders the colouring matters
soluble and stable in the must, but destroys the Saccharomyces,
while germs of mould and bacteria are hindered from developing.

It would from this appear quite possible to destroy the natural
ferments by pasteurizing must and skins together at 50° centigrade,
such treatment being without effect upon the colour and taste of
the resulting wine.

Rosensthiel recommends heating three times to 50° when all
natural ferments are destroyed and fermentation may be brought
about by means of selected yeasts.

THE COLOURING MATTER OF WINES. 273

When suitable appliances shall have been devised for carrying
out this operation on the large scale, the problem of the use of
levures pures will have been solved.

M. Gautier’s experiments to which the author next drew
attention, have reference to the chemical composition of the
colouring matters of wines. M. Gautier finds that each variety
of grapes has its special pigment which differs in its centesimal
composition from those of other grapes.

Further, on cross-breeding between two varieties of grapes, the
cross-bred contains a new colouring matter whose centesimal
composition is the mean of that of its parents.

Gautier draws the conclusion that in cross-breeding there are
not only morphological, histological, and physiological variations,
but that even the chemical substance of the cells undergoes
variations, and puts forward the suggestion that the variation of
species may be due to chemical changes which take place within
the molecules of the tissues and pr otoplasm.

No. 2—THE MOLECULAR MECHANISM OF AN
ELECTROLYTE.

By W. M. Hamtet, F.1C., FCS.
(Read Friday, January 7, 1898.)

No. 3. — NOTES ON THE COLOURING MATTER OF
ERIOCOCCUS CORIACEUS, AND THE WAX OF
CEROPLASTES RUBENS.

By E. H. Gurney.
(Read Friday, January 10, 1898.)
[ Abstract. |

I, ERIOCOCCUS CORIACEUS.

THE scale insect, Hriococcus coriaceus, is generally found encasing
the young shoots of the Eucalypti, especially those springing from.
old or burnt stumps.

It occurs around the stems in closely packed clusters of small
pinkish-white sacs.

It is of rather frequent occurrence all over New South Wales,
though it probably exists in quantities too small to make it of
commercial value.

Ss

274 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

The following analyses may be regarded as fairly Bias ci §
its composition : —

Moisture ie aa ae TOES 18:49
Volatile and organic ... ae 77°44 79-00
BASING ays. ee a aee 2-64 2°47

99-99 99-96

The scale, treated with solvents, gave the following percentages
of extract :—

Cold water .... bs is ... 17:35 per cent.
Cold ether Se a. ee we ~~ DB2°56 5
Boiling ether ... Ms us 31250 -
Cold absolute alcohol . sive cat || Mell 95
Boiling ,, mg Mercer sete a. d433 Ne

Wool and silk dyed with this colouring matter, and mordanted
with aluminium, tin, chromium, and iron, produced the following
colours :—Light amber, ight orange brown, brown, and sage green
respectively.

In these experiments no colours of any great brilliancy or dis-
tinctiveness were obtained, and with alkali all the colours were
changed more or less to a pinkish or purplish tinge.

These facts, taken in conjunction with the somewhat scarce
source of supply, and the position of the azo and alizarin colours
in the dyeing industry, would seem to point out that the colour of
this scale is valueless as a dye.

In volumetric work, used as an indicator, this colour proved as
delicate as cochineal and litmus, but, owing to the very faint
indication which it gives of the change from acid to alkaline
solutions, and vice versd, it is of no particular value in such work.

II. CEROPLASTES RUBENS.

The wax-bearing scale insect, Ceroplastes rubens, occurs in only
one or two localities in New South Wales, though in Queensland
it is considered as a destructive pest.

The scale has a pinkish-white appearance, and when thrown
into water, floats upon the surface. The brittle shell of wax is
easily broken with the finger, and is not very sticky when handled;
it has very little taste.

The scale, heated and strained through a fine cloth, gave 38 per
cent. of wax ; whilst extracting the scale with solvents the follow-
ing percentages of wax were obtained :—Absolute alcohol, 83 per
cent. ; ether, 86 per cent. ; and benzine, 88 per cent.

The melting point of heat-extracted wax was 60° C., and that
of wax extracted by solvents 55° C. Specific gravity of wax at

THE COLOURING MATTER OF ERIOCOCCUS EUCALYPTI. 275

23° C was 1:03. Upon organic analysis, 100 parts of purified
wax gave C 78°22, H 11:01, and O 10°77, therefore the com-
position of the compound was supposed to be C,,H,,0.

A’ comparison was made between this wax and that of the scale
Ceroplastes ceriferus :—

The details in connection with the wax of Ceroplastes ceriferus were taken
from Jndian Museum Notes, Vol. II, No. 3, on ‘‘ White Insect Wax in
India.”—K. C. Cortes.

Ceroplastes ceriferus. Ceroplastes rubens.

Melting point oe \ ue S ee 2
At 15° C. At 23.
Specific gravity he 1-04 1-05
Supposed aaa
of wax, calculated
from percentage ( ee Bel
composition

The wax has no value as a varnish, and it burns with a smoky
flame and resinous smell.

The supposed formula C,,H,,O, must be considered as tentative
only, until further combustions have been made upon larger
quantities of purified wax.

No. 4. METALLURGICAL METHODS IN USE AT
BROKEN HILL.

By G. H. Buakemore.
(Read Saturday, January 8, 1898.)

I HAVE ventured to think that a short history of the methods of
ore treatment in vogue at Broken Hill of this Colony, may be of
some small interest to members, more particularly to those
interested in the mining and metallurgy of silver ores.

To most mining people there is a never ending interest in the
methods of ore treatment followed in the various parts of the
world ; in the complications arising and the difficulties experienced
in the several operations leading to the successful financial end
that shareholders naturally expect. Too little is known or written
on the vast subject of metallurgy, no matter of what metal (if we
except steel and iron), and a wider spread general information
would have saved the untold sums of money which ignorance has
wasted. Too iittle credit is given by practical mining men to the

276 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

advantage of a scientific education and its achievements, and it is
a well known truth that the money paid to a mine manager of
latter day attainments is grudged, whilst assayers and metallurgists
are looked on as luxurious superfluities.

Time and investors’ common-sense will put an end to idle
superstitions such as these, and the hour is coming here, as it has
done years since in America, where the practical miner takes
second place to the educated man. All these truisms simply help
me to say that Broken Hill has suffered in the past from such
mistakes as these ; but the good sense of the old directors of the
Proprietary Mine ‘asserted itself, and brought out to the country
such men as Patton, Schlapp, and Howell, whose methods of
mining and treatment of silver lead ores on a large scale are a
standing object lesson to the Australian mining world.

I do not propose, in this paper, to deal with the mining part of
the question, but simply to take up the methods of ore treatment
adopted at the Proprietary Mine, which practically describe the
metallurgy of silver and lead in Australia.

ORE TREATMENT.

This will be described in the following order :—Blast-furnace
smelting, lixiviation and chloridising, amalgamation and concen-
tration.

Smelting.—One great drawback to the smelting operations was
the irregularity of the composition and value of the ore, and the
absence of bedding floors at the furnaces, for the ore to be received
in as it came from the mine, made this point more acute, and,
together, have caused great monetary losses to all the companies
who smelted their own ore. The following series of analyses of
the smelting ores of the Broken Hill Proprietary Mine will show
how the ores varied, and this variation took place not daily, but
hourly, requiring constant care and attention to get the best work
possible from the furnaces at the minimum of cost.

Manganese Ironstone (used as flux).

Bby/s Ag; ozs. Fe %. Mn %. CaO %. | AIIOR Shih SiO, Z%.
7 3°00 15°0 21:0 “90 8°0 2°6 11-4
15 4°0 14°4 PSSA MN <Bo0c0¢ 6°5 1°3 15°7
20-0 2:0 14:0 DASE ONE ceiciiie’ | ooRa satel (ener 1l‘4
19°0 3°0 11°4 a heal erences en pcocecom || .cousac 10°'8
19:0 2:0 12°9 PAs wail mesonaser it edaeodo: © |. \so-opc 8°8
31:0 1°40 3°10 OAS Berane | asacon "| sconbec 10°6
17:0 2:0 17:0 PAAR | On oatete) wtW Meaodocn ||) cbdoc 11°0
17'0 4:0 13°5 PO VEN Ta Gacrecm ||) matoose, ||) _cooncc 18-00

METALLURGICAL

METHODS

AT BROKEN HILL.

Silicious Ironstone (partly regarded as flux).

Pb Ag; ozs.| Fe %. Mn %. | CaO %. | Al,0,- vin ye, || SiO).
1sys5) 320 12°4 16°8 1°5 6°4 1°4 20:0
14:0 39:0 12°4 VAS Al > Pepa 8:0 ME7/ DDT,
11-0 32:0 10°2 GSS tpi RCRA. wilt ees ove Ul REE aes 32°8
15:0 9-0 10°8 SSO Mala syscas eal isn, o-eee inde ees 29:0
11:0 13:0 10-0 GES RG atsoctccwe ll Uh cceas Rell orcas: 32°8
16:0 26:0 118355) GSO Gl cease, dl eee I aN ses 28°6
15:0 LO Hales ah ee |Veteaar ee td) hy Sere TE ee 29°8

Kaolin Ores.
Lead ¥ Ag; ozs. Fe 7 Mn %. CaO %. | AlZOs A: Ae $10,
13'0 60°0 12°8 14°4 0:9 14°8 ls 33°0
8:0 62°0 13:0 NR | eset 14°4 3°25 33°0
8:0 SOOM Rosen corn lt coc: lt eetoseet. IP etcees le eae De eeeenes
10°0 SOND erate sae Phil acs cseeen | ereeetece me! rere oregon: | cents at || MN ere
8-0 IL} A deren) linn Sm a bee A aes |r ne Rt ne Ader aA Boos bree
9:0 OOF sessed) IH SRR ait a|Ne See ay a) 8 corte a ha hae k ryt PR
10°0 ANNE O J See nena (RN ree Te reer] NRL So | eee |e
Carbonate of Lead Ores.
Pb. Ag. Fe. Mn. CaO. Al,O.. Zn. SiO,.
24°0 12°0 6:0 ° 4°5 0°6 8-4 2°0 30°3
37°4 17°60 ould eS Siu lamer comet IWR feet cia. ll cence 25:0
29:0 20°0 4-9 nae) waecces 8:0 2:4. 40°2
150 SEMPRA re, a cemeg nai TASA READ GIR US” ery dll Qe awa Pha ae
14°0 GZEO Ca eB ee Sa PEP ae eal end a cess HS ies ARES oe
12-0 SSO fly cere || eke eevee cud lene shefctorny ob Ilk ters, cose UN Netstea tee | aaa
15:0 Dosis Ui tall ae ara We A eer, 2 Ngee kes Sal ape ctr fae PR aoc
17-0 ZOO alt -sesces- Ui A sSoea hill) cosacteial le maceariaeill. pateeeee. ll peeerets
Crude Sulphide Lead Ore.
Pb. Ag. Fe. Mn. CaO. Al,O3. Zn. SiO,

28-0 19°0 3°8 TED epee gy) 16°4 PES
26-0 16:0 3°6 12 alae tees 2°1 Ney; 26'4
21:0 16:0 See cow C'llaicdec se kl Mae eeu eee 2200 iia hese
24:0 VSO} | sites wi igs cetera Mun elaeee 40:08) | abies
25°0 A Ole le Beackee 4 csee aden let eacteenetge al MM Sees a0) | noose
22°0 POGOE al Wetescal Wea tna see eet etal Ibe ek PANY Nh eposde
32°0 TBO) Mee le yee tel De a ee cee Z2OsO Meee.

278 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

Sulphide Concentrates.

Lead, per cent. ...| 60 55 66 66 69 67 65 64
SilversiOz7. Vass.) 21 19 19 22 21 2320 19
Zinc, percent. ...| 8 9 8 | 8 8 7 76} 10

The chief end that the metallurgist in charge had to keep in
view was the output. He was not asked simply to smelt the ores,
but was also required to vary the charges in such a way as to keep
the weekly returns of silver and lead nearly even. The silicious
kaolin ores are the chief source of silver, and a glance at the assays
given above will show how these vary in value and composition,
and, as pointed out previously, not daily but hourly.

The indicator of the daily output was the assay of a small
sainple of lead, called the ‘dip sample,” taken directly from the
“well” of the furnace once every twelve hours, and, as the assay
showed a rise or fall in silver, the charge was changed accordingly.
For instance, if the “ dip assay” showed a drop in silver, and the
returns were not good enough for the part of the week which had
elapsed, it was often necessary to sacrifice a nice, economical
charge on the furnace, and replace some low grade basic ore by
the silicious and troublesome kaolin ore to raise the value of the
bullion, and, correspondingly, the week’s output. Or the reverse
condition might have to be considered. It is simply impossible
for the mine to regulate the assay value of the ore (which is the
sole thing the mine part of the organisation looks at), because in
the kaolin stopes the faces may be ‘all or part in low grade ore for
some hours, perhaps days ; and without any change in the appear-
ance of the ore, the assays suddenly rise or fall. “In a large mine
such as the Broken Hill Proprietary, where the demand made by
the furnaces is great and imperative, it is impossible to keep the
ore stored in the stopes until the assay value is known, and usually
the ore is in the smelter bins, and probably in the furnace, before
the underground manager knows its value. This is not an advan-
tage, especially if we regard it from the metallurgist’s point of
view, who is asked to keep the return steady, otherwise it is
seldom that any absolutely useless ore is sent to the furnaces for
the want of the assays or means to store it underground. One
needs to see and know the tremendous ore body of the Proprietary
Mine to quite grasp this assertion ; but if I say that all the ore
carries silver, whether the lode is 300 feet wide or 3 feet, it will
be readily understood that, with constant experience of the pecu-
liarity of the ore, the underground manager can judge very closely
from his previous results what the average value of the ore will be
each day ; but it is to be clearly understood that there is no abso-
lute guide to the ores’ value except experience of the ore body’s
idiosyncracies, when assays are not available at once, nor any

METALLURGICAL METHODS AT BROKEN HILL. 279

economical means which can be used to allow of the ore being
stacked underground until the results of its value are out. The
demand on the mine by the smelters partly brings about such a
condition of irregular values in the ore, and nothing can be
devised to remedy it, when a mine has a body of ore which is so
eccentric in value as that of the Proprietary, and has to keep up
its weekly tonnage and output, except large bedding floors. From
these remarks, the study may be slightly seen which the man in
charge of the furnaces has to make of the character of the ores
being smelted. Regarding the slag that will be made, he contents
himself by forming an opinion of the silica contents of the ore as
it lies in the furnace supply bins, and on that opinion adheres to
or changes the running furnace charge. In addition to that, he
studies his furnaces and notes all the various signs of the tuyeres,
the way the molten slag fall into the slag-pot, the speed the
furnace is smelting, &c., and with practice will make the right
change ; but so often does the character of the ore alter from
silicious to basic, and wice versd, that it is not uncommon to have
to make from two to six radical changes in the constitution of
the ore charge every day. Experience of the ores one must
therefore have to attempt to run the Proprietary blast furnaces
under the ruling conditions. The absence, then, of bedding
floors, with such a variable ore, is a serious detriment to
good smelting. The skill of the most accomplished metallurgist
would be at fault without he possessed the power to judge, fairly
accurately, the ore in the bins each morning, and even with
long practice mistakes are made very often, for a man cannot
last the whole twenty-four hours of every day, and therefore
does not see the ore which is delivered from the mine during
the night; and the basic or silicious change which he had
made in the charge the previous afternoon might have been
unnecessary if the ore could have been seen by him _ before
hand. Hence for some hours an entire waste of flux has gone on,
which gets to be serious with eighteen furnaces in full blast. I
am somewhat afraid that my metallurgical critics may not quite
understand the points in this ore irregularity and the impossibility
of arresting it, and probably describe the method of the metal-
lurgist as more guess work than brains, and therefore it is well to
say that the ‘‘ guessing” point of the problem is assisted in every
way by regular daily assays of the ores with their principal com-
ponent parts, such as silica, iron, manganese, and zine, together with
careful bi-daily slag analyses and slag assays from every furnace,
made for lead and silver, together with special samples of slag for
the same metals taken promiscuously from the furnaces during each
day. With the aid of these very close work can be done, and the
ability to judge the molten slags, as to their lead and silica con-
tents, is also of the very greatest assistance to the general end.

2°80 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

This digression, if it can be so called, is rather long, but it is
well to have plainly understood some of the difticulties which had
to be overcome before in reality a pound of ore could be smelted.

THE BLAST FURNACE PLANT.

The furnaces belonging to the Proprietary were 16 in all,
divided into two sheds, called the north and the south smelters.
The firstnamed contained 9 brick-shaft furnaces 60 inches by 112
inches inside measurement. The 9 furnaces were supplied with air
from a common main, the blast being supplied from 6 No. ‘3, il
No. 5, and 3 No. 44 Baker Positive Blowers, driven by a pair of
horizontal compound surface- condensing engines, 164 inches and 26
inches cylinders by 40-in. stroke. A ‘stand- by engine was of the
marine type, and was styled a tandem compound condensing engine,
cylinders 14 inches and 24 inches, with a 30-in. stroke. Steam was
supplied from 2 Lancashire boilers, 7 feet diameter and 23 feet long,
and 2 Cornish boilers 6 feet sfmnaiee and 25 feet long, fitted with
1 5-in. by 4-in. by 8-in. Knowles and 1 5-in. by 6-in. by 8-in.
Tangye boiler feed pumps.

All the 9 furnaces delivered their smoke, by means of downcast
flues, into a common culvert delivering into a wrought-iron stack
196 ft. high and 11 ft. in the clear at the top.

The slag was hauled away from the furnaces in two-wheeled
slag-pots by manual labour; later on it was handled with large
pots, two on a carriage, pach pot holding about 1 ton of slag,
horses doing the haulage.

On the feed floor the charge wheelers were elevated from the
ore bins 2 the level of the feed floor by 8 hydraulic automatic
lifts with 7-in. rams. All slag, matte, flue dust, dross, &ec., that
had to be Era: through the furnaces were lifted by a double-
friction hoist, 7-in. diameter cylinder and 10-in. stroke.

The south smelters consisted of 6 brick-shaft furnaces, 60 inches
by 112 inches, and 1 small matte furnace. The products of com-
bustion were drawn off into a common flue and distributed into the
air through an iron stack about 150 feet high and 10 ft. 6 in. in
the clear at the top. As with the first set described, the furnaces
were supphed with air from a common blast pipe. The air was
supphed from 5 No. 7; Baker Positive Blowers, actuated by a
pair of horizontal engines, cylinders 164 inches and 38 inches
stroke, and 1 Westinghouse standard engine, 154 inches cylinders
and 14 inches stroke, as a relieving engine.

Steam was supplied from a nest of 5 Lancashire boilers, each
7 feet diameter by 23 feet long, fitted with | No. 4 Knowles’ and
1 No. 5 Blake boiler feed-pumps. In addition to supplying the
south smelters with steam, this installation of boilers supplied the
pumping plant, which handled the cooling water of both nests of
furnaces.

METALLURGICAL METHODS AT BROKEN HILL. 281

In the pump house are the following :—

1 horizontal compound condensing engine, 164 in. by 26 in. cylinders
by 48 in. stroke.

2 sets of double plunger pumps, 9 in. by 36 in.

1 set bucket pumps, 12 in. by 24 in.

1 Knowles’ compound condensing pump, !6 in. by 26 in. by 24 in. and
17 in. plunger.

1 Tangye steam pump, 10 in. by 6 in. by 24 in.

1 Blake bucket pump, 10 in. by 8 in. by 24 in.

1 Blake double plunger pump, 10 in. by 10 in. by 18 in.

1 Worthington duplex tank pump, 16 in. by 16 in.

1 Worthington compound pump, 6 in. by 10 in. and 10 in. by 84 in.
cylinders.

All the water from both sets of furnaces delivered into cooling
dams, from whence it was elevated by the above pumps to large
wrought-iron tanks situated at a higher level than the furnaces,
and from these tanks the jackets of the furnaces were supplied.

The whole of the works and slag dumps are lighted by electri-
city, and are connected with telephone to the general office.

In addition to this large and efficient plant, the Proprietary
also leased the three 100-ton blast furnaces on the British Mine.
A. description of these furnaces will be given further on.

The complete equipment of a lead blast furnace plant at Broken
Hill is a matter of some expense. | According to the number of
furnaces, so the size of the engine increases, unless combined
engine and blowers are used, with building and flue space. — For
a single blast furnace of what is known as a 100-ton furnace,
the following material is required, exclusive of engine building,
flues, and stack :—

i 8. “dl:

1 Blast furnace at foundry (ironwork only)............ 1,000 0 O

2 100 I.H.P. Lancashire boilers, each £450 ......... 900 0 O

iPa00medibricks: 63 lbsy per e000 Mrenten.cte os-cscescce ay IPA (6)

2,500 fire bricks for crucible and flue, at £10 per 1,000 Py (0) 0)

11 casks of English fireclay, at £7 per ton ............ 21 0! +0

INon 7s) Baker or Roots? blower es. .n-ceccrcseseeeeees 400 0 0

1 Steam pump of 30,000 gallons per hour capacity 250 0 0

Amilrocksitor slag snG&c:,, 1 2each sa. scueconee soem eeee 48 0 0

4) [Bynilliorm TaRKel techs Sa3 @eKolsl) SA nnpoohhonnocaocsouonsesce son 1 () (0)

EDOM A emye SCall Oscars ceisaicaaerdeteeerie aise BEA HosDObe 200) 70

DIES AS POLS EAC HVS) LOS... Siiiesconoes sac aeomororeent ae 156 0 0

SUsbulliom moulds each Sy o..-seqesecdcerenceseecareeee 22) 110) 0

BATE LOLFSATINGS .vajniscisicisesioaceneosiancoeeeeteeaeeeeee: 3) ORO

200 ft. canvas hose ............ Jilsis gaaléciaina aid sles pitch eM SE WERE 10 0 O

HOORES Jem! lndiasrulbber hosess...scs-nunesesess-eeceeeeee a: OF 0

100 ft. 2-in. 3 A Ont corte rere cacicth cast. 1210 0

2 Lead coolers and frames, each £5...............--.<-. LOMO) 0

Geltadiles; each! 68hGdky. csc. csceeee eats ea eee IL alg) @

GuSkimimerns;, Cachross.1.-sseeetee cee tree eee eeee Or 0
Steel for tapping bars and for barring crust off

firnmace: Wall Sis Ak. ana scaeuosoneneasmene seme e occ: 10505 0

4 *‘Stoppers ” for stopping slag, each 7s. 6d. ...... LOMO

1 Set 1 in. steel letters for branding bullion ......... 012 6

bo
oo
bo

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

1 Set 1 in. figures for branding bullion ...............
7 Wrought steel barrows for wheeling ore charges,

CEVOla 224 IBS. Concedes poconosadeceseaeD seoapHooBoSsoLaCddD
Coke barrows; each! £45 Ost). scecsacnce tern euesent
Pot for re-melting scrap lead and sweating lead

A OM GUGOSS aa crdeiielssiie aS woisceoarr rel au siecle slelss viaclosean
1 Hoist for elevating bullion, slag, flue-dust, &e....
4 14-lb. sledge hammers and handles, each 10s. 6d.
2 No. Sshort-handled shovels, each 3s................
6 Long-handled square-mouth shovels, each 3s, 6d.
1 complete set of spanners to fit all nuts ............
I S-beamicharounoascalenaneccsscmeeicosseccassoncscen ee
Labour of erecting furnace and fittings ...............

me bho

]

Spare Parts.

2 Lower end jackets, each £4110 0... 9 0 O
4 Corner +3 a a 10) (0533, LOO 10
4 Side a 55 410 0... 18 0 0
12 tuyeres and corners
complete, each ............0: AZ Ge 9 0) 0
Waterjacketedslagspouts,each 1 5 0... 615 O
Solid slag spouts, each ......... ONO OF 100
3 Separators complete, each... 115 0... 5 5 O
3 Separator covers, each ...... CY PE Gee OO 7
4A water-breasts,each 1 5 0... 710 O
2 Bullion spouts, each ......... OG: OF 0120
6 Slag-pot handles, each ...... L 8 O5.946,20) 0
6 Be bowls Pope | asso 1D, (OF. O27 10
6 a axles At nes WO) OD) WO = TORO
200 ft. canvas hose for wind-pipe ............ 10 0 O
100) tt) Jam: India-rubber hose ®......-...-..---< 5 10) 70
NOOrite Dam #55 oo! gst, Be aneaendencnestee 2 OneG,
Cord and copper- wire to bind onthe hose 1 0 0

Blowing-in Expenses.

£ s. d. £ iss “id:
30 tons dry wood, at, say . 0) 34055 921) +0) 0
15 ,, lead at market price,
SAY cieencosacsdasausenpeiinsria: ISP OO Of 195 050
35 tons of slag, cartage—cost
pemmbon’ Tocco caceacetereree OR IIGre se LO
5 tons coke, at per ton...... ay i Obra Mey Nay
4 ,, limestone,atperton 014 0... 216 0
4 ,, ironstone, RE Le Ones £45 4) 0
Coal for steam, 10 tons, at
persion! cracccseercerceceees PSS Os al LOMO
ihabourtabout fumacess tercesacsereessemeesees 20 0 O

Water, 20,000 gallons an hour required
for jackets, for 96 hours—pumping

£ Sh Gl:
012 6

19 5 0
9°0 0

20 0 0
195 0 0
2820
116 0

1 a
410" 10

50 0 0
150 0 0
3,369 0 6
123 1 6
£ 1s) id?

costs at 1d. per 1,000 galllons......... 8, 0-0
Evaporation, loss, and leakage, 8,000 gal-
lons, at 4s. per 1,000 gallons......... LALO

——— 289 9 0

£3,781 11 O

METALLURGICAL METHODS AT BROKEN HILL. 283

At this point the expenses incurred are then charged to the ore-
smelting account. They serve to show what the bare furnace, and
starting it in work, costs without building, engine, fuel, or stack.
No estimate has been given of these, because the condition of one
furnace by itself does not exist in Broken Hill ; all the smelting
works there being on a much larger scale, with everything to
correspond as regards building, flue, and stack capacity.

[A general design of a complete plant with two brick-shaft
furnaces and space for others was exhibited. |

THE WORK ON THE FURNACE.

The old style of oval-shaped (horizontal section) 30-ton blast
furnace, with a short iron stack through the roof to carry off the
smoke—with which the era of lead-smelting was inaugurated at
Broken Hill—is now obsolete, and the sight of three or four of
these old furnaces on the scrap heap of the mine forcibly brings
home the advancement which has been made in the general con-
struction of the lead-blast furnace.

The first radical change in design was made when Mr. H. H.
Schlapp, late Metallurgist of the Broken Hill Proprietary, intro-
duced the present furnaces at Broken Hill. Alterations were
made in these by Mr. Schlapp, which improved them and at the
same time made them “ handier” furnaces, and since Mr. Schlapp’s
departure from Broken Hill, other small improvements, such as
the introduction of the Matthewson matte separator, have assisted
toward more economical work, which the fall in the silver market
and assay contents of the ore demanded.

At the British Mine, a more important change was made in the
design by Mr. John Howell, who substituted mild steel jackets
for the brick shaft of the furnace of Mr. Schlapp’s design ; and
for ores which contain sulphide of lead, my experience has un-
doubtedly shown that this change has been a most important one.
One great trouble in a lead furnace when smelting sulphide ore,
with or without zinc, is the manner in which the sulphide causes
the formation of “crusts” or ‘ scaffolds” in the furnace at a
point about 12 inches to 18 inches below the level of the top of
the ore charges in the furnace. As the Jead sulphide reaches
the smelting zone of the furnace, part of it sublimes and ascends
through the loose ore and deposits again on the cooler walls of
the furnace. With a brick furnace, the walls of the shaft are
never so cool, of course, as the water-jacketed shaft mentioned,
and the sulphide of lead and zinc seems to incorporate itself with
the bricks, as if it were a part of the original erection. When
this crust grows to such a size as to materially interfere with the
working of the furnace, it is usual to “‘run the furnace down,” to
use a technical term, or, in other words, stop putting fresh charges
into the furnace and allow the level of the ore and fluxes to sink

284 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

until it gets considerably below the obnoxious crust or scaffold.
Then the blast is taken off the furnace, and the crust is prised off
with heavy 14-inch diameter-octagon steel bars. The disadvantage of
the cementation of the crust with the brick walls is then seen.
The crust being all of a dull, red heat, you may chip pieces off
with laborious effort, but that is all. If you attempt to clean the
walls to the original form of the furnace, you find thas the crust
has become part and parcel of the brick shaft, and the latter gets
very much damaged in the operation,

With the water-jacket walls the crust is a very different con-
cern. Instead of being a solid, tough, and immovable obstruc-
tion, you find that there is but one place in it that is hard, which,
naturally, is the face exposed to the heat of the furnace. Behind
this hard face is a mass of loose ore, which falls away as soon as
the hard shell on the outside is destroyed. Then the crust does
not form any sooner on the cold water jacket than it does on the
brick shaft, because the attrition of the descending ore charge has
effect on its peculiar form, and it is much more easily removed
from the cold iron face, usually in six hours, leaving the furnace
its original size. With the brick shaft this may take twelve to
eighteen hours, and when left at that is not anything like clean,
through the fact of the crust having filtered into the pores of the
brick, and made itself a part of the structure as before described.
Much has been said against the water-jacket shaft on the ground
of increased fuel necessary through the amount of caloric carried
off by the water ; but I think a nice looking mathematical calcu-
lation is not sufficient to overcome the great advantages which the
water-jacket shaft has over the brick, and besides that I never
used more fuel with the water-jacket furnace than with the brick-
shaft furnace.

It is no uncommon thing to see a number of the brick-shaft
furnaces being “burnt out,” as it is called, just above the lower
jackets. Unskilful work is the natural retort; but I maintain
that with the irregularity in composition of the ore, this might
naturally be expected. Such a trouble is never experienced with
the other style of shaft, and the test of experience has demon-
strated indisputably that for good, fast, clean, and cheap work,
the blast furnace which is all water-jacketed is the ideal model
lead-blast furnace.

Such a furnace may be described as follows :—

It is water-jacketed throughout. The top half of the furnace
consists of hollow wrought steel jackets with a 6-inch water space,
three jackets being 9 feet 9 inches deep ; the fourth, recessed to
carry the flue of downcast, is 8 feet deep. The water is fed in
at the bottom of each jacket, with the view of preventing the
deposition of any sediment, and the whole of the jackets are con-
nected to make sure of an equal water circulation through *hem

METALLURGICAL METHODS AT BROKEN HILL. 285

all. The jackets are supported by lugs, which are riveted on them,
standing on an oblong frame-work of 8-inch “I” iron, the corners of
which rest on four hollow cast-iron columns or pillars, serving also as
waste water-pipes. The jackets are surrounded with an iron strap,
making the whole a stiff and strong job. The structure at this
stage, and before the lower jackets are put in place on the brick
crucible, presents the appearance of a large rectangular box with
rounded corners, not having any bottom or top, standing on four
legs—the columns.

The lower half of the furnace consists of twenty cast-iron hollow
jackets, each 20 inches in width by 57 inches long. There are six
jackets on each side, with a circular opening cast in them large
enough to allow a water-jacketed tuyere to be entered, and these
tuyeres project beyond the jackets into the furnace some 9 inches.
Four corner jackets have no tuyere openings, and four end jackets
(two each end) have 4-inch openings in them to admit air, but no
water-jacketed tuyere.

The water is fed into the top of each of these jackets, and is
conducted to the bottom by a passage cast inside the jacket. The
escape is from the top, and by having a pipe, bent somewhat to
the shape of the letter S, the delivery of the water is effected into
a launder at a point 9 inches above the highest point of the jacket,
doing away with any chance of steam gathering in it. The launder
can thus be made a fixture, and does not require to be moved
when a jacket has to be taken out of a furnace, as in the old style
of furnace.

All the water from the top and bottom jackets, tuyeres, breasts,
separators, and slag spouts delivers into the launder which sur-
rounds the furnace, and this in its turn empties the water into the
hollow columns which support the top jackets. From these
columns pipes underground carry the water to cooling tanks, from
whence it is pumped back to the supply tank for use again. Each
of the lower jackets have three lugs for bolts on each outside
perpendicular edge, and, in addition to bolting the whole of them
together, a binder of 60 lb. steel rails goes around them to stiffen
the structure.

The crucible on which these jackets stand consists of a large pan
made of 3-inch wrought-iron plate, in which brick is laid with fire-
clay to form a basin or well to collect the lead reduced from the
ore. The lead is drawn off from this well by a passage in the
brickwork, starting at the bottom of the well and passing up and
outwards at an angle. This system has been incorrectly styled a
‘siphon tap,” or the ‘‘ Arent’s siphon” after the first user of it,
but it is plain that it is not a siphon, the lead simply rising in the
passage and obeying the law of all liquids in finding its level.

The Matthewson matte separator is an ingenious arrangement,
which takes advantage of the presence of the blast in the furnace

286 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

to have the slag forced to deliver at a higher level outside the
furnace than it lies inside. It is satisfactory only when small
quantities of matte are being produced.

The brick-shaft furnace requires no description other than that
the brick shaft is supported on a heavy cast-iron entablature
supported on cast-iron columns.

The all water-jacketed furnace just described measured 50
inches wide and 132 inches long at the lower jackets, 34 inches
wide between the noses of the tuyeres. It was nearly 17 feet deep
from the feed-plate to the bottom of the crucible.

Since these furnaces have been built, much larger furnaces on
the same design have been erected at other works, and have given
the greatest satisfaction ; in fact, it may be safely said that the days
of the brick furnace are over in all newly erected smelting plants.

The “ blowing-in” operation, or starting of one of the blast
furnaces, requires experience, and a sharp eye kept on all that is
going on. At the risk of being prolix, I will describe the actual
operation of starting a lead-blast furnace.

From two to four days before the real start is made, a drying
warming fire is lighted in the brick crucible. The water-pump is
started, and water turned on to all the cast-iron and wrought-steel
jackets, tuyeres, and separator breasts. Usually there is a
separator at both ends of a large furnace, and when the fire
is lighted, one of these separators, breast and slag spout, is taken
out of the furnace to leave an opening through which the wood is
passed into the crucible. As soon as the bricks of the crucible
begin to warm up, the engine driving the blower is started (or in
a nest of furnaces the blast is let into the ‘“ bustle-pipe ” from the
main blast or air-pipe), and the fire is urged by the wind thus
forced into the furnace. Care is taken that a plentiful supply of
water is kept in all the parts of the furnace that would otherwise
get heated. The 15 tons of lead requisite to fill the crucible is
now melted in with the aid of the wood fire (urged by the blast
from the blower) in lots of twenty-five to fifty bars at a time.
This usually takes eight or twelve hours, and it is not advisable,
though quite possible, to take less time, inasmuch as the lead
would not retain sufficient heat to keep it molten for the few
hours required, after the furnace is closed up or started, before
the furnace begins itself to produce lead from the ore. Imme-
diately all the bars of lead are thoroughly melted in, the whole of
the hot ashes and coals from the wood are then skimmed off the
lead, leaving it almost quite clean. ‘Too much time must not be
wasted over this operation, for the molten lead in the crucible is
cooling while exposed to the air. It is also very necessary to get
these ashes out, because if left in the furnace they form what is
called a “crust” over the well or crucible, which acts as a shield,
and prevents the lead reduced in the smelting operation from

METALLURGICAL METHODS AT BROKEN HILL. 287

getting into the crucible, so allowing the lead of the well to chill
from want of fresh supplies of heated lead, most probably causing
a “shut down” of the furnace.

As soon as the ashes are all out, some deal, or any easily ignited
wood, is thrown on the face of the molten lead, which last should
be hot enough to ignite the chips in a few moments. The
corners of the furnace are well supplied also to make sure of a
good fire all over the crucible. The heavier wood is then thrown
in, and the mason then puts back the separator, breast and slag
spout, having all necessary bricks cut the exact size required
beforehand, so that the least possible time may be consumed from
this time on until the blast is put on the furnace. Immediately
the mason has secured the separator and its parts in place, more
wood is dropped into the furnace from the top floor, through the
feed opening, until the tuyeres are just covered with wood. If
the flames have not obtained a good hold of the wood you must
wait a little. As soon as you are satisfied that the fire has a good
enough hold of the wood, some 1,600 pounds of coke is emptied
into the furnace out of bags, which have all been weighed up in
readiness. Then the following charges are shovelled into the
furnace as rapidly as the eight or nine men on the furnace can do
it. I might say that the first 50 of the charges given below are
weighed up and stacked on the floor around the feed-opening of
the furnace, each charge being divided off from the next with a
piece of wood. This weighing-up is done to facilitate the filling-up
of the furnace when every moment is precious.

BLOWING-IN CHARGES.
25 charges of

Slag oe a dirs soe, 600. Lb: )
Manganic ironstone... bao MOG gel oe SOR) LD,
Limestone : ort ae TN zs
Coke... ae Se eae, heel cas

25 charges of
Slag bes i 3: woo DOO-Thi, )
Carb. lead ore ... ae cian in Ong L995 ib
Limestone oi oe dest TO syle
Manganic iron ... ses haa yon CMD eh til
Woke: \ ke. =e os: get: hon pe

50 charges of
Lead ore (carbonate) ... Jae) da Dulaee)
Silicious iron... ane ew ULOOe,, eal
Manganic iron ... te i i paheI eee De es
Limestone ae oo ee 2U0R,, eek
Slag’) Js. Se shea deo 5,1)
Coke... ee ae seh 2.

- Then regular charges Je see lea 1,000 I).

288 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

After the first 15 charges have been put in, 10 bars of lead are
dropped into the furnace; after the next 15 charges, 10 bars
more ; after the next 25 charges come 10 bars of lead ; and for,
say, 90 charges afterwards, 1 bar of lead is fed in with each’
charge. This is done to get a lot of lead into the crucible quickly,
for this additional lead, being heated to bright redness in its descent
in the furnace, accordingly raises the temperature of the lead in
the well or crucible, and stops the risk of the lead “freezing up”
which we first saw melted in.

While the men are filling up the furnace, you see that the
tuyeres are all closed on the furnace, so taat no gases from the
wood can get into the main blast-pipe and cause damage by
exploding ; “that all the jackets are keeping cool and the ‘‘siphon”
from the lead well to the outside of the furnace is not choked
up and has a bright fire on it. In fact, give a look around
to see that nothing is missing or wrong, so that the blast may
be turned on the instant the furnace is filled up. With the -
wood and coke which were first put in, 40 of the blowing-in
charges fill the furnace to within 6 feet of the feed floor.
Then, sending all the slag men down to their proper stations,
the blast is turned on at a pressure of about 3 to 4 oz. to the
square inch. In a very few minutes every joint between the
water-jackets is smoking, if they have not been well rammed with
fire-clay.

Wet clay is placed on the smoky places to check it, because
after a while these streams of smoke catch fire, and sometimes
burn the windbags ; and, if they do not, the smoke from wood is
not the most pleasant substance to get into one’s eyes.

About twenty minutes after the blast has been turned on, the
smoke all ceases, through the furnace beginning to smelt the
charges which have just been put in; the first slag formed chilling
on the jacket and closing the cracks. Then the tuyeres are
examined frequently to judge how the slag is forming. In an
hour and a quarter to one and one-half hours after the blast goes
on, the first slag can be tapped from the furnace. The slags first
produced by the furnace are purposely made lower in silica
than those produced when in regular work; for, being low in
silica, the newly blown-in furnace will be able to melt» them
easily and quickly, and so get a good start. As a rule the first
slag contains about 30 per cent. of silica. When the last of
the 100 blowing-in charges are in the furnace the regular charge
is put on.

The following charges, with slags from same, together with the
dip, sample assays, and mattes made, will give some idea of the
usual composition of the smelting char ges when in regular work.
The last eight are selected because sulphide of lead was used in
large quantities and no carbonate of lead ore.

METALLURGICAL METHODS AT BROKEN HILL.

Samples of Charges on Furnaces in lb. Nos. 1 to 8.

Carb. | Flue ___ |Silicious | Crude Tron- | Lime-

No. Lead Ore.} Dust. Kaolin. ae phide Iron Ore stone. | stone. Coke.
1 150 300 | 150 | 25 ‘ 75 890 125
2 150 175 225 | 25 ah 125 390 125
3? 150 275 lia) | 25 aos 75 300 125
4 150 250 200 | 25 459 50 300 125
5 150 aoe Papa) 200 | 25 25 is 300 125
6 | 125 | 25 | 300 | 150 | 25 |195 | ... | 250 | 195
7 150 Aan 250 lyf; 25 125 Has 275 125
8 175 250 100 | 43) 175 275 125

Leaving the coke out, these figures add to 1,000 lb. in each case ;
the weight and charge is always kept.

No. Pb. vA
1 2°25
2 4:00
3 Da)
4 2°75
5 2:25
6 1:50
a 4:5
8 4:25
9 15

10 S305:

11 3°25

12 My)

13 3:0
14 6:5

15 15)

16 125

No. | Kaolin.
9 125
10 125
il 100
12 125
13 125
14 125
15 125
16 100

T

Slag analysis on morning following.

SOHCOHPHP OHNE NH WHE
PORDONOROAS~ IFA BBD

Silicious
Tron.

si oO, Fe. %. Mn. %.
42°0 12°7 12°8
36°8 10:2 14°0
45:2 9°4 70
46°8 LOS, 6:2
39°6 140 8:0
40°8 9°6 10°0
38:0 10°0 11°0
39°4 105 10°8
34°5 15:2 7°83
28°5 19°5 7:0
34°8 15°4 78
34°0 14:0 79
31°6 20°8 7:0
29°6 23°4 6:0
S20 15:0 82
34°2 16°4 (ol
Ore Charges, 9 to 16.
Crude Tron Tron- Lime-
Sulphide.| Ore. stone. stone.
325 150 225
325 He 250 175
aoe 50 abe 225
Somos, ||, -1a0 225
ae | 250 175
325 | 250 175
325 150 275
ae 100 225

Ca.0 %

sere

eee

Seeeee

veenee

Sulph.
Concen.

VANES

CC: Sa COU Ou Oem 2) 8 shel isl t=) ie
PS Crore eyes Se 2 Pc

|

| Slag.

100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

Dip
Assay,
Silver

oz.

586
340
520
436
484

220

Coke.

290 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

First Matte from Charges.

No. | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 13 | 14 | 15 | 16
Lend Bee 36°8 | 25°5 42:0 | 29:2 | 58:4 | 35:4 | 23-7
Copper % vse 42| 4:4 42| 62| 32| 40] 4:4
Silver, 0Z. voce 42-0 | 29-0 41:0 | 52°0 | 35:8 | 33:0] 31°0

Sample Assays of other Mattes.

WC RLy senior ssenctiaeeeas 39°7 33°7 31°3 32°8 34°4 43°2

Coppers wa-eaanemcones 29°6 25:3 27:3 29-2 28°4 22°0
Silivieny Ozone trae 195:00 | 244:00 | 138:00 | 163-00 | 172-00 | 182-00

Third Matte Assays.

RAL stir wert ave ar a'efon:crveltearnewrtenesee 29°8 32°9 37°9 371
COpperigieiscatieasserevosssbesecions 40°0 42:2 Bs 32°7
Silver MBE. coshachatacucemeecrkoas 32600 361°00 179°00 261:00

The ironstone shown in these tables is distinct from the iron
ore, the latter being the produce of the mine, analyses of which
are given under the head of manganic iron ore, whilst the former
was purchased at a cost of about 21s. a ton. It assayed from
6 to 14 per cent. silica and 50 to 60 per cent. of Fe.

The limestone came from Tarrawingee, and assayed from 6 to 11
per cent. silica, 1 to 5 per cent. of carbonate of magnesia, 14 per
cent. ferric oxide iron, the balance being carbonate of lime. It
cost 14s. a ton landed on the mine.

Regarded as a smelting ore, the Proprietary ore was decidedly
a nice one. Its composition, wherever the ore came from, was
such a happy blending of bases and silica that it smelted very
easily indeed, and had some means been provided by which the
ore could have been regulated in its fluxing value as it went to
the furnaces, as well as its silver and lead value, the mischief
caused by irregular qualities of ore would, of course, have ceased,
and allowed of clean smelting there as elsewhere.

The presence of manganese binoxide in the ore was also of the
greatest assistance both as an oxidiser for the sulphur and for its
rapid melting qualities. The zinc was never present in the slags
in sufficient quantity to cause any mischief. Alumina was the
greatest nuisance ; and my experience has been that with slags up
to about 36 per cent. in silica the alumina acted as a base ; but
usually as soon as this point was overstepped, the slags immedi-
ately thickened up and assumed a most silicious appearance, due,

METALLURGICAL METHODS AT BROKEN HILL. 291

in my opinion, to the alumina changing its functions from that of
a base toan acid. It has been experienced so often on different
ores as to leave no doubt in my mind that its action is as stated.

After a furnace has been at work for a day or two all trouble
arising from the ‘‘ blowing-in” operation is gone if care has been
exercised. The “ blowing-in” crust is some trouble if allowed to
form ; but as a rule it is great want of attention that allows this
to make. It is due to the ashes of the wood which was thrown
in at first to ignite the coke, forming into a solid mass, through
the first slag formed chilling in it. The mischief of it is that it
prevents the lead reduced or added to the “blowing-in” charges
from getting into the well, and unless holes can be driven through
it into the lead underneath, the latter will most assuredly chill
and cause endless trouble, worry, and expense. When the furnace
has been running slag for about an hour, the ashes inside can be
broken up by introducing an inch round bar through either tap-
hole and running it well into the furnace in all directions with
the aid of seven or eight men. The ashes then float out with the
slag, and if this is done fairly often for the first hour or two all
danger of a “blowing-in” crust is avoided. The blast pressure is
gradually risen to the point settled on, 10 to 15 cz. usually, and the
temperature of the lead in the well soon increases until at the end
of twenty-four hours it is usually bright-red. With good ore and
plenty of water free from lime or magnesia, the furnace should
have a long and successful run.

The largest output of lead that I know of from one furnace for
twenty-four hours was 26 tons ; 166 tons of charge being smelted
to produce this. The ore smelted consisted of carbonate of lead
averaging about 35 per cent. to 45 per cent., and was, of course,
the easiest smelting ore to be had. This happened at the British
Mine when I had charge of the furnaces. The week’s output of
lead at the same time was 167 tons. Carbonate lead ore is no longer
found in any large quantities, and it is now carefully hoarded, so
that if a furnace produces from 5 to 7 tons of lead a day it is quite
equal to the average output.

COST OF SMELTING.

This varies from half-year to half-year; but, on the whole, has
has steadily decreased, until at present it costs about 25s. a ton,
including costs for superintendence, labour, repairs, water, fluxes,
fuel, light, &c. In 1888 the cost of smelting amounted to 36s. 5d.
per ton, with the pick of the ore to smelt. The costs given do not,
of course, cover desilverisation expenses, insurance, carriage on
bullion, &c., but are simply the actual expenses incurred on a ton
of ore in the blast furnace department from the time the ore is
received from the mine until the bullion is made and put in the
railway trucks ready to be despatched for further treatment.

292 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

The lowest smelting cost per ton of ore was, I think, done at
the British furnaces, on Proprietary ore, from the 1st of June,
1894, to the 13th September, 1894.

The quantities of ore smelted were as follows :—

Carb. lead ore a i ... 4,358 tons net.
Silicious iron and kaolin... poe oOo oD ‘5
Manganic iron ore ... ee moe 219 be
Sulphide ore... na =a wal 53 93

26,085 net tons.

Coke used, 3,801 tons, or 14:57 per cent. on the ore ; limestone
used, 2,452 tons; coal used, 59 tons ; firewood, equal to coal tons,
774 tons.

The total cost of everything, including rent, water, coke, flux,
coal, firewood, repairs, stores, light, salaries, assay expenses, and
labour about the furnaces, was £24,214 Is. 11d. or 18s. 63d. a
ton on the net ore.

Manganic iron ore was good and plentiful, and, therefore, no
ironstone had to be purchased, which, of course, materially helped
toward the low cost of smelting.

This year will probably see the last smelting done in Broken
Hill, the Proprietary Company finding it to their advantage to
carry their ores to Port Pirie where coal, coke, and fluxes are
cheaper than at Broken Hill, and also of better quality. Low
rates of freight offered by the South Australian Government have
been one of the inducements, and with cheap and good concentra-
tion of the sulphide ores, it costs less railage per unit of lead when
in rich concentrates to send to Port Pirie than if it was first made
into bullion. This is no inconsiderable item.

he advantage of concentrating the smelting operations and
lead-refining under one Superintendent will also be gained, for
hitherto the Company had six furnaces at Port Pirie in addition
to those at Broken Hill, necessitating a separate staff in each place.

SMELTING LOSSES.

In the absence of any reliable method of sampling the ore, the
exact contents were never really known. ‘Grab samples” were
the only means used to arrive at its value, taken from each mine
truck as it reached the surface, and at the furnaces a man was
kept on each shift to sample the ore.as it was smelted. It was
the crudest method of sampling possible, and naturally the results
were just as crude and useless. Had accurate means of sampling
obtained, it would have been a great check on the furnaces and
given the General Manager a lever which ‘he never possessed on
the whole metallurgical department. Certainly it would have
saved many thousands of pounds yearly. Accurate accounts were

METALLURGICAL METHODS AT BROKEN HILL. 293

made out on the basis of the assays which were obtained from
the samples, every little item being brought into account each
week to the last fraction of a penny, to get at the cost per ton of
ore treated. These latter were correct enough, but the statement
of the recovery of the silver and lead was not worth the paper it
was written on, inasmuch as the basis of the whole thing, the assay
of the ore, was the result of incorrect sampling. The samples were
just as likely to show a greater value in the ore than it contained,
or vice versa. Hence you would see that for one week the total
extraction of lead was 70 per cent., silver, 120 per cent. The next
week the figures would show a recovery of, lead, 47 per cent., silver,
65 per cent. These discrepancies can only be attributed to the
incorrect method of sampling. Apparently more silver was re-
covered in the first instance than was in the ore, showing immedi-
ately the valuelessness of the whole return. <A reliable statement
of the extraction of silver and lead from Broken Hill furnaces
generally is not to be obtained, but my opinion is that about 90
per cent. to 92 per cent. of silver and 65 per cent. to 70 per cent.
of the lead actually in the ore were recovered in marketable pro-
ducts. The loss in slag was great, because the proportion of slag
made to ore smelted was from 1} to 14 to 1, due to the silicious
character of the ore. The average lead assay of the ore smelted in
later years was not more than 15 per cent., and the average lead
assay of the slags was about 4 per cent. If 14 tons of slag were
made for each ton of ore smelted, the loss of lead must have been
5 units out of the 15 units of lead in the ore, or 33 per cent. Other
losses of lead take place in fumes and escaping flue dust, but are not
so extensive as has been assumed. ‘The flue dust recovered is equal
to from 0°80 per cent. to 1$ percent. on the weight of ore charged
into the furnace.

The following determinations give some idea of its principal
constituents :—

Flue Dust.

Head, per cent.” ....16.0.00005 25 37 23 30 30
IIWENMIO ZA are Sitisioeesddcocivcns 20 24 30 21 21
FANG, PEV-CENE, s4.6)checccsecass 11 13 10°8 10°7 10

The usual method adopted with this material is to moisten it
with water and return it to the furnace. Necessarily a great
percentage of it rapidly dries, and is carried out of the furnace by
the strength of the blast back into the flues.

No particular effort has been made to make a better collection
of the flue dust, the flues being designed simply to carry off the
smoke and fumes, and accordingly the lighter particles of dust
(and these are always rich in lead) are carried off by the force of
the draught into the stack, and fall outside on the surrounding

294 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

land. Plenty of ore, of good value, has always enabled the com-
pany to pay good dividends, and the loss arising from escaping
flue dust has not been felt.

Larger flues, with plenty of impediments to check the current
in the shape of baffle walls, would certainly have cost a consider-
able sum, and in the position in which the furnaces stood would
have been almost impossible to build ; but had the furnaces been
better placed to allow of long flues being built, the latter would
have paid for themselves long ago, besides preventing the distri-
bution of an undesirable substance on the land. Vegetation was
not damaged by it, for the simple reason that there was none to
damage, and it is doubtful if the general health of the town
suffered in any degree.

REFINING OF THE BULLION.

Although this was not carried on in Broken Hill, still it is so
closely associated with the ore treatment that it might be well to
give a short description of the work. The refinery is situated at
Port Pirie, in South Australia, on the sea coast. The spot was
chosen as being about the most convenient place, having a water
traffic for the largest ships ; in the centre of a good flux district,
and with its sea advantages, coal, coke, and stores were landed at
a price very considerably below the cost in Broken Hill. The
last year or so the company have found it to their advantage to
refine the whole of their output of lead due to the extortionate
charges and deductions made by English refiners. The plant is
capable of handling some 800 tons of silver-lead bullion weekly,
and is very complete in detail. It was designed by Mr. H. H.
Schlapp.

THE PROCESS.

The silver-lead bullion is first put into 50-ton reverberatory
furnaces, where it is melted down slowly, so that as much of the
impurities which it contains may be taken out at the commence-
ment. This impurity or dross, as it is styled, consists almost
entirely of an alloy of copper and lead with silver, one part of
copper taking up sixteen to seventeen parts of lead. When the
lead is all melted down the layer of dross is skimmed off clean.
The heat is then raised, and by degrees the small percentages of
copper, antimony, iron, sulphur, &., are skimmed off, leaving in
the furnace a soft, easily-marked lead and silver bullion. This
operation takes some twelve or more hours to finish. From the
furnace it is tapped into cast-steel kettles of 50 tons capacity.
By the aid of a fire under the kettle the lead is made red-hot,
and a small percentage of metallic zinc, from about 14 per
cent. by weight downwards, is added. ‘This is well stirred in
for some half hour or longer, and then the contents of the
kettle are allowed to cool down considerably. As soon as the

METALLURGICAL METHODS AT BROKEN HILL. 295

temperature falls below a certain point, the zine, which has alloyed
with the bulk of the gold present some silver and lead, begins to
separate out exactlyas cream rises on a dish of milk, and is skimmed
off and kept for further treatment. The remaining lead and silver
are then heated up to redness once more, and about 14 per cent.
of zinc added. The cooling processis repeated, and the zinc-silver-
lead crust once again skimmed off. This “skimming” or “crust,”
known as the “silver crust,” in contradistinction to the first one,
called the “ gold crust,” is kept apart from the latter. The zincing
operation may have to be repeated once or twice before the lead
is desilverised ; usually half an ounce left in is considered low
enough. It is then siphoned off into a lower kettle by means of
a Steitz siphon, made of ordinary 14 or 2 inch black iron pipe.
This lower kettle has a movable hood ; and as soon as the tempera-
ture of the lead has been raised sufficiently dry steam is forced
into the lead to oxidise the zinc which has remained in from the
preceding operation of zincing, and also to remove the last traces
of impurities. When the lead which contains the zine is heated
to redness it has the power of decomposing the steam, the zinc and
some lead seizing on the oxygen of the steam to form oxides of
their metals. These oxides gather on the surface of the lead and
are skimmed off occasionally. Samples of the lead are taken from
time to time, and the purity of the lead is judged by its colour and
the ease with which it can be marked. Good soft lead is easily
marked with the finger-nail.

As soon as it is decided that the lead is purified, it is skimmed
quite clean with wooden rakes, and then allowed to cool consider-
ably, so that when it is cast into moulds it will set even, and be
of a silvery-white colour. Moulded at a greater temperature a
bluish appearance is assumed by the lead, due, probably, to a film
of oxide forming. When cool enough it is syphoned off into moulds,
and then is ready for sale in the market as “best refined lead.”
The Proprietary refined lead is remarkably good, and commands as
good if not a better price than the English refined lead. This is
due in great degree to the small amount of impurity which the
original bullion contained, and, secondly, to the care evidenced
throughout the refining process.

We have now to deal with the dross which was obtained at the
commencement of the process. This is either sent direct to the
blast furnaces to be smelted up with the charge, or else it is put
into the liquating or sweating furnaces, where it is heated gently
to expel any metallic lead which has clung to the actual dross.
This lead runs out of the furnace into an outside kettle, separately
fired, to keep the lead obtained in a molten state, and when enough
has gathered it is moulded into bars, and returned with the next
charge to the softening furnace. The dry liquated dross is then
smelted in the blast furnaces with the ordinary ore charge.

296 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

The zinc-silver-lead crusts obtained from the second zincing of
the softened lead in the kettle are also liquated to free them from
any lead which they may have gathered, and the lead liquated out
is returned to the zinc kettle. The dry product left behind
is put into graphite and clay retorts with a percentage of carbon,
and highly heated. The zinc distils off, and some 50 to 60 per
cent. of it is recovered in metallic form in the retort condenser,
the balance being recovered as an oxide known as “ blue powder,”
some being lost in fume. As scon as the retorting operation is
finished, which takes twelve to fifteen hours, the zinc condenser is
removed, and the rich silver-lead bullion, of some 5,000 oz. to
the ton, is ladled out into moulds. The style of furnace is a
modification of the Latham retort furnace, and is not so handy as
the Du-Faur tilting retort furnace, which pours out the lead instead
of having it ladled out. The retort is thoroughly cleaned, care
being used because the heat has softened it considerably, and,
after cleaning, some carbon in the form of charcoal is thrown in
to keep the little lead left in the retort from forming litharge,
which would rapidly destroy the retort. The latter is then ready
for a fresh charge of the zinc-silver-lead crust. A retort Jasts from
twelve to thirty charges, and then is replaced by a new one.

The rich lead bullion obtained from the retort is then taken to
the refining or cupelling furnace. Here it is melted into a test or
cupel (made of fire-clay, cement, and ground limestone, beaten in
with a rammer into a cast-iron supporting-frame, being allowed
four or five weeks to dry before being used), and as soon as the
lead is hot enough an air blast is turned on to the face of the
bright red lead, and the operation of refining for silver commences.
The action of the air is to oxidise the metallic lead into litharge,
and this flows off in a stream more or less high with silver. As
the level of the charge falls, fresh bullion is fed in through a small
hole, but when the charge is almost pure silver, and the cupel
quite full, thisis stopped. At the finishing part of the cupellation,
the most beautiful iridescent colours traverse the face of the silver, ©
due to the last traces of lead passing off. The temperature of the
furnace has to be kept very high to keep the mass of silver molten.
As the last signs of lead disappear the process is finished. The
molten silver is then poured into moulds or granulated in water,
and finally refined in large crucibles with nitrate of soda or potash,
from whence it is poured into moulds holding about 1,000 oz. of
fine silver each. The grade of the silver is about 996 fine, the
remaining four parts usually consist of copper with the very
smallest trace of lead.

The gold silver-lead-zine crust got in the first operation of zinc-
ing in the first kettle, goes through exactly the same process as
does the second crust just described. After it is made into bars
it is, however, further treated for the separation of the gold and

METALLURGICAL METHODS AT BROKEN HILL. 29%

silver. The bars of this Dore silver, as it is called, are put into a
cast-iron kettle heated by a fire, filled with strong sulphuric acid,
preferably of about 66° Baumé. This is boiled until complete
solution of the silver takes place, the gold being left as a dense,
black, finely-divided powder at the bottom of the kettle. The
solution containing the silver is either ladled or siphoned out of
the dissolving kettle into a settling tank warmed by steam passing
through a leaden coil. Here any fine particles of gold which
may not have settled in the dissolving kettle are collected. The
silver solution is diluted to about 24° Baumé, and emptied into a
precipitation vat in which plates of copper are arranged. The
reaction between the metallic copper and the silver sulphate solu-
tion causes the silver to precipitate and the copper to go into
solution as a sulphate, so replacing the silver. The liquor left in
the vat after the silver is all out, is siphoned into vats, where the
copper sulphate is crystallised out. The silver precipitated on the
copper plates is then taken to a vat and well washed in hot water
to free it from the last trace of sulphate of copper. It is then
melted up and sold as fine silver, and is about 997 fine.

The gold is sometimes pure enough to melt up into bars, but if
not it is boiled with fresh acid; then thoroughly washed, dried,
and melted. Since this method has been adopted, the ‘“ Mcebius”
electrolytic separation of gold and silver has come into prominence
in America, and some writers claim for this process that the cost
of separation does not exceed one-eighth of a halfpenny per ounce.

CHLORIDISING AND LIXIVIATION.

The ore which is handled in these portions of the works is too
low grade to pay the expense of blast-furnace treatment, and it
has to be mined to get at the other and richer ores; so there is a
choice of two things, either use it for filling the stopes or treat it
at a small profit. To get this small profit the chloridising and
lixiviation works have been erected. The first part of this plant
consists of the necessary crushing and power machinery for reduc-
ing the ore to the required state of fineness. Salt is added during
the crushing operation from 4} to 64 per cent., by weight. The
mixture of crushed ore and salt is elevated into hoppers, from
which the ore is automatically fed into a series of eight Howell
Revolving Cylinder Furnaces, which chloridise from 30 to 40 tons
of ore per furnace daily. All of the furnaces are not in constant
work, some always being kept as stand-by furnaces, ready for use
at any time. These furnaces automatically deliver the chloridised
ore into trucks, which are picked up by arevolving steam crane,
the ore being dumped out to cool on a large open floor.

The quantity of ore treated weekly averages from 1,400 to 1,500
tons, at a cost for all expenses, such as superintendence, coal,

298 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

labour, salt, repairs, assay expenses, water, light, stores, &e., of
12s. to 13s. a ton on the gross ore crushed.

The following analysis of the chloridised ore may be of
interest :—

1 2
Silica 78:40 @ cent 78:00 @ cent
PbO... 376 ~ 5, Or
ieiC .... 042 =~, 044 ,,
Na OP’ 7 | 2a C20" =e
Hess's. > Sero2 200 es
AUG Oe: O1d=
MnO, Ons, sie, ted aaah Lae eis
ZnO P20 * a ete ae oO nee
Trace of Antimony.
99-762

99-894

From the cooling floors the chloridised ore is hauled to the
lixiviating works and there dropped into leaching vats, of which
there are 12, arranged in two rows, with footways between them
and tramways over them. Each vat is circular, made of 3-inch
thick timbers, the bottom timbers being tongued and grooved and
the sides simply butt joints, the whole stayed with wrought-iron
straps passing around the vats. The diameter is 16 feet and the
depth 7 feet, and with a 5-inch false or filter bottom, made of
rough cobble stones about 4-inch ring size, covered with a layer
of straw. The vats are filled up within about 12 to 15 inches of
the top, and hold about 49 to 50 tons of the roasted ore.

The vat of ore is first washed with hot water at the rate of 16
inches an hour for one and a half to two hours. This dissolves out
a very considerable quantity of the lead chloride and salt in the
ore. The wash-water runs into depositing pits outside the building,
where the metallic contents are precipitated by scrap-iron, the
after liquor running to waste.

After washing, a 1 per cent. solution of sodium hyposulphite is
run on the ore, and of a temperature as nearly as possible about
100° Fahrenheit. The speed of the leaching is from 4 to 6 inches
per hour, and it usually takes forty to fifty hours to finish a vat.
Ten hours after the leaching liquor is put on; 360 tb. of carbonate
of soda are put on to the top of the ore under the stream of hypo-
sulphite of soda, which dissolves it up. This is added for the
reason that the lead chloride not extracted by the first wash-water
attacks the solution of hyposulphite of sodium, decomposing por-
tions of it, and forming lead hyposulphite. If carbonate of soda
is added to the hyposolution, it, in turn, decomposes the lead
hyposulphite and forms carbonate of lead, and regenerates the

METALLURGICAL METHODS AT BROKEN HILL, 299

hyposulpite of soda before destroyed. Lead carbonate being in-
soluble in hyposolution is not again attacked. It was found that
about ten hours after the hyposulphite solution was run on the
ore was the best time to put in the carbonate of soda. Some
experimenting took place to determine the proper hour, and it
was found that the best silver extraction results were obtained if
this rule was maintained.

The solution of hyposulphite of soda, with silver and lead in it,
is conducted into one of a series of circular precipitating vats, each
10 feet diameter and 9 feet deep. When the vat is full, the lead
in solution is precipitated by a saturated solution of carbonate of
soda, using phenol for the alkaline reaction, which is taken asa
sign that the lead is all precipitated. Some silver goes down with
the lead, so that the precipitated carbonate of lead usually assayed
about 70 oz. of silver per ton. The liquor, with the precipitate
in suspension, was blown with compressed air for twenty minutes
or thereabouts, the precipitate settling very rapidly afterwards.
When the supernatant liquor was quite clear, it was drawn off
into one of a series of six vats of the same size as the lead pre-
cipitating vats. Here the silver was precipitated out by sulphide
of sodium, and on settling, the clear liquid was run through a sand
filter and elevated back to the hyposulphite tanks in the top of
the building ready for use again on fresh vats of ore.

The sludge of carbonate of lead was run into two storage vats,
each 10 feet x 7 feet, and from these was sucked into a boiler-iron
pressure-tank with a vacuum created by a steam ejector. When
the tank was full the suction tube was closed, the steam ejector
stopped, and a tap opened, which admitted compressed air, so
forcing the semi-liquid sludge into a Johnson filter-press at a
pressure of 60 fb. to the square inch. The liquor from this press
was returned to the silver precipitating vats, and there treated,
The dry cakes of carbonate of lead, obtained from the filter press,
were sent to the blast furnaces for further treatment.

The silver sulphide was filter-pressed in similar manner from
storage tanks, 7 feet 9 inches diameter by 5 feet 9 inches deep,
and the dry cakes roasted and melted with poor lead to make a
rich bullion.

The roasted ore handled was equal to about 1,000 or 1,100 tons
weekly, and the average apparent extraction of silver was about
79 per cent.; the real extraction, after taking into consideration
the 63 per cent. solubility of the ore, was 80} per cent. The
roasted ore treated averaged between 12 to 14 oz. per ton of
raw ore. The total cost of leaching, counted on the raw ore
originally crushed at the chloridising plant, amounted to about
6s. 9d. per ton for all costs, including chemicals, labour, super-
intendence, water, light, stores, repairs, renewals, coal, scrap-
iron, &c. The water consumed cost about 4s. per 1,000 gallons ;

300 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

and, roughly, 100 gallons were used for each ton of ore roasted.
The cost of chemicals made up 2s. 64d. per ton of the total cost.

The sodium sulphide was prepared in the works, being made of
two parts caustic soda and one of sulphur, boiled with steam to
assist chemical union.

The following represents approximately where the silver was
recovered in the different operations performed in the leaching
department :—

In the sulphide precipitate ... 75°78 per cent. of the whole.

5) Sacarbonatesof lead = "15. 26-31. =

5, Wwash-water ... os LOAt =~, 5p

» vat bottoms ... soe AS te i
100-00

The total men employed in the leaching works were as fojlows
for each day of twenty-four hours :—

3 chemical mixers.
3 ore-vat men.
9 men at filter presses.
3 precipitating men,
3 shift bosses.
20 men removing leached ore.

Total ee lemen:

Salt cost 36s. 8d.aton; coal, 34s.; and wood, 14s. a ton. The
plant cost, on completion, a little over £15,000.

The Russell extra solution was used some years ago, but no
apparent benefit was obtained by its use, and it has been discon-
tinued since about 1893. Taking the hyposulphite process, as a
whole, it has not been very successful, due to the character of the
ore and the particular form the silver is found combined in.
Usually the latter consists of native silver, iodides, and chloro-
bromides. I do not think pure silver chloride exists in Broken
Hill ores. Until the chloridising furnaces were built, the process
had given rather disappointing results. Better results were
obtained when these furnaces began to work; but then the
percentage of lead began to rise in the available ores. The car-
bonate of soda addition to the vat seems to have conquered all
difficulties until fresh ones turn up.

Of all the bye-products made from the leaching plant, that from
the wash-water precipitate has been the most troublesome. As
the hot wash-water cools, it deposits chloride of lead that is not
wholly decomposed by the iron scraps, and, when the precipitate
from the tanks is cleaned up and sent to the smelting plant, heavy
losses in volatilised chloride of lead is experienced. The most

METALLURGICAL METHODS AT BROKEN HILL. 301

satisfactory solution of the difficulty is adding oxide of lime to the
solution and precipitating the lead and silver in that way as oxide ;
the bye-product of chloride of calcium can be Jet go to waste. It
is a matter of expense only, for the reactions are perfectly satis-
factory.

AMALGAMATION,

This process was discontinued some twelve months ago. The
extraction of silver was very satisfactory, but the specific gravity
of the ore was high enough to always interfere with the separation
of the mercury in the settling pans, and you would see masses of
manganic iron slime that were full of mercury in the finest state
of division—of course carrying silver—with which nothing could be
done, economically, to extract the locked-up mercury. It soon
resolved itself into a matter of the cost of mercury ; but, if an ore
of about 20 to 22 oz. of silver had been obtained steadily for the
amalgamation work, there was no doubt of its superiority to the
leaching plant ; because the loss remained the same, whether on
14 oz. or on 20 oz. ore, a rule which did not act so well with the
leaching. As the grade of ore necessary, low in lead, could not
be obtained in large enough quantities to keep the whole of the
plant going, it was stopped. Its capacity was about 1,000 tons
weekly. There were 60 stamps erected, with a drop of 6 inches,
weighing 850 lb. each, and 95 drops a minute. The remainder of
the plant consisted of 24 grinding and 24 Howell amalgamating
pans, each 4 feet 6 inches in diameter and 3 feet 4 inches deep—
the first-named pans running 40 revolutions a minute, and the
latter 75 to 80 revolutions. There were also 12 settling pans,
running 14 revolutions a minute, each being 8 feet in diameter
and 3 feet 6 inches deep, the whole of the pans being cast-iron.

Towards the latter end of the operations it was found that blue-
stone (sulphate of copper) was not necessary for the successful
extraction of the silver in the amalgamating pans ; and it was not
an uncommon thing to have the retorted bullion from this plant,
after the use of the blue-stone stopped, running 996 to 999 fine in
silver.

CONCENTRATION.

The first attempts at concentration were made on the low-grade
carbonate ores. The evil day of sulphide treatment had not yet
come. The ore sent to the concentration department was highly
silicious, low in lead and silver ; and if the ore had been specially
mined for the purpose of concentrating it, there is no necessity to
hesitate over the fact that it was not a payable proposition. But,
like the low-grade ores which are chloridised and leached, this
ore had to be taken out, whatever use was made of it afterwards.
The cost of mining it was borne by the smelting ore necessarily,
and placing the matter on a common, ordinary, bookkeeping footing

302 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

this low-grade stuff cost nothing delivered on the surface. Its
value ran from 7 to 12 per cent. lead and from 6 to 14 oz. of
silver; and the question was: Could this low-grade material be
concentrated at a profit? Without further treatment the ore was
worthless ; but the carbonate concentrate that was produced from
the ore was infinitely preferable to use in the furnaces than the
crude sulphide ores. Looked at in these days, when carbonate
ore high in lead is getting to be worth more than the value of its
metallic contents, there would be no hesitation as to what would
be done with the low-grade ore ; but in those days, when lead ore
in the carbonate form was plentiful, when the value of a ton of
lead in Broken Hill was but 50 per cent. of its London market
price, the wisdom of some of the immense concentration plants
which were erected seems doubtful. Block 14, the British Com-
pany, and the Proprietary, rushed into enormous expenditure ;
whereas one only of the first concentration plants erected would
have demonstrated for evermore their uselessness on the = of
ore that had to be treated.

The first system of concentration was with the Collom jig, and
after, treatment to recover the rich slimes by a kind of Linkenbach
table. The ore was first crushed with an enormous steam-eating
stamp—the very worst system of crushing which could have been
devised for this class of ore. Think, fora moment, of the compo-
sition of the ore—a hard quartz and a friable carbonate of lead.
Every blow of the stamp shattered the quartz into fragments—
of that there could be no doubt; but it smashed the bulk of the
carbonate of lead into slimes. The stamp was something like the
whole plant —there was no economy in the structure of either, and
when finished neither did the work expected of them. Both the
stamp aad the jig were splendid appliances for dealing with ore
like they have at Lake Superior, U.S.A., from whence they were
imported, where the ores were copper, the latter existing almost,
if not altogether, in the metallic form. No smashing blows could
do any mischief on this class of material, and the large crushing
capacity of the steam stamp was thus an advantage.

Time went on, and the steam stamp was thrown out on the
scrap heap, and a good many of the Collom jigs also. Alterations
were made in their motions, notably at the British Mine, where
the tappet motion of the plunger was altered and driven with
an eccentric, so giving a more even pulsation in the jig. This
improvement was a good one; and if the size of the jigs had been
about three times greater, considerably better recovery would have
been made ; for, after all, the Collom jig, as used in Broken Hill,
was but a toy. As the carbonate ores began to disappear, the
attention of the mine managers was impelled to the sulphide
problem, of which volumes have been, and no doubt will yet be,
written.

METALLURGICAL METHODS AT BROKEN HILL. 303

The first attempt to concentrate the crude sulphide ores was, I
believe, made at the British Mine, and it was an unqualified failure
so far as the commercial side of the question was concerned.
Constant trials were made at the Proprietary Mine with varying
success ; but it is safe to say that until the Hancock jig was
introduced at Block 14, all the efforts at profitable concentration
of the low-grade sulphide ores were unmistakable failures. Lessons
had been learned by the various companies regarding expenditures
on concentration schemes, and they all waited until Block 14
had demonstrated that something could be done with this jig.
Then the South Mine installed them, and then the British
Company.

The recovery of the first jigs did not amount to more than 48
to 54 per cent. of the lead ; but in spite of the low recovery the
size of the jig allowed large quantities of ore to be rushed through
them at the minimum of cost. As soon as it was found that some
profit could be made out of the hitherto hopeless sulphide ore,
even with such an extravagant loss of lead, more attention began
to be paid to the re-treatment of material rejected from the last
hutches. These were crushed finer and passed through a second
jig, and the same process was gone through with the low-grade
product of the hutches of this jig, passing it through a third jig ;
so that with the addition of slime buddles something like 65 per
cent. to 75 per cent. of the lead contents of the ore treated is now
recovered from the crude ore. The crushing machinery adopted
for the ore with these jigs is the ordinary jaw-crusher, on the
old Cornish principle, with a set of Cornish rollers for finer
pulverisation.

A new jig which is bearing the test of work and competition
against the Hancock jig is that known as the ‘‘ Warren and May’s
Improved Double Plunger Jig.” These jigs are working on a large
scale at the Block 10 Mine, Broken Hill, and have been adopted
by the Junction Company. The Proprietary also decided to adopt
them after most careful tests against the Hancock jig. The fol-
lowing is a description of the Warren jig :—

The ore is crushed to pass through a trommel, pierced with a
rectangular slot 16 gauge wide and a bare quarter of an inch in
length. From the trommel the crushed ore drops into the receiver
with a perforated bottom, through which it passes into a Warren
patent slime separator. This separator is a revolving basin or
pan with an adjustable overflow in the centre. The water, with
the slime in suspension, passes down the centre while the ore drops
to the bottom of the pan and is wiped out by a volute-shaped
plate, comparatively free from slime or water, over a lip, into the
sleeves of the jigs. The plungers are connected by a rod with a
rocker, the length of the stroke given to the plunger being regu-
lated by a pin, which may be moved in or out along the slot in

304 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

the rocker by a handwheel and screw. The rockers are actuated
by a lever, which is connected by a rod to an adjustable pin in
the disc, which is driven by a belt pulley. The belt wheel drives
the shaft, on which is placed a small dise with an adjustable pin
in it, to which is attached a rod. One end of this rod is connected
with the lever which drives the tapping sbafts, and by the aid of
a ratchet and pawl these shafts are made to rotate very slowly,
lifting by the cam a rod at the bottom end of which is attached a
pear-shaped valve or plug. This moticn allows the concentrates
to pass out through an aperture and on to the proper receptacles
for this product. By this means the interior compartments of the
hutch are always kept clear ; the products of the first three com-
partments are generally sufficiently high grade to sell, while those
from the next two compartments are, by the aid of an elevator,
returned to the machine again, the sixth compartment being the
tailing receptacle. These are drawn off through a tap, with as
little water as possible. The separator pans are driven with a
pair of mitre wheels. The jigs are 22 feet long by 9 feet 3 inches
wide and 4 feet 6 inches deep. The sides and ends are built of
3 inch Oregon, and the jigs stand on three trestles, made of 8
inch by 8 inch Oregon, of which two are 11 feet high, with a
cast-iron girder on the top to carry the gear. <A platform 2 feet
wide runs along the two sides and tail of the jig. The waste
water, when the machines are in motion, passes from the tailings’
boxes, through the apertures, on to the plungers again, thus
keeping up a perfect circulation within the jig.

The capacity of these jigs is given at 8 tons of crude ore per hour.

It is stated that 75'per cent. to 80 per cent. of the lead con-
tents of the crude ore is recovered by the Block 10 concentration
plant, which is certainly the best work that is known yet. The
plant is capable of treating over 2,000 tons of crude ore weekly.

The assays of the crude sulphide of lead given earlier are about
the average value of most of the sulphide ores which are being
concentrated, if we except the South Mine which is higher in lead
and lower in zinc and silver.

Costs vary with the different plants, and from 4s. 6d. to 7s. 6d.
a ton on the crude ore are about the limits between which the
costs at the different works lie. The recovery of the silver is the
weak point in the concentrating process in Broken Hill, seldom
more than 40 per cent. of the silver contents being recovered in
the lead concentrate. The reason is, the zinc blende in the ore
contains about an equal bulk of the silver, and the more successful
the concentration to get rid of the zine the more successfully the
silver is removed also. I think close investigation will show that
this estimate of the distribution of the silver in the ore is a fairly
accurate one, butit would be interesting to have more information
on the subject. Hence, in all the concentration plants at work in

METALLURGICAL METHODS AT BROKEN HILL. 305

Broken Hill a difficultly marketable bye-product of zinc tailings
is produced, running high in zine and silver (up to 40 per cent.
zinc, and 25 to 35 oz. of silver per ton). The higher grades of
this particular material are produced at Block 10, and they are
content to accept as low as 10s. per ton for this product when a
buyer is to be found.

ZINC RECOVERY.

No effort has been made until very late times in Australia to
recover the zinc from the ore, either directly or from the bye-
products of the zinc tailings. The Ashcroft process for the recovery
of zinc has now been at work some time, but so far no results
have been published as to its success or otherwise. The process
this company originally started with was an electrolytic one. The
ore was to be roasted and then leached with ferric chloride, oxide
of iron depositing with the residual ore and a zinc chloride being
produced. This, on purification from any gold, silver, or copper
dissolved, was then subjected to the electric current in vats, the
anodes being iron and the cathodes zinc. The idea was to re-
generate the ferric chloride again ; but it is said that some difficulty
has been experienced in making the cycle of operations act
properly—ain fact, that the chlorine, instead of being all liberated
as hydrochloric acid, and therefore in a condition to act on the
iron anodes, is liberated as free chlorine and is lost. The amount
of manganese in the ore, and which goes in solution on leaching
the roasted ore with the ferric chloride, is also said to have inter-
fered considerably with the deposition of the zinc, more especially
after the leaching solution has got somewhat charged with the
salt of this metal. By their latest reports, however, they claim to
have overcome all the difficulties which have delayed them in the
past, and we may hope to hear in the near future of the results of
their efforts. It takes but half an eye to see how important to
the mining industry at Broken Hill if some zine recovery process
be made commercially, as well as chemically, successful. The
chief ore supplies which the mines now have left are, apparently,
unlimited supplies of zincose lead sulphide, and there is no doubt
of the effect a good process for zinc would have on the prosperity
of the whole of the sulphide mines.

Other attempts have been made to recover the zinc, amongst
which is an ammonia process, brought out by Mr. Carmichael,
late of Block 10 and now of the Proprietary. This is based on
the following reaction :—

1, ZnO + (NH, ), SO, = ZnSO, + 2NH, + H,O
and

2, ZnSO, + INH, + H,O = ZnO + (NH,); SO,
U

306 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

A short description of the process is as follows :—The ore is
first finely ground and roasted, to leave as much of the zinc as
possible in the state of the soluble sulphate. It is then placed in
iron retorts and heated with sulphate of ammonia to complete
this part of the process and bring about the first reaction given.
The ammonia distils off through a pipe leading from the end of
the retort, and dips below the surface of a solution of zinc sulphate
obtained by leaching with water ore which has been subjected to
the retort treatment. The second reaction

ZnSO, + INH, + H,O = ZnO + (NH,), SO,

is then obtained. The precipitated zinc oxide is: filter-pressed
out, and the filtrate of dilute regenerated sulphate of ammonia
has then to be evaporated and crystallised out ready for use again.

Like all ammonia processes, the extreme difficulty of making
the joints in the various parts tight, when free ammonia is present,
has been, in this process, the stumbling block. It is now stated
that this difliculty has been overcome, and, if so, we may soon
hear of oxide of zine being prepared by the Proprietary Company
from their ores. The process is a beautiful one in its chemical
reactions, but hitherto the loss of ammonia has been prohibitive
of its use.

Other oxide processes are the magnesite and the calcium chloride
processes, both owned by the Smelting Company of Australia ; but
so far no attempts have been made to start work with them on a
large scale. This company also owns the Siemens-Halske electro-
lytic process for the production of metallic zinc. The solvent
used with this process to extract the zinc from the roasted ore is
either sulphuric acid or sulphate of iron and alumina, or sulphate
of alumina alone. There is no doubt that sulphate of iron would
act as a good solvent for the zinc, and, unlike the leaching solution
of the Ashcroft process, all of them could be regenerated with no
loss, except leakage from pipes and waste of that kind.

I am trenching on the delicate ground of the problem of the
sulphide ores, and therefore will say no more on the zinc recovery
processes ; but before leaving the subject I may be permitted to
hope that so vast a field will continue to find workers, and that in
time the just reward of their efforts will be obtained, and the
wealth of the immense sulphide mines of Broken Hill be brought
within reach.

THE RUSSELL PROCESS IN AUSTRALIA. 307

No. 5.—THE RUSSELL PROCESS (OF SILVER
LIXIVIATION) IN AUSTRALIA.

By EpeGar Hat, and Epwarp 8. Simpson, B.E.

(Read Saturday, January 8, 1898S.)

Part I.—By Epcar Hatt.

THE improvements in the treatment of silver ores by the hypo-
sulphite lixiviation method, introduced by E. H. Russell in 1884,
and known as ‘“ The Russell Process,” gave rise to hopes, not only
in the minds of the inventor and his associates, but also in the
mind of nearly every chemist who ever performed any preliminary
tests of ore by Russell’s methods, that it would prove of wide-
spread usefulness. Those hopes have not been realised, and to-day
the process is at work in only two large establishments, where,
however, it is an unqualified success.

During the interval since its introduction many papers have
been written on the subject ; one treatise has been published with
special reference to it; and an enormous number of comparative
experiments bearing upon its various features have been performed
and published. The process has been practically applied in many
places where large-works, now silent, have been erected, by which
many thousands of tons of ore have been treated successfully.
Probably no metallurgical process has ever been placed before the
public so openly and frankly, and with such a wealth of data of
all kinds. The reasons why the early hopes for the widespread
future usefulness of the process have not been realised, in spite of
its undoubted merits, are interesting. At bottom they are due to
the immense advances which have been made in metallurgical
science and practice, whereby the precious metals have been
brought within the smelter’s scope, and their extraction from
alloys and mixed products rendered cheap and easy.

In the first place the Russell process was introduced as an
improvement upon the amalgamation methods, and its advantages
were all advantages as compared with amalgamation. Russell was
chemist at an amalgamation mill when he worked out his process
Ores suitable for amalgamation were those suitable for lixiviation.
and but few ores unsuited for the former can be treated by any
wet method. Both systems require ores but slightly mineralised
by other than precious metals, they must be oxidised or contain
but a small amount of sulphur, and they both need a preliminary
roasting with salt to chloridize the silver. Such ores are of com-
parative scarcity in large quantities, and when found are rapidly

308 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

exhausted. Up to this point the defects of the Russell process
are the defects of amalgamation also; and if the Russell process
has failed to extend, so has the amalgamation process, and for the
same reasons. Both fail to extract anything but gold and silver,
and both require a generally expensive chloridizing roasting, which
causes a loss of silver amounting to at least 8 per cent. of the total
contents, which loss by unskilful work is Jargely increased. This
heavy preliminary loss far exceeds the total loss at a good smelter,
and alone is a heavy handicap. At amalgamation mills this loss
was formerly neglected or denied altogether, and it seems impos-
sible to lessen it materially. From this point onward the advan-
tages are all on the side of the Russell process, especially since the
refining of the sulphide precipitates by the Dewey process has been
so successful. Had the conditions remained favourable to the
extension of amalgamation, it is safe to assume that Russell’s
process would have fulfilled the early hopes of its supporters ; but
the improvements in smelting, and the increased cheapness of
transit to large smelters where ores of all kinds make self-fluxing
mixtures, have lowered smelting charges to a point which leaves
small opening for other processes. The Russell process, like most
others, cannot compete with smelting at equal prices.

In places where siliceous silver ores carrying no other metal of
value occur far from railroad facilities, the Russell process will
still hold its own, and its results can be calculated with certainty
beforehand. Compared with the older lixiviation processes, Russell’s
is in the direction of greater efficiency, and the adoption of his
improvements is simply a question of relative economy. The great
fall in the price of silver lessens the value of his extra solution, but
the ore must be indeed of low grade when its use costs more than
its return. Where the ores to be treated contain blende, even in
small quantities, and the roasting is done in mechanical furnaces,
the use of the extra solution becomes imperative, owing to the
reducing action of the unaltered zinc sulphide on the chloride of
silver formed in roasting, as soon as leaching begins.

The history of the process in Australia is short.

Mr. T. G. Davey, then metallurgist at the Boorook Silver-mines,
was the first to experiment with the process in this country.

At an early date that gentleman did some large-scale experiments
upon ore obtained from the newly discovered Webb’s Silver-mine,
near Emmaville, and as a result of those experiments, and upon
his recommendation, a plant was erected there to use the process.
Mr. Davey directed operations at first, but was superseded by
gentlemen from America, who were supposed to have special know-
ledge of lixiviation. None of these gentlemen carried the process
to a successful issue financially, and ultimately the plant was dis-
mantled and sold. Mr. Davey states that the process was a success
from a metallurgical point of view, an extraction of 90 per cent.

THE RUSSELL PROCESS IN*® AUSTRALIA. 309

having been obtained, and that the failure was due to defective
mechanical arrangements and to lack of ore. No detailed results
were ever made public.

The ore at the Webb’s Mine consisted principally of argentiferous
fahlerz in a gangue of quartz-veined slate ; the fahlerz contains a
good deal of copper and antimony.

An extensive lixiviation plant was erected at the Broken Hill
Proprietary mine some years ago, and is still working. The writer
has failed to obtain any information about the working of this
plant beyond a statement from the secretary of the company to the
effect that the Russell process was tried and found to be of no
value to them. The nature of the material treated (tailings from
the concentration of lead carbonate ores), and its extremely low
grade (the accounts for over five years show an average of only
8k oz. per ton), render this very probable.

In 1891 the writer did some experimental work with the process
on the silver ores of Rivertree, which led later on to the erection
of a plant to treat the ores on that field. The results of the experl-
ments were published in a pamphlet printed at Brisbane in August
of that year. The mill subsequently erected underwent many
vicissitudes, and is now partly dismantled, the ore supply having
failed utterly to come up to expectations as regards quantity.

During 1895 experiments on a large scale with the Russell
process were made at the White Rock Mine, at Drake, New South
Wales, which were successful, and a large lixiviation plant i is now
being erected at that mine. It is with the results obtained at the
mill erected at Rivertree that this paper will deal. Although
siliceous ores of silver have not yet been found in large quantities
in Australia, the possibility of finding such ores remains, and our
conditions are such that it is probable the discovery will be made
in country where a cheap method of reduction on the spot will be
needed. The writer hopes, therefore, that a record of the work at
Rivertree may yet be of value to some Australian metallurgist.

The silver lodes of Rivertree, New South Wales, occur in a
granite formation, which is overlain by beds of altered shales of
Devonian age, and is penetrated by dykes of diorite and quartz-
porphyry.

The mineral-bearing belt is about 3 miles long and 2 miles wide,
and contains numerous veins of quartz which carry silver. The
veins are very small, few averaging 6 inches in thickness for many
feet, and the ore shoots are not continuous in either length or
depth. The ore, when clean and free from gangue, is generally
quite rich, and consists of quartz-carrying galena, fahlerz, blende,
pyrite, and arseno-pyrite, with proustite in microscopic crystals.
The veins are oxidised to very shallow depths and only so far as
the granite is decomposed. When the unaltered granite is reached,
the veins become smaller and poorer and no longer pay. In a

310 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

few instances lodes pass from the granite into the shales above,
and become richer and larger and less siliceous. The most pro-
ductive lodes worked hitherto occur at the contact of the diorite
dykes with the shales.

The plant erected at Rivertree was designed by the writer and
built under the superintendence of Mr.'T. Eyre in 1892.

Advantage was taken of the fall of the ground to arrange it in
three divisions :—

I. Rockbreaker and sampler.
II. Crushing and roasting mill.

III. Leaching mill.

I. The first division was placed near the mine, and comprised :—
1. Ore receiving bins.
2, Giant rockbreaker (Blake type), 15 in. x 9 in., driven by
a 10 h.-p. Junior Westinghouse engine.
3. Crushed ore bins beneath the rockbreaker.

Immediately beneath the rockbreaker jaws, an automatic sampler,
driven from the rockbreaker shaft, was fixed, which diverted at
intervals the whole stream of ore to a sampling floor. About 5
per cent. of the ore was so diverted. The rockbreaker jaws were
set to open 1 inch only at the bottom. The whole of the ore
passed through the rockbreaker. From the bins beneath the rock-
breaker and sampler the crushed ore was taken by tramway to
the drying floor in Division IT.

If. The crushing and roasting mill comprised :—

. The drying floor.

One pair Wall’s corrugated rolls.

One pair smooth-faced rolls.

Two revolving screens.

Two elevators.

. Fine-ore bins.

. White-Howell roaster.

. Cooling floor.

35 h.-p. standard Westinghouse engine.
10. 52 h.-p. Babeock and Wilcox steam boiler.

The drying floor (30 feet x 24 feet) was formed of cast-iron
plates over flues, which acted also as dust chambers for the roaster.
The roaster was 25 feet long by 4 feet 4 inches diameter at inlet
end, and 5 feet 6 inches at outlet, and was driven by a small 2 h.-p.
engine. A large chamber to catch the coarse dust intervened
between the roaster and the drying floor. Midway in each flue a
movable sheet-iron partition, 1 foot high, was placed across the
floor. The feed-pipe of the roaster was furnished with a sheet-
iron shield, reaching and fitting closely to the bottom of the
cylinder, for the purpose of protecting the fallen ore-stream from
the draught. These devices proved very effective.

£2 0D I> STB Go ko

THE RUSSELL PROCESS IN AUSTRALIA. oul!

The crushed ore from the rockbreaker was dumped on to the
drying floor, where it was spread, and the salt added to it. When
dry the mixture was taken by trucks to a hopper, thence by an
automatic feeder to the Wall rolls. These were used to crush to
one-quarter inch size. The crushed ore fell into a revolving screen ;
that passing through, forming 25 per cent. of the whole, was taken
by a spiral conveyor to the fine-ore elevator; the coarse portion
fell into a link-belt elevator, and thence went to the smooth rolls.
These rolls were set up tight. The crushed ore fell into a second
revolving screen. All which passed through went to the spiral
conveyor, thence by the fine-ore elevator (thin buckets bolted to
a rubber belt) to the roaster bins. That which did not pass
through the screen formed only a small percentage of the whole,
and was returned to the link-belt elevator, and so to the smooth
rolls again. At the end of the conveyor trough, where the fine
ore fell into the elevator, a small pipe sampler was fixed, which
furnished a continuous stream of pulp. From the sample so
obtained the results given later on were calculated. The screens
were covered by brass-wire cloth containing 480 holes to the
square inch. The Westinghouse engine furnished the power for
the whole of this portion of the plant, and gave satisfaction.

Owing to scarcity of ore, no effort was made to find the full
capacity of the plant; but 15 tons per shift of eight hours were
crushed with ease. Apparently the capacity of the two sets of
rolls was much greater. The first screen had a screening surface
of about 25 square feet, the second about twice as much. With
perfectly dry ore, and so long as the rolls were doing good work,
these screens gave no trouble; but it was evident that the second
one would have been better if larger. The secret of successful
crushing appears to be the perfect drying of the ore; in fact, the
ore crushes and screens better if it is quite hot. The salt was
added at the drying floor, and was simply spread over the top of
the ore in measured quantities, and became mixed in passing
onwards through the mill. At first, owing to Customs regu-
lations, rock salt was used, which had, of course, to be passed
through the rockbreaker. Subsequently, ordinary coarse salt was
used.

The mixed pulp was fed from the hoppers into the Howell
roaster by a small spiral conveyor, driven from a pulley on the
driving shaft of the roaster. The quantity was regulated by a
sliding door on the hopper. The roaster was fired by wood at one
end only. An auxiliary fireplace was tried, but proved unneces-
sary, and the waste heat from the roaster was also found sufficient
for the drying floor. The roaster was tried at many different
speeds, but we found one revolution in one and a half minute
gave the best results, and that the capacity of the furnace did not
exceed 15 tons in twenty-four hours.

312 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

The dust accumulating in the first large chamber was removed
every night and added to the ore on the cooling floor. The dust
from the drying floor flues was removed at greater intervals, and
was leached in shallow charges by itself. If it were to be removed
daily it could be sent to the vats mixed with the ordinary stuff on
the cooling floors. The roasted ore was not allowed to remain
long in the hot-ore hopper, but was quickly removed to the cooling
floor, where it was left in a pile, about 3 feet high, until quite
cool; this we found to take nearly a week. From the cooling
floor the roasted ore was taken by a short tramway to Division III.

III. The Leaching Mill. This comprised :—

Three ore vats, 16 feet diameter, 7 feet deep.

Three precipitating vats, 10 feet diameter, 9 feet deep.
Two square tanks for wash-water precipitation.

Two square tanks for storing precipitates.

One square cement sump for solution.

One No..5 gun-metal lined Blake pump.

Two stock solution vats.

Wrought-iron pressure tank.

. Johnson’s filter press.

10. Cast-iron tank for making sodium sulphide.

11. Two wrought-iron tanks for storing sodium sulphide.

See Ce OU Co

Fresh water was supplied by gravitation from a dam above the
mill. The steam boiler in the crushing mill furnished the steam
required, but was too small for other requirements. Had the mill
been run at its full capacity a separate boiler would have been
necessary for the leaching mill.

The vats were made from a local timber, known as beech or
white cedar, and were constructed exactly as recommended by
Stetefeldt. They were provided with ejectors for circulating extra
solution, and were well tarred with coal tar, as were also the
launders and all ironwork. The stock solution vats were fitted
with cast-iron pipes for heating the solution by steam. These
large vats must not be left empty for any hours or they begin
to leak, however well made they may be. ‘The ore was charged
into the vats dry, water being introduced from the bottom to
saturate the charge while filling proceeded. ‘The tailings were
sluiced out when there was sufficient water to spare for the purpose.
The extra solution was made up on the charge. The solutions
were stirred by hand with a long wooden rabble during precipita-
tion. The precipitates settled rapidly, and were run off daily.
The lead was not precipitated separately. When sutlcient preci-
pitates had accumulated they were pressed in the filter press and
dried. The pressure was produced by steam. <A brick drying
chamber heated by steam was built for drying the precipitates,
but it was too slow ; so the drying was done in a kind of oven,

THE RUSSELL PROCESS IN AUSTRALIA. 313

heated by an open fireplace—a method which cannot be recom-
mended. The dried precipitates were shipped to Swansea for sale.

The sulphide of sodium used for precipation was made exactly
as recommended by Russell.

The mill, as a whole, worked well, very little handling being
required. No difficulty was encountered in carrying out the process,
and the workmen soon learned their duties. Since the mill was
closed, the writer has visited the Marsac Mill, at Park City, and
he was pleased to find that, in most respects, the Rivertree Mill
compared favourably with that home of the Russell process, and,
in some points, was decidedly its superior.

The mill was worked at intervals during 1893 by the mining
company which built it. The extraction from the roasted ores
was reported to have been good, but the losses during roasting
were said to be very heavy. At the latter end of 1894 the mill
came into the hands of the writer, who tried to work it as a
customs mill, by buying ore from the miners on a fixed scale of
charges. An etfort was made to obtain accurate statistics of the
work so done, and also to gain some further insight into the
chemistry of the process. With this in view, Mr. E. 8. Simpson,
B.E., a graduate of the Sydney University Mining School, under-
took a series of analyses of the ore treated and the various
products.

Unfortunately, the failure of the ore supply compelled the
closing of the mill, and curtailed Mr. Simpson’s work, the results
of which, however, so far as they go, will be given by that gentle-
man in the second part of this paper, which deals with the chemical
side of the process. The present writer will confine himself to the
practical and metallurgical results of the operations of the mill, as
a customs mill, during the year 1895. The ore was bought upon
assay, the sample being taken after the ore had passed through
the rock-breaker, by the automatic sampling device before men-
tioned. For medium and low grade ores this method was found
satisfactory ; for high grade ores it gave results which were found
untrustworthy. Automatic sampling of high grade ores has been
abandoned at customs mills elsewhere, owing to similar experiences.
The ore treated was of higher grade, and much less siliceous than
the ore supplied for the experiments in 1891, and was not by
any means an ideal ore for the process. Its composition is given
in Mr. Simpson’s paper. The high percentage of lead necessitated
a very careful roasting, in order to prevent sticking, and doubtless
added to the loss by volatilization, as the analyses show a great loss
of lead in roasting. The sulphur in the ores existed in combination
with the arsenic and zinc, and a portion of the lead and iron. The
salt used was 12 per cent. of the weight of the ore.

Owing to the variety of the ores bought the chloridising varied
daily, and the results were obtained only after the ore had lain

314 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

some time on the cooling-floor. The percentage chloridised ranged
from 71 per cent. to 86°36 per cent. (See Table I.)

The loss in roasting amounted to 9:07 per cent., which represents
the difference between the amount of silver in the ore mixture
sent to the roaster, and that in the roasted ore and flue-dust sent
to the vats ; the loss in dust is included in this amount.

The leaching was carried on in the following way :—

The ore was leached with cold water for five hours, the wash-
water during that period being run into the wash-water precipitat-
ing tanks. After five hours washing no silver was found in the
wash-water which was then run to waste until the end of washing.
The washed ore was then treated with eight charges of ordinary
solution (hyposulphite of soda) of 1:5 per cent. strength, followed
by a charge of standard extra, which stood in the charge, or was
circulated for from four to six hours. This was followed by a
charge of ordinary, and then by a second charge of extra of about
one-half standard strength, then by two charges of ordinary solu-
tion, and finally by wash-water. The solutions were used at a
temperature of from 40 to 60 degrees centigrade.

The above order of leaching was varied in one or two cases
where delays occurred in the work, and more extra was used in
an attempt to obtain a higher extraction.

Circulation of the extra solution was found more efficacious than
allowing it to stand in the ore. When the extra solution stands in
the ore more than a few hours its effect is destroyed.

The silver in the wash-water, which gave an acid reaction, was
precipitated by sodium sulphide. The precipitation of the other
metals in the wash-water was only partial. The wash-water pre-
cipitate settled rapidly, and the liquid was run off immediately it
cleared. The precipitation of the hypo. solution presented no
peculiarities. The sodium sulphide was measured by a bucket, and
the end of precipitation was found by filtration and testing in the
usual way. The rate of filtration through the ore was rapid—about
8 inches per hour. When the flue-dust was added daily to the
roasted ore on the cooling-floor, in such a way as to become evenly
distributed through it, no difference was found ; but on one occa-
sion (H in the Table) the flue-dust was not properly mixed, and in
filling formed a cone-shaped Jayer in the vat, which prevented
completion of the leaching, and necessitated the retreating of the
contents. On removing the ore from the vat, the portion above
the flue-dust layer assayed only 15 oz., while the lower portion
assayed over 30 oz. per ton; the whole, after reroasting, averaging
35 Oz.

It was generally found that the ore on top assayed much higher
than the ore at the bottom of the vats. Vat F, for example, gave
an average tailings sample assaying 3°9 oz. per ton, while ore
taken from the upper portion assayed 3:1 oz.; from the middle,

THE RUSSELL PROCESS IN AUSTRALIA. 315

4-2 oz.; and from the bottom, 12:4 oz. silver per ton respectively.
In another instance the ore on top assayed 7°6 oz. per ton, while
that near the bottom assayed 12°4 oz. The leaching of shallow
charges (about 2 feet deep), consisting solely of flue-dust, went on
slowly, but effectually.

In drying the precipitates the free sulphur generally caught fire
and burned away ; the assays represent the precipitates so treated.

They were sold in England on the following terms :-—-The
copper (wet assay, less two units) was paid for at market C.B.
rates ; the gold at £4 4s. per ounce fine, and the silver at the full
market rate for the fine silver contents, less 1d. per ounce fine, for
refining. Owing to the intermittent nature of the work the
precipitates were pressed irregularly, and varied widely in value.
The annexed Table IJ gives the assays of the various parcels, and
explains itself. Owing to the great loss of solutions through
leakage of the vats during the early stages of the work, before
the nature of such large wooden tanks became understood by
the workmen, no figures of the consumption of chemicals or
of the actual extraction of silver can be given which would be at
all reliable. Table I gives the result of each vat of ore treated.
In the case of vats H and J, which represent work done under
good condition all through, the clean-up gave an actual extraction
in excess of the apparent extraction as calculated from the tailings
assay of 0-5 per cent.

The ore in vats A, B, C, K, and L contained more sulphurets
than the others, and show plainly their presence in the low
extraction by ordinary solution in the mill compared with that in
the assay office. Vats A, B, C represent 100 tons of tailings from
some raw-leaching experiments upon sulphide ore, made by the
mining company which built the mill. These tailings contained
a large quantity of blende and arsenopyrite. Mr. Simpson’s
analyses represent only the new ore treated in vats D to M.

The result of the treatment of the ore alone was a mean
extraction of 84-05 per cent. of the silver in the roasted ore and
of 78°37 per cent. of the silver contained in the ore before
chloridising.

Doubtless very much better results would have been obtained
if the mill had been able to continue work long enough to enable
us to profit by our experiences.

In conclusion, the following opinions have been arrived at by
the writer as the result of his experiments and experiences since
he first became interested in hyposulphite lixiviation, and from
studying the experiences of others :—

(1) The Russell process is a good one under certain conditions
and for certain ores, which latter are plainly indicated.
It presents no difficulties of a serious nature, and its
manipulations are easily learned by workmen.

316

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

(11) Moderately fine crushing is as necessary as it is for
ama] gamation.

(111) The roasting should be done in reverberatory furnaces ;
oxidation of the sulphur should be complete ; and with
heavy sulphuretted ores the salt should be added only
after most of the sulphur has been driven off.

(1v)

The ore should be leached in shallow charges, and the

solution passed through continuously and rapidly. Time
is a factor of importance all through the process.
(v) If possible (and the writer believes it is possible), the

use of wood vats and tanks should be avoided.

In this

climate it seems almost impossible to keep such large
wooden vessels tight, even for a few hours of emptiness.

Table I.
: ‘ Mill Ex i calculated
é Material Assay value ERED ces after-—
Vat. preatecl of Roasted
Ore per ton. |
Hypo. | Extra. Hypo. Extra.
OZ. per cent. | per cent. | per cent. | per cent.
A Tailings is. 18°75 U8 73°9 265 65:0
B Tailings ... 19°60 71:0 75:0 58°1 68°4
C Tailings ... 20°90 74:4 80°7 32°1 47°5
D One serene: 71°85 86°36 87°96 85°95 83°53
E Ore we sess dss 68°25 84°25 SOests) |) chasavone SY)
F K, reroasted atl) 81:08 83°36 86°06 90:2
G Flue Dust G28) ||| acdaonode 81°15 82-2 84:29
Ee a sOrem eae ie 73.00 80°35 88:43 86°58 85°39
J Ore? tee 71:50 74°69 90°42 80°84 56°00
K Ore) i iieeeee 85°90 84°25 87°84 53°26 89:00
L Ornensoccayecs 68°25 84°47 86°89 43°08 85°06
M Flue Dust 78:05 76°62 US IY) = || sooncosce 79°12
Table II.—Value of Precipitates.
Silver Gold
Lot. aco) (oz. per ton). (oz. per ton). Remarks
1 1104955 2,432 2225 Wash-water and weak solution.
2 12°3 8,550 5°25 Regular sulphides.
3 6:0 4,100 4°6 0.
4 W287) 907 0°8 Wash-water.
5 57 12,025 | 12°8 From ordinary solution only.
6 5°5 6,305 | 4:45 | Regular,
U 7°85 122919) i 15:0 Same as No. 5.
8 3°85 HOP) | bye | Regular.
9 8:1 2,631 | 2°22 Regular and wash-water pre-
| cipitates mixed.
10 oul 2,273 | 2:0 do. do.

THE RUSSELL PROCESS IN AUSTRALIA. ot

Part II.—By Epwarp S. Srpson, B.E.

Since the publication of Stetefeldt’s exhaustive treatise on hypo-
sulphite leaching, very little can be said with reference to the
chemical aspects of the Russell process that is not already con-
tained therein. Since, however, more extensive experiments with
this process have been made on the Rivertree ore than on any
other in Australia, and since this ore differs considerably in com-
position from the American ores quoted by Stetefeldt, it may be
useful to record the analyses of this ore, made during a short visit
to Rivertree in 1895, and follow through the various reactions
which took place during its chloridising and leaching.

In order to thoroughly understand these, it will be necessary
first to explain the general principles upon which this process
depends. These are, in brief :—

1. Native silver chloride and certain oxidised silver minerals
are soluble in a solution of sodium hyposulphite.

2. Many unoxidised silver minerals, which are insoluble in
the plain sodium salt, dissolve readily in a solution con-
taining in addition cuprous hyposulphite.

3. By roasting unoxidised silver minerals with salt, they are
converted for the most part into silver chloride.

4, Solutions of silver in hyposulphites are precipitated by
sodium sulphides.

The fact that oxidised silver compounds are soluble in solutions
of sodium hyposulphite, was known and applied practically by Von
Patera as far back as 1858. His process has been found to give
excellent results in the case of surface ores, in which all the silver
is in the form of haloid salts, and on many ores which have been
subjected to a thorough chloridising roast.

This solubility depends upon the fact that these compounds
react with sodium hyposulphite, forming the corresponding salt of
silver, which is insoluble in water, but dissolves readily when
sufficient excess of the sodium salt is present to form a soluble
double salt of the form Ag, 8, O,, 3 Na, 8, O,.

Metallic silver, which is of frequent occurrence in surface ores,
dissolves somewhat easily in sodium hyposulphite, but only in the
presence of free oxygen, in proportion necessary for the oxidation
of the metal. When already existing as one of the haloid salts,
no free oxygen is necessary to its solution, which is on that
account more rapid. Silver arsenate and antimonate are also
soluble, and although these compounds probably do not occur in
nature, yet the question of their solubility becomes a vital one in
practical working as will be explained later on. Silver sulphide
and sulpharsenate and other minerals of a like nature are entirely

318 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

insoluble, and it is precisely at this point that the Von Patera
process breaks down and the Russell process steps into the aid of
the metallurgist.

Mr. E. H. Russell was the first to discover that silver sulphide
and other compounds which are unaffected by sodium hypo-
sulphite are soluble in a solution containing in addition cuprous
hyposulphite, and that a solution of this nature, which he terms
‘extra solution,” can readily be obtained by adding commercial
bluestone (copper sulphate) to Von Patera’s solution, which he
terms “ordinary solution.” It is the practical application of this
discovery which forms the basis of the Russell process.

The chemistry of the process naturally falls into six divisions,
viz. :

The chloridising roast.

The preparation and stability of solutions.
The wash-water.

The ordinary solution.

The extra solution.

Dopo por |

The precipitation and treatment of precipitates.

I. THE CHLORIDISING ROAST.

Although, as has already been stated, the chief. difference
between the Von Patera and Russell processes lies in the employ-
ment in the latter of a solution capable of leaching out unoxidised
silver minerals from ores, and although in one or two instances
this process has been known to give extractions in the laboratory
up to 93 per cent. on raw ore, stil], on the score of economy of
both time and expense, it is generally found preferable to prelude
the leaching of the ore with a more or less perfect roasting. Of
all silver compounds, the chloride seems to be the most readily
attacked by hyposulphite solutions, and therefore this roasting is_
almost invariably done with salt in order to convert the metals,
and especially the silver, into chlorides at the expense of the
chlorine in the salt rather than into oxides or sulphates.

As was only natural in a customs mill, the ore treated at River-
tree during the period under discussion was exceedingly complex
in character, consisting of a mixture of both oxidised and sulphide
ores from several distinct lodes. It has already been stated that
these lodes at a depth consisted of a gangue of quartz in places
largely replaced by talc, carrying argentiferous pyrites, galena,
blende, and mispickel. Minute strings of proustite were frequently
visible, and probably argentite. Near the surface these sulphides
gave place to the natural products of their decomposition—cerussite,
calamine, various oxides of iron, and kaolin, derived from the
decomposed country rock. No metallic silver, or other silver

THE RUSSELL PROCESS IN AUSTRALIA. 319

mineral, was visible in this gossan ; so that the precious metal was
probably disseminated through it in the form of minute grains of
silver chloride, bromide, &e.

The average composition of the raw ore treated in vats D to M
was as follows :—

(a)
S/O aes eine ies ... 48-92 per cent.
Ons. : ae oe ee UR Rae J
CaO: -:,: ise sik Jas) hE. 3
MeO ... Ses oe aa: ‘Gor ~ 4,
Pb GOS ke
Cu sil whee,
Fe Igelig, ~,,
Zn ae She au ne Sata ere
y ||: re nde a save Atltes 63.5,
Sb ee Nate ix ..< ‘trace
) oti th sae ait A (EARN diate

Percentage soluble in water, ‘31.

The highly siliceous nature of this ore, combined with its low
value in lead and copper, fully accounts for the failure of the
blast-furnace which was erected at one time to treat the ore from
the Wongabah lode.

In the preliminary roasting with salt, the first action which
takes place is the volatilisation of half of the sulphur in the
pyrites, the vapour burning in contact with the hot air to sulphur
dioxide.

As the temperature rises, the various sulphides in the ore are
oxidised more or less completely to sulphates, which in turn are
gradually converted into oxides by volatilisation of the SO, The
rapidity of this latter action varies greatly with the different
metals ; the order in which the sulphates are decomposed being
first, that of iron, then copper, silver, lead, and zine. In the
presence of salt, however, chlorine is liberated by the interaction
of the salt and sulphur trioxide, and the chlorine reacts upon the
sulphates and oxides of silver and the other metals with the
formation of corresponding chlorides.

During the roast, much of the arsenic and antimony are
volatilised, the rest remaining in the ore in the form of arsenates
and antimonates. These salts of silver are found in the roasted
ore as the result of the oxidation of proustite and pyrargyrite, and
hence the importance of the question of their solubility in hypo-
sulphite solutions.

320 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

The composition of the Rivertree ore after chloridising was :—

SiO las es ae aes ee a ee
BASIE OF ce: mS a i coo E20
CaO e.. ee -e Ae Pp eR
MigOr a a at 128 ‘68
Pb oe ae er oe =f 3°43
Cu boy: we nets ae ae 28
Fe ae oe nae ee sco 12239
Zn me ae on sue ee 86
As Doe see ae ae ae Seta:

{ Sol. in water ote a Ast 1:61

\ Insol. in water... <. Been JSS

Percentage soluble in water, 12°17.

Lead compounds are always somewhat easily volatilised ; but,
apparently, in the presence of salt, losses from this cause are con-
siderably increased by the formation of the readily volatile chloride.
Lead sulphate and oxide are soluble in hyposulphite solutions, at
the expense of the latter’s strength, and where it is not economical
to recover the lead from the liquors by precipitation with sodium
carbonate, this increased loss is a material advantage for this
cause, and because of the resulting improvement in the grade of
the precipitates.

Although a large excess of salt is used in the roasting, much of
which exists undecomposed in the ore after it leaves the roasting
furnace, a considerable amount of the silver may be left unchlori-
dised, as may be shown by its insolubility in sodium hyposulphite.
This is probably due to mechanical rather than chemical causes,
the centre portions of the grains of silver sulphide being protected
from oxidation by the film of chloride found on their surface and
by enveloping fragments of quartz, etc.

In chloridising this ore at Rivertree in a Howell-White furnace,
firm concretions were found to form on the sides of the furnace,
and to increase so rapidly in the centre half of it as to reduce its
internal sectional area by nearly one-half in a few weeks. Partial
analysis of two samples of these concretions from different parts
of the furnace, which are given below, show that they contained
a large proportion of soluble salts, and were probably composed of
partially roasted ore fritted together with sodium sulphate and a
little chloride.

Analyses of Concretions.

(c) (d)
Si0, sg iat By any Ocal! 40°73
Al,O, 2B ra tet teat WOROe 8-88
CaO. 3 1:15 lS

THE RUSSELL PROCESS IN AUSTRALIA. 321

(c) (d)

MgO a sag ate roe "34 “45
| 5 oe an a at fen 8 2G 312
Caaen< tn oe _ sere 09 ‘08
Ber cus dea bet bed eq SHES 9-27
RS. ee a ek baa ite “91 “75
URES, = Ne ees ~. 8°36 a2.

( Sol. in water ... ae ww «=49G 3°88

| Insol. in water... aa an SAG 2°82
Car Bs he adic pie» OSiE i le
Ag. (oz. per ton) .. Se a. 59°00 58-00
Percentage of whole sélidiles in water 21:11 18:02

(c) is an average sample of the concretions from 12 to 18 feet
from the discharge.

(d) is an average sample of the concretions from 6 to 12 feet
from the discharge end of furnace.

With an ore of this description a considerable amount of fume
is produced, a small part of which condenses on any projections at
the end of the furnace, whilst the remainder is carried off into the
flue-chambers, and collects there. The composition of a hard white
scale on the feed-spout is shown in analysis (e) ; that of the flue-
dust treated in vat M in analysis (/).

(°) (f)

SIO). =. a6 nie ata gy AOD 39°72
A1,0; Sine a ae wrap lO 7:88
CaO... ante ae wars 3 + 120 1:29
MgO sas sis = ee “3D ‘75
BBS 00s ai ops ae wwe 20°29 11-40
Ca... me — oe = ‘Pace trace
Me... = ea Suse << | FOR 14:91
2) ee ge = sh eer) LTO. 88
PB ais of - = xe aeee 5:00
( Sol. in water ... sir wee | | OSE 1:20

\ Insol. in water Sad =e » 22 I-79
Ag. oz. perton ... wen 90°00 62-00
Percentage of whole solitile 3 in water 9°65 9°63

The feed-spout scale is largely composed of sulphate and oxide
of lead, and oxide of arsenic with more or less partly-roasted ore
carried over by the draught, which accounts for the 20 per cent.
of silica contained in it.

The flue-dust forms an almost impalpable powder, made up of
the finest portions of the ore carried out of the furnace by the
draught with some volatile compounds of lead and arsenic.

x

329 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

II, PREPARATION AND STABILITY OF SOLUTIONS.

There are always at least three different solutions in use on
a Russell process mill, viz., (a) ordinary solution, (6) extra solution,
and (c) precipitating solution.

(a) Ordinary solution is prepared by dissolving crystallised
sodium hyposulphite in water, the strength recommended for
general use, which was adopted at Rivertree, being 14 per cent. in
the crystallised salt, Na,S,O.5H,O. This solution is very per-
manent under ordinary conditions, and even when heated to 50° C.,
at which temperature it is a much more energetic solvent for
silver salts, it only oxidises extremely slowly to sulphate. It is
unaffected by organic matter, and can, therefore, be stored in
wooden vats. Its action on copper and copper alloys is much more
rapid than on lead or iron ; hence the lastnamed metal should be
used for all pipes and taps, whilst india-rubber hose can be used
for distributing. Owing to the permanency of this solution it
can be employed over and over again, its strength being brought
up to standard from time to time by the addition of the neccessary
quantity of hypo. which can be determined by titration of the
solution with standard iodine.

(6) Extra solution consists of a solution of sodium and cuprous
hyposulphites formed by dissolving blue-stone in ordinary solution.

The equation for its formation is :—

13 Na,8,0, + 6 CuSO, = 4 Na,8,0,3 Cu,S,0, + 6 Na,SO, +
3 Na,8,0,.

This requires the use of 2°15 parts of sodium hyposulphite to one
part of bluestone. The standard extra solution in use at Rivertree
was that recommended by Russell, and contained | per cent. of
bluestone and 2} per cent. of crystallised sodium hyposulphite. If
neutral or alkaline, this solution rapidly decomposes with precipi-
tation of cupric hydrate ; if, however, it be rendered slightly acid
with sulphuric acid, this decomposition is considerably delayed
even when the solution is heated to 50° C. It has been found
best, however, not to attempt to keep this solution in stock, but
make it as required, by running ordinary solution on to the vats
through a sieve containing the requisite amount of bluestone.

(c) Precipitating solution :—NSince silver chloride is readily
soluble in hyposulphite solutions, evidently the precious metal can-
not be precipitated in this form from the liquors, neither can it be
precipitated by copper, owing to this metal dissolving in excess of
sodium hyposulphite with the formation of extra solution which
we have seen is an energetic solvent of metallic silver.

THE RUSSELL PROCESS IN AUSTRALIA. 328

The well known affinity of copper for sulphur, and the complete
insolubility of silver sulphide in ordinary solution render it pos-
sible to precipitate the silver in this form. The precipitant em-
ployed is sodium sulphide, which first throws down any copper
remaining in the liquors,.and then the silver ; no extra solution
remaining at this point to redissolve the silver sulphide formed.

The sodium sulphide is prepared by the action of sulphur on
hot caustic soda. The latter is fed into an iron cylinder with
sufficient water to cover it, and then heated to about 110° C. by
blowing steam through it. Stick sulphur is then added in sufficient
quantity to produce whichever of the many sulphides of soda with
which it is deemed best to work. Russell recommended a mixture
of the mono and bisulphides, to produce which 65 1b. of sulphur
are needed for every 100 lb. of caustic soda.

On adding the sulphur to the hot caustic, a very violent reaction
takes place, the heat produced being sufficient to cause the evolu-
tion of clouds of steam. Small quantities of sulphuretted hydrogen
and sulphur dioxide are also formed, and can be recognised by
their characteristic smell. These compounds are probably formed
in accordance with the equation

2NaHO + 2H,O + 68 = NaS + 3H.S + 2SO,.

The concentrated solution thus produced at Rivertree was diluted
and stored in sheet-iron tanks. Owing to its somewhat rapid
oxidation, it should not, however, be kept for many weeks at a
time, but fresh solution made from time to time as required.

Ill. THE WASH-WATER.

The benefit of a preliminary washing with water is twofold—
First, to rid the ore of any remaining sodium salts, which would
tend to choke up the hypo solution, so that it could not be used
over again ; second, to increase the grade of the final sulphides
by removing all soluble salts of iron, lead, &c., which would be
precipitated by the sodium sulphide solution.

The salts of sodium remaining in the ore after chloridising are
all very soluble in cold water, and are totally removed by the
wash-water, together with sulphates and chlorides of Mn, Zn, Cu,
Fe, Al, Ca, and Mg. After sinking through the first layer of ore
the water becomes—from solution of these salts—a more or less
concentrated brine, which is capable of dissolving still other
compounds, such as silver chloride, which are practically insoluble
in pure water. The liquor, therefore, as it comes from the vats
always contains suflicient silver to render it necessary to preserve
it, and precipitate it with sodium sulphide, as in the case of the
hyposulphite solutions.

A sample of the wash-water liquor taken at Rivertree, after it
had been flowing for two hours from the vats, gave a distinctly

324 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.
acid reaction, and had a specific gravity of 1-060. It contained
8°59 per cent. of soluble salts of the following approximate com-
Position :—

(9)

Na,SQ,... oe ae aa 0. O26

Nal... ae. see ‘= - | BIOS
Al, (SO,)s ae Bi aes owe wales
CaSO; ... 7 Re pis sive nd eee
ZnSO, ... on en AE: wae | DAS
MgCl ... Ae Ae He at ‘49
CuCl, .«.. ae bile a of “34
Bele. 2. ate ae ays ... trace
Na,AsO, ay ah 2a “le

In speaking of the wash-water, we are brought face to face with
one of the most interesting problems, from both a chemical and
metallurgical point of view, connected with the Russell process.
This is the so-called going-back of chlorination. This term is
applied to the marked decrease in the percentage of the silver in
the ore which is soluble in ordinary solution produced by the pre-
liminary washing with water, and was originally ascribed by Mr.
W. 8. Morse, who was one of the first to investigate the matter,
to the effect of undecomposed blende in the charge reacting on the
silver chloride (which is soluble in ordinary solution) forming the
insoluble sulphide.

Stetefeldt, in speaking of this matter,* says :—‘ ZnS in roasted
ore is the principal, and in many cases the only cause of chlorina-
tions going back.” And, again :—7‘‘ The Aspen statistics seem to
indicate that that portion of the going back of chlorinations, which
is not corrected by the extra solution, is due to the effect of caustic
lime, the effect of the latter being to precipitate gelatinous com-
pounds round the particles of silver.”

Mr. W.S. Morse in a recent paper, in reviewing this subject
adheres to his original theory ; but Mr. L. D. Godshall, in criti-
cising this paper, ascribes this going back to the presence in the
ore of sulphurous acid, ferrous sulphate, or some other reducing
agent, which converts the soluble silver chloride into metallic
silver, almost insoluble in ordinary solutions under the ordinary
conditions of working.

It seems to me that there is still another and a very important
cause for this going-back, which, however, only operates when the
wash-water is acid, as it was at Rivertree, and frequently is else-
where. Once a vat has been used for leaching, the material of
which it is built becomes more or less impregnated with hypo-
sulphite salts. On adding the wash-water to a fresh charge of ore
in such a vat, a small quantity of sodium hyposulphite goes into

* Lixiviation of silver ores with hypo solutions, 1895, p. 65. TIbid, p. 67.

THE RUSSELL PROCESS IN AUSTRALIA. B45)

solution, and attacks the silver chloride, converting part of it into
insoluble silver hyposulphite, there being presumably not sufficient
hypo in solution to form the soluble double, salt of silver and
sodium. In the presence of a very minute amount of free acid,
this silver hyposulphite is rapidly converted into silver sulphide,
which we have seen is insoluble in ordinary solution. That such
a series of reactions would take place under these conditions has
been amply proved by the researches of Mr. C. H. Bothamly,
F.I.C., F.C.S., into the chemistry of photographic printing. I only
regret that neither time nor opportunity were at my disposal to
prosecute this inquiry at Rivertree ; but I hope that this paper
may induce others, who are interested, to follow up this subject.

IV. THE ORDINARY SOLUTION.

This consists, as before stated, of a solution in water of sodium
hyposulphite ; the strength adopted being 1} per cent. in the
crystallised salt, Na,S.0,5H.O. It is capable of dissolving out
most of the oxidised compounds of silver through the formation of
the soluble double, hyposulphite of silver and sodium.

AgCl dissolves very readily in either cold or warm ordinary
solution, a fact long taken advantage of in photography ; but
metallic silver and the arsenate and antimonate yield more readily
to the attack of warm solution than cold; and, since this solution
is very stable, it is advantageous always to heat it up to 45° or 50°
centigrade before using.

Since both the bromide and iodide of silver occur somewhat
frequently in silver ores in Australia, notably at Broken
Hill, the author made some experiments on the solubility of the
artificially-prepared compounds in a standard ordinary solution,
with the result that silver bromide was found to dissolve almost
as quickly as silver chloride, the co-efficient of solution being prac-
tically the same, viz., 0°3 of silver for one part of Na,S,O.,5H,O.
Silver iodide dissolved more slowly than either the chloride or
bromide, but finally gave a similar co-efficient, viz., 0:3Ag.

When the roasted ores contain sulphates of lead, or calcium, or
quicklime, a considerable amount of hypo may be used up in
dissolving these compounds with the formation of the corresponding
double salt. Owing, however, to the highly siliceous character of
the Rivertree ore, it is probable that very little of the hypo was
consumed in this way.

V. THE EXTRA SOLUTION.

Itis the rapid action of this solution on unoxidised silver minerals
which gives to the Russell process its high value in the treatment
of base silver ores. The greatest difference in effect between
ordinary and extra solutions is seen in their action on metallic

326 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

silver and silver sulphide. Metallic silver is nearly nine times
more soluble in the latter than in the former, whilst silver sulphide
is absolutely unaffected by ordinary solution, but is rapidly attacked
by extra solution. As a considerable amount of silver sulphide is
frequently left undecomposed after the chloridising roast, the extra
solution is generally found to extract 10 per cent. to 20 per cent. of
the total silver in the ore after as much as possible has been removed
by ordinary solution. Cu,S is precipitated during the solution of
Ag.S ; but no precipitation of metallic copper can take place
during the sclution of metallic silver, owing to its ready solubility
in sodium hypo-sulphite.

Before passing to the subject of precipitation, it may be as well
to discuss at this point the best materials for vats. Three kinds
of vats suggest themselves for use, viz., plain wood, wood lead-lined,
and concrete. Mr. Hall, in the first part of this paper, has already
drawn your attention to the unsuitability of the first-named in the
hot dry climate prevailing in many parts of this continent, owing
to its rapid shrinking when allowed to get dry. This has been
found a considerable drawback to the use of wooden vats in
Charters Towers and elsewhere in Australia.

In the chlorination works at Mount Morgan, the second kind
has been used for many years with great success; but owing to
the rapid action of extra solution on metallic lead, vats of this
description cannot be looked upon as satisfactory for a Russell
mill, even when the lead is protected by a coating of tar or pitch.

In South Africa, and more recently in Queensland, wood, as a
material for leaching vats, is being superseded by concrete, which
seems amply to satisfy all requirements. It was used with success
at Rivertree for the stock solution sump, and when faced with
neat cement, should make excellent leaching vats, which would
not be appreciably affected by any of the solutions used in the
Russell process.

VI. PRECIPITATION.

The sulphide of soda used to precipitate the silver is not a simple
compound, but a mixture of various sulphides from Na,S to Na,S,,
the proportions in which the different sulphides occur being
dependent on the relative quantities of soda and sulphur used in
the preparation of the solution. Na,S precipitates silver from
hypo solutions regenerating sodium hyposulphite thus :

AgS,0; + NaS = AgS + Na,8,0.

If any higher sulphide be used, a corresponding amount of free
sulphur is precipitated with the silver thus :

AgS,0, + NaS+x = AgS + Na,S,0, + x8.

PHOSPHATIC DEPOSITS IN THE JENOLAN CAVES. oat

Free sulphur is also precipitated by the action of sodium sul-
phide on any tetrathionate or ferric chloride in the liquor. In
addition to Ag,S and free sulphur, the precipitate will also con-
tain sulphides of Cu, Pb, Au, Fe, and Zn, with some Al,(HO),
and CaCO,, which, after ignition of the precipitate, would be
almost wholly converted into Al,O, and CaS.

The Rivertree precipitates, after drying at a temperature which
was sufficient to partially oxidise some of the sulphides, had the
following composition :—

(h.)

Soluble salts es whe 4:36 per cent.
Al,O, oe ae 2°41] -
(Oe 85 i
Ag 16°32 as
Au “OUGies
Pb 9-93 oe
Cu 3°66 RS
Fe . 98 “pf
i ae oe a 2°87 .
Sic. — “e. .. 65-84 us
H,0, O and CO, 2°76 _
100-00

In conclusion, it may be said that the Russell process offers a
most interesting field for research to any chemist with the time at
his disposal, the cause of the going-back of chlorinations especially
needing elucidation.

No. 6.—ON THE OCCURRENCE OF PHOSPHATIC
DEPOSITS IN THE JENOLAN CAVES, NEW
SOUTH WALES.

By Joun C. H. Mineaye, F.C.S., Analyst to the New
South Wales Department of Mines.

(Read Saturday, January 8, 1898.)
[ Abstract. |

TuE phosphate deposits were found by Guide Wyburd in Katie’s
Bower, Left and Right Imperial, Grotto Cave, and the Jubilee
Cave—a branch of the Right Imperial Cave.

328 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

Geology.—Professor David, B.A., F.G.8., states, with regard to
the geology of the caves district :—‘ The caves, which are large
and very numerous, occur in a thick bed of limestone. The lime-
stone is formed largely by corals, hydro-corallines (stromatorella
being very abundant), and brachiopods ; amongst the latter a large
pentamerus predominates. The limestone is considered by R.
Etheridge, jun., to be of Siluro-Devonian age. It is interstratified
with a thick series of blackish, greenish, grey, and reddish brown
clay shales, claystones, and cherts, these containing casts of
radiolaria. ‘The whole of the sedimentary series are intruded by
quartz felsites and basic dykes rich in augite.” Mr. Harpur,
Assistant Curator to the Department of Mines, who recently
visited the caves, informs me :—‘“ A quantity of drift is associated
with or immediately overlies the red and white marls which partly
fill portions of the caves. The marls appear to graduate down-
wards, and are red and white in colour.”

A sample of the reddish marl taken from the Derails Coachhouse
yielded on analysis as follows :—

Analysis.
Hygroscopic moisture... ae Nees 5 1:49
Combined water ... Be an a veo, oO
Silica (SiO,) ase ey Qos. Aas ave ~Od-4sll
Alumina (A1,0)... = he ee wun, S502
Ferric oxide (Fe,O,) ae ae as won RES
Manganous oxide (MnO) fs: me ... trace.
Lime (CaO) hts ar a re es, 16
Magnesia (MgO)... ae aoe Bee wise “79
Potash (K,O a es wae oe =. —oc09
Soda (Na,O) ye a Ny eons ... tYace.
Phosphoric acid (P,O;) ... roe ak 8 ‘08
Organic matter ... Be ee aa a8 24

99°62

(1 and 2.) Light, porous, friable substance, white in colour ;
soluble in dilute muriatic acid. Found in Katie’s Bower, Left
Imperial Cave.

This deposit occurs in veins in the marls. ‘The presence of a
large quantity of red clay is very noticable in this cave ; in fact, it
forms a boundary at one end of the earth deposit. The clay is also
present in the ‘“‘ wash,” being possibly the fine sediment deposited
in the side channels and quiet pools of a one-time underground
river.

PHOSPHATIC DEPOSITS IN THE JENOLAN CAVES. 329

There is no evidence of bat guano or bone breccia in any part

of this cave.

Analysis. .
Moisture and combined water 39°60
Silica (Si0.) ‘70
Alumina (A1,0,) 26°83
Ferric oxide (Fe,O;) “72.
Lime (CaO) 8:10
Magnesia (MgO) 14
Potash (K,O) 09
Soda (Na,O) he absent
Phosphoric acid (P.O;) 30°04
Carbonic acid (CO.) “15

Chlorine (Cl)

.. minute trace

100°37
No fluorine or sulphur trioxide present.

II.
9°83
50-10
13°88
8:65
1:02
14
I-35

trace.

15°38

100°47

(3.) The deposit was found on the floor of the Grotto Cave, and
is protected with a hard surface, covered with small gnarled

excrescences, found to be gypsum.

Mr. Harpur, who examined

this deposit, informs me “that it would appear as if it resulted
from the alteration of the limestone from below, and is not con-
nected in any way with the drift or marls.”

There are similar deposits of this material in the Bone Cave,
Lucas Cave, and in the Wool-shed Imperial. No indications of bat

guano or bone breccia were observed.

Two samples of this material, very similar in appearance

yielded on analyses as follows :—

Analysis. 1.
Moisture and combined water ... 16°82
Silica (Si0,) ae ~~ oe 37°82
Lime (CaO) are ote sie 22-66
Magnesia (MgO) se ae "32
Alumina (A1,O;) ee ats 64
Ferric oxide (Fe,0;) _... ... minute trace
Potash (K,O) ... see Sa inh
Sulphur trioxide (SO,) ... oe 5:39
Carbonic acid (CO,) __... susks 24
Phosphoric acid (P.O;) ... ae L5H

99:71

absent.
trace.
28:67
10
14:50

100°35

No fluorine detected. A minute trace of chlorine present.

330 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

(4.) Light fluffy fungoid substance found in the Fairy’s Grotto,
Wilkinson’s Cave, Left Imperial.

Two samples of this substance were received. The first, which
weighed 1} grammes, Guide Wyburd states, ‘““was compressed
into a small match-box, and would fill your hat in its natural state.
It is so light that, when you blow at it, it falls off the roof and sides
like snow.” It is stated to only occur in one cave—that is, at the
end of the Wilkinson Cave.

Analysis. I, i
Moisture and combined water ... 1:88 1:48
Calcium carbonate (CaCO,) _... 76:03 (PASTE
Magnesium carbonate (MgCQ,)... 6°12 5:28
Strontium carbonate (SrCO;)_ ... trace trace.
Alumina and ferric oxide
(Al,O, and Fe,O;) < 1:46 1:94
Silica (Si,0,) ... 7 ae 13°22 17:26
Phosphoric acid (P.O;) ... ‘28 minute trace.
Organic matter ... a on 1:32 1:14
100°31 99-67

The fungoid growth appears to be very rapid, for since the
sample was received it formed in large quantities, and has the
appearance of very fine wadding.

(5.) White pulverulent substance found in the Left and Right
Imperial Caves.

Analysis. T: 1k:
Moisture at 200° C. as ae SOT) 9:50
Loss from 200° C. to red heat ... 18:23 18:19
Alumina (A1,0;) Fer Lee 20°48 20°70
Ferric oxide (Fe,O;) __... ue 18 -20
Lime (CaO) ate ae nS trace trace

Magnesia (MgO) a ie do do
Potash (K,O) ... se a 8-89 9-01
Insoluble matter (sand, &e.) ... 1:07 1:12
Phosphoric acid (P,Q;) ... vs 40°86 40°83
99°38 99°55

A trace of ammonia detected. No fluorine, chlorine, or sulphur
trioxide present. The analysis shows this deposit to be identical
with the mineral minervite—a hydrous phosphate of alumina and
potash, previously described by Adolphe Carnot (Jour. Chem. Soc.,
vols. lxix and Ixx, page 529).

PHOSPHATIC DEPOSITS IN THE JENOLAN CAVES. 331

(6.) Nodular, greyish-coloured substance, found in the Imperial
Cave.

Analysis.
Moisture at 100° C. a aie 6:79
Combined water... ae J 3°52
Silica (Si0,)... Me, ane see 54:13
Alumina (Al,0;)_... es ae LdavS
Ferric oxide FeO)... aon Aa. 7°46
Lime (CaQ)... eat an ws» |. absent;
Magnesia (MgO)... ree ... minute trace.
Potash (K.O) sae Bis bs 1:69
Soda (Na,0)... ane sie ST
Phosphoric acid (P, O. By) hie: Os 10°63

100-22

(7.) White saline substance, exuding from crevices in the
Devil’s Coach-house. A qualitative analysis proved this salt to
be nitre (potassic nitrate). A small quantity of lime, magnesia,
chlorine, and sulphuric acid was detected. The author suggests
that the phosphatic deposits were due, in the first case, to sedi-
mentary silt, containing bones derived from the remains of animals,
brought to their present location by an ancient river. The presence
of large quantities of drift, fine river wash, red and white marls, in
and above the caves, all tend to point in this direction.

The present deposits are of a secondary formation, due to the
action of acidulated waters containing carbonic, organic acids, &ce.,
which have percolated through the primary deposits of drift, silt,
&c., thereby dissolving the bone material, and acting on the marls
dissolved a portion of the alumina and potash, the solution con-
taining the phosphates having been re-deposited under conditions
favourable for their separation.

The origin of the deposits, however, and the conditions under
which they have been redeposited is exceedingly interesting, and
is open to wide discussion.

With regard to the extent of the deposits, it is impossible at
present to form any opinion, owing to the difficulty of access to the
Caves. It is probable, however, that the supply is very limited.

My thanks are due to Mr. Harpur, Assistant Curator to the
Geological Survey Branch, for the second collection of phosphatic
deposits exhibited at this meeting, also for notes made during his
recent visit to the Caves.

The analysis of No. 2 was kindly made for me by Mr. H. P.
White, Assistant Analyst in the Laboratory.

332 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

No. 7.—NOTES AND ANALYSES OF SOME NEW SOUTH
WALES PHOSPHATIC MINERALS AND PHOS.-
PHATIC DEPOSITS.

By Joun C. H. Mineaye, F.C.S., Analyst to the New South
Wales Department of Mines.

(Read Saturday, January 8, 1898.)
(1.) Pyromorphite from Braidwood, near Little River :—

Chemical Composition.

Lead oxide (PbO) ... aap se 69-40
Metallic lead (Pb) ... a ee 6°57
Phosphoric acid (P,O;) —... hs 15:22
Vanadic acid (V,O;) ene Se trace
Chlorine (Cl) mils cis 2°26
Ferric oxide (Fe, ony ae Nd 62
Lime (CaQ)... , te trace
Tnsoluble in acids (Gangue) ay. 4-67
Moisture... — see fae ‘S86

99-60

No gold or silver detected.

(2.) Apatite Crystals from Gordonbrook :

Chemical Composition. I. II.
Lime (CaO) Rk Ne ee 48°73 48°63
Calcium (Ca)... dc 3°81 3°82
Phosphoric acid (P.O, cin ee 41-22 41-11
Chlorine (Cl)... she nase 1:28 1:32
ivorime: (Ely =... x ae 2°86 2-92
Magnesia (MgO) a Nee pL) “21
Ferric oxide (Fe, °:) Sac a ‘76 ‘72
*Gangue : eae aCe 133% HN .45)
Water a BGs ae ies 29 -29

100°46 100:27
+ Mr. Geo. W. Card, A.R.S.M., F.G.S., has described the

mineral as occurring in pinkish-white crystals, associated with an
actinolitic substance, in narrow veins traversing granite.

* The gangue was found to consist of silica, alumina, ferric oxide, lime, magnesia, and a
minute trace of phosphoric acid.
+ Records of the Geological Survey of New South Wales, vol. v, Part II, 1897.

PHOSPHATIC MINERALS AND DEPOSITS. 333

(3.) Marsupial excrement.—This substance had the appearance
of solid bitumen, and has on several occasions been sent for examin-
ation. Iam informed that it is usually found in small solid masses
in caves, or crevices between rocks. A partial analysis yielded as
follows :—

Total nitrogen.. , sins «-. 2°24 per cent.
Equal to potassic nitrate i coy hee,” 9%,
Phosphoric acid ; a sais i
Insoluble matter (sand, fe Die hasie wre, CM ODO! «50

The whole of the nitrogen appears to be combined with potash,
and the major portion of the phosphoric acid is in a soluble form.

(4.) Phosphatic deposit from Moruya Caves.—A partial analysis
yielded as follows :—

Phosphoric acid (P.O,) .. 27°80 per cent.
Equal to tricalcic phosphate (Ca,P,0 ) 60-70,
Calcium carbonate (CaCo,) ... aa PE ss
Insoluble matter (sand, &e.) ... eo, Gere, 43
Nitrogen, equal to ammonia ... Sat Oa tes

(5.) Phosphatic deposit from Moruya Caves.—A partial analysis
yielded :—

Phosphoric acid (P,O;) .« 29°83 per cenit.
Equal to tricaleic ae (Ca,P,0 i ai 6 Le
Calcium carbonate (CaCo;) ... rape NORIO a ag
Insoluble matter (sand, &c.) ... a BI. ss
Nitrogen, equal to ammonia ... #8 453,

(6.) Fine gem-sand from the Tooloom Alluvial Gold-fields :—
Cerium oxide ... : ; ... 6:20 per cent.
Thorium oxide gas Se ea, (a
Lanthanum oxide = ae dus :

Didymium oxide — ae oe SON ops
Phosphoric acid ae wie) - Salhi 0 ee

(7.) Coarse gem-sand from the mMectaew Alluvial Gold-fields :—
Cerium earths as oxides ae «+ 1°96: per'cemtt
Phosphoric acid ar iia sizing LO pet

Both these samples consist largely of small zircons. A small
quantity of chrome iron-ore is also present, and a few dwt. of gold
per ton.

No. 8._-ON MODERN METHODS OF TEACHING
CHEMISTRY.

By W. J. Ciunies Ross, B.Sc.
(Read Monday, January 10, 1898.)

334 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

No. 9.—ON “RED RAIN” DUST.
By Tuos. Sree, F.L.S., F.C.8.
(Read Monday, January 10, 1898.)

From time to time records of the fall of dust, either alone or
accompanied by rain, are received from various parts of the
colonies, in common with the rest of the world.

Although it is extremely probable that in the great bulk of
these cases the dust is merely of terrestrial origin, it is interesting
when positive facts regarding the source of the material can
be ascertained. On December 27th, 1896, there occurred over
Melbourne and a considerable area of Victoria an unusually
heavy fall of dust of a red colour which was carried down by
accompanying rain.

Various observers have made known the results of microscopical
examination of dust from this shower ; but, so far as I am aware,
no chemical analysis of it has been published.

By means of a large paper-filter, my friend, Mr. W. E.
Appleby, who was then resident at Moonee Ponds, near Mel-
bourne, collected a very clean sample of the dust, which he kindly
handed to me for examination. The sample was sufficient to
enable me to determine the amounts of the leading constituents
with a fair degree of accuracy. The following are the figures of
analysis :—

Dried at 110° C.

Organic matter,* &c. (loss on ignition) Ae 10°70
Sand, insoluble and undetermined ... oe 66:23
Soluble silica ... ine sts oe a “15
Ferric oxide... oe ar soe Rie 4-68
Ferrous oxide ... cee ee ir oe 50
Alumina ee ome a oe ae 15:16
Lime ... Be ve aa on hs 1:36
Sulphuric anhydride ... as ail ti 62

100-00

The above may be considered as a characteristic example of
ordinary surface soil such as is derived from the weathering of
volcanic rocks. In appearance and composition it agrees closely
with volcanic soils from such widely separated localities as
Northern Queensland, New South Wales, and Fiji, which I have
examined.

* Containing nitrogen : ai oF ae oO.
Moisture in air-dried sample .. 3¢ ac .. 6:08

WATER OF THE WATER-VINE. 30D

Besides the diatoms noted by Messrs. Brittlebank, Stickland,
and Shephard,* my own microscopical examination disclosed the
presence of a few lepidopterous scales. Mr. L. Hart] states that
he was able to microscopically identify crystals of amethyst and
garnet. I have not, however, sufficient experience in this direc-
tion to enable me to confirm the identification.

There appears to be no feature connected with the fall, or in
the nature and composition of the dust, to lead us to infer that it
originated outside of Australia.

No. 10.—ON THE WATER OF THE WATER-VINE.
By W. M. Douerrty, F.C.S8.

(Read Monday, January 10, 1898.)
[ Abstract. |

One of the sources from which the thirsty traveller in parts of
tropical and sub-tropical Australia may allay his thirst is the
water vine (Vitis hypoglauca?). This vine is often found of con-
siderable dimensions, though it is more frequently met with from
1 to 3 inches in diameter, hanging from and interlacing the sur-
rounding forest like ropes or cables. The method for obtaining water
is either to cut off several lengths of the vine and allow it to drain
into a billy, or, if a large quantity of water is required, to select a
fairly large specimen and cut it right through near the ground,
then, by climbing as far up as possible, to partially sever it. A
copious flow of water is the result. During a trip in the Tweed
River district I have several times quenched my thirst by this
means with a thoroughly enjoyable, clear, sparkling, palatable
water, possessing a faintly, acidulous taste. Since partaking of
this water I endeavoured to discover something about its com-
position, but could find no reference whatever. I, therefore, sent
for samples of the water. The quantity sent me, though carefully
collected, was insuticient for anything like a full investigation.
The water is the sap which the vine has extracted from the soil
in the demand for nourishment. I have found it to contain 39
grains of solid matter per gallon, 28 grains of which consisted
chiefly of tannin, and some allied substance, which caused the
water to darken on exposure to the air, together with certain
proteid substances which could not be identified. The remaining
11 grains of solid matter consisted of potassium, calcium, mag-
nesium, sodium, sulphuric acid, chlorine, phosphoric acid, carbonic
acid, &e.

* “ Victorian Naturalist,” xiii, 125.
+ ‘‘ Australasian Photographic Review,” 1897, 9.

336 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

No. 11.—ON THE ESTIMATION OF WHEATMEAL IN
OATMEAL BY A GRAVIMETRIC PROCESS.

By W. M. Donerty, F.C.S.
(Read Monday, January 10, 1898. )

OATMEAL is frequently found largely adulterated with wheatmeal.
The well-marked and characteristic differences existing between
the starch granules of the oat and the wheat render the discovery
of this fact a matter of more or less simplicity. At the present
time, the method used for estimating this adulteration is wholly
microscopical. But it may have occurred to some of those who
have to deal with this question that the counting of starch
granules as a means of arriving at percentages of mixed “meals”
is not altogether satisfactory, or devoid of objection; for, in
the first place, it is a very difficult matter to obtain a slide that
will fairly represent a large sample. The quantity of the sample
under observation in the microscopic field of vision is always so
minute that the preparation of a large number of slides becomes
necessary in order to obtain even an approximate degree of
accuracy. This, at least has been my experience, notwithstanding
a most careful mixing of the samples undergoing analyses. In
the second place, a correct estimation of the proportion of different
starch granules does not imply the same correctness with regard
to the meals in which the granules are found. This will be evident
from the fact that the percentage of starch in wheat is greater
than the percentage of starch in the oat, the ratio being often as
65 to 50.

The means which I now propose for the substitution of the
quantitative microscopical method, has the advantage of bringing
the balance into requisition, and depends upon the difference in
the quantities of fat naturally present in the oat and in the wheat.

It will be obvious that before any data of value can be obtained
from a given sample, it will be essential to discover if there is
constancy in the fat-yields of both the wheat and the oat. In the
numerous works treating or touching on the composition of these
cereals, the fat content of neither the one or the other is quite
constantly stated, but varies within certain narrow limits.*
Acknowledging this variation, I do not think, though it be found
to exist universally, that it will at all affect the general application
or utility of this process. However this may be, my own deter-
minations of the fat in genuine oatmeal and in wheatmeal procured
in Sydney, and extending over several months, show in the case of

* European and American observers place the fat yield generally between 6 and 7 per
cent.

WHEATMEAL IN OATMEAL, 337

the oatmeal an almost absolute constancy which I did not hope to
find, and which in itself seems well worthy of remark. Thus out
of twenty samples of oatmeal—twelve procured ready ground,
eight made from oats procured as the occasion offered—nineteen
showed the following strikingly concordant results :—

Percentage of Fat in Oatmeal.

No. # cent. No. wv cent.
1 7°20 11 wae ae oe
2 ao 12 7°20
3 7°30 13 1S
4 T21 14 7°34
5 6:42 15 C21
6 7:20 16 7°36
7 T30 Le ee coy ha
8 1°32 18 aoe ae SA
9 7:30 19 7°30
10 7°30 20 T25

No. 5 is the only one of the series that shows any marked
divergence. The explanation of this is, that this sample, though
genuine, had been subjected to treatment by the makers, which
most probably modified the composition and occasioned a loss of
fat. Omitting No. 5, the mean percentage of fat in nineteen
samples amounted to 7:27.

The following table shows the percentage of fat found in each of
twelve parcels of wheatmeal (7.¢., the wheat less the bran) made
from samples of wheat, some kindly supplied by Mr. Guthrie of
the Agricultural Department, others procured promiscuously from
grain shops from time to time :—

Fat in Wheatmeal.

A
°

FOU OaAnNToa or Wh

Per cent.
0:94
0:98
1:00
1:20
za
0:76
0:96
0:99
1:16
Pe2l
1:03
0:96

aa
bo

Mean of the 12— 1-02, 4

Ki

338 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.

We have now as our constants 7:27 for the oatmeal and 1:02
for the wheatmeal.

In the light of the determinations herein mentioned, these
figures, I think, are justified, subject, of course, to any modification
that future and more extended investigation may render necessary.

Having established the presence of the adulterant, by micro-
scopical recognition of the starch granules, it remains to make an
estimation of the fat a given sample contains, in order to arrive at
the degree of adulteration. The following is the formula for the
calculation :—

Percentage of wheatmeal = 100—

Oat constant—percentage of fat in Be)
( Oat constant—wheat constant.

I have found this process give good results when applied to
mixtures containing known quantities of each meal. For example :
A mixture of equal parts of oat and wheatmeal gave 4:2 per cent.
of fat then

4°20

7 oO”
i
6°25

) = 49-1 per cent. of wheatmeal.

Another sample prepared by mixing together 70 parts of oat-
meal and 30 parts of wheatmeal yielded 5:32 per cent. of fat,
equalling 31 per cent. of wheatmeal. Both these results tend to
confirm the process, being very close to the actual truth.

I have not considered the question of the sophistication of oat-
meal with grain other than wheat, because this latter is the only
adulterant generally used in Sydney.* However, it is fortunate
that the fat content of any grain that might lend itself to the
purpose, is low.7

In this investigation the fat was extracted in each case from 5
grammes of the meal by petroleum ether, acting in the Soxhlet
apparatus, with ample condenser, for from two to three hours.
Schleicher and Schull’s patent thimbles were used to contain the
meal, which was dried in the air-bath immediately before extrac-
tion. The petroleum ether was also water frec. The fat was
caught in a small wide-mouthed flask, and after the disposal of the
ether, was dried at 100° C. in the air-bath, until constant in weight.

* In England the chief adulterant of oatmeal is said to be barley meal.
+ Barley, for instance, according to Blyth, contains 1°7 per cent. of fat.

MANGANESE NODULES. 339

No. 12.--MANGANESE NODULES FOUND AT
ONYBYGAMBAH.

By W. M. Douerty, F.C.S.
(Read Monday, Junuary 10, 1898.)

DuriNG a journey through dense scrubland in the neighbourhood
of Onybygambah, on the Tweed River, my attention was frequently
attracted by numerous dark-coloured nodules, or pellets, scattered
about in some places in all directions. Some of these pellets were
dark and glossy, and looked like seeds, others were of a dull-black
colour, with no specially-marked characteristics. My first im-
pression was that some of them were seeds, until closer observation
proved them to be of earthy origin. They varied in size from about
that of a pea to about that of a Barcelona nut. A small proportion
were almost perfectly spherical, the majority, while tending towards
the spherical, being irregularin shape. They were all soft enough
to be easily divided with the teeth. Separate analysis of three of
them showed the following composition :—

Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.
(1) (2) (3)
Gangue wee 4 O0b ek OZ an! oo LO
Fe, O, and Al, O, Peer at sas | LEO0
MnQ,. a. ahr nen “LOcOUr sae. - 40°60
Mg CO, ae Fy: DOO tous 2:60F ti 3°10
Organic matter eee UZO0 2. ME ZS80r 5 “L000

The occurrence of manganese, in the form now described, spread
over a wide area is new to my experience, and is here merely
recorded.

No. 13.—NOTES ON THE CONSTITUTION OF GLUTEN.
By F. B. Guturie, F.C.8.
Read Monday, January 10, 1898.

[Published in full in the V.S.W. Agricultural Gazette, April,
1898, Vol. IX, Part IV.]

No. 14.—NOTES ON SOME SIMPLE LABORATORY
CONTRIV ANCES.

By A. N. Pearson.

(Read Monday, January 10, 1898. )

340 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

SECTION C.

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

By Captain F. W. Hurron, F.R.S., F.G.8., &c., Curator, Canter-
bury Museum, Christchurch, New Zealand.

(Delivered Saturday, January 8, 1898.)

KARLY LIFE ON THE EARTH.

ONE peculiarity of geologists is that we receive new facts with
suspicion, but welcome theories with open arms, provided they
are properly introduced by authority. This has always been so
from the beginning. Jt was a hundred and fifty years before
geologists would believe the simple fact that a fossil shell was a
fossil shell ; and it was more than a hundred and fifty years before
they would abandon the official theory that fossil shells had been
buried during the Noachian deluge. It is the same at the present
day ; facts of observation are long dishelieved, while exploded
theories die hard.

I do not say this in our disparagement, for there are good
reasons why it should be so. Facts, especially paleeontological
facts, are usually discovered by members of the rank and file, and
generally they are incomplete facts which have to be filled out
with inferences, often erroneous, but which are supposed to be
parts of the facts. Thus suspicion is begotten, and we often rightly
refuse to receive incomplete facts until they have been verified
by other discoveries, which may not take place for a long time.
Theories, on the other hand, are usually started by someone in
authority, whose position guarantees him a respectful hearing, and
whose great knowledge is sure to make the theory appear plausible
at the time. The ordinary geologist submits at once with the
comfortable feeling of a patient who has placed himself in the
hands of his doctor.

I make these few prefatory remarks because in this address I
shall mention a number of facts of observation, some of which

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 341

have, I think, been received with an undue amount of suspicion ;
and I shall illustrate and, I hope, enliven them with one or two
speculations of my own, which I trust you will receive kindly.
To proceed now to my theme.

Paleeontologists began with the younger fossils, and worked
downwards. From the time of Cuvier and Brongniart in France,
and William Smith in England, the paleontology of the Cainozoie,
Mesozoic, and newer Palwozoic rocks made rapid progress ; and in
1833 Murchison and Sedgwick commenced to unravel the older
Palzeozoic of Wales. The fossils were described by our esteemed
friend, Sir Frederick McCoy, and others. in Britain, in Europe,
and in North America, until a fairly rich fauna was known down
to the base of the Cambrian. Here fossils suddenly stopped, but
so rich in species was the Cambrian fauna that it was predicted
that, sooner or later, fossils would be found in pre-Cambrian
rocks ;;and this prediction—which was based on the theory of
organic evolution—has been veritied within the last few years.

The first attempt at verification ended in disappointment. In
1865 Sir W. Logan and Sir J. W. Dawson announced that a
gigantic foraminifer, which they called Eozoén, had been discovered
a few years previously in the Laurentian rocks of Canada ; but
the announcement, at first received with favour, has, as I shall
presently explain, fallen into discredit. Other discoveries, how-
ever, have proved more satisfactory. So far back as 1864 Mr.
Billings found fossils in Newfoundland, which both he and Sir
W. Logan thought at the time to be Cambrian, but which have
since (in 1888) been shown to be pre-Cambrian. In 1883, and
again in 1890, Professor Walcott announced the discovery of
undoubted organic remains in the pre-Cambrian of Arizona, In
1889 Dr. G. F. Mathew read a paper to the Royal Society of
Canada on some lower Cambrian fossils from New Brunswick,
which are now, like those from Newfoundland, considered to be
pre-Cambrian. Also, in 1892, Dr. C. Barrois discovered radio-
larians and sponge-spicules in the pre-Cambrian rocks of Brittany,
descriptions of which were published in 1895 by Dr. Cayeux.

Here, at last, we seem to have reached a paleontological base ;
for although radiolarians and sponges are not the lowest of animals,
they are the lowest which contain any hard parts capable of being
preserved, and are, therefore, the lowest in organisation of any
animals we can hope to find fossil. Their position too, as I shall
point out directly, is, probably, in the oldest system of rocks in
which we can ever hope to recognise fossils ; and they are, no
doubt, as old or older than any other known organisms. Conse-
quently, the paleontological sounding-line appears to have touched
the bottom. <A glance at what we know, or what we may legiti-
mately surmise, about the early history of the earth will help to
give us clearer notions on this dictum of a paleontological base.

343 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

We know as a fact that the earth is a hot body travelling
through space which is intensely cold. It must, therefore, be
cooling. Consequently, in the early days of its history, it must
have been very much hotter than it is now. There are, indeed,
reasons for thinking that at a very remote period the earth was
actually molten owing to the intense heat, when, of course, the
whole of the water of the ocean must have been in a state of
vapour, and formed part of the atmosphere. As the temperature
lowered, this aqueous vapour would condense and fall on the
surface of the earth as hot rain. The first ocean would, therefore,
be almost at its boiling-point, and would gradually cool down ;
but no life could exist in the ocean or on the land while the tem-
perature much exceeded 200° F., which, so far as we know, is the
highest temperature in which plants can live. This period of the
hot ocean was, therefore, the Azoic era of the earth’s history
which, as the cooling progressed, passed into the Protozoic and
then into the Paleozoic era, which includes the Cambrian period.
At first the ocean must have been nearly uniform in temperature
from the equator to the poles ; but climatic zones appear to have
been established in the Silurian period, if not earlier.

The pre-Cambrian rocks have received various names in different
parts of the world ; but, as they are better developed and more
easy to decipher in North America than elsewhere, it is probable
that so soon as the officers conducting the geological surveys of
Canada and the United States agree on a classification and a
nomenclature, it will be universally adopted. At present this is
not the case, and, in this address, I have followed for the most
part the Canadian authorities who first discovered these rocks,
and who have for many years devoted an immense amount of
labour to mapping them.

The oldest rock system known to us is composed chiefly of gneiss,
sometimes passing into granite, and it probably represents the
Azoic era. It is called the Laurentian system. Above it, in
discordant sequence, is found in Canadaa series of schists, arkoses,
quartzites, greywackes, and schistose conglomerates called the
Huronian system, which probably represents the Protozoic era.
However, in order to avoid using theoretical names, which may
be incorrect, the Laurentian and Huronian are called collectively
the Archean era.

Immediately above the Huronian there is a great unconformity,
marking a considerable interval of time, and the succeeding rocks
are called Keweenewan in Canada and Algonkian in the United
States. They are composed of a great thickness of sandstones and
slates—sometimes locally altered into schists—which underlie the
Cambrian system, the base of which is marked by what is known
as the Olenellus fauna, from the occurrence in it of the trilobite
called Olenellus. Let us look at these more in detail.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 343

THE LAURENTIAN PERIOD.

The Laurentian in Canada consists of two formadéions. The
lower—known as the fundamental gneiss—is of igneous origin,
and probably represents the more or less altered remains of the
original crust of the earth. The upper formation consists of lime-
stones and clastic rocks, evidenty of aqueous origin, which are
called the Grenville and Hastings series. The argillaceous beds
interstratified with the limestones have been changed into a rock,
which is also called gneiss, although different in chemical com-
position from the fundamental gneiss. The Grenville series is
supposed by Messrs. Adams and Barlow, of the Geological Survey
of Canada,* to have been deposited at a time when the funda-
mental gneiss, which formed the bed of the ocean, was in a semi-
molten or plastic condition, and the sediments sank down into the
gneiss, so that in places they were entirely enwrapped by it. It is
in this Grenville series that the structure called Hozdon canadense
has been found.

It was the macroscopic characters of Hozodn—the regular con-
centric layers of which it is generally composed—which first gave
rise to the idea that it was of organic origin. But these regular
layers are sometimes very few in number, the greater part of the
supposed organism being quite irregular in structure; indeed some
specimens are without any arrangement at all and have been called
Archeospherine, under the idea that they belonged to a different
genus to Hozodn. In its microscopic appearence Hozodn must
closely resemble some of the Foraminifera or it could not have
deceived such experienced observers as Dr. Carpenter and Professor
Rupert Jones. However, Mr. H. J. Carter and Professor Mébius
never allowed that ZHozodn was organic, and Professor Zittel,
although at first favouring the view that it was a Foraminifer,
afterwards changed his opinion. Other specimens from Bavaria,
Bohemia, Ireland, Scandinavia, and Brazil, which at first were
supposed to be Hozodn, are now acknowledged to be inorganic, and
somewhat similar structures, have been found in a calcareous vein-
stone in eastern Massachusetts and in an altered limestone from
Vesuvius.

It is, however, chiefly the position in which Hozodn is found which
makes it impossible to believe that it is of organic origin. Professor
Bonney, has pointed out that the original Hozodn occurs on the
periphery of blocks of a variety of pyroxene called Malacolite,
surrounded by crystalline limestone, and that it is formed by grains
of this Malacolite, generally altered into serpentine, scattered
through the limestone.t On the organic hypothesis these blocks

* American Journal of Science and Art, March, 1897.
t+ Geological Magazine, 1895, p. 292.

344 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

of pyroxene were the rocks in the ocean on which Lozodn grew ;
but evidently this cannot be the case for the blocks are segrega-
tion masseg and were, no doubt, formed at the same time as the
grains of serpentine which are supposed to infiltrate the organism.

Also, the supposed canals are sometimes filled with dolomite
which is usually altered calcite, and is rarely deposited in cavities
of unaltered calcite.

The great thickness and extent of the limestones with which
Hozobn is associated forbid the idea that they are entirely the re-
sult of hydrothermal action on lime-bearing silicates ; but it does
not necessarily follow that they must be organic. Also, we can
hardly suppose the large quantities of graphite found in these
limestones to be organically derived, for if this was the case it
must have come from marine plants—no others being in existence
—and as we have no knowledge of any mineral carbon-compounds
having thus originated in large quantity in any other period, we
should have to suppose that seaweeds were either more abundant
or more capable of being preserved in the Archzan era than at
any later time. The occurrence of graphite and limestone together
suggests a common origin for both, and as we know that metallic
carbides occur, not only in meteorites, but also in the terrestial
iron of Ovifak in Greenland, it seems probable that both graphite
and limestone may be due to the decomposition of calcium carbides
by hot water. At any rate, if the officers of the Canadian survey
are right in their ideas as to the genesis of the Grenville series, we
cannot possibly suppose that the limestones are of organic origin,
for no organism could have existed under such conditions.*

HURONIAN LIFE.

No undoubted traces of life have been found in the Huronian
of America ; but it is probable that the Radiolarians and sponges
discovered by Dr. C. Barrois, in Brittany, should be placed in it.
A short account of the geological position of these fossils will be
necessary to explain this.

In Southern Brittany, from Finisterre to Vendée, a remarkable
graphite-bearing quartzite is found interbedded in a series of
gneisses and mica-schists, which cover unconformably the Lauren-
tian fundamental gneisses of the district. Further north, in the
Department of the Cotes du Nord, the graphitic quartzite reap-
pears ; but here it is interbedded with phyllites and schists forming
the series of Saint-L6, which is undoubtedly pre-Cambrian. It is
in this graphitic quartzite, in the neighbourhood of Lamballe, that
the fossils were found. In Southern Brittany the graphitic quartz-
ite appears to be near the top of the system as these developed ;

*T have not seen Dr. Mathews’ paper on Archzozoén and Sponges from the Upper
Laurentian, near St. John, New Brunswick, in the Bulletin of the Nat. Hist. Society of New
Brunswick ; but their organic nature has been disputed by Dr. H. Rauff, of Bonn.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 345

but in Northern Brittany it occurs near the base of the series of
Saint-L6 ; as is proved not only by stratigraphical evidence, but
by the occurrence of pebbles of the easily recognised gyaphitic rock
in conglomerates at Granville and other places which are them-
selves low down in the series. So that the horizon of these fossils
seems to be somewhere near the middle of the pre-Cambrian sedi-
mentary rocks of Brittany. Whether these rocks belong to the
Huronian or to the Algonkian, or partly to one and partly to the
other, there is no certain evidence ; but as they agree in mineral
structure more closely with those of the Huronian of Canada than
with those of the Algonkian, and as they contain numerous scales
of graphite, they may be placed provisionally in the former period.

Dr. Cayeux’s specimens have been examined by Dr. D. Rust,
and by Dr. G. J. Hinde, both highly competent authorities. Dr.
Riist, while allowing that they are organic, is inclined to think,
from their small size and spherical shape, that they may be
detached chambers of Foraminifera ; but Dr. Hinde upholds
Dr. Cayeux’s view that they are truly Radiolarians* ; and if we
may rely upon the published figures, photographs of which I
exhibit—and no one has thrown any doubt on them—they cer-
tainly appear to be Radiolarians and sponge-spicules. The figures
of the Foraminifera seem more doubtful ; but as they are described
as having finely perforated walls we cannot escape from the con-
clusion that they are true Foraminifera, and distinct from the
Radiolarians which have coarsely perforated walls. The Foram-
inifera, however, are few, and consist of groups of simple spherules
of different sizes which sometimes possess the rudiments of spines.

The Radiolarians are very minute, about one-fifteenth of the
diameter of similar forms in Cambrian and younger rocks. Most
of them have a thin spherical shell pierced with holes, and are
sometimes furnished with spines; but the forms are various.
Twenty-four genera have been distinguished, two-thirds of which
are still living, and there are many others, the genus of which
cannot be determined, although they are unquestionably Radio-
larians. By far the commonest forms belong to Cerosphera, a
still living genus, known also in the Silurian period, which belongs
to the legion Spumellaria, the fundamental form of which is
spherical or ellipsoid. But the legion Nassellaria, in which the
fundamental form is ovoid, is also represented by nine genera,
although the individuals are not so numerous as those of the first
legion.

Sponge-spicules are probably common, but they are generally
broken. They belong chiefly to the simple forms of Monactinel-
lide, or to the Lithistide, or the Tetractinellide ; but a few frag-
ments belonging to the Hexactinellide have been recognised.

* Geological Magazine, 1894, p. 417.

346 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

Many are of branched or radiate type, and they are surrounded
by pyrites which probably represents the sponge. The fauna is,
therefore, an extensive and varied one, and it is evident that both
Radiolarians and sponges had existed for a long time when the
series of Saint-L6 was being laid down. Even if they are wrongly
referred to the Huronian period, this great variety of form may
be taken as good evidence that the ancestors of these Radiolarians
and sponges existed long before the Mollusca and Trilobites of the
Algonkian period came into existence.

ALGONKIAN LIFE.

In Nevada and Utah on the west, and in Vermont and New
Brunswick on the east of North America, as also in North-west
India, the Algonkian beds are overlain conformably by the Cam-
brian ; but in all other known places, not only in North America
but also in Europe, there is an unconformity at the base of the
Cambrian, thus distinctly separating the two systems.

In the rocks of Animikie, near Lake Superior, a shell something
like Lingula as well as some obscure fragments of Trilobites and
worm-like tracks have been found. In the rocks of the Grand
Canyon of Colorado, where it passes through Arizona, Dr. Walcott
has detected in a limestone, about 4,000 feet below the base of the
Cambrian, abundant fragments of Cryptozodn, a genus—previously
known from the Upper Cambrian—which differs from Stromatopora
in having thinner and coriaceous laminz without any connecting
pillars or pores. Four hundred and fifty feet higher up he found
a fragment of what seems to be the pleural lobe of a segment of a
Trilobite ; also a minute discinoid or patelloid shell and a small
Lingula-like shell, possibly a Hyolithes. In North Vermont, at
about 500 feet below the base of the Cambrian, he obtained frag-
ments of a Trilobite and another so-called Pterpod—Salterella.
In Conception Bay, Newfoundland, a patelloid shell—Aspidella
terranovica—and worm tracks have been found in rocks under-
lying unconformably the Cambrian. And the Annelid (?) tubes
of the Torridon sandstone in north-west Scotland as well, probably,
as the worm burrows in the quartzites of Holyhead, in Anglesey,
must also be referred to the Algonkian.

Just below the base of the Cambrian a more varied fauna occurs
in two different parts of the world. In the Salt Range of the
Punjab, Dr. Fritz Noetling has shown that there are four fossil-
iferous zones underlying the Olenel/us fauna. These he calls (1)
the Neobolus zone, (2) the Upper Annelid Sandstone, (3) the zone of
Hyolithes, and (4) the Lower Annelid Zone. Also Dr. G. F. Mathew
has described what he calls the Protolenas fauna from St. John,
New Brunswick. It contains thirteen species of Trilobites belong-
ing to six genera as well as Ostracoda. Six genera of pelagic
Gastropoda, one (Volborthella) doubtful Cephalopod, seven of

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. 347

Brachiopods, three of sponges, and two of Foraminifera. Dr.
Mathew points out that the Trilobites of this fauna can be
distinguished from those of Cambrian by having continuous
eye-lobes, and he says that the fauna as a whole is more primitive
and more pelagic in character than the Olenellus fauna.

Nevertheless, as the Olenel/ws fauna has not been found in the
neighbourhood, he thinks it possible that the two might be con-
temporaneous, and that the difference between them may be due
to difference in geographical station.

It appears, therefore, that out of the eight sub-kingdoms into
which animals are divided by zoologists, six were represented in
the pre-Cambrian times ; but until we come close up to the Cam-
brian, the Protozoa and Porifera alone show much diversity, and
they were certainly the dominant feature of the animal life of the
early seas. No recognisable vegetable remains have been found
in any pre-Cambrian rock, but pelagic alge must have existed,
for otherwise there would have been no food for the animals.

CAMBRIAN LIFE.

When we pass upward into the Cambrian period we find that
life has made considerable progress, including the appearance of a
new sub-kingdom—the Echinodermata ; and in the Upper Cam-
brian we have the first Bryozoa and Pelecypoda. However, the
only fossils which show much variety are the Brachiopoda and the
Trilobites.

The Hydrozoa were represented by Sertularians, Graptolites,
and Medusz, the latter being so abundant that the National
Museum at Washington has more than 8,000 specimens. These
Cambrian Medusz belong to a distinct family of the Discomedusze
called Brooksellide, and are distinguished by having a lobate
umbrella without any marginal tentacles. It is remarkable that
such soft things as jelly-fish should have been preserved as fossils ;
but although they have no hard parts, their tissues, when saturated
with water, are sufficiently firm to make impressions on the mud
or sand on which they have been thrown by the waves, and when
the umbrella is turned upside down the gastric cavities get filled
with the mud or sand and leave star-like marks, which are easily
recognised. The Actinozoa are represented only by the curious
Archceocyathine, which appear to be related to the perforate corals.

The hingeless Brachiopods were the first of their class to appear.
According to Beecher, Paterina of the Lower Cambrian approaches
nearest to the primitive stock, for it closely resembles the embry-
onic shell of later forms ; and during the Cambrian period it gave
rise to at least five different types of Inarticulata, one of which—
represented probably by Autorgina—led up to the Articulata, the
first known of which, Orthis, had become well established in the
Upper Cambrian.

348 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

Trilobites form by far the most important part of the fossil
fauna, and can generally be distinguished by the shortness of the
pygidium. Some were as much as 18 inches in length. The
minute Protocaris of the Lower Cambrian is a Phyllopod with a
sub-quadrate carapace.

The Cambrian mollusca are remarkable for the proportionately
large number of elongated shells formerly classed as Pteropoda.
Lately; however, many biologists have been led to the conclu-
sion that the Pteropoda have had a comparatively late origin,
and it is certainly remarkable that none are known between the
Devonian and Eocene periods. It is now generally allowed that
the Hyolithide, which includes all the pre-Cambrian and Cambrian
forms, do not belong to the Pteropoda. They must, however, be
considered as pelagic mollusca, and probably as the ancestors of
the Cephalopoda. ‘True Cephalopoda appeared in the upper Cam-
brian but did not attain any importance. Undoubted Gastropoda
are represented by conical and spiral shells, all of which are very
thin, and probably belonged to pelagic animals. The spiral shell
is strongly in favour of these early Gastropods having been proso-
branchiate, and this agrees with the discovery that some of the
Opisthobranchs still inherit the twist in the visceral nerve-loop
which is characteristic of the Prosobranchs. The early Peleecypoda
were very minute, none of them being more than a quarter of an
inch in length. The shells of all the Mollusca consist chiefly of a
horny substance containing but a small quantity of phosphate of
lime, and much less of carbonate of lime ; thus differing from the
later shells which are composed almost entirely of calcic carbonate.

No trace of a plant has been found in any of the Cambrian
rocks unless Oldhamia and the Lower Cambrian oolitic limestones
of South Australia* are proofs of the existence of calcareous alge.
Eophyton, which was formerly thought to be a plant, has been
shown to be due to the trailing of the oral lobes of a Medusa over
soft mud.

SPECULATIONS ON PRE-ORDOVICIAN LIFE.

' Let us now see what these dry facts teach us. In the first place
it is very remarkable that the only extensive pre-Cambrian fauna
is composed of Radiolarians and Sponges ; and as the Sponges are
more complex animals than the Radiolarians we must suppose
that they are descendent from them and not the Radiolarians
from the Sponges ; consequently the Radiolarians are the oldest
organisms we know. No doubt the Radiolarians of Brittany
are not the first of their class ; nevertheless we seem to have got
as near, perhaps, as we ever can get to the first organisms, and
we find that they belong to a group which at the present day

* Pro. Linn., Soc. of N. 8. Wales, vol. xxi, pp. 671 and 574 (1897).

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 349

floats near the surface of the sea. This pelagic aspect of the early
faunas is carried out by the Mollusca of the Algonkian and Cam-
brian periods as well as by the great development of free-swimming
Medusz in the Cambrian ; and we should remember that these
delicate pelagic animals must have been very numerous to have
left any record at all.

The earliest known Radiolarians are accompanied by the remains
of sponges which must have lived on the bottom of the ocean, and
these were followed by creeping worms and Trilobites. The early
Brachiopods have diaphanous shells, like the pelagic mollusca,
but it seems probable, from a study of their development in living
forms, that at first they had no shell at all, but consisted of the
peduncle encased in a sand-tube. The shell was afterwards added
to protect the branchiz, and in course of time the intestinal tract
in the peduncle atrophied. Perhaps the so-called annelid tubes of
the Torridon sandstone represent the first Brachiopods.

From all this we may infer that the first animals were pelagic
protozoa which, in time, varied and gave rise to pelagic worms
and mollusca. At a very early date, however, some of the protozoa
followed down the dead organisms and settled on the bottom,
giving rise to the sponges. Afterwards worms moved in the same
direction, feeding, probably, on the sponges ; and from them are
descended the Brachiopods and the Crustaceans.*

The remains of the Brachiopods and Trilobites are found
chiefly in shallow-water deposits, but some of them may have
pushed their way into the deep sea, feeding on the dead pelagic
organisms which rained down from above ; indeed, it has been
thought that the eyeless condition of some of the early Trilobites
is a proof of this. But the eyes are always placed on the second
segment, called the free cheek, and in several of the earlier forms
this free cheek is ventral only, in which case no eyes could appear
on the dorsal surface ; the absence of eyes is not, therefore, always
a proof of degeneration, but there are some species of Paradoxides
in which it is said that the eyes have become rudimentary.

The hard spines of the early Trilobites could not have been for
defence, for there were no enemies capable of attacking them ; but,
perhaps, they were used indirectly in locomotion. As their weak
little legs paddled backwards and forwards in the mud the spines,
all of which are directed backwards, would necessitate motion in
a forward direction only.

There is no evidence of the existence of any animals sufficiently
protected to live among the breakers round the shore, nor is there
any evidence of life on the land. Ifa human spectator could have
stood on the shore at that time he would probably have seen no

* This theory was originated, I think, by Biologists, and was first brought prominently
before Geologists by Professor W. K. Brooks, in the American Journal of Geology for July
and August, 1894.

350 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

animal life at all. The rocks below low-water mark would be
covered with delicate red and brown seaweeds, and the ocean
between tide-marks would, then as now, be girdled with a belt of
vivid green ; but all the land above would be brown and barren,
without even a moss or lichen growing on it. Upon the sands
at his feet might lie a dead jelly-fish or Trilobite, or, perhaps, a
delicate transparent shell thrown up by the waves ; but they would
be rarely seen, and the great ocean, although really swarming with
minute life, would to the naked eye appear tenantless.

Did Plants Precede Animals ?—It is generally supposed that
plants must have preceded animals; for they alone are able to
decompose the carbon-dioxide in the atmosphere, and thus furnish
the carbo-hydrates and proteids on which animals feed. Or, in
other words, plants must have preceded animals because they
alone can live on mineral substances. But this supposition Jands
us in the difficulty of having to assume that the very first organism
contained chlorophyll, which is necessary for the formation of
protoplasm, but which is itself a product of protoplasm. This
difficulty would be overcome if we could suppose that the primeval
ocean, in which the first organisms appeared, contained, in addi-
tion to its present salts, mineral hydro-carbons which would slowly
oxidise and supply the organisms with food without the necessity of
decomposing carbon-dioxide. Now Professor H. Moissan has shown
that much, if not all, of the carbon of the earth existed at first as
metallic carbides, many of which are decomposed by water at
ordinary temperatures, and yield hydro-carbons and hydrogen.
Most of the hydro-carbons thus obtained are gaseous (acetylene and
marsh-gas) ; but in some cases both liquid and solid hydro-carbons
are formed abundantly.* The gases would be partly taken up by
the water, while the liquid and solid forms would float on the
surface, and if converted into carbo-hydrates may have served as
food for the first organisms. It is, therefore, quite possible to
suppose that protoplasm capable of secreting chlorophyll was a
later development, when the supply of miner al hydro-carbons was
getting exhausted, and consequently the first. organisms may have
been animals.

And now let me say a word about the origin of life itself.
We have seen that it is highly probable that the first living
organisms were evolved near the surface of a warm ocean, which
contained abundance of carbo-hydrates and atmospheric air in
solution, and which was agitated by the wind and other meteoro-
logical agencies—conditions which it would not be difficult to
reproduce in the laboratory—and we may safely assume that
the first protoplasm was not so complicated a substance as it
has since become. Perhaps this does not help us much towards a

* Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, vol. 60, p. 156.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. Sole.

solution of the problem of the origin of life ; for even if chemists*
should show us how protein might be formed under the con-
ditions just indicated, the important gap between dead protein
and the simplest living protoplasm would still remain to be bridged.
Nevertheless, we certainly have a clearer idea than we had before
of the problem which has to be solved; and that is a step in
advance. It is, indeed, the only step that can be taken by geolo-
gists.
ORDOVICIAN AND SILURIAN LIFE.

I will now pass on to glance at the life of the Ordovician and
Silurian periods. The Ordovician was ushered in by the appear-
ance of the highest sub-kingdom of animals, the vertebrata, repre-
presented by minute teeth, called conodonts, from the green sands
at the base of the Ordovician, near St. Petersburg. Fossils called
conodonts have been found in various places, and in rocks of
different ages, from the Upper Cambrian to the Carboniferous, but
they differ much from one another. Some are, no doubt, the jaws
of Chetopod worms; others are thought to be of crustacean origin,
although no explanation is given of why these crustacean jaws
should always be found dissociated from the other parts of the exo-
skeleton; possibly some may belong to Cephalopoda ; but the cono-
donts, just mentioned, from St. Petersburg, have been shown by
Dr. J. von Rohon to have enamel and dentine, with a pulp-cavity
of an essentially vertebrate character, and this has been confirmed
by Dr. Otto Jaekel; so that in all probability they belonged to
lamprey-like animals, and if this is the case paleontology offers
no support to Dr. Gaskell’s ingenious hypothesis that the verte-
brates are descended from the Merostomata.

In the Upper Ordovician of Colorado there have been found
plates of an ostracoderm allied to Asterolepis, and true fishes are
represented by enamelled scales, thought to resemble those of
Holoptychius, and therefore to belong to the Crossopterygil, as
well as by what appears to be the ossified chordal-sheath of a
chimeroid fish. The late Professor Cope expressed a doubt as to
the vertebrate origin of these fossils ; but I have not been able to
find that he has anywhere published reasons for his doubt.

The invertebrates which first claim our attention are the Grap-
tolites and the Brachiopods. The Graptolites are known in North
America from the Lower Cambrian to the Carboniferous, but in
Europe they first appear in the Upper Cambrian as a monoprioni-
dian form allied to Dichograptus. In the lowest beds of the
Ordovician they suddenly attain their greatest devolpment, after
which they gradually decline, and only a few forms pass into the
Devonian. The earlier forms had many irregular branches, which

* Professor Liversidge informs me that some of the native mineral oils (Petroleum,
Naphtha, etc.) contain oxidised compounds.

352 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

during the Ordovician period decreased in number, and became
regularly arranged ; while throughout the greater part of the
Silurian we find only simple, unbranched forms. The thecz also,
which were at first straight and with straight apertures, became
curved and with curved apertures often produced into a spine,
and in the Silurian period the aperture was in some cases still
more complex. The species of Graptolites are widely spread
horizontally, and occur in very dissimilar rocks, such as limestones,
shales, and grits. Sometimes they are accompanied by a varied
fauna ; but in other places they occur in thin zones without any
other fossils, while the different species which characterise these
zones are the same, and have the same vertical distribution,
wherever they are found. The explanation of these facts appears
to be that the Graptolites floated on the surface, and consequently
were independent of the depth of the sea and the nature of the
sea bottom. We find additional evidence in confirmation of this
in the fact that some of the early species were furnished with a
disc, which probably acted as a float.

The Brachiopoda show a remarkable development during both
the periods under consideration. Orthis, in which the triangular
opening for the peduncle remains open all through life, gave rise
to the Rhynchonellide, which has a pair of deltidial plates in the
opening, and to the Strophomenide, in which the opening becomes,
during growth, entirely closed by a shelly plate, thus leaving the
animal free. From the Rhynchonellide sprung, in the Silurian
period, the Terebratulide, in which the deltidial plates remain
separate, and the Spiriferide, in which they unite during growth,
and close the opening for the peduncle, as in the Strophomenide.

All classes of the Mollusca increased greatly, especially the
Cephalopoda, which are, after the Brachiopods and Trilobites, the
most numerous of Silurian fossils. Now, too, we find, in the Lower
Ordovician, thick-shelled Gastropods, and in the Silurian we have
Chiton, an ancient form of soft-bodied mollusc, specially modified
for protection among the waves of the shore, It has been sug-
gested on very good authority—S. P. Woodward, H. von Jhering,
and Professor A. Hyatt—that Tentaculites, and, perhaps, Hyolathes,
represent the primitive Cephalopoda. Anyhow, it is highly pro-
bable that the first Cephalopods were pelagic in habit, for we
know no ground-animals from which they could have been derived.
These pelagic Cephalopods are but little known, and possibly some
of the conodonts belonged to them. -The ground Cephalopods
appear first as Nautiloidea, which were very rare in the Upper
Cambrian, increased rapidly in numbers during the Ordovician,
and attained their maximum development in the Silurian.

The Arthropoda were now reinforced by the Eurypterida, in
the Ordovician, and the Xiphosura in the Upper Salurian. The
former were the largest and most powerful animals of their day,

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 353

attaining their maximum in the Silurian period, and becoming
extinct before the end of the Palzeozoic era.

Of plants we have at last certain knowledge. The first un-
doubted seaweed (Buthotrephis) occurs in Lower Ordovician rocks,
while from the Silurian there are many beautifully preserved
forms ; from which we may infer that the Cambrian, and most of
the Ordovician, seaweeds were too delicate in structure to be pre-
served. But in addition to seaweeds there were also land plants.
In the Upper Ordovician, the extraordinary tree-like Protoaxites
seems to have been a terrestrial Alga, while Protostigma is related
to Sigillaria, and itis to Protostigma that the prickly macrospores
from Bohemia, discovered by Dr. Riist, probably belong. In the
Silurian period there were two genera of Lycopodiacece (Pstlophytum
and Glyptodendron), and at least two genera of LHquisetacece
(Annularia and Sphenophyllum). \ Ferns, apparently, were not
yet in existence, for the so-called Hopteris is now known to be
nothing more than a growth of dendritic crystals.

Land Animals.—Rather above the horizon on which the first
Jand-plants occur—that is, in the Silurian—the oldest known insect,
Paleoblattina douwvillei, has been found in France ; and, although
its affinities are rather uncertain, it is thought by Brongniart to
belong to the Orthoptera. In the Devonian, neuropterous insects
(May-flies) came on the scene ; and in the Carboniferous there were
many Orthoptera, Neuroptera, and, perhaps, Hemiptera. No other
order of insects appear at that time to have been in existence.
Scorpions, with stings at the end of their tails, like those of the
present day, and, therefore, carnivorous, have been found in the
Silurian, and spiders in the Carboniferous. The fact that carni-
vorous scorpions have been found as low down as the oldest- known
phytophagous insect, is good evidence that insects must have
existed on the land for some time previously ; so that we may with
some confidence refer their origin to the Ordovician period.

SPECULATIONS ON ORDOVICIAN AND SILURIAN LIFE.

The peopling of the shore-line and the land.—Probably all the
different sub-kingdoms of animals had come into existence before:
the close of the Cambrian period. Henceforward no more funda-
mental types were to be introduced ; multiplication and variation
of the existing types was for the future to be the réle, until all
habitable parts of the earth were filled with life. It is in the early
part of the Ordovician period that we first see animals fitted to
live in the rough waters of the littoral zone of the sea-shore : these
were thick-shelled gastropods, followed in the Upper Ordovician by
the Ostracoderma. And it is in the Upper Ordovician that we have
the first proofs of the existence of land-plants, followed in the
Silurian by insects feeding on plants, and scorpions feeding on
insects,

Z

354 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

Rate of Variation.—When we think that certainly seven, and
probably all eight, of the sub-kingdoms of animals were in existence
before the close of the Cambrian period, it would seem at first that
variation had gone on more rapidly during the earlier periods of
the earth’s history than afterwards; but this is an erroneous
impression, due to the very unequal lengths of time represented
by the different periods. Making every allowance for tke possi-
bility that the rate of denudation and depression may have been
greater in past times than now, still we must admit that the
relative thickness of the sedimentary rocks of each period is a
rough measure of the relative length of time it represents ; and I
suppose that every geologist will agree that the Huronian, the
Algonkian, the Cambrian, and the Ordovician were collectively at
least equal in duration to all the periods that came after them—
that is, they represent at least one-half of the time since life first
appeared on the earth; but certainly the changes which have
taken place in animals, and especially in plants, since the com-
mencement of the Silurian period, are far greater than those that
went before, both in the addition of new groups and in the
extinction of old ones; so that the rate of variation must have
increased and not diminished with time. It was this slow rate of
variation in ancient times that enabled the early Paleozoic genera
to spread so much more widely over the earth than do the genera
of the present day.

Hatinction of Growps.—The diminution or decay of a whole
group of animals first began with the Graptolites in the Upper
Ordovician, and they finally became extinct in the Carboniferous.
The same process commenced with the Trilobites in the Silurian
period, and they became extinct in the Permian. Can we trace
any cause for this gradual process of decline in numbers? The
existence in the earliest times of Radiolarians almost identical
with their descendants of the present day is but another example
of the persistence of types with which paleontologists have been
familiar for a long time. It is true that we only know the hard
parts of the ancient forms, but we have reason for thinking that
if the soft parts had varied much the hard parts would have
changed also. From the fact of the persistence of certain types
it necessarily follows that there is no inherent necessity for
organisms to vary or to decay, while the idea that if they vary
then they must subsequently decay is opposed to the whole
teaching of organic evolution, for itis the variable groups which
have progressed. But if there is no internal necessity for decay,
then the extinction of a whole group must be due to external
agencies, and, if the group is widely spread, these agencies cannot
have been local in their operation.

These external agencies may be changes in climate, or changes
in the biological environment, due to the introduction of new

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 355

forms of animals, which may either prey on the older inhabitants
or be successful competitors for their food supply. Change in
climate may, perhaps, sometimes account for the extermination of
a group of terrestrial animals or plants, but it cannot have a wide
influence on those groups living in the sea, which must have
perished either from violence or from famine. The struggle for
existence with other animals has, no doubt, generally been the
most efficient cause of extinction, and with Pelagic animals it is
probably the only cause. At the present day, and during all the
latter half of the earth’s history, the struggle for existense has
been so complicated that it is hardly possible to trace out its
effects ; but in the earlier times, to which this address refers, the
problem was much simpler, and it may not be impossible to solve it.

The Graptolites were the first great group to suffer extinction.
Pelagic in habit they could not have suffered more than other
Pelagic animals from a change in climate. Living on the minute
organisms which swarmed in the sea, and which they captured
with their tentacles, we can hardly suppose that they succumbed
to a want of food, and we are thus led to the conclusion that they
must have formed food for others. Who were these others ?
They must have been either Medusz or Pelagic Cephalopods, the
owners perhaps of some of the conodonts, and of the two I should
be inclined to choose the latter, but we know very little about
them.

With regard to the Trilobites, Professor Walcott says that
owing to their great differentiation the initial vital energy of the
group became impaired, and that this was the cause of their
extinction. With this I cannot agree, for the reason already given,
and must, therefore, try to find some other and more efficient
cause at work. As the Trilobites lived on the bottom of the
ocean, where the temperature is uniform, we cannot invoke a change
of climate as the cause of extinction, and there does not appear to
have been any group of animals which could have been successful
competitors with them for their food, for we know that they fed
upon mud which no doubt contained numerous organic particles.
So again we must have recourse to predaceous foes. This
reasoning is much strengthened by the fact that in Ordovician and
Silurian times the Trilobites had learnt how to defend themselves
by rolling themselves up, a feat which the Cambrian Trilobites
were not able to perform. Now the earliest powerful predaceous
animals we know were the ground Cephalopods which first appear-
ing in the Upper Cambrian rapidly increased in importance during
the Ordovician and especially during the Silurian. The relative
numbers of the Nautiloidea in these three periods being as
1:9: 33, Inthe Cambrian and Ordovician periods the Trilo-
bites had greatly increased, but in the Silurian they began to
decline in numbers, and rapidly diminished during the Devonian

356 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

and Carboniferous, although a few lingered on to the Permian. This
decline of the Trilobites coincides in time with the expansion of the
Nautiloidea, and was, I have little doubt, caused by it. These
ravenous Cephalopods, the precursors of our gigantic cuttle-fish,
were the earliest rovers of the sea. Some lived near the surface
and fed on Graptolites. Others sank to the bottom, where the
inoffensive Trilobites had reigned for ages undisturbed quietly
sucking mud. But the ruthless intruders turned the Trilobites
over and tore out their insides in spite of their attempts to defend
themselves by rolling up into a ball.

CONCLUSIONS.

We have thus arrived at the conclusion that the ocean was the
mother of life. That on its surface floated the first organisms
whose descendants, but little changed during all the millions of
years that have since past away, still float and multiply. Presently
some of these animals found their way down to the bottom, where
all the debris from the floating organisms collected, and here, in
still water, they lived and increased for a long time. Slowly they
invaded the rough waters of the coast-line, and, at last, gained a
footing on the land.

It was plants which formed the army of invasion that conquered
the land. This army was followed by a mob of camp-followers
and ragamuflins, in the shape of cockroaches and scorpions, who
fed and fattened on the plants; but who, notwithstanding their
boasted superiority, were quite incapable of reclaiming a single
acre of desert. The real victory belongs to the plants, who, with
undaunted courage, left the congenial water to dare the vicissitudes
of temperature and moisture on land, and thus made civilisation
possible.

No 1.—ON THE GLACIAL BEDS OF TOOLLEEN,
COLERAINE, AND WANDA DALE.

By Evetyn G. Hoae, M.A.
(Read Monday, January 10, 1898.)

Tue areas described in the following paper are situate at Toolleen,
Coleraine, and Wanda Vale, all in Victoria:

TOOLLEEN AREA.

In the extreme north-west corner of the map attached to Mr. A.
W. Howitt’s paper on the “ Diabase and adjacent formation of the
Heathcote District,” issued by the Department of Mines, Victoria,
in 1896, part of the boundary of a glacial area is plotted. During
the month of November, 1897, I visited this locality with a view

GLACIAL BEDS—VICTORIA. 357

to ascertaining the exact nature and other boundaries of this area,
no description of it occurring in Mr, Howitt’s paper. The glacial
area is situated a mile west of the township of Toolleen, 16 miles
north of Heathcote; it is about 7 miles north of the glacial beds
on the Wild Duck Creek, Derrinal, mapped and described by Mr.
E. J. Dunn, F.G.8.* It lies at the north junction of the parishes
of Crosbie and Weston, and penetrates into the south-west corner of
the parish of Muskerry. It is irregular in shape, and covers,
perhaps, a square mile in area,

The bed-rock of the locality is Lower Silurian, consisting mainly
of sandstone. These are overlain to the north and west of the
glacial area by beds of Pliocene age.

As compared with the neighbouring glacial area of Derrinal,
that of Toolleen is disappointing. A careful search failed to
reveal anything in situ which could be classed as glacial conglom-
erate ; but the presence of erratics, striated, flattened, and grooved
stones testify to the former presence of a glacial bed. The erratics
are mostly of granite ; but there are frequent blocks—rounded
and flattened—of quartzite quite foreign to the district. The
granites are of two kinds, both ternary, but one has a reddish
felspar, the other a pink felspar with rather a larger percentage
of quartz in its composition. They bear no resemblance to any
granite in Victoria with which I am acquainted ; but are similar
in type to certain granite erratics found in the glacial beds of both
Derrinal and Coimaidai. The largest boulder is partly buried in
the ground ; the mass protruding stands about 1 ft. high with a
length of 3 ft. 6 in. and a breadth of 1 ft. 10 in.; none of the
quartzite boulders have a volume greater than 1 cubic foot.
Certain of the quartzites are apparently identical with those found
in the Derrinal area. Striated stones were difficult to find; but
some well-marked ones were secured. One is apparently identical
with a striated stone collected by me in 1895 from the Derrinal
area. There are a considerable number of stones lying on the
surface which, though destitute of groovings, have that flattened
and rounded appearance so typical of the normal striated stone.

This collection of erratics, foreign material, striated and flat-
tened stones, is possibly the remnant of a northern extension of
the Derrinal glacial area. Denudation has removed the accom-
panying till matrix until only the harder material has been left.
There is reason to think that there has been a thinning-out of the
glacial bed at its northern extremity here as elsewhere in Victoria.
The boundaries assigned to the Toolleen area are those within
which material undoubtedly foreign to the locality may be found.

In this context it may be mentioned that in 1895 I found
granite erratics on the western fringe of Mount Ida, at a point

* Notes on the Glacial Conglomerate, Wild Duck Creek, by E. J. Dunn, F.G.S. Depart:
ment of Mines, Victoria, 1892.

358 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

about 14 mile north of Heathcote. Several large ones may be
seen in what was once the Mayfield vineyard, since destroyed
owing to the presence of phylloxera. This spot is between 3 and
4 miles from the nearest boundary of the Derrinal glacial area,
being separated from the latter by the intrusive diabase, and
associated rocks described in Mr. Howitt’s paper.

COLERAINE AREA.

The only reference I can find to any previous literature dealing
with the glacial beds in the vicinity of Coleraine is a short para-
graph in Progress Report (No. VIII) of the Department of Mines,
Victoria, p. 59, by Mr. J. Ferguson, of the Department. Ina
paper on this district, read at the Adelaide meeting of the A. A.A.S.,
1893, by Mr. J. Dennant, F'.G.8., only the rocks of igneous origin
were considered.

Before entering on a detailed description of the glacial beds, a
word is necessary as to the general physical and geological features
of the district. The country consists mainly of a plateau, at a
level of about 700 feet above the sea, intersected by deep and
wide valleys excavated by the Koroit, Koonong Wootong, and
other creeks, the most westerly of which is McKinnon’s Creek.
The Koroit Creek, on which Coleraine is situated, flows south until
about 2 miles east from Coleraine, when it makes a sharp bend, and
takes a course which is approximately west until it passes out of
the glacial area. The other creeks, of which the Koonong
Wootong Creek is the most important, flow south into the Koroit
Creek. The general level of the beds of these creeks is about 300
feet above the sea, and the valleys in which the creeks flow are
very wide, with gently sloping sides for the most part. The
plateau, therefore, north of Coleraine, to which the glacial beds are
with one exception confined, may be regarded as divided into a
series of roughly parallel tongues, pointing to the south, separated
from each other by the creeks. The level of the plateau is reached
about 3 miles north of Coleraine, where the uppermost beds are of
recent Tertiary age. To the northand north-east of Coleraine the
tongues of land terminate in a mass of igneous rock of a trachytic
type. The greatest extension of the glacial beds lies between the
Koroit Creek on the east, McKinnon’s Creek on the west, the
plateau to the north, and the Koroit Creek and belt of trachyte
on the south.

On traversing the country between the creeks, striated and
grooved stones may be found lying on the grassy surface every
few yards ; but only in three places can sections of the underlying
beds in the glacial area be found. About 3 miles along the upper
Koonong Wootong Road from Coleraine there is a cutting in
which a bed of till is exposed, covered to the north by a ferruginous
conglomerate or grit of Tertiary age. The cutting is on both sides

~

GLACIAL BEDS—VICTORIA. 359

of the road, about 30 yards long, and having a maximum height
of about 15 feet. It consists of a purplish soft clay, which in wet
weather turns into a stiff mud on the exposed surface. It con-
tains large numbers of striated and flattened stones and blocks
of granite and quartzite, showing no signs of arrangement. No
traces of stratification can now be recognised. The mean height
of this cutting is about 650 feet above the sea level. About east
15° south from this cutting isa conical hill of olivine basalt, locally
known as Adam. Through the northern face of this hill penetrates a
dyke of trachyte running from west to cast. This has been quarried
out for building purposes, and at the eastern end of the dyke, and
on its southern wall, the boulder clay is again exposed. It con-
tains striated stones similar to those in the cutting just described ;
but the clay does not appear to have undergone any contact
metamorphism. Having regard to its position with respect to the
voleanic mass Adam, the absence of contact metamorphism from
the dyke, and the general nature of the clay itself, I am inclined
to think it owes its present position, banked up against the dyke,
to a land-slip. The surface of a grassy slope rising from this out-
crop in a south-westerly direction carries a large quantity of
striated stones and foreign material. The exposure of boulder-clay
on the side of Adam is at a level of 445 feet above the sea. The
remaining outcrop of the glacial beds which I found in the district
occurs on the railway-line as it passes over the northern slope of
Mount Koroit, about 2 miles from Coleraine Station, at a level of
about 400 feet above the sea. The cutting is nearly 120 feet long,
and has a maximum thickness of 18 feet. The glacial bed here
shown is identical with that exposed in the cutting on the Koonong
Wootong Road, save that the boulders of granite found in it are
of larger dimensions. The relation of the bed in the railway-
cutting to the adjacent rocks is very obscure. It appears to occupy
a pocket in the trachytic rock, which is exposed in the road just
below, and occurs in large extension around it. Basalt, basaltic
tuff, and a sanidine-bearing rock are all exposed not far to the east
of the cutting. To the south and south-west of the cutting a large
development of Mesozoic rocks occurs. On the eroded surface of
the hill, lenticular patches of coarse sandstone covered by alluvium
are seen. Stratification cannot be traced in the cutting.

The foreign material, either exposed in the cuttings or found
lying on the surface within the glacial area, comprises coarse and
fine-grained granite (the latter predominating), tourmaline-granite,
quartz, quartzite, felspar and quartz porphyry, slate (unfossiliferous),
and the fine-grained micaceous sandstones. The erratics are all
of moderate size, the largest being a ternary granite.

With a view to ascertaining the age of the beds, a careful search
was made for material similar to that of the surrounding rocks of
igneous origin and for sandstones of a Mesozoic type. In no case

360 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

did I find included in the boulder-clay either of these classes of
rock, With respect to the igneous rocks, it may be said that those
of the trachytic type have a somewhat modern facies. The sani-
dine crystals in the specimens prepared for the microscope were,
for the most part, in excellent preservation. With regard to direct
evidence, the following extract from the paper by Mr. Dennant,
previously referred to, may be quoted :—“ An interesting discovery
was made at the Mount Koroit outcrop. Almost at the top of the
hill a shallow excavation of a few yards in diameter has disclosed
a whitish felspathic tufa, small blocks of which now lie in the
hollow. On breaking one of these blocks in two for convenience
of transport, impressions of cycads were seen on both the fractured
surfaces. Mr. Robert Etheridge, of Sydney, who has kindly
examined some of the impressions for me, states ‘that very little
doubt can exist that the plant is a Mesozoic cycad, called Otoza-
mites. It also occurs in the Queensland beds of a like age.’ It
should be mentioned that the sedimentary strata, amongst which
these igneous rocks appear, are of acknowledged Mesozoic age.”

This bed of tufa lying at a higher level than the railway-cutting
through Mount Koroit is, possibly, connected with the trachytic
group, which occurs in the neighbourhood of Coleraine ; but I am
inclined to regard them as of later origin myself. It is scarcely
probable that the volcanic cone Adam is of such antiquity, and
between the trachytic dyke which penetrates it and the trachyte
occurring east of the railway-cutting there is such a general resem-
blance of microscopic structure that it is hard to resist the con-
clusion that they are directly related to each other.

Having regard to the general character of the included material
and to the absence of Mesozoic rocks—which cover a large area
south of the glacial beds—it on the whole seems most probable
that the glacial beds are of Permo-carboniferous age. If this is
so, the absence from them of the local igneous rocks gives a lower
limit as to the age of these latter beds.

The feature of the district is the wide area of grass-land over
which striated stones, which have presumably weathered out of
subjacent glacial beds, occur. If the age of the glacial beds be
Permo-carboniferous, the underlying floor on which they were
deposited is in all probability either granite or gneiss and schists of
the metamorphic beds. Both of these rocks occur near Coleraine,
and it is on the latter—gneiss—that the glacial outcrop at Wanda
Dale subsequently referred to rests.

WANDA DALE AREA.

Wanda Dale Station, belonging to Mr. J. Moody, is situate
about 12 miles N.N.W. of Coleraine, near the source of the Wanda
River. In the bed of the river, at an elevation of about 700 feet
above sea level, and about 1 mile west of the station, a deposit of

= c Basalt aud wy . .
i =o ge Ce
Hg“ aca si V/7
Scale chains - = Dyke

KX Oulerch. S :
_——— ee

a 6o fo

££

S

©

:
zit PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS GLACIAL BEDS, COLERAINE DISTRICT, VicToRIA.

GLACIAL ACTION—VICTORIA. 361
'

glacial origin is exposed. It is very limited in area, being about
30 yards long ; it occupies the whole width of the stream. At its
eastern extremity it is seen resting on the upturned edges of the
gneiss, which constitutes the bed-rock in this locality ; its western
boundary is a mass of igneous rock, which on microscopic examina-
tion is found to consist almost entirely of sanidine.

The actual junction of the two beds is unfortunately masked by
alluvium and sand ; owing to the amount of water in the river at
the time I visited it any excavation to determine whether the clay
was altered at the junction was out of the question. The bed
consists of a light-brown and yellowish tough clay, through which
small stones and boulders are somewhat scantily distributed.
Most of the bed being under water, it could not be properly
searched, but in addition to two well-marked striated stones I
secured small boulders of ternary granite, quartz, quartzite, sand-
stone, and mica-schist. The sanidine rock was not found in the
clay. The outcrop, though small, is interesting, as showing the
northerly extension of the glacial beds of the Coleraine area, of
which it must be I think regarded as an outlier. It may also
afford a clue to the age of the igneous rocks which offer a problem
of great complexity in this district.

No. 2.— FURTHER EVIDENCE AS TO THE GLACIAL
ACTION IN THE BACCHUS MARSH DISTRICT,
VICTORIA.

By C. C. BritrLeBank, GeorcE Sweet, F.G,S., and Proressor
T. W. EpcewortH Davip, B.A., F.G.S.

(Read Monday, January 10, 1898.)

RELATION OF MATRIX AND BOULDERS TO LOCAL ROCKS.

WISsHING to ascertain, if possible, the true nature of the Bacchus
Marsh glacial deposits, some considerable attention has been paid
to the relation of the boulders and matrix forming the glacial beds
to the local rocks. This investigation was undertaken for the
express purpose of discovering (a) If the Bacchus Marsh glacial
-deposits were a true till. (6) If of marine or fresh-water origin.

Mr. 8. J. B. Skertchly says [evidently with the approval of
Professor J. Geikie]: “There is a remarkable modification of the
law that physical character of the boulder clay is dependent upon
that of the subjacent rocks, a modification which evidently cannot
be explained on the marine theory, nor yet on that of local
glaciers. This is the invasion of the outcrop of one rock by the

362 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

boulder clay which is composed of some other rock.” Accepting
the above as being correct for the glacial deposits of the northern
hemisphere, search was made for a spot where two underlying
rock formations were of such anature as to produce two entirely
distinct boulder clays, had they at any time been subjected to
invasion by land or sheet ice. As the section under notice is of
some importance, a brief description of the contour of the under-
lying older rocks will not be out of place.

At 21 chains W. 30 degrees N. from the junction of the
Myrniong Creek with the Werribee River there is an area of
granite extending over several square miles.

As a large proportion of the above granitic area lies to the 8S. W.
or in the direction from which the general ice movement took
place, this, coupled with the physical features of the striated pave-
ments, would lead one to conclude that had land ice passed over
this area we should find evidence of the direction of its move-
ment in the form of ‘tail,” and also in the composition of the
glacial deposits to the N., N.N.E., and E. Tracing the glacial
pavement from the junction of the Myrniong Creek W. 30 degrees
N. (about) for a distance of over 80 chains, we find the surface
worn into three ridges with corresponding hollows. A distance
of about 20 chains separates the ridges, and the greatest height
of any ridge above the hollows along this section is 330 feet. The
steepest face, however, is one in which there is a fall of over 150
feet in 5 chains.

From the junction of the Myrniong Creek and on the opposite
side of the Werribee River to the above section, the older rocks
(silurian and granite) rise abruptly to the 8.S.W. ; in fact at one
time there must have been an exceedingly steep pre-glacial bank or
cliff over which ice flowed or fell. (See Plate XVIII.) At the
present time the slope rises 520 feet in less than 36 chains. At
other points the rise is much sharper, but at these chaining was
impracticable owing to the rough nature of the country.

The trend of this cliff is about W. 25 degrees N., and E. 25
degrees S., being about 35 degrees across the general direction of
ice inflow. As the ice must have passed over the granite area for
over 70 chains before flowing down the steep face or cliff, and as
there are fine sections of glacial drift to the N.N.E., and E. (some
of which are, as stated above, as much as 560 feet below the
general surface of the granite area), careful search was made for
any evidence of a true till or ‘“ tail” which one would expect to
find on the lee-seite of the cliff. Although all the exposed
sections to the N., N.W., N.E., and E. have been searched for
boulders or fragments of local granite, the search has been with-
out result, except in such places as those where fragments and
blocks of granite are observed resting on the granite surface,
or a few feet above it, where they are embedded in stratified

GLACIAL ACTION—VICTORIA. 363

sandstone. In all cases where these local boulders have been
observed, the surface of the granite rises at a sharp angle of
from 20 degrees to 70 degrees.*

On close examination, the stratification of the sandstone can be
traced up to the face of the boulders. In no instance have blocks
of local granite been observed to the lee of the granite boundary.
The matrix of the glacial drift situated on the lee of the granite
area does not differ from the general character of that to the lee
side of any silurian area, either in contained boulders or the
matrix in which they are embedded, as far as can be judged from
macroscopic examination. In certain places, however, a layer of
several inches in thickness composed of rotten local granite can be
observed resting on the granite base. Like the local boulders
these patches occur at the foot of steep faces of granite, or along
the bottom of pre-glacial hollows. A number of observations show
that in no case, with the above exceptions, does the glacial matrix
appear to be formed from local granite. In a number of places,
more especially where the granite face is flat, or has a gentle
slope, a thin layer of highly waterworn pebbles of various sizes
and kinds up to three quarters of an inch in diameter, rests directly
on the undecomposed glacial surface of the granite. Above the
pebbles are the usual highly stratified sandstones and mudstones
with bands of conglomerate formed of waterworn pebbles in which
fragments of local granite are not represented. In a few places
the grains of sand resting on the pebbles, and in direct contact
with the granite face, are somewhat larger than those at higher
levels ; but in others, only a few chains apart, exceedingly fine
stratified sandstone is in contact with the granite.

II, ABSENCE OF LOCAL BOULDERS.

After a search extending over several years for local boulders
in the glacial deposit, one is forced to conclude that the occurrence
of such is somewhat rare. During this period rock fragments,
which could be classed as local, have not been found, with the
exception of the granite blocks which occur on the bottom of pre-
glacial gullies or at the foot of steep slopes or cliffs. On the other
hand, many kinds of rock, a large percentage of which are supposed
to be foreign to Victoria, are found in abundance.

III. ABSENCE OF UNSTRATIFIED GLACIAL DRIFT.

Perhaps one of the most striking features in the Bacchus Marsh
glacial deposits is the almost total absence of unstratified material.
This is the more inexplicable, as the other evidences of powerful
ice action are present in a marked degree.

* Speaking for himself, Mr. Brittlebank considers that they have probably fallen from a
higher level.

364 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

Having examined the glacial beds which rest directly on the
silurian and granite in the Bacchus Marsh district, one of us, Mr,
Brittlebank, has been unable to detect any beds in which the
stratification could not be made out. There are, however, beds of
varying thickness. These appear to be unstratified, but they are
generally intercalated with beds of fine silt and sandstone, with
which they form an even junction.

IV. RE-ADVANCE OF ICE SHEET.

From sections given herewith, it will be noted that boulder beds
occur at certain horizons, intercalated with beds of sandstone,
silt, and conglomerate. As these might represent a return of a cold
period or possibly a re-advance of an ice sheet, careful search was
made along the junction lines for ploughing, contortion, injection,
striated pavements, and other evidence of the passage of ice over
the underlying glacial beds. With the exception of slight local
contortion, no evidence has yet been observed by one of us (Mr.
Brittlebank) which would support the theory of the individual
glacial beds being due to successive ice sheets, alternately advancing
and retreating. As, however, it has been shown that glacial ice
can creep over incoherent beds without contorting them, this
evidence cannot be held to be conclusive. .

V. CONTOURS OF OLDER ROCKS AT THE TIME OF THE GLACIAL
PERIOD.

As these naturally correspond with those of the present striated
pavements observed in section in the Bacchus Marsh and surround-
ing districts, we have been able to obtain a fairly accurate idea of
the old surface at the time of the glacial period, perhaps towards
its close.

From the figures marked on the map some idea of the irregular

surface may be gleaned [Plates XVII and XVIII]. We had
hoped that from a careful study of this surface, and of the
direction of striz, we should have been able to express an opinion
as to whether land or floating ice had formed the striated pave-
ments and overlying deposits. From the conflicting evidence it
would, perhaps, be premature at present to arrive at any but
provisional conclusions.

The examination of the matrix of the Bacchus Marsh glacial beds, commenced by one
of us, Professor David, has had to be postponed through his absence on the Funafuti Coral-
boring Expedition. So far the examination for radiolaria and foraminifera has yielded
negative results, though some obscure casts are slightly suggestive of the former having
once been present, but this is very doubtful. Minute fragments of plants are, on the other
hand, very numerous, and fairly well preserved. Minute chips of black shale, lithologically
very like the local graptolite shales, are present in the matrix; and at Myrniong Creek,
near Dunbar, the material forming the matrix of the glacial beds may very well have been
derived from granite very finely pulverised. The comparative scarcity of large fragments
of local rocks is nevertheless very remarkable, as already stated. No remains of diatoms
have as yet been observed.

AUSTRALASIAN Assoc. Aby. Sc. VoL. VII, 1898.

PLATE XVII.

Drees
2,

hha
C ALL (Oe

We

eh

- +f
+ <

r+ + +\
¢

r
‘
+ ‘ + +
+ + + + + + + + + . + + t
4 + et t+ HF Ht te + + +4 bo 4 \
4 a eS Se Se es Se A oes
+ + + 4 4 tot
os : Te Bae - 4 + \
i a a: a a. ;

»

NS
S aX
NY

Z
yy
PLE

5

Ya

ss ; Y
[ete] Grencte
ees,

SS Lon vty S ‘ Cuniow ~ Sa g Lacioh luadsfores 7 xv Paral
KN) sik sen deg ken SS shds foe Nee MEK BEieone
Section Sihemtn J Ace Gy ccakR Valleys + Lead in wee
Olaccat Beds eorscstiig ot “Mudstmres wre

Porno - Camtronifevons )
3 rhe dh boulders ; Sandsthres and Se) Cnucrake
hear Dinter P Pest€a. Hills ! Bace free Nvars A Stobice & Vie Ota :

Honirs sutal Scale Vertical Se ake
Chains’ Ure 24 ab 48 60 52 Seoe 96 (gt ap8 584 +80 6

Glacial Action—Bacchus Marsh, Victoria.

By C. C. BRITTLEBANK, G. SWEET, and Prof. DAVID.

AUSTRALASIAN Assoc. Abv. Sc. VoL. VII, 1898. PLATE XVIII.

Pham showing anegularuty of jumalion Rime bebneery Pruno-Cant! Ylacrat Beds amd. oldex rocks.
Near Duntar, Bacchus marsf Disteret, Vietorca

Seale Foun I nohes par Mile

«eens Dunbar
°

6 120.00 40.00 taco f000

iu
Pare MS rSr 9 paral eu oe =

task: +++-1 SE le Try

+ttt Yt titres & ANNW. ind %

ea Ge +. %, of Secttow, 2

Foeteetortan tek x ic ” ae C,,
tigre 4 Oy Jetoma ast

+ hohe te a ‘ air ene
ot ee eres Se %,. he fly Pisce? Bosotl Ulasiat

es iin oi ie a ee tote il set oe i ce 8 & % Loh ping Verrno- Canteraferous Beds

“b-FAE EI

abel ob + $b
tt Ra + ttt a $4
oar to PtH bt
io ae ES SSE Re re i Not. The awa feft Laan: on tha, plow
FH EE THERE A Hob tt ttle eb tte ef tod oF = aria : v ate ads
+4+t toe te tt tts+t tae ttt ateseess4 sat lle e 1? fel es at ae C1
TE SE Sa re Ur ae 9 \\Ps pte Puro Carlbrowifor ots ( c, copped by
FAA TTT HHH AAA E AA APH AEH HHH HHH HHH HH H+ ss ertian oLG, and ews
FH ttt tttttttt+ ttt ttt test teste tia / ay rp GSS Sedivn
+E FH HEHE HHHHE++ $4444 4444 44H G4 F
Ft PH t+ t+ ttt+ttt tet tettse [|
b++H+t+t++t++4t4 et +s at i
bee tetoh ht fe feet opt pt #1 TTS, tT HL] ay
++++A++4+4+ +4444 ++ 444] | q
++HHE HEH + H+ HH++HFHF4H) ‘
FHEEHEE HEHE HH FH H+ 1p So
ttt+tt ttt +ttt t+? d Mae
HHHEHFEHEHE HEHE EH: Se ‘
Ft tt+ttt +44 7" TS /
t+H++tt+ttit Ay = .
Contour 4 ld Recks © Hye unuen
nohus 4 the Dhuated Weruter
; a =
ee SDuwkar - 0 = about 1260 feet above sea
> E,Weruler Gargc. yso— : :
€ al »—e— > SPurcchmn Ghasrah SMuw
Do Sec u fi .
z 444+ ttt t+ : bwin
n so {60- Hetesiess Grand. Ss

Pinas ee Cang-3 7
eacier® - I

Glacial Action—Bacchus Marsh, Victoria.

By C. C. BRITTLEBANK, G. SWEET, and Prof. DAVID.

GLACIAL ACTION—VICTORIA. 365

Speaking for themselves, Messrs. Sweet and Brittlebank regret
that they have to take exception to some remarks made by Messrs.
Officer and Balfour, at the Brisbane meeting of this association.

In reply, they would point out that the statements made by
them at the Adelaide meeting are true in substance and in fact ;
this can, if necessary, be proved by correspondence which passed
between Messrs. Officer and Brittlebank.

Mr.C. Brittlebank would also direct attention to an apparent slip
made by Messrs. Officer and Balfour. They state that Mr. Brittle-
bank was the first to discover the true direction of ice-flow and
interpretation of the Bald Hill sections. As Mr. G. Sweet was
present on every occasion when these discoveries were made, Mr.
Sweet’s name should be associated with that of Mr. Brittlebank
in connection with these discoveries.

No. 3—NOTES ON THE GEOLOGY AND MINERAL
DEPOSITS OF PORTIONS OF WESTERN
AUSTRALIA.

By E. F. Prrrvan, A.R.S.M.

(Read Monday, January 10, 1898. )

No. 4—THE EARLY HISTORY OF TIN.
By 8. B. J. Sxerrcnty, B.Sc.

No. 5.—THE PLEISTOCENE HISTORY OF NOTHERN
ASIA.

By 8. B. J. Sxerrcuty, B.Sc.

No. 6.—THE BDELLIUM OF SCRIPTURE.
By 8. B. J. Sxertcuty, B.Sc.

(Read Monday, January 10, 1898. )

366 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

!

No. 7.—THE ARTESIAN WATER-BEARING BEDS OF
NEW SOUTH WALES.

By Tue Rev. J. Mitne Curran, F.R.G.S.,

(Read Tuesday, January 11, 1898. )

No. 8—NOTES ON BONDI DYKE AND PRISMATIC
SANDSTONE.

By BR. ti Jack, H.G.S., EIR.Gs:

(Read Tuesday, January 11, 1898.)

No. 9.—NOTES ON THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE
PARISH OF ST. GEORGE, N.S.W.

By E. J. SraTHam.

(Read Tuesday, January 11, 1898. )

No. 10.—NOTES OF A GEOGRAPHICAL RECONNAIS-
SANCE ON THE MOUNT KOSCIUSKO PLATEAU.

By Tue Rev. J. Mizne Curran, F.R.G.S.

(Read Tuesday, January 11, 1898.)

GEOLOGY OF MOUNT KOSCIUSKO. 367

No 11.— CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE GEOLOGY OF
MOUNT KOSCIUSKO AND THE INDI-MONARO
TRACK, NEW SOUTH WALES.

By A. E. Kitson, F.G.8., and W. THorn.

(Read Tuesday, January 11, 1898.)
[ Abstract. |

Tue following remarks embody a few observations made in the
Kosciusko region, and the accompanying notes on the microscopical
examination of typical rocks have been kindly supplied by Mr. A.
W. Howitt, F.G.8., &., to whom we desire to express our great
indebtedness.

Several writers have referred* to the prevailing rocks on Mount
Kosciusko as granites of various kinds. As pointed out previously
by one of us,f the rocks at Monaro Gap are grey gneissic granite.
With local variations, the granite of the Kosciusko Plateau,fwith its
high parallel ridges, peaks, and tors, is of much the same character,
though aplites of various kinds occur in several parts. The main
plateau has an elevation of about 6,800 feet above sea level, and
the ridges and peaks are from 100 to 250 feet higher. The tors
are separated from one another by low, grassy saddles ; and, in
their great pillars and blocks, traversed by vertical and horizontal
joints, furnish excellent illustrations of weathering. Echo Point,
so named by us on account of the splendid echo there obtainable,
is composed of a pretty, reddish aplite, and has a fine example of
a rocking-stone. A saddle, 7,000 feet high, joining Mount
Etheridge to Mount Kosciusko, the highest peak, divides the
waters of the Snowy River, flowing north, from those of the
Leatherbarrel Creek, running south into the Indi River. On the
southern side of this saddle, under the eastern slope of Mount
Kosciusko, and in a valley of the same name, lies a beautiful
tarn, which we have named Lake Kosciusko. The mount itself
consists largely of foliated granite, especially on its eastern side
above the lake, where the rocks have high angles of dip and a
northerly strike. Frost action is everywhere noticeable in the
numerous massive blocks showing extensive fractures.

* “General Geology and Physical Aspect of New South Wales and Van Diemen’s Land,”
by Count Strzelecki. ‘* Researches in the Southern Gold-fields of New South Wales,” p.
125, by Rey. W. B. Clarke, M.A., F.G.S. | ‘‘ Report by R. von Lendenfeld on the results of
his recent examination of the central part of the Australian Alps,’ Sydney, Government
Printer, 1885. ‘‘ The Glacial Period in Australasia,” by R. von Lendenfeld ; Proceedings of
the Linnzan Society of New South Wales, vol. x, Part I. ‘‘On the recently observed
evidences of an extensive glacier action at Mount Kosciusko Plateau,” by R. Helms; Pro.
Linn. Soc. of N.S.W., 1893, vol. viii. ‘‘ Geological Notes upon a Trip to Mount Kosciusko,
New South Wales,” by J. B. Jaquet, A.R.S.M., F.G.S.; Records of the Geological Survey of
New South Wales, vol. v, Part III, 1897. ‘‘ On the evidence (so-called) of glacial action on
Mount Kosciusko Plateau,” by Rev. J. Milne Curran ; Proceedings of the Linnean Society
of New South Wales, 1897, Part IV.

t ‘Geological Notes on the Gehi and Indi Rivers and Monaro Track, Mount Kosciusko,
New South Wales,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria, vol. ix, new series.

368 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION ©.

Though the prevailing rocks are of granitic nature, the original
sedimentary, but now altered, rocks are observable outcropping
in several places. For instance, along the whole length of
Kosciusko Valley they have been changed into highly siliceous
and felspathic mica-schists, quartz-schists, micaceous hornfels and
quartzites. They are much contorted, and some of them have
veins and reefs of the white, vitreous and opaque quartz, so char-
acteristic of schist areas. At the source of the Snowy River a
large outcrop of very fissile, siliceous slates and quartz-schist
occurs, and lower down the gorge these rocks are greatly contorted
and splintered by dynamic agency. At various points in the bed:
of the Leatherbarrel Creek, in Kosciusko Valley, rocks of a similar
nature may be seen, all dipping to the east, with angles varying
from 54 degrees to 85 degrees. They are greatly jointed and in
places overlain by large transported granite boulders. On the
lip of the gorge, near where this creek plunges into the wooded
valleys below, are several outcrops of highly-altered siliceous
slates, siliceous and felspathic mica-schist, quartz-schist, fine-grained
gneiss, and fairly massive quartzites. The last contain a large
quartz reef, 3 to 6 feet thick, having the same general northerly
strike as the strata which dip to the east, and east 20 degrees south,
at angles varying from 73 degrees to 84 degrees. ©

The rocks in Kosciusko Valley are apparently connected with
those at the Leatherbarrel ford by an intermediate series such as
is found between the ford and Monaro Gap, and which probably
exists higher up the Leatherbarrel Valley, thus forming a gradual
transition from foliated granite through quartz-schist and indurated
spotted slates to the phyllites and soft, fissile, argillaceous slates
near the Leatherbarrel ford. The resemblance between the rocks
at the ford and some of those in Kosciusko Valley appears at first
sight very striking, but close examination shows the latter to be
more highly altered, and the fissility of the original slates to have
almost completely disappeared. The quartz, again, in the two
areas differs only in the fact that in the former it possesses thin
jaminz of argillaceous slate, while in the latter the corresponding
laminz consist of greenish mica, probably chlorite. In some cases
the original sandstones have completely lost their clastic character,
and have reached a more advanced stage of metamorphism than
quartzites ; in other cases they are slightly spotted and micaceous.
The altered olive-green argillaceous slates are less decided in colour,
and much more indurated, but otherwise resemble the typical olive-
green phyllites of the Leatherbarrel Ford and the ‘‘Gehi Wall.”

As already pointed out,* numerous dykes intersect this area, and
these Mr. Howitt has determined as andesites and quartz—horn-
blende—and quartz—mica-diorites. Mr. Howitt’s examination,

* “ Geological Notes on the Gehi and Indi Rivers,” &c.

GEOLOGY OF MOUNT KOSCIUSKO. 369

which reveals signs of crushing in several of the rocks, shows
clearly that the Kosciusko rock masses have been subjected to
great earth stresses. Generally speaking, it seems that the oldest
rocks were sedimentary ones of probably Ordovician age. These
were intruded upon by granites of various kinds, which built up
the major portion of the plateau. Subsequently numerous dykes of
acidic and basic rocks, such as aplites, andesites, and diorites, were
injected, and the greater part subjected to dynamic metamorphism,
followed probably by later series of dykes. Thus the metamor-
phism has been of two kinds—contact and dynamic—the former
altering the original sediments into quartzites, lydianites, por-
cellanites, &c., and the latter carrying the alteration further, and
transmuting these into micaceous hornfels, quartz-schists, mica—
and felspathic mica-schists, and perhaps gneiss, and the intrusive
granite into gneissic granite and gneiss. The metamorphism,
therefore, appears to have been similar to that which produced the
interesting rocks found in certain portions of the Omeo and Dargo
districts in Victoria, and described* by Mr. Howitt.

The question of glaciation has evidently been the most potent
factor in stimulating geological research in this region. Several
writers are of opinion that evidences of such action exist. Unfor-
tunately, we were unable to examine any of the localities and
deposits described by them, as our observations did not extend so
far northwards, so can express no opinion regarding their main con-
clusions. In many places in the valleys we observed large masses
of granite with polished surfaces, which at first sight appeared to
be of glacial origin, but proved to be simply weathered joint and
fracture planes. In other places, however, evidence of another.
nature seems to indicate ice action. On the south-western slope of
Mount Etheridge lie numerous large and small pieces of altered
sedimentary rocks, and masses of red and grey aplite, and granite.
Many of the indurated and highly altered rocks are more or less
smoothed, polished, and widely grooved. They are of both fine and
coarse texture, and the latter only are devoid of joint planes which
are quite different from the smoothed faces. On its western slope, and
also lower down on the floor of Kosciusko Valley are great numbers
of worn stones almost exclusively of altered sedimentary origin.

*“ Notes on the Physical Geography and Geology of North Gippsland,” Quarterly Journal
of the Geological Society, vol. xxxv. ‘‘The Diorites and Granites of Swift’s Creek,”
Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria, vol. xvi. ‘‘The Rocks of Noyang,” Trans-
actions of the Royal Society of Victoria, vol. xx. ‘‘The Sedimentary, Metamorphic and
Igneous Rocks of Ensay,” Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria, vol. xxii. ‘‘ Notes
on the area of Intrusive Rocks at Dargo,” Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria,
vol. xxiii. ‘‘ Notes on certain Metamorphic and Plutonic Rocks at Omeo,” Transactions
of the Royal Society of Victoria, vol. xxiv, Part ii. ‘‘ Notes on certain Plutonic and
Metamorphic Rocks at Omeo, ’Mining Department Quarterly Report, March, 1890. ‘‘ Notes
on the Rocks occurring between the Limestone River and Mount Leinster,’ Mining
Department Quarterly Report, September, 1890. ‘‘ Notes on the Contact of the Meta-
morphic and Sedimentary Formations at the Upper Dargo River,” Mining Department
Special Report, 1892. ‘‘ Notes on the Metamorphic Rocks of the Omeo District,” Report of
the Australasian A. A. Science, Sydney, 1888. ‘‘ Notes on the Metamorphic Rocks of Omeo,”
Report of the Australasian A. A. Science, Melbourne, 1890.

Wy IN

370 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

An interesting feature about these rocks is the occurrence on
many of the harder and denser ones of a coating of what appears to
be secondary silica which imparts a distinct glaze to them.

Again, much of the material in the banks of the Leatherbarrel
Creek, lower down Kosciusko Valley, consists of angular and sub-
angular fragments of altered rocks, with large slabs of the same
intermixed, and appears to have been conveyed thither by other
than ordinary fluviatile agency. On the other hand, there is an
entire absence of any deposits which might be regarded as lateral
moraines ; neither did we see any satisfactory evidence of any
roches moutonnées, perched blocks, boulder clay, or morainic
débris.

The probable auriferous character of the region may be briefly
alluded to. As it possesses features so closely resembling those of
proved auriferous districts where both plutonic and metamorphic
action have taken place, it is very likely that auriferous reefs will
eventually be found near and at the contact of intrusive masses
and dykes with the sediments, and also in both these and the
plutonic rocks themselves. The district on the western fall from
Mount Kosciusko, embracing the upper portions of the basins of
the Gehi River and Snowy, Gehi, and Leatherbarrel Creeks as
well as the Snowy and Kosciusko Valleys, is-especially worthy of
attention.

These observations were made during two visits to the mount,
but each time adverse weather militated greatly against continuous
or connected work being done.

Nore.—Since writing the ‘above, we notice that in a postscript to a paper (Proc. Linn.
Soc., N.S.W., 1897, Part IV) on the so-called glaciation on Mount Kosciusko, the Rev. J.
Milne Curran has evidently assumed that the original of this abstract dealt specially with
that question. He is under a misapprehensien, as only a small portion of it bore on
glaciation, and the opinions held by us are herein concisely expressed.

No. 12.—NOTES ON SAMPLES OF ROCKS COLLECTED
BY Mr. A. E. KITSON anp Mr. W. THORN.

By A. W. Howirt, F.G.S.
(Read Tuesday, January 11, 1898.)

Tun slices have been prepared of a certain number of the rocks
collected, and the following notes are the result of an examination
of them under the microscope :—

I. Metamorphic—
(1) Phyllite and fine-grained Nodular Schist.

II, Igneous—
(2) Granitic-aplite.
(3) Quartz Hornblende Diorite.
(4) Andesite.

——

AUSTRALASIAN Assoc, Aov. Sc. Vo. VII, 1898. PLATE XVII/8.

GREY MARES
s0c0NC

up/spbur?

spn

\ Sy ZN

yl’
S=RAM'S HEAD
eh

s
a
&

ECHO POINT
00°

the Indi

MIP PINNIBAR
#007

nite

fall

Sketch
PLAN OF

M” KOSCIUSKO DISTRICT

SCALE_ 8 MILES TO 1 INCH.

PLAN OF
M? KOSCIUSKO PLATEAU

SCALE _/00 CHAINS TO |! INCH

Contributions to the Geology of Mt. Kosciusko, dc.

(Note. — Heights approximate only.)

By A. E. KITSON, F.G.8., and W. THORN.

NOTES ON SAMPLES OF ROCKS. 371

I. METAMORPHIC.

(1) Phyllite and fine-grained Nodular Schist.

The Phyllites and fine-grained nodular schists appear to pass
into each other, indeed to be merely different stages in the meta-
morphism of fine-grained sedementary formations.

50. The former, as seen in this sample, is comprised almost
wholly of mica flakes arranged in a linear manner, but scarcely
forming foliations. They are extremely small, and are probably
sericite. The only inclusions are minute black grains, which
appear to be iron ore.

34. A further stage is shown where the rock is somewhat less
fine-grained, the mica forming narrow foliations which include
small “eyes” of radiating mica flakes. The rock is much permeated
by black dust-like substance.

Among the foliations are grains of quartz arranged in places in
a linear manner, and all more or Jess drawn out in the direction
of foliation, so that their sections suggest a lenticular form.

19. The composition of the nodular schist is mica, in. minute
flakes and fibres (sericite), including much larger flakes of biotite,
which is pleochroic in shades of yellowish brown. The biotite is
arranged in lines indicating foliation of the rock. The only other
constitutent of what may be spoken of as the ground-mass, are
the plentiful grains of iron ore.

In this mass are “spots” which, although micaceous, differ in
so far from it that there is no trace of schistosity, and that the
amount of biotite in them is comparatively small.

The “spots” or “nodules” suggest, as was long ago pointed out
by Professor Rosenbusch, that they represent portions of the rock
substance which have been less completely metamorphosed.*

20. A further stage is where the rock-forming mica is of larger
size, and the rock more decidedly schistose in structure. The
alkali mica is in comparatively long flakes, and is colourless; the
biotite is also longer, and is darker in colour, being pleochroic in
shades of dark brown.

In parts there are discontinuous foliations of grains of quartz
and mica. The “spots” are also more marked, being composed
of distinct flakes of alkali mica, but still almost free from biotite.

23. 25. Samples still more marked in their microscopic foliated
structure. There are foliations of Muscovite mica and biotite or
of these together with quartz. In places, however, the quartz is
discontinuous, but always lengthened in the direction of foliation.
The “eyes” in these samples are very quartzose, but as in the other
samples are almost free from magnesia mica,

* Die Steiger Schiefer. Strasbourg, 1877, p. 178 ef seg. Mikoskopische Physiographie der
Massigen Gesteine, 1st part, 1895, p. 90.

372 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

A peculiar and probably exceptional form of schist is where
epidote takes part in the foliated structure ; the foliations being
of mica, or of epidote and quartz with mica. In one part the slice
is composed of somewhat larger crystals of epidote and quartz.

II. IGNEOUS.
(2) Granitic—A plite.

4], This rock is peculiar in so far that the felspar is orthoclase,
microcline, microperthite, and more rarely a plagioclase. These
crystals are hypidiomorphic and set in a ground mass of quartz in
interlocking grains. The plagiolase may be oligoclase, but the
observations as to extinction in the zone P.M. were not conclusive.

The mica in this rock is in very small amount, in minute flakes,
or aggregates of flakes, and is both muscovite and biotite.

43. In another sample the felspars as mostly microcline, more
rarely orthoclase intergrown with albite veins, thus forming
microperthite. The plagoclase is in hypidiomorphic crystals and
obscures as under :—

P. — + to P. and M. — M.
4° 40’ — 16° 40’ — 22° 58’

With convergent light the trace of the exit of an optic axis is
visible about the plane T and of a bisectrix on M. These felspars
appear, therefore, to be albite. A considerable amount of quartz
and very little mica complete this sample.

A series of samples illustrates the effects of crushing and of the
production of a schistose structure in these aplites.

40. The felspars are of the kind already described, but in this
sample are broken or somewhat rounded. The rock may be
described as being composed of a ground mass of comminuted quartz
and fragments of felspars. In this, which is the “ mortar struc-
ture ” of some authors, are embedded the felspar crystals, all being
more or less broken or rounded off. Mica has also been produced
and forms small foliations in the slice.

31. In places metamorphism has produced regeneration of
material, orthoclase crystals being bordered and enlarged by
micropegmatite.

26. A further stage is the production of a decidedly schistose
structure. The rock has been considerably altered so that the
felspars are much micacised, but it may be described as alternations
of felspar, probably orthoclase and quartz in irregular foliations.
Irregular layers of dark-brown iron-magnesia mica also fill in
cracks and crevices, and are clearly of secondary origin.

The quartz is in comparatively large fields, but almost always
has cloudy obscuration.

This is one of the forms of schistose rock produced by meta-
morphism of an intrusive plutonic mass.

NOTES ON SAMPLES OF RUCKS. 373

42. These are other instances of the formation of schistose
rock composed almost wholly of foliations of quartz grains in
some parts of very small size and characteristically drawn out.
In parts small “eyes” of felspar are observable, usually sur-
rounded by narrow foliations of alkali mica.

45. The contact of aplite and quartz schist is shown in one
sample. The former is of the character already spoken of, ortho-
clase, microcline, and microperthite set in a mass of broken up
quartz and felspar, with a little muscovite and biotite.

The quartzite schist is very fine-grained, the quartz-grains being,
as elsewhere, drawn out so as to be longer than broad. Here and
there are grains of orthoclase. Scattered through this, and also
separating the lines of quartz grains and thus producing a schistose
structure, are numerous flakes of mica, mostly biotite.

This is one of those very quartzose fine-grained schists which I
have observed to occur near the contacts of great plutonic masses
and sedimentary rocks into which the former have intruded. I
have observed and described* such a case between the Limestone
River and Marengo Creek.

33. An extreme form of metamorphism appears to be when the
aplite has been completely crushed and comminuted and then
regenerated into a fine-grained micaceous schist, but with traces
here and there of orthoclase crystals and with secondary quartz.

The rock has in such cases been so completely altered by meta-
morphism that it is only by the traces of felspar that it can be
distinguished from a fine-grained mica-schist produced from a
sedimentary rock.

(3) Quartz Hornblende ee ite.

28. This slice shows large broken and wasted crystals of hone
blende of a yellowish- -brown colour and with the ends in tints of
blue. It is not strongly pleochroic in shades of dull green and
yellow. I found the obscurations in two crystals to be 10° 42’
and 17° 56’ respectively. Biotite also occurs in smaller amount,
and is somewhat bleached with elimination of magnetite.

The plagioclastic felspars are so much altered that no reliable
obscurations could be obtained, but so far as they gave any results
they suggested Labradorite. A smaller generation ‘of these felspars
is included in the hornblende.

48. In another sample the felspars were numerous and more or
less ideomorphic but much converted into mica. The only obscur-
ation angles obtainable were 22° 22’ and 21° 20’ on either side of
the twin plane in the zone P.K., indicating Labradorite. Horn-
blende in this slice is plentiful but considerably broken and wasted.
The obscuration in a section near to M., I found to be 16° 30’.

* Notes on the Rocks occurring between Limestone River and Mount Leinster. Reports
of the Mining Department, Victoria, September, 1890.

374 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

Andesite.

27. This rock is a network of narrow plagioclase crystals, the
meshes of which are filled in by a light-yellow to pale-brown
augite, and associated with this a considerable amount of ilmenite,
much converted into leucoxene. The felspars obscured at angles
of 18° 22’ and 19° 27’ in the zone P.K., thus indicating Labradorite.

The absence of olivine and the general character of this rock leads
me to place it among those andesites which are very near to basalt.

51. One of the most interesting rocks in this collection is a
holocrystalline compound of augite, amphibol, biotite, plagioclase,
and orthoclase, the latter taking the place of a ground mass or of
free quartz in more acid rocks.

The augite is in colourless hypidiomorphic crystals, which have
been broken and eroded, and have a somewhat unusually well-
marked prismatic cleavage.

The obscuration angles in a section near to M, I observed to be
42° 52’ in one part of the crystal, and 33° in another, the slice
being somewhat inclined toward (100) G0 Po.

There is a good series of augite crystals more or less converted
into amphibole, the latter being very pale in tint, and having an
obscuration of 12° 10’ on M, with a pleochroism in pale blue and
pale yellow. These crystals have a narrow margin of chlorite.

The augite is also commonly intergrown with biotite, with which
crystals of magnetite are associated.

The plagioclase crystals are hypidiomorphic, and are compounded
according to the albite, Carlsbad, and more rarely the Baveno law.
Measurements were not altogether satisfactory, but are given
below. The exit of a bisectrix appeared in a slice approximately
near the plane K.

Zone P. K. — Zone P. M.
17" 59! 31° 43’
21° 47’
29° 31’
These observations point to a felspar of the Bytownite group.

The orthoclase is in considerable amount, and fills in compara-
tively large spaces, including other minerals, but especially plagio-
clase crystals. It thus takes the place of quartz as a residual
constituent of the magma.

In only one part of the slice was I able to find a trace of
cleavage in the orthoclase and in it obscuration was parallel.

The margin of the orthoclase was in most places edged by growths
of micro-pegmatite, especially as it would seem where there were
terminal planes formed. Outside these growths were again small
amounts of quartz which appear to be of original formation.

The condition of this rock is surprisingly fresh and unaltered.
In view of all these particulars I think that it may be placed
provisionally among the andesites.

OLIGOCLASE FELSPAR—VICTORIA. 375

No. 13.—ON OLIGOCLASE FELSPAR FROM MOUNT
ANAKIES, IN VICTORIA.

By A. W. Howirt, F.G.S.

(Read Tuesday, January 11, 1898.)

In studying the voleanic rocks of Victoria under the microscope,
I have felt that the use of convergent polarised light might be
made to give more conclusive results were it possible, in the first
instance, to subject isolated crystals—for instance, of the triclinic
felspars found in these rocks—to examination, and thus obtain
data for reference.

Unfortunately, it is most difficult to obtain such crystals, and
the only locality whence I have obtained them is Lake Purrumbete,
in the western district ; Mount Frankin, in the northern district ;
Mount Anakies, about 20 miles northwards from Geelong ; and
the Dargo High Plains, in Gippsland.

In order to ascertain what results might be expected from such
an examination, I selected several isolated crystals of a triclinic
felspar from a number which had been collected in the volcanic
detritus at Mount Anakies. These crystals were in good perserva-
tion, and, although rounded on the edges and corners, the crystal-
line planes were readily distinguishable. The crystals were

compounded of the planes P (001) OP., M (010) «2 P ~,—1 (110)
cob’ EF and. T (110) co BP:

From each of four of these crystals three slices were prepared
according to the planes P, M, 1, and T, and also in a direction
normal to P and M.

The samples selected for this paper are numbered I and II.
In the three slices I determined the obscuration angles in P M and
in the direction normal to P M with the following results :—

I. Seen in this slice according to P with crossed nicols there are
numerous alternations of very narrow and of wider lamella,
arranged according to the Albite law. In the slice normal to P
and M there is not only the same synthetic structure—hbeing,
indeed, the continuation of the twin plates seen on P—but also
a twining, as numerous and similarly arranged, according to the
Perecline law, thus forming together a well-marked grating-like
figure. Upon M this structure is not apparent. The observations
made in slices of No. II were identically the same.

376 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

The obscuration angles measured in these slices are tabulated
below, being the mean of a number of nearly agreeing readings.

No. P M | + to Pand M
I Ab By 4p + 12° 30’ + 10° 0’
IT + 3° 3! + 12° 19’ ee ae Gy

Seen by convergent polarised light, there is upon P the appear-
ance of a bar indicating the exit of a bisectrix beyond the field
of view on the left. Upon M there is the exit of the positive
bisectrix, and upon each of the planes 1 and T there is the well
marked exit of an optic axis approaching to a normal position to
those planes respectively.

These observations, which agree nearly in both samples, indicate
a soda lime felspar of the oligoclase group. But the obscuration
angles observed upon P appear to be somewhat high when com-
pared with the data in a table prepared by Schuster.* An obscura-
tion of 3° upon P and of 12° 30’ upon M may, however, be taken
to indicate an oligoclase somewhat higher than the composition
Ab. 6 to An. 1.

In order to have a control over these results, I obtained
a quantitative analysis of the remainder of each sample, which Mr.
Francis E. A. Stone, the Analyst to the Victorian Department of
Mines, kindly made for me.

The two quantitative analyses are given below. Of the two, a
preliminary examination showed that No. Il was the more reliable,
and I therefore made use of it, with the following results :—

I II Remarks.

SiON ceniensces 62°98 62:22 (1) Fe,0,-tr.
INGO G6 noaooapoc 21°88 (1) 22°42 (1)
CAOR Cite 2°78 3°34
INGO: cmoceene tr tr.
INe)5(O)s noodononane 5°00 6:14
Ke OM eccni 1:90 2°30
Unestimated

loss: Nose 5°46 3°58

100:00 100:00

As to these analyses, Mr. Stone appended a note that in all
probability they were rather low, as the laboratory did not possess
the proper crucible for doing the fusions by Dr. Lawrence Smith’s
method. I calculated out the analysis into equivalent proportions,
and found, in tabulating the results according to the formule for

* Hintze, Handbuch der Mineralogie, 1897, p. 1439.

FULGURITES—NEW SOUTH WALES. ay id

allite and anorthite, that there was a deficiency of about 1:7, equal
to ‘9 per cent., of soda. Adding this in accordance with Mr. Stone’s
note, and recalculating back into percentages, the analysis closed
with + ‘12 per cent. of silica and — ‘5 per cent. of alumina.

This calculation gave me a result of 84:10 per cent. of albite
and 16:73 per cent. of anorthite as the composition of the felspar
or ab. 5 to an. 1.

According to a table given by Dana (Min. 1892, p. 327) the
percentages thus found are about 3 per cent. too high as regards
the alkaline constituent.

The comparison of the optical and chemical examinations
leaves the exact composition of this oligoclase in doubt in so
far as relates to it being nearer to allite or to anorthite by one
proportion of the former. But for all practical purposes, the
observations of the obscuration angles, and of the position of the
optic axial plane, appear to be sufficiently accurate to serve as a
grade in diagnosing the character of a felspar observed in a thin
slice of rock of the group to which the lavas of Mount Anakies
belong.

No. 14.—NOTE ON THE OCCURRENCE OF FULGURITES
IN THESAND-HILLS AT KENSINGTON AND BONDI
IN NEW SOUTH WALES: WITH A BIBLIOGRAPHY
OF FULGURITES.

By G. H. Kyisss, F.R.A.8.; J. W. Grimsuaw, M. Inst. C.E.;
and Rev. J. M. Curran.

(Read Tuesday, January 11, 1898.)

Futeurires, lightning tubes, or ceraunic sinters (Fr. fulgurites,
pierres foudroyées ; Ger. Fulguriten, Blitzrshren, Blitzsinter), as
their name implies, are fused tubes or other fused structures,
produced in sand, earth, or in rocks, by the action of lightning.
They seem to have been first noticed by Pastor Hermann, of
Massel,’ Silesia, who, however, erred as to their origin, since he
failed to recognise that the fusion was due to lightning. It was,
notwithstanding, early known that lightning causes fusion, as
the papers of de Fischer,? Buchholz,* Tillet and Desmarest,‘ and
Alleon Dulae® indicate; and, in his papers on lightning and
lightning conductors, Reimarus® mentions that the points of
conductors occasionally melted during storms. In his Alpine
travels between 1768 and 1789, Saussure’ found small blackish

378 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION ©.

beads on the face of some slaty hornblende on the Dome de Gouté,
obviously produced by the action of lightning.

The directness of the evidence as to the origin of fulgurites is,
perhaps, best illustrated in the account given by Withering® in
1790, published in the Phil. Trans. of the Royal Society. On
3rd September, 1789, a tree was struck by lightning, and a man
who had taken refuge thereunder was killed. At the point of his
walking-stick a perforation, 24 in. in diameter and 5 in. in depth,
marked the place where the flash entered the ground, On
digging, the soil was observed to be blackened for 10 in. more ;
2 in. deeper again melted quartzose appeared, and continued in a
sloping direction for 18 in. the fused material having run down
the tube formed.

F. Humboldt’ obtained some fulgurites in Mexico in about
1803, from the summit of a trachyte peak, about 15,000 feet above
sea-level. The fused mass on the walls of the fulgurite had
apparently overflowed. About the same year articles appeared
in Moll’s Annalen on “ Kieselsinter ;” one by Moll" himself, and
the other by Emmerling."" In 1805 Hentzen” found a large num-
ber of fulgurites in the Senne Heath at Paderborn, Westphalia,
to which he gave the name lightning-tubes (Blitzrohren), thus
identifying, by name, these structures with their cause.

Hagen” reported i in 1823 that his son had actually witnessed
the striking of a birch by lightning. On digging beneath it the
fused tubes were found.

In 1828 Beudant,” together with Hachette and Savart, made
several small fulgurites artificially with powdered glass, and also
with a mixture of powdered glass and salt, the latter being the
more easily fused. The glass gave a tube 25 mm. in length, and
with end diameters of about 3 mm. and 14 mm., the interior
diameter being about} mm. With salt added, a tube 30 mm.
was obtained of an average diameter of 44 mm., and an interier
diameter of 2 mm. These tubes were produced by the most
powerful electrical apparatus then available.

Evidently there can be no doubt as to the origin of fulgurites.
It may be mentioned that the suggestion that these siliceous tubes
are formed by other process than electric fusion, since roots are
sometimes found in their interior, was disposed of by Fiedler***”®
at the beginning of the century, and the matter does not now
require serious discussion.

The occurrence of large numbers of fulgurites within an area of
small radius led Darwin* to believe that they were often produced,
not by lightning shocks at different times, but altogether. He
concludes that, shortly before entering the ground, the lightning
divides into separate branches, each forming a a fulgurite. Probably
they are so formed—that is to say, more than one is often formed
at a single flash—that the photographs of flashes lend a strong

AUSTRALASIAN Assoc. Abv. Sc. Vot. Vil, 1898. PLATE XIX.

locality Sketch

%
Ps ae
; ew reg

Pp ce

N, fulgurite with
braraches

RandniCh

Racecourse

Gilberts Annalen 47.

aera mes &
' @&

Linch +
Sections oF Fillgur

The figures O07 5.1 shew cepth : i
of the Fulgurite at yarious pornts Gilberts Annalen

Fulgurites in the Sandhills at Kensington, W.S.W.
By G. H. KNIBBS, J. W. GRIMSHAW, and Rev. J. MILNE CURRAN.

FULGURITES—NEW SOUTH WALES. 379

support to this positive element of Darwin’s view—is sufficiently
indicated by the accompanying photograph taken by Mr. H. C.
Russell, Government Astronomer. [A photograph kindly lent
by Mr. Russell was exhibited.] The very numerous perforations
of rocks, however, as, for example, on Little Ararat, reported by
Abich® in 1869, is a sufficient proof that the same place is
repeatedly struck. It is idle, therefore, to speculate, much more
to dogmatise, on the question of the simultaneous production of
any series of fulgurites.

The fulgurites at the Kensington Sandhills were discovered by
J. W. Grimshaw, and those at Bondi by J. M. Curran, by noticing
the small pieces broken off where the tubes, through the wind
shifting the sand, had been left exposed. <A little search then
led to the discovery of the tubes themselves. They were dug
out in the presence of two of us—J. W. Grimshaw and G. H.
Knibbs—on two occasions, and J. W. Grimshaw and J. M. Curran
on the other occasions. The bends and directions of the tubes were
measured and are shown on the accompanying plate XIX, which
also indicates the relative positions of the points where the tubes
appeared on the surface. In form, the fulgurites are strikingly
similar to those figured in plates 3 and 4, Band 55, and plate 4,
Band 61, Gilbert’s Annalen ; and one piece shows the branching
off of smaller tubes, so well illustrated in the plates mentioned.
(See plate.) The fulgurites are by no means perpendicular, one
being inclined as much as 42 degrees with the vertical. They
vary from about 5 mm. to about 25 mm. in diameter, the thick-
ness of the walls being also variable, but generally from 1-2 mm.
Outside the tubes is a well-defined ring of reddish sand, the thick-
ness of the band being about 3 mm.; the sand generally is
siliceous, is quite free from calcareous matter, and is of a very pale
yellow colour. A similar occurrence of reddish sand is noted by
Fiedler (Gilb. Annal., Bd. 55, p. 133). In the opinion of one of
us—J. M. Curran—this colour is derived by filtration from a
stratum of limonite, which covered the sand-dune, and of which
there is, in places, still a trace. Water passing through the
limonite will, it is presumed, carry with it a small quantity of
the hydrated ferric oxide ; this, trickling down the surface of the
fulgurite, will strongly stain the sand immediately in contact.
This view is not endorsed by another of us—G. H. Knibbs. In
his opinion, the small trace of ferric oxide, to which the sand owes
its yellow colour, was volatilised by the intense heat of fusion, and
condensed in the sand immediately surrounding the fulgurite.
There is no physical objection to this view, since even the heat of
a porcelain furnace is equal, according to Elsner, to the task of
volatilising ferric oxide. The distinctness of the boundary of the
colour, a feature which is very striking, is urged as more consistent
with the volatilisation than with the filtration view. Owing to

380 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

the extreme smallness of the interval of time concerned, the
radiation of heat would be small, consequently the condensation
would be concentrated about the tube itself.

The fulgurites from Kensington present no new feature as
regards their form or general character. Externally they are
rough, somewhat whiter than the surrounding sand; inside they
are enamel-like, from the glassy surface of the fused silica. Under
the microscope the fused material is seen to be full of small
vesicles ; the surrounding sand fused in the oxyhydrogen jet pre-
sents an almost identical appearance. In chemical composition
the fulgurites are substantially the same as the surrounding sand.

Unfortunately, too great a mass of sand would have had to be
moved to reach the terminals of the tubes. After following one
for a length of 10 feet along its course, there appeared no indica-
tion of a change in size, and further excavation was impracticable.
The photograph herewith [exhibited] and the exhibits give a defi-
nite idea of the form and characteristics of fulgurites formed in
loose sand. The photographs were taken by one of us (J. M.
Curran), and shew the section as well as a longitudinal view of
the tubes.

The specific gravity of the fulgurite material was found to be
2-1, and its chemical composition by the analysis of one of us
(J. M. Curran) to be SiO, 93:4 7%, Al,O, 5 7%, Fe,O; trace.

The somewhat lengthy bibliography of the subject, which here
follows was prepared by one of us (G. H. Knibbs) with the view
to forming a nucleus for a more perfect record. It is hoped that
it includes at least the more important part of the existing litera-
ture on the subject, but since it has been somewhat hurriedly pre-
pared, some papers have perhaps been missed. If any member
of the section possessing references not included, will kindly allow
them to be added, with proper acknowledgment, the bibliography
will be correspondingly improved, and will more nearly achieve
its object. [No addition has been made. ]

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF FULGURITES.

1 _Hermann.—Maslographia, oder Beschreibung des schlesischen
Massel, etc. von. Leonh. Dav. Hermann, Breigae, 1711. The
fulgurites were catalogued as Osteocolla Maslensis, que fossile
aborescens Maslense, p. 189.

? Joh. Bernh. de Fischer.—De foeno sub combustione per ful-
minis ignem in massam seu scoriam calecaream redacto. Nov.
Act. Soc. Nat. Curios. Vol. 3, pp. 221, et seq.

3 Buchholz—Untersuchung einer Schlacke, die Gelegenheit
eines Wetterschlags in einem Heuhaufen entstanden. Natur-
forscher. St. 4, pp. 227, et seq.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF FULGURITES. 381

* Tillet et Desmarest.—Dachschiefer durch Brand nach Blitz-
schlag aufgetrieben, und bliserig wie Semmelkrumen oder Bim-
stein. Mém. de l’Acad. des Sci., 1760, pp. 69, et seq.

° Alleon Dule.—Von einer Schlacke, die durch Abbrennen
eines Heuhaufens durch den Blitz entstanden. Melanges d’hist.
naturelle, t. 6, 63, 8, fig. 65, p. 718.

° JA. H. Reimarus.—Neuere Bemerkungen vom Blitze. Hamb.,
1794. Gilb. Annal Bd. 6, 1800, pp. 377-391. Bd. 9, 1801, pp.
467-483. Bd. 36, 1810, pp. 113-126.

7 Sausswre.—Pierres foudroyées.

® Wm. Withering.—On some extraordinary effects of lightning.
Phil. Trans. Abridged. Vol. 16, pp. 662-663, 1790.

° Humboldt Fr.—Journeys between 1799 and 1804. (See here-
under, 36, G. Rose.)

® Moll. Moll’s Annal. fiir der Berg-und Hiittenkunde. Bd. 2,
pp. 122 et seq. About 1803.

“ Emmerling. Moll’s Annal. Bd. 3, Lief. 2, p. 297. 1804
about.

*” Hentzen.—Blitzréhre. Voigt’s Magazin fiir den Neuesten Zu-
stand der Naturkunden. Bd. 10, p. 491. About 1805.

* U. F. B. Briickmann.—Von den sogenannten Blitzrohren aus
der Senneheyde im Lippeschen. Voigt’s Mag. Bd. 11, pp. 64-67,
1806. Von dem sogenannten Blitzstein oder Pierre foudroyée am
Mt. Blane.

4 Van Hoff. Voigt’s Mag. Bd. 11, p. 363. 1806.

* Ferd. Roemer.—Ueber ein Vorkommen von Blitzréhen oder
Fulguriten bei Starezynow umweit Olkusz im Konigreiche Polen.
Neue Jahrbicher der Berg-und Hutten Kunde. Heft 1, pp.
33-40. 1809.

© Bernh. Paladanus.—Osteocollus ferruginei cenerei coloris,
fistulosus. Index rerum omnium naturalium. Capsula, 7 and 8.

" Tenz.—Blitzsinter. Tabellen uber das ges. Mineralreich,
p. 26.

8 Leonhard.—Taschenbuch der gesammt Mineralogie. Jahrg.
ips 313:

1° Ed. L. Irton.—-On the vitreous tubes found near Drigg in
Cumberland. Discovered in 1812. Bifurcation of tube observed.
Trans. of the Geol. Soc. First series. Vol. 2, pp. 528-532.

” Greenough and Buckland,. Referred to in paper last quoted.

71 Cerauniansinter.—Synopsis of the Contents of the British
Museum. Ed. 7, London, 1814, p. 18.

” Clarke.—Prof. Mineralogy, Cambridge, 1816, found that ful-
gurite fused in oxyhydrogen jet. (See Gilb. Anal. Bd. 61, pp.
249-262).

382 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

3 Neumann, Hoffmannsegg, Schwdgrichen, 1818.—Referred to
in Gilb. Annal. Bd. 61, pp. 249-269. Fulgurites from Bahia,
in Brazil, similar to Paderborn fulgurites.

** Blumenbach, Kéiferstein, A. Van Converden, referred to in
Gilb. Annal., Bd. 55, p. 140. Blumenbach had collection of black
fulgurites. Kiferstein found fulgurites on the heath of Nietlebe.
Van Converden noticed fulgurite 30 feet long, inclined 60 degrees
to perpendicular and one 15 feet long, inclined 80 degrees to
perpendicular.

*® Karl Gustav Fiedler.—Ueber die Blitzréhren und ihre Entste-
hung. Gilb. Annal. Bd. 55, pp. 121-164, 1817. Contains a
lengthy account and gives references to literature of the subject.
Same title. Bd. 61, pp. 235-248, 1819. Noch einiges von der
Blitzrdhren. Bd. 61, pp. 249-262, 1819. Neuer Fundort der
Blitzrdhren. Bd. 68, pp. 209-221, 1821.

*° On one of the vitreous tubes found at Drigg, in Cumberland.

Trans. Geol. Soc. Vol. 5, pp. 617, 618, 1821.

7 KG. Fiedler—Auffiinding und Ausgrabung einer 8 Leipzig
Ellen 52 Zoll langen Blitzréhre bei Dresden. Gilb. Annal. Bd.
71, pp. 801-312, 1822.

*® Ludwig Wilhelm Gilbert.—Noch einiges von Blitzréhren, und
von Wirkungen des Blitzes auf Felsenstiicke. Gilb. Annal. Bd.
71, pp. 337-344, 1822.

* C. H. Pfaff— Beobachtete Entstehung einer Blitzréhre durch
den Blitz. Gilb. Ann. Bd. 72, pp. 111, 112, 1822. Some Schles-
wig sailors found tubes where the lightning had been observed to
strike.

°K. G. Fiedler.—Auffiinding und Ausgrabung einer Blitzrohre
im K6nigreiche Ungarn, bis an ihr Ende. Gilb. Annal. Bd. 74,
pp. 213-217, 1823. (See also “Quart. Jour. 8c.,” vol. 17, pp.
181-183, 1824.)

*! Hagen.—Bericht von der Bildung einer Blitzréhre durch den
Blitz am 17ten Juli, 1823 zu Rauschen in Ostpreussen. Gilb.
Annal. Bd. 74, pp. 325-330, 1823. Professor Hagen’s son saw
a birch struck. On digging beneath, fused tubes —z.e., fulgurites
were discovered.

*° Beudant, Hachette and Savart.—Expérience sur la formation
des tubes fulminaires. Annal Chim. et de Physique, t. 37, pp.
319-321, 1828. Artificial production of fulgurites from powdered
glass.

° Ribbentrop.—Ueber Blitzréhren. Braunschweig, 1830. (See
also ‘‘ Conversations Lexicon.”)

** Chas. Darwin.—Researches, &e. ; Voyage in the Beagle.
1839, pp. 69-71. Refers to discovery of number of fulgurites on

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF FULGURITES. 383

sand dunes between the Laguna del Potrero and Rio de la Plata,
a few miles from Maldonado, and makes observations on the
formation of fulgurites.

_»° Hermann Abich.—Die Fulguriten im Andesit des kleinen
Ararat, nebst Bemerkungen tuber Ostlicher Einfliisse bei der
Bildung electrischer Gewitter. Sitzber. Akad. Wien. Bd. 60,
153-161, 1870. (See also “ Phil. Mag.,” 38, 1869, pp. 436-440.)
Rocks traversed in every direction by vermiform fulgurites ; tubes
about the size of thick goose quill.

*° G. Rose.—Zeit. deutsch. geol. Ges. Bd. 25, p. 112, about
1873.

* M. P. Harting.—Fulgurites in Holland. Treats of origin,
gives analysis by Von der Star. Mém. Acad. R. Néerl, t. 14, pp.
22 et seg., 1874.

*° Von der Marck.—Ueber die Analyse einer angeblichen Ful-
gurits. Verh. Nat. Ver. preuss. Rheinl. Folg. 4. Bd. 1, Corr.
Blatt., p. 70, 1874.

*° Leeds.—Notice of a Lightning Tube, or Fulgurite, found near
Fayetteville, N.C. Proce. Acad. Nat. Sc., Philad. 1874, p. 145.
Fulgurite 4 feet length, 2 inch diameter ; fused silex.

* A. Renard.—Les Fulgurites. Aun. Soc. Belg. Microscop., t.
5 (Bull), pp. xix—xxi, 1879.

“J. Brun.—Pierres cassées du Sahara: fulgurites calcaires.
(1880.) Arch. Sci. phys. nat. T. 3, pp. 329-336, 1883.

“ C. W. Giimbel.—Ueber die Bildung der Stylolithen und iiber
Fulgurite. Zeit. d deutsch. geol. Ges. Bd. 34, pp. 642-648,
1882.

* Wichmann.—Ueber Fulgurite. Zeit. deutsch geol. Ges,
Bd. 35, pp. 849-859, 1883.

“J. S. Diller.—Fulgurite from Mount Thielson, Oregon.
Amer. Jour. Se. ser. 3, vol. 28, pp. 252-258, 1884. Small tubes
in rock ; seemed to have “ boiled over.”

© C. W. Giimbel.Zeit d. deutsch geol. Ges. Bd. 36; p. 179,
1884,

* F. Rutley.—Fulgurite from Mount Blanc. Quart. Journ.
Geo. Soc., vol. 41, pp. 152-154, 1885.

“ F, Rutley—On fulgurite from Monte Viso. Quart. Journ.
Geol. Soc., vol. 45, pp. 60-66, 1889.

* EF, Aston.—On an Alpine nickel-bearing serpentine, with
fulgurites. Quart. Journ., Geol. Soc., vol. 52, pp. 452-460, 1896,

384 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

No. 15.—NOTES ON SOME NEW SOUTH WALES ROCKS.
By W. J. Ciunies Ross, B.Sc., Lond., F.G.8.
(Read Tuesday, January 11, 1898.)
[ Abstract. ]

THE rocks described were obtained from the Silurian country to
the south of Bathurst, mostly from the neighbourhood of the
mining village of Cow Flat. Near this place dolomite occurs
associated with a white amphibole and a green chloritic mineral.
_Analysis of the dolomite shows carbonate of lime and carbonate
of magnesia in the proportions of 55:6 and 43°73 per cent. respec-
tively. The amphibole rock is fibrous and radiating, containing
55:2 per cent. of silica, 19°6 per cent. of lime, and 19:8 of magnesia,
together with a little oxide of iron, and alumina. The green
mineral has been examined microscopically and chemically.
Analysis shows it to be essentially a hydrous silicate of alumina
and magnesia. It is very soft and polarises under the microscope.
A short distance from the dolomite extensive beds of limestone
occur. Analysis shows these to be nearly pure calcite. At
Bunnamagoo, about 15 miles south of Cow Flat, dolomitie lime-
stones also occur. These have been analysed and shown to con-
sist of carbonate of lime and carbonate of magnesia with a
moderate amount of carbonate of iron.

It is believed that this is the first occasion on which either
dolomite or chlorite has been noted in the Bathurst district.

No. 16.—NOTES ON THE AUSTRALIAN
THENIOPTERIDEL.

By W.S. Duy.
(Read Wednesday, January 12, 1898.)

INTRODUCTION.

Ir we adopt the term 7eniopteridee, in the original sense, for ferns
with a certain type of venation, the range of the family is from
the Carboniferous to the Recent. But it will be found that, as
now generally used, the range of the family has been somewhat
restricted, and is typically Mesozoic, a few species belonging to the
type genus 7@wnopteris, occurring in the Upper Coal Measures and
Permian. ‘The distribution of the members of the family is world
wide, and the greater number of species are found in the Jurassic
and Oolite. In Australia, as well as an imperfect specimen from
the Greta Coal Measures, of Permo-carboniferous age, the family is
found in great abundance through the fresh water Lower Mesozoic
beds of ages corresponding to the Trias and Jurassic, and in the

NOTES ON THE AUSTRALIAN TNIOPTERIDES. 385

Tertiary. Sir Frederick McCoy mentions a species from a Tertiary
deposit at Dargo (Teniopteris tenwistriatissima). In South Africa,
India, and Eastern Australia the Zeniopteris Flora is just as well
marked as the Lower Gondwana Glossopteris Flora that flourished
during the preceding period, and the general facies of this Upper
Gondwana Flora is very similar throughout these three regions,
the remains of the old Gondwana Land. The Upper Gondwana
Flora as well as the Lower is also well developed in South America.

The genus 7’eniopteris was first erected by Brongniart in 1828*
for the reception of some Paleeozoic ferns. Since that time numer-
ous other forms very closely allied in character to this genus have
been found from beds of different ages, mainly Mesozoic, in all parts
of the world, and it has been found necessary to modify the diagnosis
of the family, and to form both genera and sub-genera, not only to
make the original genus less cumbrous, but also to make the plants
of greater stratigraphical value.

The classification most generally adopted as furthering these
ends is that formulated by Schimper in 1869.+ This author divided
Fossil Ferns into five orders, of which No, IV is that of the
Teeniopteridece.

The ordinal characters are—“ Fronds stipitate, simple oblong
lanceolate, wide and elongate, entire [Feistmantel adds to this
‘or dentate ’] or pinnate ; pinne linear or tongue-shaped, more or
less pointed, with a short stalk or sessile. Rachis and primary
veins stout, secondary veins springing at an acute angle, then
becoming almost horizontal or oblique, simple and dichotomous.
; .’ This order is founded on venation and includes the recent
Marattiaceze, Aspidez, and <Acrostichee. From their common
relations to these three large living families, in which classification
is based primarily on fructification, it will be seen how uncertain
the relations of sterile fronds are. This matter is mentioned later
on in connection with the genera.

The Tzeniopteridez include the following genera :—

Teniopteris, Brongniart.
Macroteniopteris, Schimper.
Paleovittaria, Feistmantel. t
Oleandridiwm, Schimper.
Angiopteridium, ,,
Marattiopsis, 5
Daneites, a
Dancopsis, Heer.
Phyllopteris, Brongniart.
Megalopteris, Dawson.
Lesleya, Lesquereux.

SO DNS OV Go bo

* Prod. Veg. Foss., pp. 61-62. t Pal. Indica, Gondwana Flora, ii, 1876, p. 12.
“| Traité Pal. Veg., i, p. 600. § These are not mentioned in Schimper’s work.

2B

386 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

Of these we are mainly concerned at present with 1, 2, 4, 5,
8, 9, and these alone will be dealt with, in the order named.

GENERA.
1. Teeniopteris.

Brongniart defined this genus as Ferns possessing “simple
leaves, entire, midrib thick and stiff, veins perpendicular, simple
or forked at the base. Fructification in the form of puncte.”
Since this, as above stated, the genus has been considerably
modified by Schimper, who restricts the name 7'eniopteris to the
Carboniferous and Permian forms with the following charac-
ters :—‘‘Fronds simple, scolopendriform. Primary nerve (rachis)
channelled on the upper surface, beneath almost smooth, strong ;
secondary nerves very clear, delicate, close together, somewhat
dichotomous towards the base, nerves simple or dichotomous,
parallel simple nerves, not infrequently mixed with the divided
ones. Fructification unknown.” {

On the other hand, however, Mr. A. C. Seward, in his “ Fossil
Plants of the Wealden,”* defines Zeniopteris as ferns possessing
“‘ Frond simple or pinnate, usually lanceolate or linear lanceolate,
apex acute or occasionally obtusely terminated ; a well-marked
midrib from which lateral veins are given off either at right
angles or more or less obliquely ; these may be unbranched or
acutely forked as they pass towards the leaf margin.” He pro-
poses to use Z’wniopteris in the same broad sense as Nathorst,}
including under the one comprehensive term Oleandridium,
Angiopteridium, Marratiopsis, Danceopsis, Macroteniopteris.

So far as we know at present no Paleozoic 7eniopteris has
been described from Australia. In the collection of the Mining
and Geological Museum there are two imperfect specimens of a
fern showing a well-marked midrib, veins running obliquely to
the margin, no anastomosis and only infrequent furcation, apex
and base unknown. It is very probably that more perfect speci-
mens will show this to be Zentopteris. It is from the Greta or
Lower Coal Measures and the fragments are contained ina portion
of the core of the Rutherford Bore.§

. Macrotzniopteris, Schimper.
(Traité, Pal. Vég., 1869, i, p. 610.)

Sp. char.—F ronds simple, handsome, more or less broadly elon-
gate-lingulate, obtuse or acuminate, entire, rarely irregularly
divided pinnately. Fructification of the Aspideacee type.—
Schimper.

* Pt. 1, 1894, pp. 122-125.

t Floran vid Bjuf, 1878, pp. 44-48.

f Traité Pal. Vég., i, p. 600. See also Zeiller, ‘‘ Etudes sur le Terrain Houiller de
Commentry,” ii, 1888, p. 279. (Bull. Soc. Ind. Minerale, Ser. 3, ii, Pt. 2.)

§ Since this paper was read, Sir Frederick McCoy has ‘described. Teeniopteris Sweeti, from
ake eee ee beds of Bacchus Marsh. ‘Procs. R. Soe. Vict., 1898 (N.S.), pt 2, pp.

NOTES ON THE AUSTRALIAN TANIOPTERIDE., 387

The leaves of this fern resemble those of the Australian
Asplenium (Neottopteris) nidus.

In Zittel’s Paleophytologie, Schimper gives a fuller description:
“Fronds simple, sometimes more than two feet long and six inches
wide ; ribbon-like, apex rounded or slightly pointed ; they appear
to have had a membranous consistency ; lateral veins springing at
an acute angle, then sharply curved towards the margin or almost
horizontal, the upper ones only oblique, bifurcate at the base or
simple, close together.”

Range.— Keuper—Oolite.

4, Oleandridium, Schimper.
(Traité Pal. Vég., 1869, i, p. 607.)

“Fronds simple, lanceolate-elongate or tongue-shaped, coriaceous.
Fructification similar to that of the Aspideacez.”—Schimper.

Distribution.—Mesozoic-Tertiary. Recent ally, Cleandra

5, Angiopteridium, Schimper.
(Traité Pal. Vég., 1869, i, p. 602.)

Tn this subdivision of Zeniopteride the fronds are pinnate, with
articulated pinnules, deciduous. The sori are transversely convex
and linear, marginal.

This genus is very like the recent Angiopteris. The pinne are
typically long and strapshaped. The genus commences in the Trias
and ascends to the Tertiary.

Distribution.—Lower Mezozoic. Recent ally, Angiopteris.

6. Danzopsis, Heer.
(Schimper, Traité Pal. Vég., i, p. 613.)

In his first work, Schimper placed this under the Tzeniopteridez,
and was followed by other writers on the genus. In his contribu-
tion to Zittel’s Paleontologie, however, it is removed from that
position and placed under the Marattiacez, which he makes to
include the following fossil forms showing fructification Marattia
(Rheetic and Lias, Recent), Dancettes (Upper and Lower Creta-
ceous), Dancopsis (Keuper and ? Permian, sterile fronds), and
Danea (lias). He defines the genus in these words ‘“ Fronds
very large, petiole thick, simply pinnate, pinnules large, rather
. far apart from one another, connected to one another at the bases

388 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

springing at an acute angle, ribbonlike, contracted gradually to-
wards the apex ; midrib strong, lateral veins springing at an acute
angle, then incurved and running a little obliquely towards the
margin, some simple, others forking at the point where the curva-
ture commences ; sporangia arranged in close series to the margin,
rounded, opening by a perpendicular slit (?) as in the genus Angi-
opteris, or by a pore (?), as in Dancea.” —Schimper.*

Fertile fronds have been found in the Lower Keuper, sterile
in the Trias and Lias. One species, D. Hughesi, Feist., is parti-
cularly abundant in the Rajmahal beds of India.

From Australia no species has been described as yet, but some
specimens from the Narrabeen beds of Turrimetta Head may
prove, on further investigation, to be new. In connection with
this New South Wales form and the Indian D. Hughesi, the great
similarity in the form of the pinnules and the venation to some
of the lanceolate-pinnuled species of Thinnfeldia is remarkable, the
sole tangible difference being the greater size of Dancwopsis. I
venture to think, in contradistinction to the late Professor Feist-
mantel, that the relationship between the Indian species, even as
proved by his own figures,—which show at the basal portion of the
frond small lobate pinnules, similar in every respect to those of
Thinnfeldia,—is much closer, in the absence of fructification, to
Thinnfeldia than to Heer’s Daneopsis. This matter will be dis-
cussed at greater length in the description of the Narrabeen plants.

Phyllopteris, Brongniart.
(Tab. gen. Veg. Foss., 1849, p. 22.)

Sp. char.—“ Fronds or pinne of the fronds more or less lanceo-
late, margin entire, midrib becoming thin towards the apex ;
secondary nerves springing from the midrib continued in an
oblique direction, curved, often furcate and anastomosing with
one another.—Saporta.” t

By many authors species of this genus have been referred to
other genera, mainly Sagenopteris ; but, in opposition to this,
Saporta says: “The obliquity and also the curvature of the
secondary veins, which are very numerous and branched and
dichotomous, but not anastomosing so as to form a net structure,
distinguishes the genus Phyllopteris from ZLeniopteris, on one
hand, and Sagenopteris on the other.” t

Range—Rhetiec—Oolite. One species occurs in the Leigh’s
Creek beds of South Australia, and also in the Ipswich Formation
of Queensland.

* Zittel’s Pal., Paleophytologie (French Trans.), p. 86.
Tt Saporta, Pal. Franc Pl. Jurassiques, 1878, i, p. 448.
$ Op cit. p. 449.

NOTES ON THE AUSTRALIAN TNIOPTERIDE®, 389

RELATIONS.

As the members of this family are classed mainly in accord-
ance with their venation—the Nervatio Teniopteridis—it is on
this factor that most stress must be laid in comparing them with
recent ferns. Amongst these we may select immediately the
genera Oleandra, Scolopendrium, and Marattia, Danea, Acros-
tichum, Olfersia, Lomariopsis, Gymnogramma (javanica), Asple-
nium (nidus), Vittaria, members of the recent Polypodia,
Aspleniz, Aspideze, and Marattiacez. This will serve to prove
the late Marquis de Saporta’s statement that the exact definition
of the Teniopterids, properly so-called, constitutes one of the
difficulties of Paleobotany.* Of the chief references given below, t
the most important and recent is that by Mr. David White, who
discusses very fully the evolution of Newropteris, Alethopteris,
and Teniopteris, this last through Megalopteris of the Devonian,
from what he terms the Megalopteris-stock. It would be impossible
to do justice to this author’s views in any other words but his own ;
and I venture to quote his concluding remarks: “ According to
this hypothesis, we may suppose that the pinnate Tzeniopteridee,
or a portion of that group (without prejudice of any important
systematic distinction between the pinnate and simple forms) came
from an early JMJegalopteris-stock, probably through the alethop-
teroid forms. The earliest flora, so far as I know, in which any of
these occur, that of the Middle Devonian at Saint Johns, New
Brunswick, besides containing the /egalopteris Dawsont, has also
representatives of Vewropteris, most of which are alethopteroid,
and of Alethopteris, including the A grandis and A discrepens
already referred to. It is not improbable that the three of these
genera originated in a common stock ; and since the Megalopteris
group offers a comprehensive type from which the Newropteris
and Alethopteris, as well as the known MJegalopteris species, might
well have descended, that name may conveniently be employed in
the hypothesis to designate the type existing previous to the
Middle Devonian, from which the neuropteroid, alethopteroid, and
teeniopteroid, including in the Jatter some species of living Marat-
tiaceous genera, descended.” In connection with JJegalopteris
it may be mentioned that Solms Laubach considers that there are,
in his opinion, no grounds for considering that these are anything
but Ferns, in contradistinction to the views held by Saporta and
Marion who considered them to be close to the Dolerophyllee,
which are classed by Schimper as next to the Cordaitee. {

* Saporta, Pal. Franc., Pl. Jurassiques, 1873, i, pp. 430-435 et. seq:
} Seward, Foss. Pl. Wealden, 1894, i, pp. 122-125
Solms-Laubach, Fossil Botany, Eng. ae 1891, p- 136.
Schimper, in Zittel’s Traité de Paléontologie (French i ), pp. 128-1380.
Feistmantel, Pal. Indica, Gondwana Flora, ii, 1880, pp. 9-14.
White (D.), Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 1893, iv, pp. 119-132.
t Solms Laubach, Op. cit., p. 126.

390

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

AUSTRALIAN SPECIES.
4, Angiopteridium spathulatum, McClelland.
(Teeniopteris (Angiopteridium) Daintreei, I7/cCoy.)

Teniopteris Daintreet :—

McCoy, Trans. R. Soc. Vict. for 1860 [1861], v, pp. 96-107,
215-217; Proes., p.x.

Clarke (W. B.), Trans. R. Soc. Vict. for 1860 [1861], v, pp.
89-95, 209-214.

McCoy, Intercolonial Exhib. Essay, 1861, p. 166.

Hochstetter, Verhandl. K.K. Geol. Reichsanstalt, Jahbrb.,
1861, xii, p. 28.

McCoy, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 1862, ix, p. 143.

McCoy, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 1867, xx, p. 196.

Wilkinson (O. 8.), Geol. Rept. Cape Otway District, 1865,

22.

McCoy, Rept. Westernport Coalfields, 1872, p. 6

McCoy, Prog. Rept. Geol. Survey Vict. (Smyth’ s), 1874, p. 35.

McCoy, Prod. Pal. Vict.,.1875, 1, p. 15, tlt Eee:

Feistmantel, Records Geol. Survey India, 1876, ix, Pt. 4, pp.
122-124,

Feistmantel, Pal. Indica (Gondw. Flora i), 1877, Ser. ii, No. 2,
p29 sobt. 4, pcre

Etheridge, R. junr., Cat. Austr. Foss, 1878, p. 100.

Feistmantel, Paleontographica, 1878, Suppl. Bd. ii, Lief. 3,
Heft 1, p. 110, t. 14, £. 2,3; Op. cit., 1879, Heft 2, p.
169s. 2st:

Pittman (E. F.), Ann. Rept. Dept. Mines, N. 8. Wales, for
1879 [1880], p. 372.

Tenison Woods (J. E.), Procs. Linn. Soc., N. S. Wales,
1883, viii, p. 117.

Wilkinson (C. 8.), Notes on Geol. N. S. Wales (Mineral
Products), 1882, p. 55; Ibid, 2nd Edition, 1887, pp.
el aie

Johnston (R. M.), Procs. R. Soc. Tas., for 1885 [1886], p. 375.

Feistmantel, Sitz. K. B. Gesell. Wissens., Math.-Naturw.
Cl., 1888, p. 630.

Feistmantel, Abhandl. K. B. Gesell. Wissens., Math.
Naturw. Cl., 1890, Folge vii, Bd. 3, p. 66, t. 2, f. 11.

Feistmantel, Mem. Geol. Survey, N. S. Wales, Pal. 3, 1890,
p. 114, t. 27,4, 4, 55 t. 2854.16, Ga:

Etheridge, Ann. Rept. Dept. Mines N. 8. Wales for 1889

[1890}, p . 237.
Etheridge, Keg Rept. Dept. Mines N. 8. Wales for 1891,
p: 969,

David (T. W #.), Op. cit, p. 221.

NOTES ON THE AUSTRALIAN THNIOPTERIDER. 391

Etheridge, Geo]. and Pal. Q’land, 1892, p. 371.

McCoy, in Stirling (J.), Reports on Vict. Coal-tields, Dept.
Mines Vict., Spec. Repts., 1892, p. 12, t. 2, f. 11, 12.

Etheridge, Ann. Rept. Dept. Mines N. 8. Wales for 1892
[1893], p. 172.

Pittman (KE. F.), Ann. Rept. Dept. Mines N. 8S. Wales for
1895 [1896], p. 121, 122.

Pittman (H. F.), and David (T. W. E.), Mem. Geol. Survey
N.S: Wales, Pal. 9, 1895, p. xi.

Dun (W. 8.), Ann. Rept. Dept. Mines N. 8. Wales for
1895 [1896], p. 188, 189.

Dun (W. 8.), Ann. Rept. Dept. Mines N. 8. Wales for
1896 [1897], p. 153.

T. spatulata, McLelland, Shirley ; Add. Foss. Flora. Q’land,
1897,-p:.27,

This-fern was first described by Sir Frederick McCoy, in 1875,*
with the following diagnosis :—“ Frond very long, linear, parallel-
sided, substance thick, edges straight, midrib thick, very strong ;
veins extending at right angles from the midrib to the lateral
margins, a few straight and simple, the greater number once forked
at a variable distance between the midrib and lateral margin.
Usual width of frond, 4 lines; about 10 or 11 lateral veins in the
space of 2 lines at the margin (both of ordinary specimens, 4 lines
wide, and one young fragment nearly 2 inches long, but only 14
line wide throughout).”

Sir Frederick remarks that, in its coriaceous nature and thick-
ness of midrib, this fern is more like “‘the Cycadaceous Stangerites
than any other [7eniopteris| I know.”+ Messrs. Oldham and
Morris,{ in their “ Fossil Flora of the Rajmahal Hills,” referred
the species Zeniopteris acuminata, McClelland, spatulata, McClel-
land and enszs, Oldham, to the genus Stungerites of Bornemann.
This genus was created in 1856 to take in those leaves previously
known as “ Teniopteris, but which resembled the recent Stangeria,
a plant now known to be Cycadeous, but at first considered to be
a fern.”|| Their reason for classing these forms as Cycads seems
to be based to a great extent on their pinnate nature and the
absence of signs of fructification on their specimens; at the same
time they consider also that some of the simple forms as described
by Brongniart, may be ferns. The Cycadaceous nature of these
plants does not, however, seem to have been accepted, and in a
succeeding part of the same work Dr. Feistmantei{] ranges the

* Prod. Pal. Vict., Dec. ii, p. 15, t. 14, f. 1-2.

+ Op. cit., p. 16.

t Pal. Indica (Gondwana Flora), 1863, i, Part 1, pp. 32-25, t. 6, t. 23.

§ Ueber organische Reste der Letten Kohlengruppe Thiiringens, 1856, p. 59.
|| Oldham and Morris, op. cit., p. 33.

J Op. cit., p. 95.

392 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

three species mentioned above under the genus or sub-genus
Angiopteridium, Schimper, which includes pinnate narrow-leaved
Mesozoic Tzeniopterids.

Mr. Etheridge, from an examination of a large number of speci-
mens, gives the following specific characters :—-“ Frond very long,
narrow, strap-shaped, elongately lingual, petiolate, straight, slightly
curved, or rather flexuous, parallel-sided, or the margins undulating
or gently sinuous in places, with an average width of five-sixteenths
of an inch. Apex rounded, acute, or emarginate. Petiole strong,
striated, and naked. Midrib or costa, thick, striated longitudinally,
retaining its size throughout the length of the frond ; veins distant
or close, simple or bifurcate, generally at right angles to the
midrib, but at times slightly oblique, without curve, dichotomisa-
tion taking place near the midrib, or at a variable distance between
it and the margin.” (Geol. Pal. Q’land, 1892, p. 371.) He also
discusses very fully the relationships of the species.

There can, I, think, be no doubt that the Zentopteris Daintreet
of McCoy is most closely related to the Indian Angiopteridium
(Teniopteris) spathulatum, McClelland, as has already been
remarked by Messrs. Feistmantel,* R. Etheridge, Junr.,+ and
Shirley.t Feistmantel on this subject says: ‘‘Of foreigns forms
the Australian JTentopteris Daintreet, McCoy, can to a certain
extent be compared with this Indian form ; but the veins in the
former seem to be still straighter and are thicker than in our
species.” Commenting on this, Mr. Etheridge remarks: ‘‘ The
latter part of this sentence exactly expresses the difference which
exists between the Queensland fossils and McCoy’s species as
well as between the latter and the Indian plant. It will not,
however, surprise me if these species have to be united ; if
not, most of the Queensland fronds will have to be referred to
A. spathulatum, McClelland,” Mr. Shirley agrees with these remarks
as far as concerns the Queensland leaves, deeming them to be the
A, spathulatum and distinct from 7’. Daintreei as figured by McCoy.

It must, I think, be admitted by all that the Australian species
Daintreet belongs to Angiopteridium, that numerous leaves vary-
ing but little from the type specimens from Victoria are not
separable from the Indian spathulatwm, and, finally, that there
is in reality but the slightest evidence in favour of retaining
Daintreei as a separate species. The variation of thickness of
midrib and the slightly straighter direction of the veins are not
sufficiently convincing to merit specific distinction, and could
easily be due to difference of local conditions. Variations as
great or greater than these can be seen in any series of Austra-
lian specimens, and after an examination of a large number of

* Pal. Indica (Gondwana Flora), 1879, i, pt. 4, p. 207.
+ Geol. and Pal. Q’land, 1892, p. 378.
¢ Add. Foss. Flor. Q’land, 1897, p. 27.

NOTES ON THE AUSTRALIAN TENIOPTERIDE. 393

specimens from the Jurassic beds of the Talbragar River and com-
parison with Victorian and Queensland specimens, we are, I con-
sider, compelled to admit that the Eastern Autralian Tewniopteris,
hitherto known generally as Daintreei, McCoy, is nothing but the
variable Australian representative of the Indian Angiopteridium
spathulatum, McClelland.

The synonymy of its Indian occurrences is :—

Teniopteris spathulata, McClelland. Report Geol. Survey India,
1848-49 [1850].

Stangerites spathulata, Oldham and Morris. Pal. Indica, Gond-
wana Flora, i, 1863, p. 34, t. 6, f. 1-7.

Angiopteridium spathulatum, Schimper. Traité Pal. Vég., 1869,
i, p. 605.

Angiopteridium McClellandi, Feistmantel. Records Geol. Survey
India, 1876, Flora, ix, pt. 2, p. 36.

Angiopteridium spathulatum, Feistmantel. Pal. Indica, Gond-
wana Flora, i, 1877, p. 97.

Angiopteridium spathulatum, Feistmantel. Pal. Indica, Gond-
wana Flora, 1877, 1, pt. 3, p. 172, t. 1, £. 6b, 76.

Angiopteridium spathulatum, Feistmantel. Pal. Indica, Gond-
wana Flora, 1879, i, pt. 4, p. 206, t. 1, £ 8-13, 17,18; ti
items Os, Or5, te, LD,./f. Lill

Teeniopteris spatulata, McClell., Oldham, Man. Geol., India, 2nd
ed., 1893, pl. to face p. 176, top right-hand figure.

In Australia, the species has been found at numerous localities
in Victoria, New South Wales, and Queensland.

Txeniopteris (Angiopteridium) Carruthersi, Z’en.-Woods.

T. Daintreei, Carruthers. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1872, xxviii,
p. 355, t. 27, f. 6.

T. Daintreei, Feistmantel. Paleontographica, 1878, Suppl. Bd.,
ili, Lief. 3, Heft. 3, t. 14, f. 4 (2 and 3 exl.)

T. Carrutherst, Ten.-Woods. Procs. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales, 1883,
WAG We, p.. LET.

T. Carrutherst, Johnston. Procs. R. Soc. Tas. for 1885 [1886}, p.
375.

T. Carruthersi, Feistmantel. Sitz. K. B. Akad. Wissens. Math.
Naturw. Cl., 1888, p. 630.

T. Carruthersi, Feistmantel. Abhandl, K. B. Gesell. Wissens.
Math. Naturw. Cl., 1890, Folge vii, Bd. iii, p. 65, t. 2, f.
6-10.

T. Carruthersi, Feistmantel. Mem. Geol. Survey N. S. Wales,
Paleo LOVOr pa lis tr2es to ie

T. Carrutherst, Feistmantel. Uhlonosne Utvary v. Tasmanii, 1890,
p.08,t. 64. 14

394 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

T. Carruthersi, Etheridge, R., Jun. Geol. and Pal., Q’land, 1892,
p. 374.

Sp. Char.— Frond simple (?), broad linear, costa somewhat
thick, veins leaving it at an acute angle, then passing out at right
angles to the margin, once or twice dichotomously divided.”—Ten.-
Woods.

Mr. Etheridge remarks that Carruthers? is a larger plant than the
Australian variety of A. spathulatwm—Daintreet. ‘The general
form is different. The veins, instead of leaving the midrib direct
at right angles, as in the case of the species named, pass from it
at first obliquely and then assume a similar course to the former.”
This species was first described as 7. Daintreei by Carruthers,
but the difference between the two forms was pointed out by
McCoy.*

This species has been found in Queensland, New South Wales,
Tasmania, and South Africa.

Teeniopteris (Angiopteridium), Etheridgei, Shirley.

Add: Foss. Elor; Qiland) 1897, py 27, 0.95 £41:

Sp. Char.— Frond four to six inches ; oblong—lanceolate, nar-
rowing towards the base; apex?; midrib less stout than in other
Queensland species, considering the width of the frond ; veins fine
and very numerous, varying considerably in the angle which they
make with the mid-vein, but usually arising at an oblique angle,
then meeting the margin at right angles ; furcation of veins may
be sparing or moderately frequent, the fork is generally near the
midrib.” —Shirley.

Mr. Shirley remarks that this is probably the species figured by
Etheridge as Zeniopteris, sp. ind.f; but a comparison of the
figures hardly bears this out, Etheridge’s figures differing from
Shirley’s in the less acute angle at which the veins spring from
the midrib, more elongate leaf, much more prominent midrib,
and more particularly in the fact that in the Mt. Esk specimen
the furcation of the veins is very marked and persistent, whilst in
T. Etheridgei, Shirley, this character only obtains very rarely, as
shown by the Author’s figure. In view of these facts, I must
consider Mr. Etheridge’s specimen to belong to another species. t

Teeniopteris (Angiopteridium) Tenison Woodsi, th. fil.

A. ensis, Ten. Woods [non Oldham and Morris], Procs. Linn.
Soc. N. S. Wales, 1883, viii, p. 119.

A. ensis, Feistmantel, Sitz. K. B. Gesell. Wissens. Math.
Naturw. Cl., 1888, p. 631.

* Geol. Survey Vict., 1875, Dec. 2, p. 16.
+ Geol. Pal, Q’land., 1892, p. 374, t. 16, f. 4.
t Vide p.

NOTES ON THE AUSTRALIAN TENIOPTERIDE. 395

A. ensis, Feistmantel, Mem. Geol. Survey, N. 8S. Wales, Pal. 3,
1890, p. 116.

A, Tenison Woodsi, Etheridge, R. Junr., Geol. and Pal. Q’land,
1892, p. 375. .

A. Tenison Woodst, Shirley, Add. Foss. Flor. Q’land, 1897, p. 29,
te Ose a.

Sp. Char.—“The fronds are long and narrow, nearly three inches,
and that without being perfect, ribbon-like, or linear lingual,
hardly tapering, and parallel-sided. The midrib is wide and
flattened. The veins are very distinct, wide apart, very oblique
to the midrib, and very little curved, being almost straight.
They bifurcate at about one-third from the midrib. The veins do
not fork particularly near the margin, and the latter is not in
any way serrated ; the former, measured along the margin, are
about one millimetre apart.” —Ltheridge

Mr. Etheridge remarks also that ‘“ the outline of the frond is
much more that of Angiopteridium spathulatum [than A. ensis],
but the venation is wholly different. From Rosewood, near
Ipswich.

Tzeniopteris tasmanica, Johnston.
Proes. R. Soc. Tas. for 1885 [1886], p. 375.
Feistmantel, Sitz. K. B. Gesell. Wissens. Math. Naturw. Cl.,
1888, p. 631. .
Johnston, Geol. Tas., 1888, t. 24, f. 3.
Feistmantel, Mem. Geol. Survey N.S. Wales, Pal. 3, 1890, p. 115.

[Feistmantel classes this as a synonym of 7’ Carruther 2, Lens

Woods. Uhlonosne Utvary v. Tasmanii, 1890, pp. 98, 99, t. 8,
f. 14.

Ls ae simple, broadly strap-shaped, not obovate ; midrib
moderately strong; veins well defined, exceedingly close and
numerous, parallel, emerging from midrib at an acute angle, and
immediately bending and reaching margin at a slight angle
upwards. About one nerve in ten simply furcate near middle of
wing ; about twenty-four nerves in the space of half an inch.
Length unknown. Breadth, about forty-six millimetres. Common
in the shales at foot of Spring Hill.” —Johnston.

This fern is said to approach Macroteniopteris wianamatte, Feist-
mantel, differing from it in closer neuration and broad strap-shaped
form. 7. densinervis, Feistmantel, differs from it in having more
delicate furcate venation.

Teeniopteris (Oleandridium ?) fluctuans, Zth. fil.
Trans. R. Soc. 8. Austr., 1895, xix, pt. 2, p. 139, t. 5, f. 1-3.

Sp. Char.—‘‘ Frond simple (so far as known), elongately lanceo-
late, thick, coriaceous, crumpled, lateral margins sinuous ; midrib
thick, moder ately wide, and possibly longitudinally striated ; s
secondary veins fine, straight, two in the space of one and a half

396 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

mm., passing from the midrib at a right angle, sparsely furcate,
and when so generally on immediately leaving the midrib, very
rarely in the middle of the wing.”—Ltheridge.

This species has so far been found at Leigh’s Creek, 8.A., only;
in size it equals the largest examples of Carruthersi, Ten. Woods.

It most probably comes under the section Angiopteridium.

Teeniopteris, Sp.

Messrs. E. F. Pittman and T. W. E. David collected from a
band of ferruginous shale, of Hawkesbury age, at Mount Cocka-
butta, near Talbragar, portions of a long strap-shaped leaf, in
contour very similar to Australian species of Angtopteridium, but
characterised by a well-marked “ goffering ” of the leaf, extending
from the margin almost to the midrib. No trace of venation is
preserved. *

OLEANDRIDIUM.
Oleandridium lentriculiforme, Zth. fil.
Records Geol. Survey N.S. Wales, 1894, iv, pt. 2, p. 49, t. 8, f.
1-3 ; Shirley, Adv. Foss. Fl. Q’land, 1897, p. 28, t. 7., £ 3.

Sp. Char.— Leaves simple, elongately lanceolate, or boat-
shaped, broad in the centre, attenuating both towards the apex
and base, petiolate, and apparently more or less coriaceous ; apex
obtuse to a variable degree, but never acute; petiole long and
strong ; margins entire, and not waved, gently curved from base
to apex ; midrib broad and strong near the base, rapidly decreasing
upwards toa fine vein ; secondary veins rather variable in number
in a given space, but oenerally about three in the space of one
millimetre, issuing from the midrib at an oblique angle, but
without any change in the direction of their course ; seldom
dichotomous, but, when so, once only, and then near the midribs.”
— Etheridge.

Mr, Etheridge is of opinion that the nearest ally to this species
is O. stenoneuron, Schenk.t The New South Wales specimens
come from Gosford, in intercalated shales in the Hawkesbury
Sandstone, and also from a bed of shale at Freshwater near Manly.
Mr. Shirley has recorded it from the Ipswich Beds at Denmark
Hill, Ipswich, Queensland.

OLEANDRIDIUM.
(Teeniopteris) Morrisiana, Johnston.

Procs. R. Soc. Tas. for 1885 [1886], p. 375.

Feistmantel, Sitz. K. B. Gesell. Wissens. Math. Naturw. Cl.,
1888, p. 631.

Feistmantel, Mem. Geol. Survey N. 8S. Wales, Pal. 3, 1890, p.
115.

* Note on the ss Sake is the Fish-bearing Beds of the Talbragar River. Geol. Sur

vey N.S. Wales, 1895, Pal. 9
+ Foss. Flora (GecriachicHiens "1868, Atlas, t. 25, f. 3, 4.

i ee

NOTES ON THE AUSTRALIAN T#NIOPTERIDEX. 397

* Frond simple, narrowly strap-shaped; costa fine; veins numer-
ous, parallel, one in six simply furcate, emerging and radiating out-
wards at a moderately acute angle to margin. Length, unknown ;
breadth about sixteen millimetres ; nerves fully one millimetre
apart.” —Johnston.

This species occurs near Longford,in Tasmania. Mr. Johnston
considers it to be more closely allied to Oleandridium vittatum,
Brongniart, than Zeniopteris (Angiopteridiwm) Daintreei-Spathu-
latum, McClelland. Judging from his remarks it is very close to
Angiopteridium Carruthersi, Tenison Woods.

As far as I am aware this species has not been figured.

Teeniopteris (Oleandridium) sp. ind.
Etheridge, R., Junr., Trans. R. Soc. 8. Austr., 1895, xix, pt. 2,
p. 140, t. 41.

Sp. Char.— Frond linear spathulate, four to five inches long
and five-eighths of an inch wide, probably petiolate; margins entire,
not fluctuating ; surface plain, not crumpled. Midrib very strong,
one-sixteenth of an inch wide ; secondary veins briefly issuing from
the midrib at an acute angle, the diverging at a much more obtuse
one, and proceeding to the margins more or less horizontally, one
in the space of half a millimetre, and apparently all simple.”—
Ltheridge.

Mr. Etheridge points out that in some respects this fern is like
Angiopteridium McClellandi, Oldham and Morris, especially the
figures of the specimens from Tonkin figured by Zeiller,* which
differ to a considerable extent from the Indian specimens.

He also considers that it agrees very closely with the simple
margined varieties of Oleandridium tenwinerve, Brauns.

From the Leigh’s Creek Coal-field, South Australia.

MACROTENIOPTERIS.
Macroteniopteris Wianamattz, Yeistm.

Paleontographica, 1878, Suppl. Bd. iii, Lief. 3, Heft. 1, p. 107,
Vel Bes ea

Wilkinson (C. 8.), Ann. Rept. Dept. Mines N.S. Wales for 1879
[1880], p. 214, t. v.

Tenison-Woods, Procs. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1883, viii, p. 118.

Feistmantel, Sitz. K. B. Gesell. Wissens. Math. Ntaurw. Cl., 1888,
p- 631.

Feistmantel, Mem. Geol. Survey N.S. Wales, Pal. 3, 1890, p,
PUG to dy ts 1,2

Etheridge, R., Jun., Geol. and Pal. Q’land, 1892, p. 376.

M. Woodsi, Eth. fil., Geol. and Pal. Q’land, 1892, p. 377.

* Annales des Mines, 1882, t. 10, f. 5.

\ CP
¥) =x

398 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

Etheridge, R., Jun., in Brown (H.Y.L). Rept. Coal-bearing areas
neighbourhood of Leigh’s Ck., p. 10, p.1., f. 3. (Fol. Adelaide,
1891. By authority.)

Feistmantel, Pal. Indica, Gondwana Flora, iii, ser. xii, 1881, p.
89.

Sp. Char.— Frond elongately obovate, simple, base attenuate,
apex (!) ; rachis thick, grooved or striated ; veins emerging at an
angle of twenty to twenty-five degrees, close, near the rachis 0°6
to 08 mm. apart, slender, dichotomous towards the margin.”—
Feistmantel.

In Dr. Feistmantel’s memoir this species is recorded from the
Gib Tunnel, near Bowral, in the Wianamatta shales. Tenison-
Woods records it from the Wianamatta of Kenny’s Hill, and also
from Mount Victcria.* The same author, in his ‘“‘ Memoir on the
Fossil Flora of the Coal Deposits of Australia,” quoted above,
says he has “some similar specimens from near Ipswich, but the
dichotomy of the veins is near the rachis, and it may be a distinct
species.” The specimen figured by Mr. C. S. Wilkinsony is also
from Gib Tunnel, and though imperfect tends to show that the
form of the apex was ovate. It also has been found at Camper-
down. Mr. Wilkinson mentions it as occurring at Parramatta
and Nattai, also in the Wianamatta.t A Macroteniopteris also
occurs in the Narrabeen Beds, but it is not yet certain to whicb.
species it belongs.

In Queensland it occurs at Ipswich, and Mr. Etheridge, who
records it in the ‘“ Geology and Paleontology of Queensland,’§ is
of opinion that remarks as to the possibilities of it (the Queens-
land species) being a new species are unfounded. It has also
been found in the Leigh’s Creek Coal-field, South Australia.||

Macrotzeniopteris crassinervis, Feistmantel.

Pal. Indica (Gondwana Flora), 1877, Ser. 2, I, pt. 2, p. 102, t. 38,
f. 1-3.
Etheridge, R. junr., Geol. and Pal. Q’land, 1892, p. 376, t. 16, fi 5.
Sp. Char.— Frond very large, single, strong, thick, and
coriaceous, broad, elongately obovate; margins plain; apex obtusely
rounded, not re-entrant ; midrib distinct, but not wide for the size
of the frond, vertically ridged ; veins, except near the apex, diverg-
ing at a right angle, or nearly so, very strong; distant from one to
one and a half millimetres apart, very regular and direct in their
course, simple or forked ; dichotomisation at irregular intervals,
but always dividing close to the midrib.”—Ltheridge.

* Journ. R. Soc. N. 8. Wales, for 1883 [1884], xvii, p. 82. "
t Ann. Rept. Dept. Mines N. 8. Wales, for 1879 [1880], t. v.

$ Min. Prod., 1887, 2nd Ed., p. 76.

§ P. 376.

|| Etheridge, op. cit. supra, p. 10.

i we ei

Vener:

NOTES ON THE AUSTRALIAN TNIOPTERIDES. 399

This species is classed with the Indian on account of the coarse
neuration “and the uniform manner in which the veins divide
close to the midrib.” Mr. Etheridge states that, as preserved, the
leaf is fifteen inches long and probably five inches wide. He com-
pares it to M. lata, Oldham and Morris, but the frond is more
delicate and the veins finer and closer.

The Australian specimen was collected at Wycarbah, near
Rockhampton.

Macrotieniopteris Woodsi, Lth. fil.
Etheridge, R., jun., Geol. & Pal. Q’land, 1892, p. 377.

Near M. Wianamatte, Feist. ‘On emerging from the midrib,
or costa, the veins are strong and about one thirty-second of an
inch apart, but after bifurcation they become exceedingly fine and
close together. The subdivision takes place near the rachis, and
in this it differs from the species abovenamed, in which bifurcation
is much nearer the margin.”

I venture to think that this species, which is only tentatively
considered as new by Mr. Etheridge, is nothing but a variety of
Wianamatte. This appears to be borne out by Mr. Etheridge’s
remarks on Jf. Wianamatie on the preceding page, when, in
speaking of Tenison Woods’ remarks that what appears to be a
similar specimen might be another species, he says, “‘ This separa-
tion will hardly, therefore, hold good.”

This specimen is from the Tivoli Coal-mine, Ipswich, Queensland.

Genus—Phyllopteris, Brongniart, 1849.
(Fide Saporta, Pal. France, Pl. Jurassiques, 1873, i, p. 448.)
Phyllopteris Feistmanteli, Hth. fil.

Geol. and Pal. Q’land, 1892, p. 375. Etheridge in Brown
(H.Y.L). Further Geol. Exam. Leigh’s Creek and Hergott
Springs, p. 3, t. 1, f. 1, 2. (Fol., Adelaide, 1892. By
Authority).

Sp. Char.—‘ Frond, or leaflet, oval, or broadly lanceolate,
slightly petiolate ; midribs very distinct, evanescing towards the
apex of the leaflet, but tapering very slowly ; veins springing out-
wards from the midribs at a very acute angle, then gracefully
curving outwards to the margin, fine, once or twice furcate.”—
Etheridge.

This species has been collected from Stewart’s Creek, Stanwell,
near Rockhampton, and the Styx River Coal-shaft, Styx River,
Broad Sound, Queensland, from rocks of the Ipswich formation.
In South Australia it occurs in the Leigh’s Creek Coal-field of the
same age.

Some imperfect leaves of Phyllopteris occur at Cockabutta
Mountain, near Talbragar, in shale of Hawkesbury age. (Mem.
Geol. Survey N.S. Wales, Pal. 9, 1895, p. x.)

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

400

“eIUBUISe,

‘sormsvott
-[e00
OIOZOSOPT
TOMO'T

CLLOJOLA

. eee x wee . eee x sewers (i) sisdowurd a4
. . eee wee ve x oe eee seeees ‘ds ‘stsdoxurq, ce
x see x x anc ae ae one re Jerererere qraqueurqstag stzoqydoyAyg
‘SIMALAOTIAH
*(eqqeue
S00 a ves vee x nye gies : at "+ |-1eT AA = ISpoo AA) a
: % er toe x _ . : og gre, legen, * STAIOUISSBI0 ef
on a0 a0 G0 oe u BP oa x vr tees SpaaemeURlAA STIoqdormaqzo10B py
*‘SIUALAOINW LOWOV J
5 oe eee eee eee Fes eeseenereese “put ‘dg a3
A . bee . . eee ee eeenee VUBISTIIOT\ ce
oo G0 poo on x aay 2 E x [ttt gUIAOFITMOLIYUST WINTplupuve[o
‘WAIGIUGNVAIO
eee wee oe . . eee ee x . eee Petes eee nee ‘pul ‘ds ce
e Br nee : 3 ah 5 Be oP |PUSUONOEUS Tsoi ajabronayen *
Bae 5 on ano ob ; sine ster ISO NALV/) = oS
OE PES BOLUVUSE T, ae
300 a0 5A x “ 360 : “+ |"1spoo a4 Wostua Ty, os
wee . oe x nee oe wee teesrer TES DIIOUIA ce
ee x x x i e . eee eee peveee IsdoyyNsIVy) “cc
a6 us x x se Ne yy or nae ‘roaaquIVd “aA
i unyepnyyeds umtiprieydoisa
pay tpt I
‘SIUALAOINY J,
5] ® = 5 =
5 4 Es gat || Et lesb Et le! A Q 5 a oy
eS@8.| 32 |vof|83e|/8e3| cf | se | & | gE lege
7 2 ee ORs n =] nog ei Orn F aa
2 Pom ase ana 2 © a9 3. ae =o 3 2s Res
BE Re | #88 |e@oR | RTE ero] Bt a 3 a8 fe | e846 d
g Sas ma ae Ea 2 aun sotoedg
“el[RIISNY aarti : i)
yqnog puvjsueent) SOTVAA YGNOG AMIN

‘eyeysny ul epiieydoruay, oy} JO WOIyNqLIysIq

THE TASMANIAN GRAPTOLITE RECORD. 401

No. 17.—ORE DEPOSITS OF THE SILVER SPUR.
By H. G. StToxss.
(Read Wednesday, January 12, 1898.)

No. 18.—AN EXAMINATION OF THE TASMANIAN
GRAPTOLITE RECORD.

By T. S. Haut, M.A.
(Read Wednesday, January 12, 1898.)

Havine been led to investigate the Tasmanian Graptolite record,
I thought that it might be as well to bring forward the informa-
tion which I had gathered, especially as some of it is derived at
first hand from the gentleman who announced the discovery of
these organisms in the Tasmanian rocks.

In his ‘‘ Report on the Mineral Resources and on the Perma-
nency of the Lisle Gold-field,” Mr. Thureau*, in dealing with the
“ Geological Features,” says: ‘These comprise regularly bedded
slates and sandstones from blue to grey in colour; in the former
incomplete petrifactions (Diplograpsus nodosus) were observed,
resembling to some extent the Victorian series of Graptolitide.”
Mr. R. M. Johnston, in a letter replying to my request for further
information, tells me that this is the only record of which he is
aware, and that he has never seen any specimens of Tasmanian grap-
tolites. Mr. A. Montgomery, formerly Government Geologist of that
colony, has also kindly answered me to the same effect, and states
that he was unable to find any graptolites in the neighbourhood of
the alleged find. Taking advantage of the presence of Mr. Thureau
in Melbourne, I closely cross questioned him on the subject, and
he good-naturedly gave me all the information he could. The
specimen has disappeared, and Mr. Thureau has no notes dealing
with it, so that that line of inquiry is blocked. Mr. Thureau,
however, says he recollects the specimen perfectly, There was but
one, and he is quite certain it was a Diplograptus, and nearly 3
inches in length. This he carried to Strahan, and there identified
it from memory, no books of reference being available ; nor did
he at any later time compare it with the figure and description,
and shortly after lost it. It is apparent that a specific deter-
mination of this kind is valueless. There can, I think, be little
doubt that the specimen was a graptolite, and, moreover, one of
the Diplograptide ,; for it must be remembered that Mr. Thureau
was familiar with these fossils, having lived for some time in
Bendigo, where he had collected them and sent specimens to Sir
Frederick McCoy, one being a new generic type. As regards the
species, however, to which Mr. Thureau referred, his specimen,

* Tasmanian House of Assembly Journals, vol. xliii, 1882. Paper No. 146.
2¢

402 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.

a more unfortunate one could hardly have been chosen. Dziprion
nodosus, as originally described by Harkness,* was founded on
an imperfect specimen, and shows hydrothece of a form unknown
outside the Monograptide. Carruthers, without any remark,
quotes it as a synonym of Graptolites becki, Barr,{ itself a
synoym of Monograptus lobiferus, McCoy, and the reference
appears to be universally accepted. Harkness’ specimen came
from (Upper) Silurian beds, so that we have the peculiar result,
that chiefly on the supposed identification of an (Upper) Silurian
graptolite, the beds at Lisle are referred to Ordovician. If, how-
ever, we disregard the specific identification and accept Mr.
Thureau’s statement, that the specimen found by him was a
Diplograptus, then the age may be anything from Lower Arenig to
Tarannon. Mr. R. M. Johnston, in his great work on the Geology of
Tasmania, refers the Lisle beds to the lower part of the Lower Silu-
rian (Ordovician), placing them below the Gordon River beds, which
do not come into contact with them, and which on other evidence
he regards as of Caradoc age. Now it so happens that a series of
Lower Ordovician graptolites had previously been recorded from
Victoria, and a perhaps unconscious reference to Victorian beds
would appear to have unduly influenced Mr. Johnston in forming
his conclusions as to the age of the Lisle slates. The Victorian grap-
tolites taken cognisance of by Lapworth in his series of papers on
the geological distribution of these forms, are regarded by him as
ranging from Lower Arenig to Llandeilo-Bala (Glenkiln), and a
couple of Silurian species had also been recorded by Sir Frederick
McCoy, a Monograptus and a Gladiolites (Retiolites). This was the
state of our knowledge when Mr. Johnston wrote, so that even then
were a Victorian comparison desired there was a wide field to choose
from. Since then the field has been extended, for we can now range
from Tremadoc to a yet undecided horizon in the Silurian series,
quite possibly into the Ludlow—that is using the terms in a loose
way, for it is by no means certain that the sequence of our forms
will be found in exact accord with that observed in the Northern
Hemisphere, or that exact correlation with beds there will be
possible.

In conclusion, it may be, it would seem, only reasonable to
believe that a Diplograptus was found in Tasmania by Mr,
Thureau, and, as the range of the genus was so great, that no
definite conclusions can be drawn from its occurrence.

No. 19—ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE COW FLAT
DISTRICT, NEAR BATHURST, N.S. WALES.

By A. C. Anprews, B.A.
(Read Wednesday, January 12, 1898.)

* Q.J.G.S. vii (1850), p. 58, pl. 1, fig. 10. + Geol. Mag. v (1868), p. 64.

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. 403

SECTION D.

BIOLOGY.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

By C. J. Martin, D.Sc., M.B., Acting Professor of Physiology
in the University of Melbourne.

(Delivered Friday, January 7, 1898.)

THE HISTORY OF THE RELATIONS BETWEEN
MORPHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY DURING THE
LAST FIFTY YEARS:

THE reason I occupy my present position is, as you are aware,
owing to the unfortunate death of our President-elect, Professor
Jeffrey Parker, D.Sc., F.R.S. By his death science has lost a first-
class worker, and one who has been most prominent in forwarding
the reputation of Australian Biologists.

Soon after graduating at the University of London, Thomas
Jeffrey Parker was demonstrator to the late Professor Huxley
from 1872 until 1880, when he was appointed to the Chair of
Biology in the University of Otago. During these eight years
Parker did fine work in co-operation with his chief, Professor
Huxley, in establishing the teaching of Biology upon rational
methods. The teaching museum on the type system, and other
arrangements for practical teaching, were, to a large extent, the
result of his energies. The duties of the Chair of Biology at Otago
were fulfilled by Professor Parker until within a few months of
his death.

Dr. Parker’s work, as a Biologist, was of the very highest order,
and did much to enhance the reputation of the University in which
he taught for so many years. He was a lucid and fascinating
teacher, the charm of whose teaching was in a large degree due to
the possession of keen humour, and an accurate and artistic sense
of proportion combined with perfect good taste. He also possessed
the capacity of skilful delineation upon the blackboard, which is
so invaluable to a teacher of Biology. Indeed, his talent in this
direction was such that it always seemed a pity that these drawings
should only have such an ephemeral existence.

404 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Dr. Parker has been an important contributor to the literature
of Biology, and especially to that part of the subject dealing with
the indigenous fauna of New Zealand. His memoir on the “An-
atomyand Development of Apteryx,” published inthe Transactions
of the Royal Society in 1891, is a master-piece, and must remain
the classical work on the subject long after Apteryx is extinct.

Amongst his most important published contributions have been
two excellent text-books—“ Zootomy,” published in 1884, and
“ Lessons in Elementary Biology,” which appeared in 1893. The
latter of these books is extensively used wherever Biology is best
taught in England. They have both been translated into German,
and successfully hold their own in that land of scientific treatises.

Of late years Dr. Parker had been engaged, in conjunction with
his friend, Professor Haswell, of the University of Sydney, in
writing a more advanced text-book of Zoology, the last proof-sheets
of which passed through his hands shortly before he died. Those
who have had the privilege of seeing the pages of this work as it
was passing through the press are of opinion that it is to be the
leading advanced text-book of Zoology in the English language,
and that English zoologists will no longer have all their text-books
translations from German authors. The work is abundantly and
excellently illustrated, and the plan is novel. In each section
there is first given a general semi-popular statement with regard
to the extent and characteristics of the phylum dealt with ; then
a detailed description of an example. ‘This is followed by a brief
statement of the distinctive characters of the phylum and of its
main divisions, with an account of the position of the example in
the scheme of classification. Finally, there comes the general
organisation of the phylum, treated comparatively.

Much of Dr. Parker’s time was occupied in the development of
the Museum of Comparative Anatomy. In this kind of work he
was particularly expert, and his glycerine-gelatin method for pre-
serving cartilaginous specimens has been universally adopted.

When one considers that in the comparative isolation of Dunedin,
in addition to the organisation and museum work connected with
his chair, Dr. Parker has published monographs monumental for
accuracy of detail, and two text-books universally recognised as
the best for the purpose they were intended, we must look upon
him as a splendid example to try and follow with the intention of
shifting the meridian of Biological Science some little to the
eastward.

When my friend Professor Haswell wrote to me a few weeks ago
asking whether I were willing to accept the honour of the presi-
dency of section D, he reassuringly to!d me that under the cireum-
stances only a very little address would be expected.

Notwithstanding this assurance I felt no small difficulty in
deciding upon a topic suitable to bring to your notice. I could

°

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 405

not, for instance, give you a running survey of ‘the progress of
zoology during the Victorian era,” as was projected by the late
Professor Parker. My position as president of a biological section
is somewhat peculiar, for while I may perhaps claim to be a
biologist in the more generous meaning of the term, my knowledge
of the details of animal and vegetable morphology is unfortunately
of a scanty description, so that at the present time I regret, as I
often have regretted, the divorce which happened many years
ago between those who studied structure and those who studied
function.

The consideration of my disabilities has; however, furnished me
with an inspiration regarding the subject for an address, and I
don’t think under the conditions I could do better than endeavour
very briefly to place before you (1) the circumstances which led
to this divorce of the studies of morphology and physiology, (2)
the kind of work which morphologists and physiologists have been
doing since the separation, together with the indications of a
rapprochement of these two subjects at the present time.

At the outset I may say that my remarks apply almost entirely
to animal biology. Students of vegetable life have been more
fortunate than we, in that this separation of the study of structure
and function has occurred to a much smaller extent.

Until fifty or sixty years ago the study of structure and
function went hand in hand. The old anatomists as Hunter, V.
Humboldt, Bichat, Johannes Miller, were also physiologists. Not
only were these two subjects inseparably associated in the interest
of the investigators, but the teaching of both divisions of biology
was until an even later date usually entrusted to the same man.

How, then, came they to be so widely divorced that many a
morphologist regards an elementary acquaintance with the prin-
ciples of physiology as hardly within his domain, and vice versa,
many physiologists, distinguished in some particular direction,
have been wont to consider that the business of the morphologist
has no interest for them ?

Ihave no hesitation in saying that differentiation has been
carried to a pernicious extent in our science. Biology should still
represent the study of living things. The morphologist has some-
times almost appeared to lcse sight of this, by working continu-
ously at structure as evidenced by spirit-hardened specimens
together with microscopical sections of material, which has been
stewed in paraftin and stained by various methods born of the
ingenuity of that product of extreme differentiation, the micro-
tomist. Physiologists have also often, I fear, been equally blinded
to the fuller aims of their science in their endeavours to push
present knowledge of mechanism, whether physical or chemical,
as a complete explanation of some physiological process, forgetful,
for the time-being, that there were two or three layers of living

406 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

cells, in which, or through which, the mechanical or chemical
process had to operate ; and that these same insignificant living
units might have something to say in the transaction.

Some separation was, to a certain extent, unavoidable. As the
science of biology grew so rapidly, no one individual was capable
of appreciating the details of all branches of the science, much less
of being an investigator in many branches. Together with every-
body else, students of biology had naturally to submit to differen-
tiation of function. But I do not think that such a wide separa-
tion, such that—metaphorically—morphologists and physiologists
have hardly been upon speaking terms for many years, was
necessitated by the exigencies of accumulated knowledge.

THE CAUSES OF THE SEPARATION OF THE STUDIES OF
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION.

I think it must be admitted that this separation occurred, firstly,
owing to physiologists approaching the studies of the activities of
living organisms from a point of view with which the anatomists
were totally unsympathetic ; and secondly, in a minor degree,
owing to the rapid development of the study of physiology along
chemical and physical lines, which necessitated on the part of
physiological investigators a previous considerable acquaintance
with, and command of, physical methods of research.

It was physiology that changed, not anatomy, or rather perhaps
developed rapidly in the direction I have mentioned at this time,
1845-50. Comparative anatomy continued, for the time-being,
very steadily along the lines on which St. Hilaire and Miller had
worked, the leading principle of which was homology.

In reviewing the history of biological inquiry of the earlier part
of this century, the most striking feature was the discovery, by
Schwann, that the bodies of animals, just as had been shown to
be the case with plants, were composed of cells.

Schwann published his epoch-making results in his ‘ Micro-
scopical Researches” in 1839. The ‘ Microscopical Researches ”
contains, in addition to his work regarding cell structure, a
deliberate attempt to explain cell formation and cell activities, as
due to the molecular properties of the cell. According to this
theory all physiological phenomena are either grossly mechanical,
or to be explained by the chemical reaction of molecules. He
was fully aware of the impossibility of presenting any sort of clear
conception of the essential mechanism of vital phenomena, but
insists most strongly that the consideration of physiological activi-
ties from the point of view of chemistry and physics is likely to be
more productive than their arrangement in a teleological category,
as adopted for a definite purpose.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 407

That this is a sufficient statement of Schwanns point of view
will be seen from the following quotation, p. 187 :—‘“ The other
view (that is, the mechanical espoused by Schwann) is, that the
fundamental powers of organised bodies agree essentially with
those of inorganic nature, that they work altogether blindly accord-
ing to laws of necessity and irrespective of any purpose, that they
are powers which are as much established with the existence of
matter as the physical powers are. It might be assumed that the
powers which form organised bodies do not appear at all in
inorganic nature, because this or that particular combination of
molecules, by which the powers are elicited, does not occur in
inorganic nature, and yet they might not be essentially distinct
from physical and chemical powers.” Schwann points out that
teleological views of nature used to be common in physics, such
as the ‘ horror vacui,” but have long since been discarded, and he
is of opinion that there is no necessity for admitting the teleological
view in the case of organised bodies.

I have dealt thus with Schwann’s views, because I wish to show
that the regarding of the phenomena of biology from the point of
view of mechanism was most definitely advanced by him. Pro-
fessor Burdon Sanderson in his address to the British Association
in 1889 makes no mention of Schwann, but after briefly reviewing
the later work of Mayer upon the relation between the work done
and heat given out by muscle and the chemical changes occurring
in the muscle, published in 1845, and the subsequent rapidly fol-
lowing discoveries of Ludwig upon the mechanics of the circu-
lation, du Bois Reymond on the electrical proportions of nerve
and muscle, and Helmholtz upon colour vision, says: “The effect
of these discoveries was to produce a complete revolution in the
ways of thinking and speaking about the phenomena of life.”
There is not the slightest doubt that the brilliant discoveries of all
these men immensely contributed to change the point of view,
because they showed magnificent results obtained by attacking the
problems of physiology from this side, whereas Schwann in the
** Microscopical Researches” merely advocated it.

We will now turn to the bearing of the views put forward in
the “ Microscopical Researches” upon the separation of anatomy
and physiology which occurred soon after.

Schwann’s theoretical conceptions could not possibly meet with
sympathy from the anatomists, with whom the ideas of homology
and adaptation to function were leading principles. To the
student of form and structure, the view that biological activities
were regulated “blindly according to laws of necessity, and
irrespective of any purpose,” appeared just so much nonsense.

It was impossible to regard the variation in form of homologous
structures, such as the wing of a bird and the fore-limb cf a mammal,
irrespective of adaptation to the functions of flying or walking.

408 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

On the other hand, physiologists working at the circulation of
the blood, the optical properties of the eye, the changes occurring
to food under the influence of the digestive juices, the relationship
between the chemical changes occurring in muscle and the work
and heat given out, were equally confident that the only inter-
pretation of these phenomena was to be found in the laws of
necessity regulating the relationships of matter as known to
chemistry and physics.

These two ways of viewing biology were, indeed, irreconcilable,
and necessitated those who studied function parting company ;
nor can we wonder that they had little sympatby with each other’s
point of view.

SKETCH OF THE PROGRESS OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY AFTER
THEIR SEPARATION UNTIL THE PRESENT TIME,

T shall now attempt to indicate what each of the great divisions
of biology has been doing during the last fifty years, and the
points to which each has separately arrived, by different methods
and along different lines. I shall not attempt to give a complete
survey of the work done, but only in the most general way draw
your attention to the kind of work each division has been doing.
As regards anatomy in particular, my remarks must be taken as
a mere impressionist picture, taken from afar and in a dim light,
for I am not competent to depict anatomical progress or results in
any detail.

After the physiologists had started off with the notion of inter-
preting vital activities in terms of the simpler laws of chemistry
and physics, the anatomists continued to gather in facts concerning
the structure of all kinds of animals. They systematised their
knowledge by means of the leading principle of homology.

When in 1859 Darwin’s “ Origin of Species” was published,
the morphologists had their time ‘Fully occupied for some years,
until they had verified a system under which they could classify
all their facts, which was complete in itself, and represented the
order of the plant and animal world. Obser vations in the domain
of paleontology and embryology henceforth received a greatly
increased value. An army of students of comparative embryology
soon arose, and the one man who stands out most prominently as
a leader in the development in this direction is Balfour.

Broadly speaking, up to within recent years, the morphologists
have been busy discovering new facts, and arranging them in their
system, until at the present time morphology has come to express
the study of the formation and structure of animals and plants
in relation to community of descent.

They are industriously constructing a huge genealogical tree of
the organised world, and in this work alone there is room for

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. 409

whole armies of workers for centuries to come, even if it be
possible to ever bridge over the gaps which exist owing to the
extermination of intermediate types which have left no fossil
remains. In the meantime, in the absence of data by means of
which reasonably direct descent can be established, we must be
careful, lest in our enthusiastic endeavours to present a completed
pedigree, we too closely resemble the efforts of the College of Arms,
which, I believe, are always satisfactorily perfect.

The doctrine of evolution, as well as supplying anatomists with
a system, afforded by its principle of natural selection a new inter-
pretation of the teleological arguments, the validity of which were
necessarily so convincing to every morphologist. Jor, whereas, in
the old teleology, adaptation of structure to function was a sufli-
cient explanation of the existence of structural variation, Darwin
showed that it is possible to go further than this, and explain
how the adaptation exists and continues to exist. He showed that
adaptation itself might be the effect of a sum total of causes, or,
in other words, to the operation of natural selection.

By showing morphologists that, although they might justly
provisionally arrange their facts in a teleological category, adapta-
tion itself is capable of a casual interpretation, Darwin, once for
all, disposed of the inconsistency which had arisen between the
points of view of students of form and function. Natural selec-
tion is explicable without going outside the material laws of the
inorganic world, consequently adaptation of structure to function
may, after all, ‘be regulated blindly, according to the laws of
necessity” —a view of vital phenomena, which, when put forward
by Schwann, in 1839, appeared so impossible to anatomists.

Having accumulated an overwhelming mass of evidence to estab-
lish the doctrine of evolution, morphologists have, during the last
ten years, been discussing whether the factors, natural selection or
sexual selection, put forward by Darwin, are adequate to explain
the origin of species, or whether it is necessary to find some further
factor.

Whilst the majority of biologists fully agree that natural
selection is sufficient to produce an evolutionary advance in type,
they feel that this factor alone would only account for a monotypic
evolution as long as free intercrossing can take place. The result
of free crossing would level down all variations. Cross-breeding
and its consequences may be prevented by geographical and
climatic isolation just as it is intentionally prevented by artificial
selection in breeding, but geographical and climatic isolation
cannot, however, explain the existence of distinct species
inhabiting the same area.

The fact that most animals and plants of different species are
relatively or absolutely infertile one with another, has frequently
been advanced by opponents of natural selection in favour of

410 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

fixity of species. Natural selection, however, rests upon a suffi-
ciently secure basis and is not really weakened because it does not
afford an explanation of the mutual sterility of allied species.
This infertility is, however, a most important fact in biology, and
I think the explanation was found by Gulick* and Romanes.+
These authors advanced evidence to show that as variations
occurred they became relatively infertile, first with the parent
stock, and, secondly, with some of the variations among them-
selves.

The causation of this progressive infertility is not explained ;
but Gulick’s observations leave little doubt as to its existence.
If the operation of this factor be granted, then as variations
became more markedly distinguished one from another, a corre-
sponding degree of infertility might be expected, and this must
inevitably lead to a polytypic evolution.

The assurance that structural variation, as seen in all the different
groups of animals and plants, is to be interpreted by the principle
of community of descent, has once more attracted the attention of
morphologists to the problems of growth and heredity, and an all-
important question to them at the present time is the mechanism
underlying these phenomena. ‘These are essentially physiological
problems, and nothing illustrates the complete coincidence in point
of view between modern morphology and physiology than the
stand-point from which anatomists have attacked these questions.

Morphologists seem to be so assured that these problems are to
be explained in terms of mechanism as almost to make a simple
physiologist who has hitherto worked at problems more obviously
chemical or grossly mechanical, shiver at their temerity; for while
the physiologist does not desire to cry a halt at this point, the
known laws of chemistry and physics seem so hopelessly incapable
of furnishing any interpretation of such things.

Darwin, who fully realised this, put forward with diftidence his
theory of pangenesis as a merely working hypothesis. The last
ten years has seen much controversy anent heridity, and the now
well-known theory has been advanced by Weismann to explain it.
This theory recalls the old preformation theory of the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries, put forward by Haller and Bonnet,
according to which the germ cell contained in miniature the
whole structure of the adult which was gradually unfolded.
Weismann observed that in Sagitta certain cells of the embryo
are early set apart to form the germ cells of the next genera-
tion. The germ plasm is thus in direct continuity through suc-
cessive generations.

According to Weismann and His even the earliest segmenta-
tion cells of an embryo possess distinct and specific potentialities.

* Jour. Linn. Soc. Zool. xix, 337. + Nineteenth Century, January, 1887, p. 61.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 4]]

This view received powerful support from the experiments of
Roux. Roux cut a segmenting frog’s ovum, consisting of two
cells, into halves. Both halves continued to segment and produced
hemi-embryos, which lacked one half of the body. ‘hat the
potentialities of the cells of an embryo are certainly early differ-
entiated must be conceded by all, but this differentiation would
appear, from the observations of Hertwig, Pfluger, and Driesch, to
occur later in the history of the segmenting ovum than Weismann
imagined,

These authors also succeeded in separating single blastomeres of
segmenting ova, and found, in opposition to the results of Roux,
that they developed into complete, though dwarfed larvee.

From the results of Hertwig, segmentation in early stages
appears quantitative rather than qualitative, and the earliest
segmentation cells are, therefore, isodynamic.

The general truth of Weismann’stheory must I think, beadmitted,
but when he postulates from complexity of function, corresponding
complexity of mechanical structure, and talks familiarly of ids,
idants, determinants, and biophors !—my head swims, and I feel,
also, that a too-continuous repetition of these terms occasions a
liability to overlook their highly speculative nature. He also
appears quite unjustified in choosing the nucleus, or a part only
of the nucleus, as the vehicle for his hereditary mechanism. True,
most interesting and suggestive behaviour has been observed on
the part of the chromatin filaments prior to and during division ;
but has not one’s attention been directed to this part of the whole
cell by the accidental circumstance that it stains, or is otherwise
easily made visible, whereas we are left mostly in the dark as to
what is taking place in the remaining portion ?

Whatever one’s opinion of the value of Weismann’s theory may
be, one must realise the immense value of his work in stirring
up controversy and research in this field, and especially for so
forcibly pointing out that a great principle in heredity—namely,
the transmission of acquired peculiarities—had been tacitly
admitted with altogether insufficient credentials. The concep-
tion of a germ possessed of such an infinitely complicated archi-
tecture as is necessitated by Weismann’s theory does not attract
me. It is, at the same time, too complex in detail, too simple in
principle.

Nevertheless, I fully realise the value of any consistent theory
of heredity to provide pegs whereon to hang facts for the time-being
in some sort of order, instead of their being littered about the
journals of the whole civilised world. It provides biologists with a
systematized wardrobe, the arrangement of which is easily acquired.
In the mean time, they may continue to gather their facts by
observation and experiment, for the purpose of formulating some
general laws of heredity.

412 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

That work of this kind is being accomplished, I may mention
the recent experimental confirmation by Francis Galton of his
* Law of Heredity,” published in 1889. In this monograph he
gives a priorz reasons for computing that of the total heritage of
the child, each of the two parents contributes one-fourth, each of
the four grandparents one-sixteenth, and the remaining one-fourth
from more remote ancestors.

Galton has examined the pedigree book of the Basset (hound)
Club with reference to the appearance of black in these hounds,
and finds that the number of hounds in any generation which had
black on them agreed with the calculated number according to the
above law within an error of 1 per cent. The value of such a law
(if it be established) as a contribution to the subject of heredity,
and for its immediate practical value to breeders, can hardly be
overestimated. This kind of work may quite well proceed,
although one may not in the least appreciate the essential mechan-
ism underlying heredity. The discovery of the laws concerning
the attraction of matter for matter has proved sufficiently inter-
esting and far-reaching in importance, although at the present
time one has no conception of the details of the process.

In tracing the development of physiology as it exists at the
present time, the line of descent passes through Johannes Miller.
Miller was essentially a comparative anatomist, and comparative
physiologist, whose aim was the study of the essential phenomena
of life in all its aspects. Miller was a vitalist, that is to say, he
regarded the forces operating in living beings as something other,
and essentially distinct from those of inorganic nature. He insisted
upon the advantage to physiology which accrues by studying it
from a comparative point of view, so that on the one hand sim-
plicity of structure, and on the other differentiation of function
might be utilized. His researches extended over the whole field of
biological enquiry, and his text-book of physiology as a philosophical
exposition of the subject at the time has never been surpassed.

The characteristic of this book is its breadth of view. It is
essentially a general physiology, the aims of which were to study
the phenomena of life in all their aspects. Observations and
experiments on every form of living creature here find a place,
because Muller was convinced that an essential identity underlay
the manifestations of every form of vital activity.

Towards the latter end of his life Muller confined his attention
more and more to the study of anatomy, and had little sympathy
with the mechanical interpretation of vital phenomena maintained
by the younger physiologists, among whom were some of his own
pupils.

Rather over fifty years ago the study of physiology received a
great impetus, largely owing to five, at that time, young men,
Ludwig, Helmholtz, Briicke, and du Bois Reymond in Germany,

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 413

and Claude Bernard in France. In 1847 the four first met together
in Berlin. Ludwig used often to speak of this, and say, ‘‘ We
four imagined that we should constitute physiology on a chemico-
physical basis, and give it equal scientific rank with physics.”

Reviewing physiology at the present day, after the lapse of fifty
years, although it is certain that the efforts of these men and their
pupils—for so many physiologists in Europe and America were
directly or indirectly pupils of one of these men—may not have
succeeded in placing physiology on the same level with physics as
an exact science, yet they have enormously advanced all physio-
logical observations in the direction of accuracy. Their partial
success is due to the much greater complexity of the problems to
be solved, and the greater difficulty in obtaining exact measure-
ments, and not necessarily to less accuracy in’ experimental
methods.

Incidentally, too, it is reassuring to remember that these men,
working at physiological problems, have done yeowan service to
physics. Ludwig first introduced the graphic method of recording
any movement upon a travelling surface, which is at present in
use in every physical laboratory, and indeed universally applied ;
and Helmholtz published his famous essay on the conservation
of energy (Erhaltung der Kraft) whilst still a physiologist.

The determination of these men to systematically attack physio-
logical problems by the methods of chemistry and physics is often
spoken of as a revolution. Like other revolutions, however,
history shows that it was not such a sudden transition as has
been stated. True, the physiology antecedent to this date was
rather too much inclined to fall back upon the phrase “ vital
force,” and to accept a teleological reason as the explanation of
phenomena concerning living organisms; but there had been
physiologists such as Stephen Hales, Poiselle, Majendie, Weber,
and Johannes Miller, who certainly tried to measure physiological
phenomena in much the same way as was apphed in physics, and
Liebig, indeed, regarded a considerable portion of physiology as
simply a branch of chemistry. The splendid impetus given to
physiology about this period appears to me to be due, not to an
entirely new way of approaching its problems, but to the vast
superiority of the experimental methods employed. In other
words, the advance was due, not so much to change of direction,
but to superior tactics.

I will now endeavour by two or three examples to represent to
you the kind of work physiologists have been doing during the
past fifty years.

At the outset, I may say that until comparatively recently the
physiological investigation of the last half century has been almost
confined to the study of function in the higher animals. Unlike
Miller, who experimented upon every kind of animal backboned

414 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

or not, the modern school of physiologists have concerned them-
selves almost exclusively with one or two of the higher mammals
and the frog.

As my first example, I will take the subject of respiration.
This function may be divided in a higher animal into four stages.

(1.) The mechanical arrangements for the inhalation and
exhalation of air.

(2.) The entrance of O, from the air into the blood and exit
of CO, from the blood into the air.

(3.) The way in which O, is carried to the tissues and CO,
away.

(4.) The taking up of O, by the cells and the excretion of
CO,.

On regarding these four stages, it will be seen that of all of
them the fourth is the essentially respiratory act, an act common
to the whole of the animal kingdom, and I may say at once that
it is the only one we know little or nothing about.

Of the first three stages, the last fifty years have contributed
greatly to our exact understanding. Inhalation and exhalation
are accomplished by alteration in the thoracic pressure, and take
place according to the laws of «rodynamics.

The orderly sequence of inspiration and expiration is brought
about by a nervous mechanism, the precise arrangement of which
has been disclosed in considerable detail. Accurate analyses of
inspired and expired air have been made which have shown that
out of every 100 volumes of air about five volumes of oxygen
disappear and about four volumes of CO, appear.

it has been shown that the operation of inhalation and exhala-
tion by itself only succeeds in filling or emptying that portion of
the respiratory apparatus which is nearest the surface, viz. :-—the
trachea and large bronchi, and that the interchange of gases
between this point and the alveoli takes place according to the
laws of diffusion of gases.

The amount of the gases oxygen, nitrogen, and carbonic acid
contained in arterial and venous blood have been determined with
considerable accuracy, and the fact established that the oxygen
lost to the air in the lungs is gained by the blood coming from
them, and that the carbonic acid gained by the air whilst in the
lungs is proportional to that lost by the venous blood in this
situation.

Further than this, the partial pressure of the O, & CO,, in the
alveolar air has been determined by more or less indirect methods,
and also the partial pressures of those same gases both in venous
and arterial blood. The results show that the exchange of gas

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 415

between the blood plasma and the alveolar air is regulated to some
extent according to the law of partial pressures.*

We know that oxygen is conveyed by the blood all round the
body, and that the amount of oxygen which a given volume of
blood can so transport is immensely increased by the presence of
the proteid hemoglobin in the corpuscles. The chemical properties
of hemoglobin and its relation to oxygen, have been accurately
ascertained. One knows precisely the conditions under which the
two form a stable compound, and those under which they dissociate,
and how, on account of the peculiarity of these conditions, it is so
admirably adapted to perform its role in the economy. How it
becomes a saturated compound where the tension of O, is rela-
tively high (the plasma in the lungs), and breaks down where this
tension is iow (the capillaries). By this dissociation oxygen is
once more set free in the plasma, and diffuses thence through the
capillary wall into the fluid which surrounds the various cells.
From this situation it disappears, and is absorbed by the cells,
and firmly locked up within them in some form of chemical
combination. Beyond this point we cannot trace it, but the next
thing known is that it reappears as CO., having undergone this
transformation whilst within the cell.

The history of CO, during its passage from the tissues to the
alveolar air has also been investigated, and we are in possession of
facts which show that this also takes place according to more or
less simple laws of chemistry and physics. Transit is accomplished
according to the laws of partial pressures, assisted by chemical
combinations for the time being with the carbonates and phosphates
of the blood plasma which operate in a manner somewhat analagous
to that of hemoglobin with oxygen.

As a second example of the kind of knowledge obtained by the
methods of recent physiology, I will take vision.

Concerning the mechanical principles of the organ of vision, the
knowledge obtained during the last ten years—owing largely to
the energies of Helmholtz and Donders—is so comprehensive and
complete that it gives one the impression that little more could
be added to it. The minute anatomy of the eye, the optical pro-
perties of its various media, and its various defects as an optical
instrument, have been closely investigated. The exact mechanism
by means of which accommodation is effected, peripheral rays
excluded when increased refraction from the periphery of the

* The discovery by Bohr, and later confirmation by Haldane and Lorain Smith, that the
tension of O, is frequently higher in arterial blood than in alveolar air, whereas the tension
of CO, is often lower in the arterial blood than in such air, cannot be explained by diffusion
across a membrane, with which one is so far acquainted in physical experiments. If, how-
ever, one assumes a physiological membrane such as the alveolar lining to possess such
molecular architecture as to allow O, molecules freer passage in one direction and CO,
molecules in the other, a heaping up of O, on one side and CO, on the opposite side would
occur,

416 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

lens would be most marked, and the mechanical arrangement of
the ocular muscles, have received exhaustive study, with the most
satisfactory results.

The essential act of vision is, however, the stimulation of the
rods and cones by light. Of this part of the process, however,
little knowledge has been gained. Here, again, we are stopped
from want of mechanical analogy as a guide to investigation. The
process is now intracellular, and the methods employed up to this
point seem useless wherewith to press further.

The rods and cones are sensitive to light; so are the pigment
cells in the skin of a frog. In both cases we judge this by result;
in the frog’s pigment corpuscles the light falling upon them is
followed by a dissipation of energy in the movement of these
processes ; in the case of the rods and cones, the result is the
passage of a nerve impulse—a process of which we know little
beyond the rate with which it travels along a nerve, and that it
is associated with the dissipation of a small amount of electrical
energy. ‘The relationship of the one to the other is a question to
be attempted in the future.

As a third example, I will briefty mention the nature of the
evidence to prove that the law of conservation of energy holds for
the living animal machine just as it does for any piece of ordinary
mechanism. This I think one of the triumphs of the physiology
of the last fifty years. Ever since the principle of the conservation
of energy was established, physiologists have been endeavouring to
ascertain whether this held good for animals, and whether an energy
balance-sheet could be constructed for animals just as has been
done by physicists for heat-engines.

The income of energy is in the form of the potential energy of
the food stuffs taken ; the output mostly heat and mechanical
work, with a certain very small amount as sound and electrical
energy. The potential energy set free by the oxidisation of the
food taken can be determined so that the total incoming energy
over any period can be ascertained. Again, by placing an animal
in a calorimeter, the whole of the output of energy can be
measured as heat.

In some such way the applicability of the general law of the
conservation of energy has been frequently tested, but the results
have until recently been insufficiently accurate to balance. A
physiological experiment of this kind is extremely complicated,
and the possible sources of fallacy are very considerable. Many
additional data have to be ascertained for the following reasons :—
(1.) The whole of the food eaten does not enter the body at all.
(2.) The whole energy of the food absorbed is not utilised, but
much of it is excreted in a form still possessed of considerable
potential energy. Consequently, the potential energy of the forces
representing the unutilised portion of the food, and the energy

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 417

still left in the incompletely oxidised bodies excreted in the urine
(urea) must be deducted from the amount originally present in the
food. Further, air must be passed through the calorimeter for the
animal to breathe. This becomes heated and saturated by mois-
ture, and the amount of heat so lost must be determined.

Within the last few years Rubner has succeeded in overcoming
all the experimental difficulties, and has obtained remarkably
accurate results, which leave no doubt that the laws of conservation
of energy apply equally well for animals as for much simpler
mechanisms. The satisfactory determination of this point is of
far-reaching importance. If the processes going on in an animal
are regulated by such a fundamental law of physics, it is hard to
conceive that the details of such processes, however impossible of
interpretation by present knowledge of chemistry or physics, can
be of an entirely different nature.

Of all progress during the last half-century, perhaps the most
striking has been the increase in our knowledge concerning the
nervous system. We are now able to locate with some accuracy
the anatomical situations in the central nervous system, the
integrity of which is essential to the performance of a particular
function. We know, for instance, that in the higher animals certain
superficial cerebral areas (the cortical areas) are fundamentally
concerned with definite muscular acts of the opposite side of the
body. Stimulation of such situations calls forth the corresponding
movement, whereas destruction of these spots gives rise to paralysis,
more or less lasting, of the voluntary expression of this movement.

Nor is this all; careful examination of monkeys waich have had
the so called cortical motor centres removed, shows that as well as
definite paralysis of some of the movements of the opposite side of
the body, they exhibit distinct blunting of sensation over the same
area.

Other parts of the cerebral cortex have been found in the same
way to be associated with the special senses, and the effects of
disease in man have shown that a similar differentiation of nervous
paths exists. The result of this kind of work, as well as possess-
ing all the extraordinary interest attached to any discoveries con-
cerning the nervous system, has been fruitful in providing facts
which have been of immediate service in the domain of practical
medicine.

Advance in knowledge of the nervous system has, however, been
mainly anatomical. Much of what seemed an entangled mass of
nerve-cells and their processes—nerve-fibres—of so great com-
plexity as to baffle all attempts at unravelling, has slowly unfolded
its scheme, after arduous research by new methods.

By the methods of anatomical research introduced by Waller
and Flechsig, the arrangementof the nerve-fibresinto definite tracts,
and the origin and distribution of these tracts has been discovered,

2D

418 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

and Golgi’s impregnation process has furnished brilliant results
in discovering system and order in that nervous felt-work, the
grey matter of the central nervous system. The method invented
by Golgi has further demonstrated that the branches of one cell-
unit are not continuous with those of another, but that they are in
apposition.

Three fundamental facts of nerve physiology have been
revealed :-—

(1.) That if a stimulus be applied to any part of a nerve-
cell-unit, although its axis cylinder process may be three
feet in length, the effect of the stimulus is to start a
nerve-impulse which travels upwards and downwards
throughout the whole unit.

(2.) That the transfer of a nerve impulse from one nerve-cell-
unit to another can take place in one direction only.
Supposing A and B represent two nerve-cell-units, a
stimulus applied to A arouses a nerve-impulse which
spreads throughout A, and occasions a nerve-impulse
which spreads throughout B. If, however, the stimulus
be applied to B, the nerve impulse originated is incapable
of causing a nerve impulsein A. |

(3.) The rate at which a nerve-impulse travels along a nerve
was measured in 1850 by Helmholtz, and is a little over
a mile a minute, or rather faster than an express train,

Granted the fundamental physiological facts abovementioned and
the anatomical knowledge of the relation of nerve-units to one
another, one might expect to be able to predict what the path
travelled by a nerve-impulse started in any particular area shall
be, and hence what muscular response shall eventuate.

In the case of some simpler reflex phenomena of the spinal
cord we can indeed in a general way predict what result shall
follow stimulation of a sensory nerve in a particular area. Even
in such a case, however, the nerve impulse has to leave the nerve-
unit in which it originated and pass to one or more other nerve-
units, and although we may be certain that this takes place, we
are at present unable to state how it takes place.

Recent histological methods lead one to infer that, at any rate,
in the dead and hardened nervous tissue there exists no absolute
continuity between the processes of one nerve-cell and another.
Physiological continuity must exist at the time a nerve impulse
passes from the one to another, for all observations show how
essential continuity of an irritable tissue is for conduction.

Again, although one may roughly predict the direction in
which a stimulus applied to a sensory nerve will be expressed in
the simpler reflex actions of the spinal cord, when the reflex
necessitates the co-operation of the more complexly arranged

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 419

nerve-units of the brain it is no longer possible to predict what
will be the ultimate expression and what will be the course
travelled by the nerve-impulse. The same stimulus apparently
spreads one time along one path, at another in a different direction,
It appears as if the path between one nerve-unit and another
were not constant, but that under different sets of circumstances
continuity were effected between different units, thereby necessi-
tating the nerve impulse taking a varying course with varied
result according to circumstances.

One is so continually studying the relation of nerve-cells to one
another in hardened and impregnated specimens, and, conse-
quently, perhaps liable to forget that nerve-cells are alive and may
manifest some further activities common to living things as well
as being highly differentiated conducting tissue. The response to
stimulus by the generation and propagation of nerve-impulse may
not be the only outcome of their irritability, and they may be
capable of limited movement.

In this regafd I may mention a highly suggestive observation
of Wiedersheim upon the cranial ganglia of a small transparent
crustacean. As Wiedersheim examined this small creature under
the microscope he noticed that at the time it was manifesting
active muscular movement the ganglion cells were themselves
motile and increased and diminished the length of some of their
processes, much in the way of pseudopodia on a limited scale.

This observation, if confirmed, may be the key to the under-
standing of the continuity of nerve-units one with another. If
the shorter processes of nerve-cells are possessed of limited move-
ment, this movement may easily accomplish a continuity at the
time a stimulus reaches the nerve-cell, and the differential result
of the movement of more than one nerve-cell may be a possible
interpretation of the variable course a nerve-impulse takes, and
also of the hitherto unexplained phenomena of inhibition within
the central nervous system.

The recent progress of knowledge of the nervous system has
been mainly anatomical, and an immense amount of work must
assuredly be done in the same field in the future, but for a great
advance in understanding nervous processes we must look to the
discovery of some more fundamental physiological facts. At pre-
sent we are mostly in the dark both as regards the nature of
nerve-impulse, and the physiological relation of one nerve unit to
another. Fundamental nervous phenomena must be essentially
identical in all animals, and the observations of Wiedersheim show
that a study of these in the lowly animals might be productive of
fine results.

The four instances of the kind of work physiologists have been
doing of late years are, I think, fairly typical. From them you
will see that a great deal of it has been minutely anatomical, and

420 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

that the remainder has mostly been concerned with the more
simple, mechanical, and chemical processes which are associated
with the lives of higher animals. In the case of respiration we
know a great deal about the ways and means by which oxygen is
brought to the cells, but of just what happens when cells take up
oxygen and how they do it we are ignorant. We only know that
when once they have it they keep it somehow combined, and are
capable of exhibiting activity and of continuing to give off CO, for
some limited period ‘after they are deprived of. oxygen.

Our knowledge of the anatomy and mechanical principles of the
eye is more perfect than that of any department of physiology, but
to understand vision we would like to know next something more
regarding the mechanism by means of which the varying intensity
and pitch of light, focussed upon the rods and cones of the retina
ag an inverted image of the object, originates a series of nerve-
impulses in these sensitive cell-units.

It is of the utmost importance, I think, that we should have
obtained satisfactory evidence that notwithstanding all the com-
plications of vitality, that a living animal is subservient to the
principle of the conservation of energy just as an ordinary machine.
We can trace the food possessed of potential energy of chemical
composition through some slight transformations, until it reaches
the cell, and we can trace the more or less fully oxidised products
which have given up that energy, away out of the body; but here,
just as in the other instances, the details of the tr ansformation
itself are intracellular and for the present hidden.

The acquisition of knowledge of the structural arrangement in
the nervous system has been considerable, whereas regarding the
nature of nerve-impulse and the behaviour of nerve-cells during
nervous activity we know little or nothing. For the past fifty
years physiologists have been principally concerned with the
analysis of the function of organs as such, and have more or less
left aside the physiology of cells. ‘In my opinion they have been
quite wise in so doing. In this way all those physiological pheno-
mena which can be measured according to physical standard and
interpreted in terms of physics and chemistry have, to a large
extent, been separated off from those that cannot. Processes in
which cells participate collectively as membranes or organs have
been more or less sharply defined from those in which they operate
by means of their individuality, and in which cases the phenomena
are intracellular. Surely it was wise to ascertain to what extent
a physiological result was due to the physical or chemical proper-
ties of the matter concerned, in order to know at what point the
intervention of cellular activities is necessary.

Mechanical and chemical analogy are of limited service in the
interpretation of intracellular activities ; indeed it has not infre-
quently been stated that we are wasting our time in attempting

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 49]

the study of vital processes by such means, It is quite true that
the chemistry and physics of to-day are totally unable to throw
any ray of light upon such biological phenomena as growth and
heredity, and it may appear sanguine to imagine that the chemistry
of the future ever will do so.

The great and fundamental distinction between the growth of
an unorganised body and a living cell is that whereas a crystal of
any definite substance can only grow by the aggregation of similar
molecules of the same substance, in the growth of a cell the cell
draws upon totally dissimilar molecules, and by some unknown
property converts them into molecules of similar constitution to
itself. The living cell, in fact, possesses the power of assimila-
tion, which is the fundamental distinguishing characteristic from
all that is not living.

It is well, however, to remember that not very many years ago
the belief in the impossibility of synthesising organic bodies, such
as urea and sugars, was universal, and the formation of these
bodies was supposed to necessitate the operation of ‘“ vital force.”
Wohler showed how easily urea may be built up from its elements,
and the fine work of the brothers Fischer has demonstrated not
only the possibility of manufacturing the various sugars in the
laboratory, but also some suggestive insight into the probable
details of the synthesis of car bohydrates by. pants.

Professor Foster, i in his British Association address at Toronto,
1897, reproached the chemists for having lagged behind in attacking
just those chemical problems, some light upon which would be so
gratefully received by their phy siological brethren. Would that
the chemists would assist us in understanding the chemical proper-
ties of proteids and other bodies possessed of huge molecular weight,
or provide us with a chemical interpretation of the details of the
action of ferments. But the chemists are loath to undertake the
investigation of substances which they cannot crystallise or even
prepare in a pure condition, and of which they cannot ascertain
the molecular weight. For this we cannot blame them. I think
they are finding the interpretation of chemical relationships suff-
ciently complex even among bodies with which they can start upon
so sure a basis, and are wise in confining their attention for the
present to problems which they can attack upon general chemical
principles. Meanwhile, the chemical investigations of essential
importance to biologists have, in spite of their inexactitude, of
necessity been taken up by physiologists.

During recent years, however, larger numbers of physiologists,
and among them some of the best, have been devoting their atten-
tion to the elementary phenomena exhibited by cellular activity.
Acting upon the conviction that these are essentially identical in
all cells, Engelmann, Budimann, Verworn, Loeb, and a host of
others have been attacking problems of cellular physiology by

429 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

experimenting with separated cells from multicellular organisms,
and especially with unicellular animals and plants. By such means
we may hope to discover some general laws regulating the activities
of protoplasm. At the same time, the number of researches upon
the more lowly animals belonging to the invertebrata is rapidly
increasing. The physical properties of protoplasm, such as con-
sistence, specific gravity, optical properties, have been re-examined,
and the first disintegration productsof the destruction of protoplasm
are beginning to be studied with renewed vigour with the object of
ascertaining what special molecular arrangement may be charac-
teristic of living matter.

The intimate structure of cells is becoming of equal importance
to the physiologist as to the morphologist. All the detailed
changes of structure in cell and nucleus which may be manifested
during activity, whether it be division of the cell, fertilisation, or
secretion, are being assiduously studied. Interesting changes in
the chemical properties of different parts of the cell-nucleus and
nucleolus, as shown by alteration in their reaction to various
staining agents have been carefully observed. Some rough idea of
the difference in chemical composition of different parts of the cell
has been ascertained, as, for instance, the increased amount of
phosphorus-containing compounds in nuclei. We know also that
the chromatin is largely composed of nucleins, whereas the nuclear-
sap is made up of some other albuminous matter.

Another series of observations which will likely prove of much
value are concerned with the response of cells to different kinds
of stimuli, chemical, mechanical, electrical, light, gravity, &e. The
study of chemotaxis, the name given to the movements of a cell,
animal or vegetable, towards or away from the presence of small
quantities of some chemical body, has already assisted greatly in
our understanding of inflammation, that protective reaction of an
animal against the introduction of noxious material from without.
Chemotaxis also plays a part in the fertilisation of ferns and
mosses. Slight traces of some body are dissolved out of the female
organs. This attracts the spermatozoids and directs their move-
ments towards the position of greatest concentration, viz., the
neighbourhood of the female cells. Some such directing force may
operate in bringing the spermatozoa of animals into contact with
the ova. This may apply alike in those cases where both are dis-
charged free into the water, and also where the spermatozoa ascend
the oviducts against ciliary action. The effects of alteration in
temperature, desiccation, and changed environment generally upon-
all kinds of organisms are being assiduously studied, and every-
where increased attention is devoted to the elementary phenomena
of living things, and just as the physiology of the last half century
has been essentially an organ-physiology, the new departure must
be characterised as a cellular-physiology.

FLORA OF THE TORRES STRAITS. 433

In sketching the progress of morphology during the last fifty
years, I pointed out how the inconsistency in view which divided
biology into two sections disappeared with the old teleology. Also
how of late years attention has been directed to the cell as the
morphological unit, and how morphologists have been greatly
interested in the manifestations of cellular activity which are
concerned in growth and heredity.

The physiologists, too, having studied the chemistry and physics
of phenomena associated with the life of higher animals, have
tracked physiological activity into the cell. Here, for the time
being, a view of the mechanism is lost, and cellular physiology does
not appear capable of being successfully attacked along the same
lines of mechanical interpretation which have proved so successful
in dealing with the functions of compound organs.

The full recognition of the cell as the physiological unit, and the
study of cellular activity from every side has already yielded
valuable results, and shows every indication of being the direction
of future biological progress.

One must not imagine that the morphological or physiological
inquiry of the character which has been so fruitfully prosecuted
during the last half-century is in any sense exhausted. Enough has
been done, however, to disclose their limitations as far as a complete
understanding of life is concerned. Enterprising thinkers have,
therefore, been considering new methods of attacking the problem,

It is just in this fresh attack upon biology that the adherents of
the two great divisions of biological inquiry—students of form and
students of function—tind themselves side by side, and discover
that, after all, though under different names, they have both been
striving at much the same object—viz., the interpretation of
living activities.

BOTANICAL PAPERS.

No. 1.—A FEW WORDS ABOUT THE FLORA OF THE
ISLANDS OF TORRES STRAITS AND THE MAIN-
LAND ABOUT SOMERSET.

By F. Manson Barney, F.L.8., Colonial Botanist for Queensland.
(Read Friday, January 7, 1898. )

In June last it was my good fortune to spend three weeks in the
above northern portions of Queensland, and by the kind assistance
of the Government Resident, the Hon. John Douglas, C.M.G., I
was enabled to visit Goode Island, Hammond Island, Turtle

494 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Island, besides Somerset, on the mainland, which, with the longer
stay on Thursday Island, gave me a fair view of the flora of these
parts. However, the time of my visit was not a very favour-
able one, for the plants of all kinds were suffering greatly for
want of rain, there having been very little rain during what in
these parts is called the wet season. This want was not so badly
felt on the mainland, and here I found the flora particularly rich
and interesting, and I feel no hesitation in saying that a large
number of hitherto undescribed plants are here waiting the hand
of the botanical collector. Besides those which may prove new,
there are many others, the published descriptions of which are far
from being complete. The palms of this district are beautiful,
and probably numerous in species ; but these require very careful
collecting, so that the flowers, fruit, and foliage of each kind may
be kept separate. During my few days’ stay I obtained what [
consider two new species, as well as two new species of Vepenthes.
These latter Mr. F. L. Jardine had brought in for me from some
distance. He also described to me another of these curious
plants which I think in all probability is also new, and should
this prove the case, the Queensland flora will contain five species
of this remarkable genus. Amongst the very many plants of
this locality which I should much like to be brought into
garden culture is Morinda reticulata, Benth. This plant forms
a compact shrub about 3 or 4 feet in height, and nearly every
branch is crowned with a head of white flowers, the beauty
of which is enhanced by the number of large white bracts by
which each head is often surrounded. The specimens from
which the author of the ‘Flora Australiensis” drew up the
description for that work were those gathered by A. Cunningham
on the north-east coast, and some obtained by W. Hill on
Albany Island, since which Baron Mueller records having received
specimens from Fitzroy Island and the Endeavour River, but
adds nothing to the description above quoted, which might be
extended to read :

M. reticulata, Benth., a broadly-spreading glabrous shrub,
rarely exceeding 3 feet in height, the upper internodes rather long,
smooth, and cane-like. Leaves coriaceous, broadly ovate, some-
times acuminate, the larger ones often 6 inches long and 4 inches
broad, the pinnate veins and reticulate veinlets very prominent.
Stipules broadly triangular and acute. Peduncles about 1 inch
long, four together, terminal or in the upper axils, each bearing a
head of about ten flowers. Calyx tubes partly emersed in the
receptacle, the teeth or lobes minute, except some of the outer ones
of each head of flowers, which develop into petiolate white bracts
nearly the size and with the same form and venation as the stem-
leaves. Corolla tube 6 lines long, very hairy at the orifice ; lobes
oblong, about 3 lines long; anthers slightly exerted; style not

FLORA OF THE TORRES STRAITS. 495

much exerted, wit’) short stigmatic lobes; fruit forming an irregular
shaped depressed syncarp 1 to 1? inch wide ; seeds, two in each
perfect carpel, silky, elliptic-oblong, about 5 lines long. Hab.,
Polo Creek, Somerset.

Amongst the large climbers the anonaceous plant Uvaria mem-
branacea, Benth., was the most attractive from its bunches of rich
coloured fruit. The leaves, I found, attained a much larger size
than stated in the ‘Flora Australiensis,” and often are seen
nearly 1 foot long. The fruit, which has not been described, con-
sists of a number of long-stalked, oblong, deep-scarlet carpels, borne
upon a rather large globose receptacle, each carpel often exceeding
1} inch in length and nearly 1 inchin diameter. The seeds, which
are embedded in a sweet pulp, are of an oblong or lenticular form,
with a more or Jess prominent border, and measure about 5 lines
in diameter. In company with this was another red-berried plant,
Tinospora smilacina, Benth., of the ‘“‘ Moonseed family ” (Menis-
permacee), but at first sight it might be mistaken for one of the
peppers.

Besides the large number of trees, shrubs, &c., forming the flora
of this northern portion of the peninsula, which have a value on
account of their great beauty, others, probably many, may possess
a commercial val ue; and, now that so great a demand has arisen
for “rubber,” it might be well to test some of our Queensland
plants for this product, particularly those belonging to the orders
Urticacee (as the numerous fig-trees) and Apocynacee. A tree of
this latter order is very plentiful in the scrubs under notice. I
have not seen flowers or ripe fruit, but helieve it to be a new species
of Alstonia, and, under the name A. somersetensis, have recorded it
in the September, 1897, number of “The Queensland Agricultural
Journal.” I found the tree, although not in growth, give out a
copious flow of milk-sap, so we may naturally expect the flow of
sap to be much greater during the summer. I saw also some
rhizomes, at Mr. Jardine’s, of an excellent almost fibreless ginger,
which that gentleman assured me was indigenous.

While at Somerset I took the opportunity of visiting Turtle
Island, which is situated about 12 miles further south. My object
was to find, if possible, Robert Brown’s Calostemma album. In
this I was not successful ; but, upon the dry sand patches, found
dry stems of a Jacca, which must, when growing, have stood over
5 feet high. On this island the trees are few and stunted. One,
an Hrythrina, | think undescribed, and have given to it the name
K. insularis, and have distributed the seed obtained under that
name. The other trees were kinds most usually found in similar
situations, as Hibiscus til/aceus, Linn. ; Micromelwm pubescens,
Blume ; Brassvia actinophylla, Endl. ; Mackinlaya macrosciadia
F.v.M.; Guettaurda speciosa, Linn; Mimusops Browniana, Benth. ;
and Macaranga Tanarius, Muell. Arg. The smaller plants were,

4296 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

for the most part, dried up past recognition. A Crinum, which I
detected by the dry foliage, lying flat upon the ground, may prove .
of interest ; the bulbs were very large, and I am in hopes of those
I obtained producing flowers during the present summer.

On the islands in the Straits I certainly expected to meet with a
more diversified flora than I saw there, and probably on the larger
islands, could the time have been spared to make a careful botanical
examination, many new plants would have been brought to our
knowledge. The prevailing high winds are detrimental to the
growth of tall, handsome trees, thus no trees of any considerable
size are met with except in the deep gullies between the hills.
These trees principally consist of Buchanania Muelleri, Engl.; Seme-
carpus Anacardium, Linn. ; Erythrina indica; Albizzia procera,
Benth. ; and Barringtonia racemosa, Gaudich. On the hills and
other exposed situations were Hucalyptus clavigera, A. Cunn., and
£. corymbosa, Sm., but the tree most generally met with, and the
one which seems to thrive best, is Zristania longivalvis, F.v.M.
This has a bright green foliage and a profusion of yellow butter-
cup-like blossoms, the petals of which are as fugacious as those of
the peach. Amongst smaller trees three acacias meet one every-
where, viz., A. Simsii, A. Cunn., of graceful growth and long nar-
row leaves and slender flower spikes, A. leptocarpa, A. Cunn, with
glabrous, long, falcate leaves are of a dark colour, and A. Cun-
ninghamii, Hook. This seems the commonest of the three, and is
the hoary-pubescent form of the species. With these also are seen
trees of Sterculia quadrifida, R.Br., the ‘ Nonda,” Parinarium
Nonda, F.v.M., and the useful shade trees, Terminalia Catappa,
Tinn., and 7. platyphylla F.v.M., the first of which is also of
some value as a fruit and oil producer. Diaplanthera tetraphylla,
R.Br., which in the scrubs about Rockingham Bay forms one of
the largest trees, is here quite dwarf, the largest I met with being
scarcely 20 feet high, but beautifully in flower; the flowers of
these island trees of this species about equalled those on the
mainland, but the leaves were scarcely more than a third of the
size, for I find from an entry in an old note-book that in May,
1873, I measured leaves of this tree growing on the Herbert River,
which were 25 inches long and 13 inches broad. The difference in
size takes place also in the size of the foliage of G'melina macro-
phylla, Benth., growing at Somerset and Thursday Islands. The
trees or Jarge shrubs which are found nearest to the mangroves are
mostly Cochlospermum Gillivrei, Benth., which produces yellow
flowers of some beauty, but is very scanty of leaves; Jelaleuca
symphyocarpa, F.v.M.; Hugenia carissoides, F.v.M.; Pemphis
acidula, Forst. ; Guettarda speciosa, Linn. ; and Premna obtusi-
folia, R.Br., which has somewhat round large leaves; Clerodendron
inerme, R.Br. ; and the universal tropical coast tree, Thespesia
populnea, Corr., which in other countries is made to serve many

FLORA OF THE TORRES STRAITS. 427

useful purposes, but with us is entirely neglected. What might
be termed the mangrove flora of these islands scarcely differs from
that of the mainland. Here, however, and at Somerset I fre-
quently met with trees of the yellow plum (Ximenia americana,
Linn.) The fruit, which is about the size of a pigeon’s egg, is
agreeable to the eye, but very insipid. Of climbing-plants the
order Convolvulacee or “ Morning Glory” family furnish the
greatest number of species, the flowers of which are large and
showy; Cassytha filiformis, Linn., one of the “Laurel Dodders,”
is seen in every direction crowding over every tree and shrub,
and, when nothing else is near, fixing upon even the grasses, out
of which also it sucks the life. Writers tell us that in India this
pest enjoys a reputation for medicinal virtues ; let us hope that,
ere long, some of our ‘medicine men” may discover a use for it,
and that the demand may act as a check upon its spread. Climbing
over shrubs near the beach may be seen plants of Modecca australis,
R.Br. The genus is allied to the passion-flower, and the species
are worthy of garden culture on account of the bright-red fruits
which are in this island species blunt, almost truncate at the end,
thus differing from J/. populifolia, Blume, the species met with in
the scrubs of the Barron and Endeavour Rivers, which is much
longer, narrower, and spindle-shaped. In one of the gully scrubs
of Thursday Island I found plants of a weak climbing cucurbi-
taceous plant, which I take for a Afelothria, but was only able to
obtain fruiting specimens. It attracted my attention from the
manner in which it ejects its seeds, which is precisely that of the
squirting cucumber (£cbaliwm elaterium, A. Rich.) The fruits
were scarcely the size of a pigeon’s egg. I am in hopes of raising
plants from the seeds obtained, from which the species may be
determined. The beautiful orchids for which these islands used
to be favoured are fast disappearing, at least from anywhere easy
of approach from Thursday Island—such is the case with regard
to the varieties of Dendrobium bigibbum, Lindl., which are the
kinds most sought after. On thetrees of Hammond Island I saw
large masses of that pitcher-forming Asclepiad, Dischidia Rafflesiana,
Wall., as well as the other species of this genus, which in Queens-
land are known as ‘ Button Orchids.”

At the time of my visit the small plants, such as annuals,
herbaceous plants, and small shrubs, owing to the unusual dry
weather, were only found in bloom on a few favoured spots.
Patches were often seen of Zephrosia polyzyga, ¥.v.M., with its
nodding racemes of small, purplish flowers, and long leaves, which
are composed of numerous small leaflets. In company with this
plant may in places be seen Jacksonia thesioides, A. Cunn. This
forms a very pretty shrub, rather dense, of abovt 3 or 4 feet in
height, of a pleasing gray colour; the flowers are of a very pale-
blue, small, but numerous. On the sandy land near the beach at

428 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Goode Island, the place was made bright and gay by a thick
growth of Gomphrena flaccida, R.Br., and a talier growth of
Plumbago zeylanica, Linn. On Thursday Island and Hammond
Island all damp spots were made gay by the pretty, pure white
flowers of Buchnera tetragona, R.Br., and other species of this
genus ; the blue flowers of Lobelia Douglasiana, Bail., and Wahlen-
bergia cgneucalas, A.DC.; the neat little Vandellia aleinoides, Benth.,
and Stylidiwm aliginosum, Swartz., and the curious « Sundew ”
Drosera indica, Linn., with its rosy flowers, and long, narrow,
often-curled, glandular leaves. One of the brightest flowers of
these islands is Haemodorum coccinewm, R.Br., which is found
amongst the broken rocks on the sides near the base of the hills;
the leaves are grass-like, and the flowers, which are of a deep, red
colour, are borne in broad, terminal panicles; the species is one
well worthy of garden culture. In the shady scrubs the ground
was brightened by the flowers of Asystasiu australasica, Bail., and
other Acanthacee.

A SKETCH OF THE THURSDAY ISLAND FLORA.

This enumeration of Thursday Island plants which were ob-
served by myself during last June, and to which I have added
those that have at various times reached me for determination,
and also those recorled by other botanists as indigenous on the
island, is given as a basis upon which a flora might be compiled
by some resident there having the leisure for the work. The flora
of all the islands of Torres Straits will, I think, be found to be
very similar, differing according to the amount of moisture ; those
situated like Thursday Island, wanting a permanent water supply,
having the smaller number of species. ‘This difference, however,
may not be so great as it appears at first to persons paying a visit
at the dry season or during a drought, for there is ioe time
enough during the wet season, and “the time it would take to
exhaust the supply of moisture from rainfali in the ground, for a
large number of plants to spring up and pass through all their
stages of existence on islands wanting a permanent water supply,
whereas on the more favoured islands these same plants may be
met with on the damp land all the year round.

Where I have not seen the plant on the island, but have received
specimens from others, or find the habitat recorded by other
botanists, the name of collector or recorder is given in parenthesis.

DYCOTYLEDONS.
Menispermacez. (Moonseed Family.)
Tinospora smilacina, Benth.
A glabrous twiner, with leaves somewhat resembling those of a
Sarsaparilla (Smzlax) or Pepper vine (Piper), and short racemes of
red drupes. Ripe in June. (E. Cowley, 1893).

FLORA OF THE TORRES STRAITS. 429

Stephania hernandicfolia, Walp.

A more or less pubescent twiner, with almost orbicular peltate
leaves. Fruit red, compressed, in umbels of about 5 rays. Ripe
June.

Violarieze. (Violet Family.)
Lonidium suffruticosum, Ging.

A weak undershrub, having the lower petal of each flower
purplish and much larger than the others. Usually met with
under the shade of trees or shrubs. Flowers June.

Bixinee. (Arnatto Family.)
Cochlospermum Gillivrei, Benth.
A tall shrub, bearing open yellow flowers 2 inches diameter,
followed by obovoid-oblong capsules ; leaves palmately lobed, but
the plant scanty of foliage. Flowers June.

Polygaleze. (Milkwort Family.)
Polygala arvensis, var.“ Field Milkwort.”
A weedy plant a few inches high.

Caryophyllee, (Pink Family.)
Polycarpea breviflora, F. v. M.
A light-coloured weed, met with on dry hard soil.

Portulacee. (Purslane Family.)
Calandrinia spergularina, F. v. M.
A small succulent plant, met with on damp land.

Elatines. (Water Peppers.)
Bergia amnannioides, Roth.
A hairy plant, 6 to 12 inches high ; flowers minute, in dense
clusters, in the axils of the leaves. (H. Palmer).

Hypericinee. (St. John’s Wort Family.)

Hypericum gramineum, Forst. “ Australian St. John’s Wort.”

A small erect plant, with narrow oblong leaves and yellow
flowers.

Malvacee. (Mallow Family.)

Malvastrum spicatum, A. Gray.

A common weed in Queensland.
Sida rhombifolia, Linn.

The common Sida weed.
Abutilon indicum, G. Don. ‘ Wild Chinese Lantern.”

A showy soft shrub, flowers yellow (June).
Urena lobata, Linn. var. ‘‘ Ceesar weed of America.”

A tall shrub with rosy flowers, sometimes a weed in cultiva-
tion (June).

430 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Hibiscus radiatus, Cav.

An erect plant of 2 or 3 feet, leaves lobed, flowers wee with
dark centre (June).

Thespesia populnea, Corr. ‘Tulip-tree of India, or Seaside
Mahoe.”

A small tree met with near the beach, with broad, heart-shaped
leaves, and rather large Hibiscus-like yellow flowers, capsule hard,
round (June).

Sterculiaces. (Bottle-tree Family).
Sterculia quadrifida, R.Br.

The island trees are stunted in growth, but the leaves seem
larger, and the fruit smaller than on the mainland trees.

Heritiera littoralis, Ait. ‘‘ Red Mangrove or Looking-glass Tree.”

A small sea coast tree, with oblong leaves silvery on the under

side; the hard woody ovoid fruit about 3 inches long, often seen
washed about by the tide.

Tiliacee. (Linden-tree Family.)
Grewia polygama, Roxb. ‘ Kooline” of the Cloncurry natives
(E. Palmer) ; by some the fruit is called emu berry.
A small shrub ; the fruit used by the aborigines for food.

Triumfetta rhomboidea, Jacq. ‘‘ Chinese Burr.”
A weed, probably an introduction.

Corchorus acutangulus, Lam.

A weedy, spreading undershrub, with minute yellow flowers,
and longitudinally winged capsules.

Geraniacezre. (Geranium Family.)
Oxalis corniculata, Linn. ‘Sour grass, or yellow wood-sorrel.”
A common weed, varying considerably in the size of leaf and
flower.
Rutaces. (Rue Family.)

Micromelum pubescens, Blume.

A small pubescent tree with pinnate foliage. The fruit in
terminal broad corymbs, ovoid, from yellow to red, according to
the stage of ripeness.

Simarubes, (Quassia Family.)
Suriana maritima, Linn.
A more or less hoary shrub, the leaves linear-spathulate, about 1

inch long, flowers yellow, drupes minutely pubescent, small (W.
Bauerlen, 1885).

FLORA OF THE TORRES STRAITS, 431

Meliacez. (Bead-tree Family.)
Carapa moluccensis, Lam.

A glabrous tree found growing with the mangroves. Fruit
irregularly globose, somewhat resembling a citron, containing
several large angular seeds.

Olacinee. (Olax Family.)
Ximenia americana, Linn, ‘ Yellow Plum.”

A rambling shrub, grows just above high-water mark, scanty
of foliage, leaves oval, the largest scarcely 2 inches long. Flowers
axillary, greenish ; sepals four, minute; petals four, 4 or 5 lines
long, recurved, very hairy on the inner side. Stamens 8, filaments
crooked ; anthers large, Fruit roundish-oval, about 1-in. diameter
with a thin pericarp, and very light coloured, smooth, bony
endocarp. This form or species in my opinion should be kept
distinct from the inland plant. Fruit ripe in June.

Rhamnee. (Buckthorn Family.)
Zizyphus Ainoplia, Mill. ‘ Vinous Jujube.”
A large rambling shrub, the young branches often rusty-
pubescent, spines short, one of each pair straight and deciduous.

Drupes globular about 3 lines diameter. Met with in the gully
scrubs. Fruit ripe in June,

Alphitonia excelsa, Reissek. ‘Red Ash.”

A small erect tree, leaves varying from lanceolate to nearly
orbicular. ‘Flowers forming terminal corymbose panicles. Fruit
globular. Found on hillsides. In some parts of Queensland the
leaves are used by school children to remove ink-stains from their
hands. A few leaves rubbed in water soon produces a strong
lather.

Ampelide. (Grape Family.)
Vitis trifolia, Linn, ‘‘ One of the Native Grapes.”

A climber, leaves of three leaflets ; berry small depressed-globular,
found on the border of scrubs.
Leea sambucina, Willd.

A tall shrub with large twice or thrice pinnate leaves ; and wide
spreading panicles of four to six seeded brown berries.

Sapindacee. (Soapberry Family.)
Dodonea viscosa, Linn, “The Sticky Hop-bush.”

The form most generally met with in the tropics. The leaves
with prominent veins.

432 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Anacardiacee, (Marking-nut Family.)
Buchanania Muelleri, Engler.
Tree with widely spreading head, a common tree of all the
islands. Flowers white, small, in short spreading panicles at the

ends of the branchlets. Fruit compressed, about } inch long.
Flowering in June.

Semecarpus australiensis, Engler. ‘Australian Marking-nut Tree.”

A tree of considerable size. Leaves somewhat oblong, pale on
the underside. Fleshy footstalk of fruit, from almost a yellow to
a bright red colour, often used as a fruit. It is the acrid oily
juice of the true fruit that is used for marking.

Leguminose. (Pulse Family.)

Jacksonia thesioides, A. Cunn.
A neat little shrub worthy of garden culture; flowers, pale-
blue; found on hill sides. Flowering in June.

Crotalaria linifolia, Linn. “ Flax-leaved Rattle-pod.”
C. calycina, Schranck. ‘Shaggy Rattle-pod.”

C. trifoliastrum, Willd.

C. incana, Linn. ‘“ Hoary Rattle-pod.”

The above four rattle-pods are plants of a weedy growth, having
yellow flowers.

Indigofera linifolia, Retz. ‘“ Flax-leaved Indigo.”
A procumbent plant, easily known by its minute white round
pods.

I. hirsuta, Linn. ‘“ Hairy Indigo.”

An annual plant, 1 or 2 feet high with red flowers; pods
nearly 1 inch long, quadrangular.
Lephrosria polyzyga, F. v. M.

A slender undershrub of several feet, the leaves with numerous
leaflets. Flowers in June.

Smnithia conferta, Lam,

A small procumbent plant, the leaves of 7-15 leaflets; the
flowers in clusters ; a weedy plant.
Zornia diphylla, Pers.

A decumbent weedy plant with leaves of 2—leaflets.
Desmodium umbellatum, DC.

A weak shrub, attaining with the support of other shrubs the
height of 6 or more feet. Pods of three or four thickish articles.
Abrus precatorius, Linn. ‘ Crabs’-eyes, or Wild Liquorice.”

_A climber, well-known by its seeds, which are red with a black
spot,

FLORA OF THE TORRES STRAITS. 433

Erythrina indica, Lam. “ Coral-tree.”
A tall deciduous tree met with near the top of the gullies
between the hills.

Mucuna gigantea, DC. “ Black Bean.”

A scrub climber, flowers greenish, rather large, at the end of a
long stalk ; seeds black. The northern plants seem to have some-
what smaller flowers, and the seeds are not so flat as those of the
southern plants. Flowers June.

Canavalia obtusifolia, DC. ‘Coast Bean.” :
A coast bean with rather showy pink flowers. Flowers June.

Dalbergia densa, Benth.
A rambling, sometimes climbing, shrub, with clusters of very
small flowers ; common everywhere on the island. Flowers June.

Entada scandens, Benth. ‘‘ Matchbox Bean.”

Probably the largest climber of Australia. I saw no plants of
this on the island, but Mr. E. Palmer noticed it there about ten
years ago; and also says that at the Endeavour River the natives
roast or bake the beans, then pound them fine, put in dilly-bags,
and place in water for about ten hours before using for food.

Cassia mimosoides, Linn.
A common erect weed, 1 or 2 feet high, with yellow flowers,
found amongst grass.

Acacia Simsii, A. Cunn.
A tall slender shrub with long narrow leaves.

A, Cunninghamii, Hook., var.
The hoary form of this common wattle, a small tree.

A, leptocarpa, A. Cunn. This has dark green foliage.
The three species mentioned are the common Acacias of the
island.

Albizzia procera, Benth.
This is one of the tallest trees on the island, and found growing
in the highest parts of the gully scrubs.

Rosacez. (Rose Family.)
Parinarium Nonda, F.v.M. ‘Nonda Tree.” Native name on
the Mitchell, Yuley. (E. Palmer.)

A handsome round-headed small tree, with oval more or less
downy leaves, and yellow oval edible fruit about 14 in. long; met
with on the flat land; fruit ripe in June. Mr. Palmer says this
tree represents one of the clans of the Mitchell blacks.

22

434 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Droseraceze. (Sundew Family.)

Drosera indica, Linn. ‘“Sundew.”

This species is found on the damp land. Mr. E. Palmer tells
us that the plant is used by the young blacks to rub on their faces
to make whiskers grow.

Rhizophorez. (Mangrove Family.)

Rhizophora mucronata, Linn. ‘Common Mangrove.”
Calyx-segments and petals, 4; stamens, 8 to 12.

Ceriops Candolleana, Arn. ‘Small-leaved Mangrove.”
Calyx-segments and petals, 5 or 6; stamens twice as many as
petals.

Brugwera Rheedii, Blume. ‘ Red Mangrove.”
Calyx-segments and petals usually 12 ; stamens twice as many
as petals.

Combretacee. (Combretum Family.)

Terminalia catappa, Linn. ‘Country Almond.”

A tree usually met with upon the beach, head spreading, leaves
large, fruit eatable, yellow when ripe, with a somewhat fleshy
exocarp.

T. platyphylla, F.v.M. “ Durin” of the Flinders blacks.
(E. Palmer.)
A hoary shade tree, very plentiful on the island; fruit oval.

Lumnitzera racemosa, Willd.

A small tree found in company with mangroves ; leaves 1 or 2
inches long, tapering to the base ; flowers scarlet, in dense racemes,
sometimes few. (Hon. John Douglas, 1888.)

Myrtacee. (Myrtle Family.)
Melaleuca symphyocarpa, F. v. M. “A tea-tree ”

A. tall bushy shrub, leaves 1 or 2 inches long, flat, many-nerved.
Flowers in globular heads on the old wood. Found on low land.

M. leucadendron, var. Cunninghamii, ‘“‘ Broad leaved tea-tree.”
A tall shrub with very broad leaves. Flowers of one form,
dark-red, of another yellowish. Usually found on swampy land.

Eucalyptus clavigera, A. Cunn.,

Of somewhat similar growth to the Island Bloodwood, but with
more spreading head.
E. corymbosa, Sm.‘ Bloodwood.”

The trees of this species are very stunted on the island.
Tristania longivalvis, F. v. M. “ Buttercup tree.”

The handsomest tree on the Island, and met with everywhere.
Flowers abundant, yellow.

FLORA OF THE TORRES STRAITS. 435

Fenzlia obtusa, Endl.
A neat shrub of 3 to 5 ft., with hoary oblong leaves, and
purplish flowers ; met with on low sandy land.

Eugenia carissoides, F. v. M.
A shrub of 5 or 6 ft. high, with almost orbicular leaves. Flowers
few or solitary, often on the old wood, near the beach.

Barringtonia racemosa, Gaudich. ‘ Freshwater Mangrove.”

One of the largest trees of the Island; on young trees the leaves
are large; flowers of a pale-pink; bruised barked used by the
natives to poison fish. (E. Palmer.)

Plenty of the fruits of B. speciosa, R. and G. Forst., was seen
washing about the beach, but I met with no trees.

Lythrariez. (Loose-strife Family. )
Pemphis acidula, Forst.

A tall dense shrub of the coast ; leaves oblong, about 4 in. long;
flowers axillary.

Lagerstraemia ? Flos-Regine, Retz, ‘ Queen’s Flower.”

I found a tall shrub of what may be the East Indian tree, with
plenty of seed capsules upon it, but am not sure of its being in-
digenous, although it was growing away from any habitation.

Onagrariee. (Evening Primrose Family.)
Ludwigia parviflora, Roxb.
A weed of wet land.

Passifloree. (Granadilla Family.)
Passiflora aurantia, Forst. ‘ Passion-flower.”
A very pretty native climber, the colour of flowers variable.

Modecca australis, R. Br.

The flowers of this climber are poor, but the bright scarlet
fruits and clean large leaves make up for the want of beauty of
flowers.

Cucurbitaceze, (Gourd Family.)
Luffa egyptiaca, var. peramara. ‘The bitter sponge-gourd.”

A tall climber of the scrubs, flowers rather large, yellow ; used
in a green state to poison fish. (E. Palmer.)

Mukia scabrella, Arn.

A slender scabrous climber, with small yellow flowers and
globular fruits about 4 inch in diameter ; found on the borders of
the scrub. ?;

436 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Ficoidee. (Pig’s-face Family.)
Sesuvium portulacastrum, Linn.

A succulent, beach plant, with linear leaves 1 or 2 inches long, no
petals, but the calyx-lobes pinkish and scarious on the margins.

Mollugo spergula, Linn.
A procumbent weedy plant on wet land.

Araliaceee. (Ginseng Family.)

Brassaia actinophylla, Endl. ‘ Umbrella tree.”
I only met with a few stunted plants.

Rubiacee. (Madder Family.)

Hedyotis cerulescens, F.v.M.
A slender twiggy plant, with narrow linear leaves, met with on
hill-sides.

Dentella repens, Forst.
A pretty little creeping plant, met with on damp land.

Guettarda speciosa, Linn.

A spreading tall shrub, met with about high-water mark.
Flowers white, very deciduous. Fruit globular, hard, 1 inch in
diameter.

Plectronia odorata, B. and H.
A tall shrub, with smooth ovate leaves. The fruit like small
coffee berries ; found near the beach. (KE. Cowley, 1893.)

Celospermum reticulatum, Benth.

A very dry-looking shrub, with oval-oblong prominently reticu-
lated leaves, small white flowers and small globular fruit. Near
the beach.

Spermacoce levigata, F.v.M. ‘Smooth button weed.”

A very pretty undershrub with blue or white flowers in ter-
minal heads. Met with on the sides of the hills. In flower June.
Two varieties, white and blue.

Composite. (Aster Family.)
Vernonia cinerea, Less.

A rather pretty little plant, with purplish heads of flowers,
Vittadinia macrorrhiza, A. Gray.

A pretty plant 6 or 12 inches high, not very plentiful so far as
I observed.
Blumea diffusa, R. Br.

A weak little annual, found on damp land ; the radical leaves
almost rosulate, the flower heads very small.
B. hieracifolia, DC.

A rather stiff plant, 1 foot or more high, met with on the hills,

FLORA OF THE TORRES STRAITS. 437

Epaltes wustralis, Less.
A branching almost prostrate plant, common on wet land,
flower-heads in the forks of the branches ; an uninteresting weed,

Phacelothrix cladocheta, F.v.M.

A small annual weed (F.v.M.)
Rutidosis Brownii, Benth.

A small more or less cottony plant (E. Cowley, 1893).
Wedelia calendulacea, Less.

A decumbent plant, with rather large yellow heads of flowers,
W. urticifolia, DC.

A rough plant of 2 or 3 feet ; a bad weed; flower-heads small
on slender peduncles.
W. asperrima, Benth.

A bad weed, very harsh ; flowers often several together in a
loose panicle.
Emilia purpurea, Cass.

A weak plant, flowers small, purple.

Dr. Lindley says—‘“ Flora Medica ”—thbat the decoction of the
leaves is used in India asa febrifuge.

Stylides. (Hair-trigger-flower Family.)

Stylidium uliginosum, Sw. One of the hair-trigger plants.
A wet-land plant, leaves radical, scape erect, fipaeen pink.

Campanulacee. (Blue-bell Family.)
Lobelia Douglasiana, Bail., n. sp.
A pretty weak-stemmed blue flowering plant, common on damp
land.
Wahlenbergia gracilis, A.DC. ‘The common blue bell.”

Plumbaginee. (Leadwort Family.)
Plumbago zeylanica, Linn. ‘Queensland leadwort.”

Rare and poor, but on Goode Island very strong with unusually
fine flowers.

Sapotacez. (Sapota Family.)
Lucuma sericea, Benth and Hook.

A small tree ; Jeaves oblong, ovate, 3 to 44 inches long, coria-
ceous, silky on the under side. Fruit ovoid, nearly 1 inch long
seeds, one or two.

Mimusops Browniana, Benth.

A small tree ; leaves about 3 inches long, oval or nearly orbicular,
whitish on the under-side. Fruit almost globular ; seeds, one or
two, more or less compressed.

438 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Oleaceze. (Olive Family.)

Jasminum simplicifolium, Forst. ‘‘ Native Jasmine.”
A large, free flowering, woody climber, met with on the hills.

Apocynacese. (Dogbane Family.)
Alyxia spicata, R. Br. ‘Climbing Chain-fruit.”

A large woody climber with a great quantity of milky sap.
Flowers small in pedunculate spikes. Fruit articles, one or two,
globular-ovoid, nearly yellow when ripe, covering the small trees
on the hillsides.

Tabernemontana orientalis, R. Br.
A tall shrub, with white fragrant flowers. Carpels of fruit
ovoid-falcate, orange coloured.

~

Alstonra verticillosa, F. v. M.
I only met with this tree in a young state, 6 to 9 feet high, too
young to flower.

Parsonsia nesophila, Bail, n.sp.
A very large velvety climber of little or no beauty. Flowers
small, yellow.
Loganiacee. (Strychnos Family.)

Mitrasacme polymorpha, R. Br.
A small straggling plant found on damp land. Flowers white.

Convolvulaceee. (Morning Glory Family.)

Ipomea alata, R. Br. ‘ Winged Stemmed Morning Glory.”

I saw no flowers, but from the old foliage and seed capsules, I
think it Brown’s plant. It is a very large climber, and grows
over the shrubs near the beach.

I. paniculata, R. Br. “ Panicled Morning Glory.”
Found with the last, and, like it, a rampant climber.

I. hederacea, Jacq. ‘Ground-ivy Morning Glory”

This is a great climber, but met with further from the beach,
liking the scrub land. The seeds of this plant even at the present
time are used in India as a purgative, under the name of “ Kala-
dana.”

I. angustifolia, Jacq. ‘Narrow-leaved Morning Glory.”
A pretty twiner with narrow leaves 1 to 3 inches long, often
enlarged and toothed at the base.

I. Pes-capre, Roth. ‘ Goat’s-foot Morning Glory.”
A prostrate plant found running along the beach sands, the
leaves usually two-lobed.

Polymeria ambigua, R. Br.
Stems trailing on the coast sands. Leaves slender, oblong, often
mucronate, and at the base cordate.

FLORA OF THE TORRES STRAITS. 439

Evolvulus alsinoides, Linn.

A neat little plant, silky-hairy. Flowers, bright blue, about 3
lines across.

Solanacee, (Nightshade Family.)
Solanum viride, R. Br.

A tall shrub, with deep green leaves. Flowers in spreading
panicles, blue, with narrow corolla-lobes. Fruit, red, small, and
globular.

Physalis minima, Linn., var. indica.

Plant erect; leaves irregularly sinnate, lobed, men:branous,
calyx enlarged after flowering, and acutely angled; on waste
places as if introduced.

Scrophularinez. (Figwort Family.)

Adenosma cerulea, R. Br.
A coarse troublesome weed, about 2 feet high, with blue flowers.

Vandellia alsinoides, Benth.

A pretty branching plant of wet places.
Buchnera tetragona, R. Br.

An erect plant, the flowers white in four-sided spikes.
Bb. urticifolia, R. Br.

The radical leaves almost rosulate, usually rough ; flowers white ;
the corolla glabrous outside.
B. ramosissima, R. Br.

The plant more branched than the last, and the corolla pubes-
cent outside. All the plants of this genus are found on damp land.

Bignoniacee. (Trumpet-flower Family. )
Tecoma australis, R. Br.
This climber is met with in most parts of Queensland, varying
much in size of flowers.
Diplanthera tetraphylla, R. Br.
The trees of this grand tree are only met with here in a stunted

form. The flowers, however, seem of a brighter yellow than on
the mainland.

Acanthacee. (Acanthus or Bear’s Breech Family.)

Nelsonia campestris, R. Br.

A prostrate herb, the stems and foliage clothed with soft silky
hairs. Found on damp land.
Ruellia acaulis, R. Br.

A low plant, with decumbent stems, from a short stock. Found
on the hill-sides.

440 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D

Asystasia australasica, Bail., n.sp.

A rather showy plant, about 15 or 18 inches high ; flowers,
pale blue. Found in the scrub under the shade of trees. In
flower, June.

Acanthus ilicifolius, Linn. ‘ Holly-leaved Bear’s Breech.”

Stems, 2 to 5 feet high. Leaves glossy, oblong, the margins
often prickly. Found in the salt-water swamps under the
mangroves.

Justicia procumbens, Linn.
A common weed in many parts of Australia.
Eranthemum variabile, R. Br.

A most variable, but pretty plant, common to all Queensland
scrubs. The large form is the one mostly met with on the island,
which is often purple on the underside of the leaf.

Verbenacee. (Verbena Family.)
Premna obtusifolia, R. Br.

A tall spreading shrub; leaves almost orbicular ; flowers in
terminal corymbose panicles, small, white. Drupes, 2 or 3 lines
diameter. Found growing near the beach.

LP. integrifolia, Linn. var.

Specimens, which may be a variety of this species, were gathered
by Mr. E. Cowley two or three years ago.

Clerodendron inerme, R. Br.

A tall shrub, common along the coast, is also met with at about
high-water mark. The leaves are mostly ovate-elliptic, on rather
long stalks. The flowers, with corolla tube, about 1 inch long ; the
stamens protruding about 1 inch. Drupe obovoid.

Gmelina macrophylla, Benth.

A small tree, with very large somewhat slate-coloured leaves,
often 8 inches long and 5 inches broad. On the main land the
leaves at times are 18 inches long and 9 inches broad. The two
or four flat glands near the base of the blade very prominent ;
these are referred to by Baron Mueller in one of his Fragmentas,
but are not noticed by Bentham in the Flora Austr,

Avicennia officinalis, Linn. ‘ White Mangrove.”

Amongst all the mangrove trees this is at once detected by the
breathing processes which arise from its roots. Mr. E. Palmer
says that the fruit of this tree is baked or steamed by the natives,
in hollows made in the ground, in which they make fires; it is
soaked, and afterwards baked in the ashes.

FLORA OF THE TORRES STRAITS. 44]

Labiate. (Thyme Family.)

Salvia plebera, R. Br. “ Australian Sage.”
A weedy plant 2 or 3 feet high, with pale-coloured flowers.

S. coccinea, Linn. ‘‘Scarlet-flowered Sage.”
A plant 2 or 3 feet high, flowers scarlet; a North American
species which has become naturalised in many parts of Queensland.

Anisomeles salvifolia, R. Br.
A plant 3 or 4 feet high ; a weed of scrub land; flowers pale-
coloured.

Nyctagine. (Marvel of Peru Family.)
Boerhaavia diffusa, Linn, ‘ Goitcho,” of Cloncurry natives (E.
Palmer), Hogweed. Roots eaten by the Boulia aborigines,
who call it Witooka (Dr. Roth).

A procumbent weed found all over Australia ; often trouble-
some in cultivation plots. Mr. E. Palmer says that the yam-like
roots of this plant when roasted have a pleasant mealy taste, and
are very nourishing.

Pisonia aculeata, Linn.
A large straggling plant, armed with recurved prickles, often’
found near the mangroves, forming an impenetrable mass.

Amarantacee. (Amaranth Family.)

Amarantus viridis, Linn.
A common weed.

Trichinium distans, R. Br.
A plant making but a few erect wiry branches ; Jeaves narrow.
Flowers in a much interrupted spike, greenish.

Achyranthes aspera, Linn.
A very troublesome weed on scrub land. Perianths reflexed, in
long slender terminal spikes.

Aristolochiacee. (Birthwort Family.)
Aristolochia indica var. magna, Benth. ‘“ Birthwort.”
A slender scrub climber.

Piperacere. (Pepper Family.)

Piper subpeltatum, Willd. ‘ Large-leaved Pepper-shrub.”

A soft wooded plant 4 to 5 feet high, with large orbicular-
cordate leaves, spikes of flowers numerous in the axils, of various
length. ;

449 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Laurinee. (Laurel Family.)
Cassytha filiformis, Linn. “ Laurel-dodder.”

This wiry leafless climber covers most of the trees and shrubs
growing in the open portions of the island.

Proteacee. (Grevillea or Silky Oak Family.)

Xylomelum salicinum, A. Cunn. ‘ Wooden Pear.”

A small tree with pale foliage; flowers small in spikes, The
fruit, obpyriform, opening at length in two woody valves. This
tree is seen here and there, but is not plentiful.

Loranthacee. (Mistletoe Family.)
Loranthus longiflorus, Desr. ‘ Mistletoe.”

This common species is met with growing upon various kinds
of trees.

Euphorbiacez. (Spurge Family.)
Euphorbia serrulata, Reinw.
E. Mitchelliana, Boiss.
E. pilulifera, Linn.

Small herbs with a milky sap ; found amongst the grass.
Bridelia tomentosa, Blume.

A large shrub with ovate elliptical pubescent leaves, and small
globular fruits ; found on the hill-sides.

Phyllanthus simplex, Retz.

A small wiry plant found on the hillsides.

Petalostigma quadriloculare, F.v.M. “ Bitter-bark or Bitter-crab.”

A small tree, the bark very bitter.

Croton arnhemicus, Muell. Arg.

A tall shrub, leaves 5 or 7-nerved, capsule globular.
Claoxylon Hillii, Benth.

A tall leafy shrub with large ovate leaves. The open capsules
showing the reddish seeds gives a pretty appearance to the plant.
Mallotus philippinensis, Muell. Arg. ‘ Kamala Tree.”

A small tree met with, but not plentiful, on the island.

Macaranga tanarius, Muell. Arg. ‘ Tumkullum” of the Moreton
Bay blacks.

A small tree with large peltate leaves ; found near the beach.
Excecaria Agallocha, Linn. ‘ Milky Mangrove or Tiger’s milk
tree,.

A common coast tree with a milky sap.

FLORA OF THE TORRES STRAITS. 443

MONOCOTYLEDONS.
Orchidee. (Orchis Family.)

Sarcochilus phyllorrhizus, F.v.M.
A leafless species which is rather plentiful on scrub trees, adher-
ing to the bark by its broad, thin, flat roots.

Scitaminee. (Arrowroot Family.)

Curcuma australasica, Hook.

The annual flower stems arising from a fleshy rhizome, bracts
of the flower spikes rose-coloured, flowers pale yellow. Found on
the hill-sides amongst rocks.

Hemodoracere. (Blood-root Family.)

Hemodorum coccineum, R.Br. ‘ Blood-root.” ‘‘ On-tho” of the
Mitchell natives (E. Palmer).

A very showy, erect plant, with grass-like leaves and a terminal
corymbose panicle of red flowers ; very showy. Amongst rocks,
in more or less damp spots Mr. E. Palmer informs us that on the
Mitchell River the natives obtain the fibre from the leaves of this
plant with which they make the bags used for straining Karro*
meal.

Amaryllidee. (Amaryllis Family.)

Curculigo ensifolia, R.Br.
Stem short, rhizome with fibrous roots, leaves grass-like, flower
spikes short, at base of leaves.

Dioscoridee. (Yam Family.)
Dioscorea (?) kumaonensis, Kunth. ‘ Yam.”

From the foliage and bulbils. The plants I found growing in
the gullies between the hills seem closely allied to the above
species, but I found neither flowers or fruit. It seems to be of
rather slender growth. The leaves of from three to five lanceolate
digitate leaflets, and the stem, petioles, and veins of the leaves more
or iess hairy.

Liliacee, (Lily Family.)
Smilax australis, R.Br. ‘ Australian Sarsaparilla.”

A tall, prickly scrub climber ; leaves large ; flowers in umbels ;

berries black.

Dracena angustifolia, Roxb. ‘ Narrow-leaved Dragon-tree.”

A small tree, with long narrow leaves and terminal panicles of
white narrow flowers. Fruit yellow, more than } inch diameter,
pulpy inside, containing one to three large seeds.

Dianella cerulea, Sims. ‘“ Blue-berry.”
A plant with distichous leaves and blue flowers and berries. .-“*/7*"

= “ee

Cc

Li@gapy;

eZ. wee

444 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Thysanotus (2) tuberosus, R.Br. “ Fringe violet.”
The plants seen were very poor specimens.
Tricoryne platyptera, Reichb.
A small, undershrub, with few flattened stems and yellow
flowers.
Commelynacee.

Commelyna ensifolia, R. Br.‘ Spiderwort.”

A weak, procumbent plant ; differing from the other Australian
species in that the spatha is not cordate, and is closed at the base,
forming an oblique turbinate inverted cone, open at the top only.
Found on damp land.

Floscopa paniculata, Hassk.

Stem weak, about 1 foot high; leaves, 2 or 3 inches long,
Flowers, small, bright blue. On camp land.

Cartonema spicatum, R. Br.

Stems branching at the base; spikes dense ; outer perianth-
segments 5 to 6 lines long, very hairy; inner ones obovate ;
filaments flattened. On damp land. Specimens received from
EK. Cowley, 1893.

Flagellariex. (Flagellaria Family.)
Flagellaria indica, Linn. ‘Smooth cane.”

A smooth, climbing cane ; known by the curl at end of leaf.

In the scrubs.
Palme. (Palm Family.)
Cocos nucifera, Linn. ‘‘ Coco-nut.”
Probably an introduction.
Nipa fruticans, Wurmb.

Fruits of this plant may frequently be picked up on the beach,

but I saw no growing plants.

Pandanacee. (Screw Pine Family.)

Pandanus odoratissimus, Linn. f. “Screw Pine.”
Near the coast on swampy land.

Cyperaceee. (Sedge Family.)
Cyperus polystachyus, Rottb.

Seldom much over 1 foot high ; the inflorescence are crowded
into a head of spikelets ; involucral bracts, two to four.
Fimbristylis nutans, Vahl.

A slender plant, 6 to 12 inches high ; spikelet solitary, more or
less nodding.

Ff. diphylla, Vanl.

A slender, tufty, perennial ; umbel more or less compound ;

involucral bracts, one or two ; exceeding the inflorescence.

FLORA OF THE TORRES STRAITS. 445

F. dichotoma. Vahl.

A densely tufted plant ; the lower leaves numerous, flat ; in-
volucral bracts, two or three.
Remirea maritima, Aubl.

A common plant on the coast sands, with long running stems
forming tufty plants at the joints a few inches high.
Rhynchospora Wallichiana, Kunth.

Stems 1 to 2 feet high ; spikes numerous in a dense globular
head ; involucral bracts spreading, 2 or 3 inches long.

Schenus sparteus, R. Br.

Stems very wiry, | to 3 feet high; the brown leaf-sheaths bearded

with white hairs at the orifice.

Graminee., (Grass: Family.)

Paspalum scrobiculatum, Linn. |“ Ditch Millet.”

A strong tufty, rather hard, grass.
P. distichum var. littorale. ‘Seaside Millet.”

A creeping coast grass.
Panicum sanguinale, Linn. ‘ Summer Grass.”

A large decumbent annual.
P. semialatum, R. Br. ‘Cockatoo Grass.”

A tall-stemmed grass, panicle of from two to five long, erect,
branches.
P. argenteum, R. Br.

A softly hairy grass. The spikelets particularly silvery.
P. colonum, Linn. <A small form.

Somewhat decumbent. Panicle of from eight to ten one-sided,
distant short spikes.
P. indicum, Linn.

A wiry, erect grass ; panicle spikelike. Found on damp land.

) 8 > Pp

P. effusum, R. Br. A tall form,

A tall branching grass, 3 to 4 feet high, with large spreading
panicles,
Oplismenus compositus, Beauv.

A hairy, spreading grass, commonly met with in scrubs.

Setaria macrostachya, H. B. and K.

A tall, leafy grass, of scrub lands, mostly found on the border
of scrubs.
Cenchrus elymoides, F v.M. ‘Scrub Burr-grass.”

A tall, coarse, erect grass ; spikes often 6 inches long.
Thuarea sarmentosa, Pers.

A creeping grass, met with upon the coast sands. The erect
stems short.

446 - PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Arundinella nepalensis, Trin.
A tall, harsh grass of erect growth, met with on the hills.

Pollinia irritans, Benth.
A grass of 2 or 3 feet in height, with several spikes in the head.

Rottboellia formosa, R. Br.

Stems from 6 to above 12 inches high, with more or less hairy
leaves ; the cylindrical spikes very fragile; the articles with
purplish hairs. Very plentiful.

R. rarittora, Bail.
A procumbent, weak, but very troublesome, spear grass, too
plentiful on the island.

Ischemum fragile, R. Br.
A slender grass with narrow leaves ; spike single, rigid, on a long
peduncle.

Heteropogon contortus, Rem. et Schult. ‘ Bunch spear grass.”

A troublesome spear grass, 2 or 3 feet high. Awns often 2
inches long and very much twisted; the heads of a number of
stems often adhering together and forming large dark-coloured
masses.

H, insignis, Thu. ‘The tall spear grass.”
Spikes often 5 or 6 inches long without the awns, which are
about the same length.

Andropogon exaltatus, R. Br.

Stems 1 foot or more high; leaves very narrow, sometimes
subulate from the sheath. Nodes glabrous ; spikes two or three
together, densely hairy.

A, lanatus, R. Br.
Leaves usually flat but narrow ; spikes densely woolly-hairy.

Chrysopogon parviflorus, Benth. ‘Scented golden beard.”
A large tufty grass, the inflorescence strongly scented. Speci-
mens received from E. Cowley, 1893.

Eriachne squarrosa, R. Br.
Stems about 2 feet high ; nodes with long silky hairs; panicle
dense ; outer glumes hispid ; awns about 1 inch long.

EH. ciliata, R. Br.
A pretty grass usually under 1 foot high, often only a few inches;
leaves hirsute, with spreading hairs ; spikelets few. On hill-sides.

Cynodon dactylon, Pers. ‘Common couch.”
Met with on the well-trodden ground.

Chloris barbata, Sw. var. “ Bearded Star-grass.”
Plant, 2 to 4 ft. high; the spikes numerous in the head, dark,
and very hairy.

FLORA OF THE TORRES STRAITS. 447

Eleusine cegyptiaca, Pers. ‘Small Crow-foot Grass.”

A very common grass upon the island, usually on the flat land,
Spikes, 3 to 5 in a spreading head. Dr. W. E. Roth gives an
interesting account of the mode adopted by the natives at Boulia
in preparing “damper” from the seeds of this grass, called by
them “ ya-ra-ka.” ‘“ Ethnological Studies among the N. W. Central
Aborigines.”

Triraphis mollis, R. Br.
Panicle narrow, dense, 4 to 6 in. long, having a soft appear-
ance.

Eragrostis Brownit, Nees. ‘ Love Grass.”
A very variable grass, met with in most parts of Queensland.

Ectrosia leporina, R. Br. ‘ Hare’s Tail Grass.”
A glabrous grass of 1 or 2 ft. ; panicle dense, soft-looking, and
3 to 6 in. long.

ACOTYLEDONS OR CRYPTOGAMS.

The small number of cryptogamous plants which I am enabled
to record as baying been observed on Thursday Island may in
some measure be accounted for by my visit to the island having
been made at the dry season of the year, and from the fact also
that what is considered there as the wet season had this year
passed over without the usual quantity of rain. I, however, do
not think from what I saw of the vegetation that this particular
island is one likely to furnish any great variety of these plants.
On some of the other islands, having a better water supply and
larger area of scrub, these plants are likely to be found more or
less abundant. All I can record at present are—

. Filices.

Lygodium japonicum, Sw.
Polypodium scandens, Forst.
Notholena fragilis, Hook.
NV. Prenticei, Luerssn.

Fungi.
Polyporus fruticum, Berk.

On the twigs of trees.

Polystictus cinnabarinus, Fries.

On dead wood. Dr. Roth informs me that this common red
fungus is worn as a forehead ornament by the natives of Keppel
Island.

Uromyces fusisporus,* Cke. and Mass.

Phyllosticta Acacie,* Cke.
Both on the phyllodes of acacias.

* Not previously recorded for Queensland ; determined by Dr. M. C. Coeke.

448 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D,

No. 2.—PLANTS OF THE RABBIT-INFESTED
COUNTRY, BULLOO RIVER, &.Q.

By J. F. Barney.

(Read Friday, January 7, 1898. )

Eary in November I accompanied Mr. C. J. Pound, the Govern-
ment Bacteriologist of Queensland, on a trip to the Bulloo River
district, where he was carrying out experiments for the destruction
of rabbits by means of the chicken-cholera microbes. This offered
a good opportunity of making a botanical examination of the
locality. The season was not one that could be called favourable
for the purpose, as little or no rain had fallen for the previous
twelve months. On our arrival at Thargomindah, the post-town
of the district, we were detained for some days on account of
heavy rains. Our first camp was at Dilltoppa, about 45 miles
from Thargomindah, and on arrival here we found that the rain
had given rapid spring to the herbage, so that we were able to
form some idea of the plants growing about. From here we worked
our way to Koopa and Cooliata Sandhills, but found little change
in the vegetation. Our time being limited, and the difficulty of
travelling being increased by the rains, we were prevented from
visiting the part of the Grey Range running through the district,
where it was hoped the principal novelties would be obtained, as
little or nothing is known of the plants of that locality.

The following list cannot be taken as representing the flora of
the district ; but will give some idea of those plants which were
able to withstand the severity of the climate of those parts, and
produce food when all else is parched up. It was impossible to
identify those which had sprung up owing to the recent rains, and
causing the country to look so green, as they were, of course, in
too young a state.

I am indebted to Mr. Pound for the photographs which accom-
pany this paper.

CAPPARIDES.

Capparis Shanesiana, F.v.M., and Capparis nobilis, F.v.M.—
Fine specimens of these handsome flowering small trees were met
with, and were a pleasant sight after the dreary stretches of mulga,
gidya, and coolibar.

PITTOSPORE.

Pittosporum phyllyreoides, DC., in young fruit was noticed
growling near a dam.

PLANTS OF RABBIT-INFESTED COUNTRY, §.Q. 449

FRANKENIACER.

Two varieties of Frankenia pauciflora, DC., viz., serpyllifolia
and thymoides were growing in sand on the edge of a large lagoon.
Both have pretty pink flowers, but are of quite different habits,
the former lying flat on the ground, while the other is erect.

PORTULACEX,

Portulaca. oleracea, Linn.—A large-flowering variety of this
common garden weed was very abundant. The natives use the
seed and also the whole plant for food, and at times even bushmen
use it in the latter form.

MALVACES.

Abutilon Fraseri, Hook., with its large yellow flowers, looked
very gay among the smaller kinds of salt-bush.

MELIACE.

Owenia acidula, F.v.M. The Emu Apple or Grewie of the
natives. Clumps of these trees in both flower and fruit were
occasionally seen. They form very handsome trees, having dense
dome-like heads, and branch out about 7 feet from the ground.
Probably this is due to their lower branches being cropped by
stock, and as no young plants were seen they evidently eat these
also. Plate XXII.

SAPINDACEA,

Atalaya hemiglauca, F.v.M. The “White Wood,” is very
abundant throughout the district, and according to report is often
cut down, in times of drought, as food for cattle, but is said not
to be over-relished by them. It was occasionally seen in flower,
but most of the trees were covered with the curious winged fruit
of the genus. Plate XXIII.

Dodonea attenuata, A. Cunn. Oue of the so-called hop-bushes
was growing in great profusion on the sandy ridges at Dilltoppa,
and the sandhills at Koopa and Cooliatta. The rabbits seem very
fond of the bark, for we found it stripped to some considerable
distance from the ground, with the result that most of the trees so
treated die.

LEGUMINOSE.

Psoralea patens, Lindl. Small plants of these were seen. Ac-
cording to E. Palmer, the natives obtain a fibre from the stems.

Two Cassias were met with rather frequently, viz.:—

Cassia eremophila, A. Cunn., with long narrow leaves and
brown pods, and Cassia phyllodinea, R.Br., with silvery leaves
and bright yellow flowers, the perfume of the latter, when fresh,
reminding one of the heliotrope of our gardens.

2F

450 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Acacias.—The principal species of this genus in these parts is
A. aneura, F.v.M., the Mulga, two forms of which were seen, one
having very narrow leaves. They have been cut down for fodder,
and also eaten down very extensively throughout the district.
Plate XXIV.

The Gidya, Acacia homalophylia, A. Cunn., is the largest Acacia
to be met with. The unpleasant odour from the foliage of this
tree, especially after rain, is said to often cause a kind of fever in
stockmen and others. I did not notice that stock ate the leaves,
but was told that they sometimes eat the young pods.
Plate XXIII.

Acacia salicina, var. varians, was noticed growing near water.

On the banks of the river, and its billabongs, was growing
Acacia stenophylla, A. Cunn., the Dalby Myall, with long drooping
leaves and pods, the latter moniliform. ‘This forms a very graceful
shrub,

Other Acacias were A. harpophylla, F.v.M., the Brigalow, with
long, boomerang-shaped, silvery leaves—Plate XXI; A. Oswaldi,
F.v.M. ; A. decora, Reichb., with its light-green foliage and thin
pods, making a most ornamental shrub; and A. tetragonophylla,
F.v.M., a straggling shrub with globular heads of yellow flowers,
and clumps of short needle-like leaves.

MYRTACE. ‘

As in most parts of Western Queensland, the commonest
eucalypt is #. microtheca, F.v.M., the “Coolibar.” Plate X XI.

The largest eucalypt of the district is Mucalyptus rostrata, Sch.,
which is found by the side of the river and its billabongs. The
trees were laden with flowers, and those on the long drooping
branches produced a most attractive sight. At Koopa, most of
the trees had large nests of the hawk of the district. Another
large eucalypt was £. ochrophloia, F.v.M., the “ Yapunyah.”
The base of the stem is black, and the upper part, as well as the
branches, reddish pink. The leaf is large and thick.

The only other species of the genus noticed was Z. corymbosa,
Sm. Bloodwood.

Melaleuca ericifolia, Sm. <A variety of this species was met
with.

FICOIDE.

Masses of Mesembryanthemum cquilaterale, Haw., the “ pig’s-
face” of our gardens, were growing on the sandy ridges at
Dilltoppa.

UMBELLIFERE.

On the sandhills at Koopa were noticed the dried stems of
Trachymene cyanopetala, Benth., with seeds attached. This plant
is not eaten by rabbits or stock.

PLANTS OF RABBIT-INFESTED COUNTRY, 8.Q. 451

COMPOSITE.
Among the plants of this order were :

Gnephosis cyathopappa, Benth., a rigid slender corymbosely-
branched plant of a few inches high with bronzy coloured globular
heads of flowers. Found on the Mulga ridges.

Centipeda orbicularis, F.v.M., var. lanuginosa.

Helichrysum apiculatum, DC., with very bright yellow flowers
and exceedingly woolly stems, and

Minuria integerrima, Benth.

OLEACEZ,

Jasminum lineare, R..Br. The bark of this plant was much
eaten by rabbits on the sandhills at Koopa.

GENTIANEX.

Erythrea australis, R. Br., the bushman’s headache cure, with
its pretty pink flowers was very common.

CONVOLVULACES.
That pretty blue-flowered Evolvulus—Z. alsinoides, var. sericeus.

SOLANACE.

The two Solanums common in the district are S. chenopodium,
F.v.M., and S. esuriale, Lindl. The fruit of the latter is used
by the natives.

Nicotiana suaveolens, Lehm. The native tobacco, was growing
very abundantly at Cooliata.

SCROPHULARINE.

In the sand at the side of a large dried-up lagoon was a dense
growth of Mimulus prostratus, Benth. So numerous were the
blue flowers on this little plant that from a distance it gave the
appearance of water.

Another species of the genus Jf. gracilis, R. Br., was also met
with, but is by no means as pretty as the last-mentioned.

MYOPORINE.

The Eremophilas are well represented, there being EF. bignonie-
flora, F.v.M., called by the natives “Quirramurrah.” Cattle
seem fond of this species, and the rabbits which were confined for
experimental purposes preferred the leaves and young shoots to
any other plant. The plant when bruised or burned has a very
disagreeable odour.

452 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

E. longifolia, F.v.M., with black shiny fruits.
EL. Mitchell, Benth. The bark of which is much eaten by rabbits.

LE. maculata, F.v.M., with pretty red flowers dotted with dark
spots ; and

EL. polyclada, F.v.M., which has somewhat the habit of the
“Lignum” (Muehlenbeckia Cunninghami, F.v.M.), and is often
confounded by bushmen with that plant. This has pretty white
open flowers.

Myoporum deserti, A. Cunn, another plant of this order was
noticed here and there.

LABIAT&.

Mentha australis, R. Br., grows very rank near water, some of
the stems attaining a height of 8 feet, and giving to the aira
sweet perfume.

The only other plant of this order noticed was Teucriwm
racemosum, R. Br.

NYCTAGINE.

Tn all sandy places Doerhaavia diffusa, Linn., was growing. In
other places this is said to be eaten by stock, but we did not find
this to be the case. Neither did the rabbits seem to touch it.

AMARANTACE.

The common garden weed, Alternanthera nodiflora, R. Br., with
its little round head of white flowers, was continually met with.

CHENOPODIACE.

Fortunately for the stock of the district, there is a good variety
of the so called cotton and salt bushes, which are useful for helping
stock to digest some of the harsh foliage of shrubs, such as mulga,
white-wood, &c. Nearly all the year round these plants supply
food, for on account of the small rainfall grasses are very scarce.
Rabbits are very fond of all kinds of these plants, and have
destroyed immense numbers of them by ringbarking the stems
and burrowing under them.

Stock are very fond of the commonest cotton-bush in these parts,
—viz., Kochia aphylla, R. Br., and we found these so eaten down
that it was impossible to get good specimens. Plate XXV.

Other Kochias noticed were K. villosa, Lindl., and KX. brevifolia,
R. Br., but neither was growing as large as X. aphiylla.

Fine specimens of the Old-man Saltbush Atriplea nummularia,
Lindl., also A. jissivalve, F.v.M.; A. vesicaria, Heward; A.
leptocarpa, F.v.M.; and the small-growing A. Muelleri, Benth.,
Plate XX, were in evidence.

PLANTS ©F RABBIT-INFESTED COUNTRY, 8.Q. 453

The Bluebush, Chenopodium auricomum, Lindl., furnishes good
fodder, and is eagerly sought after by cattle. Plate XX.

Fine bushes of Rhagodia spinescens, R. Br., were growing about
Dilltoppa, Koopa, and Cooliata. We found that the rabbits
ringbarked the stems and burrowed under these plants more than
any other, and by so doing they threaten to eradicate all the use-
ful fodder-plants from the above-mentioned places. Other species
of this genus met with were 2. nutans, R. Br., and 2. parabolica,
R. Br., the latter having a most disagreeable taste and odour.

Other plants of this order noticed were Salsola kali, Linn., and
its variety strobilifera, and that most disagreeable plant Sclerolena
bicornis (Lindl.), the fruits of which are furnished with strong
spines.

POLYGONACES.

The principal plant of the river-side is the ‘‘ Lignum ” Jfwehlen-
beckia Cunninghamii, F.v.M. This forms dense masses and is
used as food and shelter by the rabbits. Cattle and horses are
also fond of the plant and eat most of the leaves, so that bare
stems are only seen, but these with the advent of a shower of
rain again burst into leaf. (Plates XXIV and XXV.)

Another plant of this order, viz., Polygonum plebeiwm, R.Br.,
grows in similar situations.

PROTEACE.

One of the most attractive shrubs of the district is Hakea
lewcoptera, R.Br., one of the needle-bushes. The growth is very
even and dense, and branches right to the ground. Hakea lorea,
R.Br., also grows in the district, and forms a graceful tree with
cord-like leaves, which on some trees are forked.

Splendid trees of the Beef-wood, Grevillea striata, R. Br., grow
in these parts. Most of them were in full flower. The gum,
mixed with the ashes of species of Acacia, probably A. salicina,
var. varians, is used by the natives for affixing spear-heads, &c.

(Plate XXII.)

LORANTHACE.

A Loranthus, viz., L. Quandang, Lindl., with bright red flowers,
was growing in large masses on the whitewood (Atalaya hemi-
glauca). (Plate XXIII.)

SANTALACE.

Santalum lanceolatum, R.Br., grows throughout the district,
but is not at all scented.

454 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

EUPHORBIACES.,

Everywhere was growing that widely-distributed Hwphorbia,
E. Drummondi, Boiss. The natives and also stockmen have great
faith in the milky juice of this plant as a healing agent for sores,
&e.

Plenty of another Huphorbia, EH. eremophila, A. Cunn., grows
also in these parts. Stock or rabbits eat neither of these species.

AMARYLLIDE.

Large patches of Crinwm angustifoliwm were just commencing
to bloom at the time of our departure. The flowers are very showy
and sweet-scented, but the latter is rather overpowering when in
quantity. The bulbs are about a foot below the surface of the
soil, and are embedded in cement-like clay, making it almost an
impossibility to obtain them without the aid of a spade or similar
implement.

CYPERACEX,

The commonest sedge met with was Cyperus esculentus, Linn.,
and is eaten by stock. It grows like the common “ Nut-grass ”
(C. rotundus, Linn.).

Others of the order were seen, but in too young a state for
identification.

GRAMINEZE.

Very few grasses were to be seen on our arrival in the district,
but before the end of our three weeks’ stay I was able to collect
specimens of Panicum flavidum, Retz; Pappophorum nigricans,
R.Br. ; Hragrostis chetophylla, Steud ; Triraphis mollis, R.Br. ;
Sporobolus Lindleyi, Benth. ; and S. Benthami, Bail. This latter
has long running stems, at the nodes of which young plants are
produced.

The only plant which seemed to grow in the ‘“claypans” was
the Cane-grass, Leptochloa subdigitata, Trin. This grass was to
all appearance dead, but after a shower of rain all the dead-like
stems produced tufts of green shoots from the nodes. These
“ claypans ” are composed of hard, white, cement-like soil, and on
a hot day are very trying to the eyes and feet. No doubt there
were many others of this order, but they were in too young a
state for determination.

MARSILEACE,

The Nardoo, Marsilea Drummondii, A. Braun, was growing in
great profusion on the sides of the river and its billabongs and
also waterholes.

AUSTRALASIAN Assoc. Abv. Sc. VoL. VII, 1898. PLATE XX.

ATRIPLEX MUELLERI, BENTH.

CHENOPODIUM AURICOMUM, Lino.

Plants of the Rabbit Infested Country, 8.W. Queensland.
J. F. BAILEY.

vad

ye

AUSTRALASIAN Assoc. Abv. Sc. Vot. VII, 1898. PLATE XXI.

EUCALYPTUS MICROTHE:CA, F. v. M.

ACACIA HARPOPHYLLA, F. v. M.

Plants of the Rabbit Infested Country, 8.W. Queensland.
J. F. BAILEY.

AUSTRALASIAN Assoc. Adv. Sc. Vot. VI, 1898. PLATE XXII.

GREVILLEA STRIATA, R. Br.

OWENIA ACIDULA, F. v. M.

Plants of the Rabbit Infested Country, S.W. Queensland.
J. F. BAILEY.

a)

AUSTRALASIAN Assoc. Abv. Sc. Voc. VII, 1898. PLATE XXIII.

ACACIA HOMALOPHYLLA, A. Cunn.

Plants of the Rabbit Infested Country, 8.W. Queensland.
J. F. BAILEY.

AUSTRALASIAN Assoc. Abv. Sc. VoL. VII, 1898. PLATE XXIV.

ACACIA ANCURA, F. v. M.

Plants of the Rabbit Infested Country, 8.W. Queensland.
J. F. BAILEY.

a a ee le (io it awe joi A
: y A jie ne

=
. = =# . a ; < f
. : . & aa
i 7h Seoeetas | Rie 7
= tis vows &
- . 5 7 7 . 7 on + _ ‘
. A > ein
= P 6 Shs eens -
y Spe - —_
a ks = a + a
. bteat ek nani 4?

AUSTRALASIAN Assoc. Abv. Sc. VoL. VII, 1898. PLATE XXV.

MUEHLENBECKIA CUNNINGHAMII, F. v. M.

Plants of the Rabbit Infested Country, S.W. Queensland.
J. F. BAILEY.

|

PLANTS INDIGENOUS TO NORTH-WEST OF VICTORIA. 455

No. 3—NOTES ON THE PLANTS INDIGENOUS TO
THE NORTH-WEST PORTION OF THE COLONY
OF VICTORIA.

By Sr. Exroy D’Atron.
(Read Tuesday, January 11, 1898.)

[ Abstract. |

Tue district to which this paper refers lies between the river
Wimmera and the South Australian Border, in the extreme north-
west corner of the colony, indicated on the map as the counties
of Lowan and Weeah. With the exception of the river Wim-
mera, this territory is totally devoid of anything like a river-bed
or water-course, with perhaps one or two exceptions, where com-
paratively short streams, flowing only in very wet winters for a
few months, empty themselves either into run-away holes, or
shallow depressions, which for a time may be regarded as swamps,
but which for several years in succession might have been dry
enough as to be put under cultivation. The river Wimmera is of
the usual typical Australian sort—a chain of water-holes. In
wet winters, when these holes are full, the water flows into Lake
Hindmarsh ; from thence the course of the creek may be traced
to Lake Albacutya, Wonga Lake, Pine Plains, and some miles to
the north of Pine Plains, where it loses itself amongst the sand-
hills of that region, which forms a belt before reaching the river
Murray, from the south. The district referred to is traversed
from east to west with belts of fertile, undulating country,
separated by strips of poor, sandy scrub, or thick mallee, varying
in width from 12 to 60 miles, the line of demarkation between the
good and the bad land being sharply defined. In the south-east
corner of the district Mount Arapiles rises, a conspicuous object,
abruptly out of the plain, toa height of about 1,060 feet, its
eastern side presenting a bold escarpment of red sandstone,
several hundred feet high. Standing about half a mile away is
a rock, which from its shape is called the Mitre rock. The summit
of this rock cannot be reached on account of its precipitous
nature, and in its clefts and crannies grow several species of
plants, which will be alluded to further on. The mount can be
ascended in many places, particularly from the west side, where
there is a deep gorge through which in wet seasons a small
stream trickles. In the precipitous eastern face of the mount
are two or three very steep, rocky clefts or gorges, and it is in
- such places that the rarest plants are to be found. This is the

456 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

only eminence that has any claim to be called a mount in the
whole north-west territory. Low ranges of sand-hills, covered
with scrub and porcupine grass, are the nearest approach to hills,
and these for the most part trend from south-east to north-west.
One of those strips of useless country, a spur of the South
Australian 90-mile desert, which extends in an unbroken line
due east to the Wimmera River, is called the “ Little Desert,”
as a distinction from the Great Desert, which is another spur
running nearly parallel to it some miles further north. One of
those scrubby ranges of low hills above referred to nearly connects
these two strips about half way between the Wimmera and the
South Australian Border, and this is known as the Lawloit
Range. Red sandstone and a conglomerate rock of iron-stone
nodules embedded in sandstone abounds om those ranges. In
many places extensive tracts of limestone exist, usually in con-
junction with iron-stone. Close to Mount Arapiles are several
large salt lakes, and in the northern parts large quantities of
gypsum exist, either as a white dry powder piled up in hillocks,
or as a solid, in the form of transparent flakes. The swamps
may be only regarded as such in wet seasons, and are nearly
always dry ; but within the last six or seven years most of them
got full to overflowing, and are now nearly all dry again. What
is regarded as the best agricultural land consists of the so-called
crab-holey plains, the soil being of a very clayey nature, thrown
up into low mounds. the depressions between being usually full
of water in the winter time, and of low loamy rises, with here
and there a few isolated sand-dunes covered with cypress pines
and scrub. Approaching the desert country, the soil is much of
the same clayey nature; but instead of being comparatively open
country, is for the most part thickly clothed with mallee scrub,
composed of various species of Eucalyptus, as well as other genera,
such as Dodonea, &c. The farmers have taken possession of this
fringe, and nearly the whole of it has been rolled down and put
under crop. As we get further in, the soil changes for the worst,
till at length we enter the desert proper, which has already been
described. Such is a brief description of the district to which
this paper alludes, and which is meant to convey to the reader an
idea of the nature of the various soils in which the plants flourish,
and the conditions under which they exist.

Taking the belt of good land first, we find that on the crab-
holey plains many plants exist which are not to be found any-
where else, namely, Swainsona procumbens and S. phacoides side
by side with the yellow-blossomed Zygophyllum glaucescens,
Sida corrugata, Ptilotus exaltatus, Kuphorbia Drummondit,
Kochia villosa, Kochia microphylla, Atriplex halimoides, A. semi-
baccatum, Bassia bicornis, Mimulus gracilis, may be found, eome
on the hardest and driest patches and others, particularly Mimulus

PLANTS INDIGENOUS TO NORTH-WEST OF VICTORIA. 457

gracilis, where the water lies the longest. Pimelea glauca is very
plentiful on some or most of the plains; also Eryngium rostratum,
but which, owing to the avidity with which sheep and cattle
devour it, is fast disappearing. The Composite family is largely
represented by several species of Brachycome, particularly B.
pachyptera, and by the following :—Minuria leptophylla, Calotis
scabiosifolia, C. hispidula, Myriocephalus rhizocephalus, Oraspedia
globosa (rare), C. chrysantha, Eclipta platyglossa, Helipterum
Dimorpholepis, Goodenia heteromera, Teucrium racemosum, and a
particularly bad weed, Helipterum corymbiflorum, which has
taken possession of whole tracts previously cultivated. Onsome
of the drier rises we are sure to find the lowly Gnaphaloidee
uliginosum, also Podolepis canescens in conjunction with its more
widely distributed relative P. rugata. Angianthus strictus is
another small plant which prefers the dry hard rises, and where
the Bursaria bushes abound, may be found growing amongst
them, Zviolaena tomentosa and Helipterum anthemoides, Comes-
perma ericinum, Stenopetalum velutinum, Chenopodium nitrart-
aceum, Haloragis odontocarpa and Chenopodium microphyllum.
Such plants as Helipterum pygmaeum, Toxanthus Muelleri, T.
perpusillus, occur on the loamier soils. The grasses for the most
part are represented by Danthonia penicillata, Agrostis Solandrt,
Bromus arenarius, and Poa Fordeana. The only timber trees
prevalent on these plains are the Bulloak (Casuarina glauca) and
a box (Eucalyptus largiflorens.) A species or variety of Casu-
arina, of low growth, possessed with a comparatively smooth bark
and long flexuous stems, occur in the stiffest soils at rare intervals.
The fruits differ materially from those of C. glawca and C. quadri-
valvis. Specimens sent to the late Baron von Mueller could not
be identified by him, and a doubt still exists as to whether it is a
variety or aseparate species. On the loamy rises and lighter
soils occur Menkea australis in conjunction with plants extending
to other parts of the colony, also Lappula concava. Calocephalus
Drummondi, and Quinettia Urvillei, plants hitherto thought to be
confined to West Australia were identified by Baron von Mueller
from specimens gathered in this locality by the writer. On the
drier soils we find the Bulloak still the prevailing timber tree, never
much more than 18 inches in girth and 50 feet high, associated
with a smooth-barked variety of Eucalyptus leucorylon, termed
Blue gum by the settlers. Insheltered spots may be found small
trees of the sweet Quandong, Santalum persicarium, also Hakea
leucoptera. These are, however, becoming rare, in consequence
of the land being put under cultivation. Amongst the plants
found on the scrubby rises may be found at rare intervals the
small purple-rayed composite Calotis cuneifolia. Two shrubby
species of Aster occur, but are restricted to separate and distinct
areas, namely, 4. pimeleoides and A. decurrens; the former a

458 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

rather attractive plant, with large white-rayed flowers, the latter
possessing white flowers of small size, and exuding a glutinous
secretion from both stems and leaves. In the open glades occur
large patches of Leptorrhynchus, Waitzia, and at rarer intervals
Helipterum floribundum, also the little yellow-flowered H. Jes-
senit, H. moschatun is also partial to such localities, but at still
rarer intervals. Hlachanthus pusillus is another small annual
composite peculiar to some loamy soils, generally growing in
patches. Cassinia arcuata occurs as a tall shrub in a few places,
but is fast dying out. As we get nearer to the desert country,
the scrub thickens, and mallee scrub proper is entered. The soil
for the most part still retains its clayey nature, resting ona
stratum of limestone gravel, with an occasional pine rise to break
the monotony. Deep depressions are numerous, and these gener-
ally terminate in a run-away hole. The land being suitable for
wheat-growing, is now, nearly all, brought under cultivation by
means of the mallee roller and stump-jump plough. Here may
be found some of the most typical plants of this region, such
as Myoporum platycarpum, a small tree, and, at rarer intervals,
M. deserti, a bushy shrub. Hriostemon pungens, and the pink
flowered EH. diformis, Bertya oleifolia, Dodonea bursarifolia,
Cassia eremophila, Acacia spinescens, A. rigens, A. calamrfolia,
A. acinacea, A. montana, A. hakeoides, A. salicina, A. trineura
(a species with seented wood), <A. Oswaldi, near Lake Hind-
marsh, A. rachybotrya on the sandy rises; a species regarded by
Baron von Mueller as a variety of A. montana, described by Mr.
Reader, a local botanist, as A. glanduligicarpa, and A. sclerophylla.
Another species discov ered by the writer has yet to be identified.
The late Baron von Mueller regarded it as a distinct species,
but deferred naming it until fruits were forthcoming, which, un-
fortunately, could not be procured in time. Mr. Luehmann con-
siders it to be a variety of A. lineata (A. runciformis of the
Census), or of A. montana. The Myrtaceous order is represented
by Lucalyptus gracilis, E. uncinata, E. incrassata, E. oleosa, and
L. Behriana, all passing under the general designation of Mallee
scrub. The last-named, being of a larger growth than the others, is
locally known as the Bull Mallee. Varieties of #. gracilis and LE.
tncrassata have been noticed bearing pink or scarlet flowers.
Choretrum chrysanthum is a bushy shrub sparsely distributed
throughout the district, rendered conspicuous amongst the serub
by the peculiar hue of its leafless branches, either a pale green, or
sometimes an almost golden yellow, making a striking contrast
with the sombre-hued foliage of the scrub with which it is associ-
ated. It may not be generally known that this plant, particularly
the young shoots, possess an acidity which is very acceptable to the
traveller who may happen torun short of water. Another species
having the same properties, C. glomeratum, is a straggling shrub

PLANTS INDIGENOUS TO NORTH-WEST OF VICTORIA. 459

of rarer occurrence. The desert cherry, Exocarpus spartea, may
be found either singly or in patches of several acres distributed
throughout the mallee fringe, also rendered conspicuous by its
peculiar-hued hair-like branches, a yellowish, and more often a
brownish-green. Here also occur Pimelea microcephala associ-
ated with Helichrysum decurrens and Aster tubuliflorus. The
composite, Evrechtites prenanthoides, closely related to the
Senecios, extends to this part of the colony, and is fairly common
where the scrub has been burnt. The order Goodeniaceae is
represented by five genera, and with the exception of a few by all
the species enumerated for the colony. The genus Goodenza is
particularly plentiful, and most of the species abound. G. varia
occurs sometimes as a trailer or partial climber amongst
other shrubs, but generally as a procumbent semi-shrub.
G. pusilliflora, a small annual species, hitherto overlooked as
extending to this part of the colony, is rare on the more open
dry patches, also G. gracilis in wet places in conjunction with
G. heteromera. Some peculiar forms of G. pinnatifida occur,
differing in appearance from the normal species, and two varieties
of G. geniculata, the one with large flowers and tomentose leaves,
and the other with smaller flowers and altogether a smaller plant,
may be found on the sandier patches. Logania lintfolia is rather
uncommon, and prefers sheltered spots. At rare intervals, isolated
plants of Lycium australe occur, and where the scrub had been
burntin recent years Solanum simile grows luxuriantly, S. esurtale
is a small species met with in swampy places, or land liable to
periodical inundations. The two species of Halgania recorded
from Victoria are both fairly plentiful on the light soils. Some
fine bushes of H. lavandulacea occur not far from Nhill on stiff
elay soil, while H. cyanea grows by the road-side, in more sandy
situations. HH. lavandulacea makes a fine show when in bloom,
the flowers being of a deep blue colour, and the foliage dark shining
green. It is, however, subject to a kind of blight, which blackens
the stems and leaves ; an exudation from the leaves renders it a
difficult plant to press properly. Both these species are disap-
pearing rapidly, under the advance of farming operations, and in
a few years there will be none left in this district. Hriostemon
sediflorus, a small shrub with canary yellow blossoms, appearing
early in the spring, and densely clothed with pretty foliage, also
preters fairly good soils, unlike its relative H. stenophyllus, which
delights in pure sand. H.capitatus is rare, and occurs only,
to the writer’s knowledge, in the scrub not far from Nhill. The
natural order, Labiatae, is represented by two forms of West-
ringia rigida, the one low and rigid, producing white flowers
garnished with a few purple spots in the throat, the other taller,
of a more lax growth, and producing purple or lavender-
coloured flowers ; also by two species of Prostanthera, P. coccinea,

460 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

and P. chlorantha. P. coccinea is fairly common as a small shrub,
putting forth showy scarlet blossoms; and the other of somewhat
similar growth, but producing flowers of a peculiar greenish
colour. Both these species are likely to disappear under the
united attacks of sheep and rabbits, as, notwithstanding the strong
aroma emitted by the leaves, they seem to be relished by those
animals. Yeucrium sessiliflorum is a species found only in the
northern areas onloamy soils. In a few localities may be found that
elegant little plant, Eremophila gibbosifolia, and on some heavier
soils, #. Brownii,asalowshrub. longifolia occursas a small tree,
of pleasing appearance. Of the Styphelias we have S. depressa,
hitherto recorded in the ‘Census of Australian Plants” as in-
habiting West and South Australia only. It occurs as a low,
very much branched shrub, of the sandier soils. In the month of
October, the plant produces large crops of berries, about the size
of small peas, which are eagerly sought for by the settlers for
the purpose of jam or jelly making. The jelly made from the
fruit, is well flavoured, and of a rich claret colour, although
when freshly gathered the fruit has a peculiar heavy, rather
musky, odour. The species is gradually dying out, asin gathering
the fruit the whole bush is generally pulled up as the speediest
method of getting at them. The climbers are represented by
Clematis microphylla and Billardiera cymosa, both of which have
a wide range. The usual parasites of the genus Cassytha are
prevalent everywhere in the scrub. As we advance further in
from the edge of the mallee fringe, the taller scrub gives place to
those of a lower growth, and to stunted forms of those already
enumerated ; the soil gets poorer in quality, so as to be worthless
for cultivation. On the sandhills, under the shade of the cypress
pines early in spring, large crops of such crucifers as Hrysimum
lasiocarpum and BH. curvipes abound, besides others common to
the whole colony. Amongst the scrub may be found Jonidium
(Hybanthus) floribundum, producing early in spring, profusions
of pretty blue and yellow violet-like blossoms. At very rare
intervals an almost pure white variety occurs. About the same
time, perhaps a little later, specimens of Boronia clavellifolia
may be gathered. This is particularly abundant in one locality
of the Little Desert towards its south-eastern extremity. A
variety of B. polygalifolia is rare in same locality, both flowers
and leaves, which are trifoliate, being smaller than the normal
species which inhabits the Grampians valleys. B. coerulescens is
more or less common on all sandy soils, the flowers ranging
in colour from pure white through all the shades of mauve,
violet and pink. Of the same order we have Zieria veronicea
occurring rather sparsely in the Little Desert, a small plant with
pale pink blossoms and smelling of Balm. On the gravelly rises
in a few localities specimens of Lasiopetalum Behrii may be

PLANTS INDIGENOUS TO NORTH-WEST OF VICTORIA. 461

gathered in conjunction with its more frequent relative L. Baueri.
Didymotheca pleiococca is partial to sandy flats, but is no where
very common. When done flowering the plant turns yellow or
reddish-yellow, and is easily distinguished amongst the scrub.
The order Leguminose is largely represented by the genera
Daviesia, Phyllota, Pultenaea, Dillwynia, Acacia, Kennedya, and
Aotus. Of these, a few are restricted to this district. Daviesia
pectinata, an extremely rigid, thorny species is partial to hard,
gravelly, soil,and Phyllota pleurandroides is a small shrub found
in all the desert country. Of the Pultengzas, P. laxiflora and
P. tenuifolia have the widest range, the latter occurs in two
varieties, one found only in a particular part of the Little Desert
growing to a height of 3 and 4 feet, the other, the normal, mostly
recumbent, and less densely clothed with leaves. Dillwynia
hispida, a low growing species, and D. patula, a wiry, much
branched, shrub are both rather local, and Aotus villosa, hitherto
enumerated as from other parts of the colony only, abounds in
all the northern scrub country. Acacia colletoides, a thorny
species, is not common on the outskirts of the deserts, and the
occurrence of A. Mitchellii in the Little Desert seems not to be
generally known. Large areas covered with Loudonia Behrii
occur, which, when in bloom, appears a mass of bright yellow.
Of the same order of plants we may enumerate Haloragis elata,
a tall, coarse species, delighting in sandy soils. The natural
order Myrtacex is largely represented by the genera Darwinia,
Baeckea, Kunzea, Melaleuca, Callistemon, and Eucalyptus. Dar-
winia micropetala grows only in one locality in the Little Desert,
and was first collected there by the author. It exists as a small
shrub, adorned with headlets of small, whitish flowers. One of
the most widely diffused plants is Baeckea crassifolia, and one of
the first to bloom in the scrub, the flowers varying in tint from
white to deep pink. B. Behrii is a tall species of sandier soils,
blooming late. Aunzea pomifera is a procumbent trailing plant,
forming large patches on the sandiest soils. Strange to say, that
although it produces blossoms freely, it seems never to perfect
its fruit. On the Coorong, and near the mouth of the Murray
River, the fruits are eaten, and are known as “ muntry ”’ berries.
In places liable to periodical inundations Callistemon coccineus
occurs, also a variety of Afelaleuca pustulata of dwarf habit,
associated with M. gibbosa. M. acuminata and M. Wilsonii are
both partial to sandy soils, the latter presenting a fine appear-
ance when in bloom. Eucalyptus hemiphloia is a species partial
to sandy country. The genus Cryptandra is represented by C.
subochreata, C. vewillifera, OC. leucophracta, and C. spathulata.
The two first-named are widely diffused, extending over the whole
of the desert country; the second abounds in three varieties,
one of which is comparatively tall, producing moderately large

462 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

heads of flowers; the other, a small variety of the first, and
the third is low-growing, and differs both in shape of leaf and
time of flowering from the other two. C. spathulata was sup-
posed to be confined to South Australia; but the writer gathered
specimens some miles east of the South Australian Border line.
A fifth species, collected by the writer, for the first time in Vic-
toria, is supposed to be identical with CO. bifida, a species hitherto
known only from Kangaroo Island. Baron von Mueller was
unable to decide whether it was a new species or not, in the
absence of ripe fruit, which, unfortunately, could not be obtained.
The plant, to the writer’s knowledge, exists only on one range in
the Little Desert, which has been recently swept by bush fires,
and all plants of the Oryptandra are, therefore, destroyed. There
are only two or three representatives of the order, Umbelliferae,
to be found in the desert country, such as Didiscus pusillus, and
Aanthosia dissecta; the latter being local in the Little Desert.
On most sandy rises grow the Quandong (Santalum (Fusanus)
accuminatum), as a small tree of drooping habit. The Grevilleas
are well represented by the following:—G. pterosperma, G.
Huegelii, G. lavandulacea, G. aquifolium, and G. rosmarintfolia.
The two first named are confined to the scrub country of the
Great and Little Desert, G. Hucgelii being noted for the bril-
liancy of its flowers. The composite order is represented by a
large number of genera, particularly the Aster family A. exul;
A. Huegelii, and A. picridifolius being the most noticeable. The
last named is a comparatively new species, bearing purple-rayed
flowers. A. ewul is a robust species, bearing large purple-rayed
flowers, and emitting an unpleasant smelling, sticky exudation.
Oalotis cymbacantha occurs only in the northern deserts, and bears
large, yellow-rayed flowers. Podolepis Siemssenia is a graceful
little species from the northern deserts. Waitzia corymbosa is
fairly common on the sandhills west of Lakes Hindmarsh and
Albacutya, and presents a gay appearance when in flower. Humea
sqguamata, aspecies first discovered by the writer, is fairly common,
as a tall shrub in all the desert country. Hriochlamys Behrit is
known only from one locality near the Wimmera River. A plant
also noticed in the Grampians, extending to the desert country
of this region, namely, Senecio magnificus, a large flowering species,
the leaves of which used to be cooked and eaten as a vegetable by
the station hands. One species of Dampiera, D. marifolia, may
be regarded as strictly confined to this part of the colony. Also
Scaevola spinescens, a prickly bush, bearing straw-coloured flowers;
rather rare. Scaevola aemula is common on the northern sand-
hills. The solanaceous plant, Anthocercis myosotidea, is only
to be found on the sandhills at and near Lakes Hindmarsh and
Albacutya, as a small herbaceous plant, bearing purple flowers.
Of the order, Schrophularing, we have Stemodia Morgania, to be

PLANTS INDIGENOUS TO NORTH-WEST OF VICTORIA, 463

found here and there in sandy, springy soils. This plant is con-
sidered to be poisonous, as neither sheep nor cattle will touch it,
although it remains green when everything else is burnt up.
Limosella Curdieana is an aquatic, found in most permanent
waterholes. The number of Epacridaceous plants inhabiting the
scrub country is also large, but the only one which may be
regarded as entirely confined to this region is Styphelia cordi-
Solia, a tall growing species, with small flowers, and cordate leaves,
of very rare occurrence. S, Sonderi is found widely diffused.
The conifers are represented by Callitris verrucosa and O. cupres-
siformis, both of frequent occurrence. The grasses confined to
this region are not very many, the most noticeable being Panicum
decompositum, Newrachne alopecuroides, Aristida Behriana, Stipa
elegantissima, Stipa aristiglumis, Poa ramigera in swampy places,
Diplachne fusca, Triodia irritans and Triraphis mollis. The order
Orchidew is also well represented, but only by species extending
to other parts of the colony.

The plants which are to be found on and around Mount
Arapiles, but extending no further west, are for the most part
identical with those found in similar situations in the Grampian
Mountains. A few are, however, not existing to the writer’s
knowledge, anywhere else, but at Mount Arapiles. In the
rockiest and most inaccessible gullies, may be found the mal-
vaceous plant, Howittia trilocularis ; a tall shrub, bearing purple
blossoms. On the summit of the mountain grow large bushes of
the showy Eriostemon obovalis, and in the scrub around the base
are a few scattered bushes of Prostanthera spinosa, a thorny
species of low growth bearing large white flowers dotted with
purple in the throat. At the base grow also large clumps of
Acacia rupicola, a species which when bruised emit a pleasant
scent. Phyllanthus Gunnii occurs sparsely as a graceful small tree
in the principal gully on the west side of the Mount. On paying
a subsequent visit to the locality, it was found that the shrubs
had disappeared, being killed by rabbits or bush fires. Large
trees of Pittosphorum phillyreoides grow on the limestone rises
not far from the base ot the Mount, having stems quite 18 inches
in diameter. In the clefts of the Mitre rock grow a few bunches
of Psilotum triquetrum, a plant found nowhere else in Victoria,
specimens of which were first gathered by the writer and sub-
mitted to Baron von Mueller, and compared with some which he
gathered himself in the Port Jackson district many years ago.
A variety of Correa speciosa of tall growth with whitish flowers
bearing some resemblance to O. Lawrenciana of the Grampians
occurs in all the gorges, and in the crannies of the rocks grow a
large variety of Alternanthera triandra. LEpacris impressa is
represented by a variety with larger and deeper coloured
flowers than those of the sort prevalent in the Little Desert

464 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

where any but white-flowering plants are rarely met with.
Senecio odoratus and Sambucus Gaudichaudiana occur also in
the gorges. One large bush of Adriana quadripartita used to
grow on a sand rise not far from the Mount, the only one
apparently in the district. A certain class of plants occur only
in the open country, north of the Great Desert, between it and
the Murray River. This open country consists of plains, inter-
spersed with sand ridges, covered with pines, and belts of mallee.
Limestone and gypsum abound, the latter, as before described,
mostly in little round hillocks. On the plains grow bushes
of Nitraria Schoberi, and on the drier soils may be found the
various salt bushes suchas Atriplex nummularium, nearly extinct;
A. rhagodioides, A. leptocarpum, and A. holocarpum; also Kochia
stelligera, K. brevifolia, and K. ciliata. Tribulus terrestris 18
common on the lower-lying lands, and is credited with laming
sheep. Plagianthus microphyllus and M. spicatus delight in the
salty soils; but neither are very common. Further north towards
the Murray, specimens of Heterodendron oleefolium, a small tree
or rather bush, may be obtained; but they seem to flower at rare
intervals, and there is never any fruit observed. The genus
Cassia, is represented by C. Sturtii and C. desolata, but not in
any great quantity. (C. Sturtz is particularly abundant close to
Lake Albacutya. Acacia microcarpa, Acacia farinosa, and A.
homalophylla are occasionally to be met with. Kxocarpus aphylla,
an unattractive looking small tree, is common on the rises. At
rare intervals may be met small clumps of Capparis Mitchelli,
which is regarded as the showiest plant of the district.

Of the composites, we have here Athrixia tenella, Aster cal-
careus, Senecio platylepis, not to be found south of the Great
Desert. Logania nuda exists sparsely on the scrubby patches.
The minute annual Drymaria jiliformis, hitherto known from
South and West Australia only, was first discovered as new to
this colony by the writer, who gathered specimens in this region,
as well as subsequently in the more southern scrubs. Aquatic
plants, except along the Murray, are not numerous, but in most
permanent dams or reservoirs, such plants as Oftelia ovaltfolia,
Valisneria spiralis, Hydrilla verticillata, and Alisma plantago
have established themselves, besides other plants found in the more
southern parts of the colony. On salt marshes, in a few places,
Heliotropium curassavicum may be found growing, associated with
the following :—Salicornia robusta, S. arbuscula, and Muehlen-
beckea polygonoides in the fresh water patches. Glycyrrhiza psora-
loides is a species partial to the dry bed of swamps. Lobelva con-
color and Isotoma axillaris abound in all wet places. Amongst those
omitted to be mentioned as confined to certain parts of the Little
Desert, is Thysanotus Baueri, a species bearing some resemblance
to T. tuberosus of the Grampians. Two species of fresh water alge

PLANTS INDIGENOUS TO NORTH-WEST OF VICTORIA, 465

(Nitella), have been noticed in permanent dams of water, one of
which has an offensive odor communicable to the water. Besides
these already enumerated we have the following plants estab-
lished in the district which are common to other parts of the colony,
but which have not been as yet enumerated amongst those extend-
ing to the north-west portion of the colony :—Viola betonicifolia,
Tetratheca ciliata, Pseudanthus ovalifolius, Beyeria viscosa, Stack-
housia viminea, Sagina apetala, Gompholobium Huegelii, Hovea
heterophylla, Loranthus celastroides, Lagenophora Emphysopus,
Xanthorrhea minor and X. cst Cryptandra tomentosa,
Alchemilla vulgaris, Acaena sanguisorbae, Haloragis micr antha,
Lhotzkya genetylloides, Myr lophyllum pedunculatum, Exocarpus
stricta, Opercularia varia, Lobelia simplicicaulis, Candollea per-
pusilla, Cuscuta tasmanica, Polypompholyx tenella, Prostanthera
rotundifolia, Verbena officinalis, Styphelia adscendens, S. humi-
Susa, S. strigosa, S. rufa, S. Woodsit, 8S. serrulata, S. scoparia,
Brachyloma daphnoides, B. ciliatum, Dipodiun punctatum, Spiran-
thes australis, Thelymitra ixiodes, TPhelymitra antennifera,
Calochilus Robertsoni, Corysanthes pruinosa, Pterostylis nutans,
P. vittata, P. mutica, Calectasia cyanea, Xerotes Thunbhergit,
Ruppia maritima, Trithuria submersa, Lepyrodia interrupta,
Scirpus nodosus, Cladium radula, Lepturus cylindricus, Aira
cespitosa, Danthonia carpoides, Grammitis rutifolia. The fol-
lowing plants also occur plentifully, and which are described
as inhabiting the whole of the colony excepting, perhaps,
the eastern and north-eastern district : :-—Myosurus minimus,
Ranunculus lappaceus, R. rivularis, R. parviflorus, Hibbertia
densiflora, H. stricta, H. fasciculata, Papaver aculeatum, and the
introduced P. zneisa, Nasturtium t-rrestris, Cardamine laciniata,
Capsella elliptica, Lepidium ruderale, Bursaria spinosa, Chetr-
anthera linearis, Drosera glanduligera, D. auriculata, D. Whit-
takerti, D. Menziesii, Elatine americana, Hypericum japonicum,
Oomespera calymega, Correa speciosa, Zygophyllum Billardieri,
Linum marginale, Geranium carolinianum, Evodium cygnorum,
Pelargonium australe, P. Rodneyanum, Ovxalis cor niculata,
Lavatera plebeja, Thomasia petalocalyx, Poranthera microphylla,
Beyeria opaca, Parietaria debilis, Casuarina quadrivalvis, C.
distyla, Dodonaea viscosa, three varieties; Stackhousia linariifolia,
Frankenia laevis, two varieties, one of which was regarded by
Hooker as a distinct species, under the name of F. thymoides or
FE. pauciflora, Claytonia calyptrata, C. pygmaea, C. australasica,
C. corrigoloides, ‘Stellaria pungens, S. multiflora, 8. flaccida,
Spergularia rubra, Ptilotus macrocephalus, P. erubescens, P.
spathulatus, Rhagodia Billardieri, R. nutans, Chenopodium carina-
tum, C. microphyllum, Enchylaena tomentosa, Suaeda maritima,
Salsola kali, Rumex Brownii, Polygonium prostratum, P. hydro-
piper, Muehlenbeckia adpressa, M. Cunninghami, Daviesia ulicina,

AG

466 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Eutaxia empetrifolia, two varieties, the one prostrate, and the
other tall and upright; Dillwynia ericifolia, D. floribunda,
Platylobium obtusangulum, Templetonia Muelleri, Kennedya pros-
trata, K. monophylla, Acacia diffusa, A. armata, A. pyenantha,
A. myrtifolia, A. melanoxylon, Tillea verticillaris, T. pur-
purata, T. macrantha, Epilobium tetragyna, Myriophyllum vari-
folium, M. elatinoides, Callitriche verna, Calycothrix tetragona
(one variety of this produces deep crimson flowers later in the
season than the others), Zhryptomene ciliata, Leptospermum
levigatum, L. myrsinoides, L. scoparium, Melaleuca parviflora,
Eucalyptus capitellata, E. rostrata, Hydrocotyle laxiflora, H.
eallicarpa, Daucus brachiatus, Leptomeria aphylla, Exocarpos
cupressiformis, Loranthus exocarpi, L. linophyllus, L. pendula,
Isopogon ceratophyllus, Adenanthos terminalis, Comosperma patens,
Persoonia juniperina, Hakea rostrata, Banksia marginata, B.
ornata, Pimelia humilis, P. serpyllifolia, P. flava, P. curviftora,
P. octophylla, P. phylicoides, P. stricta, Asperula oligantha,
Galium umbrosum, Lagenophora Billardieri, Brachycome debilis,
B. ciliaris, B.multifida, B. exilis, B. collina, B. graminea, Minuria
leptophylla, Calotis scabiosifolia, Aster ramulosus, A. lepidophyllus,
A. microphyllus, Vittadinia australis, Stuartina Muellera,
Gnaphalium luteo-album, G. japonicum, G'. indutum, Podotheca
angustifolia, Podolepis acuminata, Leptorrhynchus squamatus, L.
pulchellus, L. eiongatus, L. medius, Helipterum incanum, H.
exiguum, Helichrysum Baxteri, H. leucopsidium, H. Blandowskia-
num, H. apiculatum, H. semipapposum (in two varieties), H.
lucidum, Rutidosis pumilio, Millotia tenuifolia, Calocephalus
citreus, Craspedia Richea, Cotula coronopifolia, Centipeda Cun-
ninghamit, O. orbicularis, Senecio lautus, S. brachyglossus, Erech-
tites hispidula, Cymbonotus Lawsonianus, Microseris Forstert,
Lobelia pratioides, Wahlenbergia gracilis, Candollea serrulata, C.
despecta, Leewenhookia dubia, Brunonia australis, Dampiera
lanceolata, D. rosmarinifolia, Goodenia geniculata, Velleya para-
doxa, Limnanthemun exaltatum, Sebaea ovata, Erythrea australis,
Mitrasaeme paradoxa, M. distylis, Plantago varia, Samolus repens,
Convolvulus erubescens, Dichondra repens, Wilsonia rotundifolia,
Solanum nigrum, Nicotiana suaveolens, Mimulus repens, Gratiola
pedunculata, Limosella aquatica, Veronica calycina, V. peregrina,
Buphrasia Brownii, Utricularia dichotoma, Cynoglossum suaveolens,
Mentha saturejoides, Ajuga australis, Styphelia virgata, Brachy-
loma ericoides, Diuris maculata, Prasophyllum patens, P. fuscum,
Microtis porrifolia, Pterostylis barbata, Lyperanthus nigri-
cans, Eriochilus autumnalis, Oaladenia Patersoni, C. carnea, C.
coerulea O. deformis, Glossodia major, Hypoxis glabella, Dianella
vevoluta, Wurmbea (Anguillaria) dioica, Burchardia umbellata,
Bulbine bulbosa, B. semibarbata, Thysanotus Patersoni, Caesia
vittata, O. parviflora, Chamescilla corymbosa, Trycoryne elatior,

FLORA OF BATHURST. 467

Arthropodium strictum, A. minus, A. paniculata, Bartlingia
sessiliflora, Xerotes effusa, X. micrantha, X. leucocephala, X.
Thunbergi Typha augustifolia, Lemna trisulea, L. minor, Triglo-
chin centrocarpa, PT. mucronata, T. procera, Potomogeton natans,
Juncus planifolius J. bufonius, J. communis, J. pallidus, Centro-
lepis polygyna, C. glabra, C. aristata C. strigosa, Cyperus vaginatus,
Scirpus fluitans, S. cartilagineus, S. lacustris, Schanus apogon,
Lepidosperma laterale, L. carpoides, Cladium junceum, Anthis-
tiria ciliata, Ehrharta stipoides, Stipa semibarbata, S. crinita,
Pappophorum commune, Poa cespitosa, P. fluitans, Distichlis
maritima, Eragrostis Brownti, Azolla filiculoides, Marsillea quadri-
folia, Ophioglossum vulgatum, Cheilanthes tenuifolia, and Pteris
aquilina.

There are still about 320 species of plants, found only in the
north-west portion of the colony, which hitherto have not been
noticed by the writer, bes which probably oceur in parts not yet
visited by him.

The number of species collected altogether from the district
by the writer was 523, which were named and classified from
time to time by the late Baron von Mueller, and to whose un-
selfish aid, and untiring energy, the author owes what knowledge
he has acquired of the potany ‘of Victoria.

No. 4.-NOTES ON THE FLORA OF BATHURST AND
ITS CONNECTION WITH THE GEOLOGY OF THE
DISTRICT.

By W. J. Ciuntes Ross, B.Sc., Lond., F.G.S.

(Read Monday, Janwary 10, 1898.)

TuHeE subject of local floras is of considerable interest to the botanist,
especially if, in addition to merely enumerating the plants found
in a district, a study is made of the causes which produce the
variation from the floras of other centres, and if observations are
made of the variations within the district itself.

There can be little doubt that climate has a predominant in-
fluence on the flora of a district ; including under the term climate
the results due to elevation, average temperature and rainfall,
prevailing winds, &e.

There are other agencies, however, which help to influence the
flora, and among these the soil and drainage of the country are
specially notable. But the soil i is closely related to the geology of

468 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D,

a district, so that the geologist and botanist may mutually help
one another to a considerable extent. The botanist, by indicating
the limits within which certain plants are found, may assist the
geologist in drawing the lines between different formations, if it
can be shown that the plants in question affect particular classes
of rocks. The geologist, on the other hand, can point out to the
botanist the different characters of the rocks at various places, and
thus help to explain the reason for what had previously only been

observed. .

To obtain, however, such a critical acquaintance with the flora
of a district as to enable one to speak with confidence as to the
limits within which particular species of plants are found requires
a thorough knowledge of the country, and such as can hardly be
obtained without a continuous residence for several years within
the district. If followed up systematically, the results are, never-
theless, likely to be both interesting and useful, and it is as a
slight contribution to the study of local floras in connection with
geology that these notes, relating to a particular district of New
South Wales, are written.

Before dealing with the plants of the Bathurst district, and
their distribution within the same, it will be well to consider
briefly what we may expect to find out about them. It is pro-
verbially difficult to prove a negative; and the mere fact that a
species of plant, well-known at one place, which we may call A,
has not been recorded from another, B, does not prove that it may
not be found at B subsequently. Seasons vary, and a plant may
be common one year and very rare the next. Again, many plants
have only a short period of flowering, and unless seen at that
time are very liable to be overlooked or confounded with other
species. Considerations such as these inculcate caution in arriving
at decisions. Nevertheless, if, after working for some years, one
finds that certain plants are almost always obtainable at one place,
while on a different class of rock in the neighbourhood they have
never been found, one may reasonably say that they are absent
from the latter. Moreover, the occurrence of one or two isolated
specimens at B would not entitle us to class it with A as a
favourable locality for the plant. Knowing how widely seeds
may be diffused, it could hardly be expected that a plant would
not occasionally spring up in an unfavourable locality, but if it
failed to maintain a footing it would be good evidence that the
soil and surroundings were not sufficiently favourable to enable it
to succeed in the battle of life. As an illustration of what is
meant, the case of the well-known Cornish heath, Hrica vagans,
may be cited. This plant has a very limited range in England,
being almost confined to the Serpentine in the neighbourhood of
Lizard Point. It is said to occur occasionally on Devonian rocks
in Cornwall, but is not common there, so that, if found growing

FLORA OF BATHURST. 469

luxuriantly, it would indicate probable Serpentine in the imme-
diate neighbourhood. Similarly, in the valley of the Thames, one
can often predict an outcrop of London clay by seeing a clump of
large trees, elms or oaks, growing together, since those trees are
not nearly so common on the subjacent lower London Tertiaries.

PHYSIOGRAPHY OF BATHURST.

Tn order to understand some of the peculiarities of the Bathurst
flora, a brief account of the physiography of the district may be
given. The city of Bathurst is at a height of about 2,200 feet
above sea-level, and is at the centre of a tract of undulating country
known as the Bathurst Plains. At a distance of about 10
miles from the city, hills rise all round the plains, and reach a
height of from 1,000 to 2,000 feet above them. ‘The climate is
generally dry, with a moderate but very variable rainfall, ranging
from 15 to 34 inches in the year. There are considerable fluctu-
ations in temperature, the average daily range being greater than
that of almost any other place in New South Wales. The winters
are of moderate severity, the temperature sometimes falling below
20° F. for several nights in succession, while the summer tempera-
ture may reach 105° in the shade. The rainfall is irregularly dis-
tributed throughout the year. Under these conditions, it need
hardly be said that the flora is essentially different from that of
the coastal districts of the colony, with their equable temperature
and heavier rainfall, and one would not expect to find it very rich
or varied. Geologically, there are three distinct formations within
the district. These are—1l Granite, 2 Silurian, 3 Devonian.
The whole of the plains is included in the granite area. In
places the granite is covered with beds of drift gravel, and in the
immediate neighbourhood of Bathurst there are hills—-Bald Hills,
Mount Apsley, Mount Pleasant—capped with basalt. The Bald
Hills form by far the most extensive of these outliers of basalt, and
certain plants occur there which have not been found on the granite.
The granite itself is much decomposed over most of the area, but
compact veins and bosses occur in places, and the rock is there seen
to be made up of quartz, felspar, black mica, and hornblende, with
accessory minerals, such as apatite, sphene, and others. Near the
boundary the character of the granite changes somewhat, especially
on the west of Bathurst. This change in the granite seems to be
accompanied by a change in the flora which is richer there than
over the rest of the plains. Silurian rocks form most of the hills
which surround the plains. They consist of slaty and schistose
rocks, with beds of limestone in places. Quartz reefs are not
uncommon and mineral veins of various kinds also occur, including
some of copper ore which have been worked to a considerable
extent. Silver ores are also found at several localities,

470 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Devonian rocks rest on the silurian to the east of Bathurst.
They are mostly grits and quartzites, and are rarely found ata
height of less than 1,000 feet above Bathurst.

The Bathurst Plains have been cultivated for the last sixty
years, and although the soil does not appear promising at first
sight, good crops of wheat are obtained in favourable years. Most
of the Silurians and Devonians remain in the condition of bush,
but they have been cultivated in places, and there are some
successful orchards on these rocks.

FLORA OF BATHURST.

When a visitor comes to Bathurst and proceeds to examine the
flora he is likely to think that it is in a state of abject poverty.
This does not apply to the actual number of plants, for the ground
is often covered with flowers, but to the variety and interest of
the flora, most of the plants being common and widely diffused
weeds, such as Geranium dissectum, Helichrysum apiculatum,
Wahlenbergia gracilis, Goodenia pinnatifida, together with the
introduced Medicago maculata. More careful examination at
different seasons of the year shows that a considerable addition
may be made to the meagre list, but, after years of searching,
one has to admit that the flora is decidedly limited in variety.
As much of the country has been so long under cultivation this
might account for the destruction of the native flora, but there
are some patches of bush, and the slopes of the Bald Hills, which
have only been lightly grazed, so that it is not hkely that many
species have been exterminated. On approaching the boundaries
of the granite in certain directions one finds some new plants, but
the variety is still limited until one reaches the Silurian rocks.
Then a change is at once noted. Instead of open land, with
scattered trees and well grassed, one finds numerous shrubs and
stunted gum-trees, with detached tussocks of coarse grass and
much bare ground. Although the soil appears to be comparatively
barren and decidedly poorer than the granite, yet one finds a much
greater variety of plants, which are for the most part quite distinct
from those met with on the granite. There is some difference in
the flora on the different sides of Bathurst, yet for the most part,
the Silurian flora is of the same type all round the district, although
the rocks vary considerably, sometimes being slightly altered slates
and phyllites, sometimes true mica schists, and highly mineralized,
with the limestone changed to dolomite.

As one passes along the slopes to the east of Bathurst, where
the Silurian rocks are partly covered with downwash from the
Devonians,.the flora appears to become poorer. On the Devonian
rocks themselves the gullies are fairly well covered with plants,

—

FLORA OF BATHURST. 471

including some not found on the other formations. When we
reach the top of the rise to the east of Batburst, we find that
instead of detached hills there is really a table-land, intersected by
deep gullies. There is little variety in the plants, but dense
scrubs occur in places formed of various plants, notably Daviesva
latifolia.

Collections have been made from all the formations, but most
completely from the granite. The Silurians cover a wide area,
and as they ouly commence at an average distance of at least 10
miles from Bathurst, one has not the opportunity of visiting a
number of different localities at various seasons of the year, and
for several successive years, as one would have if they were nearer
the city. The same, but rather greater, difficulties attend the
study of the Devonian flora. It is therefore likely that a good
many additional names will eventually be added to the lists which
have been compiled. Nevertheless, most of the plants growing
on the different formations have probably been collected, and at any
rate enough specimens to enable one to draw some conclusions as to
the distribution of the flora of the district. Of course one is deal-
ing with a comparatively limited area, but Silurian and Devonian
rocks, and also granites, of similar character to those found around
Bathurst are widely distributed throughout this colony, and also
occur in Victoria, so that those who have the opportunity may
continue the observations in other centres.

We may, therefore, now pass on to consider some of the pecu-
liarities of the flora in detail, and, to illustrate the variation of the
flora on the different formations, may take a few typical groups
of plants.

The wattles form an interesting and characteristic series. Acacia
dealbata, as might be expected, is common on the granite, the
Silurian and the Devonian, so that it is useless for distinguishing
the rocks. Around Bathurst itself few wattles occur. A. implexa
flourishes on the Bald Hills, and 4. crassiuscula occurs on the
drift and granite at one or two places. With these exceptions,
we do not meet with any wattles until we approach the boun-
dary or actually pass on to the Silurian. Then we find a con-
siderable variety. On low ground, near streams, A. vestita grows
well ; on the Silurian schists to the south of Bathurst A. armata
sometimes forms dense scrubs, but is rare or absent on the hills to
the east of the city. A. diffusa is widely diffused on the Silurian,
while A. /aniyera, A. vomeriformis, A. discolor, A. neglecta, and
A. subporosa are other species on the same series of rocks. A
small-leaved wattle, A. buaifolia or A. lunata, is often very
common, but rarely bears fruit, and sometimes appears to be
killed by a parasite. On the Devonian very few wattles have
been found ; but A. decurrens, var. normalis has so far
noted on those rocks.

472 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Of Leguminous plants other than wattles there is a considerable
variety. Indigofera australis is common on the Silurian just
outside the granite, but has not been found on that rock, although
the variety minor is not uncommon there. Swainsona phacifolia
and 8. lessertifolia are very common on the granite, much rarer
on the Silurian. S. galegifolia has been found at one locality on
the Silurian. Gompholobium Huegelii is common on the Silurian,
absent from the granite. At least three specimens of Pultencea
are found on the Silurian, but none on the granite. Daviesia
genistifolia occurs on the Silurian, but is not common, while on
the granite, the variety colletioides is found. It is interesting to
note that A. Cunningham many years ago mentioned this variety
as occurring on ‘forest land near Bathurst.” D. latifolia is
widely spread, and has been found on granite, Silurian and Devo-
nian, but is not common on the two former. The two small
Desmodiums, D. brachypodiwm and D. varians, have only been
noted on the granite, where they are common, but may occur
outside it.

Passing on to the Myrtecee, the gums have not been
thoroughly worked out yet on the Silurian or Devonian. On the
granite, Hucalyptus melliodora and EH. Stuartiana are common,
and L. tereticornis also occurs. LH. goniocalyx has been found near
the boundary of the granite to the west of Bathurst. On the
Silurian, the following may be mentioned :—Z. polyanthema, E.
eiminalis, EH. macrorrhyncha, EL. hemastoma, and on the Devo-
nian, #. eximia, although this species has not been found close to
Bathurst.

Of other Myrtacee there are few. Calythrix tetragona forms
scrubs on the Silurian, but does not occur on the granite, and
there are one or two Leptospermums.

The Proteacez are poorly represented in the district. Banksia
marginata grows on the basalt of the Bald Hills, but has not
hitherto been found elsewhere. Gvrevillea arenaria, var. canescens,
grows on the granite, near the boundary, and on the Silurian ;
while two more species, G. acanthifolia and G. floribunda, are
found on the latter. Hakea acicularis occurs on Silurian and
Devonian and H. microcarpa on Silurian and the granite of the

Bald Hills.

Of the Epacridez scarcely any have been found in the granite,
although one or two may occur about the boundary, but on the
Silurian they are abundant in number, but not very varied.
Lewcopogon virgatus appears to specially flourish near quartz reefs,
while Leucopogon lanceolatus has only been found on the Devonian.
Styphelia laeta and Brachyloma daphnoides are two of the com-
monest plants on the Silurian, but do not appear to grow on the
granite.

FLORA OF BATHURST. 473

The Composite are very abundant in number, and include a
fair number of species, but for the most part are not very dis-
tinctive. One case may be mentioned, however. Helichrysum
apiculatum is perhaps our most abundant weed, and occurs every-
where, but H. bracteatum, while it grows well on the Silurian,
appears to be entirely absent from the granite. In the neigh-
bourhood of Bathurst the succession of Composite almost mark
the seasons. Cymbonotus Lawsoniana, with its broad leaves and
yellow flowers, is the first to appear. Then this disappears, and
Microseris Forsteri takes its place. A little later the ground is
covered with one or two species of Brachycome, which do not last
long, while Helipterwm incanum and Helichrysum apiculatum
last through the whole summer.

Of Rhamnacee, Pomaderris apetala has only been found on
the Devonian, while ?. prunifolia occurs on the Silurian, Cryp-
tandra amara on granite and Silurian, and Discaria australis on
the same, but uncommon. The Orchids form an interesting group.
Several species of Diuris are found on the granite near Bathurst:
in the early spring D. aurea and D. sulphurea, and later, D.
elongata. These are uncommon on the Silurian, while D. maculata
is common on the Silurian, but very rare on the granite. GJossodia
major is very common on the Silurian and near the boundary of
the granite, but never seems to occur near Bathurst. Two species
of Thelymitra, T. ixioides, and 7’, longifolia, are common on the
Silurian, as are two Caladenias, C. dilatata, and C. dimorpha,
but not one of these occurs on the granite, or if they do, are very
rare.

If one came upon Stypandra glauca, one of the Liliaces, grow-
ing freely, it would be good evidence near Bathurst that one was
on the Silurian, or very close to it, since it is not found en the
granite; but care would be required not to confuse a Dianella,
of somewhat similar habit, with it, since this is not uncommon on
the granite.

A tolerably complete collection of grasses from the granite has
been made. The Silurian and Devonian have not been so com-
pletely worked, but the grasses on the granite appear to differ
considerably from those on the other formations. Altogether
seventeen species have been obtained from the granite, of which
only three or four occur on the Silurian as well, while four species
have been recorded from the Silurian alone.

Many more particulars might be given, but enough has been
said to show that the difference between the flora of the granite
and that of the Silurian is very marked. Of course one can hardly
suppose that plants have special affinities for rocks of a particular
age ; but if we find that rocks of similar composition and age in
different parts of the colony have similar floras, an important step

474 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

towards classifying our rocks will have been made. There can be
little doubt that the main cause determining the flora of the dis-
trict, apart from climate, is the character of the soil, but it does
not follow that an ordinary analysis of a soil will indicate its fitness
for particular plants. An analysis, as a rule, only furnishes the
percentage of acids and bases which are present in weighable
quantities inanaveragesample. But there may be rarer elements
present in small quantities, and these are not usually looked for,
although they may be of importance to some plants. The ash of
tobacco is said nearly always to contain lithium, so that this
element must be widely diffused, but it is not likely to be looked
for in an analysis, and the same is true of other elements, such as
fluorine. Something has been done to trace the association of
certain elements with particular species of plants, but, with few
exceptions, very few definite results appear to have been obtained.
Mr. 8. B. J. Skertchly has recently treated the subject of the, so-
called, copper plant, Polycarpea spirostylis, F.v.M., which is said
to accompany copper lodes, in his report (Geological Survey,
Brisbane, 1897) on the Tin mines of Watsonville, Queensland,
in which he also alludes to some literature in reference to
similar cases. So far, the writer has not noticed anything of
the kind, except the apparent abundance of Leucopogon virgatus
in the neighbourhood of quartz reefs, which may be only a local
peculiarity.

Another point worthy of consideration in dealing with the
distribution of plants, especially in relation to their abundance or
scarcity in particular seasons, is the action of parasites, animal or
vegetable.

The parasites of cultivated plants have been carefully studied,
although even with these it is not always easy to say why they
are so much commoner in some seasons than in others. Much
less attention has been bestowed on the parasites of wild plants,
and yet they are equally interesting to the botanist. To take the
case of a common weed; a few years ago the mallows, which are
very common at the sides of roads and in small paddocks about
Bathurst, were extensively attacked by a rust, Puccinia malva-
cearum, which also attacked Hollyocks and other plants belonging
to the same order, Malvacee. For several years the mallows
appeared to be not nearlyso common. This year, 1897, they have
been excessively abundant, but do not seem to be rusted.

Another case noted by the writer is that of a Cassytha, pro-
bably C. glabella. This parasite attacks several kinds of plant,
but seems to be selective in the choice of its host. Last year, 1896,
a small-leaved wattle, probably A. buwxifolia, was very abundant,
as a shrubby plant, on the Silurian in early spring. Later hardly
one was to been seen alive. Many had evidently been badly
attacked by Cassytha, and may have been killed by it. A. diffusa,

FLORA OF BATHURST. 4T5

although growing on the same ground, did not seem to be touched
by the parasite, although it was found on a Pultenea and a
Dodonea, two very different plants. They, however, did not seem
to be injured much. This spring, 1897, very little Cassytha is to
be seen, and A. buxifulia is also scarce. The latter are small
and stunted, but do not seem to be attacked, the only specimens
of Cassytha obtained being on a Leptospermum and a Brachyloma.
A much stouter Cassytha sometimes attacks gum-trees, and seems
to kill them, but is uncommon, and I have not found it in flower
or fruit.

A mistletoe, Loranthus pendulus, is not uncommon on gum-trees
growing on the Silurian, but I have not found it on those growing
on the granite, nor have I determined whether it favours particular
species of Eucalypts in preference to others.

Another matter worthy of investigation is the excessive abund-
ance of a particular weed one year and its almost entire absence
the next. In the early part of 1896, the gardens and paddocks
around Bathurst were completely overgrown by the introduced
weed Amarantus paniculaius, Linn. It seemed to drive out almost
all other weeds, and was noted in many other districts. So far
as Bathurst is concerned it was not very common before 1896,
although it is said to have been known in the Kempsey district
for twenty years.* One naturally expected to see it equally
abundant the following year, but very few plants were to be seen.
The seasons were very similar, both dry, and there was no apparent
parasite to account for its disappearance. This summer it appears
likely to be common again. This weed was rarely found in the
open country, and never in the bush. It appears in fact to be a
tolerably general rule that introduced weeds cling to civilisation
and seldom become acclimatised in the bush. It would be easy to
compile a list of about a dozen common weeds found in Bathurst,
or close to it, which are rare in the open country, while others
extend their range over fallow fields, but in no case do we find
them in the bush. Only three or four cases have been noticed in
which introduced plants seem to be able to hold their own in land
which has never been cultivated. Other observers in different
parts of the country may not have had the same experience, but
so far as this district is concerned there appears to be little danger
of the native flora being driven out by introduced plants so long
as considerable areas of bush land remain.

A census of the Bathurst flora has been prepared showing the
formations on which the various species have been found. Very
nearly all have been actually collected by the writer, in only a
few cases specimens collected by others having been accepted.

* Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales, vol. vi, 1896, p. 299; also vol. vii,
1896, p. 428.

476 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

A census of the flowering plants of Bathurst, New South Wales,
showing the geological formations upon which the plants have been
found.

| Granite. | Silurian. | Devonian.

CLASS I—DICOTYLEDONS.
Susp-CLass—POLYPETALA,
SERIES I—THALAMIFLORAE.

Caryophyllacew— P

SpeLrewlaria; UU Lae emecesececessceerersscie | x peers Sagcdabt

Stellania puncens herssceccescmeecceaeeneln: meceseese x Anuedniic :
Hypericinea—

Hypericum japonicum ............ s...000 | x % os yeil pores as
Malvacee— |

EibiscusstrrOmumy ce. eeereeresmereea eee EY cciaain zante Snetcte

SHGkay GOLA, 6 cocsssogoeobuoouandesnmabae x HGeRbateD |) coodoode ;
Pittosporee—

Billardierayscandensirec.escesseseeeeene sel mse eraiateatel x. fl ieeeeene 5c

(BUTSATIA SPMOSA, o. 2. -aancatanese se reaseeeere | x x x

Cheirantheralimearispesc. nen -cceeseseeterei immerse pe WE sade ae
Polygalee—

Comespermum ericinuM .............6 66 Ree Mili decee@arecte x

Rolygetl aisibirica see aecerecsemsat sere scsi | el peenceeenaae ab cco Sooor
Portulacacee— |

ortulacaroleraceatecmsecraccecrecte cece ie ems eneer cate Ico aaa
Ranunculacee— |

Clematis microphylla ........... wedoatinel | veateemoa sgascde 55 x

Ranunculus lappaceus)weecscmcleseceseie x x SbasOB Hor

IRS TUVMLATIS cg. noone cestles cts widle eoiseeianeisee x seliseeics Soca
Violacee—

iVaolasbetonicetoliageereseesr ses orsetnescene | Cee : <2 tees she
Dilleniacee—- |

Hip bentiascdutusa. sgertecscevseesiaanecees | x x sachet

Vas Stri Chile, sesge sce ncseec sieetesiiistsicas-leisckieat Wer eBanGece ; Be ae deaniatels

SERIES II, —DISCIFLORAE.

Geraniacee—

Geranium dissectum\s.. 5-4. 40- sere cone x se000aor Joononee

Pelargonium australe ..........scsecseeees xB sponbene : RO0900C0
Oxalidacew-—

Oxalistconnireulatarensescenceeceomernee x x semana
Linacee—

inumbmarcimale wer cmcnssccosnsenesers x x 346000007
Rhaumacee—

Cry ptandra AMAL se. ewesececdeseseeresm cere x | - cc0000 306 pp0acaon

Discariajausbralisycssa-massed ey ceeceses x eadseanae qiesnwets

Pomaderris apetala .........s.ssessevereees asqusode Q pare x

TB oy gy Fat (0) TP Wile ap omebeonine onencuocoac-onecod fm scocsoue ‘a x sgeaadene
Rutacee—

Worreaispeciosaacsnacecterrstestenceseares au} |i poaoadéc SOGOS
Stackhousiee—

Stackhousia monogyna (linariifolia) ... x x x
Sapindacee—

Mod oneasvIScOSamcessteceen eect nic (imEiennatc x emeren

D. lobulata ......... Sanaa aashtinaihet sarees xB ¥ aftedives

FLORA OF BATHURST.

477

| Granite.

Silurian.

CLASS I—DICOTY LEDONS—continued.
Sup-CLAss—PoLyPETALZ—continued,

SERIES III.—CALYCIFLORAE,

Araliacewe—
Astrotriche ledifolia.. ......
Panax sambucifolia .........
Droseracew—
Drosera peltata ...........666

Leguminose—

Acacia; dealbatay.s...ccss0see0

A. decurrens, var. normalis

A. diffusa
armata
crassiuscula
. buxifolia
PRGISCOLOT me cae passion nstel
ROLE LOS eacawieieisieiccoeen sissies
PB|UDIPEVING 2.) va feniseesuce soc
SP IAMTSOLA« ceeticise-aomcedeees
2 HG EHISCUD, ssnapsasoeoaspooeonoT
. penninervis
subporosa
seVOMENILOLMIS:.... vo... ---

Pb bb bbb bb bbb

A. amcena
Pultenza stipularis
P. styphelioides......... shat
Daviesia corymbosa .........
D. corymbosa, var linearis

DP renistifoliae.....c.ncscessss

Pema eee w ee ne renee

ee ee

ee

ee ere enee

er re

Se

Peete eee ate wee

Se ee

eer

ee

D. genistifolia, var colletoides...........

OD lertito liane te asccsssscses
Dillwynia cinerascens
DS ericiioliarencecwmessscsces
DS foribumad ance sccetesescces
Hovea heterophylla
Bossicea buxifolia

etree

Swainsona galegifolia .......
S. lessertifoha
Sepuacifoliauecnese-.ascessre
Gompholobium Hnegelii ...
Indigofera australis
I. australis, var. minor ....
Desmodium brachypodium.
REVO TIAMS ccs cecjunecoen cine oats
Glycine clandestina
Ge talbacimayes ccs. .sneeeiatesisns
Goodia lotifolia
Zornia diphylla .-.-5-...... .-
Lotus australis

Kennedyia monophylla...... ;

secre eee eeeee

seen ween nee

eee ee eeeeeeene

seen e cote eee

eee ween eee

teen nee

see e eee

weet wees

eee eneee

stew eens

.

Kia OX OK KOS OG, ON Pen Lote

Devonian.

eee neeeee

weve w anes
sew eneee
seer e eens

sere eenee

wee eee eee

teen nnee

Rete eens
eee ewes
eee ee ewes

sae wees

see eereee

sent enee
eee weet
peewee eee

478 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

| Granite. Silurian. Devonian.
CLASS I— DICOTY LEDONS—-continued.
Sus-CLass—PoLyPETALa—continued.
SERIES III—CALYCIFLORAE—continued.
Rosacew—
ANCES (OMIA fests nageamaeseweestciimeaqacsns x x x
A. sanguisorba......... freee sest neces Sus tetoss x x x
Rubus parvifolius......... aie attics shinee x Babaaodss
Myrtacee—
Hucalyp tusveximailassteese peer ceeeeeeeenl moa cect malls syeiene x
l Dp aeqorninoyes Whi comune eer soe anno pRaniesoderots SG woul esdincc Sse > dj tees
E. heemastoma...... St cepoeson steleisisinsia|| | maeite déao x 55c8
EH). MACKORT NY NCHA 5 a suc ssraejren soaaeaactieel cetera x Basta
HK. melliodora ............ por monnaeines facudcoc x Kr S cahal Mabe dere :
H. polyanthema ..........scs.e00 Sreonendode| fmenpanioan x Sac paste
K. tereticornis....,.... sis cise asieseinete eck ae ee x saanleiedle Sache
NAST WAT EIAMA) -..,-rsesciacenetnmemeemeseneen eee x ws Ge cron.
Be) vam alis| see ecos- alan eineetslis cates semi patwieane : x
Ei enn Ph Oar sesconsnsesavascsonasemmenarncAlhh esos x
Leptospermum attenuatum............... x x
MS AISLE ETU o ee senso oe ane adeacoe apenas x x
Calytheia tetragona:....se.c-co.tecnspaseeel) ce ose x boscubces
Umbellifere
Hydrocotyle laxiflora... .5.0..0..- +. sete x saicec seas eapcdee
Siebera (Trachymene) ericoides .. ...... xB x eel co eee
S. linearifolia ....... sieeielsinanateeie base aaeiae tia wseteanine x ssteasie tod
Eryngium rostratum...,.........5 Seeeeiecs x Yapmiatiiaes ssaaroitaeiae
Onagracee—
Epilobium tetragonum ........ 1... oe x x Pe ae
Sus-ciass I].—MonoperaL.
Boraginacew—
Lappula concavum ..........c.ceeseeees ac dae Mile | eens ate chbesod0r
Cynoglossum suaveolens ............00006: Sa ema Satelnccl Sob lik dooce a0
Eritrichum australasicum ..............5 x 200008002 a seaisbistts
My oso bisiaustraliseaseemcaceracescsecereeee x dosnt atete ot Lateran
Convolvulaceaw—
Convolvulus erubescens ......... mel erento x x eee
Cuscutacee—
Cuseuta australis!) f.c-.sses-e- eee Tene x Sewsenincn Wh) Seems sot
Epacridece
Brachyloma daphnoides ..... Boban cataadsl. GouDbonco x x
Tassambhel Strigosa, «.. tcacssctsqonsasente seal sateen * se
Hpaerts! palud osaw <cs.cueccnseesneteeseseness| |) haseraeeee x x
Leucopogon attenuatus......... ..... sebieiG|l aecaieats : x x
Th, WIN GatUS! <ocsitosnesncene nope obossdsenaodcar anaes x pa ee ane
L. lanceolatus........ ... bbe adc jen aacs : saben x
Monotoca scoparia....... Wetenweels ey x x
Stypheliat eta: $2... iieccetscsdeaenahsonsel! goaherseee x x
Astroloma humifusa ........... ieaeidcsananes x Kroon AO Sena ee
Gentianacew—
Erythrea australis .............000065 aici x x sonia aides
Solanacew—
Solanum cinereum............. 5 sisinee eben eootlPe ranean ac x eelies
SSM SGM 5.05. hencoasgahoanemetore merece de X No csadelanuine coacuacoe

FLORA OF BATHURST 479

| Granite. | Silurian. | Devonian.

CLASS I—DICOTYLEDONS—continued.

Sup-Ciass II—MonopetTaLa—continuced.

Labiate—
Ajuga australis ............ sponevoboses aaneoe x x sce tonats
Mentha gracilis .............. shriosigebeicaemyors x x EestcteS
Prostanthera asian thos 4.1. .ssseerms | wacissaee x
Sal vda PLE WEA iss. cove eicieennimesisiies’ See ceeane " BE elles seroccntrareitcteM [Emenee ot :
Teucrium corymbosum............. seers XB x SSaggyctt
Westringia eremicola ......... apedssoenne OB BO Wed raesen cola PU Saaca Ste
Scrophulariacew—
IMETGMICH PETLOMATA (... sivecee vaorcvssaeel) versees a x teadedtets
V. Derwentia........ sGhecenttaroebsopcsonse|) cescstece "|| Gout: see x
Gratiola peruviana naceascc x =
Euphrasia Brownii x x Scoctu-6c
Stylidew—
Stylidium graminifolium ..,..... aiensocon: SRL SdoGbe x maakt
Goodeniacer—
Goodenia pinnatifida ..... ........0.. elcid pa | Re nc secrete
(Gr. “GlORVEB ITE i poceceponobenodere ecco seooe sas6tbe x sorcoue : coccae ree
Grebe llwaitt Oi aie. ae serssseeesecier sjoeiejerciectoce lk Puasnsiieais F * Battooe
IDEmMIpPLerAaBLOWAMM .).,¢e.gaceiesioeicieeeetiancies ss x x “Epocecce
Verbenacee—
Verbena officinalis’.........00s-.0- Pioneers x ReepE etic SEACOHEES
Composite—
© SH TISTOL OM GO es oresietsa asiaciaiaracie-ciaasieaeinsl * x
Cy lappulacea, .....0...0000+- Tayamete unsere Mite Of | Setteaee
Eveliptertm iNCanum.<4...55...c.c0sees ren. “ x seteeiniee
idimonphole pis) <.......9-0- «0 sgosarosaad x x agsnsance
Leptorhynchos squamatus’ ............. ae x x cooconacs
Helichrysum apiculatum ........ igocodens x x x
H. bracteatum ..... LebackoReoRcaooeeenOntate te COREA x bro conc:
H. semipapposum ......... ... SAosancanestocs x x x
Podolepis acuminatus ............0.c000 36 x samehhtch seegecute
PSP =n (MEW SPECIES)! for ciunvelvessiesscitiiciecs es Miele levees Soele sient
Cassinia quinquefolia........... Henercoce a xB x Sracedes
Olearia myrsinoides ...... Secsiganets angatoolve dapeoeee 2 ohlMesaaceenes ; x
Craspedia richea........ poco sooddan spacteces x x x
Sonchus oleraceus ... sos ce0 Bo reoneor x stuaeeatls Bescearet.
Cymbonotus Lawsoniana......... eons tae x Se x
Microseris Forsteri ........ Specter ciaranlerYs sa se x paooOubOC
Erechtites quadridentatus ..... SoauonoCr x saecereerssr nenasOeo-
Gnaphalium luteo-album .............4... x x somouaees
BiCrIs MIeracOldes| ec. -wcn sess sevieeso ese Ms eSeeeitea|| carenee coe c soonobese
Brachycome multifida .............:s.s000 x panache i pnoconces
Pee S GRICE serctactiertee poate eee RUMUoo aE x sawn : sooedoaas
Companulacew—
Wahlenbergiajeracilis) . ss. ...ec-nscdsesnr x Bk x
Tsotoma axillaris ‘........0.c0.000. Pactdcateclt Maceecr oboe x 00» 6o0sKG
Rubiacew—
Galinm) gaudichaudi \.eccseus.secnessences x Me x

Romax wmibellatan .yaccsssscesese cee: siaeal Makai sane x Seen

480

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION

| Granite. | Silurian. Devonian.
CLASS I—DICOTY LEDONS—continued.
Sus-ciass III.—MonocHLAMYDE.
Amarantacew—
Alternanthera triandra................000+ % elas | Peeteeceree
Casuarinee—
Casuarina Cunninghamiana...............] cesses 5 x iauseteee
CRGUAATIVALVAS Usereccsas jereestensecssesecl| aseestiase a x
CMolaucatanecuetcarenmncewanceaueceatiumadt era > I eI ee tcopoac
Co paludosaicnavsscersvsssasbavccsoracdeeschl! aunssene x iene
Euphorbiacee ~—
Bhyllanthus thiymordes) Secs. s-cae-eare| eerste » I oe ocosoc
Poranthera microphylla .................. XB.” 2]... oseasceten| iemeemeceee
Lauracee—
GCassythaiglabella) cc. crcecccssseseesousseen|| aeececactet SA es
CSP. Api eaesannave. see sesowvasectadtinsessce|| cseevesense Ke, i eae
Polygonacew—
Polygonum subsessile 3. scs..c.-ee ere see > a eerie ||P c005000°
Proteacew— :
Banksia marginata .......... ngaacanne 3-400 XO ai) chee came Gradanes
Grevillia acanthifolia ..........c.0.:-0.00 XB x <) UDagareeees
Garamenaniasavarecanescensr ener snes cenes lamer esere > “All| eae ite
G. floribunda ..... Fess meiavae qar @ocratee cal lee seitel metal eect < | il weehaea
Hakea pugioniiormis~ 770 cccecesre ce sme sese| mescuenttt ye ccc
FETA ClCUlaLis: .cwscceahsccescccencsssescosssepl) Ceacemses x x
EL AIMICLOCAL DAM acct eee seer ecscceeneee: x x ~S uN} ceeneeee
IRELSOOMTAMIMCATIS | eacesteasnerenseaceters cl limccEeearee <_ |. || eee
fl Eee ata (0 E Wire e Nes Aoo Annan nee Ooee ee Wines cats. |eeaeecease x
Thymelee—
Pimelea linifolia.............. anaes sineroaeree x EME MeO Gc ic
I CULVITL OLA panenecaemociee anne soscaneancnns oe FO etree esto oFisac
Pe glawcarecn...2 Petre tv netarmnr oes cause Nnad ote KTS IAG veda cea eee
PHiGOlOTANS! Sie cessed cass cnet oneal vcd} = esiteaeeee yn AAAS cicob
12% INERT poop ndocco0aner ere ered | rasdococau al bMecrintibcoc x
Loranthacece
oranthus pendwlis) 222. cc..ccsnccvceeeee|) wares BSE x | aaa
Santalacee—
Choretrum candollei........... Faas oainwe| URNeeRe eens 300” Bal he eae
@taterifolinme secs Gel cacatecattecdcnenal) aieeeeeeee x =| Se
LPO CONS SBI, copacansasncoavoacncoson oes xB x «| RR
EEE CU PECSSIORMIIS otccgoc-cicistnceccceatecie sett Mestieeeeeen aca uate ares *
Sus-cLtass 1V.—GyYMNOSPERME.
CLAss—MoNoOcOrYLEDONS.
Coniferce-—
C@allitrisicalcaratare rm rreremene tera xB iy hl a epee
Liliacee—
Sbypandraro lau cay cppenscessuee seeder Ssuoaeer x x
An guillartay dioicaee cece -ne-casesaeteeees: x x | x
Burchardia umbellata ...... Paseo aer seis eeacnies ; X ole Sheets
Asphodelus fistulosus ............s0se0e00: x | x [oe
Dichopogon strictns p..ncc.se.s--.0c02yes90s x “ | teeeeaes
axmanniayoracilign perpscedsc ceca Mameeraecs x | wagered

FLORA OF BATHURST.

481

| Granite. Silurian.

CLASS I—DICOTYLEDONS—continued.
CLAssS—MOoONOCOTYLEDONS—continued.

Liliacee —continued.
Dianella cxermileay Fesceavchennis-semcetabceics RET A yeaa.
ERRICOMY MEIC AMLOM es earecesesacscene sestinssi x¥ © || asesooe
EMV SANOLUS) JUNCCUSH cxcecense oncsecenosve x x
i Pabersoni .......... ae dousespemietisubaeeecee Seer ees x

Alismacee—

Alisma plantago...... ppdoaogdanpanopoNeecnG 53 |) Barsannor

Juncacee—

Xerotes Brownli ............... SeSnonsccuNg|| — BoSonsa8e x
285 LITT aca Se Qeassnosnc sieeateless ravens eee: x seaaenlat
XJ longifolia ........ Pogbe aOR nae sade Og Ie xB oe

Tridacea—
WAPELSOUIAISETICER, feiss seniinide sunieiielsiesaes os ee ans x

Orchidaceea—
Caladenia dilatata ........... Seba eenadetninsel vies wane x
STURT ce cin cam wancionbass sab scehos Sgpncnaer x
GRICOREES EA cass 0-cononetvedseencepeseddswecae] Uadexenass x
Diuris aurea ..... Sdaabaletatsasionb aniaotawion 5365 x ieee
POR ORAR ATA oh scics ca tosi-aaios don cenipennesavesns x Sissoasbe
Pera CU lata. cnc < acptneteneces Meeinas: sdese|) -aveseidees x
Dy peduneulata ...:....0...0000s ppdnad 9009: x seoLsaCS:
POPP ENINPR (522 wgckbano Socussens os «sKkeos x Pon
mopchilus aatumNalisy 5... cceisaniepoceesee |! - aveenroee x
CGTOSSOC TARA TON salve cwslseeniele sf <G cise ewestelees xB x
HerASOp My UUM TUSCONT oo. .cccceececcrse sen x sinstessiess
Gerosbylis MUbICAL.. cscs deenscesneee ate x aeho sere
MBShy MiGral TRIOIGES .....s0.seamsaesnaceses iSanetne : x
ELON GIOIA, ogte ve scsneensieee eae euch soulless ere sie 5 x

Cyperacee—

PE CRA URL oe ccckcodnescocthrcsscerec| shears 50 x
Carexpaniculatus!5..c.cssnssee.ceeose Seas, Akiesseale ot x
Graminacee—
BlOMYS ATEDALUISS jens apancineabsisiigs sauces x x
PATHS CHITA. oss. ses saescsncevce sos x x
x
x

Aoropyrum SCHbYUME 4. s.cecae wcecees. vce eeeleaitiane
Andropogon sericeus........... 066 ones || gesaare 50
ATUNGO PHTAGMILES” <..c<cceccevsersvenssen | x
Chioras truncata, \.s.ctusvesussseseaveusseees x
Danthonia penicillata ................0608, ed Mle Settee
x
x

eee eereee

DD SeMMANNULALIS, arin -cecepecisnek ae seinacien
DS eArpmold 6S eacscchaaaettaoaseneetens En :
Wichelachne/Sciuneay .cccce-mersascessscewes| a carats x
Eragrostis leptostachys..............c.s000
Panicum biGolor.<ghasasadssarieciens sore
SMCEUS PAN Issa .c,% sacaceete nis fase veoneste cae
Pennisetum compressttm ...........6-0006
Poa cespitosa......... pai camdia ccm seme
SOrshum PluMOsuM rer... 0r-eecsscosees
RDFA BOURCEB Ac coe chucsvemttemns tse caceelen
Sporobolusndicus:...0.....1-2.sccs-osesnee-

se eeeware

xXx XxXXXxKXX
x

Devonian.

fee eenens

eeeeeeees
x

2H

482 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

No. 5.--A STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF AUSTRALIAN
FUNGI UP TO THE END OF 1897,

By D. McA .pine.

(Read Monday, January 10, 1898.)

Havine prepared a work for the Victorian Department of Agri-
culture, entitled “A Systematic Arrangement of Australian Fungi,
together with Host-Index and List of Works on the Subject,” in
which all Australian Fungi known up to the end of 1894 are
inserted, and as a record has been kept of all additions since that
date, I thought it might prove of some scientific interest to give
the results in a statistical form.

To some it may appear premature to attempt such a task, seeing
that our knowledge of Australian Fungi is still so meagre, but it
will serve at least to mark the progress already made, as well as
to provide material for comparison at some future date. Besides,
when the gaps in our knowledge of this important division of vege-
table life are prominently brought forward, it may be the means
of inducing some to attempt to fill them up. On two previous
occasions Dr. M. C. Cooke, the eminent mycologist, has provided
us with a collected list of Australian species of Fungi, and these
will be useful for comparison with the present record.

First, in 1883, Dr. Cooke published “ Fungi Australiani” as a
supplement to ‘ Fragmenta Phytographize Australie,” by the late
Baron von Mueller, in which 1,189 species are recorded, excluding
synonyms.

Next, in 1892, Dr. Cooke’s “ Handbook of Australian Fungi”
was published, in which the total number of species given are
2,067.

Then, in 1895, the “Systematic Arrangement of Australian
Fungi” was published by myself, containing all species known up
to the end of 1894, and numbering 2,284 species.

The following table will show how the species are distributed
among the different groups. I have classified them under twelve
groups, omitting the Schizomycetes or Bacteria, because they still
await investigation at the hands of the specialist.

AUSTRALIAN FUNGI. 483

Table I.—Number of Australian Species of Fungi in 1883, 1892,
1894, and 1897, arranged according to groups.

Groups. 1883. 1892. |. 1894. 1897.
1, Hymenomycetes ......... 778 1,176 1,266 1,303
2. Gastromycetes ........... 111 166 177 198
SH MUECUINES! § cc accel deeeescnees 26 70 90 112
4, Pyrenomycetes ............ 89 215. | 253 285
De Discomiycetes:.....:....c0-0> 78 122 128 140
Ge Dwberoides|a.c....02-.o:2000. 2 | 3 7
7. Hyphomycetes ............ 47 109 | 123 152
8. Spheropsides .............. 6 115 128 152
9. Saccharomycetes ......... ee 4 10 10
TOM Ustilagines|s..c4..sssee ans 18 28 39 48
ke ehyecomycetes: “\....0.1.6 4 12 15 21
12) Myxomycetes..x....:...0.:. 31 48 52 52

PGP AS ts cecatonanne: 1,189 2,067 2,284 2,480

Tt will be seen that between 1883 and 1892 there is an increase
of 878 species, and this increase occurs in each of the twelve
groups. The additions are most marked in the Hymenomycetes,
Uredines, Pyrenomycetes, Hyphomycetes, and Spheropsides.

Between 1892 and 1897 there is also an increase of 413 species,
and this is partly due to recorded species overlooked by Cooke,
but mostly to actual additions to the Fungus-flora. There is an
increase in each of the groups, particularly in the Uredines and
Pyrenomycetes.

* * * * *K * * * * *

If we turn now to a more detailed view of the fungi, and examine
their distribution, not only in the various groups, but in the
different Colonies, there are many suggestive points of comparison,
as shown in the following tables.

484 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Table I1I.—Number of Fungi in the different Colonies, arranged
according to groups, together with those common to Britain.

Groups. Australia. wea.| eA |) Ws Wo ssw, Q.. | B.
1. Hymenomycetes 19 137 | 151 | 245 | 603 | 266) 624 | 466
2. Gastromycetes ... 5 44 | 26} 46 72 45 92) 32
SW regimes: nears. Boer oa Ll alae ox! 79 26 28729
4. Pyrenomycetes ... 9 19) 185) Go 93 41 | 132) 56
5, Discomycetes...... 3 8 | 20) 52 71 12 388 | 54
6. Tuberoides........ hace fl estes 1 Sif oe Bo 1 ie oes
7. Hyphomycetes ... PA es le Nh Fe ca 80 32 62 | 57
8. Spheropsides 2 | eo) |e oe eaO 88 11 60 | 13
9. Saccharomycetes NO xae ta Gy ee en sits Sistine
10. Ustilagines......... 1 dece|| dl 5 28 11 18 | 10
11. Phycomycetes ...) ... 1 4 7 15 5 5a al
12, Myxomycetes ...) 2 16 3| 20 13 5 29 | 38™

53 | 243 | 278 | 500 |1,142 | 454 |1,089 | 766

Table IJI.—Number and relative proportion of Fungi in the
different Colonies in the order of their predominance and
proportion of British species.

No. Proportion.
Wilctoriay acne ceneunthietecrmncocee 1,142 46 per cent.
QweenslanG Tshecssowwatmnn ccm ctmuniave 1,089 AS Oma
MAS MANTA Se aeawe cceeieeeesentiteatorsiontente 500 20 Pe
INiews SouthaVWiales) iano ceserscceneenete 454 18355
SoubheAarstraliaesencecteecscesunscekien 278 TPA 5s
WiesteAtustrallian pamaceuecceemn cert 248 9°85,
IB ri baty eiciaees poheeec taeeract esos emanate 766 30°9 _,,

Tt has to be noted here that these proportions do not by any
means represent the true proportions in nature, but rather the
amount of attention which has been given to the subject in the
different Colonies. It is not to be imagined that the proportion
of species in New South Wales is really less than that in Tasmania,
or only 2} times that of Victoria, but the explanation is to be
sought in the fact that both Victoria and Queensland have been
favoured in the past with indefatigable workers in this particular
line. When I state that one-eighth of the entire Fungus-flora of
New South Wales has been added during the last three years, it
will be seen that the labours of such workers as Dr. Cobb, and
Messrs. Maiden and Baker, are beginning to bear fruit in the
much-neglected department of systematic mycology. Victoria
has the highest percentage of species—or 46, closely followed by

AUSTRALIAN FUNGI. 485

Queensland, with about 44, while West Australia has the lowest
with 9:8; 766 of the total number of species are British, or about
31 per cent. Now that the Agricultural Bureau of West Australia
has a resident botanist in the person of Dr. A. Morrison, who
has already done good work in the fungi of Victoria, we may
shortly expect to have the numbers there largely increased.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

While I have indicated how the fungi are numerically distri-
buted in the different Colonies, I feel that the time has come when
the geographical distribution within each Colony should be carried
out in detail on a scientific basis. The Government Botanist of
New South Wales, in his anniversary address before the Royal
Society (1897), has already suggested the use of county maps and
parish maps for recording the exact localities of economic plants ;
but we also require, as he has hinted, the different Colonies to be
divided into well-defined geographical areas. Natural divisions
based upon the drainage of the country, or other natural features,
would take the place of merely arbitrary districts determined by
the outlines of counties ; and as these natural districts apply not
only to the flora, but the fauna—would be, in fact, biological
regions. I consider that such districts might best be settled for
each colony by a joint committee of naturalists chosen by an
association for the advancement of science such as this.

The number of genera in proportion to the species may also be
taken into account as in the following table :—

Table IV.—Number of Genera in proportion to the Species in
the different Colonies.

Genera. Species. Proportion.

WrestrAtustralliay sgrscaodsenonteeaen once end stietel 126 243 51°8
SOUbhpAMIStraltarcs.scn ese acceso cme beste 128 266 48:1
MIP US TIAA INTE cre cicachsisiacte sorrectatirteiaemais iste ecgaisicierst 221 500 44°1
ING Wa SOW Widlesiaascssassmoxevesteceustucuaes 161 454 35°5
BVAT COO Rl teri stecrsciose sissveinnd anise tcisamaarsin nmin 304 1,142 26°6
Mucosal Aes ens ce caxssoventn- ce SieseseneOswaee ees 281 1,089 25°8
PANS Ora oa esi ra; oes Osa aetna nes, Gases ese tereeuer 447 2,480 18

The number of genera in proportion to species is naturally
jarger in those colonies where the species are not yet extensively
known, while for the whole of Australia the proportion is 18 per
cent. The three genera which contain the most species are

486 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Polyporus (94), Polystictus (93), and Fomes (57), but it must be
borne in mind that the sub-genera of Agaricus, for instance, are
raised to the rank of genera.

The edible fungi, especially our native species, have still to be
tested in most cases. Mr. Maiden, in his presidential address
before the chemistry section of this association, at Brisbane (1895),
on ‘“‘The Chemistry of the Australian Indigenous Vegetation,”
showed that our knowledge of the chemical composition of these
plants is almost nil. I have mainly selected those which have
been found wholesome in Britain or America, and which may be
eaten with impunity, not necessarily with relish. The number at
present is 84—73 belonging to the hymenomycetes, 4 to the gas-
tromycetes, and 7 to the discomycetes. <A list of Australian edible
fungi is given as an appendix to my systematic arrangement.

If we compare the number of known Australian species with
the British, as well as the total known number of fungi, an
interesting result is obtained, as in the following table :—

Table V.—Number of Australian Species compared with British
and Total known Species.

No. of No. of
Groups. Australian Species British Species
(1897). (1892).
Ie Hivanenomiycetesmesmerecuneneseeere tee 1,303 1,902
Det GASLLOMYCELES areas vende cestaees ee 198 78
Sa Uice GINES ar, cata beee cgi sa clsjosteyes ait 2 53
Ay PPV TENOMY COLES Pcs. cesccresmaeseeecevoee 285
Dr elisecomy coves: tete-marercucanscerencoce 140 1,275
Gertuberdidest ji icteseseansoset-essmotsavocs 7
Hmelyphomycetes: wetieccesiscaeonie 2 580
SO PHaAerOpsides)..< Mec. yen. eeheemeceet 152 685
O Saccharomycetes! setnccsssutenscenece: 10 8
NOS WWstilagimes) = .ons.utn.tee. eames 48 177
Tie Phy.comy cetes: <2. /ssoncmyasnwerecesreer 2) 145
12.2 Miyxomiy Cotes)... s1sosenedsietaenscees 52 137
Other groups ........... Adina obs Seieisa oll Ole Eee eS | eee
2,480 5,040

The number of British species are taken chiefly from Massee’s
“ British Fungus Flora,” the most recent work on the subject and
still in course of publication, but this only gives the approximate
numbers up to 1892.

The total known species are given by Saccardo up to the end of
1896 as 44,963 or roughly 45,000 ; and the number of Australian
Species are given to the end of 1897, so that the comparison is
not equal, but it is the best available.

AUSTRALIAN FUNGI. 487

The total number of known fungi is estimated at 45,000, and
there are 2,480 Australian species, or about one-eighteenth of the
whole, while there are 5,040 British species, or about one-ninth
of the whole.

The proportion of Australian to British species is nearly one-
half, and since 766 British species are common to Australia it is
seen that over one-seventh are thus common to both countries.

The Australian Gastromycetes and Uredines far exceed the
British, the former being in the proportion of 198 to 78, and the
latter in the proportion of 112 to 53. The exceptional position
of the Gastromycetes and Uredines is worthy of remark, and
shows that these particular groups have a stronghold in Australia.
It will be interesting to compare the species common to Victoria
and Tasmania on account of their geographical proximity and
their former land union.

The following table shows that out of a total of 500 Tasmanian
species 197, or 394 per cent. of the whole, are found in Victoria as
well ; and the percentage of species common to Victoria is 17:2 :—

Table VI.—Number of Tasmanian Species common to Victoria.

= : Tasmanian
oup. Wiionan species comm @ 7
Grouy species. i ee 2 commen Percentage
J. Hiymenomycetes ..........02.00:6. 603 99 16°4
Ba GAStTOMYCCLES....5 ..0ceraseennese 72 15 20°8
MMU MECINES vas cnnntwasecenesesacaeuess 79 15 19
AS AVRCHOMIVCCLES) sapccp caer ecvcseee 93 21 22°6
is), IDMSVeORNA CEES) Baandeoeeononasoasene ffl 20 28°1
Glee berotd esgic rats. centsmesiiccnnss ae Aas “as
Temely POUT CCUCSI.cesens iecah sper 80 12 15
G, Sphacropsides <........<.cccaseees 88 6 7
9. Saccharomycetes.................. aoe Ss 5b
LOR Ustilaginesnugevccseshss sheets 28 2 (fb
ee hiy.comiy.cetesie-ncmsccaseereeees 15 4 26°6
Zee Miy OMY CLES) «. saesiesceaseastesne 13 3 23
1,142 197 17:2
SUMMARY.

Our knowledge of the Fungus-flora of Australia is too limited
as yet to permit of general conclusions being drawn, and therefore
I will content myself with giving a summary of the actual state
of our present knowledge, as far as the present paper is concerned.

In Australia (including Tasmania) 12 groups of fungi are repre-
sented, containing 2,480 species, and of these 766 species are

488 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

common to Britain, or about 31 per cent. The largest number of
recorded species are in Victoria, being 1,142, closely followed by
Queensland, with 1,089, while New South Wales has only 454.

Of edible fungi the number is 84, belonging to the Hymenomy-
cetes mainly ; but a few to the Gastromycetes and Discomycetes,

There are reckoned to be about 45,000 species of fungi alto-
gether, and Australian species (2,480) form about one eighteenth
of the whole, while British species (5,040) constitute about one-
ninth of the whole.

And, finally, the number of Tasmanian species common to Vic-
toria is 197, or 894 per cent. of the entire Tasmanian Fungus-
flora. . 5 : : : ; : : : ; :

When we consider how favourable our climate is to the develop-
ment of fungi, parasitic and otherwise, and particularly to the
family of rusts which play such havoc at times with our cereal
crops, it behoves us to pay more attention to them in the future
than we have done in the past. Hitherto they have been treated
more as an appendage than as an integral part of a Flora Austra-
liensis, and while our neglected treasures of the vegetable kingdom
claim our attention, let us not despise these so-called lower plants,
for they are often a menace to our agricultural and horticultural
prosperity, because we have so long neglected them.

No. 6.—UNDERGROUND FUNGI OF TASMANIA.
By L. Ropway, Hobart.

(Read Tuesday, January 11, 1898.)

THE term underground, when applied to fungi, though not scientific,
appeals sufficiently clearly to the student of mycology. All the
terrestrial fungi, except moulds, might really be termed “ under:
ground”; but the sense in which it is used in mycology is to indi-
‘cate fungi that habitually produce their spore-producing body
‘beneath the surface, and either disintegrate there, depend for
exposure on denudation, or the digging of fung loving animals.

The fungi that have this habit belong to two distinct groups,
and appear to be confined to these. The one lot we meet with in
the Gasteromycetes—that is, the family of which the puff-ball is
the type—a group of the great sub-class Lusidiomycetes. The
other forms a group of itself, the Z'wberozdes, or Truffle group, in
the big sub-class Ascomycetes.

UNDERGROUND FUNGI OF TASMANIA. 489

Of the underground fungi belonging to the Gasteromycetes, the
greater number form an order of their own—the Hymenogas-
tracece, a very natural order of closely allied forms. Others,
however, belong to the order Lycoperdacee—aberrant forms of
great interest, as pointing out lines of descent. Those belonging
to the Zuberoides have little in common; their relationship one
to the other is distant.

Cooke, in his “‘ Handbook of Australian Fungi,” drew attention
to the relatively large number of Gasteromycetes described in
Australia, but observed a weakness in subterranean species. That
this weakness was simply due to want of research I think this
paper will amply prove. When the Handbook was published in
1892 there were twelve subterranean G'asteromycetes, ten of which
belonged to the order Hymenogastracee, for the whole of Aus-
tralia. Very little search, and that in three spots close to Hobart,
has enabled me, within the last two years, to add to this eleven
more, eight of which are new to science ; in other words, in three
small valleys I have found more species of Hymenogastracee, new
at least to Australia, than had hitherto been described. We now
stand in this position: In England, where there are something
more than 4,900 described fungi, there are twenty-three Wymeno-
gasters. In Australia there are eight to about 2,400 species, and
in Tasmania we have already recorded no fewer than fourteen
such plants in our small flora of about 550 species. The Australian
and Tasmanian lists being compiled without the group having
received reasonable attention, we can only conclude they will
swell in the future to most surprising proportions. The following
is a list of the fungi of purely subterranean habit that have, up
to the present, been recorded in Tasmania. The new species,
except Stephensia varia, have been described in the Kew Bulletin
during the present year, but I am still uninformed of the date.
The other new Australian forms are identified by Geo. Massee, but
I have not received a record of their author’s publication.
Stephensia varia is described in the “ Transactions of the Royal
Society,” Tasmania, December, 1897.

GASTEROMYCETIS,

Octaviana archeri, Berk ; Hydnangium tasmanicum, Kalch.;
H, australiense, B. et Br.; JL. carneum, Klot. ; Hysterangiwm
affine, Mass. et Rod. ; H. membranaceum, Vitt.; H. fusisporum,
Mass. et Rod. ; //. clathroides, Vitt. ; //. viscidum, Mass. et Rod. ;
Gymnomyces pallidus, Mass. et Rod.; G.seminudus, Mass. et Rod. ;
Hymenogaster rodwayi, Mass. ; MH. violaceus, Mass. et Rod. ; H.
albellus, Mass. et Rod ; Secotiwm rodwayt, Mass. ; Diploderma
glauca, C. et M.; Mesophellia arenaria, Berk.

490 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

ASCOMYCETES.

Hydnocystis cyclospora, Mass. et Rod. ; Stephensia varia, Rod. ;
Genebea tasmanica, Mass. et Rod. ; Endogone australis, Berk.

The solitary Octaviana has not been found, I believe, since its
original discovery, and only very meagre material has existed, and
that not available for local examination. There is no reason to
infer the description is not accurate, so we may trust to meeting
with it again. The large spores, if accurately measured, indicates
its distinction from its allies. The sterile base in Octaviana
appears to serve no useful purpose, and would apparently indicate
descent from a stipitate sporocarp. Hydnangium australiense
occupies a connecting position, and is often referred to Octaviana.
In Tasmanian specimens the sterile base is obsolete or quite absent.
There is one feature I have not seen noticed. The fungus, until
past maturity, bears a copious latex of white milk. This plant, like
the last, is generally met with lying free on the surface of the
ground. How it gets there appears amystery. It is not due, as
in many similar cases, to denudation. Probably it is a result of
low specific gravity and considerable shrinkage on loss of moisture.
H. carneum is interesting from its wide distribution. It is the
only underground fungus common to Tasmania and England.
H, tasmanicum departs from the type in the cells, being very
large and not very tortuous. They soon became filled with dark-
brown spores, which on section gives the fungus a marbled appear-
ance. Hydnangium only differs from Octaviana artificially,
namely, in the absence of a sterile base.

The genus Hysterangium differs from adjoining forms by the
gleba being at first gelatinous, and becoming almost cartilaginous ;
but in most Tasmanian forms it appears to remain permanently
of a gelatinous or waxy consistency. As the fungus matures, the
tortuous hymenial canals develop, and more or less obliterate the
trama. In JZ. fusisporum and H. membranacewm the canals are
very numerous, tortuous, and closely packed. In H. viscidium
and //. clathroides, on the contrary, the trama remains abundant.
H, affine is a pretty and common little fungus that, from its free
distribution throughout Tasmania, would lead one to expect its
existence on the mainland. J/. membranaceum is small and
delicately white, and becomes blotched with indigo wherever
bruised. HH. fusisporum is very close to Hymenogaster albellus,
and, like it, possesses bisporous basidia. It forms a distinct link
between the genera. Tasmania is evidently very rich in this
genus, for, besides the five here referred to, I know of three not
yet determined. The mainland does not yet boast a single species,
and in the large fungus flora of England we find but two. The
genus Gymnomyces we founded upon two species, to which I drew
Mr. Massee’s attention. The marked peculiarity is the almost or

UNDERGROUND FUNGI OF TASMANIA. 49]

quite absence of a peridium. G. pallidus is a fairly large plant
for the order—up to 3-4 cm. diameter. The peridium appears quite
absent, and the gleba, with its copious development of minute
tortuous canals, appears like a fungus stripped of its skin. There
is often an indication of a sterile base, and in one plant I found
growing from a depression in the base a minute slender stem
about 7 mm. long. There was a total absence of column running
through the gleba ; but one could not fail to imagine a distant
relationship to Secotium. G. seminudus has a thin, but evident
inseparable, skin, and appears to have lost even the semblance of
a stem.

Among our Hymenogasters, which are all three new, there is
much room for reflection. H. albellus is pronouncedly subter-
ranean, with a very small sterile base, and, like its nearest neigh-
bour, its basidia are bisforous. HH. rodwayi has a fairly developed
sterile base, with radiating arms running towards the apex.
H. violaceus, on the contrary, can hardly be said to be subter-
ranean, always becoming exposed on maturity. The base is well
developed, and in many specimens sends a process right through
to the apex, suggesting a close relationship to Secotiwm.

In Lycoperdacee the genus Secotiwm consists of plants standing
in the direct line of descent between Hymenogasters and Agarics.
Typically they are above-ground fungi, have a well-developed
stem, a persistent trama, and permit an escape of spores by the
peridium bursting from the stem at the base. In Tasmania we
have two plants that stand as near the confines of the genus as
possible. S. gunnii, Berk., is rather variable. In one extreme it
has a well-developed stem, whose substance expands above to
partially form the flesh of a pileus. The lower edge of the
peridium is quite free, and connected with the stem by an arachnoid
veil, while the tubes, though still contorted, are roughly arranged
at right-angles to the margin, so that they assume the appearance
of deformed gills. In this extreme form S. gwnnii could easily,
and indeed often is, mistaken for a deformed brown spored Agaric.
In the further extreme the stem barely pierces to the apex, the
base is sunk round the stem, and the tubes are much conveluted.
Secotium rodwayt departs from the habit of the genus in being
completely subterranean unless or until accidentally exposed. It
has in the normal state a fairly thick but very short stem which
pierces to the apex and a deeply indented base. The spores are
globose, nearly smooth, and colourless ; but for this it might be
taken for a Hymenogaster with an abnormally developed stem.
The presence of a well-developed but apparently useless stem in
this species, and the existence of rudimentary homologous members
in so many of the Hymenogasters, would possibly indicate, con-
trary to generally received doctrines, a descent of Hymenogasters
from Agarics.

492 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Diploderma glauca appears to have been responsible for some
confusion requiring elucidation. The typical form of the genus,
according to Cooke, is that figured by him as being this species in
his Australian Handbook, namely, two peridia, a central sterile
body, and intervening gleba, which disintegrates into a loose mass
of spores and fibres. This species was described by Cooke in
conjunction with Massee ; so, in order to be sure of my position, I
submitted specimens to Mr. Massee for identification. The plant,
which is very common in certain localities, possesses no central
sterile body at all. The outer peridium is coarsely fibrous, the
inner one thin, hard, and brittle, and the gleba on maturity is
disintegrated, and consists of a floccosse mass of spores with
shrivelled cells, and very few fibres, if any. The plant frequents
places where there is a liability to disturbance. Upon denudation
the inner peridium is washed out, and like a light ball is carried
about on flood-waters. If the peridium is not now fractured, it
subsequently bursts at the point subjected to greatest desiccation
in a roughly stellate form. The plant does not seem to be sought
after by animals.

Mesophellia arenaria, on the contrary, appears to depend for
dispersion on animal agency. It is much prized by lesser marsu-
pials, who appear to smell its presence with accuracy. They
unearth it, tear it open, eat the central core, and leave the
dusty mass of spores and delicate fibres at the mercy of the
winds. Judging from analogy, through Csycloderma we can only
conclude the central body is an ultimate remnant of an ancestral
stem.

The underground Ascomycetes of Tasmania are few, and have
little in common. Each appears a solitary form, whose relations
are in distant parts. Hydnocystis cyclospora is identical with the
plant described by Mr. McAlpine and myself in the Agricultural
Gazette, New South Wales, February, 1896, as 7. convoluta. Mr.
Massee subsequently writes: “Your MHydnocystis convoluta is
absolutely identical with the type specimen of Berggrenia aurau-
tiaca, var. cyclospora, Cooke. It is difficult to know why Cooke
made a globose spored species a variety of an elliptical spored
species. The two are distinct. Then, again, Cooke’s genus Berg-
grenia is not distinct from Hydnocystis.” Hydnocystis is of
interest to the student. It is barely, or not always, subterranean.
Its free and continuous hymenium shows a close relationship to
the Discomycetes. Stephensia varia, truly underground, but often
exposed by denudation, has only one other relative in Australia,
S. arenivaga, OC. et M., from Central Australia. It either is very
variable in development, or there are at least three closely allied
forms. The type is 3-4 c. m. diameter, with a cartilaginous peri-
dium, a copious byssoid-pithy trama, and few rather large con-
voluted tubes. But there is one form rather larger in habit, where

THE ALGAE OF VICTORIA. 493

the trama is almost absent, and the tubes very numerous, and
another small form with copious, more delicate, trama, and a
single more or less convoluted sack. This latter form is often
found lying on the surface, with the peridium alone left, the trama
and hymenium being both consumed by insects, The asci and
spores are the same in all three forms.

Genebea tasmanica is a medium-sized rather fleshy tuber, with a
white fleshy gleba, in which hyaline patches occur. In these
patches are developed pyriform asci, each containing four oblong
shining black spores.

Endogone australis I am unacquainted with, and it appears still
to be in that most unsatisfactory position of possessing a name
without a definition.

No. 7.—THE ALGAE OF VICTORIA.

By Henry Tuos. Tispauu, F.LS,

(Read Tuesday, January 11, 1898.)

THe south coast of Victoria is washed for nearly its whole
extent by the waters of Bass’ Straits, and it may be presumed that
it is mainly owing to this, that under certain circumstances such
enormous quantities of sea-drift are thrown on our shores. One
instance will be sufficient to illustrate this. In January, 1897,
the weather was very unsettled, and on the morning after a
strong gale from the south-west, the writer of this paper found
the whole shore, from Barwon Estuary away towards Port Lons-
dale, covered with a mass of sea-drift varing from 1 to 3 feet
high.

The main current in Bass Straits comes from the Pacific Ocean,
but every island, rock, or headland turns some of its waters in a
different, often an opposite, direction. Asa matter of fact there
was a strong westerly current on that day along the coast of
Ocean Grove from Barwon Heads towards Point Lonsdale. The
mass of seaweeds was composed of hundreds of different species,
brown, green, and red, all mixed and churned into inextricable
confusion. It is a pity that the wealth thus thrown up by the
sea should not be utilised. In other countries hundreds of men,
women, and children would have rescued thousands of tons of this
valuable manure, thus enriching the soil in the neighbourhood.

But no one interfered, and after a couple of tides the whole was
gradually sucked back by the retiring waters, and the beach for
miles presented an unbroken surface of sand, save a slight margin

494 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

of drift marking the highest flow of the tide. As before men-
tioned, a great number of species were to be seen in this drift,
The great size of the brown seaweeds made that colour dominate
the whole. Notably were to be seen the great leathern fronds of
Durvillea, which had been so firmly fastened to the rocks that
the schizoids were still firmly clasped around small masses of stone.

Different species of Sargassum and Cystophora were very
common ; Leklonia, Carpomitra, and Sporochnus were mixed up
with the huge fronds of Macrocystis, and the necklace-like bladders
of Hormosire. This Macr ocystis is the same species that Darwin
gives such a vivid description of in his “ Voyage of the Beagle.”
He mentions that many shipwrecks have been averted by their
presence on the surface of the sea indicating hidden shoals. He
speaks of them as completely covering all the rocks that are partly
or wholly submerged. In Harvey’s “Phy. Australis,” vol. iv, Jfa-
crocystis pyrifera is thus described: ‘The cord-like stems, when
the plant grows in deep water, have been estimated variously at
500 to 1,500 feet. At whatever depth the plants vegetate the stem
rises at a considerable divergence from the perpendicular to the
surface, where their leaves are buoyed up by their vesicles.” It
is further stated that “it is only the terminal leaf which must be
regarded as a modification of a bud which develops new leaves by
splitting ; the lateral leaves once formed remain unchanged till
they decay.” Thus we remark that this is undoubtedly the
longest plant in the world. But returning to our sea-drift, the
flat olive-green fronds of Holiseris were to be seen in every heap.
The red seaweeds were also well represented. A few broken
specimens of the loveliest of all seaweeds, Claudea elegans, could
be found occasionally.

As Claudea elegans, as far as is known, flourishes only in the
estuary of the Tamar, on the opposite coast of Tasmania, it shows
that the current which, coming from the west, bore these specimens
to Ocean Grove, must at one time have passed the mouth of the
Tamar. Thelargerspecies of Griffithsia ceramium, Halymena rhody-
menia, &e., might be seen in hundreds, while the smaller species of
Callithamnion, Polysiphonia, dc., might be obtained on the larger
types of seaweed. The Chlorophycee were also well represented,
Caulerpas, Codium, Vaucherias, and Ulvas, with their bright
green fronds, glistened on every side. Amongst the light- coloured
or yellowish-red species were an immense number of Gelidium.
In the Melbourne Botanic Museum one of these Gelzdiwms was

marked as edible, and Shirley Hibberd, in his work entitled ‘‘The
Sea-weed Collector, ” says that the birds-nests weed (Gelidium)
of China and Japan i is collected by swallows for the construction
of their nests.” It is well known that these nests are of great com-
mercial value, and it would be well worth experimenting on some
of these species of seaweed to seeif it could not be utilised in some

THE ALGAE OF VICTORIA. 495

way. Another order of Alga that is much used in Western Europe
as food was well represented in the seadrift, namely, U/vacew. One
of these, Posphyra vulgaris (or purple laver), is exactly the same
species that is used so much on the west coasts of Ireland and
England on account of its gelatinous character, and “those who
have acquired a taste for it,” says Shirley Hibberd, “ declare it to
be delicious, especially when served with lemon juice.”

This Posphyra vulgaris was lying in great quantities on the
shore, along with a green variety, Ulva latissima. This last-men-
tioned seaweed is also prepared and eaten in the same way as P,
vulgaris. It would be useless to go through the list of species
noted on that memorable morning; indeed the writer was for-
tunate enough to be present on several similar occasions, and was
thus enabled to secure an immense number of specimens with
comparative ease.

On the west side of the Western Port Heads there is a long
narrow peninsula called Flinders, bounded on one side by Western
Port Bay, and on the other by Bass Straits ; it ends in what is
called West Head. This is a happy hunting-ground fora seaweed
collector. On the Straits side, when the tide is out, may be found
the seaweeds in their natural home, fastened to the rocks, either
in basins or pools left by the returning tide, or high and almost
dry under the fierce rays of the summer sun. It is interesting to
watch the incoming tide rushing over the apparently dying plants.
At first a languid movement may be observed, getting more natural
with every succeeding wave, until by the time they are completely
submerged the plants are as bright in ‘their appearance and as
graceful in their movements as if they had never been uncovered.
The green hair-like tufts of Cladophora, Chetophora, and Entero-
morpha, the bright green membraneous U/va, and here and there
the delicate feathery Bryopsis plumosa may be seen lining the
sides of the pools. Everywhere is to be found Hormosira Banksti
—in fact you must tread on their elastic bladders as you step from
rock to rock. Cystophora are also very plentiful. Under the
iarger olive and brown seaweeds Polysiphonias, Ceramiurnus and
Laurentias may be seen with their red fronds glittering in the
sunlight. Two Zosterias are so common in the shallow pools as
to be especially noticeable, namely, Zos. tasmanica, with its grass-
like leaves often entirely covering the sandy bottom, and Cymo-
dacea zosterifolia, which is sometimes seen growing in the sandy
bottoms of pools, whence it is easily extracted, and its long creeping
rhizomes can be examined ; but it often grows on the rocky sides,
from whence it is almost impossible to move it without destroying it.
Although these plants are true phanerogams in their structure and
mode of reproduction, still their constant occurrence in our tide
pools requires them to be mentioned. Again, on the long stems of
Cymodacea which often attain a length of from 12 to 20 feet, may

496 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

be found an immense number of parasitic seaweeds. These parasites
only grow from the nodes of the plant, and it isreally very interesting
to note the tiny parasites forming a complete fringe around each
node. As a general rule each node bears a‘fringe of the same
species, but sometimes two or even more separate kinds may be
counted at the same node. At the other side of Flinders Penin-
sula, Western Port stretches away northward, and a different
class of seaweed may be found growing on the low rocks and
boulders left uncovered. The more delicate of the Callithamnion,
Areschougie, Horeas, and Mychodeas flourish in these peaceful
pools ; also, after heavy weather a fine harvest may be obtained
from the sea drift. A strong current comes in from Bass’ Straits,
along the coast of Wilson’s Promontory, and so flows into Western
Port on the west of Phillip Island. From this circumstance it
may be presumed is due the fact that different species of seaweed
are found in Western Port that are not found in other parts of
Victoria. Further westward, along the coast is Cape Schanck, on
whose weather-beaten rocks the number of seaweeds to be found is
much smaller, but they are very interesting. In the basins left
at ebb tide the writer found no less than seven different species of
Zonaria, also the pretty little Padina pavonia, their delicate fan-
like structures springing horizontally from the almost vertical sides
of the basin. Again, on the outside rocks, deep below the water,
may be seen the huge fronds of Durvellia potatorum. These
plants are firmly fastened to the rocks by a thick scutate disc,
often 6 inches in diameter, and fully 1 inch thick ; the short, thick
stem gradually flattens and widens out into broad, brown, leather-
like fronds, not unlike a blacksmith’s apron, but much thicker.
As the rocks on which they grow are constantly washed by the
fierce flow of either the receding or incoming tides, the strain
on the plants must be enormous, and as one looks and sees
them on a lovely calm afternoon dashing first one way and
then another, and lashing the rocks every time, one cannot
help wondering at the immense inherent strength required
to live through a heavy storm. At Sorrento a decided change in
the species of seaweed may be noticed. Besides those already men-
tioned numbers of specimens of Plocamium, Gigartina, and Wran-
gelia may be obtained. Here also may be found several kinds of
Corallincea. These plants being generally incrusted with lime are
very brittle, and require careful handling, particularly Amphiroa
and Fania. The species of Algae found at or near Port Philip
Heads will be found very carefully compiled by the late M. J.
Bracebridge Wilson, of Geelong, in “ Proceedings of the Royal
Society of Victoria,” vol.iv. He gives a full description of where
he dredged, and found the different species mentioned.

More than this he presented a magnificent collection of dried
and mounted specimens to the Botanic Museum of Melbourne

THE ALGAE OF VICTORIA. 497

On each specimen sheet is noted the exact channel or distance
from the shore, depth of water, and in fact every particular that
may be of use to the student who wishes to work up the algae of Port
Philip Heads. The description of a number of algae new to science
(at that time) found by Mr. Wilson, and named by J. G. Agardh,
may be seen in the report of the A.A.A.S., vol. ii, 1890. To the
west of Port Philip Heads are a number of seaside resorts that are
particularly rich in seaweeds. Ocean Grove has been already
noticed with reference to its seadrift. But the rocks uncovered
at ebb tide are well worth examining in this neighbourhood. The
curious Codium bursa is only found fastened to the base of rocks
that are last uncovered and first covered, so that it is always in
deep water. The next place is Barwon Heads, then Bream Creek,
and Spring Creek (Torquay). It will be unnecessary to detail the
seaweeds found at these places as I have specially noticed the
locality of each species in the list appended to this paper. This
is the first complete list of Victorian algae, and in compiling it I
was helped in the most material way by several gentlemen. Mr.
J. Gabriel placed at my disposal his magnificent collection of
Victorian algae. These were collected at Warrnambool and else-
where by the late Mr. Henry Watts, a most indefatiguable worker
in natural history. J am also deeply indebted to Mr. J. G. Lueh-
mann, Curator of the Botanic Museum, for the courtesy and actual
help always forthcoming when required.

LIST OF VICTORIAN ALGAE TO DECEMBER, 1897.

By Henry Thos. Tisdall.

I. Fucoipr® (MELANOSPERME2).

Fucacee.

Sargassum, Ag. MHarv. Phy., Aus., vol. ii, pl. 110; iii, pl. 145 ; iv, pl. 208.

8. linearifolium, Ag. Bream Creek.
muriculatum, J. Ag. Bream Creek.
sonderi, J. Ag. Cape Schank.
verrucolosum, J. Ag. Point Lonsdale,
cristatum, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.
gunnianum, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.
varians, Sond. Port Phillip Heads.
leptopodum, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.
levigatum, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.
Raoullii, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.
lopocarpum, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.
phyllanthus, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.
bracteolorum, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.
critida, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.
trichophyllum, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.
fallax, Sond. Sorrento.
paradoxum, Ag. Wilson’s Promontory.

Mh i

498 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

™

(@)

. undulatum, J. Ag. Port Phillip.

biforme, Sond. Point Lonsdale.
vestitum, R. Br. Barwon Heads.
teretifolium, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.
spinuligerum, Sond. Port Phillip.

Seirococcus, Grev.

. axillaris, Grev. Bream Creek, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. i, pl. 4.

Carpophyllum, Grey.

. phyllanthus, Grey. Port Phillip.

muricatum, J. Ag. Barwon Heads.

Seytothalia, Grey.

. dorycarpa, Grev. Port Fairy, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. i, pl. 9.

Phylospora, Ag.

. comosa, Ag. Ocean Grove.

Scaberia, Ag.

. Agardhii, Grey. Werribee Jetty, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. iii, pl. 164.

Caulocystis, Aresch.

. cephalornthos, Aresch. Sorrento.

uvifera, Aresch. Ocean Grove.
brevifolia, Sond. Port Phillip.

Cystophora, J. Ag.

. platylobium, Ag. Sorrento.

racemosa, Hary. Sorrento.

retorta, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.

retroflexa, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.

siliquosa, J. Ag. Sorrento.

torulosa, J. Ag. Western Port, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. iii, pl. 123.

botryocystis, Sond. Port Phillip, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. i, pl. 56.

Grevillei, J. Ag. Point Lonsdale, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. iv, pl. 183.

spartioides, J. Ag. Point Lonsdale, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. ii, pl. 76.

monilifera, J. Ag. Sorrento, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. v, pl. 245.

sub-farcinata, Ag. Western Port.

laxa, Sond. Port Phillip.

polycystidea, Aresch. Port Phillip.

cephalornthos, J. Ag. West Head, Western Port, Harv, Phy. Aus.,
vol. 1, pl, 116.

uvifera, J. Ag. West Head, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. iii, pl. 175.

camphylocoma, J. Ag. West Head.

mucronmera, J. Ag. Barwon Head.

Sonderi, J. Ag. Ocean Grove, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. v, 243.

paniculata Aresch. Point Lonsdale, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. v, pl. 247.

Cystophyllum, J. Ag.

. muricatum, J. Ag. Ocean Grove, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. ili, pl, 139.

Fucodium, J. Ag. Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. i, pl. 53.

. chondrophyllum, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.

Hormosira, Endl.
Banksii, Decaisne. Point Lonsdale, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. iii, pi. 135.

Carpoglossum, Kuetz.

. confluens, J, Ag. West Head, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. iii, pl. 159.

M.

M.

THE ALGAE OF VICTORIA. 499

Myriodesma, Decaisne. Harv., Phy. Aus., vol, iv, pl. 219.

integrifolium, Harv. West Head.
quercifolium, Sond. Point Lonsdale.
pinnatifidum, J. Ag. Barwon Heads.
calophyllum, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.

Durvillea, Bony.

. potatorum, Aresch. Cape Schanck, Harv., Aus., vol. v, pl. 300.

Splachnidium, Grev.

. rugosum, Grev. Red Bluff, Port Phillip Bay, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. i,

pl. 14.
Notheia, Bail and Har.
anomala, B. and H. Port Lonsdale, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. iv, pl. 213.

Sporochnacee.

Carpomitra, Kuetz.
cabrere, Kuetz. West Head.
inermis, Kuetz. Ocean Grove, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. iv, pl. 238.
caudata, Sond. Ocean Grove.

Bellotia, Harv.
eriophorum, Harv, Ocean Grove, Hary. Phy. Aus., vol. ii, pl. 69.

Perithalia.

. Inermis, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. iv, pl. 238.

Nereia, Zanardini,

. australis, Harv. Ocean Grove.

filiforms, Zan. Flinders, West Head.
lophocladia, J. Ag. West Head.

Sporochnus, Ag.

. apodus, Harv. Point Lonsdale, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. ii, pl. 92.

pedunculatus, Harv. West Head.

comosus, Ag. Ocean Grove, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. ii, pl. 104,
Moorei, Harv. Ocean Grove, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. i, pl. 19.
radiciformis, Ag. Ocean Grove, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. iv, pl. 225.
scoparius, Harv. West Head, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. iv, pl. 226.
eryptocephalus, Zuetz. Port Phillip.

obovatus, Zuetz. Wilson’s Promontory.

Desmarestia, Lamour.
ligulata, Lamx. Western Port.
obtusa, J. Ag. Western Port.

Laminariacee,

Macrocystis, Ag.
pyrifera, Ag. Ocean Grove, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. iv, pl. 238.
Duebenii, Aresch. Port Phillip.

Ecklonia Horn.

. radiata, J. Ag. Red Bluff, Port Phillip.

Dictyotacee.
Haliseris, Targioni.

. Muelleri, Sond. Ocean Grove, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. iii, pl. 180.

Sonderi. Cape Schanck.
aerostichoides, J. Ag. Cape Schanck.

500 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Padina, Adanson,
P. pavonia, Gaillon. Point Lonsdale.
commersoni, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.

Zonaria, Ag.
Z. nigrescens, Sond. Ocean Grove.
variegata, Mart. Western Port.
Turneriana, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.
crenata, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.
microphylla Harv. Point Lonsdale, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. iv, pl. 195.
canaliculata, J. Ag. Barwon Heads.
stuposa, J. Ag. Barwon Heads.
Sinclairii, H. and H. Bream Creek, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. i, pl. 49.
interrupta, J. Ag. Ocean Grove, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. iv, pl. 190.
flava, Hary. Ocean Grove.

Lobospira, Aresch.
L. bicuspidata, Aresch. Western Port.
tricuspidata. Point Lonsdale, Harv. Phy. Aus., voli, pl. 34.

Dilophus.

D. fastigiatus, Kiitz. Port Phillip Heads.
foliosus, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.
opacus. J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.
tenerus. J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.
Wilsonii, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.

Taonia, J. Ag.
T. australasica, Sond. Port Phillip Heads.

Cutleria, Grev.
C. multifida, Grev. Geelong.

Dictyota, Lamourx.
D, pelucida, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.
apiculata, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.
abyssinica, Kiitz. Ocean Grove.
Diemensis, Sond. Ocean Grove.
Kunthii, Grey. Sorrento, Western Port.
dichotoma, J. Ag. Sorrento.
paniculata, J. Ag. Sorrento.
radicans, Harv. Port Phillip Heads, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. ii, pl. 119.
furcellata, J. Ag. Bream Creek, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. i, pl. 38.
nigricans, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.
ocellata, J. Ag. Barwon Heads.
fascida, J. Ag. Barwon Heads.
foliosa, J. Ag. Point Lonsdale.
pinnatifida, J. Ag. Point Lonsdale.

Stilophora, J. Ag.
S. Lyngbyezxi, J. Ag. Sorrento.

Spatoglossum.
S. australasicum, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.
cuneatum, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.

Asperococcus.
A, Turneri, Hook. Port Phillip Heads.
sinuosus, Bony. Port Phillip Heads.

Hydroclathrus, Bony. u
H. cancellatus, Bony. Port Phillip, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. ii, pl. 98.

THE ALGAE OF VICTORIA 501

Chordariacee.

Polycerea.
. ramulosa, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.

Bactrophora.
. nigrescens, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.

Chorda, Lamourx.
. lomentaria. Sorrento.
Mesogloia, Ag.
. virescens, Harv. Sorrento.
filurn, Harv. Queenscliff,

Cladosiphon, Kuetz. Harv. Phy.-Aus., vol. i, pl. 60.
. nigricans, Hary. Western Port.

Chordaria, Ag.
. declyosiphon, Kuetz. Port Fairy.
cladosiphon, Kuetz. Port Phillip, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. i, pl. 60.

Myrocladia, J. Ag.
. sclurus, Harv. Sorrento, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. i, pl. 58.

Leathesia, J. E. Grey.
. tuberiformis, Gr. Western Port.
umbellata, Meneg. Port Phillip.

Ectocarpacee.

Cladostephus, Ag.
. Spongiosus, Ag. Cape Schanck.
verticillatus, Ag. Cape Schanck.

Sphacelaria, Lyngb.
. paniculata, Lgb. West Head.

Muelleri, Sond. Wilson’s Promontory.
nove hollandiz, Sond. Port Phillip.
cirrhosa, Ag. Cape Schanck.

pulvinata, Harv. Portland Bay.

laxa, Sond. Port Phillip Bay.

gracilis, J. Ag. Cape Schanck.

Ectocarpus, Lyngb.
. Biliculosus, Lgb. Barwon Heads.
fasciculatus, Harv. Ocean Grove.

sordidus, Harv. Ocean Grove.

girandii, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.

FLORIDES.

Ceramiacee.

Callithamnion, Lyngb. H.P.A., plates 160, 207, 285, 273.
. plumigerum, Harv. Cape Shanck.

dasyurum, Harv. Port Phillip Bay.

paradoxum, Harv. Warrnambool.

conspicuum, Harv. Cape Liptrap.

Brownianum, Harv. Sorrento.

superbiens, Harv. Western Port.

formosum, Harv. Port Phillip Heads, Hary. Phy. Aus., vol. iv, pl. 281
latissimum, Harv. Port Phillip Heads.

laricinum, Harv. Western Port.

angustatum, Hook fil. and Harv. Western Port:

502 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

C. longinode, Harv. Warrnambool.
comosum, Harv. Flinders.
mucronatum, J. Ag. Flinders.
cruciatum, Ag. Sealers’ Cove.
plumula, Ag. Ocean Grove.
pulchellum, Harv. Warrnambool.
horizontale, J, Ag. Sorrento.
verticale, Harv. Cape Schanck.
harrowoides, Sond. Ocean Grove.
Muelleri, Sond. Ocean Grove.
dispar, Harv. Warrnambool, Harv. Phy, Aus., vol. iv, pla 227%
pellucidum, J. Ag. Point Lonsdale.
Griffithsia, Ag. Flinders.
hemiphorum, J. Ag. Flinders.
centprenum, Sond. Flinders.
licamorphum, J. Ag. Western Port, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. ii, pl. 90.
crinale, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.
divergens, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.
laricinum, Harv. Port Phillip Heads, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. iv, pl. 218.
gracilentum, Harv. Port Phillip Heads.
flaccidem, Hook & Har. Barwon Heads.
flloridulum, Ag. Western Port.
minimum, Harv. Cape Schanck.
polyrhizum, Harv. Cape Schanck.
simile, Hook. Warrnambool.
tetracladum, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.
Wilsonianum, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.

Ballia, Harv.
B. brunonis, Harv, Red Bluff.
robertiana, Harv. Point Lonsdale, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. i, pl. 36.
mariana, Harv. Ocean Grove, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. iv, pl, 212.
scoparia, Harv. Ocean Grove, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. ii, pl. 168.
callitriche, Ag. Ocean Grove.

Griffithsia, Ag., H. Phy. Aus., vol. iv, pl. 203.

G. tasmanica, J. Ag. Sorrento.

moniles, Harv. Cape Schanck.

corallina, Ag. Ocean Grove.

antarctica, Hook. Ocean Grove.

teges, Harv. Port Phillip Heads.

licamorpha, J. Ag. Western Port.

Sonderiana, J. Ag. Barwon Heads.

elongata, J. Ag. Bream Creek,

Gunniana, J. Ag. Bream Creek.

corticata, J. Ag. Torquay.

Benderiana, Ag. Torquay, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. i, pl. 52.

pinnata, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.

setacea, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.

Ptilota, Ag.
P, Jeannerettii, Harv. Ocean Grove, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. iv, pl. 198
coralloidea, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.
articulata, J. Ag. Torquay.
Rhodoceallis, Harv. Barwon Heads, Hary. Phy. Aus., vol. i, pl. 44.
striata, Harv. Port Phillip, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. ii, pl. 71.
siliculosa, Harv. Cape Schanck.
australisica, J. Ag. Point Lonsdale.
subvilifera, J. Ag., Torquay.

2

PB:

G.

THE ALGAE OF VICTORIA. 503

Thamnocarpus, Harv.

. Harveyanus, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.

pencillatus, J. Ag. Port Phillip.
glomrulifereus, J. Ag. Warrnambool

Crouania, J. Ag. Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. iii, pl. 140.

. australis, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.

Wattsii, Harv. Warrnambool, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. v, pl. 291.
Muelleri, Harv. Western Port.

Agardhiana, Harv. Western Post, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. v, pl. 256.
insignis, Harv. West Head.

Gulsonia, Harv.
annulata, Harvey. West Head.

Dasyphila, Sond.
Preissii, Sond. Cape Schanck, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. ii, pl. 66.

Ptilocladia, Sond,

. pulchra, Sond. Cape Lonsdale, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. iv, pl. 209.

Haloplegma, Montagne.

. Preissii, Sond. Bream Creek, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. ii, pl. 79.

Ceramium, Ag.

. gracillimum, Harv. Port Phillip Heads.

ramulosum, Hook fil., and Harvey. Port Phillip Heads.
isogonum, Harv. Port Phillip Heads, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. iv, pl. 206.
fastigiatum, Harv. Port Phillip Heads.

diaphanum, Lgb. Ocean Grove.

rubrum, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.

puberulum, Sond. Ocean Grove.

nodiferum, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.

apiculatum, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.

australis, J. Ag. Warrnambool.

miniatum, Suhr. Port Phillip Heads.

pusillum, Harv. Port Fairy.

cancellatum, Ag. Sealer’s Cove.

Centroceras Kuetz.

. cinnabarinum, Grat. St. Kilda.

clavulatum, Ag. Point Lonsdale.

Cryptonemiacee.
Nemastoma, J. Ag. H. P. Aus., vol. 5, p. 262.

. comasum, Harv. Western Point. Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. ii, pl. 109.

faradayee, Harv. Western Port.
gelinarioides, Harv. Cape Schanck.
caulescens, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.

Halymenia, Ag. Harv. Phy. Aus., pl. 103, 133.
kallymenoides, Harv. Cape Schanck.
floresia, Ag. Port Phillip Heads. Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. iv, pl. 214.
plana, Zanard. Port Phillip.
digitata, J. Ag. Cape Lonsdale.
Harveyana, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.
Polyopes, J. Ag.
constrictus, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.
Grateloupia, Ag.
gigartinoides, Sond. Port Phillip.
australis, J. Ag. Ocean Grove,

504 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D

Pachymenia, J. Ag.
P. sessilis, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.
Prionitis, J. Ag.
P. microcarpa, J. Ag. Wilson’s Promontory.

Cryptonemia, J. Ag. Harv. Phy. Aus., pl. 289.
C. tenuis, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.
elata, Harv. Warrnambool.
undulata, Sond. Ocean Grove, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. iv, pl. 205.
inequalis, J. Ag. Point Lonsdale.
Wilsoni, J. Ag. Western Port.
luxurians, J. Ag. Western Port.
Wilsoni, var. major, J. Ag. Cape Schanck.

Thamnoclonuem Kuetz., Harv. Phy. Aus., pl. 113, 114, 298
T. claviferum, J. Ag. Port Phillip.
codioides, J. Ag. Western Port.

Gigartinee.
Rhodoglossum, J. Ag.
R. lanceolatum, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.
foliiferum, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.
polycarpum, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.
purpureum, J. Ag. Warrnambool.

Gigartina, Lamorourx, Harv. Phy. Aus., pl. 68, 197, 297, 288.
G. brachiata, Harv. Geelong.
binderi, Harv. Port Lonsdale.
rubra, Sond. Port Phillip.
flabellata, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.
pinnata, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.
livida, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.
Wehliz, Sond. Port Phillip.
Radula, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.
orbicularis, Zan. Port Phillip.
pumila, Zan. Port Phillip.
circinnalis, Zan. Port Phillip.
gigantea, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.
lanecata, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.
confervoides, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.

Tridva, Bony.
I. australasica, J. Ag., Port Phillip Heads.
micans, Bony, Western Port.

Gymnogongrus Martius, Harv. P. A., pl. 290.
G. furcellata, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.
foliosus, J. Ag. Sorrento, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. iv, pl. 194.

Stenogramna, Harv.
.S. interrupta, Mont. West Head.
leptophyllum, Sond. Sorrento.

Kallymenia, J. Ag.
K. nana. Port Phillip Heads.
cribrosa, Harv. Cape Schanck, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. ii, pl. 73.
tasmanica, Harv. Cape Schauck.
polyccelioides, J. Ag. Point Lonsdale.

Glaphyrymania, J, Ag.
G. pustulosa, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.

Ee
E.

C;

H.

. australis, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.

. biannulata, J. Ag. Ocean Grove. a

THE ALGAE OF VICTORIA. 505

Polycelia, J. Ag.
laciniata, Harv. Sorrento.
Epiphlea, J. Ag.
grandifolia, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.
Collophyllis, Kuetz, Harv. P. A., pl. 193.
alternifida, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.
Harveyana, J. Ag. Western Port.
Lambertii, Hook and Hary. Port Phillip.
coccinea, Hook and Harv. Ocean Grove.
cornea, Harv. Western Port.
Wilsonianum, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.
carnea, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.
coronata, J. Ag. Ocean Grove, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. ii, pl. 97
patens, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads,

Nematospermece
Dudresnaya Bon.

(Demontiocee. )

Nizzophlea, J. Ag.

. tasmanica, J. Ag. Ocean Grove. ‘EC. ~2%

Spyridiew. (% Wag .

Spyridia, Harv., Harv. Phy. Aus., pl. 274. & 5
filamentosa, Harv. Western Port.
opposita, Harv. Port Lonsdale, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. iii, pl. 158.
dasyoides, Sond. Ocean Grove.
glomulifera, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.

Areschougier.
Erythroclonium, Sond,

. angustatum, Sond. Ocean Grove.

Sonderi, Harv. Albert Park, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. ii, pl. 86.
Muelleri, Sond. Ocean Grove, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. vy, pl. 298.

Areschongia Har., Harv. P: A., plate 117.

. intermedia, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.

dumosa, Harv. Cape Schanck, Hary. Phy. Aus., vol. v, pl. 282.
Laurencia, Hook and Har. Queenscliff.

Stuartii, Harv. Ocean Grove, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. v, pl. 294.
ligulata, Harv. Ocean Grove.

interupta, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.

australis, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. i, plate 113.
conferla, Harv. Port Phillip Heads.

Thysanocladia, Endl.

. laxa, Sond. Queenscliff.

Champiec.

Horea, Harv.
fruticulosa, Harv. Ocean Grove, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. iii, pl. 156.
ae Harv. Port Phillip Heads, Harv. Phy. Aus.,*vol. ii,
Dk OMe
speciosa, Harv. Ocean Grove.
polycarpa, Harv. Western Port.
Wilsonis, J. Ag. Point Lonsdale.

506 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Fauchea, Bory.
F, coronata, J. Ag. Point Lonsdale.

Chylocladia, Harv. P. A., plate 57.
C, monochlamydex, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.
clavellosa, Grey. Ocean Grove.
Muelleri, Sond. Ocean Grove, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. iii, pl. 138.

Champia, Ag.
C. parvula, Ag. Flinders.
affnis, Hook. Flinders.
obsoleta, Harv. Barwon Heads.
tasmanica, Harv. Ocean Grove.
compressa, Harv, Port Fairy.

Rhodymeniacee.

Hymenocladia, J. Ag., Harv. P., Aus., pl. 20.

H. gracilanoides, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.
usnea, J. Ag. Ocean Grove, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. ii, pl. 118.
ramilina, Harv. Western Port.
polymorpha, Harv. Barwon Heads.
conspersa, J. Ag. Point Lonsdale.
linearis, Sond. Ocean Grove.
australis, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.

Glocosaccion, Hary., Harv. P. A., plate 259.
G. Brownii, Harv. Sorrento, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. ii, pl. 83.
hydrophora, Harv. Port Phillip Heads,

Chrysymenia, J. Ag.
C. Mereditheana, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.
obovata, Sond. Ocean Grove, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. i, pl. 10.
polyglotta, J. Ag. Flinders.
gelatinosa, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.

Cordylidadia, J. Ag.
C. furcellata, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.
australis, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.

Rhodymenia, Grev., Harv. P. A., plate 295.
R. stenoglossa, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.
foliifera, Harv. Ocean Grove.
linearis, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.
australis, Sond. Ocean Grove, Hary. Phy. Aus., vol. iii, pl. 146.
trigena, J. Ag. Western Port.
polymorpha, J. Ag. Western Port, Harv. Phy., Aus., vol. ii, pl. 157.
corallina, Auch. Cape Schanck.
leptophylla, J. Ag. Barwon Heads.
(acropeltis) prolifera. Port Phillip.

Neurophyllis, Zanard.
N. australis, Zan. Port Phillip.

Glaphyrymenia.
G. pustulosa. Warrnambool.
Epymenia, Kuetz.
E. membranacea, Harv. Flinders.
Wilsonii, Sond., J. Ag. Wilsons Promontory.
halymemoides, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.
angustata, Sond. Western Port.

gE

M.

M.

A.

THE ALGAE OF VICTORIA. 507

Plocamium, Lamoux.
leplophyllum, Kuetz. Ocean Grove.
coccineum, Lamour. Western Port.
Pressianum, Sond. Ocean Grove, Hary. Phy. Aus., vol. ii, pl. 63.
angustum, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.
pusillum, Sond. Port Phillip.
costatum, J. Ag. Flinders.
gracile, J. Ag. Port Phillip.
nidificum, Harv. Sorrento.
mertensii, Grev. Sorrento.
procerum, J. Ag. Ocean Grove, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. iv, pl. 223
delatatum, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.
cystophyllum, J. Ag. Cape Schanck.

Amphibrachia.
hymenocladoides, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.

Rhodophyllis. Harv. Phy. Aus., plates 199, 216, 25, 8.

. volans, Hary. Ocean Grove.

Barker, Harv. Western Port, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. v, pl. 276.
Clephancarpa, Harv. Ocean Grove. Aus. Har. Phy., vol. v, pl. 254
ramentacea, J. Ag. Barwon Head.

membranacee, J. Ag. Torquay.

Gunnii, Hary. Ocean Grove.

multipartita, Harv. Ocean Grove.

tenuifolia, J. Ag. Port Western.

Goodwinie, Harv. Port Phillip Heads.

hyphveoides, Harv. Western Port.

fimbriata, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.

marginata, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.

pulchella, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.

Dictyopsis, Sond.

. fimbriata, Sond. Wilson’s Promontory.

Squamariacee.
Peyssonnelia, Decaisne, Harv. Phy. Aus., pl 269.

. Nove-Hollandiz, Kuetz. Port Phillip.

australis, Sond. Ocean Grove, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol., ii, plate 811.
Corallinacee.
Melobesia, Aresch.

pustulata, Lamouroux. Ocean Grove.
patena, Hook and Harv. Cape Schanck.

Mastophora, Decaisne.
Lamourouxii Deen. Ocean Grove.
canaliculata, Harv. Port Fairy, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. v, pl. 263.

Amphiroa, Lamx. H. P. Aus., plate 231
australis, Sond. Port Phillip Heads, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. ii, pl. 77.
ephedree, Lamx. Port Fairy.
elegans, Hook. Cape Schanck.
charoides, Lamx, Flinders.
granifera, Harv. Port Fairy.
stelligera, Lamx. Ocean Grove, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. iv, pl. 230.

Cheilosporum, Aresch.

. Sagittatum. Occan Grove, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. v, pl. 250.

Arthrocardia, Aresch.

. Wardii, Aresch. Warnambool.

maillardia, Aresch. Port Phillip.

508 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Lithothamnion, Harv.
L. mamillare, Harv. Port Phillip Heads.

Jania, Lamouroux.
J. micrarthrodia, Lamx. Western Port.
fastigiata, Harv. Ocean Grove, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. v, pl. 251.
subulata, J. Ag. Western Port.
cuvieri, J. Ag. Cape Schanck.

Corallina, Lamx.

C. officinalis, Lamx. Ocean Grove.

pusill, Sond. Port Fairy.

clavigera, Kuetz. Victoria.

cuvierl, Lamx. Ocean Grove.

pilifera, Lamx. Port Phillip Heads.

crispata, Aresch. Port Phillip.

nana, Zan. Port Phillip Heads.

Spherococcoidee,

Nizymenia, Sond.
N. australis, Sond. Ocean Grove, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. 11, pl. 165.

Phacelocarpus, Endl.
P. complanatus, Harv. Ocean Grove, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. v, pl. 252.
alatus, Harv. Western Port.
Labillardierii, Endl. Western Port, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. m1, pl. 163.
apodus, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.
sessilis, Harv. Cape Schanck.
Billardieri. Ocean Grove.

Curdiea, Harv.
C. laciniata, Harv. Bream Creek, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. 1, pl. 132.
obtusata, Harv. Port Fairy, H. P. A., vol. tv, pl. 210.

Melanthalia, Mont.
M. concinna, Harv. Ocean Grove.
obtusata, Mont. Barwon Heads.
flabelata, Sond. Point Lonsdale.
intermedia, J. Ag. West Head.

Corallopsis, Grey.
C. umbellifera. Port Phillip.

Gracilaria, J. Ag., Harv. P. A., plates, 80, 260.
lechemoides, J. Ag. Port Fairy.
confervoides, Grev. Ocean Grove.
fruticosa, Harv. Flinders.
furcellata, Harv. Cape Schanck, Phy. Aus., vol. v, pl. 286.
corniculata, J. Ag. Port Phillip.

Tylotus, J. Ag.
T. obtusatus, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.

Sarcodia, J. Ag.
. palmata, Sond. Port Phillip Heads.
montagneana, Kuetz. Ocean Grove.
nove-hollandiz, J. Ag. Western Port.

G.

I

72

Dicranema, Sond.

D. revolutum, J. Ag. Port Phillip, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol ii, pl. 74.
Greville?, Sond. Ocean Grove, Hary. Phy. Aus., vol. ii, pl. 120.
filiformis, Sond. Flinders.
ramulifera, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads,

EE,

THE ALGAE OF VICTORIA,

Heringia, J. Ag.
furcata, J. Ag. Warrnambool.
ceramioides, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.

Stenocladia, Keutz.

S. furcata, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.

N.

Q

f& 2 HE

Harveyana. Point Lonsdale.
Delesseriew.
Nitophyllum, Grey.
crispum, Kuetz. Ocean Grove.

obscurum, J. Ag. Flinders.
Gattyanum, J. Ag. Cape Schanck.

509

Gunnianum, Hary. Ocean Grove, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. v, pl, 241.

affine Harv., Harv. Bream Creek.
multipartitum, Hook. Sealer’s Cove.
parvifolium, J. Ag. Port Phillip Bay.

Curdieanum, Harv. Point Lonsdale, Harv. P. A., vol. iii, pl. 151.
erosum, Harv. Cape Schanck, Harv. P. A., vol. i, pl. 94.
pristoidum, Hary. Queenscliff, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. iv, pl. 229.

endivicefolum, Hook. Point Lonsdale.
polyanthum, J. Ag. Sorrento.
uncenatum, J. Ag. Sorrento.
monanthos, J. Ag. Western Port,
fallax, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.
subfalvum, J. Ag. Sorrento.
heterocyatidea, Sond., Warrnambool.

Delesseria, Grev., Harv. P. Aus., Plates 87, 137, 150, 244, 59, 268.
frondosa, Harv. Ocean Grove, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. ii, pl. 179.

simulans, J. Ag. Flinders.

revoluta, Harv. Ocean Grove, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. iii, pl. 170,

tasmanica, F. Miller. Western Port.
imbricata, Aresch. Flinders.
heterocystidea, J. Ag. Point Lonsdale.
marginifera, J. Ag. Sorrento.
endiveefolia, J. Ag. Sorrento.

Caloglossa, Harv.

. Leprieurii, Harv. Port Fairy.

Helminthocladiee.
Helminthocladia, J. Ag.

australis, Harv. Port Phillip Heads, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. v, pl. 272.

Helminthora, J. Ag.
divaricata, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.

Nemalion, Duby.

insigne, Harv. Port Phillip Heads, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. v, pl. 284.

Glocophloca, J. Ag.
scinaroides, J. Ag. Western Port.

Scinara, Bivona.

. furcellata, Biv. Ocean Grove.

moniliformus, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.
Tiarophora.

. australis, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.

‘Liagora, Lamx., Har. Phy. Aus., pl. 162,
viscida, Ag. Sorrento, Har.
australasica, Sond, Port Phillip Heads,

510 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

G.

> o We oN

M.

Galaxaura, Lam., Har. Phy. Aus., plates 275, 228.
marginata, Lamour. Ocean Grove, Har. Phy. Aus., vol, iii, pl. 136.
sub nom Lanardinia marginata.

Chetangier.
Zanardinia, J. Ag.

. marginata, J. Ag. Western Port.

Bindera, Harv.

. Splachnoides, Harv. Ocean Grove.

Chetanguim, Kuetz.

. variolosum, J. Ag. Port Phillip.

Acrotylus, J. Ag.

. australis, J. Ag. Western Port.

Gelidiee.
Pterocladia, J. Ag.

. lucida, J. Ag. Western Port, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. v, pl. 248.

Gelidium, Lamx.

. acrocarpum, Harv. Port Fairy.

corneum, Grey. Ocean Grove.

asperum, Harv. Ocean Grove.

glandufolium, Hook. Flinders. Hary. Phy. Aus., vol. i, pl. 10.
proliferum, Harv. Cape Schanck.

australe, J. Ag. Western Port.

Hy pneacee.
Gattya, Harv.

. pinnella, Harv. Western Port, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. ii, pl. 93.

Hypnea, Lam.

. musciformes, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.

episcopalis, Hook. Flinders, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. i, pl. 23.
ramentacea, J. Ag. Flinders.

seticulosa, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.

reticulata, J. Ag. Point Lonsdale.

australis, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.

Merrifieldia, J. Ag.
ramentacea, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.

Dasyphlea, Mont.

. insignis, Mont. Ocean Grove.

tasmanica, J. Ag. Barwon Heads, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. ii, pl. 115.

Mychodea, Harv.
terminalis, Harv. Cape Schanck, Harv. Phy. Aus. vol. iv, pl. 200.
longipes, Sond. Port Phillip.
membranacea, Harv. Ocean Grove.
carnosa, Harv. West Head, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. iii, pl. 142.
pusilla, Harv. Queenscliffe.
fastigata, Harv. Point Lonsdale.
Laurata, Harv. Ocean Grove.
compressa, Harv. Western Point, Harv. Phy., Aus., vol. iv, pl. 201.
foliosa, Harv. Cape Schanck.
decipiens, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.

Ectoclinum, J. Ag.

. dentatum, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.

THE ALGAE OF VICTORIA. bl}

Solieriee,

Gelinaria, Sond. Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. ii, plate 85.
G. Harveyana, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.
marginata, J. Ag. Western Port.

Rhabdonia, Harv. Phy. Aus., plates 152, 299.
R. nigrescens, Harv. Ocean Grove.
coccinea, Harv. Brighton Beach, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. i, pl. 54.
dendroides, Harv. Cape Schanck, Harv, Phy. Aus., vol. iil, pl. 166.
robusta, Grev. Ocean Grove.
mollis, Harv. Sorrento.
hamata, Harv. Port Phillip.
charoides, Harv. Western Port, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. iv, pl. 196.
clavigera, J. Ag. Western Port.
verticillata, Harv. Ocean Grove.

Soliera, J. Ag.
S. australis, J. Ag. Western Port.

Eucheuma, J. Ag.
E. speciosum, Sond. Port Fairy.

Wrangelier.
Monospora, Solier.

M. australis, Harv. Mouth of Snowy River.
gracilis, Harv. Point Lonsdale.

Bornetea, Thuret.
B. Meredithiana, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.

Wrangelia, Ag. Harv. P. Aus., pl. 233,
W. nitella, Harv. ‘Western Port, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. ii, pl. 105.
mucronata, Hary. Port Phillip Heads.
myriophylloides, Harv. Barwon Heads, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. iv, pl.
224.
velutina, Harv. Ocean Grove, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. i, pl. 46.
_ protensa, Harv. Ocean Grove.
Halurus, Harv. Western Port, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. ii, pl. 70.
verticillata, Harv. Point Lonsdale.
crassa, Hook. Torquay.
Wattsii, Harv. Torquay.
clavigera, Harv. Barwon Heads, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. v, pl. 287,
ballioides, J. Ag. Point Lonsdale.
nobilis, Hary. Sorrento.
setigera, Harv. Ocean Grove.
plumosa, Harv. Ocean Grove.
princeps, Harv. Ocean Grove, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. iv, page 234.
incurva, J. Ag. Western Port.

Chondriee.

Celoclonum, J. Ag.

C. verticillatum, Harv. Port Phillip Heads.
opuntioides, Harv. Ocean Grove,

Corynecladia, J. Ag.

australasica, Sond. Wilson’s Promontory.
umbellata, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.

512 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Laurencia, Lamoux
L. Fosteri, Grev. Ocean Grove.
arbuscula, Sond. Barwon Head.
dendroidea, J. Ag. Point Lonsdale.
heterocladia, J. Ag. Western Port, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. iii, pl. 148.
botryoides, J. Ag. Warrnambool, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. iv, pl. 142.
crusiata, Harv. Western Port.
obtusa, Lam. Wailson’s Promontory.
elata, Harv. Torquay.
Grevilleana, Harv. Ocean Grove, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. i, pl. 15.
divaricata, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.

Chondria. Harv. Phy. Aus., plates 189, 239, 102, 147, 280.
. spuntiodes, Sond. Point Lonsdale.
corynophora, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.
dasyphylla, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.
curdeana, J. Ag. Sorrento.

Q

Asparagopsis, Mont. Harv. Phy. Aus., plate 6.
A. armata, Harv. Warrnambool, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. iv, pl. 192.
delilei, Harv. Port Phillip Heads.

Delisea, Lamx.
D. elegans, Ag. Ocean Grove.
hypneoides, Harv. Ocean Grove, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol, ii, pl. 134.
pulchra, Grey. Sorrento, Har. Phy. Aus., vol. i, pl. 16,

Bonnemaisonia, J. Ag.
B. asparagoides, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.
Ptilonia, J. Ag.
P. australasica, Harv. Port Fairy.
subulifera, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.
Leptophyllis, J. Ag.
L. conferta, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.
Halitania, J. Ag.
' H. Wilsonis, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.

Rhodomelee,
Claudea, Lamx. Harv. P. A., plate 61.
C. elegans, Lamx. Western Port, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. i, plate 1.
sunpliscanta, Harv. Port Fairy.
periclada, Harv. Port Fairy.

Martensia, Hering. Harv. P. A., page 127.
M. australis, Harv. Ocean Grove, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. i, pl. 8.
elegans, Hering. Ocean Grove.

Dictyurus, Bery., Harv. Phy. Aus., plates.
D. australis, Sond. Western Port.
quercifolius, J. Ag. Cape Schanck.
teres, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.
gymnopus, J. Ag. Point Lonsdale.

Hanowia, Sond.

H. robusta, Harv. Western Point.

arachnoidea, Harv. West Head.

Cliftonia.
C. pectinata, Harv. Ocean Grove., Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. ii, pl. 100.
Amansia, Lamour. Harv. Phy. Aus., plates 51, 222,

A. linearis, Hary. Point Lonsdale, Hary. Phy. Aus., vol. ii, p. 108.

similis, Harv. Warrnambool.

THE ALGAE OF VICTORIA 5la

Polyzonia, Suhr.
P. Sonderi, Harv. Western Port.
encisa, J. Ag. Ocean Grove. _.
flaccida, Harv. Ocean Grove, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. i, pl. 42.

Lenormandia, Sond. Harv. Phy. Aus., pl. 181.

L. Muelleri, Sond. Ocean Grove, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. i, pl. 45.
marginata, Harv. Ocean Grove, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. iv, pl. 235.
prolifera, J. Chauvenir, Harv. Port Phillip Heads, N.P.
Grevilleana, J. Ag. Bream Creek.

Polyphacum, Ag.
P, Smithie, Harv West Head.

Teannerettia, Harv.
I. lobata, Hook. Point Lonsdale, Harv, Phy. Aus., vol. i, pl. 33.

Melanoseris, Zan.
M. crispata, Zan. Port Phillip Heads.

Pollexfen‘a, Harv.
P. pedicellata, Harv. Ocean Grove.
crenata, J. Ag. Western Port.
nana, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.
crispata, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.

Sarcomenia, Sond. Harv. Phy. Aus., pl. 12.
8. delesserioides, Sond. Ocean Grove, Harv. Piy. Aus., vol. ili, pl. 121.
tenera, J. Ag. Bream Creek.
dasyoides, Harv. Western Port.
Victoria, J. Ag. Barwon Heads.
mutabilis, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.

Acanthophora, Lamx.
A. arborea, Harvey. Port Phillip Heads,
Thierii, Lam. Ocean Grove.

Dictyminia, Grev. Harv. Phy. Aus., plates 21, 124.
D. tridens, Grev. Sorrento.
Harveyana, Sond. Cape Schanck.

Trigenia, Sond.
T. australis, Sond. Port Phillip Heads,

Rhodomelia, Ag., Harv. P. A., vol. iii, pl. 130.

R. periclada, Sond. Brighton, Harv. Puy. Aus., vol. i, pl. 28.
Preissii, Sond. Ocean Grove.
simplicicaulis. Western Port.
trigena. Warrnambool, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. iii, pl. 126.

Rytiphlea, Sond.

R. australasica, Mart. Ocean Grove, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. i, pl. 27.
elata, Harv., Sond. Ocean Grove, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. iv, pl. 239.
simplicifolia, J. Ag. Western Port, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. v, pl. 246.
umbellata, J. Ag. Point Lonsdale.

Alsidium, Ag,
A. comosum, Harv. Port Phillip Heads.
Chondriopsis, J, Ag.
C. ovalifolia, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.
Harveyana, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.
dasyphilla, J. Ag. Port Fairy.
fustifolia, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.

2K

514 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

C. debilis, J. Ag. Ocean Grove. :
arborescens, J. Ag. Barwon Heads.
succulenta, J. Ag. Barwon Heads.
corallorhiza, J. Ag. Bream Creek.
foliifera, J. Ag. Point Lonsdale.

Bostrychia, Mont. Harv. P. Aus., Pl., 176.
B. uvularis, Harv. Point Lonsdale, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. iii, pl. 176.
Harveyi, Mont. Ocean Grove, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. iv, pl. 292.
acicarpa, Harv. Ocean Grove.

Polysiphonia, Grey. Harv. Phy. Aus., Plates 35, 95, 185, 185.
P. Hookeri, Hary. Ocean Grove.
mallardie, Harv. Western Port.
Hystrix, Harv. Western Port.
abscissa, Hook. Ocean Grove.
laxa, Harv. Point Lonsdale.
succulenta, Harv. Port Phillip.
Blandi, Harv. Flinders, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. iv, pl. 184.
mollis, Harv. Flinders.
rufo-lanosa, Harv. Ocean Grove.
australis, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.
sphacelarioides, J. Ag. Western Port.
Gunniana, J. Ag. Western Port.
spinosissima, Harv. Ocean Grove.
succulenta, Harv. Port Phillip Heads.
cladostephus, Mont. Ocean Grove.
dendritica, Ag. Ocean Grove.
pinnata, Ag. Port Phillip Heads.
versicolor, Hook. Ocean Grove.
rostrata, Sond. Flinders, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. v, pl. 242.
pectinella, Harv. Bream Creek.
tasmanica, Sond. Bream Creek.
nigrita, Sond. Barwon Heads.
cancellata, Harv. Flinders.
frutex, Harv. Occan Grove.
fuscescens, Harv. Ocean Grove.
Patersonii, Sond. Port Fairy.
cespitula, Sond. Point Lonsdale.
amena, Sond. Cape Schanck.
Lyallii, Harv. Port Phillip Heads.
filipendula, Harv. Port Fairy.

Dasya, Ag., Harv. Phy. Aus., Plate 174, 278, 257, 3.

D. Gunniana, Harv. Ocean Grove.

Laurenciana, Harv. Torquay.

villosa, Harv. Point Lonsdale.

macroura, Harv. Port Phillip Heads.

hapalathrix, Harv. Ocean Grove, Har. Phy. Aus., vol. ii, pl. 88.

Faradaye, Harv. Ocean Grove, H.P.A., vol. iui, pl. 173.

Haffice, Harv. Barwon Heads, H.P.A., vol. iii, pl. 143.

baccarioides, Harv. Western Port.

Tasmanica, Sond. Western Port.

Muelleri, Sond. Barwon Heads, H.P.A., vol. i, pl. 31.

wrangelioides, Harv. Torquay.

Wilsonis, J. Ag. Point Lonsdale.

tenera, Sond. Western Port.

mirocladiodes, Harv. Ocean Grove.

plumigera, J. Ag. Ocean Grove,

hormocladus, J. Ag. Cape Schanck,.

THE ALGAE OF VICTORIA. 515

D. cerameoides, J. Ag. Point Lonsdale.
urceolata, Harv. Port Fairy.
pellucida, Harv. Sorrento.
atactica, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.
australis, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.
Bolbocheete, Harv. Ocean Grove.
verticellata, Harv. Port Phillip.
lenormandiana, Ag. Mouth of Glenelg River.
dictyuroides, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.
hormoclados, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.

ZOOSPERME.

Siphonacee.

Caulerpa, Lamouroux. Harv. Phy. Aus., Plates 30, 107, 95, 161, 178, 172.

C. scalpelliformis, Ag. Brighton Beach, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. i, pl. 17.
falcifolia, Harv. Western Port.
trifaria, Harv. Western Port, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. v. pl. 261.
Harveyi, F. v. Miieller. Western Port.
Sonderi, F. v. M. Flinder’s, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. iii, pl. 167.
Abier-marina, J. Ag. Flinders.
Brownii, Endl. Sorrento.
hypnoides, R. Br. Ocean Grove, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. ii, pl. 84.
Muelleri, Sond. Ocean Grove, Harv. P. A., vol. i, pl. 2.
sedoides, Ag. Red Bluff, Hobson’s Bay, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. ii, pl. 72.
vesculifera, Harv. Western Port.
simpliciuseula, Ag.. Port Phillip Heads, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. ii,

pl. 65.

papillosa, J. Ag. Queenscliff.
cactoides, Ag. Cape Schanck, Hary. Phy. Aus., vol. i, pl. 26.
alternifolia, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.
eurvifolia, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.
obscura, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.
geminata, J. Ag. Western Port.

Avrainvillea, J. Ag.
A. obscura, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.

Callipsygma, J. Ag.
_C. Wilsonis, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.

Codium, Ag. Harv. Phy. Aus., plate 41.
C. mucronatum, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.

tomentosum J. Ag. Queenscliff.

Muelleri, Kiitz. Ocean Grove.

elongatum, J. Ag. Sorrento.

spongiosum, Harv. Port Phillip Heads, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. i, pl. 55.

‘Bursa, Grey. Ocean Grove.

Clypiatum, J. Ag. Ocean Grove.

galeatum, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.

pomoides, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.

Vaucheria, D.C.
V. velutina. Flinders (Brackish stream).
clavata. Flinders.

Bryopsis, Lamourx.
B. plumosa, Lamx. Flinders (mouth of stream),
claveeformis, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.
baculifera, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.
gemellipora, J, Ag. Port Phillip Heads,

516: PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Udotea, Lamourx.
U, peltata. Flinders.
infundibuliformis. Flinders.

Dasycladec.
Polyphysa, Lamour. Harv. Phy. Aus., plate ii.

P, peniculus, Lamour. Flinders.
cliftoni, Harv. Port Phillip, Har. Phy. Aus., vol. v, pl. 255.

Valoniacee,
Apjohniz, Harv.
A. letevirens, Harv. Western Port, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. 1, pl. 5.

Dictyospheeria, Dec.
D. sericea, Harv. Port Phillip Heads,

Ulvacee,

Porphyra, Ag. Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. v, pl. 265.
P. vulgaris, Ag. Shores of Port Philiip.
laciniata, Ag. Shores of Port Phillip.

Wilvas ie
U. letevirens, Areschoag. Port Phillip Heads.
latissima, J. Ag. Port Phillip.
rigida, Harv. Western Port.
Ulothrix.
U. zonata. Flinders.
equatilis. Flinders.
Punctata.
P. latifolia, Flinders.
(Enteromorpha, Link.
EK. bulbosa, Lu. Port Phillip Heads.
clathrata, Kiitz. Port Phillip Heads.
flexuosa, Walf. Port Phillip Heads.
Hobkirkii, Harv. Port Phillip Heads.
lingulata, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads,
opposita, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.
compressa, Grev. Flinders.
Bangia, Lyng.
B. pulchella, Harv. Warrnambool.
Cladophora, Kuetz. Harv. Phy. Aus., plates 78, 101.
C. Bainesii, Miiel. and Harv. Port Phillip, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. ii, pl. 112.
Feredayi, Harv. Cape Schanck, Harv. Phy. Aus., vol. i, pl. 47.
gracilis, Griff. Port Phillip Heads.
acrosiphonia, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.

Cheetomorpha, Kuetz.
C. Darwinii, Kuetz. Port Phillip.
crea, Kuetz. Warrnambool.
valida, Hook. Western Port.

/Edogonium, Link,
44. capillare, Kuetz. Western Port.
vesicatum. Western Post.

Conferva, Tries.
C. Darwinii. Flinders.
maxima. Flinders.
arinosa, Carm. Port Phillip Heads.
valida, J. Ag. Port Phillip Heads.

EUCALYPTUS PULVERULENTA—VICTORIA. BLY

No. 8—ON THE OCCURRENCE OF EUCALYPTUS
PULVERULENTA IN VICTORIA.

By A. W. Howrerr.

(Read Friday, January 7, 1898. )

THERE are two passages in the systematic description of this
eucalypt by the late Baron v. Mueller in the eighth decade of the
“ Hucalyptographia,”’ to which I desire to refer as an introduction
to this paper.

First, that the Hucalyptus pulverulenta of Sims (1) occurs in
Victoria, near Lake Omeo, near the Buchan River, between the
Avon and Mitchell Rivers, and also towards Walhalla. Second,
that there had not been included in the systematic definition and
in the illustration of that species a eucalypt the leaves of which
in aged trees become elongated lanceolar, much narrowed upwards,
and even somewhat sickle-shaped, though their base remains
rounded and their stalk very short. Moreover, some of the leaves
become alternate or scattered.

The inference to be drawn from these statements is that not only
does the typical form of the species occur in Victoria, but that
both in the north-eastern district and in Gippsland there is a
variety with elongated sessile opposed leaves.

For some time I have felt considerable difficulty as to the occur-
rence of Hucalyptus pulveru/enta in Victoria in its typical form.
In the Gippsland localities which are known to me, as at Omeo,
Buchan, Providence Ponds (between the Avon and Mitchell
Rivers), towards Walhalla, and elsewhere, I have seen the variety
with elongated lanceolar leaves, but not the typical HLucalyptus
pulverulenta.

I have now again carefully considered the specimens in my collec-
tion, and also some new material either collected by me or supplied
lately by correspondents.

I have to thank Mr. J. G. Luehmann, Curator of the National
Herbarium in Melbourne, for most kindly making available to me
the specimens therein of Lucalyptus pulverulenta and other kindred
eucalypts.

Unfortunately, those specimens which were used by Baron v.
Mueller for his definition and for the illustration of species in the

(1) ‘* Botanical Magazine,” Vol. xlvi, 1819, t. 3087,

518 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

“* Bucalyptographia,” have been mislaid during changes consequent
on the decease of the Government Botanist, and cannot now be
found.

The consideration of the evidence has led me to the conclusion
that the typical Lwealyptus pulverulenta is not found in Victoria,
but only the variety with opposed, elongated lanceolar leaves in
the aged trees. For this I propose the name as a variety, of
* Janceolata.”

It seems to me preferable to give a pretty full definition of the
Eucalyptus pulverulenta, variety lanceolata, than merely to
enumerate the characters which differentiate it.

It occurs between the Pilot-range and Beechworth (F.v.M.),
near the Ovens River (C. Falk), and in the Ovens district (D. Ingle).
In Gippsland I have observed it near Buchan, at Providence
Ponds (between the Avon and Mitchell Rivers), near Ostler’s
Creek, on the Walhalla Road, between Darlimurla and Mirboo
North, at Monkey Creek between Sale and Port Albert, and at
Moe.

It grows as a small tree, or a tree rising to the height of 40 feet
to 50 feet. The bole is usually short, and in the taller forms the
limbs are not infrequently somewhat thick as compared to the
trunk, and are curved, twisted, or angular. The lower branches
frequently droop, especially in the taller forms.

Bark outwardly grey, within reddish brown, shortly fibrous and
brittle, resembling in some degree in outward appearance the
bark of Zucalyptus macrorrhyncha,

The inner bark has a smell which while eucalyptine has been
likened by some to a terebinthine odour.

The outer bark peels from the smaller boughs, leaving them
smooth and brown in colour.

Seedlings have opposed sessile leaves, which are almost circular
in the lower pairs, but ovate to pointed ovate in the higher.

The leaves and, indeed, the young plants are characterised by
an ashy-grey mealy bloom, with more or less of an underlying dull
green tint showing through. I have observed the stem to be red-
dish and although warty to be smooth.

Young saplings of 4 feet or 5 feet in height have opposed sessile,
rounded, cordate to ovate, and also ovate-pointed leaves.

On the upper shoots of somewhat taller saplings the leaves become
broadly ovate-lanceolar, 3 to 4 in. long by half that in width.
Such leaves, indeed the leaves of saplings generally, are less mealy
than the young plants, excepting the new shoots, or at time of
flowering, and are of a dull green, with at the same time a distinct
ash-grey tinge.

EUCALYPTUS PULVERULENTA—VICTORIA., 519

The venation of the young leaves is not always distinct. The
mid-rib is usually well marked, and in some localities compara-
tively wide at its base. The stem, leaf-stalk, mid-rib, and leaf-
edge in some cases are dark red in colour.

On the leaves of strong saplings the venation is often well marked.
The lateral veins diverge at angles between 40° and 50°, and are
somewhat apart. The marginal vein not always distinguishable,
and placed irregularly distant from the edge.

In the leading shoots of strong saplings, the leaves are
lengthened so as to become lanceolar, or somewhat sickle-shaped,
or faleate. On aged trees the whole of the leaves, excepting,
perhaps, those on the lower drooping boughs, are usually long-
lanceolar, and opposed ; but in places, especially high up, show a
tendency to be alternate or scattered. Almost always a shoot is
terminated by a pair of opposed leaves.

In the north-eastern district the leaves appear to be thinner in
texture than those of trees in Gippsland, which are sometimes thick
and leathery. In such cases the venation is somewhat hidden, but
dots are plentiful.

The flowers are mostly axillary, and are to be found even on
saplings, not more than 5 feet in height. The peduncle is rounded,
though I have occasionally observed a trace of flattening, and
it is from three-eighths to one-half of an inch long. Buds are
about as long as, and the lid may be one-third to one-half, of the
length of the calyx-tube. Form of bud, truncate conoid ; lid some-
what mammilate; filaments yellow; anthers all fertile, almost oval,
opening by long parallel slits ; style rather short, and scarcely
dilated. The number of flowers in a head from three to six, rarely
two. The trees flower in Gippsland about October, and April.

The fruits are sessile, or almost so, and vary somewhat in size
and shape. Of a number which I have examined from the different
places mentioned some were top-shaped, being about equal in height
and in breadth at the rim; less frequently semiovate top-shaped.
Rim somewhat marked, occasionally almost flat, but vertex some-
times convex, and occasionally strongly so. The valves are not
large, are deltoid, exerted slightly and bent a little inwards,

In a number of fruits collected in Gippsland I found those
having three, four, and five valves in the ratios of 5, 9, 1.

The timber of the Victorian variety is somewhat dark coloured,
liable to be pipy and of no economic value unless for fuel in
default of better.

The most westerly locality where I found this tree is Moe, in
Gippsland, 80 miles from Melbourne. From Moe to Bunyip River,
a distance of 32 miles, there extends the great forest of Western

520 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Gippsland, within which there are but few spots where Hucalyptus
pulverulenta might be able to find a habitat. But at Bunyip the
country again changes to comparatively poor sandy and clayey
soil flanking the mountains which end in the Dandenong Ranges.
On these lands is found as part of an open forest Hucalyptus
Stuartiana, locally known as “apple-tree,” and of which Baron
v. Mueller remarks that there is every reason to assume that the
variety of Hucalyptus pulverulenta with elongated leaves is merely
a state meditating a transit to Hucalyptus pulverulenta.

In tracing out Lucalyptus pulverulenta in its lanceolate variety
through Gippsland I was struck by some points in which as to the
foliage, this tree, as at Moe, resembled Lucalyptus Stwartiana.
Again, in tracing out this latter from Bunyip to near Lilydale I
was struck, not only by the differences which distinguish it from,
but also by the many characters which it has in common with,
Eucalyptus pulverulenta in its lanceolate variety.

The young form of Hucalyptus pulverulenta of Victoria nearly
resembles the mature form of the New South Wales species. Baron
von Mueller says that it is distinguishable from Hucalyptus
Stuartiana only in its foliage; and to this I would add that it is
only in its young state that the pulverulent character is equally
apparent in the latter as in the former.

In this connection I may say that I am fully in accord with
Mr. J. H. Maiden when he says, at p. 523 of the ‘‘ Useful Native
Plants of Australia,” that it is a question whether they ought not
to be united.

The sessile, comparatively short and wide leaves of the type in its
mature state, the elongated, although sometimes still sessile, com-
paratively narrow leaves of the lanceolate variety, and the similar
leaves but with attenuated base, and comparatively long petioles
of Lucalyptus Stwartiana, indicate the direction and degree of the
changes which have taken place.

The following may serve as a rough approximation of the .
lengthening of the leaf, and the development of a leaf stalk, com-
mencing with the typical Lucalyptus pulverulenta and ending
with Hucalyptus Stuartiana. The measurements were made in
inches, disregarding small fractions, and those leaves were chosen
which appeared to represent the larger size in each case of the
mature foliage :—

Marnlany INESaWissseseenereirce 2: Monkey Creek, Vice....... 6°
Ovens/district) Vicherecessce On Miog;, ‘Vile Acncscessetasignrs 6°
Buchan ae Pee 5: Bunyipiggin Msetedecoane soe t'*
Darlimurla A le! Teaeearete 6° Croydon y..50 sswateranen dean ae

In order to see whether any generally distinctive character
might become evident by a comparison of the length and breadth
of leaves and the length of the leaf-stalk, I measured a number of

EUCALYPTUS PULVERULENTA—VICTORIA. 54) |

leaves of mature trees of ZH. pulverulenta and HL. Stuartiana and
tabulated the results :

: Length. | Breadth. Petiole.
Name. Locality.
In relative proportions,
E. pulverulenta............ Marulan, N.S.W..| 1°6 ls Sessile.
EK. pulverulenta, var. Pilot Range, Vic.. lig Sessile.
lanceolata. * 3°
Do Ovens District, Vic.) 4° le
Do Ovens River, Vic. ing Ie 8}
Do Buch anerseecssstesn 6° ils Sessile.
Do Darlimurla, Vic....| 11: ile 33
sea. rae ley (Ge ike 8
Do | Monkey Crk., Vic. v7: 1: a
Do IMIGESI VIC casweceer 6" te Sessile.
HE. Stuartiana ............ BUY Ips eee ceeeee=- a5 ils 5
1D yoy Pe Sa seh aress Pees Black Flat, Vic. ... 8: ik dD
DON wn osaiatects IBUGWOOd) jo. .4.esese: 10° slic 6
Dior eheneccerie: Croydon mark wce: 6° lis ‘8
6

* Labelled by F.v.M. as E. cinerea.

Properly these data ought to have been extended to include a
greater number of measurements. But even as they are, they
suggest a gradual divergence from the New South Wales type in
coming south-westward from the habitat of LHucalyptus pul-
verulenta. So far the discussion of Hucalyptus pulverulenta
negatives the belief that the New South Wales type has so far
been found in Victoria. Instead there is found a marked variety
having a young form similar to the type of the species, and an
adult form with opposed lanceolate leaves. Properly speaking,
there are in Victoria two varieties each of which is marked by the
abovementioned characters.

But in one variety, namely, ‘“ lanceolata,” the leaf-stalk is some-
times short or absent, and the base of the leaf more or less rounded.

In the other variety, namely, Hucalyptus Stwartiana, the
petiole is comparatively long, and the base of the leaf is much
attenuated.

The ash-coloured or white mealiness of the leaves,-stem, and
buds is not so apparent in some localities in Gippsland as in trees
near Beechworth. It is absent, or only seen exceptionally, in
£. Stuartiana in a mature state. But in the young forms of
both it is perhaps as well exemplified as in the type of the species

A third but more distant variety is the eucalypt, to which the
aborigines of Gippsland apply the name of “ But But,” and which
Baron v. Mueller has included with #. Stuartiana.

522 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

In its young form it resembles Lucalyptus pulverulenta, but both
the young and old trees have constant and definite characters,
which in my opinion must separate it from Lucalyptus Stuartiana.

The discussion of this question and of the proper position of
“ But But” must remain to a future occasion. All that I desire
now to point out is that by its floral characters and by its young
form it is one of the group which gathers round about Hucalyptus
pulverulenta.

The opposition of the leaves of aged trees, which is one of the
distinguishing characters of this group, is well marked in one of
the forms of Fucalyptus viminalis, which occurs from Cape
Schanck to Whittlesea, beyond Melbourne, and it may have a
wider range.

Not only are its lanceolar or faleate leaves habitually opposed,
but locally, as at Glen Tris, I have observed the foliage as a whole
to have a well-marked dull ashy tint.

T am led, therefore, to the conclusion that the term HLwealyptus
pulverulenta in its wide sense includes several eucalypts which as
varieties are near to or depart from the original type, which may
be now perhaps best seen in the young state of Eucalyptus pul-
verulenta of New South Wales. :

If this conclusion can be maintained, then the transition which
Baron v. Mueller postulates as that of Bue alyptus pulverulenta to
Eucalyptus Stwartiana might rather be considered as of all the
existing members of this group from some Eucalyptus represented
by the young form of each, but of which the older type is now
extinct.

REFERENCES TO THE PLATES.
Illustrations of Hucalyptus pulverulenta, variety lanceolata.

Prate XXVI.—Part of spray of sapling from Buchan.

Pirate XXVIL-—1. Seedling from Moe.
2. Leaf of sapling, low down, from Buchan.

| wi from Moe.
\ Fruit from Monkey Creek.

i Fruit from Woolgulmerang,.

SOWA orp yo

' 1! \ Fruit from Buchan.

PLaTe XXVIII.—1. Sucker from stump, Darlimurla.
2. Leaf of aged tree, Darlimurla.

PLATE XXIX.—Spray of leaves of aged tree from Buchan,

AUSTRALASIAN Assoc. ADv. Sc. VoL. VII, 1898. PLATE XXVI.

M.M.How:te del

Eucalyptus pulverulenta.
By A. W. HOWITT, F.G.8.

AUSTRALASIAH Assoc. Aby. Sc. Vow. VII, 1898, PLATE XXVII.

ee

MM. Howitt de/

Eucalyptus pulverulenta.
By A. W. HOWITT, F.G.S.

4 ‘
'
nid Pe

We de :

‘

AUSTRALASIAN Assoc. Adv. Sc. VoL. Vil, 1898. PLATE XXVIII.

MM. Howitt del

Eucalyptus pulverulenta.
By A. W. HOWITT, F.G.8.

AUSTRALASIAN Assoc. Adv. Sc. Yot. Vil, 1898. PLATE XXI/X.

Wii Howitt del

Eucalyptus pulverulenta.
By A. W. HOWITT, F.G.8.

DICHOTOMOUS KEY TO THE EUCALYPTUS, 523

No. 9.—A SHORT DICHOTOMOUS KEY TO THE
HITHERTO KNOWN SPECIES OF EUCALYPTUS.

By J. G. Lurumany, F.L.S. (Curator, National Herbarium,
Melbourne. )

(Read Tuesday, January 11, 1898.)

Tue scheme herewith laid before the members of the Association,
to classify the species of the genus Eucalyptus according to the
fruits, is not, I may state at the outset, meant to supersede the
excellent anther-system introduced by Bentham ; the latter being
in my opinion the most reliable which, with our present know-
ledge, can be devised. Frequently, however, when specimens are
gathered, expanded flowers, or even well-advanced buds, are not
available, while nearly every adult tree bears fruits as well as
young flower- buds, and in most cases, though not in all, the species
can by their aid and that of the leaves be determined with toler-
able accuracy. The present arrangement should, therefore, be
looked upon as devised to act as an auxiliary guide only, without
any full descriptions, and is for this reason submitted in the form
of a key. The primary character chosen is that of the fruit-valves,
whether quite enclosed or whether the points protrude beyond the
rim, or whether the top of the fruit is convex with every part
raised above the rim ; secondarily, the shape and size of the fruit
are taken into consideration. De Candolle’s classification, based
on the shape of the operculum, is relied wpon for further sectional
divisions. While the majority of the species are without difficulty
assigned to their respective divisions, there are others. which form
a transit and, in these cases doubts will arise, especially when
we consider their remarkable variability. Even with complete
material I have sometimes found it difficult to fix the limits of a
species, although I devoted a great deal of time to the study to
the genus while assisting the late Baron von Mueller in the
elaboration of his Eucalyptographia, for which I worked up the
very extensive material that had accumulated since the publica-
tion of the third volume of the Flora Australiensis. This mut-
ability of form is well illustrated by the fact that a dozen kinds,
raised from Australian seeds, have been described as new species
in Europe and America by botanists of repute, although it seems
improbable that they would receive seeds of a single species that
had not already come under Baron von Mueller’s notice. While

524 - PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

sometimes even a minor character appears to be constant, and
affords a pretty sure clue to the identification of a species, in other
cases characters that in most plants would be considered of the
greatest importance will be found unreliable in Eucalypts. Thus
it is also with the bark, which, though generally such a good
guide, varies in some instances to a remarkable degree. This is
well exemplified by Eucalyptus viminalis ; this tree, which grows
around the Melbourne herbarium building, shows here, in its
sapling state, a smooth, whitish bark, until it attains a diameter
of from 4 to 6 inches, then gradually the outer layers remain
attached, at first near the base only, becoming rough and brown ;
as the plant gets older, these layers creep higher and higher up
the stem, until, in aged trees, the whole of the trunk and also the
larger branches are covered with a thick, rugged, dark brown bark.
Within 10 miles inland from Melbourne, already the tree changes
its character in this respect, inasmuch as only the lower part of
the stem is covered with this rugged bark, while another 10 miles
further towards the ranges, this species presents a smooth, white
trunk, except, perhaps, just near the ground. Although the
floral characters remain the same, yet, any one seeing only the
two extreme forms would certainly consider them two distinct
species. Euc. leucoxylon shows similar anomalies. As another
instance of the difficulty of arriving at a correct limitation of the
species of Eucalyptus, I may mention the fact that Bentham
wrote that after he had finished his description of all the species
of this genus for the Flora Australiensis, he considered it neces-
sary to reexamine the whole of the collections, a thing which, for
want of time, he did not do with any other group of plants. There
is one feature which will, probably, throw more light upon the
limits of species as well as their affinities, with which we are not
yet sufliciently acquainted ; this is the character of the seedlings.
I venture to express a hope that in the near future one of our
botanic gardens will undertake the investigation of this subject,
which requires not only great knowledge and care, but also certain
means that are only at the command of few people.

In submitting this contribution to Australian botany, I trust
that with all its shortcomings it will prove of some service in
identifying the species of our most important genus of timber trees.

No. No.
Calyx four-toothed aes uae ne we RA 1
Calyx truncate ... sis was he ap ec 2

(No. 5, H. tetraptera shows an approach to a four-toothed
calyx.)

1. Fruit fully } inch long, ZL. tetrodonta.
Fruit under 4 inch long, #. odontocarpa.
(Probably a variety of the above.)

No.
. Stamens united in four bundles sae

13.

14,

15.

DICHOTOMOUS KEY TO THE EUCALYPTUS,

(This character is generally also discernible in the fruit by
four depressions where the stamens had been inserted. )

Stamens free and inserted all around the inside of
the calyx .

. Fruit more than 1 inch i in n diameter, c convex above the

rim of the calyx, H. erythrocorys.

Fruit less than 1 inch in diameter, the valves enclosed

Leaves mostly opposite, ovate-lanceolate, mealy-white,
E. tetragona.

Leaves scattered, lanceolate-falcate, dull green,
EF. eudesmioides.

. Fruit quadrangular, about 14 inches long, reddish,

L. tetraptera.
Fruit terete or irregularly angular
Fruit-valves quite enclosed in the capsule :
Fruit-valves either quite exserted or the points reaching
the level of the rim . ee one ie cr

. Flowers mostly paniculaeed

Flowers in simple umbels ee dis bs
(Occasionally the inflorescence will appear paniculated in
this section through the falling off of the leaves.)
Leaves mostly opposite...
Leaves scattered
Leaves connate .
Leaves not connate

. Leaves about 6 inches long, 3 eauries aay E. Bek (ate

(allied to No. 31, . corymbosa).
Leaves not exceeding 2 inches in _ length,
EY gamophylla.
Leaves mostly ovate, not exceeding 2 inches in length
Leaves lanceolate, at least 3 inches long
Calyx bristly, #. setosa.
Calyx glabrous, HL. aspera.
Fruit. 3 to ¢ inch in diameter, Z. ferruginea.
Fruit not exceeding 4 inch in diameter, Z. clavigera,
(2. grandifolia and EL. Papuana are varieties of this.)

Leaves mostly peltate, 2. peltata.
Leaves attached to the stalks at the base
Leaves of equal colour on both sides

(See also Nos. 31 and 34.)
Leaves paler beneath than above

. Fruit at least } inch in diameter, more or Sc stiealaba

Fruit rarely exceeding } inch .

10
1]

12
13

15
16

24

17
19

No.
£7.
18,

19.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Flowers and fruits sessile, 2. eximia.

Flowers and fruits pedicellate .. ,

Leaveslanceolate operculum double, E. maculata (thisin- in-
cludes as varieties Z. citriodora and EL. melissiodora).

Leaves ovate, operculum single, &. /atifolia.

Leaves from orbicular to ovate, Z. polyanthema.

(HZ. populifolia, which sometimes has the valves barely
exserted, is readily distinguished by the dark, shining
leaves, those of H. polyanthema being quite dull and
greyish-green. )

Leaves from lanceolate-falcate to ovate-lanceolate
Operculum conical, L. hemiphloia.
(This includes #. dibens as a mealy-white variety, and pro-

bably, also, H. Bowmani, described from insufficient
material. )

Operculum hemispherical, rarely shortly conical

. Leaves ovate-lanceolate...

Leaves lanceolate

. Fruit truncate-ovate, about 2 lines long, #. Behriana.

Fruit urceolate, 1 line long, 7. brachyandra.

. Leaf-veins very oblique, not numerous, anastomosing,

LE. largiflorens (= E. bicolor, Cunn.).
Leaf-veins very diverging, numerous, hardly anasto-
mosing, /. tesselaris.

. Fruit with eight prominent longitudinal ridges, over 1,

inch long, “E. ptychocarpa.
Fruit without prominent ridges

. Branchlets with ferrugineous hairs, E. Tor Aree.

Branchlets glabrous

. Fruit urceolate .

Fruit ovate or globose- tr aneatel

. Fruit not exceeding 4 lines in length, ‘E. trache yphloia.

Fruit over $ inch long ...

. Operculum broader than the calyx, Ez. Watsoniana.

Operculum not broader than the calyx

. Fruit under 1 inch in diameter

Fruit exceeding 1 inch in diameter

. Peduncles stout, pedicels none, Z. Abergiana.

Peduncles eadae flowers pedicellate...

. Leaves lanceolate, #. corymbosa.

(Including as varieties E. terminalis, EK. dichromophloia, and
E. pyrophora, as I find it impossible to draw a clear line of
demarcation ; the specimens from the dry interior and
from the north-west have the leaves frequently of equal
colour on both sides, and the fruits are occasionally rather
ovate-truncate than urceolate. )

Leaves very large, ovate, H. Foelscheana,

18

20

21
22
23

No.
32.

33,

34,

3D.

36.

43,

44.

45,

46.

47.

DICHOTOMOUS KEY TO THE EUCALYPTUS.

Flowers white, rarely pink; seeds very large, black,
not winged, Z. calophylla.
Flowers red ; seeds brown, winged, ZL. ficifolia.
Fruit truncate globular, sessile, 7. Howittiana.
Fruit truncate-ovate, pedicellate
Operculum depressed-hemispherical, Z. Cleceieaeli
Operculum more or less conical, #. paniculata.
(The variety fasciculosa from the dry north-west of Victoria

differs in having the leaves of equal colour on both sides
and the bark of the trunk smooth.)

Fruit two-celled, Z. phoenicea.

Fruit with three or more cells...

Fruit nearly 2 inches long, 2. miniata.
Fruit not exceeding 1 inch

. Operculum projecting beyond the rim of the ae

Operculum not broader than the calyx

. Leaves somewhat paler beneath, 2. corynocalyx.

Leaves of equal colour on both sides, 2. wrnigera.

. Leaves opposite...

Leaves scattered

. Leaves orbicular, Z. Kruseana.

Leaves lanceolate, 2. doratoxylon.

. Leaves with several bs cmenaciiy veins almost parallel

with the midrib

Leaves with the veins all more or ee cae Sain
the midrib

. Operculum conical, leaves eather aaall E. spate

Operculum hemispherical, leaves large, EL. coriacea
(= E. pauciflora).
Leaves much paler beneath, 2. diversicolor.
(Occasionally cultivated under the name of E. colossea. E.
marginata has the valves sometimes enclosed, and is then

distinguished from E. diversicolor by the conical
operculum. )

Leaves of equal colour on both sides or nearly so...

Pedicels elongated _ — nae sas a
Pedicels short or none ee ; a aoe
Operculum hemispherical, Z. ee ae is.

Operculum conical

Leaf-veins very spreading, Z. desarioics

Leaf-veins very oblique £, leucoxylon,

Fertile seeds membranously winged, 2. Todtiana.
Fertile seeds not winged ea iz oth ote

527

No.

34

43

44

45
47

46

48

No.

48,

49,

59.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Fruit much contracted at the orifice, nearly globular
Fruits but slightly or not at all contracted ... oe

Fruits nearly 1 inch in diameter, 2. buprestiwm.
Fruits about } inch in diameter, Z. piperita.
(Some specimens from near Port Jackson have almost urceo-

late fruits, but seem gradually to pass into the other
form.)

. Fruits nearly 1 inch in diameter, 2. Planchoniana.

Fruits rarely exceeding 3 inch...

. Peduncles mostly recurved

Peduncles erect...

Operculum conical, #. decurva.
Operculum hemispherical, 2. Cooperiana.

. Base of the calyx as well as of the operculum abruptly

dilated into a furrowed ring, /. torquata.
Base of calyx and operculum without these dilatations

Peduncles short and thick, usually much flattened,
EF. incrassata.

(An extremely variable species ; E. dumosa seems to pass
into it by almost imperceptible degrees, although it can
generally be distinguished by smaller flowers and fruits
and less flattened peduncles. E. grossa, which is the same
as E. pachypoda, appears to be algo a variety with blunt,
but rather long, operculum. See also No. 1)8, E.
goniantha. )

Peduncles nearly terete, mostly slender

. Calyx angular

Calyx terete

. Fruit about } inch long, ZH. gracilis.

Fruit about 3 inch long, L. ochrophloia.
(Perhaps a variety of the above).

. Calyx and operculum granular—rough

Calyx and operculum smooth ...

. Large tree, with fibrous bark ; leaves mostly very

inequilateral, /. obliqua.

(Sometimes cultivated under the name of E. fissilis.)

Shrubs or small trees with smooth bark
Leaves rather small, nearly straight, 2. stricta.

(This is the typical E. stricta of Sieber, well described in
Mueller’s Eucalyptographia, with reniform anthers.
Bentham, in Flora Austr. III, 217, apparently had a
mixture of two species before him, describing the fruit of
E. stricta, but the anthers of another species.

No.
49

50

51
52
53

54

Ne.

60.

61.

63.

69.

70.

DICHOTOMOUS KEY TO THE EUCALYPTUS,

Leaves large, faleate; umbels generally enclosed in
large bracts while in bud, £. virgata.

(Although I believe that Baron von Mueller was correct in
including this also as a variety in E. stricta, yet I have
kept it distinct as the appearance of the extreme forms
is so very different. Both seem confined to the south-
eastern parts of New South Wales. Bentham had also
in this case a mixture before him, viz., a few specimens
of the genuine E. virgata, but mostly those of a large tree
allied to E. haemastoma, afterwards described by F, v.
Mueller as E. Sieberiana. LE. obtusiflora seems to have
been described by De Candolle from imperfect material ;
an original leaf and a sketch of the specimen point, per-
haps, to E. haemastoma, but a second leaf is quite
different. The name had better be discarded.)

Leaves nearly straight, very shining, #. fecunda.
(Includes E. loxophleba as a variety.)

Leaves falcate, peasy dull ay or eet!
shining sae ane o ; oes

Fruits about 4 inch in diameter, L. patens.
Fruits not exceeding ANEhe “ses : sas ses

. Fruit generally 5 or 6 celled, £Z. Be eicane

Fruit mostly 4-celled

Fruit truncate-ovate, #. odorata.
Fruit truncate-globular, #. mellivdora.

(When in flower E. melliodora is readily distinguished by
the outer stamens being sterile. In Mueller’s Eucalypto-
graphia the anthers are not correctly drawn; they open
by terminal pores.)

. Flowers generally paniculated... ek ae sie

Flowers mostly in simple umbels ome vee

. Leaves distinctly paler beneath, £. eeererian
- Leaves of equal colour on both sides ... ae Ane

. Leaves opposite...

Leaves scattered cae sa aes

. Fruit truncate-ovate, about z irae long (a box-tree)

LE. pruinosa,
Fruit truncate-globular, 2 or 3 lines long (an ironbark
tree), H. melanophloia.
Leaves ovate, or orbicular
Leaves lanceolate .
Calyx about 3 lines in aelneter: £. sligumyes
Calyx under 2 lines in diameter, LZ. populifolia.
Operculum about 3 lines long, H. svderophlova.
Operculum not exceeding 2 lines

DRAG

529

No.

61

62

63

65
74

66

67
68

69
70

71

530

No.
(ile

80.

81.

83.

84,

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Fruit-valves much exserted, 2. microtheca.

(As pointed out already by Baron von Mueller, in his Eucalyp-
tographia, Turczaninow’s L. brachypoda, to which Mr.
Bentham referred this, must be some other species, prob-
ably an aberrant form of a known plant.)

Fruit-valves level with, or ee ee beyond
the rim in one :

. Fruit 3 to 4 lines in ieee E. aici ylla.

(Includes as a variety 7. leptophieba.)

Fruit not exceeding 2 lines

. Leaves linear-lanceolate, H. crebra,

Leaves ovate-lanceolate, lemon-scented, #. Staigeriana

. Fruits 2 inches in diameter

Fruits not exceeding 1 inch ... Be ae ane

. Leaves opposite, #. macrocarpa.

Leaves scattered, #. pyriformis.

. Leaves paler beneath

Leaves of equal colour on Bott sides ee

. Operculum broader than the calyx, L. robusta.

Operculum not exceeding the calyx

. Calyx angular, Z. ee es

Calyx terete

. Fruit 4 inch or more in aiantictce

Fruit under J 4 inch in diameter

Fruit-valves very short, hardly exserted, H. mai wegen
Fruit-valves long, much exser ted, £. pellita.

(Perhaps a variety of H. resinifera.)

Operculum longer than the calyx tube, LZ. resinifera
Operculum shorter than the calyx tube

. Leaves much paler beneath, the lateral veins numerous

and very spreading ... ;
Leaves slightly paler beneath, ‘the laterals veins n08
very close and moderately spreading ere ees
Pedicels very short, or none, /. saligna.
Pedicels elongated, #. microcorys.
Fruit broadest at the orifice ; fertile seeds much larger
than the sterile ones d ie Sire ae
Fruit contracted at the orifice ; fertile seeds not much
larger than the sterile ones... eve

84a, Operculum hemispherical ; fruits small, Z. propinqua.

Operculum bluntly conical, Z. punctata.

72

84a
85

No.

85.

91.

93.

94.
99.
96.
SHB

98.

oo:

DICHOTOMOUS KEY TO THE EUCALYPTUS.

Fruit about four lines in diameter, rim thick, 2. pilu-
laris.

Fruit not oe three lines, rim thin, 1. acme-
nodes (= LH. triantha in Mueller’s Census).

. Leay -esmostly opposite. (See also No. 138, 2. mina

Leaves scattered

. Fruit about 1 inch in diameter, top- shaped, E. Preis-

stand.
Fruit rarely exceeding 4 inch, truncate-ovate

. Leaves connate, #. Perriniana.

Leaves not connate (except sometimes in 2. Risdon)

. Leaves with crenulated margin, LZ. cordata.

Leaves with entire margin

. Leaves obtuse, ovate or almost orbicular, EB. “pulver-

ulenta.
(This includes Z. cinerea as a variety.)

Leaves acute, ovate, #. Fisdont.

(Sometimes the leaves are connate, while in age they occa-
sionally become alternate, and assume a lanceolate form,
verging towards LZ. amygdalina, with which the plant was
combined by F. v. Mueller as a variety.)

Flowers and fruits on long, slender ane fruits

rather large

Flowers and fruits on short pedicels ¢ or sessile (except

sometimes /. Maideni) ..

2. Fruit top-shaped, filaments red, E. ‘erythronema (=

E. conoidea).

Fruit truncate-ovate, filaments whitish, 2. caesia.

Operculum much broader than the calyx, 2. gom-
phocephala.

Operculum not or slightly broader than the ealies ie

Calyx and operculum warty ..

Calyx and operculum smooth or rough, but not Ww arty

Leaves lanceolate, 2. globulus.

Leaves ovate, 2. alpina.

Leaves not over 1 inch long, #. vernicosa.

Leaves much exceeding 1 inch

Stamens straight in the bud. Sie also No. ‘140, E.
tereticornis) ‘ aule

Stamens bent inward in the bud ‘

Fruits of the umbel connate into one fie E.
Lehmanni (included in £. cornuta by F. v.
Mueller).

Fruits free... Se sae ae Sf

Fruit-valves ending in long, fine points, /. cornwta.
(including as a variety BE. annulata. )

Fruit-valves short... sie se oes bes

531

No.

87
91

88
89
90

93

94
95
96

97

98
101

99

100

532

No.
100.

115,

1X6;

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Leaves lanceolate, #. occidentalis.
(including #. macrandra and EL. spathulata as varieties. )
Leaves ovate, LZ. platypus.

(Baron von Mueller adopted in his Eucalyptographia Tureza-
ninow’s name of H. obcordata, which appellation seems to
me quite misleading and has no claim to priority.)

Fruit from 3 to 1 inch in diameter

Fruit ssvorhy under 4 inch

. Top of fruit nearly flat

Top of fruit convex

5, Leaves shining, £. megacarpa.

Leaves dull, very coriaceous, 2. cosmophylla.

. Calyx terete, LE. Oldfieldi.

(2. Drummondi seems a variety of this, being smaller in all
its parts.)

Calyx angular, 2. pachyphylla.

. Leaves ovate, but acute, rarely ovate-lanceolate, Z.

alba.

(2. platyphylla I cannot distinguish from this, even as a
variety. )

Leaves lanceolate, rarely linear

. Calyx and operculum strongly ribbed

Calyx and operculum not ribbed

7. Operculum quite hemispherical, £. corrugata.

Operculum elongated .

. Operculum obtuse, #. goniantha

Operculum pointed, E. faleata.

. Calyx angular, pedicels flattened, Z. haces

Calyx and pedicels terete

. Fruit-valves ending in fine points

Fruit-valves short, “often deltoid

. Capsule raised above the rim..

Capsule inserted below the rim

. Operculum conical, flowers closely sessile Z. ‘decipiens

Operculum hemispherical, EL. pallidifolia.

. Leaves generally dull greyish-green, E. oleosa.

Leaves shining on both sides, 4. salmonophtloia.

. Capsule inserted below the rim of the calyx or on a

level with it... re
Capsule raised above the rim.
Leaves linear, £. angustissima.
(See also No. 130 E. amygdalina. )

Leaves lanceolate.
Fruit urceolate, £. Baileyana.
Fruit mostly ovate truncate, never urceolate

102
105
103
104

106
107
109

108

110
Tiel
114
112
113

115
131

116
Baty)

No.
lye

118.

129.

130.

DICHOTOMOUS KEY TO THE EUCALYPTUS.

Pedicels very slender, at least three times as long as
the calyx, HL. leptopoda.
Pedicels short . 5
Operculum conical or acuminate, longer than the calyx
Operculum hemispherical, mostly blunt usually shorter
than the calyx ,

. Flowers shortly pedicellate, E. redumea.

Flowers sessile, 2. concolor.
Leaf-veins fine, numerous, very divergent ... me
Leaf-veins not numerous, very oblique

. Stamens of expanded flow ers, straight, H. eneor ifolia.

Stamens of expanded flowers bent “inwards about the

middle, #. wncinata.
(Z. micranthera is a variety of this.)

. Peduncles conspicuously flattened near the top, 2.

salubris.
Peduncles nearly or quite terete

. Leaves under 3 inches long

Leaves mostly over 3 inches long

. Fruit almost flat on top, 2. coccifera.

Capsule somewhat sunk below the narrow rim, £.
Gunni (typical.)

. Fruit topshaped, leaves somewhat undulate, JZ.

Gunnin, var.

(I doubt whether Baron Von Mueller was correct in includ-
ing this tree in /. Gunniias a variety in his Eucalypto-
graphia, where the main figure represents it. Bentham’s
description of #. Stuartiana refers partly to this. Perhaps
it will be necessary to distinguish it as a separate species,
and thename of #. undulata would not be appropriate.)

Fruit ovate or globose, truncate

. Rim of fruit narrow, qhe valves inserted Soeewiat

below it
Rim of fruit rather Bread and flat

. Flowers generally 3 in an umbel, #. Bauer leni.

(The real affinity is with Z. Gane )
Flowers more than 3 in an umbel, Z. ewgenioides.
(The real affinity is with #. piperita.)

. Leaves very pale, bark of stem hard and rugged, L.

Sieberiana.

Leaves green, bark of stem smooth or fibrous

Fruit ovate-truncate, top of fruit reddish, 2. haemas-
toma.

Fruite globose, truncate or shortly ovate 3

Leaves rather small, their oildots large and not very
numerous ; stem-bark fibrous, L. “amygdalina.

(Z#. dives is an aberrant form of this, There is a variety
in Tasmania with linear leaves.)

123
124
125

129

130

534

131.

133.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Leaves large, their oildots very fine and numerous ;

stem-bark fibrous only near the base, L. regnans.

(Probably correctly included in 2. amygdalina asa variety by
Bentham and Mueller.)

Leaves small, thick, hardly inequilateral, Z. santa-
lifolia.
(Includes E. pachyloma).

Leaves mostly large, inequilateral

. Stems of young ‘plants and offshoots quite quad-

134.

135.

136.

137

138.

139.

rangular, with opposite ovate bluish-white leaves,
E, Maideni.

(I find the above the most striking character in this remark-
able species. The typical specimens have rather numer-
ous flowers in an umbel, clavate and smooth in bud, with
hemispherical but pointed operculum, and a rather long
flattened peduncle. But there are forms, especially
specimens collected in Gippsland by Mr. A. W. Howitt,
that show an unmistakable approach to E. globulus,
which in its ordinary form has such a different appearance.
In other respects there is an evident affinity with E.
goniocalyx. All three species have in their young state
quadrangular stems and bluish leaves; the adult leaves
are also somewhat similar in shape and texture. In my
opinion, there are weighty reasons against the assumption
that we have herea case of hybridisation, but must rather
ascribe it to evolution.)

Stems of young plants nearly terete...

Veins of leaves very oblique ..

Veins of leaves very diver ging

Flowers and fruits sessile, L’. capitellata.

Flowers and fruits on short pedicels...

Operculum conical, 2. macrorhyncha.

Operculum hemispherical, /. Afwelleri.

Flowers mostly three in an umbel, L. viminalis.

Flowers more than three in an umbel : ae

Operculum nearly hemispherical or shortly and
bluntly conical

Operculum conical or neuminate

Leaves green, alternate, /. Stwartiana.

(Distinewtshed from E. viminalis when the latter has more
than three flowers in an umbel by the fibrous bark and
roundish seedling leaves, E. viminalis having either a
smooth or a rugged but never fibrous bark and lanceolate
seedling leaves. )

Leaves ashy-grey, sometimes opposite, 1. dealbata.

Operculum mostly ending in a beak, /. rostrata.

(Some varieties have a blunt operculum and form a con-
necting link between this and E. tereticornis. E. exserta
is a variety.)

Operculum conical, not beaked

No.

133
134
136

135

137

138
139

140

DICHOTOMOUS KEY TO THE EUCALYPTUS.

No.
140. Bark smooth ; fruit almost globose through the broad
ascending rim, LZ. tereticornis.
Bark rough ; rim of fruit only slightly ascending,

E. rudis.

535

No.

LE. orbifolia and L. patellaris, enumerated in the “ Flora Aus-
traliensis,” I have omitted, as they have in my opinion been
described from too imperfect material to make their recognition
at all certain; also #. Lansdowniana, F. v. Mueller and J. E.
Brown, as I have neither a specimen nor the description, and as
Professor Tate, who has seen the plant, informs me that he does
Nor could I take cognisance of
supposed new species described in recent years from cultivated
plants in Europe and America, as it seems inconceivable that seeds
of a number of new species should have been sent away while the
trees remained unknown to Australian botanists.

not consider it a tenable species.

INDEX.
Eucalyptus—- No. | Eucalyptus—
Abergiana, F. v. Mueller... 30 Goniacea, s@ummsy loess cannes .
acmenoides, Schauer ......... 85 Corniiba,. bales | Weccasaslaaspaise
DUA MEP CLIONY > csmcnuspiesunesadane 105 Gornupata, Tuehm, 2... cians
Gilbane MN ss sancsassunaesescns 20 corymbosa, Smith ............
alpina, Mind. jo jnuccissssacans 95 corynocalyx, F.v. M..........
amygdalina, Labill............. 130 cosmophylla, F.v. M..........
angustissima, F. v. M. ...... 115 @relonay, Ha aM. 2. oseakctsocsas
ANTACID, BONG As... ..ec0ne opine 99 deallbata Gunn. 5. 5.0..:scsasne
ASPORA GE Loaves uecacs, sagesisinss 12 decipiens, Endl. ............04
Baileyana, F. v. M. ......... 116 GECIUEVA, Ha iVatMs, (eosecuecen
iBauerlent, Ws vj. IM c.cncsanene 12 dichromophloia, F. v. M. ...
iBehriana; Bawa, jc.caeoeunne 22, diversicolor, F. v. M..........
Bicolar NO mn scacscisssanasasase 23 Gives WNCHOMET ) caeeikseaeaaneiee
Bosistoana, EH. y. Ms oa. sce 62 doratoxylon, F. v. M..........
botryoides, Smith ...... ..... 78 drepanophylla, F. v. M.......
Bowmeant, Eve AM. oki. cgses ase 20 Drummondi, Benth. .........
brachyandra, F..v. M. ...... 22 dumosa) Cyan s..5.0leseensqaens
brachypoda, Turez. ..........5. 71 erythrocorys, F. v. M. ......
buprestium, F. v. M.......... 49 erythronema, Turcz. .........
GHIacIEI, 1Bihlas eunpnopoepoosnorre 92 eudesmioides, F. v. M. ......
calophyllas AR. EBs caseseensnes 32 eugenioides, Sieber ............
capitellata, Smith ..... ...... 134 Exim, SChaUer ~...csn.earon
CURRED. Bema PN 2 «nee etade cians 90 emsenta, yma Ween sasssencsas
citrrodona, Hook. ......055 sss 18 falcata elmer: a peepee:
Clawigera, Gunn, ..iccccce cares 13 ferruginea, Schauer............
Cloeziana, Fv. JM... cac.c. Sis Oe Hewtolia, WB avec actsaseeanae
cneorifolia, Di Che cas. .csssasnses 121 PUSH, iy Wee ile macorgenenosens
coccifera, Hook. f. ............ 124 feecunda, Schauer .....,......
CGLORSER BBV: PNM o5\ cise sisenioniss 43 Foelscheana, F. v. M..........
concolor, Schauer... as.-scees 119 gamophylla, F. v. M..........
conoidea, Benth. ...... A ea antics 92 globulussgeabily cease
Cooperiana, F. v. M. ...... ie) oe gomphocephala, D.C. ......
cordate, aki, i scicsssansces 89 gonlantha, Durez., ..s..- ase

PROCEEDINGS

OF SECTION D.

INDEX—continued.

Eucalyptus— No.
goniocal yx, Eo v0 M:. -1........ 109
gracilis, Boye eM oe caceanee 56
GUANGI ONG wtvan Isis weereecese: 13
GORE 186 Wy Wis. Gongandodcooboc 54
Gunnit, Hook: fr..-s.csesnces 124
haemastoma, Smith............ 129
ihemiphtoia, By ve Move... 20
Howittianale ve Mel. scnee 33
IMNCTrASSavasy Wally eeeneeneae 54
Karuseaate Haven emcceeese sce 40
largiflorens, F. v. M. ......... 23
latifolia He sviy Mirae ssccsseres 18
Lehmanni, Preiss............... 98
leptophleba, F. v. M. ......... 2
leptopoda, Benth. ............ 117
lewcoxylomy HeavaNlouseeerene 46
Ikpayeati@liey, Ibe; Godedoodaconoac 46
loxophleba, Benth. ..... ...... 60
macrandra, F. v. M. ......... 100
macrocarpa, HOOK. ...5... << 75
macrorhyncha, F.v. M....... 13
ANAC let bas) LOOK ame rertesere 18
Wieveleseuks 18s S76 DW Acsooanos oor 132
marginata, Smith -............ 50
megacarpa, F. v. M. ......... 103
melanophloia, F. v. M. ...... 67
melissiodora, Lindl. ......... 18
melliodora,,@unms) eeyaaesss: 63
micranthera, Eva Viva Via sacs 12]
TIN CLO COTY S, weave Vcamseei eyes 83
muicrotheca, Hy Ve Me ceecsces. 71
MiIniatas Gunes 36
Muelleri, Howitt............... 135
(NareorRenoniok, ARYA, ooen aoncneo 100
Obliqua; Wher. in aesnaseeneee 58
DATS tore, ID (Ob eoosscondooacac 59
occidentalis, Endl. ............ 100
ochrophloia, F. v. M.......... 56
odontocarpa, F.v. M. ..... 1
Odonata behineaeeeeeeraeer eee 63
Old fields svee View eereeneeees 104
GCOS ho Wee - conapontoconoos 16}
oligantha, Schauer ............ 69
pachyloma, Benth. ..........-. 18
pachyphylla, F. v. M. ...... 104
pachypoda, F. v. M. .......:. 54
pallidifolia, F. v. M. ........ 112
paniculata; Smith .o.n-0-ses- 34
IAeypte ype, 10, \% Wilscaccoosoovce 13
patens, Benth enncesesccncees 61
paucifiora, Sieber ............ 42
pellita; Hiv. Mis fecctonamsnese 80
peltata; Benthiy peeeeaescrsscee 14
mertoliata,wE. MOL wee en eae 10
Perriniana, hsv (Me ee peeens 88

Kucalyptus—
phoenicea, Ev.) Mic meapeene
pilularis, Smith
Piperita, SoILb hen access
Planchoniana, F. v. M.......
platyphylia, EB. vi. Macnee
platypus, Hook, ...5......00008
polyanthema, Schauer
populifolia, Hook. .........4
Preissiana, Schauer,.....¢.cs.
propinqua, Deane & Maiden
pruinosa, Schauer
ptychocarpa, F. v. M..........
pulverulenta, Sims
punctata, DiC meeeseceneeet
py citormis, Wurezsenmereeeeee
pyrophora, Benth.
Raveretiana, F’. v. M. .....-.0«
redunca, Schauer
regnans, EF. v. M.
resinifera, Smith ........ Deana
Rasd onthe Hooks teaseceeeee ere
TODUSta, STALL eeee eee eeenee
rostrata, Schlecht, ..........0.
Mudis, Hind eoniceseheeeereee
saligna, Smith
salmonophloia, F. v. M.......
salubris, F. v. M.
santalifolia, F. v. M.
sepulcralis, F. v. M.
Setosa, SChAUersaasceseeeerneee
siderophloia, Benth.
Sieberiana, F, v. M.
spathulata, Hook.
Staigeriana, He vi. Mis anerees
stellulata, Sieber ........:.00008
stricta, Sieber

Steen nenee

eee eee neneee

Sn ee a)

ee i)

eee ee teres

eee eee eee ee ewes

ene e eee coe
sete eeee

eee eeeee

a)
ee vewnnee

terminalis,
tesselaris, F..v. M.............
tetragona, F. v. M...... Goag0h6
tetraptera, Turez:2.c.:.nse.eee
tetrodonta, F. v. M.
Todtiana, F. v. M.
Torelliana, F. v. M.
torquata, Luehm.
trachyphloia, F. v. M.
triantha, Link
TWNCIN Ata, HLUnCZaeseeeeeneeens
undulata, Luehm.
umnigera,, Hook ii. wc tccenens
vernicosa, Hook. :f.5.33.ccessnee
Viminalis, Iabilleesamedecs
virgata, Sieber
Watsoniana, F, v. Mee

Penne weeeee

Pe eee eennwee

Pence eee eee ee rene

Penne wees

er a

EUCALYPTS OF THE NEW ENGLAND TABLE-LAND. 537

No. 10.—SOME EUCALYPTS OF THE NEW ENGLAND
TABLE-LAND.

By J. H. Maipey, Government Botanist, and Director of the
Botanic Gardens, Sydney.

(Read Friday, January 7, 1898.)

In the month of November, 1897, I set out to botanically explore
Mount Seaview, in the Upper Hastings district, a mountain in
regard to the height of which erroneous ideas were held until only
a few years ago. Perhaps the most important mistake is that in
Banks’s school map of New South Wales, in which the height is
given at 6,000 feet. I propose to give notes on the topography of
the country traversed in the Agricultural Gazette of New South
Wales, and it will, therefore, be sufficient for me to explain that I
approached the Seaview Range from Port Macquarie, travelling
along the Port Macquarie-Walcha Road. The range is a few
miles off the main road, northwards from the place of ascent of
the New England Range to the tableland. While I made some
botanical observations of interest on Mount Seaview, I consider
them, on the whole, of inferior interest to those on the Eucalypts
examined on the table-land en route to Walcha, and hence follow
some notes on the species of this genus noted en route from the
Myrtle Scrub (the edge of the table-land, and 5 miles from the
boundary of counties of Hawes and Vernon), via Yarrowitch,
Tia, and on to Walcha.

My most interesting discoveries are the find of H. regnans,
F.v.M., and #. obliqua, L’Herit., near the eastern edge of the
New England tableland. Both are more specially Tasmanian
and Victorian species ; and while both have been recorded from
southern New South Wales, the finding of them, both in abund-
ance (the latter forming an extensive forest), in northern New
South Wales, is important. An excellent series of specimens
from some interesting trees belonging to what may be called the
Stuartiana group is worthy of further investigation ; and bearing
in mind the finding of the two species above referred to, these
specimens will be carefully compared with Tasmanian and Vic-
torian forms.

538 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

The species observed on the table-land are arranged in the order
followed in Mueller’s Census.

I have a few notes on the Eucalypts found on the Seaview
Range. ‘These I propose to bring, with notes on other plants,
before the Linnean Society of New South Wales later in the year.

In the article in the Agricultural Gazette already alluded to, I
propose to enter into some detail (perhaps in diary fashion) in
regard to the sequence of the Eucalypts in the country travelled
over, Such information would unduly expand the present paper,
though I hope it will be found interesting to readers of the
Gazette.

It only remains for me to say that my observations and collec-
tions were made during a journey from Port Macquarie to Walcha
one way, travelling in a buggy or on horseback 30 miles a day on
the average. This will explain why many of my observations lack
completeness, and why I have indicated subjects for investigation
by those who come after me.

E. stellulata, Sieb,—This species is more or less plentiful all
over the table-land. There are copses or thickets of 1t at Yarro-
witch, also umbrageous small trees. At Tia and elsewhere the
trunks are 2 to 3 feet in diameter. The sucker-foliage alone
seemed to require special note. Mr. Deane and the author have
dealt with the species as it occurs in this Colony.* The sucker
leaves present a variety of shapes and sizes. In their early stages
they are more or less stem-clasping and orbicular. Others are
nearly reniform, while some might be described as almost bilobed,
or with the outline more or less emarginate. Very many are
about as broad as long, and scarcely acuminate, and from these
shapes the gradation into the normal shape of the mature leaf is
very gradual. Measurements give us up to 24 x 24 inches, and
even a little more.

£. coriacea, A. Cunn. (Syn. LZ. pauciflora, Sieb).—This is also a
species which is very widely diffused. It and the preceding species
usually occur together, being more inseparable than any other two
species of the genus I know. Near Yarrowitch I noticed the
leaves of some seedlings which were 2 or 3 feet high. The
foliage was very coarse, being both large and thick. Following
are actual measurements of individual leaves :—74 x 33 inches,
83 x 31 inches, 6} by 34 inches. Large leaves such as these were
not ee They are a little oblique, acuminate, nearly ovate,
occasionally nearly circular, and thence pass through all gradations
up to ovate lanceolate. In New England apparently not known
as white or cabbage gum, but white ash, in contradistinction to
£. stellulata (black ash).

* Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. [2] x. 596.

EUCALYPTS OF THE NEW ENGLAND TABLE-LAND. 539

Ei. regnans, F.v.M.—Found near Yarrowitch. Not previously
recorded further north than the ranges near the Victorian border,
not many miles in New South Wales. My specimens absolutely
match some from the Dandenong Ranges, Victoria. The bark is
of that character well known as ‘“ Peppermint,” but thicker than
usual ; it is almost a stringbark with ribbon branches. ‘The tree
has conoid fruits, large shiny thin leaves, bearing copious oil-dots,
a character it shares with 4. amygdalina var. radiata. Most of
the trees I observed are small, though a few are 3 feet in
diameter. Some of the umbels have a double operculum. I have
for some time held the opinion, which now amounts to a
positive conviction, that ZL. vegnans is specifically identical with
£. amygdalina. 1 am acquainted with the tree in both Victoria
and New South Wales, and am familiar with 7. amygdalina from
end to end of the Colony. I think it would be best to style it
LE. amygdalina var. regnans.

FL. amygdalina, Labill. The variety radiata of this species*,
while not particularly abundant, attracted attention, especially
between Yarrowitch and Tiara, by reason of the profusion of its
flowers. Some of these trees were simply a mass of bloom. This
tree is a connecting link between the type and its variety radiata,
but Ido not hesitate to classify it with the variety. The bark
on the butt is more fibrous, and the foliage more dense, less
drooping, and the leaves rather broader than those of radiata
usually are. One is not surprised to see some variation in trees
so far removed from the localities (which are south of Sydney) in
which the var. radiata is most abundant. The comparative
absence of watercourses in the New England localities is worthy
of note in this connection. Our New England specimens have
the flowers radiate and up to thirty in a head. The numerous
oil-dots, a characteristic of var. radiata and regnans, are not
to be mistaken. In this connection I would draw attention to the
fact that specimens recently submitted to me show that there is a
belt of ‘‘ Peppermint” (Z. amygdalina) starting from about 5 miles
north of Tenterfield and extending out 32 miles, about 25 miles
wide. It is also found south-east about 23 miles from Tenterfield
on the main range and in large quantities between the main range
and the Rocky River. I believe that this species has not hitherto
been recorded from Queensland ; the localities I have mentioned
are close to the border, and search will probably soon find it in the
northern Colony.

L. obliqua, L. Herit.—Three miles past Myrtle Scrub one
comes across a handsome forest, in basalt country, consisting
mainly of a smooth-barked eucalypt (viminalis) and a rough-

* See Deane and Maiden, Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W. [2] x. 603.

540 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

barked one (obliqua). The discovery of the latter species in this
part of the Colony was quite unexpected, and extends its northern
range very considerably, The trees were over a hundred feet high
and their trunks 3 feet and more in diameter, so that the trees
are fine specimens and not the depauperate forms of mere outliers
or pickets. One of my travelling companions (Mr. J. F. Campbell,
L.8., of Walcha), stated that this belt of country extended for 30
miles in a general direction of north and south, roughly following
the county boundary, and he believed that this species occurred
over the greater portion of that county. Mr. Nivison, of
Yarrowitch, states it occurs at least as far north as the Clarence
River, and also in Callaghan’s Swamp. Even taking the place at
which I found it, reference to the previously recorded localities in
New South Wales* show that it has been collected at Reidsdale
in the Braidwood district, while its discovery in New England
renders Mr. Rudder’s alleged discovery (/oc. cit.) of it in the Upper
Williams district very probable. It would be interesting now to
collect the species at points intermediate between Braidwood and
New England. In the latter district it is sometimes known as
messmate and bastard stringybark. At Yarrowitch it is known
as white stringybark, and has been used for building purposes,
e.g., verandah floors ; but it lacks durability in the ground. The
sucker-foliage is very coarse. I have leaves 6 x 5inches. I cannot
detect any difference between my specimens and those of Mr.
Deane, from Reidsdale (Braidwood).

E. eugenwoides, Sieb.—This species was first observed about
Yarrowitch, the fruits being small and few in the head. Thence
it was not uncommon in the Tia district, where it is known as
“red stringybark” (a term more generally applied to /. capitellata),
and used for timbering the mines at Tia, and also locally for
flooring boards. This species shows a double operculum.

Li. capitellata was not observed on the table-land, neither was
EL. macrorrhyncha, though the latter was not rare on the Seaview
Range.

E. melliodora, A. Cunn.—A rather large-fruited form, with
well-defined rim. First seen on the edge of the Tia Canyon,
which it skirts for many miles; it does not descend the canyon.
Thereafter the tree was sparingly seen until near Walcha.

E. Stuartiana, F.v.M.—New England may be termed the
Stuartiana country. L. Stwartiana I take as defined in the
“ Kucalyptographia,” the description being modified from that
given in the “ /lora australiensis.” I collected no less than four

* Deane and Maiden, ‘‘ Observations on the Eucalypts of N.S.W.,” Part 2 (Proc. Linn.
Soc., N.S. W. [2], xii, $09).

EUCALYPTS OF THE NEW ENGLAND TABLE-LAND. 541

forms between Yarrowitch and Walcha, which, at all events for
the present, may be placed under LZ. Stwartiana. Variable as we
know Z£. Stuartiana to be, my specimens accentuate this varia-
bility. At first I was inclined to describe at least one of the forms
as new ; but inany case two of them should be named as varieties.
Mr. Deane and I are revising the New South Wales members of
this genus, and my specimens will be dealt with in their proper
place. All have fibrous bark, and are known as “ Peppermint.”
Their timber is pinkish, with gum veins, and strongly resembles
that of normal Stwartiana.

The four forms provisionally included under Z. Stwartiana are
as follows :—

1, A tree with box-scaly or apple-like (as we understand the
term in this Colony), bark, rough, except the ultimate branchlets;
suckers ovate-lanceolate, not glaucous, except the very young tips
of the branchlets of the suckers. The sucker foliage reminds one a
good deal of #. viminalis ; the bark is, however, that of Stwartiana,
and the tree (not rare, say, from 7 to 10 miles east of Walcha),
is but another reminder of the intimate relationship between the
two species. The fruits of this form are of the normal size. We
now come to the three small fruited forms, which remind one a
good deal of H. microtheca, but they can at once be distinguished
from the latter species by the pale-coloured foliage and more spread-
ing fruit and valves of #. microtheca. All are known as peppermint
of one sort or another.

2.—Broad-suckered Peppermint.—I have two series of speci-
mens, which, however, run into each other. Both are glaucous
on the twigs, even when bearing mature foliage. The sucker ~
foliage of both forms is very glaucous. The glaucousness also
shows itself in the flush of new growth pushed out beyond the old
foliage, 7.e., the glaucousness is not confined, as is frequently the
case, to entirely new twigs or seedlings. The fruits are smaller
and more pedicellate than shown in the “ Hucalyptographia” draw-
ing of #. Stuartiana. The sucker foliage is, however, similar in
shape to that shown in the drawing referred to, which, however,
depicts comparatively small suckers. The mature foliage is
lanceolate. The dimensions of an average leaf are 43 by ? inches.
The sucker foliage is nearly orbicular, and 2 inches in diameter.

I first noticed this form—rather fine trees, with trunks 3 feet
in diameter—between Yarrowitch and Tia. It is more or less
abundant right into Walcha, where, surrounding the town, it
seemed to form the bulk of the scrubby vegetation, probably
because the trees have been cut down, as generally happens to
them near a town. At the same time, I noticed a number of small
and even medium-sized trees during a drive round Walcha.

542 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

This form is identical with specimens collected by Mr. Henry
Deane at Glen Innes, and called by him “ grey peppermint,” and
perhaps identical with “ peppermint-box,” collected by the same
gentleman at the Bluff, near Tenterfield; early fruit only available;
bark, rough and furrowed.

Mr. Augustus Hooke, of Tia Station, gave me a quantity of
manna which had been collected on his station under the pepper-
mint trees (this form now under consideration). I did not see the
manna under the trees myself, but Mr. Hooke is not likely to be
mistaken in regard to a tree and a product so familiar. Manna
on #. viminalis is common encugh; in fact, one form of this
species is called “manna-gum” in consequence, and considering
the intimate relations of #. viminalis and EH. Stwartiana, which
become the more pronounced the more one studies them in the
field, it is not a difficult matter for me to believe that manna is
also found on the latter species. I believe this is the first time
manna has been recorded from £. Stwartiana. :

3. Between Yarrowitch and Tia I got off my horse to examine
what appeared to me to be an Acacia of the penninervis group.
When I got close to it I found that it was the young foliage of a
EKucalypt. The plant is a beautiful species in a young state, form-
ing a dense shapely shrub, say 6 or 8 feet in diameter, and different
to any other Hucalypt known to me. The young, or sucker
foliage, is pale coloured, lanceolate, symmetrical, always blunt at
the apex, which is sometimes rounded. The margin is crenulate,
a very unusual circumstance in a Eucalypt, and the leaves are
alternate, and not opposite as is the case of normal Stwartiana.
The average size of the young leaves is 1? x 3in. Turning to
the mature foliage, it is lanceolate, the average size of the leaves
being 2? x 4in. The foliage is not glaucous in any part, not even
the sucker foliage. The fruits are small, nearly sessile, and the
valves are less exserted than in the previous form. The anthers
open in parallel slits. The tree attains a size of 2 or 3 ft. in
diameter. I traced it from 5 miles east of Yarrowitch to at least
as far west as Tia. Mr. A. R. Crawford has sent it to me from
Moona Plains, in the Walcha district. Mr. Henry Deane has
collected it near Glen Innes. The range of the tree is conse-
quently fairly considerable, and it is very desirable that we should
know precisely where it occurs. Of its geographical distribution
we know but little, a remark which applies to other forms of
£. Stuartiana referred to in this paper.

4, Sixteen to seventeen miles east of Walcha I observed a droop-
ing, singularly graceful tree, reminding one of a weeping willow.
It appeared to be scarce. The height was about 50 ft., and the
trunk diameter 2 ft. I have arrived at the conclusion that it
forms in some respects a connecting link between Nos. 2 and 3.

EUCALYPTS OF THE NEW ENGLAND TABLE-LAND. 543

Its fruits are smaller than either, reminding one of those of Z.
microtheca. The valves are well exserted. The pedicels are, on
the average, as long as the fruits ; the common peduncle is also
much longer than that of either of the preceding forms. The adult
foliage is linear-lanceolate or lanceolate, the average dimensions
being,say,5x3in. The twigs are slender; in fact the characteristic
of the tree is the smallness and grace of its parts. The sucker
foliage has crenulate margins like No. 3, but longer, narrower,
and more pointed leaves. Some of the very young foliage is
linear-lanceolate, and even linear. A good deal of the young
foliage reminds one superficially of that of the Wilga (Gevera
parviflora). The sucker foliage is alternate, not opposite like
normal Stwartiana. This form and the preceding one undoubtedly
show close affinity in their young foliage.

It will be generally agreed that these four forms are interesting,
and I look forward to examination of seedlings of the series,
which may perhaps throw further light upon their affinities.

E. viminalis, Labill.—In speaking of #. obliqua, I have alluded
to the occurrence of fine trees of this species between Myrtle
Serub and Yarrowitch. The viminalis trees are straight, hand-
some-looking trees, up to 3 ft. in diameter, and as high as obliqua.
The bark is more or less rough at the butt; above this the bark
is thin, falling off in ribbons. This obligwa-viminalis forest is in
rich basaltic soil ; in poorer ground towards Walcha the viminalis
trees are much inferior. On a ridge near Tia I observed a vimi-
nalis tree with larger fruits. 17 miles east of Walcha, on a flat,
may be observed many trees with perfectly smooth trunks, with
plum-coloured patches thereon. They have glaucous, plum-tinted,
broadish (ovate-lanceolate) suckers, but are, nevertheless, un-
doubtedly viminalis. For many miles before Walcha is reached
E. wiminalis is exceedingly abundant, but most of the trees are of
the usual Ribbony Gum type, with all stages of twistiness of the
ribbony bark, and with much variation in the amount of rough
bark at the butt.

Lf. tereticornis, Sm.-—First seen, on the table-land, between
Yarrowitch and Tia. Fine trees. On the Upper Hastings it was
one of the commonest trees. It occurs sparingly on the table-
land up till, say, 10 miles into Walcha.

LleRaay..
E\

“i 2 Se

544 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

No. 11.—A REVIEW OF THE CHARACTERS AVAIL-
ABLE FOR THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE EUCA-
LYPTS, WITH A SYNOPSIS OF THE SPECIES
ARRANGED ON A CARPOLOGICAL BASIS.

By Ratpu Tarr, Professor of Natural History in the University
of Adelaide.

(Read Monday, January 10, 1898.)

CoNSIDERABLE thought and much patient experimental investi-
gation have been given to devising schemes for the classification
of the 150 or so species of our Eucalypts. Every possible aspect
has been under consideration—the woodman’s, the chemist’s, the
histologist’s, and the systematic botantist’s, and, nevertheless, no
satisfactory system has been evolved. The effort to devise a
scheme based on the variation of one element which shall bring
together species which seem from our conception to be naturally
related has failed. In this dilemma we must admit that any
system, never mind its apparent artificiality, that gives better
results than hitherto is the one to be adopted till a more perfect
one has been elaborated. For each suggested system of classifica-
tion there has been lost sight of, in my judgment, what I may
call handiness of application, for many of the characters utilised
involve laborious examination or are those not readily obtainable.
In this connection we should have regard to the kind of material
‘the untrained collector usually brings to us, and the conservation
of which involves the least trouble to him; certainly not the
bark or kino, sometimes the flowers, but more generally the
leaves and fruit. By way of leading up to my propesed carpo-
logical basis of classification I will review the other characters
which are available for classifactory purposes.

HABIT.

The Eucalypti comprise two habits of growth, viz., trees and
shrubby trees, to which I apply the vernacular names of Gams
and Mallees. Ido not know if I am correct in so doing, as I have
failed to find any definitions of these well-known terms.

I have constantly observed in seedlings and growths of one or
two years of such gums, as JF. rostrata, lewcoxylon, viminalis, a
large inflation of the base of the stem, either at the surface or
just below the surface of the soil. In the species named this is
eventually outgrown, but in the mallees it persists and increases
in size proportionately with the development of the branches
which are emitted from it—in the mallee this rudely globose bole
is partially subterranean. The umbrella-like disposition of the

CLASSIFICATION OF THE EUCALYPTS. 545

foliage of the taller mallees may be largely incidental to over-
crowding, though it would seem to be an inherited character as it
is fairly pronounced in them when they are distantly separated
from one another.

TIMBER.

Two extremes in the property of timber occur, (1) the fissile or
readily-splitting timber as that of Z. globulus, EL. amygdalina,
and other so-called stringybarks ; (2) the short-fibred timber as
that of Z. rostrata. Moreover, the duramen is fairly constant in
colour for each species, varying from mahogany-red to yellow and
white, and though the general character of the timber is invariable
for each species, yet the quality of it varies according to climate
and soil, so that the forester’s appreciation of specific differences
cannot safely be availed of for the systematic arrangement of the
Eucalypts. Thus, for example, the wood of Z. rostrata growing
on river-ways is of very inferior quality as a timber, and is even
rejected as firewood when other sources of supply are obtainable ;
but as the tree ascends the slopes of high elevations, up to about
2,000 feet in South Australia, the timber improves in quality, and
at its best ranks as highly valuable.

BARK.

The differences in the nature of the outer cortical layers led
Baron von Mueller (Journ. Lin. Soc., III, 1858), to arrange the
species into the following groups :—

1. Leiophloie, or smooth-barked trees, as £. rostrata,
£. leucoxylon, &c., and the majority of mallees.

bo

. Hemiphloie, or half-barked trees ; bark of lower trunk
persistent, of upper part and branches deciduous, as
EL. hemiphloia, E. oleosa,

. Lhytiphloie, with wrinkled persistent bark, as LZ. robusta,
£. corymbosa, EL. amygdalina, E. odorata.

oo

ia

Pachyphloice, with persistent fibrous bark, as #. gigantea,
£. calophylla, E. obliqua, and other stringy-barks.

OO

. Schizophloie, with persistent deeply-furrowed bark, as:
£. crebra.

6. Lepidophloiw, with persistent bark on the trunk only, and:

forming scaly separate pieces, as Z. tessellaris.

This cortical system has its utility; but there are several species.
which exhibit inconstant characters, as for example, /. hemiphloia
in its ordinary state is typical of section 2, but in the high uplands.
of the Mount Torrens district of South Australia it assumes the
characteristics of section 4 and is locally known as “ Bastard

Stringy-bark.” Mr. Maiden, P.L.S., N.S.W., 4, p. 1278, 1890,
2 -M

546 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

writes: “ I have seen bark of Z. ste//ulata (which Mueller includes
in section 5), which cannot be distinguished from what are known
as ironbarks.”

EXUDATIONS.

Mr. J. H. Maiden, Proc. Lin. Soc., New South Wales, 1890, p.
605, as the result of extensive and repeated investigations, has
shown that the A%nos, or astringent exudations, may be readily
grouped into three sections according to their behaviour with
water and with alcohol ; and has proved, further, that a kino of
one species invariably belongs to one group. He would employ
this chemical system of grouping the Eucalypts as supplementary
to, or a check upon, the anthereal (or other) system. His classi-
fication of the Avnos is as follows :—

(1.) The Ruby Group, which consists of ruby-coloured Ainos,
the members of which are soluble either in cold water or
in cold spirit. To this group belong Z£. obliqua and
other species having kidney-shaped anthers.

(2.) The Gummy Group, whose members are soluble in cold
water, but very imperfectly in spirit, owing to the gum
they contain, such as &. siderophloia and some other
ironbarks.

(3.) The Turbid Group, whose members are soluble in hot
water or in hot alcohol, but the solutions become turbid
on cooling; all the members of this group contain
catechin, such as #. rostrata, £. leucoxylon, Xe.

FOLIAGE

Don, 1832, classified the then described Eucalypts into two
primary sections according to the alternate or opposite position of
the leaves; but it was pointed out by Bentham, Fl. Aust., 111,
p. 187, 1866, that a great majority of the species are now known
to have on the young sapling, or even on adventitious barren
branches of older trees, opposite leaves. The leaves of the young
plants of all the species with which I am acquainted are opposite,
horizontal, often sessile, bluish, and more or less oval, eventually
in the great majority of species becoming alternate, lanceolate,
vertical, stalked, and green. This feature has been largely illus-
trated by Baron von Mueller in “ Hucalyptographia,” Decade
9, and by Sir John Lubbock in his “Seedling Plants.” The
opposite-leaved condition would appear to be the primitive one,
and in a few species, such as Z. gamophylla, persists throughout
life.

Little value can be placed on leaf-shape, as in general there is
great similarity among different species, and often great diversity

CLASSIFICATION OF THE EUCALYP'TS. 547

in the same species ; in a few species, however, the leaves of the
adult plant offer very distinctive characters, such as connate in
L. gamophylla, hispid in £. setosa.

Though #. amygdalina and £. regnans may be separable by
leaf-shape alone, or £. hemiphloia and LZ. Behriana by colour,
yet I think it will be conceded that such distinctions are not very
reliable.

“The venation characterist# as it often is in the lanceolate
leaves, the specific modifications disappear in a great measure as the
leaf gets broader. In general it would appear that the horizontal
leaves have the two surfaces different, and the veins very divergent
or transverse, and the vertical leaves have the surfaces similar and
the veins oblique.” —Bentham.,

Again, the leaves of some species are more distinctly or more
copiously pellucid-dotted than in others ; but as this feature varies
with the age of the leaf it would be untrustworthy to employ it
for specific distinction, except perhaps when it offers extreme
contrasts.

ESSENTIAL OILS.

The drug, eucalyptus oil, is commercially obtained from the
leaves, though it is also contained in the calyx. The oils from
the various species of Eucalypts have the same general character,
though there are most important differences between some of
them, chiefly as to specific gravity and odour. In respect of the
latter character Z. citriodora and EF. globulus offer great diver-
gence, readily determinable by bruising the leaves: it is thus in
a few species only that the odour of the foliage may be utilised
for diagnostic purposes.

PETIOLE.

Messrs. McAlpine and Remfrey, ‘Trans. Roy. Soc. Victoria,”
vol. 2, 1891, have suggested the employment of the characters
afforded by transverse sections of the petiole in the classification
of the Eucalypts. The chief characters employed are those derived
from the epidermis, hard bast, wood with its vessels, cortical
cavities and central canal; they have found that each of the
thirty species analysed has distinctive characters. But the tests
employed appear to have been too limited ; and before it can be
admitted that such transverse sections are aids in the determina-
tion of species they should be applied to individuals of species
living under diversified conditions. Even otherwise this histo-
logical system is too cumbersome in its application to be of
diagnostic value.

INFLORESCENCE.
The usual condition is an umbel, but by lengthening of the axis

passes to the panicle or corymb. ‘The transition from one to the
other is so easy, and often exemplified on tho same tree, that it is

548 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

obvious that the form of the inflorescence is not reliable as a
specific character. Bentham, however, says, “These peduncles
with their umbels are, in their general arrangement, of some
importance, constituting three types—(1) axillary or lateral, that
is, solitary in the axils of the leaves or along the branches above
or below the leaves ; (2) several together in short simple panicles
at the end of the branchlet or in the axil of the leaves; (3) ina
compound terminal corymbose panicle ; but these forms appear to
pass into each other very much in imperfect specimens.”

Useful specific characters are derived from the transverse outline
of the peduncle or pedicel, such as terete, angular, compressed or
winged ; and in a few species the pedicels are abbreviated, as in
L, capitellata, which distinguishes it from 2. macrorrhyncha, both
having fruits of the same shape.

GALLS.

“ Mr. Bauerlen informs the author of his belief that species of
Eucalyptus can be unerringly determined by means of the leaf-
galls.”’—Maiden, “ Useful Plants,” p. 428, 1889. Mr. Froggatt,
Proc. Linn. Soc., 2nd ser., vol. vii, p. 353, in the Notes on the
Brachyscelide, which form woody galls on the twigs, leaves, and
deforming the flower-buds, has, however, stated that ‘The mem-
bers of the genus Brachyscelis are distinctly Australian, confining
their attacks to the Eucalypts, and at one time I believed that
each species of coccid had a partiality for a particular species of
Eucalyptus ; but observations extending over several years have
proved that, though some of the rarer species may keep to one
tree, most of them thrive on various Eucalypts.”

FLOWER-BUD.

The operculum offers considerable diversity of form, and so far
as I know it is very true of the species. It was first employed as
a basis of classification by Willdenow, Sp. Plant., 1799, who
grouped the twelve species then known into two sections according
as the operculum was conical or hemispherical.

Don, 1832, also used the operculum in his subdivision of the
species with alternate leaves. He recognised five distinctive
shapes—(1) conical, longer than the calyx-tube, ex. #. cornuta ;
(2) conical, equal in length to the calyx-tube, ex. L. stellulata ;
(3) nearly conical or hemispherical, shorter than the calyx-tuhe,
ex. E. amygdalina ; (4) hemispherical, much broader than the
calyx-tube, ex. 2. gomphocephala ; (5) depressed in the centre,
shorter than the calyx-tube, ex. #. globulus.

The operculum is an important factor in the discrimination of
species, and is largely availed of by Bentham in his treatment of
the species in the “ Fl. Austral.,” and by Mueller in his “‘Hucalypto-
graphia,” the operculum of each species being pictorially repre-
sented,

CLASSIFICATION OF THE EUCALYPTS. 549

ANTHERS.

Bentham, in “FI. Aust., 1866,” arranged the species into five
ptimary sections according to the shape and dehiscence of the
anthers, thus :—

1. Renantherze.—Anthers reniform, large ; cells divergent at
the base.

2. Heterostemones.—Outer stamens sterile; anthers globular,
small, opening by pores or slits.

3. Porantherze.—Anthers globular, smal], opening by circular

pores.
4. Micrantherze.—Anthers globular, small, opening by lateral
slits.

5. Normales.—Anthers globular, small, the cells distinct and
parallel, opening by longitudinal slits.

Mueller, in his “Zucalyptographia,” adopted the anthereal system
of Bentham, but reduced the sections to four, and in the second
edition (1889) of the “Census” three only are retained, viz. :—
(1) Renantherz, (2) Poranthere, and (3) Parallelanthere.

The species of Series 2 of Bentham are mostly transferred to
Porantherze. The elimitation of the characters dependent on the
occurrence of anantherous stamens simplified the classification,
and was desirable because the tendency to sterility of the exterior
stamens belongs to all Eucalypts as to other polyandrous flowers.
The presence or absence of staminodia may, therefore, be a feature
of each individual flower.

The species of series 4 and 5 are comprised under Parallel-
anthere.

Though it must be confessed that the anthereal system of clas-
sification brings into juxtaposition species allied in other respects,
more so, perhaps, than any other system, yet persistency of anther-
type is not always a certainty, and the manner of determination
is a bar to its employment for primary classification. Moreover,
the species are unequally distributed in the three sections. Thus,
in the 1889 edition of the “Syst. Census Austr. Plants,” series 1
contains 23 species, series 2 contains 14 species, and series 3 con-
tains 96 species.

FRUIT.

There is obviously the need of an organ which exhibits greater
diversity of form and structure and admits of a greater number
-of combinations than is afforded by the anther, or indeed any
single structure as yet considered. The requirements seem to me
to be best fulfilled by the fruit offering, for the most part, macro-
scopic characters, and the special advantage that it is nearly always
possible to obtain them, whilst the flowering season is of limited
duration and is not always of annual recurrence. At the same
time, the characteristics are readily interpreted, needing no special

550 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

manipulation, as is required if we employ the anthereal system or
that based on the histology of the petiole, or that on the chemical
properties of the kinos and oils.

Bentham, “Fl. Austr.,” ii, made only a minor use of the fruit
character, but Baron von Mueller, ‘‘ Syst. Victorian Plants,” gave
it a higher value. In my “Flora of South Australia” (1890) the
thirty-three species inhabiting the province are primarily arranged,
on the form of the fruit, into four sections, but the number of the
divisions will admit of increase when dealing with the genus in its
entirety.

I would now review the nature and value of the component
elements embraced by a carpological scheme of classification :—

1. Shape of Fruit.—The shape to be described is that of a fully-
ripe specimen, as immature states may prove delusive when testing
the carpological system. In this connection Bentham, “ Fl. Aust.,”
ili, p. 187, writes :—“ It (the calyx-tube) often alters so much that
it neither indicates the form it had in flower nor yet that which it
will assume in the fruit.” Thus in Z. pyriformis the calyx-tube,
on the fall of the operculum, is obconic, with a horizontal summit,
but in the adult state it becomes biconic. Again, #. cosmophylla
ranges from ovoid-conic in the early stages to hemispheric when
mature.

The calycine portion of the fruit may extend beyond the cap-
sular portion to varying heights ; its rim or margin may be acute,
as in £. Foelscheana, or it may be of varying width, remain hori-
zontal, as in L.goniocalyx,or become ascending with a convex slope,
as in LZ. capitellata, or with a concave slope, as in #. longifolia,
EL. pyriformis, &e.

In the appended carpological schedule I have set forth the
leading geometric forms assumed by the Eucalyptine fruits, so
there is no need to describe them in this place ; but a fundamental
investigation is that of the persistency of shape for each species.
From my own experience, the shape of the fruit is constant within
natural and reasonable limits. Thus #. Foelscheana is usually
globosely urn-shaped ; but by contraction at the summit becomes
globosely-oval—a natural transition. . capitellata is usually
biconic, but may become roundly depressed atop, thus passing to
globulose or ovoid-conic. I do not find any variation of shape
that does violence to a geometric development. If we except
£. incrassata, following Mueller’s interpretation of the species, here
there is undoubted geometric discordance ; but the disassociation
of ZL. dumosa, as adopted by Bentham, at once removes the
anomaly ; indeed, the difference of fruit in conjunction with
that of habit justify specific distinctions between them.

2. External Sculpture and Ornament.—Though the outer sur-
face of the fruit is usually smooth, with a more or less circular

CLASSIFICATION OF THE EUCALYPTS. Holl

outline in transverse section, yet becomes prismatic in 2. gonio-
calyx, axially ridged in EL. incrassata, EL. pyriformis, &e., or
ornamented with asperities, as in L. Moelscheana.

3. Capsular Teeth.—In the larger number of campanulate and
ovoid fruits the capsule is extensively overtopped by the calyx-
tube—in these deeply sunken capsules the capsular teeth are
usually included, but they are prominently exsert in Z. oleosa, EL.
salmonophloia, whilst the obconic fruits must obviously have ex-
sert capsular teeth. Apart from the exsert or included position of
the teeth, their shape and length offer considerable variation, and
may be usefully employed as minor distinctive specific characters.

4, Capsule-cells.—The number of the fruit-cells varies from
three to six, and is not constant for each species, though a given
number may largely prevail.

5, Fertile Seeds.—As pointed out by Bentham, the fertile seeds
only differ from each other in being wingless or winged, and “ that
the wing when it exists varies remarkably in size and shape in
different seeds from the same specimen.” And though Baron F. v.
Mueller, in his “ Hwcalyptographia,” has depicted the seeds (fertile
and sterile) for each, yet he does not utilise the apparent dis-
tinctions among the leading specific characters. I myself have
thought it not worth the while to test the value of this structure.

It may now be concluded that by the employment of a carpo-
logical system in the classification of the Eucalypts, we have
several factors available, which, taken in their varying combina-
tions permit of a more detailed classification than is possible by
the use of any other single structure ; if to the fruit we add the
characters afforded by the pedicels which usually can be found
with the fruits, then increased means of discrimination are afforded.

The subjoined Schedule, giving the grouping of the species by
carpological characters, can only be a tentative one, as, moreover,
I have not the material by means of which the system might be
most fully tested, and thus pursue the treatment of my subject
towards a finality.

Series A.—Ovoid, medially inflated, attenuated below, truncated
above the middle.

(1.) Ovoid. patens tetragona
Behriana uncinata buprestium
hemastoma salmonophloia goniocalyx
populifolia trachyphloia Landsdowneana
piperita (2.) Ovoid-oblong. (3.) Ovoid-conic, passing
pauciflora crebra to Series Biconic.
melliodora corymbosa amygdala
obliqua occidentalis acmenoides
saligna robusta odorata
marginata - stricta paniculata
diversicolor leucoxylon largiflorens
maculata punctata santalifolia (pars)
redunca Planchoniana capitellata (pars)

oleosa salubris Gunnii

552 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Series B.—Biconic.

1. Base elongate, longer than wide.
Exs. longifolia, cornuta, gomphocephala.

2. Base hemispheric or ovoid, as wide as long—

(a) Fruit very large, 2 or more inches diameter.
Exs. pyriformis, macrocarpa.
(6) Fruit medium-sized, 4 to 1 inch diameter.
Exs. Oldfieldi, pachyphylla, capitellata.
(c) Fruit small, under 4 inch diameter.
Exs. macrorrhyncha, rudis, rostrata, decipiens, Stuartiana, tereti-
cornis, viminalis, salubris,

SeriES C.—Globulose to hemispheric.

1. Globulose. Exs. Howittiana, stellulata, Todtiana, eugenioides.

2. Globulose-ovoid. Exs. doratoxylon, eudesmioides, salmonophloia,
cneorifolia, capitellata (pars).

3. Hemispheric. Exs. cosmophylla, cordata.

Serres D.—Ellipsoid, sides approximately parallel; length at least two
times the breadth.
1. Ellipsoid, ridged.
Ex. tetradonta.

2. Ellipsoid-obconie.
(a) Base gradually attenuated. LExs. gracilis, diversicolor, microcorys.
(6) Base more abruptly attenuated. xs. fcecunda, hemiphloia,
botryoides.
3, Ellipsoid-ovoid, slightly narrowed towards the summit.

(a) Externally ridged. Exs. tetragona, ptychocarpa, corynocalyx,
incrassata, clavigera.
(6) Not ridged. Ex. gamophylla.

4, Ellipsoid-urn-shaped, slightly narrowed towards the summit, thence
slightly dilated.
(a) Smooth, Ex. phcenicea.
(b) Ridged. Ex. clavigera.

Serres E.—Campanulate, general outline ovoid-oblong, more or less dilated
at the summit.

1, Urn-shaped, distinctly dilated at the summit.

(a) Fruit 1 inch or more long. Exs. Foelscheana, Watsoniana.

(b) Fruit under 1 inch long. (i) Fruit somewhat globulose. Ex.
Baileyana, (ii) Fruit oblong. Exs. obcordata, eximia, peltata,
tessellaris, terminalis (axially streaked).

‘2. Urn-shaped ovoid, not markedly dilated at the summit.
(a) Fruit | inch or more long.
(1) Longitudinally wrinkled. Exs. calopbylla, sepulecralis,
miniata,
(2) Smooth. Ex. setosa.
(3) Hispid. Ex. Foelscheana (pars).

b) Fruit under 4-inch long. Ex. pruinosa.
2 g Pp

HOST PLANTS OF THE AUSTRALIAN LORANTHACE 553

No. 12.—THE HOST PLANTS OF THE AUSTRALIAN
LORANTHACEA.

By Ratpu Tate, Professor of Natural History in the University
of Adelaide.

(Read Monday, January 10, 1898.)

Bentuam, Fl. Aust., iii, p. 388, 1866, writes :—‘The notes of
collectors on the trees on which the several species [of Loranthus]
grow are so varied that there seem to be no evidence that particular
species affect particular trees. The most commonly noted are
Eucalyptus, Casuarina and Exocarpus, but Acacia, Banksia,
Metaleuca, Fusanus and many others are also mentioned as feed-
ing species of Loranthus.” He refers to the host-plants of one
species of Loranthus (L. celastroides), though the denominations of
Exocarpi, Casuarine and Melaleuce as applied to L. exocarpi, L.
linophyllus and L. pendulus respectively imply the generic posi-
tion of their host-plants. Mueller, Frag. Phyt., ii, p. 109, reports
Notothixos incanus upon Eucalypti and Angophore, and Bentham,
op. cit., remarks under Viscwm and Votothixos that, ‘they are found
sometimes growing upon species of Loranthus as well as upon the
trees that feed them.”

Our knowledge of the life-histories of our Loranthaceze was
thus, at the date of publication of the third volume of the “ Flora
Australiensis,” brief in quantity and indifferent in quality. Under
these circumstances, I have thought a useful purpose might be
served by bringing together additional facts as the outcome of
field-observations by botanists and well-trained collectors ; and by
extended observations we may arrive at the conclusion respecting
the restricted or non-restricted distribution of these parasites.

LIST OF AUSTRALIAN LORANTHACEZ AND THEIR HOST-PLANTS,

Viscum orientale, Wild. No record.
V. angulatum, Heyne. No record.

V. articulatwm, Burmann. On Doryphora sassafras, by F. Turner,
P.L.S., N.S. Wales, ser. 2, vol. 9, p. 559, 1895.

554 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Notothixos incanus, Oliver. On Eucalypti and Angophore, F. v.
Mueller, Frag. Phyt., ii, p. 109; on Currajong (Sterculia ),
Hamilton, P.L.S., ser. 2, vol. 2, p. 283.

NV. subaureus, Oliver. No record.

NV. cornifolius, Oliver. On Sterculia diversifolia, Baker, P.L.S.,
vol. 2, p. 452.

Loranthus celastroides, Sieber. The broad-leaved form on Banksia
and Casuarina, the narrow-leaved form on Hucalyptus and
Casuarina, Bentham, Fl. Aust., i, p. 390; on HLucalypti,
Hamilton, op. cit.

L. Bidwillvi, Bentham. On Callitris cupressiformis, by Scortechini,
P.L.S., N. S. Wales, vol. 8, p. 251, 1884; on Callitris sp.,
Baker, id., 1896, p. 452.

L. myrtifolius, Cunningham. No record.

L. longiflorus, Desr. No record.

L. angustifolius, R. Brown, [The original specimens and locality
still remain unique; the host-plant is probably Casuarina
quadrivalvis or Melaleuca parviflora. |

. dictyophlebus, F.v.M. No record.

. alyxifolius, F.v.M. No record.

. odontocalyx, F.v.M. No record.

SS Seas

. linearifolius, Hooker. I have observed this species very abund-
antly on Acacia sp. ; the species has not been recorded, but
I am almost sure it is A. aneura.

L. Murrayi, F.v.M.and Tate. On Acacia aneura, by Tate, Trans.
Roy. Soc., 8. Aust., vol. 6, p. 109, 1883; on Acacia aneura
and A. salicina, by Elder Expl. Exped., idem, vol. 16, p. 360,
1896.

L. exocarpi, Bebr. On Acacia aneura as arule, but also on Cassia
Sturt and Hremophila Freelingii, Elder Expl. Exped., op.
cit.; on Casuarina quadrivalvis and Exocarpus cupresse
Sormis, (Herb., Adelaide University).

LL. acacioides, Cuming. No record.

L. signatus, F.v.M. No record.

HOST PLANTS OF THE AUSTRALIAN LORANTHACE. 555

L. maytenifolius, A. Gray. No record.
LL. sanguineus, F.v.M. No record.
L. bifurcatus, Bentham. No record.

L. linophyllus, Fenzl. On Casuarine, by Miquel (inferred); on
Casuarina Cunninghami, by Woolls, P.L.S8., N.S.W., vol. 2,
2nd ser., p. 1077; on Acacia aneura, by Elder Expl. Exp.,
op. cit. ; on Acacia sentis and on A. tetragonophylla, (R.T.) in
Herb., Adelaide Univ.

Var. parviflorus. On Callitris, by Hamilton, P.L.S., N.S.W.,
ser. 2, vol. ii, p. 282. [The species of Callitris is either
verrucosa or columellaris. |

L. gibberulus, Tate. On Grevillea nematophylla, by Tate, Trans.
Roy. Soc., S. Aust., vol. viii, p. 71, 1886 ; on Grevillea striata,
G. agrifolia and Hakea leucoptera, Horn Exped., pt. 3, p. 160,
1896 ; on Hakea lorea, Elder Expl. Expd., op. cit.

L. pendulus, Sieber. On Jfelaleuca, 8. Aust.; on Fucalypti,
chiefly #. rostratus, and on Casuarina quadrivalvis, by R.
Tate, in Herb. Univ., Adelaide.

var. amplexifolius. On Brachychiton Gregorii, Elder Expl.
Exped., op. cit.

var. canescens. On Acacia homalophylla, Elder Expl. Exped.,
op. cit. ; on Acacia aneura, Herb. Univ., Adelaide.

var. Melaleuce. On Melaleuca ericifolia, Tepper ; Melaleuca
parviflora and Myoporum platycarpum, Herb. Univ., Adelaide ;
on Melaleuce, implied, Pl. Priess.

var, parviflorus. On Melaleuca styphelioides, Maiden, Agric.
Gaz. N.S.W., v. 615.
L. quandang, Lindley. On Acacia aneura, Tate, Roy. Soce., S.
Aust., vol. vi, p. 103, 1883; Horn Exped., op. cit. ; Elder
Exped, op. cit.

L. grandibracteus, F.v.M. On Lucalyptus microtheca, Horn
Exped., pt. 3, p. 160, 1896.

REMARKS.

I am not disposed to attribute any particular adaptation of the
host-plant to the requirements of its particular parasite, though it
is significant that some species of Loranthus seem to have a pre-
dilection for a restricted group of plants—notably in the case of

556 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

L. gibberulus, which ranges in Central Australia over an area of
not less than 30,000 square miles, and has hitherto been observed,
and frequently so, only on Proteaceous trees and shrubs ; whilst
LI. quandang occupying the same area is restricted to Acacia
aneura. On the other hand, Loranthus pendulus was observed by
me, some twenty years ago, to occur in some of the orchards about
Adelaide indiscriminately on fig, apple, pear, and other fruit-
bearing trees ; of late years it seems to have died out, in all pro-
bability the agents of transplanting the seeds have, through closer
settlement and other causes, been expelled the district.*

Some explanation of the attachment to certain mistletoes to
particular host-species may be found when we shall have acquired
full knowledge of the habits of the birds which are the agents of
their dissemination. In the first instance, the association may have
been accidental, some fruit-eating birds may have preferred certain
species of trees or shrubs for shelter, and thus eventually there has
arisen this phenomenon of interdependency—the tree affording
food and as well as protection to the bird, and the bird securing
the continuance of the species of mistletoe.

The only agent, at present known, playing this role in the
economy of the Loranthacee is Diceum hirundinaceum, concerning
which in this connection, Dr. Ramsay, P.L.S., New South Wales,
2nd ser., vol. i, p. 1093, 1886, writes :—“ This species is universally
dispersed over the whole of Australia ; feeds on berries and fruits
of various kinds, but seems to prefer those of Loranthus ; this
plainly accounts for the distribution of the Loranthus and Viscwm
all over the districts frequented by the Dicewm, and in which it is
locally known as the Mistletoe-bird.” But both bird and mistletoe
are absent from the large adjacent insular lands of Tasmania and
Kangaroo Island. Dr. Ramsay has, however, included the bird
in the geographical column for Tasmania, in his “Tabular List of
Australian Birds,” 1888; but this record is an error, as I am
assured by the leading ornithologists in Tasmania.

An extensive tract of lightly-timbered country on the eastern
slope of the Adelaide chain has also neither mistletoes nor Dicewm.
The Diceum is very partial to the white ripe berries of Loranthus
linearifolius.

*Mr. F. Turner, F.L.S., New South Wales, 2nd ser., vol. 9, p. 557, 1895, records 27
species of exotic trees and shrubs growing in New South Wales which are hosts for certain
Australian Loranthacee, viz., Loranthus celastroides, L. pendulus, and Viscum articu-
latuinm the first two being much more common than the last.

METHODS OF FERTILISATION. 557

No. 13.—ON THE METHODS OF FERTILISATION OF
SOME AUSTRALIAN PLANTS.

By Avex. G. Hamitton.

(Read Friday, January 7, 1898.)

MONIMIACE,

Palmeria scandens, ¥.v.M.—<A straggling, semi-climbing, woody
shrub. The male and female flowers are borne upon separate
plants. It flowers in winter (May, June, and July). The males
consist of a calyx of 4-5 connivent lobes, more often 5 than 4
(Fig. 1). The numerous anthers are sessile (Fig. 2), the pollen
small and minutely granular (Fig. 3). The female calyx is almost
globular (Fig 4), with a minute orifice at the top, out of which the
filiform stigmas (6-8) protrude (Fig. 5). The fruit, when ripe, is
dark reddish purple, and opens raggedly, disclosing the black
shining drupes (Fig. 6). Both male and female flowers are pale
green, and have a strong sweet scent. They are frequented by
small pollen-eating beetles, which are always smeared with pollen,
and doubtless it is by their agency that the flowers are fertilised.
A large proportion of the females do not set seed.

VIOLACESX,

Viola hederacea, Labill.—The plants of the genus Viola have the
five anthers closely surrounding the ovulary, the filaments being
widened and clasping it. There is usually a hollow spur to the
lowermost petal, in which in some species lie two spurs from the
lowest filaments, these last acting as honey glands, and the sac as
a receptacle for the nectar. Some species also have a little lid
projecting in front of the stigma, so that when an insect inserts
its proboscis, the lid moves downwards, and allows any pollen on
the insect’s head or thorax to reach the stigma, but as it with-
draws the lid is closed up over the stigma, and so prevents
autogamy (1, 2).

In the species under notice, the flowers are white with a
purplish tinge, the two upper petals fold over backwards. The
lateral and lowest petals have pathfinders pointing to a small
hollow, scarcely a spur, in the lowest petal, which is green inside.
There are no spurs on the lower filaments. The two lateral petals
have patches of short papille at the shoulder, to aid insects in
clinging to the nodding flower. There is no lid to the stigma.
The ovulary is green, but with a patch of purple on each side, of

558 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

which I cannot see the significance, as it is hidden by the wide
filaments. Although Australian violets are supposed to be scent-
less, this species is an exception, as on warm days, particularly
when the air is moisture-laden, it has a very strong rich scent.
The plants bear seed freely, but I have never seen them visited
by insects. I have never found cleistogamous flowers on this
plant.

Viola betonicifolia, Sm. The ordinary form of this flower is
coloured purple, the lateral petals having a number of long, club-
shaped hairs on the shoulder, and a row of similar hairs occupying
the median line of all the petals. The lower petal is shortly
spurred (Fig. 7), and two short processes (Fig. 9) project from the
lowest filaments into this. There is no lid to the stigma, which is
spheroidal. Another variety has a sac of about same size, but the
filament spurs longer (Fig. 10). In a third variety, growing ina
swamp at Guntawang, near Mudgee, the flower was pure white,
with narrow purple lines pointing to the honey receptacle. This
was very deep (Fig. 8), and occupied by very long processes from
the lowest filaments (Fig. 11). This variety differed in no other
but these particulars from the first two mentioned. Neither Her-
mann Miller nor Sir John Lubbock notices one function of the
long projections of the filaments in plants of this genus, viz. : their
action as levers on the stamens when an insect inserts its head
into the nectary. It is very noticeable in the long-spurred variety
described above. If the experiment be tried with a bent wire in
this variety, it will be found that, as the wire reaches the bottom
of the honey sac, the portion answering in position to a bee’s head
throws the spurs backward and apart, and a shower of pollen drops
down on the wire.

Bees visit the flowers, which seed freely. I have not observed
cleistogamous flowers in this species either.

EU PHORBIACE,

Croton Verrauxit, Bail. A common shrub on the foot-hills, and
flats, and in brush forests in Illawarra. From its strong aromatic
scent, it is commonly known as “ Cascarilla.” Even the wood is
strongly scented. For the most part it is moncecious, but there
are variations in this respect. I have noted the following :—

(1.) Male and female flowers on separate trees.
(2.) Male and female flowers in separate racemes on the same
lant.
(3.) Male and female flowers in the same racemes, the females
below.

The young shoots are closely covered with stellate hairs, but the
growth of the internodes and leaves separate them, so that later
they seem widely scattered. In the young leaves there are glands

METHODS OF FERTILISATION, 559

on the teeth of margin which secrete a sticky varnish to protect
the tender epidermis. At the base of each leaf are two cushion-
shaped glands with their secreting surfaces turned downwards ;
the secretion is very slight. In the autumn and spring months
the old leaves turn a dull orange red, and, indeed, the young leaves
show a good deal of the same tint.

The male flowers have petals and sepals, the inside of the flowers
being filled, and the petals margined, with woolly hairs (Fig. 12).
The stamens are twelve in number, and the anthers open ex-
trorsely. The female flowers have usually sepals only, and there
are no woolly hairs present (Fig. 13); the immature ovulary has
a few minute stellate hairs on its surface. The stigma is deeply
divided into six arms (Fig. 14). The lowest flowers in the racemes
open first. But in some racemes bearing both males and females
there are two sets of males. A number of those at the top will
be found open and shedding pollen, while lower down there will be
found a number of male buds, each above an open female. The
pollen is large, with fine projections (Fig. 15), so that it is unlikely
that the plant is largely wind-fertilised. I have never seen any
nectar in either kind of flower, but they are very strongly scented.
The young shoots are a gocd deal infested by a black aphis, and
there is no doubt they are sometimes fertilised by the winged
individuals of these, as I have seen them on both male and female
flowers, and with pollen adhering to them. The ants run up and
down the racemes, visiting the aphides, and no doubt also con-
tribute to the fertilisation. Various species of Diptera and Hymen-
optera frequent the blossoms to feed on the pollen. The native
bee (Trigonia carbonaria) collects pollen from the blossoms. It is
rare to find a female flower which does not mature seed, so that the
means of fertilisation seem to be sufficient.

Baloghia lucida, Endl.—This tree grows freely in the brush
forests in the neighbourhood of creeks in Illawarra. It is mone-
cious, the males and females growing on separate twigs. The
flowers are white, and have a rich scent, exactly like that of
Sarcochilus olivaceus, which grows in the same dark forests.
Many insects, especially moths, are attracted by the scent and the
honey which is secreted by the glands on the disc. The female
flowers almost invariably produce seed. The fruits are eaten by
the flock pigeons (Lopholaimus antarcticus), which void the seeds
uninjured, and thus aid in the distribution of the plants.

SAPINDACE.

Cardiospermum Halicacabum, Linn. “ Balloon Vine.”—This is
an annual climber, of which Hermann Miller says that it is pro-
terandrous (1, p. 164). It is markedly irregular in form, and
would, therefore, appear to be adapted to insect visitors, and yet

560 — PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

I have never seen one on the flowers. This may arise, however,
from the fact that it is not an indigenous plant, and the particular
insects affecting it not being found here.* The sepals are greenish,
and the upper one is hood-shaped. The inner petals form a tube,
the lower two being thickened and yellow, with a scale on the
inner side, and some hairs. The remaining petals are white, larger,
and spreading. There are two nectar-secreting glands at the base
of the tube. The tube of two petals encloses the anthers in the
first stage, and the style is short and not seen. An insect visiting
the flower for nectar, when in this stage, must insert its proboscis
between the anthers, and so get dusted with pollen. After a time,
the trifid stigma protrudes between the anthers, while the hood-
like sepal moves down so as to cut off all access to the honey
except through the tube, A pollen-dusted insect must, in this
second stage of the flower, smear the pollen on the stigma. But
if no insects should visit it, the anthers still retain pollen, and the
stigma touches them as it expands, and also receives it from the
hairs within the lip as it forces its way out of the tube. Thus if
no insects work at the flowers, they will be self-fertilised. This is
apparently what occurs at Mount Kembla in my garden, for every
flower sets seed, and the plant springs up self-sown every year. In
pollen taken from flowers in the first stage, very many grains had
emitted short tubes from one, two, or three of the corners (Fig. 16).

THYMELE.

Pimelea ligustrina, Labill., var. hypericina.—In a paper in the
Journal of the Linnean Society (3) Mr. J. C. Willis describes the
method of fertilisation of P. decussata, R. Br. (P. flava in “ Flora
Aust.”). I find that in the species under notice fertilisation is
effected in much the same way. The flowers grow in a dense
globular head, those on the circumference opening first. The flower
is 13 mm. long, with 4 perianth lobes 8 mm. across, the opening of
the tube being 15 mm. The anthers, two in number, stand out
at an angle from each other and shed pollen freely, the style and
stigma being at this time hidden within the tube. Then the style
grows out so that the stigma is about 2 mm. above the opening of
the tube and about the same distance below the anthers. These
now diverge slightly, but not to the degree observed in P. decussata.
The flowers are sweet-scented in the daytime, but not at night.
Insects visiting them are mostly those with long proboscides, and
they probe the blossoms one after another, receiving pollen from
the mature anthers and placing it on the mature stigma. They
visit head after head on the same plant, and then fly to other
plants, so that cross fertilisation is almost certain. From the posi-
tion of the anthers when the stigma is mature, any flower is not

* Jt however occurs in Queensland and North Australia.—(Ep.)

METHODS OF FERTILISATION. 561

at all likely to be fertilised with itsown pollen. Butas the anthers

open in the central part of the head, their pollen must often drop
on the stigmas of the outer flowers, especially as the heads nod.
In this way fertilisation ensues between flowers of same head.
The plant is a great favourite with insects. Among those frequent-
ing the two shrubs in my garden were many Hymenoptera. The
hive bees worked all over the heads, beginning at the outer edge,
and collecting both honey and pollen, as did many small native
species of thesame order. Among Lepidoptera I noticed Pyrameis
itea, Fab., P. Kershawii, McCoy, and some small day-flying moths.
These travelled all over the heads, inserting their proboscides in
every flower; they were usually well covered with the bright
orange pollen. A species of Agarista also visited them. A small
green hemipterous insect seemed to live entirely in between the
flowers. Every flower in the heads set seed, and many seedlings
are found round the plants, both in my garden and outside.

Since completing the above I have collected a variety of this

plant with pistillate flowers only. In Moore and Betche’s “ Hand-
book of the Flora of N.S.W.” this species is placed in the section
having bisexual flowers, or rarely with the sexes showing slight
indication of separation.
, The leaves were rather thinner in texture than in a normal
form, the flowers a purer white, and, on the whole, much more
hairy. They were being visited by flies and small Hymenoptera,
and many of the stigmas were smeared with pollen. Very many
of the heads were maturing fruits.

ROSACEE.

Rubus rosifolius, 8m.—This shrub flowers and fruits at all times
of the year. It is apt to produce variegated foliage, patches and
lines of cream-colour appearing in the pale green. The large white
petals are variable in number, 5-7, and it sometimes has com-
pletely double flowers. The stamens are in a ring round the
carpels, and the anthers and stigmas mature simultaneously. The
stamens are at first curved upwards towards the carpels, but later
straighten out. All parts of the plant are beset with green capitate
glands—even the carpels, and they persist on the ripe fruit, but
are then golden yellow in the head, and crimson in the stalk.
They secrete a resin which gives the whole plant its pleasantly
aromatic scent. Honey is secreted in a groove between the
anthers and the ovulary. The flowers are visited by bees and flies,
which alight upon the ovulary, and work head downward all
round. The flowers are fertilised in this way; but should no
insects visit them, autogamy occurs, as the newly-opened flowers
have pollen all over the stigmas. Every flower develops fruit.

2N

562 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

CANDOLLEACE,

Candollea (Stylidium) laricifolium, F.v.M.—The method of
fertilisation in this species is much the same as that described for
C. serrulata (4). It differs, however, in some minor points. There
are some honey-glands in the interior of the calyx-tube, and the
flowers are often half full of nectar. They are visited by hive-
bees. When the flower first opens, the summit of the style is
covered by the two anthers (Fig. 17), and on each side is a fringe
of club-shaped hairs (Fig. 18). The anthers open and display the
loose, dry pollen. When a bee visits the flower, it goes to the
back, and when it inserts its proboscis it touches the irritable spot
near the base of the style, and the latter flies over the gynoste-
mium, striking the insect on the back of the thorax, or of the
abdomen in small bees, depositing the pollen there. Ata later
stage, the connective of the anthers grows downwards, so that
they are no longer in position to touch an insect, and the stigma
rapidly becomes papillose, slightly sticky, and mature. When
reflexed by the irritation of a bee, it flies over, and becomes
charged with the pollen on the insect. The flowers (Fig. 19) have
not the corona on the petals which is present in C. serrulata. The
metamorphosed petal which bends over the tube (Fig. 20) differs
from that in the latter species. The plant blossoms in September,
October, and November, and usually affects swampy situations,
although the finest plants I have ever seen were on a dry talus at
the foot of sandstone cliffs, at Cooyal, near Mudgee.

In observing the visits of insects to this and many other plants,
I was much struck by the number of hive-bees coming to it. In
many other native plants also they do a very great deal of the
work of fertilisation, and often drive away native insects. The
manner in which native insects take to introduced plants, too, is
worthy of observation. The hawk-moths, for example, continually
resort to Lantana, Lonicera, and the citrus fruit trees, and in
very large numbers, and many of the native Hymenoptera are
regular visitants to garden flowers.

EBENACEZ.

Diospyros Cargillia, F.v.M.—This, though properly a dicecious
plant, is one of those which show a transitional state between
dicecious and hemaphrodite flowers, or vice versa. The males have
16 anthers, and the ovulary is rudimentary, and acts on a honey-
secreting gland. It is bright orange, and has no style or stigma.
The females have 8 anthers, but they are imperfect and produce
little or no pollen. In these, also, the surface of the ovulary
secretes nectar freely. The flowers hang mouth downwards, and
though not large, are very attractive to insects from their sweet

METHODS OF FERTILISATION. 563

strong scent, and plentiful supply of honey. I have observed
some trees near my residence, and found they are very much
visited by butterflies, hive and other bees, beetles, flies, and thrips.
The small green frog (Hyla phyllochroa), recognised the value of
the plants as a feeding ground, for I saw numbers among the
leaves on every tree. Among the Lepidoptera observed feeding on
the honey were Hypochrysops ignita, H. hecalius, Pyrameis itea,
P. Kershawii, and several of the Hesperide. All the trees I
observed, bore fruit abundantly, the flowering season being
December, and the drupes ripening the following May.

CONVOLVYULACE,

Convolvulus marginatus, Poir.—'The flowers are small, and do
not open very widely ; they do not close entirely at night, and
last two or three days. The colour is white, with no lines of colour
as honey-guides. There is a ring of greenish-yellow glands at the
base of the ovulary which secrete a small quantity of honey. The
anthers dehisce laterally, or slightly introrsely ; they bend over the
stigma, which is almost at the same level. The bases of the
filaments are broad with trichomes at the edge, which interlock,
and so cut off small creeping insects from the honey. Self-
fertilisation seems to be the rule, as the stigma is thickly coated
with pollen from the time the flower opens, and unless removed
by insects, this must fertilise the plant. It bears seed freely, and
I have not seen any insects visit it.

AROIDEX,

Gymnostachys anceps, R.Br.—The bisexual flowers grow in a
close spike out of a small green spathe. Several spikes grow on
one stem. The anthers are four in each flower, and are in opposite
pairs. The flowers are protogynous, as the stigma emerges first,
and is then, as far as I can judge, mature. Then the anthers
appear and dehisce, but not simultaneously. It would seem as if
the flower must be self-fertilised, or fertilised from pollen drop-
ping from anthers higher up on the spike. Certainly it is not
often that fruitlets are found on every flower; but, as they are
very easily broken off at any time, that circumstance alone is not
sufficient to judge from. The spikes are much frequented by
spiders, and I have repeatedly noticed pollen on both the spiders
and the web. I have also very often seen ladybirds travelling
up and down the spikes, but was not able to make out their
object in doing so. Flowers and fruit may be found almost all
the year round, but the great period of production is the spring
months.

564 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Colocasia macrorrhiza, Sch.—The flowers in the spadix are
unisexual, the females being in the lower part, and the males on
the upper, and there is an intermediate space occupied by abortive
stamens and pistils. The lower part of the spathe forms a chamber
round the female flowers. In the first stage, the spathe and
spadix are green, with a strong delicious scent resewbling that of
violets. At this stage it is visited by small beetles which Rev. T.
Blackburn has been good enough to identify for me as Brachypeplus
Murrayi Macl., these crawl into the spathe and feed on a liquid
exuded by the pistils. |The spathe then closes at the lower part
round the females, so that nothing can get into the chamber. The
upper part of the spadix turns dull orange in colour, and the free
portion of the spathe white. The scent is now less powerful, and
the anthers open and discharge quantities of dusty pollen. Beetles
still visit the spathe, and become dusted with pollen ; but, failing
to make their way into the chamber, fly off to flowers in the first
stage, and getting into the open chamber are shut up init. In
moving about, feeding on the liquid, or trying to get out, they
deposit pollen on the stigmas. The beetles also eat the upper
part of the spadix, and so are covered with pollen. When tired of
their confinement they burrow out through the walls of the chamber.
The leaves and spathe are attacked by the larvee of a species of
Agaristid, which hide in the chamber, in the axils of the leaf stalks,
or in burrows which they excavate in the thicker veins. They
come out at night to feed, and when alarmed drop by a thread
and hang suspended. ‘These also aid in fertilisation, as they are
sometimes caught in the chamber, but always eat their way out
after a time. The plants in my garden were also attacked by a
large, very hairy larva, of a burnt sienna colour, and by the larva
of Cherocampa Oldenlandic, which also attacked the plants of a
taro plant close by.

While observing the flowers of Colocasia, I took some hundreds
of thermometer readings in and about the flowers at all stages,
but could detect no rise of temperature. Several observers have
noted in some species of Aroide a rise varying from 10° to 47-75" F.
above the air temperature.

I also made observations of the rate of growth of the flower
stem from the time its first tip showed till it had reached the first
flowering stage. These showed that the growth took place princi-
pally at night. The average growth during twelve hours of day-
light was 5 mm., while the average during the night was 12 mm.
The maximum night growth was 17 mm., and the minimum (the
last night) was 4 mm. On very hot days the growth was much
slower than on cool days. The total growth in 178 hours was
121°5 mm.

The sheathing leaf-stalks hold a considerable quantity of water
after rain, which remains a considerable time. In one instance

ae ”

ae
}

PLATE XXX,

AUSTRALASIAN Assoc. Abv. Sc. Vot. Vil, 1898.

A. G. HAMILTON,

METHODS OF FERTILISATION. 565

when filled, on the 15th December, there was still some water
present on the 20th, and one had a small quantity on the 26th,
although no rain had fallen in the meantime. The leaves on a
plant grown in a moist, shady situation, reached the size of 5 feet
by 4 feet, which is the greatest size I have seen them reach in the
Illawarra district.

REFERENCES TO LITERATURE.

(1.) Hermann Miiller, ‘The Fertilisation of Flowers,” English
edition, p. 117.

(2.) Sir John Lubbock, “ British Wild Flowers in Relation to
Insects,” p. 58.

(3.) J. C. Willis, M.A., ‘Contributions to the Natural History
of the Flower,” Part II.; ‘ Fertilisation-methods of various
Flowers,” J.L.8., Bot., vol. xxx, p. 284.

(4.) A. G. Hamilton, “On the Fertilisation of Clerodendron
tomentosum, R.Br., and Candollea (Stylidium) serrulata, Labill,
Paes N.S. W. (2), vol. ix, p. 18.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

(1.) Palmeria scandens, F.v.M. Male flower, x 3.
{2.) Sessile anther, x 10.

(3.) Pollen grains, dry, x 125.

(4.) Female flower, x 5.

{5.) Tip of stigma, x 40.

(6.) Fruit, opening, nat. size.

(7.) Viola betonicifolia, Sm. Short-spurred flower, nat. size.
(S.) Long-spurred flower, nat. size.

(9.) Ovulary and anthers, short-spurred form, x 10.
(10.) ms a5 medium-spurred form, x 10.
Fale) Pe ae long-spurred form, x 10.

(12.) Croton verreauxit, Bail. Male flower, x 4.
(13.) Female flower, x 4.

(14.) Stigma from above, x 8.

(15.) Pollen, dry, x 250.

(16.) Cardiospermum Halicacabum, Lin. Pollen grains emitting tubes, x 250.
(17.) Candollea laricifolium, F.v.M. Anthers—first stage, x 10.

(18.) Hair from gynostemium, x 40.
(19.) Flower, x 2.

(20.) Altered petal, x 5.

566 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

No. 14.—NOTES ON THE FERTILISATION OF SOME
NORTH AUSTRALIAN PLANTS.

By N. Hotz.

(Read Tuesday, January 11, 1898.)

BEFORE entering upon the description of the mode of fertilisation
of a few Australian wild flowers, I think it well to state the
standpoint from which I pursue my inquiries. I hold it to be a
fundamental principle that among all the different species of any
one genus there will be found of necessity a strong family like-
ness in the mode of fertilisation, modified from the type in what-
ever degree to serve some particular need. Just as there is a
resemblance in the flower among the species of any one genus, so
will there be in the mode of fertilisation and in the modification
of organs to that end. And this indeed is only what can be
expected on the theory of descent from an ancestor common to
them all. Thus the sensitive column with the fusion of stigma
and stamens common to the different species of Stylidium can
only be explained as being derived from an ancient form, the
progenitor of all the present day species, and if these are examined
in that light and the mode of fertilisation described in its variation
from the type, or what may be considered as such, the interest and
usefulness of the inquiry will be much enhanced. Holding the
views I do, I regret that in this paper I am only able to describe
a few isolated cases among the genera examined by me.

GREVILLEA CHRYSODENDRON, R. Brown.

The showy flowers of this species are closely packed into the
form of a brush, and abound in nectar. Before maturity the long
pistil is curved so that the stigmatic point is inserted between the
anthers at its foot. At maturity the pistil becomes erect, bearing
on its head the pollen deposited there by the anthers, The tree
is visited by a small bird for the nectar in the flowers, and the
pollen is taken from tree to tree on its breast and head, which
come into contact with the stigmas in probing for the nectar.
Cross-fertilisation, therefore, is facilitated, and the existence of the
provision for the pollen being deposited naturally on each stigma
would lead one to expect that in the ancestral form this was to
insure fertilisation should the flower not receive pollen from else-
where. However, in the species under notice, the flowers appear
to be incapable of fertilisation with their own pollen.

FERTILISATION OF SOME NORTH AUSTRALIAN PLANTS, 567

ScaEvota Kornrai, Vahl.

If a flower bud is cut open and examined the indusium will be
noticed in the shape of a cup with fringed edges, above the im-
mature anthers which, however, growing more rapidly than the
pistil, soon overtop the indusium and appear round it with the
pollen agglomerating into a mass which of its own weight falls
into the indusium, or is caught by it in its upward growth brush-
ing past the anthers. The sides of the indusium now contract and
flatten, and the indusium curves over the passage to the nectar,
and is in appearance just like a flat brush held over the passage,
and which, if brushed against by an insect, deposits pollen on its
back, the pollen being gradually pushed out to the fringing hairs
by the growing stigma. The stigma eventually grows through the
brushlike fringe, and is ready to take off pollen from the back of
insects visiting the flower. As in the case of Grevillea chrysoden-
dron the ancestral form of the order seems to have derived the
indusium with the deposited pollen for the purpose of insuring
self-fertilisation, if it failed to be fertilised by an insect visiting it
with pollen from another flower ; moreover the pollen also would
be safe from pilferers.

GOODENIA PURPURASCENS, R. Brown.

The description of the fertilisation of Scaevola Keenigii applies
perfectly to this species, with the exception that only the lower lip
of the indusium bears a fringe of hairs, and that the indusium is
concealed from view by two of the petals when the flower is open.

STyYLIDIUM.

I have been able to examine three or four unidentified species of
this curious genus. In all these the column bearing the stamens
and stigma is sensitive and curved back above the passage to the
nectary. The stamens appear first at the head of the column, and
later on the stigma takes their place. An insect, in proceeding
to the nectary, must touch against the lower part of the column,
which rapidly springs forward, and, with the upper portion bearing
either the stamens or stigma, strikes the insect on the back, at
the same time closing the passage to the nectary. The act of
striking the insect with the head of the column either leaves a
deposit of pollen on its back or else takes up what pollen it had
there from another flower, as the case may be, dependent upon the
organ that is in evidence at the time. After a short period the
column is gradually brought back to its original position, and, as
it were, the gun is ready cocked for another visitor. The process
is a beautiful one to watch and exact in its purpose, and, as in
the case of Goodenoviw, may have been evolved to save the

568 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

pollen from being misappropriated. I have not seen any species
of Levenhookia ; but from the description given in ‘“ Bentham’s
Flora,” should imagine that the insect, instead of being struck by
the column, is dashed against it by the sensitive labellum, and the
flower thus fertilised. In any case, the insect is to be pitied for
its rough reception.

Mimvuxius Uvepatia2, Bentham.

The stigma in this species is in the form of two flat plates
joined at the lower end, one plate hanging down over the passage
in the flower and in advance of the two pairs of anthers. This
plate is sensitive, and, touched ever so lightly, flies up and closes
against its fellow. An insect coming into the flower would brush
against the hanging stigmatic plate, which would sweep along the
insect’s back and close in the manner described. The insect, there-
fore, on leaving the flower with pollen on its back, could not
deposit any on the stigma ; while if it had any on its back on its
first entrance, the hanging stigmatic plate would have swept it
up and the flower been fertilised. After the lapse of a few
minutes the sensitive plate resumes its original hanging position
in the passage within the flower. Fertilisation by its own pollen,
therefore, becomes very improbable while cross-fertilisation is
favoured.

DoLICHANDRONE FILIFORMIS, Seemann.

The form of the flower and the disposition of the essential organs
is exactly that of AZimulus Uvedalie, described above, and cross-
fertilisation is favoured in the same way. ‘The stigmatic plate is,
however, not nearly so sensitive.

While on this subject I cannot refrain from departing from the
title of my paper, and noticing a few plants which are not Aus-
tralian. It would seem rather peculiar that two genera so widely
sundered by systematists, as Mimulus and Dolichandrone, should
both possess a stigma identical in form and also sensitive. The
sensitive stigma is, however, not limited to these genera. I have
examined a considerable number of species of the following genera,
viz. :—Martynia, Torenia, Tecoma, Bignonia, and Kigelia, and all
possess a more or less sensitive stigma, identical in shape and
position. The anthers are also placed in the same relative posi-
tion, and the form of the flower is the same,

I can conceive a plant losing one or more characteristics, and,
perhaps, acquiring others ; but for a great number of species to
acquire many identical characteristics I cannot deem possible. To
my mind, the only explanation possible is that the genera I have
mentioned, as well as Mimulus and Dolichandrone, derive the
sensitive stigma and other family features from an ancient

FLOWERS OF THE PROTEACES. 569

progenitor common to them all. I have no doubt that a large
number of allied genera, if examined, will be found to possess the
sensitive stigma, while others may have lost the sensitiveness,
retaining, however, other characteristics. MHemigraphis colorata
possesses features in common, but the stigma is altogether differ-
ently shaped, being composed of two narrow, thread-like pieces,
the lower being much longer than the upper. The position is the
same as in M/imulus, and, when touched, the lower piece curves up
out of the way, after taking up what pollen there may be on the
insect’s back.

No. 15.—PECULIARITIES OF THE FLOWERS OF THE
ORDER PROTEACE.

By Joun Surrzey, B.Sc.

(Read, Tuesday, January 11, 1898.)

In the “Flora Australiensis,” vol. v., p.316, speaking of peculiarities
in the stigmas of these flowers, Mr. Bentham says: ‘“ The diversi-
fied mode in which in different genera the conformation of this
style-end, and its relation to the anthers, promotes the dissemina-
tion of pollen, whilst it impedes self-fertilisation, upon which I
have drawn up a few notes for the Linnean Society, founded on
the examination of dried specimens, would be an interesting study
for local botanists who have the means of examining and watching
the plants living in their native stations.”

The paper to which Bentham refers was published with two
plates in the Journal of the Linnean Society, Botany, vol. xiii.,
pp. 58-64, and is entitled ‘“ Notes on the Styles of Australian
Proteacex.” It does not deal with the modes of fertilisation, the
protection against useless insect visitors, or the peculiarities of
the perianth ; and his remarks are limited to eight of the thirty-
three Australian genera.

Although fairly conversant with current Australian botanical
literature, with the exception of Bentham’s, I have not yet met
with any notes on the fertilisation of flowers of this interesting
family, and am therefore led to place on record the following
observations on Proteaceous flowers and their visitors.

Mr. Scott Elliot, author of “The Naturalist in Mid-Africa,” in
Annals of Botany, May, 1890, p. 274, quotes Protea incompta, P.

570 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

mellifera, P. lepidocarpon, P. longiflora, P. grandiflora, P. cordata,
and P. scolymus, with Leucospermum conocarpum, and L. nutans,
as fertilised by birds, naming Promerops caper, and Nectarinia
chalybea as the fertilising agents. In Annals of Botany, August,
1891, the same writer gives Leucadendron adscendens and Serruria
congesta, as fertilised by Apis mellifera and other hymenoptera.

The Proteace have their chief seats in Australia and South-
west Africa ; but extend on the one side to New Caledonia, the
Indian Archipelago, and through eastern tropical Asia to Japan;
on the other side to South America. They are specially adapted
for arid climates, where a short rainy season alternates with a long
rainless period. Their leaves are furnished with breathing pores
situated at the base of cavities in the lower surface of the leaf,
and over-arched by cuticular or epidermal structures. The sub-
stance of the leaf is very tough and dense, and there are brick-like
layers of corky tissue surrounding the cavities. The upper cuticle
is usually of two dense cellular layers, beneath which is a close
layer of palisade cells.

Since the Proteacez are inhabitants of desert regions, where in
long droughts even insects may be destroyed, they are frequently
furnished with a special pollen-storing apparatus, in order to effect
fertilisation and set their seed; and that this apparatus often fails
is seen in the few perfect fruits on Hakea and Macadamia bushes
which have borne masses of blossoms, and by there being seldom a
dozen fruits on a Banksia cone which carried a thousand perfect
flowers.

In this order the flowers have only one protective and attrac-
tive coat, a perianth, formed of four leaves; the anthers are
usually inserted in a sessile manner on the tips of the four petals,
or are very shortly stalked. The style is long, and the stigma
frequently remains hooked in the tips of the petals long after the
style has forced its way through the perianth. At this stage the
style looks like a single vase-like handle to the perianth from
which it has escaped. When the stigma is free the style
straightens itself with a springand becomes erect. The substance
of the style is exceedingly horny and elastic, especially in Banksia.
The stamens ripen before the petals separate, and when the stigma
is freed its under edges are covered with pollen. Naturally one
would expect that self-fertilisation was the rule in Proteacex, but
such is not the case. These flowers are protandrous, the stamens
ripening first, and the stigma is not only immature when its com-
panion stamens dehisce, but also when it rises erect covered with
pollen, and for some time afterwards.

At the base of the ovary, or of the stalk on which it is sup-
ported, there are nectaries, consisting of annular, lunar, or wart-
like glands; these play an important part in the life-history of

FLOWERS OF THE PROTEACE. 571

the plants in attracting suitable insect guests, and in preventing
others from visiting undesirable spots, or in guiding insects along
. such tracks only as will best serve to promote fertilisation.

The reason why one species requires an annular nectary shutting
the sexual organs off from insects crawling from below, while others
possess an opening through the nectary, deserves further study.

The genera of this order divide naturally into two sections ; in
the first section are included all those plants in which the style is
much longer than the perianth, and is consequently much pro-
truded ; to this section belong Banksia, Hakea, Grevillea, and others;
in the second section the style is not muchlonger than the perianth,
and almost wholly covered by it when the perianth has expanded,
as in Persoonia, Conospermum, and Synaphea.

As an example of the long-styled orders, Grevillea may be
taken. The flowers of the beef-woods are usually long, narrow,
and irregular. The style usually protrudes by its middle from a
slit in the perianth, its end being held fast, in the middle of the
anthers, by the still coherent tips of the perianth lobes; but at
this stage the stigma is immature. When the style-end is freed
it rises covered with viscid masses of pollen. These masses
gradually dry and fall away, or are brushed from the style-end by
visitors—either birds or insects. If examined at this stage the
style is found to be without a canal for pollen tubes, and there is
no stigmatic tissue at its tip. An examination of transverse
sections of the base of the style shows that the cavity of the style
first develops there, and that its inner surface is clothed with cells
resembling those of stigmatic tissue. This tube is gradually
developed from the base upwards, and when it reaches the style-
end, then, and then only, is a true stigma formed, and the flower
becomes capable of fertilisation.

Although the structure of the style of Proteaceous plants has
much in common with that of normal forms, the tip, before the
growth of the style canal is completed, is lined within with peculiar,
large, thick-walled, dotted cells, probably a nutritive tissue absorbed
by the lining tissue of the style-tube, and whose functions are
worth further investigation.

In a spike of Grevillea flowers the lowest have styles with a
true stigmatic surface. The central ones have immature styles
coated with pollen. The apical ones are still hooked in the
perianths, and, where the style-end is adherent to the petals, are
clothed round the line of attachment with a copious supply of
honey. Parrots and honey-eaters frequent the plants at this and
earlier stages, clinging below the flowers, and reaching to the apex
of the inflorescence where most honey lies. In doing so they
brush the pollen from the central flowers on their feathers, and,
visiting the next branch, attach the grains to the lower stigmas of
the next inflorescence, thus fertilising them.

572 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Asan example of the short-styled genera we may take Persoonia.
Plants of this section are commonly known as “ geebungs.” The
perianth is usually of four equal segments, and the stamens are
on short filaments. At the base of the ovaries are four glandular
nectaries. These glands persist after the petals have fallen, and
are often visited by ants, which ascend the stems from below ;
but they seldom advance beyond the nectaries. These organs,
therefore, act as barriers to useless insects, by furnishing them
with food before they reach the sexual organs.

From above, these flowers are visited by species of Diptera,
Hymenoptera, and Lepidoptera, and the whole of this section is
entomophilous. Before the perianth lobes fall away they act as
landing stages for flying insects. These visitors then become
sprinkled with pollen from the shortly-stalked anthers. The next
flower visited may have lost its petals, but the nectaries are still
exuding honey, and the flowers, therefore, are still attractive to
insects. The pollen-sprinkled visitor finds no petal platform to
rest upon. Its only landing-stage is the style, and this is now in
a receptive stage, and fertilisation is readily effected.

No. 16.—QUESTIONS CONCERNING THE TEMPERA-
TURE OF PLANTS.

By W. Souter.
(Read Tuesday, January 11, 1898. )
[ Abstract. |

RESPIRATION exists among all plants, although it is much more
pronounced among young vigorous growing ones than those that
are full-grown and matured. Plants respire, consequently they
generate heat. The respiration in plants, as in animals, is caused
by an absorption of oxygen and a combination of that gas with
the tissues of the plant by which heat is produced. A series of
experiments of a most minute nature has proved that a close
correlation exists between the amount of oxygen supplied and the
amount of heat generated. If oxygen be entirely withheld from

THE TEMPERATURE OF PLANTS. 573

a flower, by placing it in inert gas from which all oxygen has been
expelled, its temperature will fall to that of the surrounding
atmosphere.

Among the many plants which I have experimented with, that
which yielded, amongst others, very marked data is the bamboo
(Bambusa arundinacea) the part of this plant experimented with
being the young growing shoots. As is well known this plant
grows with startling rapidity during the growing season. Let
me for a moment say that I have for years tested, with mathe-
matical precision, a twenty-four hours’ growth of Bambusa, and on
thirty-seven occasions found that during a period of twenty-four
hours an upright growth of over 19 inches ; on sixty-nine occasions
over 14 inches; and 111 occasions over 12 inches. In 1893 the
record growth in twenty-four hours was 25 inches. This was sub-
sequent to a very heavy thunder-shower which was accompanied
by an intensely high temperature of the air. The experiments
carried out with the temperature of the bamboo was as
follows :—

Max. dry bulb) : : | Min. inserted | yin. inserted
ermslon Max. wet bulb. Max. inserted.|Min. External.| in Sone imloldinood:
|
89:0 80°1 90:2 72°4 owe 2S
83°5 80°6 91:0 751 78:8 755
87°6 79°8 89°9 fo | 78:0 75'8
87:2 81-1 99-0 76:1 79°1 76°6
86°6 $10 89:4 70) 788 72°0
8d°8 76°5 89°3 72°8 75'8 diel

The foregoing six readings are given to illustrate the fluctua-
tion of the records. It must, however, be remembered that the
readings of the wet bulbs and those inserted being practically
under the same conditions, the comparison is of the most value.
So much for the bamboo. Let us now turn toa plant of a very
different structure, viz., J/wsa (banana), of which a six days’
readings (consecutive) are given :

Max. in shade,|Min. in Shade,| Max. Wet, Min. Wet, | Max., inserted) Min., inserted

External ea een (dry).| External. External. in Stem. in Stem.
86°4 781 77:0 76°3 80:0 ie
85-5 70:0 80:1 68'4 84:2 79-4
871 69°3 84°4 61°5 88°8 66:2
87:2 69°3 65:3 65:0 90-0 751
88-0 66°1 79'8 65°1 89°6 74:1
85°5 64-4 86°6 63°8 90°0 Ta4

574 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

We shall now turn attention for a moment to consider the
conditions obtaining in a fruit, the subject selected being a pump-
kin. Absolute shade was the condition under which the experiment
was conducted. A thermometer attached to the surface of the
fruit gave readings as follow on six consecutive days :—

Max. Dry. Max. Wet. | Min. Dry. | Min. Wet. | Max. inserted.| Min. inserted.
85°3 784 70°0 68°3 §6°1 76°3
84°4 796 69°3 63:1 85°3 76:0
81°6 79:0 69°0 65:2 83:2 Ue
83:2 74°6 67°5 64°6 85°1 69°1
84°1 el 66:1 63°2 86:1 68:0
80:2 784 68°3 64°0 81:2 66°6

External, Internal or Inserted.

Flowers of plants exhibit the presence of considerable heat.
These, of course, no doubt vary considerably in degrees according
to size and substances. The flower experimented with by the
writer was that of the night flowering Cactus (Cereus grandifiora).
The tests were carried out during the night. A thermometer
inserted into the unexpanded flower-bud gave a reading of 76'8
degrees Fah. as against 65-9 degrees Fah. of the surrounding
atmosphere; this reading was taken at 6 p.m. A thermometer
inserted at the base of an expanded flower, gave a reading of 77:3
degrees Fah., and 75-8 degrees Fah. ; these records were taken at
11 p.m., and 5 a.m., respectively. At the same hours the atmos-
pheric readings were 66:6 degrees Fah., and 66-0 degrees Fah.

Another subject which possesses a great amount of interest, is
that of the generation of heat by germinating seeds, the subject
selected was a cocoanut. Two nuts were selected and put into a dry
box, without soil, and placed in a room; into one of the nuts was
inserted a thermometer, while another was laid on the nuts. For
ten days the readings were regularly taken, with the result that
the inserted thermometer consistently registered 6°3 degrees Fah.
lower than that of the surrounding atmosphere ; on the eleventh
day the nuts were removed and placed in moist soil, and good
germinating conditions supplied, absolute shade being afforded.
A thermometer was inserted in the soil alongside the nuts; one
was also inserted in one of the nuts, and another suspended imme-
diately over the nuts. For the first eighteen days there was no
perceptible rise in the temperature of the nuts, the heat fluctu-
ating between 47-7 and 49-9 degrees Fah., with an atmospheric
reading of from 68:0 to 75:0 degrees Fah. On the nineteenth
day there was a visible rise of temperature of the nut, which con-
tinued to gradually rise for the next twenty-eight days, when the

THE TEMPERATURE OF PLANTS. 575

experiment was abandoned. The following are the maximum
readings of the three thermometers for the period mentioned.

Day. Soil. Nut. eee Day. Soil. Nut. aes
Fah. Fah. Fah. Fah. Fah. Fah.
19 50:2 50°9 70:2 33 54°] 62°0 76°4
20 50'2 50°9 68:0 34 54:1 63°6 (BSA
21 50°3 51°4 69°8 35 54°6 65°1 W714
22 51:0 51°8 FUE 36 54°1 66°5 71:9
23 51°1 Vee 69°4 37 54°1 69°1 70°1
24 51°4 52°8 74:1 38 54°6 71°4 75°3
25 51°4 53°7 74°4 39 54°7 73:0 se
26 52°0 54°4 68°8 40 54°9 76°1 Took
27 S221 56°0 Ziel 4] 54°9 Nez 71:0
28 52°6 56°9 76°6 42 55°4 Hers How
29 53°3 580 76°0 43 56°4 79'8 72°6
30 53°3 58°6 74:4 44 56'1 81:0 74:4
31 53°6 59°7 70°3 45 56°6 81°6 70°1
32 54°0 60°6 79:0 46 56°6 83°0 70°6

It is to be regretted that the experiment ended here, but cireum-
stances prevented further investigation at that time. Numerous
other interesting data could be given which might be worth
recording, but enough has been said to induce some one to still
further carry out experiments with regard to the generaticn of
heat in plants. Science has recently offered to investigators
“Electro thermo. needles,” which should be of immense assistance
in determining temperatures much more minutely. The instru-
ments used by the writer in his researches were, in several instances,
very inferior to those now procurable. Still the data secured are,
in the main, reliable, as the instruments used were tested by a
Kew standard thermometer, and corrected accordingly.

No. 17.—ON THE GROWTH OF VEGETAL GALLS.
By W. W. Froaeart.

(Read Saturday, January 8, 1898.)

576 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

ZOOLOGICAL PAPERS.

THE PROPOSED BIOLOGICAL STATION AND FISH
HATCHERY NEAR DUNEDIN, NEW ZEALAND.

Letter from Mr. G. M. Tuomson to Caprain Herron,
(Read Tuesday, January 11, 1898.)

Dunedin, 3lst December, 1897.
Dear Captain Hutton,

Tt will, no doubt, interest the members of the Australasian
Association for the Advancement of Science, and especially its
Biological Section, to hear an account of the steps which have been
taken in Dunedin to establish a Marine Fish Hatchery and Bio-
logical Station. I had hoped to make this communication in
person, but have not been able to get away to attend the meeting
in Sydney. However, I have much pleasure in making the facts
known through you.

The question was first mooted by me in a paper read before the
Otago Institute, on 8th October, 1895, entitled “On New Zealand
Fisheries and the desirability of introducing new species of Sea-
fish,” in which the suggestion was made that, before any further
legislation was proceeded with in connection with the fisheries of
the colony, systematic observation on the habits and life-histories
of the local species of fish was needed. In order to accomplish
this, I suggested the establishment of a Marine Biological Station,
which could further be utilised as a hatchery for such species of
valuable fishes as it might seem desirable to introduce from other
parts of the world. Correspondence with Dr. Fulton, of the Scotch
Fishery Board, led us to believe that it might be possible to intro-
duce either live fish or ova from a distance. The Otago Institute
was sufficiently impressed with the apparent feasibility of the plan
to appoint a Committee to look into the question during the sum-
mer of 1895-96, and especially to examine and report on Otago
Harbour and its neighbourhood as to its suitability for such an
establishment. The Committee reported, in May of the following
year, that a most suitable site was obtainable at the entrance to

BIOLOGICAL STATION AND FISH HATCHERY. De

Purakanui Inlet, about 12 miles north of Dunelin. The reasons
given were as follows :—

(1) Its ready accessibility from Port Chalmers, so that a
small steamer could run round in little over an hour,
while on the land side it is within three miles of a rail-
way-Station.

(2) Its sheltered position, so that, from whatever quarter the
wind blows, the buildings would be safe from any sea,
while at the same time a smal! steamer could lie close in
to the entrance and be communicated with by boats.

(3) The firm and rocky nature of the ground which would
greatly facilitate the erection of tanks, buildings, «ec.

(4) The abundance of pure sea-water which would always be
available.

(5) The fact that the inlet communicates with a wide bay—
Blueskin Bay—into which, owing toa sort of eddy, great
quantities of pelagic organisms are floated by the pre-
valent winds and currents, so that it constitutes an
excellent feeding-ground for young fish.

(6) The occurrence of a current which flows up the coast in a
north-easterly direction, at an average rate of about 1}
miles an hour, by which any fry liberated at Purakanui
would tend to be distributed along the coast. This last
point is important in a colonial point of view, for any
fry set free in Otago waters would soon spread north-
wards ; whereas, if they were liberated in the north, say,
at Cook Strait, they would not readily, if at all, move
southwards. From Purakanui, it would be a matter of
simplicity to convey fish or fry to Foveaux Straits, or to
Stewart Island.

The Institute adopted the report, reappointed the committee,
and authorised me to communicate further with Dr. Fulton as to
the possibility of retarding the development of fish ova for such a
length of time as would enable them to be brought out to New
Zealand without impairing their vitality. As an outcome of this.
correspondence, the Council of the Institute voted a small sum of
money to recoup the cost of a series of experiments to be carried
out by the Scotch Fishery Board, at their Dunbar Station, on this
problem, during the summer of this present year. I hope soon to
hear that these have resulted satisfactorily. Meanwhile, the ques-
tion was kept before the public and the local members of Parlia-
ment, and at the beginning of this year the Council of the Otago
Institute, and the Committee of the Otago Acclimatisation Society,
each voted the sum of £250, conditional on the Government
granting £500 for the work, and undertaking to carry on the

20

578 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

station for afew years. Within the last few days I have learned
that Parliament has voted the sum asked for, and we, therefore,
hope soon to be in a position to commence the erection of the
necessary buildings,

What we propose to do as soon as these are ready is to com-
mence observations on our local fish fauna, as well as on the
hydrographical conditions which prevail here, and with regard to
which there is no information at present available. Then should
the result of the experiments at Dunbar prove encouraging, we
hope, in 1899, to commence the introduction either of individuals
or ova of the Turbot and the Cod (Gadus morrhua), and, if possible,
of the home Herring. Specimens of the true Lobster (Homarus)
were liberated some few years ago at the mole at the mouth of the
Otago Harbour, but it is extremely doubtful whether the locality
was suitable, and no evidence has yet transpired as to the success
or otherwise of the experiment. But there is no difficulty, beyond
that of expense, in bringing out more of these valuable crustaceans,
and if they were kept in confinement in suitable enclosures, the
chances of their fry being liberated, and successfully distributed,
would be much increased. The same remark applies to the edible
Crab of Britain, which we also intend to experiment with,

I hope that at the next meeting of the Association it will be
possible to present a report of the work done at the Purakanui
Fish Hatchery, and, meanwhile, we would be glad of the sympathy
and co-operation of the Association.

I remain, «c.,

GEO. M. THOMSON.

No. 1.—NESTS AND EGGS OF THE HONEY-EATERS
OR MELIPHAGOUS BIRDS OF AUSTRALIA.

By A. J. CAMPBELL.
(Read Saturday, January 8, 1898.)

ENCOURAGED by the appreciation of my former articles ‘‘ Eggs of
the Australian Breeders of the Plovers, Sandpipers, &e.,” and
“Nests and Eggs of the Australian Diurnal Birds of Prey,” I
have ventured to give, at the Sydney meeting of the Congress, a
complete treatise on ‘‘The Nests and Eggs of the Australian
Meliphagide, or Honey-eaters”—-a family of birds numerous,

NESTS AND EGGS OF HONEY-EATERS. 579

. varied, and perhaps the most attractive of the Australian avifauna.
I have followed the classification and nomenclature of the British
Museum, omitting the genus Zosterops.

MyzomMELA SANGUINOLENTA, Latham.
‘Blood Honey-eater.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 63.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 131.

Previous Descriptions of Eqggs.—Ramsay—lIbis, vol. i, new ser,
(1865) ; Campbell, Southern Science Record (1883).

Geographical Distribution.—Queensland, New South Wales,
and Victoria,

Nest.—Cup-shaped, small, neat ; somewhat scantily constructed
of strings of bark without any other lining ; usually suspended in
a bush or among the topmost branches of a Melaleuca. Interior
dimensions, 1} inches across by 1 inch deep.

L£ggs.—Clutch, 2-3 ; roundish in shape; texture very fine ; sur-
face slightly glossy ; colour, warm or pearly white, marked chiefly
about the apex with blotches and spots of dull chestnut and grey.
Dimensions in parts of an inch of a clutch (1) ‘64 x -49; (2)
Ohx 47.

Observations. —This small and bright blood-coloured Honey-eater
has an eastern habitat, ranging almost from Cape York down to
Eastern Victoria.

In Northern Queensland my companions and I enjoyed watch-
ing scores of these beautiful little birds, with shining scarlet head
and neck, disporting themselves and feeding among the Melaleuca
blossoms, especially on dewy mornings. We did not succeed in
finding a nest.

However, I was indebted to Dr. E. P. Ramsay for a pair of
eggs, and his description of the nest I have used. Dr. Ramsay
observes that the Sanguineous Honey-eater arrives in the neigh-
bourhood of Sydney during the months of October and November,
remaining to breed during November and December, and as late
as January.

The first Blood Honey-eaters noticed in Victoria, which are in
the National Museum, Melbourne, were shot by Mr. C. J. Stafford
in Gippsland. By way, I may mention that Mr. Stafford was a
mate of the late Mr. H. W. Wheelwright (“Old Bushman”), who
wrote ‘‘ Bush Wanderings of a Naturalist.”

Mr. F. Hutchinson sent to the Australasian oftice for identifica-
tion a sketch of a pair of Blood Honey-eaters, which were observed
feeding among the blossoms in his garden, Alexandra, Victoria,
22nd September, 1896. The beautiful birds were interesting
visitors indeed, being so far out of their usual track, and so early
in the season.

580 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

MyzZoMELA ERYTHROCEPHALA, Gould.
‘“*Red-headed Honey-eater.”

Tigures.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 64.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 133.

Geographical Distribution.—Northern Territory, North Queens-
land, also New Guinea and Aru Islands.

Nest and Hqgs.— Unknown.

Observations.—This beautiful and active little Honey-eater is
found in Northern Australia, where it seems to be exclusively
confined to the extensive beds of mangroves bordering the inlets
of the sea, as we learn from Gilbert.

Myzometa nicra, Gould.
‘** Black Honey-eater.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 66.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 138.

Previous Descriptions of Eggs.—Gould, Bds. of Austr. (1848),
also Hdbk., vol. i, p. 558 (1865). Ramsay, P.L.8.N.8.W., vol. i,
2nd ser., p. 1151 (1886).

Geographical Distribution.—Northern Territory, Queensland
(probably), New South Wales, Victoria, South and West Australia.

Nest.—Cup-shaped, oval, shallow ; composed of dried grasses,
fine shreds of bark, &e. ; usually placed in an exposed situation in
the forked branches of a bush or tree (Gilbert).

Eggs.—Clutch, 2; roundish or round oval in shape, sligtitly
pointed at one end; texture fine; surface slightly glossy ; colour,
delicate salmon-pink or flesh tint, blotched and spotted chiefly
round the apex with reddish-brown or chestnut and dull or light
purple. Dimensions ofa clutch in parts of an inch—(1) 67 x 54;
(2) 67 x ‘53.

Observations. —The range of the splendid little Black Honey-
eater extends across the southern part of Australia, Gould having
found it on the plains of the Namoi, while Gilbert met the pets
amongst the Myalls (dcac ia) in Western Australia.

The interesting species would, however, appear to be more
peculiar to inland parts. In October, 1884, I met the Black
Honey-eater in the Bull-oak (Caswarina) belts of timber that
intersect the Mallee country in the Wimmera district, Victoria,
The prettily-contrasted black and white plumage of the male
agreeably harmonised with the surroundings. The flight of the bird
at times is peculiar, being spasmodic rises and falls. On each
downward motion a tremulously plaintive note is uttered. I was
convinced by the actions of several pairs of birds that they were
breeding in the vicinity ; but my perseverance, which extended
over several days, failed to discover a nest, although good Gilbert
told us their nests were usually placed in most conspicuous situa-
tions. One he found in Western Australia was in a fork at the

NESTS AND EGGS OF HONEY-EATERS. 581

top of a small scrubby bush, not sheltered even by a bough or leaf,
while a second one was on the dead branch of a fallen tree, ina |
similarly exposed situation.

Mr. Chas. French, junr., on learning of my desideratum, at once
kindly placed a pair of eggs, together with a skin of one of the
parents (the male), at my service. All were secured in the
Wimmera district, 15th September, 1896.

The late Mr. K. H. Bennett informed Dr. Ramsay that he had
found the Black Honey-eater plentiful near Mossgiel, N.S.W.,
feeding among the Sandal-wood (Myoporum) trees. Mr. Bennett
succeeded in finding a nest with two eggs, but no data are given.

During the progress of the unfortunate Calvert Exploration Ex-
pedition, 1896, it is recorded that on the 2nd October the deceased
explorer, Mr. C. F. Wells, shortly before he perished in the “lurid
waste-lands, pent in silence, thick with hot and thirsty sighs,”
found a nest of the Black Honey-eater, which flushed from a Ti-tree
(Melaleuca) bush as he passed. The nest and its single egg were
left at the abandoned depot in the desert.

Breeding months, September or October to December.

MyzomMELA PECTORALIS, Gould.
‘ Banded Honey-eater.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 65.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 138.

Geographical Distribution.—North-west Australia, Northern
Territory, and North Queensland.

Nest and Eggs.— Unknown.

Observations.—‘‘ The present interesting bird,” writes Gould,
“was forwarded to me by Bynoe, as having been shot by him on the
north coast, but to my regret it was unaccompanied by any infor-
mation whatever respecting its habits.” Nor has any information
regarding the species been obtained up to the present time except-
ing Mr. G. A. Keartland’s north-west remarks made during the
ill-fated Calvert Exploration Expedition, 1896-7. Hesays, “ At
the well near our camp on the telegraph-line near the Fitzroy
River these pretty little birds were occasionally seen and specimens
obtained. They were also found in considerable numbers at Derby
in May, where the blossom afforded them an abundant supply of
food. Though the adult males are decidedly black and white,
several of those shot appeared to be immature, and had old brown
feathers dispersed through the black. I have reason to believe
that the young birds of both sexes are plain dark-brown above and
pale-brown or dirty-white beneath. What appeared to be adult
females corresponded in plumage to the young ones. A deserted
nest of this species bore a strong resemblance to that of M. nigra,
but was lined with a few bits of horse-hair.”

582 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Myzometa opscura, Gould.
‘‘ Dusky Honey-eater.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 67.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 143.

Previous Descriptions of Eggs.—Le Souéf. Ibis, p. 313 (1896).

Geographical Distribution.—Northern Territory and Queens-
Jand, also New Guinea.

Nest.—Cup-shaped, small, frail ; composed of fine br Seria:
rootlets ; inside lined with ‘long hair. Dimensions over all, 2?
inches by 2 inches in depth; egg cavity, 14 inches across by
13 inches deep.

Eggs.—Clutch, 2 usually ; oval, compressed at one end ; texture

fine ; surface slightly glossy ; colour warm-white, spotted chiefly
round the upper quarter with reddish-brown or chestnut and
purplish-grey. Dimensions of a clutch in parts of an inch—(1)
“*665x °D 5 (2) “62x 0:
i -eater would also
appear to be an obscure species. It is confined to Northern Australia.
The 13th August, 1885, on Hinchinbrook Island Northern
Queensland, I found a nest of this species being built in the man-
groves, but, unfortunately, I had to leave that interesting collect-
ing ground before the nest was completed.

Mr. Dudley Le Souéf states a nest of the Dusky Honey-eater
was found on 23rd October, 1893, during his visit to Mr. Hislop,
Bloomfield River district. The nest was well shaded by foliage
near the top of an Ironwood (Eucalypt) tree about 30 feet from the
ground. One of the parents was secured.

Another nest containing two eggs was taken by Mr. R. Hislop,
17th October, 1895.

ACANTHORHYNCHUS TENUIROSTRIS, Latham.
“ Spine-bill.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 61.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 149.

Previous Descriptions of Eggs.—Gould, Bds. of Austr. (1848),
also Hdbk., vol. i, p. 552 (1885). North, Cat. Nests and Eggs,
Austno. Mus., p. 220 (1889).

Geographical Distribution.—Queensland, New South Wales,
Victoria, South Australia, Tasmania, King Island, and Furneaux
Group.

Nest.—Cup-shaped, small, deep ; composed outwardly of moss
chiefly and bark; inside lined with grass, finished off warmly with
feathers ; usually placed in a thick bush such as Prickly Acacia or
among the close branchlets of a Banksia, Exocarpus, or near the
top of a ti-tree (Melaleuca). Dimensions over all 34 inches by 2
inches in depth; egg cavity 1} inches across by 1} inches deep.

NESTS AND EGGS OF HONEY-EATERS. 583

Eqggs.—Clutch 2-3 ; somewhat lengthened in form; texture
fine ; surface slightly glossy ; colour pale buff, delicately spotted,
especially about the apex, with chestnut and obscure purplish-
grey. Dimensions of a clutch in parts of an inch—(1) ‘75 x ‘57;
(2) ‘74 x ‘55.

A set from Tasmania are larger, rounder, and the markings of
a richer brown, the ground colour being also a darker shade on
the apex ; (1) °72 x ‘53; (2) -72 x °53; (3) ‘72 x °52.

Observations.—This ruby-eyed, slender-billed Honey-eater enjoys
chiefly a southern habitat. It is an intensely interesting and
familiarly known bird in our gardens, where it may often be heard
repeating faster and faster its single high-pitched note, and where
the bird appreciates the nectar of the Fuchsia bells just as well
as the sweets from tubular blooms of Epacris growing in native
heath-like tracts.

Not much is known of the breeding economy of the little Spine-
bill, consequently their eggs are deemed rare. Except one nest
containing young found many years ago at Toorak, near Melbourne,
I was unable to observe this Spine-bill’s nest in the open till one
day (20/11/96), when Mr. G. E, Shepherd, my son, and myself
were exploring an enchanting gully near Somerville. Here we
discovered in the space of about half a mile three nests—two
building, and one with eggs. One nest was prettily ensconced in
a bunch of flowering Clematis at the top of a Ti-tree (d/elaleuca).
This nest was subsequently revisited by Mr. Shepherd, who found
in it an egg of the Spine-bill, together with the much larger egg of
the Pallid Cuckoo (C. pallidus). The Spine-bills sometimes build
near the flowering Mistletoes (Loranthus), upon which they feed.

Ornithologists are divided whether the Tasmanian Spine-bill
should be separated from the mainland species or not. However,
as Gould pointed out, although very nearly allied, there is a differ-
ence in the two birds, the Tasmanian variety being distinguished
by its smaller size (which is the reverse of the general rule as
regards the insular representatives of the mainland species) and
by the much deeper colouring of the crescent-shaped markings on
the neck, also of the brown on the abdomen.

The nests found by Gould, both in Tasmania and on the main-
land, were built in low shrubs a few feet from the ground, mostly
in a species of Leptospermum.

The following is a description of a Tasmanian nest :—Cup-
shaped, deep ; composed of wool chiefly, grass, and moss; inside
lined with feathers. Dimensions over all about 3 inches by 24
inches in depth ; egg cavity 2 inches across by 1? inches deep.
Mr. A. E. Brent has usually found them in a bushy shrub, such
as Mimosa ‘‘ Box” or Wattle-trees. He has also found the unusual
complement of four eggs in a Spine-bill’s nest. He also recollects
taking a Tasmanian Spine-bill’s nest with three eggs, and within

584 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

three weeks the bird had rebuilt the old nest twice in another
position in the same tree, laying each time another set of three
eggs. ‘The curious part of the affair was that the succeeding sets
were much lighter in colour, the last being almost white, with a
few faint spots. Here may be a hint on egg-colouration, in which
it appears that in eggs produced frequently and rapidly the colour
pales out.

Breeding season, August or September to January ; the chief
months, both in Tasmania and on the mainland, being October to
December.

ACANTHORHYNCHUS SUPERCILIOSUS, Gould.
“‘ White-browed Spine-bill.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 62.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 145.

Previous Descriptions of Eggs.—Gould, Bds. of Austr. (1848) ;
also, Hdbk., vol. 1, p. 554 (1865).

Geographical Distribution.—South and West Australia.

Nest.—Cup shaped, neat, compact, round ; composed chiefly of
rootlets enveloped with strips of bark matted with spider’s web ;
inside lined with the dark red downy substance of Banksia cones
or with Zamia wool, fur, &c. ; usually placed in a bush or low
tree such asa Banksia. Dimensions over all 2} inches by 2 inches
in depth ; egg cavity 1} inches by 1} inches deep.

L£qgs.—Clutch, 1-2; lengthened in form; texture fine; on
surface faint trace of gloss; colour pale buff or soft pinkish-white,
darker on the apex, finely spotted, more particularly on the apex,
with chestnut and dull purplish-brown. Dimensions of single
examples in parts of an inch—(1) ‘78 x ‘52; (2) 75 x ‘53.

Observations.—There is no mistaking the fine, little western
Spine-bill, with its white eyebrows. Mr. Wm. White, of South
Australia, informs me he has identified this species as far eastward
as Kangaroo Island, where he took several nests. Therefore it is
on his authority that I have given South Australia as a habitat of
the bird.

Gould has described .- detail the nest, stating that the eggs are
two in number. Possibly that may be the number laid at the
height of the breeding season ; but at the beginning of the season
I found one only. On the lst October, 1889, at King George’s
Sound, I discovered two nests of the White-browed Spine-bill
building, and watched them carefully. A single egg each was the
result. Another nest I found had also a single egg, slightly
incubated ; while a fourth nest, found on the 7th, contained one
young bird. Three nests out of the four were situated on a small
prickly-leafed variety of Banksia at a height varying from 5 to
8 feet from the ground.

NESTS AND EGGS OF HONEY-EATERS. 585

I often watched the birds with merry chirrup chasing each
other round the trees ; the noise of their wings as they flew past
me made quite an audible sharp “ purrt, purrt, purrt ” sound.

Breeding months probably include September to December.

MELITHREPTUS LUNULATUS, Shaw.
“ White-naped Honey-eater.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 72.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 204.

Previous Descriptions of Eggs.—Gould, Bds. of Austr. (1848),
also Hdbk., vol. i, p. 568 (1865). North, Cat. Nests and Eggs
Austn. Mus., p. 227 (1889).

Geographical Distribution.—South Queensland, N. 8. Wales,
Victoria, South Australia, and Kent Group (Bass Straits).

Nest.—Cup-shaped, small, but long or deep; composed of soft
shreds of bark, matted outwardly with cotton-like substance,
cocoons, portions of moss, grass, &c.; inside lined with mixture of
soft vegetable matter such as rootlets, small leaves, &c., in other
instances chiefly with soft reddish-coloured bark, and sometimes
with fur or hair; usually situated at a good height from the ground,
suspended in a swaying branch of a Eucalypt or among the top-
most branches of a tall sapling. Dimensions over all 24 inches
by 2-3 inches in depth; egg cavity 1} inches across by 14-1? inches
deep.

£ggs.—Clutch, 2-3 ; oval, compressed towards one end; texture
fine ; faint trace of gloss on surface ; colour delicate or pale buff,
marked chiefly round the apex with reddish-brown or chestnut and
dull grey. Dimensions of a clutch in parts of an inch:-—(1) ‘76
cols (2)-76. x “51; (2)n ieee

Observations.—This species of Honey-eater is a delightful and
familiar little creature, and its plaintive half-whistling, half-hissing
note is well known when heard amongst the “forest rafters.” It
is a pretty sight to see the birds clinging to and feeding amongst
a cluster of flowering Loranthus (Mistletoe).

The habitat of the Lunulated or White-naped Honey-eater is
very extensive, extending from Southern Queensland round to
South Australia. It is interesting to note that this Honey-eater
was found on Kent Group, Bass Straits, by the expedition of the
Field Naturalists’ Club of Victoria, November, 1890.

Within its usual boundaries the bird is fairly plentiful. I
recollect there was something akin to an irruption of this bird
once in the vicinity of Melbourne, notably in gardens at Windsor.
It occurred about the season 1866, when I remember particularly
the so-called Cape Wattles (but really a south-west Australian
variety of Acacia or Albizzia, from whence it was introduced
into Victoria by the late Baron von Miller) being crowded with

586 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

birds feeding amongst the flowers. As boys, we had no difficulty
in “shanghaing” as many as we wanted, and that was so long as
the poor birds remained in the trees to be aimed at.

The nest of the Lunulated Honey-eater is not only difficult to
get on account of the height at which it is usually built, but because
the clever little bird often swings it at the end of aslender bough.
However, I once found a beautiful nest suspended almost within
reach in the overhanging branch of Black Wattle (Acacia).

Mr. CG. C. Brittlebank tells me when he wishes to take one of
these nests in a difficult position he always selects a windy day for
the purpose, then chops the bough containing the nest off. The
poor bird remains closely to its charge, supposing, no doubt, that
the elements are merely a trifle more boisterous than usual. The
coveted prize is safe, and within reach before the dear, deluded
bird realises the position of affairs, when it somewhat hurriedly
leaves its cosy nest and delicate flesh-tinted eggs to the cause—
well, let us say—of science.

Gould found examples of the Lunulated Honey-eater breeding in
a state of plumage which he believed to be characteristic of youth.
It is just possible that Gould mistook JZ. brevirostris for the young
of MW. lunulatus.

There are eggs of the Lunulated or White-naped Honey-eater
in the Dobroyde Collection, taken as early (in a double sense) as
June, 1859, and July, 1861, respectively. Mr. Brittlebank has
taken them as late as the 14th*, 18th, and 27th January respec-
tively, therefore the extreme limits of the breeding season may
be stated as from June to January, the chief months being
September to November.

The Pallid Cuckoo is very partial to the nest of this little
Honey-eater as a receptacle for its egg.

MELITHREPTUS CHLOROPSIS, Gould.
“ Western White-naped Honey-eater.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 73.

Reference.

Previous Descriptions of Eggs.—Gould, Bds. of Australia (1848),
also, Hdbk., vol. i, p. 571 (1865).

Geographical Distribution.—West Australia.

Nest.— Usually suspended from small branches near the top of
gum-trees (Hucalypts), where the foliage is thickest, which renders
it difficult to detect. A nest found by Gilbert in October was
formed of sheep’s wool and small twigs ; another found by him in
November was attached to a small myrtle-like tree in a thick gum
forest, not more than 3 feet from the ground (Gould),

* This nest was lined with white flowers,

NESTS AND EGGS OF HONEY-EATERS. 587

L£ggs.—Clutch 2-3 ; deep reddish-buff, thinly spotted all over,
but particularly at the larger end, with dark reddish-brown, some
of the spots being indistinct, while others are very conspicuous.
Dimensions 9} lines (‘79 inch) by 6 lines (‘5 inch)—(Gould).

Observations.—This western J/elithreptus is closely allied to JM.
lunulatus ; some authorities say they are identical, but, as Gould
points out, it differs from the eastern bird in being larger and
having the naked space above the eye greenish-white instead of
scarlet.

During my own explorations in western woods I expected ta
take the eggs. However, I only saw the birds building a nest,
which I could not obtain. It was then the beginning of October.

Breeding season, possibly from August to December.

MELITHREPTUS ALBOGULARIS, Gould.
“ White-throated Honey-eater.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 74.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 205.

Previous Descriptions of Eggs.—Gould, Bds. of Austr. (1848),
also Hdbk., vol. i, p. 572 (1865).

Geographical Distribution.—North-west Australia, Northern
Territory and Queensland, also New Guinea.

West.—Always suspended to a drooping branch, which swings
about with every gust of wind ; is formed of dried, narrow strips
of soft bark of the Melaleuca (Gilbert-Gould).

Eggs.—Clutch, 2 usually ; light salmon-colour, blotched and
freckled with reddish-brown. Dimensions, 9 lines (‘75 inch) x 6
lines (‘5 inch), (Gilbert-Gould).

Observations.—The White-throated Honey-eater is the northern
representative or sub-species of the Lunulated or White-naped bird
coalescing with each other in southern Queensland. Gilbert found
the white-throated species abundant in the Port Darwin district.
More information would be welcomed respecting its nidification.

I saw what I believed to be fledglings of this species, near
Townsville, Q., 16 Sept., 1885.

MELITHREPTUS GULARIS, Gould.
“ Black-chinned Honey-eater.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 71.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 205.

Previous Descriptions of Eags.—Ramsay, P.Z.8., p. 597 (1875) ;
Campbell, Southern Science Record (1883).

Geographical Distribution.—Queensland, New South Wales,
Victoria, South and West Australia.

588 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Nest.—Cup-shaped ; composed of fine grasses and bark webbed
together with spiders’ nests (Ramsay) ; usually suspended in the
forked twigs of a leafy tree.

Eggs.—Clutch, 2-3 ; inclined to oval, but more compressed at
one end ; texture, fine; faint trace of gloss on surface ; colour,
delicate or pale buff, moderately spotted with chestnut and dull
purplish-brown, the markings being chiefly on the apex. Dimen-
sions of a clutch in parts of an inch (1) ‘78 x ‘57; (2) ‘75 x °55.

Observations.—The Black-chinned Honey-eater is one of the
larger species of its genus, approaching next in size to the Strong-
billed Honey-eater of Tasmania. It ranges chiefly over the southern
half of Australia ; but is not usually found in the vicinity of the
coast or in thick forest.

I never recollect identifying this bird in the open; but have
had skins kindly forwarded for my examination from Mr. Wm.
White, of South Australia, and more recently (1896) from Mr.
H. E. Hill, who collected the bird in the Bendigo district, Victoria.
Eggs, however, I received from Mr. H. O. Lang, Dubbo district,
New South Wales. The specimens are somewhat smaller than I
expected to see ; but I find Dr. Ramsay gives even smaller dimen-
sions (°73 x ‘55 inches) than those of the specimens I have described.
Gould has only described the nest and eggs by analogy.

MELITHREPTUS VALIDIROSTRIS, Gould.
“ Strong-billed Honey-eater.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 70.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 206.

Previous Descriptions of Eggs.—Gould, Bds. of Aust. (1848) ;
also Hdbk., vol. 1, p. 565 (1865). North, Cat. Nests and Eggs,
Austn. Mus., p. 225 (1889).

Geographical Distribution. —Tasmania and King Island.

Nest.—Cup-shaped, deep, round ; composed chiefly of wool and
grasses, in some instances of stringy-bark ; inside lined with a few
flowering portions of grass, &c.; usually suspended in the topmost
branches of a sapling or other tree.

Lggs.—Clutch, 3 usually; nearly oval, slightly compressed
towards one end; texture, fine; surface, without gloss ; colour,
beautiful flesh tint, moderately but boldly blotched and spotted,
and chiefly about the apex, with rich, reddish-brown or chestnut
and dull purple-brown. Dimensions of a pair in parts of an inch
(1) ‘88 x ‘66; (2) 86 x ‘63.

Observations.—This fine Honey-eater—the largest of a most
interesting genus—is peculiar to Tasmania and King Island, where

NESTS AND EGGS OF HONEY-EATERS. 589

I have myself procured the bird. Gould was indebted to the late
Rey. Thomas J. Ewing, D.D., for the nest and eggs of the Strong-
billed Honey-eater, which he (Gould) failed to find himself during
his sojourn in Tasmania.

I have to thank the Rev. T. H. Hull, of Tasmania, for the first
examples of eggs in my collection, which were obtained during the
season 1874.

Breeding season, August to December.

MELITHREPTUS L=TIOR, Gould.
“‘Golden-backed Honey-eater.”

Figures.—Gould-Sharpe, Bds. of New Guinea, vol. iii, pl. 40.

Reference. —

Geographical Distribution.—North-west Australia, Northern
Territory, Queensland (interior probably), and South Australia.

Nest and Eggs.—Unknown.

Observations. —As Gould states, although very closely allied to
M. gularis, this species is altogether a much more finely-coloured
bird. In size it is slightly larger, and it is at once to be distin-
guished by its white under surface, and the beautiful lemon-yellow
on the back of the neck, as well as by the bright yellow naked skin
surrounding the eye, which part is of a beautiful bluish-green in
M. gularis.

Dr. Sharpe, in referring to Gould’s type of the beautiful and
well-named Golden-backed Honey-eater, is of opinion that it “is
apparently a very old male in full breeding plumage” of JZ. gularis.
Many answering to Gould’s type (JV. letior) have since been found.
The talented doctor must also .be prepared to accept a female as
an “old male,” since Mr. G. A. Keartland was good enough to
present me with one which he shot in the far north-west. Mr.
Keartland informs me he found the beautiful Golden backed
Honey-eater plentiful on the Fitzroy River from Mount Campbell
to Derby. In May these birds had apparently paired.

News of the nidification of this species is awaited with interest.

MELITHREPTUS BREVIROSTRIS, Vigors and Horsfield.

‘“‘ Brown-headed Honey-eater.”

Figure.—

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 207.

Previous Descriptions of Eggs.—Campbell, Southern Science
Record (1883). North, Cat. Nests and Eggs, Austn. Mus.,
p. 225 (1889).

Geographical Distribution.—Queensland, New South Wales,
Victoria, South and West Australia.

590 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Nest.—Cup-shaped, smal], neat, composed of grasses or fine
shreds of bark matted together with portions of spiders’ cocoons
greenish and white ; inside lined warmly with a ply of fur or hair ;
usually suspended at the extremity of a Eucalypt branch in open
forest. Dimensions over all 25 in. by 2} in. indepth; egg cavity,
1? in. across by 1{ in. deep.

Lggs.—Clutch, 2-3; inclined to roundish-oval in shape, tex-
ture fine ; faint trace of gloss on surface ; colour, reddish-buff or
flesh-colour, darker on the apex, which is sparingly spotted and
splashed with reddish-chestnut, a few specks also appearing here
and there over the shell ; other specimens are sparingly speckled
all over. Dimensions of a clutch in parts of an inch (1) ‘77 x °57 ;
(2) ‘76 x ‘56; (3) ‘74 x ‘57. An odd example, ‘72 x ‘58.

Observations. —Gould was in doubt about the existence of this
species ; possibly he mistook it for the youthful IZ. dunulatus. I
fear he was erroneously informed when he states the characteristic
bare space above the eyes of IZ. brevirostris is greenish-blue. From
specimens I have examined immediately after being shot it
should be a delicate flesh tint. The bird is otherwise plainly
coloured, is terribly active, and possesses a disagreeable, rough,
rattle-like note.

While on a collecting trip at Bagshot, Bendigo district, October,
1880, I procured examples of bird, nest and egg. Dr. Ramsay
kindly identified the bird for me, which enabled me to describe
the nest andegg. I have since observed the bird in various parts of
Victoria, my last recollection of them being on the 25th Septem-
ber, 1897, when I saw a flock of six or seven merry birds feeding
on the pollen, &c., of the flowering cones of a stunted Banksia that
grew on the plains near Mount Cotteril. I was agreeably sur-
prised to notice the Brown-headed Honey-eater in Western Aus-
tralia ; therefore its habitat extends across the southern half of
the continent.

On the Bagshot trip already referred to I was accompanied by
Mr. James Peatling, a local farmer. We found Brown-headed
Honey-eaters somewhat numerous, and I succeeded in obtaining
a nest, which was suspended to the extremity of a swaying branch
of a Box-tree (Yucalyptus viminalis). This nest was composed
of grass, thickly woven in and out with wool and fur. The latter
material the birds pull off live animals. We were attracted by
the lively actions of this curious little Honey-eater upon the back
of a native bear (A’oala), which had taken up its usual position in
the fork of a tolerably tall gum. The bird was clinging on in
a very comical manner, while busily engaged plucking off a mouth-
ful of fur. One of our party, also desiring to rob the animal
of its furry coat—and of its life—fired, hit the bear, but did not
dislodge it. The discharge, however, merely frightened our little

NESTS AND EGGS OF HONEY-EATERS. 591

feathered friend on to a neighbouring branch, and before the gun
was reloaded the bird had commenced operations again on the
back of the bear.

Mr. A. J. North informs us there is in the Dobroyde collection
the nest and eggs of this species, together with the birds shot
therefrom, obtained by Mr. J. Ramsay at Cardington, on the Bell
River, November, 1867. These interesting specimens were, how-
ever, kept dark, and were not described till the “ Catalogue of
Nests and Eggs” appeared, 1889.

November, 1895, Mr. C. C. Brittlebank found a pair of Brown-
headed Honey-eaters building in the bed of the Myrniong Creek
below his house. The birds first attracted his attention by pulling
hair off the cattle. The same season Mr. G. E. Shepherd found
two pretty nests near his nurseries, Somerville, the second nest
being taken on the 3rd January. The following season he found
other two nests, but they each only contained an egg of the
Pallid Cuckoo.

Breeding months, September to January.

MELITHREPTUS MELANOCEPHALUS, Gould.
‘“* Black-headed Honey-eater.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 75.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 207.

Previous Descriptions of Eggs.—Swan, Proc. Roy. Soc., Tas-
mania (1885). Campbell, Victorian Naturalist (1886), North,
Cat. Nests and Eggs, Austn. Mus., app. (1890).

Geographical Distribution.—Tasmania, King Island, and
Furneaux Group.

Nest.—Cup-shaped, somewhat deep and pointed at the base,
with thick bulging sides, composed of wool chiefly, moss, and
spiders’ cocoons, with a few threads of stringy-bark round the
rim ; inside warmly lined with fur and feathers ; usually suspended
in the tender foliage at the extremity of a pendulous branch in a
stringy-bark (Eucalypt) sapling or tree, where it is difficult to
detect. Dimensions over all 3 inches by 4 inches in depth ; egg
cavity 1} inches across by 1? inches deep.

Lggs.—Clutch, 3 usually ; oval compressed towards one end ;
texture fine ; surface, slightly glossy ; colour, delicate flesh tint,
marked moderately, and chiefly about the apex, with well defined
spots of rich reddish-brown, or chestnut and purplish-brown.
Resemble those of J. validirostris, but are proportionately smaller.
Dimensions of a clutch in parts-of an inch (1) °78 x ‘57; (2) ‘78 x
O7; (3) ‘76 x ‘56.

Observations.—This interesting Honey-eater, with its head
entirely black, is peculiar to Tasmania and King Island, where
specimens were procured by the expedition of the Field Naturalists’

592 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Club of Victoria, 1887. It may possibly be found on the Furneaux
Group, although we did not notice it there during a subsequent
trip, being engaged chiefly amongst the sea-birds.

During my Tasmanian excursion (1883) I was much delighted
at the lively prying actions while searching for food of both the
Strong-billed and Black-headed Honey-eaters ; the latter also
possesses quite a cheerful little song. I endeavoured persistently
to discover their nests, but only found fully-fledged young of the
Strong-bill, which species had evidently commenced breeding about
the end of ‘August or the beginning of September.

Much interest was attached to aike Black-headed Honey ener,
because its nest remained so long undiscovered, and the finding
of the nest completed those of the Honey-eaters of Tasmania.

At the meeting of the Royal Society of Tasmania (November,
1884), Mr. E. D. Swan drew attention to the extremely rare nest
and eggs, in fact, the first ever taken, of the Black-cap (¥V.
melanocephalus), which had been found during that month at
Austin’s Ferry, Bridgewater, and presented to the Museum by
Miss A. Brent, Rosemeath.

It is always a pleasure for me to write up an account of the first
find of any nest and eggs new to scientific knowledge. It is more
so in this instance, because the finders were lady field naturalists.
Here is the authenticated story of the discovery by the Misses
Brent of the nest of the Black-capped Honey-eater, as told by
their brother (Mr. A. E. Brent) :—

“The first intimation I received of a nest of our interesting
little Black-capped Honey-eater was from my two youngest sisters.
One day they chanced to witness one of these birds picking wool
from a sheep and flying with it to the top of a small-leafed gum
sapling. From the first they could see that it would be impossible
to reach the spot, therefore they decided to remain watching for
sometime. Then armed with a pair of field-glasses they watched
the progress of the nest from day to day until they made certain
that the bird had commenced sitting. Armed again (but this
time with an axe) my sisters set forth to fell the tree—trusting
to chance, as they said afterwards, that the nest and perhaps the
contents might be saved in the fall.

‘The tree fell midst briars and scrub, and after much scramb-
ling and searching they at last discovered the nest with the poor
little bird clinging fast to it although the nest was almost upside
down. Seeing this they rushed forward, and in so doing scared
the bird away, but owing to the thick mass of leaves, &e.,
crushed under the nest, the eggs were saved from being broken.
Full of excitement the girls related the story to me, and after
this a diligent search was made for more with the result that
several nests were taken during that season (1884).”

NESTS AND EGGS OF HONEY-EATERS. 593

As Mr. C. C. Brittlebank discovered in the case of the
Lunulated or White-naped Honey-eater on the mainland so it has
been independently proved in Tasmania that the Black-capped
Honey-eater will cling to its nest, more especially during windy
weather, if the tree containing it be felled.

Mr. Brent proceeds to state, ‘‘ A friend and I discovered one
which was impossible to obtain by climbing at the extreme end of
a horizontal branch of a large White-gum (Hucalypt). Our only
way was to fell the tree or sling the branch with a rope. The
latter course was decided upon. A noose was made round the
limb and pushed with a stick as far out as possible, then the rope
was passed over another branch higher up and the other end made
fast at the ground. With a light saw the branch was severed. I
thought to retain my hold at the butt end, but, alas, the bough
proved too much for me, it tipped and swung down, the little bird
remaining fast to the nest which was by this time completely
upside down. We could not venture too near for fear of disturb-
ing her, so I crept in under cover of the foliage and cut the branch
again turning it upright, and in this way we took a full set of
three eggs and an egg of the Pallid Cuckoo.

“Since discovering this little fact, I have taken many nests
of the Black-capped Honey-eater by felling the trees, but I must
say not always successfully. My experience has taught me to
choose a boisterous day ; even a good, steady breeze will suffice,
for nature prompts the sitting bird to cling more closely to her
nest. Care should be taken that the falling tree does not strike
or foul another tree.”

A nest, with eggs, kindly forwarded to me for description, by
Mr. Brent, was taken in like manner, and when the poor bird was
rescued from the fallen foliage, she was covering her own eggs,
beside an additional burden—an egg of the Pallid Cuckoo. Date,
21-11-96.

Mr. Brent has also taken the egg of the Fan-tailed Cuckoo
(C. flabelliformis) from the nest of the little Black-cap, it being
a most unusual occurrence to find that cuckoo’s egg in an open
nest.

In the Appendix of the “ Catalogue” of the Australian Museum
it is stated that Dr. Holden, of Circular Head, Tasmania, found
several nests of the Black-capped Honey-eater in December (1889),
One in particular was commenced on the 7th of that month, con-
tained three fresh egzs by the 25th. One nest had no wool, but
was chiefly composed of green moss and spider’s web, with a lining
of flower-seeds.

The male Black-capped Honey-eater, and doubtless many other
kinds of birds, sometimes feed the female upon her nest, especially
if the weather be windy.

Breeding months from October to December.

2 e

594 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

PLECTORHYNCHUS LANCEOLATUS, Gould.
“Striped Honey-eater.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 47.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 208.

Previous Descriptions of Eggs.—Gould, Bds. of Austr. (1848),
also Hdbk., vol. i, p. 526 (1865). North, Cat. Nests and Eggs
Austn. Mus., p. 209 (1889).

Geographical Distribution.—Queensland, New South Wales,
Victoria, and South Australia,

Nest.—Cup-shaped, deep; composed of fibrous roots and grasses,
interwoven with wool or cotton-like texture of flowers and feathers ;
inside lined sparingly with grass and hair; usually suspended at
the extremity of a branch of Casuarina, Myall (Acacia), or other
tree in open timbered tracts of the interior. Dimensions of a nest
given in the Australian Museum Catalogue are—interior 3 inches
across by 4 inches deep.

Lggs.—Clutch, 3-4, occasionally 5 ; lengthened in form, some-
what pointed towards one end; texture fine; surface slightly glossy ;
colour, warm white minutely spotted with reddish-brown or chest-
nut and purplish-grey, the markings being more numerous about
the upper quarter. Dimensions ofa pair in parts of an inch (1) 98
x 68; (2) 98 x 67. Of a larger-sized set—(1) 1:04 x 69; (2)
1:04 x 68; (3) 1:03 x -69,

Observations.—This unique and interesting form of Honey-eater
is strictly a denizen of the interior provinces from Queensland to
South Australia where it loves the pine ridges, and open tracts of
Casuarina, Acacia, &c. The bird is the possessor of a loud whistling
note, and is usually found in pairs.

On one occasion only did Gould discover the nest, which was
suspended from the extreme tip of a Casuarina branch overhanging
a stream.

In 1880 I received from Mr. R. Macfarlane, then at Mallee
Cliffs Station (N.S. W.), a full set of four eggs of the Striped Honey-
eater. September the following year Mr. A. J. North reports he
received from the Wimmera district, Victoria, a beautiful nest
together with a set of eggs, while it is stated the late Mr. K.
H. Bennett found this Honey-eater breeding plentifully in the
neighbourhood of Ivanhoe and Mossgiel in the interior of New
South Wales.

On the 9th October, 1893, Mr. C. Barnard found in Queensland
a nest of the Striped Honey-eater with the unusually full comple-
ment of five eggs.

Mr. J. W. Mellor, (South Australia), writes me that he took
about the end of September, 1894, near Lakes Alexandrina and
Albert, a nest of this species containing four eggs. Both parents
were secured for Museum purposes.

NESTS AND EGGS OF HONEY-EATERS. 595

I have a note from an interior friend of an attractive nest of
the Striped Honey-eater he saw. It was suspended to the pendu-
lous branches of a Myall (Acacia), and decorated with long Emu
feathers loosely stuck on which were flying in the breeze.

Gould incidentally states that the circumstances of his having
seen fully-fledged young and eggs at the same time prove that
these birds rear at least two broods in the season.

Breeding months, September to December or January.

GLYCYPHILA FULVIFRONS, Lewin.
“ Tawny-crowned Honey-eater.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 28.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 210.

Previous Descriptions of Eggs.—Gould, Bas. of Austr. (1848).also
Hadbk., vol. i, p. 496 (1865). North, Cat. Nests and Eggs Austn.
Mus. (1889).

Geographical Distribution.—South Queensland, New South
Wales, Victoria, South and West Australia, Tasmania, and Kent
Group ; and probably other islands in Bass Straits.

Nest.—Cup-shaped, deep ; composed of flat, dead rushes or broad
grass, sometimes with strips of bark and a few spiders’ cocoons
added ; lined inside with grass, finally with feathers and a downy
vegetable substance. In Western Australia the lining is chiefly
composed of an elastic ply of Zamia (Cycad) wool; usually placed
close to the ground in the heart of a low bush in open heath-like
country. Average dimensions over all 44 inches by 2? inches in
depth ; egg cavity 2} inches across by 12 inches deep.

Fggs.—Clutch, 2 usually ; inclined to be lengthened in form and
large compared with the size of the parent ; texture of shell very
fine; surface without gloss ; colour, white, very sparingly and lightly
spotted with chestnut, the markings appearing more particularly
about the apex. Dimensions of a clutch in parts of an inch—(1)
88 x 63 (2) °87 x ‘63.

Observations.—This active Honey-eater has a habitat extending
across the southern portion of Australia, including Tasmania and
some of the islands in Bass Straits. The bird shows a preference
for open, heathy, or low scrubby localities, and is remarkably shy.

Of all the Honey-eaters, I think this bird has the most rapid
flight. It frequently mounts high into the air, hence the trivial
name of “Sky-lark” applied to the bird by youths in the neigh-
bourhood of Albany (W.A.).

Besides eating insects, it is commonly known in the King
George’s Sound district that this Honey-eater regales itself on the
nectar of the flaming Bottle-brush (Ca/llistemon) to such an extent
that at certain seasons the bird becomes intoxicated and is easily

596 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

caught beneath the bushes, helpless. The same sometimes applies to
the Long-billed Honey-eater or ‘‘ Yellow-wing” as it is locally called.

History repeats itself. Gould recorded regarding this Honey-
eater: “The site generally chosen for its nest, as observed at the
Swan River, is a low bush or scrubby plant, in which it is often
placed near the ground.” I had frequently observed this bird in
Victoria, and on the adjacent islands in Bass Straits without
finding its nest, but it was just forty-one years after Gould wrote
his remarks, I was strolling over the limestone ridges of the Lower
Swan, when I flushed a Tawny-crowned Honey-eater and found
my first nest of this wild species in such a position as is exactly
described by Gould (7.e., Gilbert). The nest contained two eggs,
partly incubated. Date, 19th November, 1889.

The month previous, when in the Tor Bay district, near Albany,

shepherd brought me a nest, also with two eggs.

Early in the season of 1896, on the heathy grounds near
Cheltenham, Vic., a pair of Tawny-crowned Honey-eaters was
observed uttering distressing cries over their nest in a bush about
15 inches from the ground. The cause of the disturbance was a
snake, which had extracted one of the young from the nest and
was about to swallow it. The youthful collectors who were
attracted to the spot by the birds’ calls had nothing to battle the
snake with except the handle of a butterfly net. Wath this they
struck the reptile, which quickly made its escape.

In a communication to me Mr. G. K. Hinsby writes :—“ Re
Glycyphila fulvifrons, I note that Gould mentions it as only
inhabiting the northern parts of Tasmania. I obtained birds and
eggs on the extreme south end of Bruin Island, near Cloudy Bay
Lagoon (Dec., 1884). The nest was cup-shaped, made of She-oak
(Casuarina) needles, lined with wool and cow’s hair, I never saw
a nest look so strange, not a foot from the ground, in one of the
stunted Bottle-brush shrubs. I saw the male bird perched on a
dead branch of a small gum-tree pouring forth its peculiar note.
As I approached it flew, but I stopped it before it had gone far,
and the shot flushed the female from her nest close by, which I
found without difficulty. The eggs (two) were slightly incubated
and were almost white, with a faint pinkish shade, and spotted
with a few purplish black spots.”

Breeding months, August to December or January.

}LYCYPHILA ALBIFRONS, Gould.
“‘ White-fronted Honey-eater.”
Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 29.
Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 211.
Previous Descriptions of Eggs.—Gould, Bds. of Austr. (1848),
also Hdbk., vol. i, p. 498 (1865); North, Cat. Nests and Eggs,
Austn. Mus., p. 197 (1889).

NESTS AND EGGS OF HONEY-EATERS. 597

Geographical Distribution.—New South Wales, Victoria, South
and West Australia.

Jest.—Very flat structure, the base being composed of very
thin dried stems of a climbing plant and grasses, matted together
with a little wool, over which is placed a layer of wool inter-
mingled with a few blades of grass. Diameter of base, 4 inches ;
the layer of wool 2? inches, and the whole structure 1} inches in
thickness. There is just sufficient depression in the centre to keep
the eggs in position (North).

Eggs.—Clutch, 2; of a light saturnine-red ground-colour; on the
larger end they are thickly spotted, and in a few places blotched
with irregular-shaped markings of reddish-chestnut and chestnut-
brown, but over the remainder of the surface the markings are
much smaller and more sparingly distributed ; on the larger eae
are obsolete spots of purplish-grey. Dimensions (A), ° 783 x °b7
Inch ; (B), ‘82 x ‘58 (North).

Observations.—Gould first observed this fine species in the great
Murray Scrub of South Australia, where he succeeded in killing
several specimens of both sexes. It is also an inhabitant of the
inland districts of Western Australia, and likewise found in the
interior of Victoria, notably the Wimmera district, and of New
South Wales, where it is a scarce species. I believe it was seen
in the North-west Desert by the Calvert Expedition, 1896.

I have given the detailed description of the nest as given in the
“Catalogue” of the Australian Museum, taken by the late Mr.
K. H. Bennett at Ivanhoe, New South Wales, October, 1886.
Gould just mentions in general terms that the nest is ‘very similar
to that of Meliornis longirostri is, but more shallow and less neatly
formed, and that some of the nests observed were construct¢
the fork of a small dead branch in an exposed situation.”

Breeding months, August to February (Gould).

GLYCYPHILA FASCIATA, Gould.
““ White-breasted Honey-eater.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 50.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 212.

Previous Descriptions of Eggs.—Campbell, Southern Scier
Record (1885). North, Cat. Nests and Eggs, Austn. Mus. app.
(1890).

Geographical Distribution.—Northern Territory and Queens-
land.

Nest.—Unusual shape for that of a Honey-eater being domed
with a side entrance ; composed entirely of paper-like Melaleuca
bark ; lined inside with the same but finer material ; usually sus-
pended from a Melaleuca tree overhanging water.

598 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Eggs.—Clutch, 3; elongated in form; texture of shell very
fine ; surface without gloss; colour, white, numerously freckled
and spotted like Wrens’ (J/alurv) eggs, with reddish-brown, more
particularly about the apex. Dimensions in parts of an inch, of
a clutch (1) -82 x -54; (2) 8 x ‘52.

Observations.—This white-breasted Glycyphila enjoys a habitat
across Northern Australia. In May, 1884, I was indebted to the
late Mr. George Barnard, of Coomooboolaroo (Q.), for the eggs of
this interesting species. His son, Mr. H. Greensill Barnard, sub-
sequently wrote me:—‘ Re Glycyphila fasciata, the breeding
months are October and November. In November, 1893, I found
five nests on the Dawson River, three of which were ready for
eggs, one containing a set of three eggs, and the fifth had three
newly-hatched young. ‘The nests are always built on long, droop-
ing twigs overhanging water, and at- times are very difiicult to
reach. The trees generally selected are Melaleucas, the nests
being built of the bark of that tree.”

LYCYPHILA OCULARIS, Gould.
“ Brown Honey-eater.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 31.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 213.

Previous Descriptions of Eggs.—Gould, Bds. of Austr. (1848),
also Hdbk., vol. i, p. 501 (1865). North, Cat. Nests and Eggs,
Austn. Mus., p. 198 (1889).

Geographical Distribution.— Northern Territory, Queensland,
New South Wales, West and North-west Australia.

Nest.—Cup-shaped, small ; delicately constructed of soft bark
(notably Melaleuca) with a few spiders’ cocoons added, and finished
round the rim with spiders’ web ; in Queensland lined inside with
the shiny substance composing cocoons of a mantis; in Western
Australia cosily lined with the light brownish downy substance
gathered from the stems of Zamias (Cycads), usually placed
within reach, suspended among the upright twigs of a bush ora
small tree. Dimensions over all, 24 inches by 14-23 inches in
depth ; egg cavity, 14 inches across by 1}—14 inches deep.

Fgogs.—Clutch, 2; short, peculiarly compressed about one
quarter, making the smaller end appear somewhat blunt ; colour,
sometimes uniformly white, but usually marked with a very few
spots of pale chestnut or light reddish-brown, especially about the
apex. Dimensions of a clutch in parts of an inch: (1) ‘67 x ‘51;
(2) 7-66 xd. ;

Observations. Excepting the extreme south-eastern portion of
the continent, this cheerful little honey-eater enjoys a habitat on
either side of Australia.

NESTS AND EGGS OF HONEY-EATERS. 599

At Townsville, 1885, this bird first attracted my attention by
its merry, Reed-warbler-like song, which is exceedingly cheerful.
Gould describes it as “remarkably shrill, rich, clear and distinct in
tone.” He also remarked that when the female is sitting upon
her eggs the male sings all day long, with scarcely any inter-
mission.

On the Fitzroy River, near Rockhampton, the bird was so
numerous that I had no difficulty in one day (2nd October) in
discovering three of its small nests which were suspended in thick
Melaleuca bushes, each containing a pair of eggs. One set, how-
ever, was nearly hatched. Subsequently, more inland of Coomoo-
boolaroo, I found the merry little Honey-eater quite at home among
the orange trees standing in the garden, lining its nest with the
soft substance gathered off the bursting vine buds, &c. I should
have remarked that those nests found on the Fitzroy were fur-
nished with the glazed, soft substance of mantis cocoons.

Still more delighted was I a few seasons afterwards to find this
Species on the opposite side of the continent, and to hear the
familiar merry songs along the shores of the Swan waters. There
I also found a pair busily building a nest suspended to the dead,
drooping twigs of an Acacia, the nest in this instance being lined
with the woolly substance gathered from numerous Zamia palms
or Cycads,

Before I left the locality (23rd November, 1889) I took a pair
of eggs which were of the characteristic light colour of those of
the eastern birds, and resembling those found in the days of yore
by good Gilbert.

In one instance in Western Australia Gilbert found a nest
attached to the slender fibrous roots hanging beneath a bank over
a pool of water—surely a very unusual situation.

Breeding months, September to December.

GLYCPHILA SUBOCULARIS, Gould.

“‘ Least Honey-eater.”

Figure. — :

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 214.

Geographical Distribution.—North-west Australia, Northern
Territory, and North Queensland.

Nest and Lggs.—Unknown.

Observations.—With regard to the least Honey-eater of the
northern coast, Guuld appeared doubtful whether it was really a
good species. First he united it with G. oculavis, then upon further
examination separated it again, remarking that the G. subocularis
isa smaller bird than G. ocularis, and consequently one of the
most diminutive (only 4} inches long) of the Meliphagous birds.

600 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

GLYCYPHILA MODESTA, Gray.
“ Brown-backed Honey-eater.”

Figure.—Gould-Sharpe, Bds. of New Guinea, vol. ili, pl. 46.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 215.

Previous Descriptions of Eqgs.—Ramsay, P.Z.S., p. 385 (1868).
Campbell, Victorian Naturalist (1887). North, Cat. Nests and
Eggs, Austn. Mus. app. (1890).

Geographical Distribution.—N orth Queensland, also New Guinea
and Aru Islands.

Nest.—Bulky, somewhat long in shape, domed with a hooded
side entrance ; composed of strips, narrow and broad, of the paper-
like Melaleuca bark, matted together ; lined inside with softer bark
of the same kind; usually suspended on a Melaleuca, particularly
from a branch overhanging water. Length 7} inches, diameter
33 inches ; entrance, which is about the centre of the structure, 1
inch across.

Eggs.—Clutch 2, rarely 3; long oval, compressed towards one
end ; texture of shell very fine; surface without gloss; colour,
pure white, with here and there very minute dark brown, almost —
black, specks or dots. Dimensions in parts of an inch :—(1) ‘76
xaos (2) ai Diced.

Observations.—The habitat of the Brown-backed or Dusky honey-
eater is Northern Queensland, with an extension on the opposite
coast of New Guinea, dwelling about Melaleuca swamps.

During our Cardwell camp I found a pair of these birds com-
mencing to build (7 September, 1885), their dome-shaped nest in
their favourite tree overhanging a stream.

With regard to the dome-shaped structure of the nest, it is
worthy of remark that while the two southern species—G@. fulvi-
Jrons and G. albifrons—build cup-shaped or open nests, the two
northern kinds—G@. fasciata and G'. modesta—build covered-in
structures. This would lead us to suppose, from an oological point
of view, there was some specific or sub-specific difference between
the two sets of birds. But, possibly, the northern birds have
been led to conceal their eggs, as well as to suspend the nest over
water where it is difficult to reach, to escape some natural enemy.

Mr. J. A. Boyd sent several sets of eggs of the Dusky Honey-
eater to the Australian Museum from the Herbert River, possibly
that bird’s southern limit.

Further north on the Bloomfield River, Mr. Dudley Le Souéf
found several of the dome-shaped nests, suspended generally at a
height of about 8 feet from the ground in Melaleuca saplings.

The following is one of Mr. W. B. Barnard’s notes on the same
species :—“ I am sending you a skin of this little Honey-eater, or
Weaver-bird, which builds a hanging nest composed of Ti-tree
(Melaleuca) bark, with entrance at the side; length about 6 inches;

NESTS AND EGGS OF HONEY-EATERS. 601

lays two long eggs, white, with minute black spots. Buildsin the
forest country in November and December, usually in little trees
about 10 feet high.”

Breeding months, end of August to February.

GLYCYPHILA ALBIAURICULARIS, Ramsay.
‘Broadbent Honey-eater.”
Figure.—GouldSharpe, Bds. of New Guinea, vol. iti, pl. 45.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus. vol. ix, p. 217.

Geographical Distribution.—N orth Queenslandand New Guinea.

Nest and Eggs.—Unknown.

Observation.—The discovery of this little Honey-eater is due to
the energies of that persevering field-collector, Mr. Kendal Broad-
bent, who first found it in south-eastern New Guinea. In the

great folio work of the birds of that country Dr. Sharpe clearly
contrasts the species with its close allies.

ENTOMOPHILA PICTA, Gould.
‘“* Painted Honey-eater.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv., pl. 50.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 219.

Geographical Distribution.—New South Wales, Victoria, and
South Australia.

Jest-—The fraileststructure possible, mostingeniously suspended
by the rim to the twigs and thick drooping leaves of the Acacia
pendula, and entirely composed of very fine fibrous roots (Gould).

£ggs.— Unknown.

Observations.—Gould states that this beautiful little Honey-eater
is an inhabitant of the interior of New South Wales, where he
found it frequenting the Myalls (Acacia) and other trees bordering
the extensive plains.

Tt is an interesting fact that this interior bird should have been
taken in the wooded wilds of the Upper Yarra track. Specimens
are in the National Museum, Melbourne, labelled from that locality.

Gould observed that this rare little creature is very active among
the branches, capturing insects on the wing and darting forth and
returning to the same spot, much after the manner of Flycatchers.
During flight it repeatedly spreads its tail, when the white portion
of the feathers shows very conspicuously, while the yellow colour-
ing of the wings also contributes to the beauty of its appearance.
Its song is loud and not very harmonious.

The eggs are still a desideratum. The only nest on record was
found by Gould on the 5th September, 184-, and contained two
nearly fledged young.

602 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

ENTOMOPHILA RUFIGULARIS, Gould.
‘“‘Red-throated Honey-eater.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv., pl. 52.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 219.

Previous Description of Eggs.—Ramsay, P.L.S.N.S.W., vol. ii,
p. 111 (1878) ; Keartland, Victorian Naturalist (1897).

Geographical Distribution.—North-west Australia, Northern
Territory, and North Queensland.

Nest.—Cup-shaped, neat, and somewhat deep; composed of fine
grasses matted outside with spider’s white web ; inside lined with
grasses only ; usually suspended by one side of the rim to aslender
twig of a low (Bauhinia) tree, but occasionally high ina Eucalypt ;
dimensions over all, about 2 inches by 34 inches in depth.

Eggs.—Clutch, 2-3; inclined to oval; texture, fine; surface
glossy, or slightly so, These eggs vary much, the general type re-
sembling in character those of MJalwri or Acanthize, being warm
white, spotted and blotched, particularly round the apex, with
reddish-brown or chestnut and purplish-brown. Dimensions of
two clugches:—A (1) ‘71 x -51; (2)-7 x -5; (3) 68 x <525
IBi(1) Wx 49% QV nile dG (8) eG 4b:

Another type resembles those of Lphthianura albifrons, being
white, sparingly spotted- with purplish-brown from dark to light
shades. Dimensions:—(1) ‘73 x °52; (2) ‘72 x +53; (3) -72
x"OT:

A third type resembles those of Glycyphila modesta, but is
smaller, being white, minutely marked with dark spots.

Observations.—Like the Rufous-breasted (#. albigularis), the
Red-throated Honey-eater is distributed over Northern Australia.
Dr. Ramsay states it has been found breeding in the neighbourhood
of Georgetown, in the Gulf of Carpentaria country, during the
months from September to March. His examples of nest and eggs
were sent to him by Mr. Armit,and were taken in an “rythrina tree.

I had the privilege of critically examining several sets of eggs
of the little Red-throated Honey-eater, taken by Mr. G. A.
Keartland in north-western Australia, where the birds appeared
to be numerous, for he informs me he obtained no less than thirty
nests between the 20th February and 16th March, 1897, chiefly
in the Fitzroy River district. Mr. Keartland also tells me that
the nests were usually situated low in a Bauhinia tree, but some-
times were placed high in a Eucalypt. The various types of eggs
above described are in Mr. Keartland’s collection.

Mr. Keartland says, at nesting time, which is immediately after
the tropical rains of January and February, the Red-throated
honey-eaters become very tame. On several occasions he has
stood under a tree within 5 feet of where the birds were building
their nest.

NESTS AND EGGS OF HWONEY-EATERS. 603

ENTOMOPHILA ALBIGULARIS, Gould.
“ Rufous-breasted Honey-eater”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 51.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 219.

Previous Descriptions of Eggs. —Gould, Bds. of Australia
(1848) ; also, Hdbk, vol. i, p. 532 (1865).

Geographical Distribution.— North-west Australia, Northern
Territory, and North Queensland ; also, New Guinea and Aru
Islands.

Nest.—Cup-shaped, smal], deep ; composed of narrow strips of
soft paper-like bark of the Melaleuca, matted together with small
vegetable fibres, and slightly lined with soft grass ; suspended
from the extremity of a weak projecting branch overhanging
water (Gilbert).

Eggs.—Clutch, 2-3 ; rather lengthened in form, and not unlike
those of Malwrus cyaneus in the colour and disposition of their
markings, their ground colour being white, thinly freckled all over
with bright chestnut-red, particularly at the larger end. Dimen-
sions, 9 lines (‘75 inch) x 6 lines (‘5 inch)—(Gilbert).

Observations.— All the knowledge we possess at present of the
small Rufous-breasted (White-throated of Gould) Honey-eater is
limited to good Gilbert’s researches in Northern Australia. He
says: “TI first met with it on Mayday Island, in Van Dieman’s
Gulf, where it appeared to be tolerably abundant. I afterwards
found it to be equally numerous ina large inland mangrove swamp
near Point Smith. I never observed it anywhere than swampy
situations, or among mangroves bordering deep bays and creeks of
the harbours. Its small pensile nest is suspended from the ex-
tremity of a weak projecting branch in such a manner that it
hangs over the water, the bird always selecting a branch bearing
a sufficient number of leaves to protect the entrance from the
rays of the sun. I found a nest in the latter part of November,
and another in the early part of December, which contained three
eggs each, while a third procured towards the end of January had
only two. During the breeding season it exhibits considerable
pugnacity of disposition, and instead of its usual pretty note,
utters a chattering and vociferous squeaking.”

ENTOMOPHILA LEUCOMELAS, Cuvier.
“Pied Honey-eater.”
Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 49.
feference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 220.

Previous Description of Eggs.—Keartland, Victorian Naturalist
(1897).

604 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Geographical Distribution.—New South Wales, Victoria, South,
West, and North-west Australia.

Nest.—Cup-shaped, somewhat shallow ; composed of pieces of
grass (Spinifex) matted well with spiders’ web ; inside lined with
finer grass ; usually suspended by the rim in the horizontal forked
branchlet of alow tree. Dimensions, over all, about 4 inches ;
egg cavity about 2 inches across (Keartland).

LFggs.—Clutch, 2-3 ; oval in shape, more compressed at one end ;
texture, fine ; surface slightly ; glossy; colour, soft, warm, white or
light yellowish- white, finely but strongly spotted all over with
sepia or dark umber, intermingled with spots and patches of light
or dull grey. Quite exceptional in colour and character to the
general rule for Honey-eaters’ eggs, and resemble more small eggs
of the common Wood-swallow (A. sordidus). Dimensions of a
clutch in parts of an inch (1) ‘92 x -65 ; (2) ‘9 x "69; (3) "60ee
‘65. A smaller pair (1) ‘86 x -62; (2) 86 x “61,

Observations.—The Pied Honey-eater ranges across Southern
Australia. Gilbert says it is a periodical visitor to the west,
where it arrives in the latter part of October. He has observed
the birds assembling in great flocks, which continue to soar during
the greater portion of the day—a rather remarkable trait for
Honey-eaters.

However, in the North-west Desert, Mr. G. A. Keartland notices
something similar, for he records, “ Towards the end of October
(1896) flocks of these birds frequently passed us going north.”

The knowledge we possess about the rare Pied Honey-eater is
somewhat scant. The nest and eggs collected by the late Mr.
K. H. Bennett, and described by Dr. Ramsay* were no doubt, as
Mr. Keartland has pointed out, referable to the Pied Robin (2.
bicolor), and not the Pied-Honey-eater.

I had the eggs (two clutches) in my collection since 1890, from
the Gascoigne district, W.A., but as no data accompanied the
specimens I was unable to identify them until Mr. Keartland
recognised them by a nest he found during the progress of the
ill-starred Calvert Expedition through North-western Australia.
The nest was found on the 22nd October, 1896, about 7 feet from
the ground, in a “cork’-tree, and was among the specimens left
at the abandoned depdét in the desert. It is melancholy to reflect
that this particular nest and single egg were found only a day or
two before Mr. Keartland and Mr. G. L. Jones finally parted, the
latter, as will be well remembered, perishing from thirst in the
sand ridges of that terrible region,

However, another pair of eggs taken near the Fitzroy River,
March, 1897, was received by Mr. Keartland.

* P.L.S.N.S.W., vol. vii, p. 414 (1882).

NESTS AND EGGS OF HONEY-FATERS. 605

MELIPHAGA PHRYGIA, Latham.
“‘ Warty-faced Honey-eater.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. 1v, pl. 48.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. 1x, p. 221.

Previous Descriptions of Eggs.—Gould, Bds. of Australia
(1848) ; also, Hdbk., vol., 1, p. 528 (1865). Ramsay, Trans. Phil.
Soc. N.S. W., with fig. (1865).

Geographical Distribution.—Queensland, New South Wales,
Victoria, and South Australia.

Nest.—Cup-shaped, round ; composed of strips of soft brownish
bark, with an admixture of spider’s greenish cocoons ; inside lined
with fine bark, grass, and soft materials, such as wool, hair, &ec. ;
usually placed on a horizontal limb at the junction of a sprouting
branch, or in a fork in rough-barked Eucalypts in open forest.
Dimensions over all 4-45 inches by 2 inches in depth, egg cavity,
2} inches across by 1} inches deep.

£gog9s.—Clutch 2; nearly oval in shape ; texture fine; surface
slightly glossy ; colour, rich reddish-buff, darker on the apex,
where is a zone of soft or indistinct spots of reddish and purplish-
brown, a few spots also appearing over the rest of the surface.
Dimensions of a clutch in parts in parts of an inch, (1) ‘96 x °67;
(2)ie8e. i670.

Observations. —As Gould remarks, the Warty-faced Honey-eater
is not only one of the most handsome of our Honey-eaters, but one
of the most beautiful of Australian birds. On account of the
beauty of its black and golden plumage, it has been called the
* Mock Regent-bird”” in some localities.

The peculiar plaintive song, accompanied with the bowing of
the head of the Warty-faced Honey-eater is very agreeable. The
bird may be called an interior species, with a habitat ranging from
Queensland down to South Australia, and although Gould regarded
it as a stationary species, it occasionally, according to seasons, or
the supply of the Eucalyptus blossom, wanders towards the coast.
I recollect one season in November—1868 or 1869—when these
birds were plentiful in the neighbourhood of Oakleigh and Mur-
rumbeena, where we secured as many of their beautifully con-
structed bark-made nests, and lovely rich salmon-coloured eggs, as
we needed. Again, in October, 1882, in the Bendigo district, I
took their nests. :

During the great drought in the interior—1896-7—the Warty-
faced Honey-eaters were numerous in Victoria, and were noticed
in localities where they had never previously been seen.

Gould somewhat qualities his statement about the Warty-faced
Honey-eater being a stationary species by stating, ‘‘I have occasion-
ally seen flocks of from fifty to a hundred in number passing from

606 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

tree to tree as if engaged in a partial migration from one part of
the country to another, or in search of a more abundant supply
of food.”

I myself have witnessed this once at Doncaster, Victoria, 2nd
November, 1886, when a flock of about fifty swept past me across
a valley*

Mr. Hermann Lau writes :—‘ Mock Regent-bird. I first saw
it at Goulburn (N.S.W.) 1855; then again at Pike’s Creek,
Queensland, 20 miles south-west of Warren. It only appears in
numbers now and again. The site of its big nest is at about the
height of 20 feet in a tree, and always near a thick stem ora
few sprouting shoots. It is roughly made of coarse dry grass,
lined with rootlets and animal hair. Deposits two or three eggs.
Took nest, Pike’s Creek, October, 1869.”

Breeding month, end cf September to December.

Pritotis NotTaTa, Gould.
“ Yellow-spotted Honey-eater.”

Figwre.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol. sup. pl. 41.

feference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., ix, p. 227.

Previous Description of Hggs.—North, P.L.8.N.8.W., 2nd ser.,
vol. ix, p. 39 (1894).

Geographical Distribution.—Northern Territory and North
Queensland ; also New Guinea.

Nest.—Cup-shaped, deep ; constructed of fibre coated with large
pieces of paper-like Melaleuca bark; inside, chiefly the bottom,
lined with a white cottony substance ; placed in the forked branch
usually of a low bush, but occasionally at the heist of 30 feet
from the ground, in scrub. Dimensions over all, 3}—4 in. x 13-3
in. in depth; egg cavity, 24-3 in. across by 14-2 in. deep.

Eggs.—Clutch 2, rarely 3; oval, lengthened and compressed
towards one end ; texture exceedingly fine ; ; surface very glossy ;
colour, pearly white, with a few pronounced or bold spots and
roundish blotches of deep purplish-brown about the apex. Most
resemble the eggs of the Yellow-eared Honey-eater (P. lewini).
Dimensious, a clutch in parts of an inch, (1) ‘9 x °64; (2)
88 x °63.

Observations.—This Honey-eater is also known as P. analoga
(Reichenbach), and a dozen other synonyms; but for the sake of
simplicity I prefer to retain Gould’s name, P. notata, which
appears under a fine picture of the bird in his folio supplement.

The Yellow-spotted Honey-eater may be said to be the northern
and smaller representative of the Yellow-eared (P. lewinz). Gould
says Gilbert collected a bird very nearly allied, if not the Yellow-

* One of Mr. C. C. Brittlebank’s notes reads: ‘‘1st April, 1896. Flocks of Warty-faced
Honey-eaters, thirty or forty birds in each, passed to the west about 9 a.m.”

inn A Te a ee ee eee

NESTS AND EGGS OF HONEY-KATERS. 607

spotted Honey-eater, at Brown’s Lagoon, on the 30th December,
1844, when travelling with Leichhardt from Moreton Bay to Port
Essington.

During the Scientific Expedition to Bellenden-Ker Range (1889),
the Yellow-spotted Honey-eater was found at all heights up to
4,000 feet.

Mr. A. J. North, who has accurately described the nest and
eggs of this bird, states :—‘‘ Mr. Boyd (Herbert River) has also
from time to time supplied me with the following information.
A nest of this species he had under close observation from the
time it was started until the young left the nest. It was a most
curious position selected, the nest being built upon the frond of a
fern 18 inches from the ground, growing in a fernery attached to
Mr. Boyd’s house, and opposite his office, to which people were
constantly coming through the day; a piano also, that was in
frequent use by the children, being within 15 feet of the nest.
During the period of incubation the female sat steadily, and did
not attempt to fly when looked at by one only 3 feet away, the
nest being so deep that the whole of the bird’s body was invisible
except the bill. The bird was quite tame, and used to fly back-
wards and forwards through the dining-room when a number of
persons were seated at dinner. The nest was commenced on the
7th December, and contained three eggs on the 15th ; two young
ones were hatched on the 28th, and a third next day—the period
of incubation being fourteen days. The young birds left the nest
on the 12th January.”

Breeding season, September to March.

The following are the nests, each containing two cggs, taken at
Cape York, by Mr. Harry Barnard, 1896-7, viz.:—In October, 1;
November, 2; January, 2; February, 3; and March, 1.

PrILoTIs GRACILIs, Gould.

“ Little Yellow-spotted Honey.eater.”

Figure.—

Reference.—Gould, P.Z.8., 1866, p. 217.

Previous Description of Eggs.—(?) Ramsay, P.L.S.N.S.W.,
2nd ser., vol. i, p. 1150 (1886).

Geographical Distribution.—N orthern Queensland.

Nest.—Cup-shaped ; comparatively small and roundish ; com-
posed of chiefly moss, ornamented outwardly with small pieces of
grey bark, sometimes with a darker coloured bark and insect
cocoons ; neatly lined inside with a white silky substance ; usually
situated about 10 or 12 feet from the ground, in scrub. Dimen-
sions over all, 24-3 inches by 17-3 inches in depth; egg cavity,
24 inches across by 1} inches deep.

Liggs.——Clutch, 2 ; oval, slightly compressed towards one end ;
texture fine, surface slightly glossy ; colour, rich fleshy tint or

608 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

salmon pink, marked moderately but somewhat boldly, and par-
ticularly round the upper quarter, with rich pinkish-chestnut and
a few purplish spots. The eggs, being amongst the most richly-
coloured of Australian Honey-eaters’, are exceedingly beautiful.
Dimensions of a clutch, in parts of an inch: (1) ‘8 x ‘6; (2)
oho xX 20.

Observations.—As already mentioned, there have been more
synonyms and confusion than enough, so much have doctors
differed about the identification of the Yellow-spotted Honey-
eaters of Northern Australia and contiguous localities.

Finally, Dr. Sharpe has classified them into three races according
to geographical distribution. Whether there be races, varieties,
or species, from an oological point of view (which is a somewhat
sound one, for ‘‘by their fruits ye shall know them”), there are
certainly two distinct Yellow-spotted Honey-eaters other than P.
lewint inhabiting Northern Queensland, and which it appears
Gould has clearly pointed out—first, the larger bird, P. notata,
and second, the smaller species, P. gracilis. The birds are pre-
cisely similar in appearance save in size; yet while the eggs of
the former resemble those of its southern cousin, P. lewinz, being
white, with a few dark spots, the others, besides being proportion-
ately smaller, are a fleshy tint and richly coloured. The decided
difference in the two classes would appear constant, judging by
the series of eggs, identified by skins of both kinds of birds shot
from the nests, which I had the opportunity of examining with
Mr. Dudley Le Souéf, at the Zoological Gardens, Melbourne.

When collecting at Cape York, 1896-7 season, Mr. Harry
Barnard took nine or ten nests, each containing two eggs of P.
notata, and four nests—three each two eggs, the other a single—
of P. gracilis. There are also birds and eggs of both kinds in the
collection of Mr. Le Souéf, which he brought down from the
Bloomfield River district.

I hardly know that [ am correct in giving as a reference Dr.
Ramsay’s description of the eggs taken near Cairns by Mr. Boyer-
Bower as belonging to those of the smaller species. The rich
colouration —“ nearest to those of P. awricomis”—agrees, but not
the dimensions.

Breeding month for the Little Yellow-spotted Honey-eater,
October to January.

PritotTis FuscA, Gould.
** Fuscous Honey-eater.”
Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 44.
Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 229.
Previous Descriptions of Eqgs.—Ramsay, Trans. Phil. Soc. New
South Wales, with fig. (1865). Campbell, Southern Science Record
(1883).

NESTS AND EGGS OF HONEY-EATERS, 609

Geographical Distribution.—Queensland, New South Wales and
Victoria.

Nest.—Cup-shaped, neat ; composed of shreds of bark matted
with spider’s web and cocoons; lined inside with fine shreds
of bark, a few rootlets, hair, and sometimes the silky down from
seed vessels or cotton material gathered in the neighbourhood of
habitations ; usually placed among the branchlets at the end of a
horizontal Eucalyptus bough. Dimensions over all 24 inches by
2 inches in depth, egg cavity 2 inches across by 1} deep.

Eggs.—Clutch 1-3, but usually 2; oval, compressed towards
one end ; texture of shell fine ; surface has a faint trace of gloss ;
colour, rich salmon on buff, marked more or less distinctly about
the apex with pinkish-red and purplish-brown. Dimensions in
parts of an inch of odd examples—(1) ‘77 x 56; (2) °75 x ‘55.

Observations.—The range of the Kuscous Honey-eater extends
from Northern Queensland down to probably South Australia.

Although this Honey-eater is not distinguished by any brilliancy
of colour, Gould has painted itin a pretty word picture. Referring
to the bird in the brushes of New South Wales, he says, “ In the
months of August and September, when the beautiful Z’ecoma is
in blossom, the Honey-eater may be seen flitting about among the
thick clusters of the pendant flowers in search of insects, which
are sometimes captured on the wing, but more generally extracted
from the tubular florets.”

In the Bendigo district, Victoria, towards the Campaspie River,
I once came upon quite a number of Fuscous Honey-eaters feeding
upon Grevillea bushes that grew in a snug hollow in an Ironbark
(Eucalypt) forest. I did not see a nest, however, until I went to
Coomooboolaroo, Queensland, where I observed one suspended
among the flowering branchlets of a Eucalytus near the lagoon.

The Messrs. Barnard informed me that like many other birds,
the Fuscous Honey-eater lays according to the season ; if droughty
one or two eggs are laid, if the season be good three are deposited.
Once a clutch of four was taken which is, of course, an exceptional
complement.

Breeding months, August to December, or later.

PTrILOTIS LEWINI, Swainson.
“‘ Yellow-eared Honey-eater.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 32.

heference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 229.

Previous Descriptions of Eggs.—Gould, Bds. of Austr. (1848),
also Hdbk, vol. i, p. 504 (1865). Ramsay, P.Z.S., p. 595 (1875).
North, Cat. Nests and Eggs, Austn. Mus., p. 199 (1889).

Geographical Distribution.—Queensland, N.S. Wales, and Vic-
toria,

2 Q

610 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Nest.—Cup-shaped, deep, with substantial walls ; constructed
chiefly of strips of bark (Melaleuca, &c.), and spiders’ cocoons,
generally outwardly beautifully covered with moss; lined inside
with thick warm ply of a downy or silky substance, such as
thistle down or other soft seeds, varying in colour—white, brown,
or yellowish—according to the locality or the species of plant
from which the seeds are gathered ; usually attached to the twigs
of a thick bush or tree in scrub and forest country alike. Dimen-
sions over all, 34-4 inches by 24-3 inches in depth; egg cavity,
24-21 inches across by 14-1? inches deep.

Lggs.—Clutch, 2-3, usually the former number ; nearly true
oval in shape ; texture of shell fine ; surface slightly glossy ; colour
white, very sparingly marked with spots and dots of dark purplish-
brown, almost black, most of the markings being on the apex or
about the upper quarter. Dimensions of a clutch in parts of an
BTC IGG 0 Or x ol ae OL ae le

Observations.—This fine Honey-eater is common to the forests
and scrubs of Eastern Australia, chiefly in the coastal region. It
is doubtful whether they are found at Cape York. I am not
certain whether they frequent the Cape Otway forest, but I have

observed the bird as far south as the Dandenongs, near Melbourne, .

where I have often heard, as Gould describes it, the loud, ringing,
whistling song of the bird. In Gippsland in the autumn I have
observed Lewin’s or the Yellow-eared Honey-eater feeding in the
forest clearings on the fruit of the so called Kangaroo-apple bush
(Solanum ).

The first nest I found of this species was in October, 1885. It
was about 10 or 12 feet from the ground in scrub, near the Fitzroy
River (Q.). The eggs, however, were addled, but there was no
mistaking the identity of them and the nest, with its beautiful
lining of white silky substance.

The next nest that came under my observation was in the “ Big
Scrub,” Richmond River (N.S.W.), where the birds are exceed-
ingly numerous, and where I often admired their graceful actions
while pirouetting in mid-air after insects. The nest, which con-
tained two eggs, was brought to me by scrub-fallers, who reported
that it originally contained three eggs (the number being usually
a pair), and was taken in a thick bush, about 4 feet from the
ground. The nest was constructed of moss and dead leaves, and
was lined with grass and a thick warm ply of thistle-down. Date,
18/11/91

Gould describes a nest—the first recorded of this species—-he _

found prettily situated in a creeper which overhung a small pool of
water in a gully under the Liverpool Range.

According to the Australian Museum “ Descriptive Catalogue,”
Dr. Ramsay, on the 29th December, 1871, took two eggs on the

ea die i ee a

ay

NESTS AND EGGS OF HONEY-EATERS. 611

Mary River (Q.), which were probably the specimens referred to in
the P.Z.S. (1875), but for which no dimensions were furnished.

A nest of the Yellow-eared Honey-eater, taken near Melbourne
in a Musk-tree in the Dandenongs, is large and composed of beauti-
ful green moss interlaced with strips of brownish-coloured bark
and lined inside with a thick ply of the whitish cotton-like sub-
stance evidently gathered from the underside of the leaves of the
Blanket-wood (Senecio). Dimensions—outward, 4—5 inches across
by 4 inches deep; inside, 25-3 inches across by 2 inches deep.
Near the same locality, after a picnic party had departed, I, and
some other persons, were entertained by one of the fine Honey-
eaters, which descended close by and ate, with a relish, some
particles of preserved fruit that were left.

Breeding months, September to December or January.

PTILOTIS FRENATA, Ramsay.

“‘ Bridled Honey-eater.”
Figure.—Gould-Sharpe, Bds. of New Guinea, vol. iii, pl. 49.
Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 231.

Previous Descriptions of Eggs.—North, Records Australian
Museum, vol. ii (1892).

Geographical Distribution.—North Queensland.

est.—Cup-shaped ; composed of long pliant stems of a climbing
plant and portions of the soft reddish-brown stems of a small fern ;
inside neatly lined with a white, wiry, vegetable fibre, forming a
strong contrast to the reddish-brown colour of the exterior.
Dimensions over all, 4-25 inches by 2:6 inches in depth ; egg cavity,
2°5 inches across by 1°6 inches deep (North).

£ggs.—Clutch, 2 ; oval in form, tapering gradually to tke
smaller end, and are white with minute dots and round markings
of purplish-black and brownish-grey, the latter colour appearing
as if beneath the surface of the shell ; as usual the markings pre-
dominate on the thicker end, where in places they become confluent
and form an irregular zone; with the exception of these zones
the markings on one of the specimens are larger and more sparingly
dispersed, in the other they are uniformly distributed over the
greater portion of the surface of theshell. Dimensions in inches—
(1) :93 x -65; (2) -95 x ‘65. (North).

Observations.—This very fine northern Honey-eater is only known
to exist in the Rockingham Bay district, chiefly in the ranges.
It is found as far north as the Bloomfield River. Mr. Kendal
Broadbent, when collecting for Dr. Ramsay, first found the species
in the Cardwell district, where a few individuals were obtained
frequenting blossoming Eucalypts near the margin of a swamp.

I think it was this species we found in Dalrymple’s Gap feasting
in numbers upon the heads of long, erect, flowering spikes of a

dark-red colour of the graceful Umbrella-tree (Srassara).

612 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Through the ‘‘ Records” of the Australian Museum we learn
that the first recorded nest of the Bridled Honey-eater was found
by Mr. W. 8S. Day at Cairns, on the 28th November, 1891. It
was placed in a mass of creepers growing over a small shrub at
a height of about 3 feet from the ground. The nest was built of
stronger materials than is usual for the species, and unattached at
the rim. The eggs (two), which were partially incubated, were
also unlike those typical of Ptilotes, approaching nearer in colour
and the disposition of their markings those of some members of
the Wood Swallows (Artami). The parents were also procured.

PTILOTIS FLAVO-STRIATA, Gould.
“‘ Yellow-streaked Honey-eater.”

Figure.—Gouid-Sharpe, Bds. cf New Guinea, vol. iii, pl. 50.

Reference.—Cat. Bus. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 232.

Geographical Distribution.—North Queensland.

Nest and Eggs.—Unknown.

Observations.—This rare species was procured in the Rocking-
ham Bay district and forwarded to Gould for examination by
Mr. Waller, of Brisbane. The name flavo-striata is suggested by
the yellow chest-streaks which are such a conspicuous feature in
the bird’s appearance.

PritotTis sonora, Gould.
“Singing Honey-eater.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 33.

heeference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 234. :

Previous Descriptions of Eggs.—Gould, Bds. of Austr. (1848),
also Hdbk., vol. i, p. 505 (1865). North, Cat. Nests and Eggs,
Austn. Mus., p. 200 (1889).

Geographical Distribution.—Australia in general, especially the
interior.

Nest.—Cup-shaped, deep; in Western Australia substantially
interwoven and constructed of strong green-gathered grass, lined
inside with wool, cow-hair, long horse-hairs, &c.; usually suspended
in a bush or tree in open forest country. Dimensions, 34 inches
over all by 3 inches in depth; egg cavity 2 inches across by
13 inch deep.

In eastern parts the nest is somewhat thinner ; the grass being
matted with spider’s web, while the lining is fibrous rootlets.
Dimensions, over all, 24 inches by 1} inch in depth; egg cavity,
2 inches across by 1 inch deep.

Lggs.—Clutch, 2-3; oval in shape, more or less compressed
towards one end; texture of shell, fine ; colour, a delicate pinkish
buff, or beautiful fleshy tint having the appearance of a darker shade
in the form of a cap on the apex, this dark patch being really

NESTS AND EGGS OF HONEY-EATERS. 613

formed by a coalescence of numerous indistinct specks. At first
sight the eggs closely resemble those of the Pallid Cuckoo (C.
pallidus). Dimensions of a clutch in parts of an inch (1) 81 x 6;
G2yeSi x -6 5.(3) 8 59:

Observations.—I do not think any Honey-eater enjoys such a
widespread range as the Singing Honey-eater, which has been
observed in almost every part of the continent, the heavier-forested
parts excepted. I have had the pleasure of finding their nests
and delicately coloured flesh-tinted eggs, both in the east and in
the west of Australia, therefore I am able to attest to the difference
of structure (the nests of the western birds being the heavier built)
as pointed out by Gould.

The first nest I took (October, 1885) was in the Mallee country
near Nhill, Victoria, when I observed the birds building in a
**Bull-oak” (Casuarina), and subsequently obtained a pair of
beautiful eggs from it. My last find was a well-built nest placed
a few feet from the ground in ashort growth of ti-tree (Melaleuca)
scrub, Quindalup (W.A.). This nest, from which I flushed the
bird, contained a lovely set of 3 eggs. The Singing Honey-eater is
one of the most common birds I met with in Western Australia.
It is found breeding in orchards, where I noticed old nests in
orange and lemon trees. In one garden I watched a fine bird
clinging to a large head of bluish flowers (Hchiwm) busily probing
each flower for honey with the same rapidity as a domestic fowl
would pick up grain.

Why is the bird called the “Singing” Honey-eater? Gould says
its song is “full, clear, and loud.” All 1. could ever hear, save a
few shattering notes, was ‘ Cr-rook, cr-rook,” uttered while the
bird, with graceful flight, passed from tree to tree.

Mr. Hermann Lau, in his MS. notes from Darling Downs (Q.),
says :—“ Ptilotis vittata (sonora), locally called the Large-striped
Honey-eater, gets its name from the yellow line over the eyes.
This bird loves hanging its cradle on the lower branches of a
Casuarina, near water, on the outskirts of a thicket. The cradle,
or rather hammock, is made of grass with rootlets for a floor; has
sometimes three eggs. Cunningham’s Gap, October, 1876.”

Writing to me from Yorke Peninsula (S.A.), Mr. James G
McDougall includes a curious note :—‘‘ The Singing Honey-eater
builds a small and airy nest of wool, hair, and fine grass inter-
laced with twigs of Ti-tree and She oak without lining; eggs, two,
but sometimes three. In October, 1886, I found a nest of this
bird tenanted by two hens and containing five eggs, three of which
were the usual colour and two pure white.”

In the Australian Museum “ Catalogue,” Mr. A. J. North gives
field notes of the late Mr. K. H. Bennett, respecting the nest of
the Singing Honey-eater, and describes eggs collected by Mr.
James Ramsay (1880) and by the late Mr. W. Liscombe (1883).

614 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Breeding season includes the months from the end of July or
the beginning of August to December. Several clutches of these
eggs were taken in West Australia by the Calvert Expedition
during August, 1896. Occasionally they were the only kinds
observed on the sandhills.

PTILOTIS VERSICOLOR, Gould.
“ Varied Honey-eater.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 34.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 234.

Geographical Distribution.— North Queenslandand New Guinea.

Nest and Eggs.—Unknown.

Observations._-The Varied Honey-eater is one of the finest
species of its family. Little is known of its economy. Dr. Ramsay’s
P. Macleayana is synonymous with it.

PriLnoTis cHRysops, Latham.
* Yellow-faced Honey-eater.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 45.

Reference. —Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 236.

Previous Descriptions of Eggs.—Gould, Bds. of Austr. (1848),
also Hdbk., vol. ip. 521 (1865). North, Cat. Nests and Eggs
Austn. Mus., p. 208 (1889).

Geographical Distribution. — Queensland, New South Wales,
Victoria, and South Australia.

WVest.—Hlegant, cup-shaped, deep with swollen sides ; somewhat
frailly constructed of fine curly pieces of beautiful moss inter-
mingled with spiders’ web, sometimes with fine shreds of bark
added ; inside lined with very fine light-coloured rootlets and
pieces of grass; usually situated in a low bush, particularly a
Melaleuca or Leptospermum overhanging a stream, or sometimes
sewn, as it were, by the rim with cobweb to a fern (bracken)
frond. Dimensions over all 3 inches by 24 inches in depth; egg
cavity 2 inches across by 2 inches deep.

Eggs.—Clutch, 2-3 ; lengthened in form ; texture fine ; surface
slightly glossy ; colour, light reddish or pinkish-buff, marked and
freckled all over, and in a confluent patch round the apex, with
rich reddish-chestnut and purplish-grey ; the eggs are singular for
this genus, and somewhat resemble those of the Minah (Myzantha
garrula) in miniature. However, some examples are whiter in
the ground colour, with round spots about the apex. Dimensions
of a clutch in parts of an inch: (1) *82 x ‘57; (2) -74 x °4.

Observations.—This cheerful Yellow-faced Honey-eater, as Gould
states, may be regarded as a common species, and inhabits all the

So

NESTS AND EGGS OF HONEY-EATERS. 615

eastern colonies, more particularly the coastal regions. It is very
destructive to fruit, and is especially fond of grapes. Mr. North
writes it is one of the most common species of the genus Ptilotis
inhabiting the parks and gardens of Sydney. It is probably
nowhere more numerous than in Victoria, where it may be heard
(often at early morn) by its happy, chirrup-like song, near forest
streams, or in scrub by river’s margin.

The moss-bedecked nest and the typical red mottled eggs of
the Yellow-faced Honey-eater are exceedingly beautiful. Many I
have found, notably at Lilydale and Upper Werribee. At the
latter locality I specially remember a very pretty one situated in
a charming spot. It was suspended in an Acacia bush in blossom
that hung over a moss-covered bank of a dry watercourse in a
silent and sheltered nook of an Ironbark forest. (Date 11-10-90.)
The first nest of this species I took was at Malvern, 1869. The
eggs were the exceptional type, more distinctly spotted, like those
of its White-plumed cousin (P. penicillata). The only other
eggs I found of this type were obtained at Berwick, January,
1880.

Gould found a nest near the Liverpool Ranges, which was so
thinly constructed that he could see through it. Such examples
I have noticed myself, when the eggs could be seen from beneath.

Mr. Hermann Lau’s observations of the Yellow-faced Honey-
eater in southern Queensland are that it is usually found in the
sea-coast scrubs, and places its nest in a small bush, 4 or 6 feet
high. The nest consists of dry grass outside, and feathers and
rootlets for lining ; lays two eggs.—Cunningham’s Gap, October,
1876.

The little Yellow-faced Honey-eater is not only lively and cheer-
ful, but is persevering, as the following observations of Mr. and
Mrs. De Laney attest. On the Wombat Creek, near Omeo, Vic-
toria, a pair built in a shapely Blackwood (Acacia) in the garden.
As the site was rather near the fruit trees, the nest and eggs were
taken, but next day in the same tree a new nest was found nearly
completed, both birds working at it, and before the week was out
had eggs. Again the nest was robbed, and so on for six times,
each clutch being the full complement of three eggs. However,
the seventh time (there is luck in odd numbers, as the saying
goes) the birds won by building a nest near the ground in a low
bush about ten paces distant from the Blackwood tree, which was
not discovered till it contained young.

Breeding months, July to February. Mr. C. C. Brittlebank
and I observed birds building a nest on the bank of the Lerder-
derg River, 6 Feb, (1892). Mr. C. F. Belcher, in his pleasantly
written article in the ‘‘ Wombat,” “ Notes on birds of the Geelong
District,” mentions a pair of eggs he took at Lake Connewarre as
late as the 12 Feb. (1890).

616 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

PTILOTIS FILIGERA, Gould.
“ Streak-naped Honcy-eater.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., sup., pl. 42.

Reference. —Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 237

Nest and Lggs—Unknowr.

Geographical Distribution.—Northern Territory and North
Queensland, also New Guinea and Aru Islands.

Observations.—Gould reckoned that the Streak-naped Honey-
eater was more nearly allied to the White-gaped Honeyeater (P.
unicolor) than to any other, but is strikingly different from all
its congeners by the thread- like streak nat the ear coverts,
and by “the smail strize which decorate the back of the neck, hence
the very appropriate vernacular name, Streak-naped Honey- eater.

The original specimens described ‘by Gould were among the
novelties which rewarded the researches of Mr. James Wilcox,
who obtained two examples among the mangroves at Cape York.

PTILOTIS FLAVIGULARIS, Gould.
** Yellow-throated Honey-eater.”

Piguile. —Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 35.

Reference. ar Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 239.

Previous Descriptions of Degen Could Bas. of Austr. (1848),
also Hdbk., vol. i, p. 509 (1865). North, Cat. Nests and Eggs,
Austn. Mus., p. 201 (1889), also Rec. Aust. Mus., vol. i (1891).

Geographical Distribution.—Tasmania, and some of the larger
islands in Bass Straits, notably King and Flinders.

Nest.—Cup-shaped, deep ; outwardly constructed of bark
(Melalewca), fine twigs, grass, and spiders’ cocoons ; inside warmly
lined with fur, hair, wool, &c. ; usually placed Jow ina thick bush
or in scrub. The nest is not unlike that of P. lewcotis of the
mainland. Dimensions over all 4 inches by 3} deep ; egg cavity,
24 inches across by 2 deep.

Lggs.—Clutch 2-3 (3-4, Brent); oval in shape, compressed
towards one end; texture of shell fine ; surface slightly glossy ;
colour, warm or pinkish-white, sparingly spotted with reddish-
brown or chestnut and purplish-grey. Dimensions of odd examples
in parts of an inch (1) :93 x ‘7; (2) -91 x -67.

Observations.—The exceedingly fine Yellow-throated Honey-
eater is well named for its beautiful colouring upon the throat.
It is an insular form confined to Tasmania and some of the islands
in Bass Straits, notably King Island and Flinders Group. In the
last-named localities we procured birds and nests during the expe-
ditions (1887 and 1893) of the Field Naturalists’ Club of Victoria.

On King Island two nests were found in low bushes, and were
warmly furnished with a thick ply of opossum’s fur. Our speci-
mens of birds were easily procured. All that was necessary was

a Mi INA a RP oa

”

NESTS AND EGGS OF HONEY-EATERS. 617

to imitate their whistle-like “ tchook, tchook ” call notes, when a
poor bird would often answer and fly into the tree overhead its
deceiver, from whence it easily fell to a half charge of dust shot.

Strolling through the scrub on Flinders, I watched a pair of
Yellow-throats chevying each other through the trees. A butterfly
crosses in front, diverting the attention of the foremost bird, which
instantly captures it and flies to a tree. Devouring the insect, the
bird wipes its bill on the branch, with evident satisfaction, and
makes off again.

An unoccupied nest I found in a Ti-tree thicket is not unlike
that of the White-eared Honey-eater of the mainland, being con-
structed of bark, grass, and spiders’ cocoons, but lined with wool
and feathers instead of hair only. However, in Tasmania the
Yellow-throated Honey-eater has been seen gathering hair for its
nest from live animals—even “human” animals—for Mr. A. E.
Brent gives me the following amusing story :—

He and a companion were in hiding among ferns (bracken) in
a deep gully watching for hawks. A Yellow-throated Honey-eater
was noticed poking about as if it had a nest near. They took off
their hats so as not to attract the bird’s attention. The bird
hopped around, then alighted upon one of their heads, and com-
menced tugging at the hair, which would not yield like the fur
of a marsupial. The bird tugged harder, but the hair slipping
through its bill caused the bird to turn a semi-somersault back-
wards, which made Mr. Brent and his companion laugh so that
the bird was scared away. The nest in process of building was
found about 15 paces away.

Gould found a nest containing young (28th September, 1839).
He also described the nest, its situation, and eggs.

Breeding months, August to December.

PTILOTIS FASCIOGULARIS, Gould.
“‘Fasciated Honey-eater.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol. sup. iv, pl. 40.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 240.

Geographical Distribution.—Queensland.

Nest and Eggs.—Unknown.

Observations. —These finely-shaped Honey-eaters, which, asGould
points out, differ from the other members of the genus in the dis-
tinct bars of pale yellow and brown which mark the throat and
fore part of the neck, are generally found in belts of mangroves on
the Queensland coast, and adjacent low, swampy islands, and are
sometimes called the Island Honey-eater. During an excursion with
Mr. A. W. Milligan, on the Lower Fitzroy, we found the birds
making the mangroves merry with their pleasant notes. The birds
were extremely shy, nevertheless we succeeded in procuring a
couple of skins.

618 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Prinotis LEucoTIs, Latham.
‘‘White-eared Honey-eater.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol. vol. iv, pl. 36.

feference.—Cat. Bds., Brit. Mus.,.vol. ix, p. 240.

Previous Descriptions of Eggs.—Campbell, Southern Science
Record (1883). North, Cat. Nests and Eggs, Austn. Mus., p. 201
(1889) ; also app. 11 (1890).

Geographical Distribution.—Australia in general, except north.

Nest.—Cup-shaped, deep; well constructed of fine bark and grass,
matted together with spiders’ cocoons ; lined inside with a warm
ply of cow or other hair; usually placed near the ground in a thick
bush or in low scrub. Dimensions over all 34 to 4 inches, by
24 to 34 inches in depth; egg cavity 2 inches across by 1} inch
deep.

L£qgs.—Clutch, 2 usually ; oval, compressed towards one end ;
texture fine, surface slightly glossy ; colour, almost white, but
sometimes of a delicate flesh tint, sparingly but distinctly marked
and spotted with pinkish-red, the spots being more about the upper
quarter. Dimensions of a clutch in parts of an inch: (1) ‘86 x
"64; (2) 85 x 63.

Observations.—This fine, showy Honey-eater, with conspicuous
white ears, is not an uncommon bird in lightly timbered and
heathy tracts of country in Victoria and other southern parts. It
is a scarce bird in Western Australia. I fancy Dr. Ramsay’s
north-west habitat for this species needs verification.

The bird is an early breeder. I had always to be afield in the
coastal scrubs about the beginning of September if I wanted fresh
eggs. The nest is difficult to find amongst the acres of thick, short
scrub, and frequently is only detected by watching the movements
of the bird, which at all times is exceedingly wily. My greatest find
of White-eared Honey-eaters’ nests in one season was in 1883, if I
recollect rightly—the year when I found three nests all situated
about a foot from the ground, and lined with a thick warm ply of
cow-hairs wonderfully woven.

It is interesting to watch the birds plucking hair off while
perched on the backs of cattle, and rather a difficult task it proves
for the bird to effect lodgment, especially if the cow patronised
be not in an amiable mood, when she tosses her head angrily and
switches her tail from flank to neck, while the bird, fluttering over,
waits an opportunity to dodge the cow’s tail, and between each
lash plucks a few hairs till a mouthful is obtained, then flies to
its nest.

Mr. G. E. Shepherd, Somerville, Victoria, has enjoyed a some-
what comical experience with nest-building White-eared Honey-
eaters. They have actually plucked hairs from his horse when he
was riding through the country.

NESTS AND EGGS OF HONEY-EATERS. 619

No doubt before cattle were introduced to Australia this beau-
tiful Honey-eater furnished its nest with the hair or fur of kan-
garoos and other indigenous animals.

Mr. C. F. Belcher has observed that the same pair of White-
eared Honey-eaters will build within a few feet of the same spot
year after year,

Breeding months, from the end of August to December.

PTrILOTIS COCKERELLI, Gould.
‘“‘Cockerell Honey-eater.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., sep. pl. 43.

feference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 241.

Geographical Distribution.—North Queensland.

Nest and Eggs.—Unknown.

Observations. —Of this rare honey-eater Gould writes :—“ It is
but an act of justice that at least one of the birds of Australia
should be named after Mr. James Cockerell, inasmuch as he is a
native-born Australian, has collected very largely in the northern
parts of that great country, and discovered more than one new
species, amongst which must be enumerated the present very
interesting bird.”

Mr. Cockerell found his namesake frequenting the little-explored
parts of Cape York Peninsula, often in company with the Blue-
bellied Lorikeet and the Yellow-spotted Honey-eater.

When Mr. Harry Barnard was collecting for Mr. D. Le Souéf
and others during the breeding season of 1896-7, at Cape York,
he met with the Cockerell Honey-eater, but did not succeed in
procuring its nest.

Pritotis AURIcoMIs, Latham.
“ Yellow-tufted Honey-eater.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 37.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 242.

Previous Descriptions of Eggs. —Ramsay, This, vol. vi (1864),
id. Gould, Bds. of Aust. Hdbk., vol. i, p. 512 (1865).

Geogr aphical Distr ibution. —Queensland, New South Wales, and
Victoria.

Nest.—Cup-shaped, substantial ; constructed of fine strips of
brownish-coloured bark (chiefly), and grass matted with cocoons,
sometimes of various colours ; inside lined with grass, and on the
bottoin with soft seeds—thistle, Clematis, &c. ; usually suspended in
a creeper, sapling, or small tree in open forest country. Dimen-
sions, 3}-4 inches over all x 21-3 inches in depth; egg-cavity
21-91 ae x 14-2 ee deep.

Eggs.—Clutch, 2-3; short in form,abru ptly compressed towards
one end ; ; texture, fee faint trace of gloss on surface ; colour, rich

620 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

or pinkish-buff, darker on the apex ; moderately and finely spotted
with pinkish-red and purplish-grey, the majority of the markings
being about the larger end. Dimensions of a clutch in parts of an
inch: (1) ‘85 x 66; (2) °82 x -63.

Observations.-—This exceedingly handsome and attractive Honey-
eater favours the more inland portions of South Queensland, New
South Wales, and Victoria, and especially loves Ironbark (Eucalypt)
forests.

Some species of Honey-eaters are gregarious at times. Towards
the end of our summer (March, 1889) I witnessed the unusual sight
of about 100 or more of the beautiful Yellow-tufted Honey-eaters
flying in a flock northward across the rich flats of Bacchus Marsh.

I have observed Yellow-tufted Honey-eaters nesting in the Iron-
bark saplings near Bendigo, also on the Upper Werribee, but was
always unfortunate in the matter of securing eggs. A nest from
the latter locality, found in a Golden Wattle (Acacia) sapling, was
somewhat large, deep, and firmly built of fine strips of reddish
strings of bark, together with spiders’ cocoons, and was lined inside
with finer shreds of the same coloured bark, thistle-down, and such-
like soft seeds.

The eggs in my collection are from Dr. Ramsay, who has enjoyed
early and delightful nesting experiences with this beautiful Honey-
eater, and whose remarks I make no apology for quoting at length:
“This species remains with us in the neighbourhood of Sydney
throughout the whole year, breeding earlier than the generality of
Honey-eaters. We have eggs in our collection taken early in June,
and as late as the end of October, during which month they some-
times have a third brood. August and September seem to be
their principal months for breeding. Upon referring to my note-
book, I find that I captured two young birds well able to fly, on
the 18th of July, 1863 ; but during some seasons birds breed here
much earlier than in others. The nest is a neat but somewhat
bulky structure, open above, and composed of strips of the Stringy-
bark tree (Hucalyptus obliqua). The total length of the nest is
about four inches by from two inches and a-half to three inches
wide, being two inches deep by one inch and a-half inside. The
eggs, which are usually two in number, are of a pale flesh-pink,
darker at the larger end, where they are spotted and blotched with
markings of a much deeper hue, inclining to salmon-colour ; in
some the markings form a ring upon the thick end, in others, one
irregular patch with a few dots upon the rest of the surface.
When freshly taken, they have a beautiful blush of pink, which
they generally lose a few days after being blown. Their length is
from ten to eleven lines by seven to eight in breadth. Some
varieties have a few obsolete dots of faint lilac ; others are with-
out markings, save one patch at the top of the larger end. Like
most of our Australian birds’ eggs, they vary much in shape and

NESTS AND EGGS OF HONEY-EATERS. 621

tint of colour. The site selected for the nest is usually some low
bushy shrub, among the rich clusters of Zecoma australis, or care-
fully hidden in the thick tufts of Blechnum (L. cartilayineum),
which often cover a space of many square yards. In these clumps,
where it clings to the stems of ferns, I have several times found
two or three pairs breeding at the same time within a few yards
of each other. The ferns and Zecome seem to be their favourite
places for breeding, although the nests may often be found placed
suspended between forks in the small bushy oaks (Caswarine). In
the nest of this Honey-eater, I have several times found the egg of
the Cuculus inornatus (pallidus ).”

The following is an interesting note kindly sent to me by Mr.
C. C. Brittlebank :—“ Yellow-tufted Honey-eaters’ nests have been
observed in the trees and shrubs as under: ‘Old man’ Saltbush,
about three feet from the ground (9th November— young) ; Wattle-
tree, about seven feet from the ground; Tronbark (Eucalypt), at
about forty feet ; Aster, with a leaf like Rosemary (18 October—
eggs) ; Gray-box (Kucalypt), about fifty feet high (26 October—
old birds feeding young). Nests in all cases were built of moss,
root-fibres, grass, and spiders’ cocoons. In one instance the birds
were working at their nests while I was within 6 feet of them.
The nests as built here greatly resembles that of the Yellow-faced
Honey-eater (P. chrysops), but are thicker towards the bottom.
One nest had several pieces of bark woven through the structure
and over the branches to which it hung. Have only seen these
nests in one part of this district (the Upper Werribee River), and
only in a tract of country about half a square mile in extent.”

PTILOTIS CASSIDIX, Jardine.
“‘ Helmeted Honey-eater.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 39.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 243.

Previous Description of Eggs.—Campbell, Southern Science
Record (1885).

Geographical Disiribution.—V ictoria.

Nest.—Substantial, cup-shaped, deep, with bulging sides; con-
structed of soft strings or strips of brownish bark (£. obliqua),
with a few spider’s cocoons and a leaf or two inserted ; inside lined
with fine bark and other soft material such as hair, Clematis seeds,
&c. ; usually suspended in the branch of a low tree or bush near
or overhanging a stream, in thick forest. Dimensions over all,
34 to 4 inches by 4 inches in depth ; egg cavity, 2} inches across
by 22 inches deep.

L£ggs.—Clutch, 2; well-shaped, oval, slightly compressed towards
one end ; texture, fine; surface, slightly glossy ; colour of a fleshy

622 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

tint, moderately marked with reddish or pinkish-brown, and dull
purplish spots, more numerous about the apex. Dimensions of
two clutches in parts of an inch. A—(1) ‘95 x ‘69; (2) 94 x 68;
B—(1) :92 x 63; (2) -91 x ‘64.

Observations.—The Helmeted or Leadbeater’s Honey-eater is
perhaps the rarest and the most splendid bird of its genus. It
was brought to scientific light in a peculiar way. Gould’s friend,
Sir William Jardine, sent him a specimen obtained in Edinburgh
from among a collection of ordinary Australian species. The new
bird was exhibited at a meeting of the London Zoological Society,
December, 1866.

The Helmeted Honey-eater has a somewhat local habitat, con-
fined to the great forests of Gippsland, where no doubt it takes
the place of its more inland congener, the beautiful Tufted Honey-
eater (P. awricomis), which it resembles. Like the Tufted, the
Helmeted is gregarious at seasons; Mr. A. W. Milligan informed
me he had seen a large flock in the vicinity of Olinda Creek, near
Lilydale.

It was at that creek that the only three authenticated nests
have been discovered. The first and historical nest being found
during the first camp-out of the Field Naturalists’ Club of Vic-
toria, November, 1884. I was aware these fine birds existed in a
certain patch of Native Hazel (Pomaderris) scrub, where on
several occasions I made attempts, but failed to discover their
breeding-place. The camp-out having formed themselves into
parties, I piloted the oologists to the hazel patch, which was hardly
entered before the honor fell to the late Mr. W. Hatton of detect-
ing the first nest with the rare Honey-eater sitting. The nest was
situated at a height of about 20 feet, and was suspended to an
out-stretched branch of a Hazel overhanging the creek. With what
ecstacy of delight the small tree was ascended! The handsome
bird still retained possession of its nest. With Mr. Hatton’s
assistance, I all but had my hands on the coveted prize, when,
without a moment’s warning, crash went the tree by the root, and
all—the two naturalists, tree, bird, nest, and eggs—went headlong
into the stream beneath. Alas! I thought, farewell to the eggs
of Ptilotis cassidix. So near and yet sofar! But imagine our
astonishment when, after dragging ourselves out of the water, and
removing some of the fallen débris, to find nest and eggs intact
—thanks to the poor bird, which bravely stuck to its home till

“overwhelmed by the falling foliage. The eggs, in which incuba-
tion had just commenced, were beautiful specimens, and are now
in my cabinet.

The second nest was discovered by two field naturalists the
following season, near the same locality, also in a Hazel, overhang-
ing the stream, while the third nest I found 9th October, 1886, in
the same creek, but nearer Lilydale. By bending the bush or

NESTS AND EGGS OF HONEY-EATERS. 623

small tree, this nest was reached from the ground. The eggs—
a pair—were perfectly fresh, and now adorn the collection at the
National Museum, Melbourne.

Breeding months are most likely from September to December,

PTILOTIS CRATITIA, Gould.
“ Wattle-cheeked Honey-eater.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 38.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 243.

Geographical Distribution. — Northern Territory, Victoria,
South and West Australia.

Yest.—Most resembles that of P. sonora (Singing Honey-eater),
being somewhat thinly constructed of grass matted with spider’s
web, &c., and suspended in a bush or low tree.

E£ggs.— Unknown.

Observations.—The Wattled-cheeked Honey-eater has been
chiefly found along the southern part of Australia, where it seems
to love the timber of the drier country.

Gould first found it as a new species on the 26th June, 1839,
in the ranges near the Upper Torrens, in South Australia.

When hunting for Mallee-hen mounds in the Wimmera District,
Victoria, I met with this Honey-eater in the scrub, and observed
a bird building low (within reach) in a Mallee tree. The birds,
which were fairly numerous, were noisy, but shy.

This honey-eater may be distinguished from all of its kind by
the stripes of beautiful, lilac- colour ed, naked skin which stretches
from the corner of the mouth, and extends down the sides of the
cheeks ; hence the vernacular name—‘' Wattle-cheeked.”

PTILOTIS KEARTLANDI.
“ Keartland Honey-eater.”

Figure and Reference.—North, Report Horn Scientific Expe-
dition.

Previous Description of Eggs.—North, Report Horn Scientific
Expedition, p. 94 (1896).

Geographical Distribution.—South (Central), West, and North-
west Australia.

Nest.—Not unlike that of P. sonora (Singing Honey-eater).

Fggs.—Clutch, 2 usually ; inclined to be lengthened and oval
in form ; texture, fine ; surface, glossy ; colour, pale flesh tint or
light pinkish-buff, sparingly marked with a few indistinct reddish
spots in the form of a belt round the apex. Most resemble those
of P. sonora. Dimensions of a clutch in parts of an inch: (1)
*88 x °6 ; (2) 85 x 58; an odd example, ‘89 x ‘68.

624 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Observations.—In a small parcel of skins collected by Mr. Tom.
Carter in the vicinity of the North-west Cape about 1890, I
received one skin of this Honey-eater. I did not pay much atten-
tion to it at the time beyond taking it to be a variety of the Singing
Honey-eater.

Mr. G. A. Keartland found the same kind of bird in Central
Australia during the Horn Scientific Exploring Expedition, 1890,
and Mr. A. J. North, who was entrusted to examine all the skins
collected by the expedition, recognised a specific difference in the
Honey-eater and dedicated it fa Mr. Keartland, a compliment
richly deserved for his enthusiasm as a field ornithologist.

In 1896 Mr. Keartland again met his namesake in some
scattered Mallee near the tropical line in Western Australia
during the unfortunate expedition promoted by Mr. Calvert.

PTILOTIS PENCILLATA, Gould.
“‘ White-plumed Honey-eater.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 43.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 244.

Previous Descriptions of Hggs. , Southern Science
Record (1883); North, Cat. Nests and Eggs, Australian Mus., p.
205 (1889).

Geographical Dastribution.—South Queensland, New South
Wales, Victoria, South (includes the interior) and West Australia.

Nest.—Cup-shaped, small, sides slightly swollen ; constructed of
grass matted with spider’s web and cottony substances, sometimes
with greenish-coloured cocoons ; inside lined with cottony material
and long horsehair ; usually situated well out of reach, suspended
to the pendulous branch of a Eucalypt, not unfrequently near or
overhanging water, but eceasionally placed low in - ela noes
Acacia, &c. Dimensions over all 2—24 inches by 2—24 inches in
depth ; egg cavity 24 inches across by 14 inches deep.

Eggs.—Clutch 23: Jong oval, compressed towards one end;
texture fine ; surface very slightly ¢ glossy ; colour, delicate pinkish-
white, moderately marked with distinct roundish spots of pinkish-
brown and purplish-grey. Sometimes, especially more inland, the
ground colour is pure white and the markings few ana faint.
Dimensions of a clutch in parts of an inch: (1) 86 x :59; (2)
"84 x 58; (3) 83 x °d8.

Gis —The principal habitat of this familiar Honey-
eater may, roughly speaking, be said to be the south. However,
it has been observed in Central Australia and a portion of the
west, notably between Lake Way and Lake Augusta, where Mr,
G. A. Keartland states he observed the birds numerous wherever
water was found. Several nests containing young were noticed

NESTS AND EGGS OF HONEY-EATERS. 625

as early as 3rd July (1896), while at the camel depot on an
unnamed creek several clutches of eggs were secured during the
following month.

The bird is common in Victoria, where it appears to be one of
the few native birds that thrive, or, at all events, is not driven
back by the advance of civilisation ; in fact, its numbers have
rather increased in the parks and gardens in the vicinity of Mel-
bourne. In our school-boy days we called the bird the ‘‘Greenie,”
on account of its olive-green plumage.

The White-plumed Honey-eater, like all the members of its genus,
is an active little creature, and a trifle pugnacious. Single-handed,
it easily knocks a sparrow on its back. Should a large bird or
natural enemy appear this Honey-eater sets up a shrill, rapid,
monotonous “‘ pee-pee pee ” alarm, which is immediately taken up
by all the species in the neighbourhood. The Honey-eaters then
congregate about where the intruder is perched, screech and scold
it till it is fairly scared, and glad to depart.

Gould describes the nest of this species, but not the eggs, except
that they were three in number. He quoted from a South Aus-
tralian correspondent, who wrote:—‘‘ The Ptilotis penicillata
builds in the Acacias close to my house at Collingrove, near
Angaston. I can sit at dinner and waich the young ones being
fed. One female sat hatching close to the window, with the strong
light of a moderator lamp shining on her at night.”

A nest of the White-plumed Honey-eater containing a set of
beautiful fleshy-white eggs, with pronounced spots of pinkish
brown, are indeed, although common, amongst the most beautiful
things of a collector’s cabinet.

On the Murray I have found the eggs of the White-plumed
Honey-eater almost white, and with very few markings. Still
further afield, in Central Australia, Mr. G. A. Keartland, in the
Report of the Horn Scientific Expedition, states he also took eggs
of this species which were white, with faint spots.

Only on one occasion have I found the large flesh-coloured egg
of the Pallid Cuckoo (C. pallidus) in a nest of the White-plumed
Honey-eater.

The principal breeding months are September to December.
However, the extreme limits of the season may be taken from
June or July to February.

PriLoTIS ORNATA, Gould.
** Yellow-plumed Honey-eater.”
Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 39.
Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 244.
Previous Descriptions of Eggs.—Gould, Bds. of Austr. (1848) ;
also, Hdbk., vol. i, p. 515 (1865). North, Cat. Nests and Eggs,
Austn. Mus., p. 204 (1889).

2k

626 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Geographical Distribution.—Victoria, (probably the south-west
interior of New South Wales), South and West Australia.

Nest.—Cup-shaped, neat, small ; constructed lightly of fine
greenish grass, matted or intermixed with spiders’ cocoons and
wool; no particular lining inside except a few downy seeds, &c.,
on the bottom ; usually suspended on a parasitical climber, bush,
or small tree. Dimensions over all, 24 inches x 13 inches in.
depth ; egg cavity, 1 inches across x 13 inches deep.

Eyggs.—Clutch, 2-3 ; oval, compressed towards one end ; texture
fine ; surface, faint trace of gloss; colour, beautiful, being rich
salmon pink, distinctly blotched and spotted, particularly about
the apex, with rich pinkish-brown and dull grey markings.
Dimensions of a clutch, in parts of an inch—(1) ‘82 x ‘61; (2)
282 x 61; (3)!:81 =x 6.

The eggs, like those of the Little Yellow-spotted Honey-eater (P.
gracilis) of Northern Queensland, are amongst the most richly-
coloured of the Ptilotes.

Observations.—This very elegant and attractive Honey-eater,
or, as Gould well named it, the Graceful, has a fair range of
habitat over the drier and more inland provinces from Victoria to
Western Australia, and possibly including New South Wales
adjacent to the River Murray, or the Murray belts where Gould
procured his birds.

T first met this graceful bird in the season of 1880 among a
forest of saplings near Bagshot, Bendigo, where one or two nests
were found suspended in a parasitical creeper (Cassytha) sup-
ported by small trees—a very secure situation for a small nest.
But the most beautifully-situated nest I ever found of this species,
and one well worthy of such a pretty bird, was in the Mallee
country, suspended in a low Acacia bush, adorned with its golden
store of “wee furry balls.”

Again, 25th November, 1889, I met this Honey-eater in Western
Australia, on the coast at Woodman Point, about 8 miles from
Fremantle. There in a splendid shining clump of Eucalypts, the
species of which I did not learn, a boy pointed out to me a nest
suspended in a swaying branch. The late Mr. Roby Woods, in
whose company I was, drove the buggy underneath ; standing
upon the seat I easily secured the nest, which contained one egg,
while the pretty birds protested fearlessly, showing to perfection
their graceful figures and lengthened yellow plumes upon their
necks. I also noticed the same kind of birds flitting about the
gum-trees in the town of Fremantle, where they seemed quite at
home, as much so as its White-plumed compeer does in the gardens
about Melbourne.

Breeding months, August or September to December.

NESTS AND EGGS OF HONEY-EATERS. 627

PrILoTIS PLUMULA, Gould.
“ Yellow-fronted Honey-eater.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 40.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 245.

Previous Descriptions of Eggs.—Gould, Bds. of Austr. (1848),
also Hdbk., vol. I, p. 516 (1865); Diggles, Companion Gould’s
Hdbk. (1877.)

Geographical Distribution.—Northern Territory, North (pro-
bably) and South Queensland, South and West Australia.

Nest.—Cup-shaped, small, elegant; formed of dried grasses,
lined with soft cotton-like buds of flowers, and suspended from a
slender branch, frequently so close to the ground as to be reached
by hand (Gould).

Fggs.—Clutch, 2 (and probably 3); salmon colour, with a
zone of a deeper tint at the larger end, and the whole freckled
with minute spots of a still darker hue; ten lines (‘83 inch) long
by seven lines (‘58 inch) broad (Gould).

Observations.—The range of the Yellow-fronted Honey-eater
extends more northerly than its close ally the Yellow-plumed, both
in east and west Australia. I do not recollect seeing the bird in
Victoria. All the specimens collected by Gilbert were from the
York District, in Western Australia, where it inhabits the White-
gum forests, breeding from October to January.

PTILOTIS FLAVESCENS, Gould.
“ Yellow Honey-eater.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 41.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 245.

Geographical Distribution.—North-west Australia, Northern
Territory, and North Queensland, also New Guinea.

Nest and Hggs.—Unknown.

Observations.— Little is known of the habits and economy of the
beautiful Yellow Honey-eater, which is a denizen of northern
parts.

Mr. G. A. Keartland, of the Calvert Exploration Expedition,
when on the Fitzroy River, with regard to this beautiful Honey-
_ eater, noted :—‘“ During the warm days of December and January
these birds came to the water-trough in such numbers to drink and
bathe as to completely line the trough. They seem to be exactly
similar in habits to the P. penicillata (White-plumed Honey-eater),
spending their time bathing, chasing each other, and seeking
insects or pollen from the blossom amongst the Eucalypt foliage.
The sexes are alike in plumage, and can only be distinguished by
dissection. They were just building their nests when we left the
locality, in March.”

Ptilotis germana, Ramsay, is a sub-species of the Yellow Honey-
eater. Vide ‘“ Catalogue Birds, British Museum,” vol. ix, p. 246.

628 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Prinotis FLAVA, Gould.
“ Yellow-tinted Honey-eater.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 42.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 246.

Previous Descriptions of Hggs.—Campbell, Victorian Natural-
ist (1886) ; North, Cat. Nests and Eggs, Austn. Mus. App. (1890).

Geographical Distribution.—Northern Territory and North
Queensland.

Nest.—Cup-shaped, somewhat shallow ; lightly constructed of
shreds of bark and a little grass, matted together with yellowish-
white spiders’ cocoons ; inside lined with light brownish-coloured
bark ; usually suspended in a low tree; not infrequently in orange
or lemon trees in an orchard. Dimensions over all: 34 inches by
2 inches in depth ; egg cavity, 2? inches across by 14 inches deep.

Lggs.—Clutch 2 ; long oval, compressed towards one end ; tex-
ture, fine; surface without gloss ; colour, warm white marked, chiefly
about the apex, with blotches of pinkish-red or pinkish-brown, and
light purplish-brown. The same character of colouring as is gener-
ally found on eggs of the Maluri (Wrens). Dimensions of a clutch
in parts of an inch: (1) ‘91 x ‘62; (2) -86 x ‘61.

Observations.—The beautiful Yellow-tinted Honey-eater is
restricted to the coastal region of Northern Queensland, including
the Gulf of Carpentaria.

As the orange and lemon trees were flowering in the orchard
—a somewhat neglected one—adjoining our Cardwell camp, we
had ample opportunities to observe many graceful Honey-eaters
which were attracted thither by the seductive nectar of the flowers.
No doubt many insects were devoured as wellas honey. <At times,
especially during the morning, the garden was transformed into a
perfect aviary by the presence of five or six kinds of honey-eaters
flitting together about the blossom-laden trees, the little Brown
with its cheerful song, the Dusky Brown-backed, the Yellow-
spotted, and the Yellow. Perhaps the most prominent visitor for
song and activity was the lovely Yellow Honey-eater. The memory
of our camp would be incomplete if not associated with the duets
of loving pairs of these birds.

A nest was discovered building in one of the orange trees, but
an accident befell it before it was completed. Subsequently, on
the 22nd September (1885), in the Acacia Vale Nurseries (Messrs.
Gulliver), Townsville, I found another nest containing a pair of
eggs, also suspended in an orange tree, at a distance of about 4 or
5 feet from the ground. Further north, in the Bloomfield River
district, Mr. Le Souéf noticed a nest containing young of this
species in a Mango tree that was heavily laden with fruit, and
growing alongside the verandah of a dwelling ; date, October,
1896.

NESTS AND EGGS OF HONEY-EATERS. 629

In the “Catalogue” of the Australian Museum we find it recorded
that Mr. J. A. Boyd forwarded the nest and eggs of the Yellow
Honey-eater which he found, 10th January, 1890, in his plantation,
Herbert River. The nest was mostly composed of the hair-like
fibre of the cocoanut palm, and was suspended by the rim to the
thin leafy twigs of a Cumquat (orange) tree. Mr. Boyd also stated
that all the nests he took were mostly composed of cocoanut fibre.
Two nests were built in a species of /icus, and were 18 feet from
the ground ; another was built in a Mango about 8 feet from the
ground,

Breeding months, end of August or September to January.

PTILOTIS UNICOLOR, Gould.
“ White-gaped Honey-eater.”

figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 46.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 249.

Previous Description of Eggs.—Campbell, Victorian Naturalist

1886).
en ical Distribution.—North-west Australia, Northern
Territory and North Queensland, also New Guinea.

Nest.—Cup-shaped ; composed of strips of light brownish-coloured
bark, matted with yellowish or golden cocoons of spiders ; inside
lined with a good ply of exceedingly fine grass, with a few fine
Casuarina needles on the bottom ; usually suspended to a forked
twig in the topmost branches of a leafy (small, or moderately-sized)
tree near a stream. Dimensions over all, 3-4 inches by 2? inches
in depth ; egg cavity, 2-24 inches across by 2 inches deep.

Lggs.— Clutch 2; oval, compressed slightly towards one end ;
texture fine ; surface, faint trace of gloss; colour, warm or dleli-
cate pinkish-white, with large blotches and spots of beautiful light
pinkish and purplish-red, the markings being fairly distributed
but more inclined to congregate around the upper quarter. Most
resembles those of the Yellow Honey-eater (P. flava) type.
Dimensions of a clutch in parts of an inch, (1) ‘88 x ‘65; (2)
86 x ‘64.

Observations.—This modest-coloured Honey eater is a denizen of
the northern part of Australia. Gilbert discovered it in the Port
Darwin district. The situations, where it was usually observed,
were those adjacent to swampy thickets, where it was seen gener-
ally in pairs, and, exceedingly lively.

I have found the White-gaped Honey-eater as far south as
Townsville, where I took birds, nests and eggs on Stuart Creek.
The day following the discovery of the Yellow Honey-eater’s nest
(22 September, 1885), I discovered this other, which was also new.
The nest was suspended by the rim to a forked twig of a thickly
foliaged tree, and contained two eggs perfectly fresh. Previously

630 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

I had found a nest in the upper forked branches of a similar tree.
This nest contained a pair of fully-fledged young, for which the
parents were very solicitous, and gave me a good opportunity of
identifying the species.

Breeding months, probably from August to January.

MELIORNIS AUSTRALASIANA, Shaw.
Crescent Honey-eater.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. 1v, pl. 27.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. rx, p. 252.

Previous Descriptions of Eggs.—Campbell, Southern Science
Record (1883). North Cat. Nests and Eggs, Austn. Mus., p.
195 (1889).

Geographical Distribution.—South Queensland, N. 8. Wales,
Victoria, South Australia, Tasmania, and intermediate islands in
Bass Straits.

Nest.—Cup-shaped, deep with thick-built sides; composed of
somewhat broad strips of (Melaleuca, &c.) bark, protected with a
loose but goodly supply of twigs ; firmly lined inside with fine
grass, and on the bottom with fine reddish flowering stalks of moss ;
usually placed low in thick underscrub, in sword-grass, or in ferns,
in forest. Dimensions over all, 4-5 inches by 3 inches in depth ;
egg cavity, 1} inches across by 14 inches deep.

Hggs.—Clutch 3; oval, slightly compressed towards one end ;
texture of shell fine ; surface very slightly glossy ; colour, delicate
fleshy tint, darker on the apex, which is boldly spotted and marked,
usually in the form of a belt, with rich pinkish-red or reddish-
chestnut, and dull purplish-brown or grey. Dimensions in parts of
an inch of a clutch taken in Tasmania, (1) ‘79 x 56; (2) ‘78 x°58.
A set taken in Victoria are smaller in size, and beautiful for their
delicate character and lovely markings, measure—(1) 75x54; (2)
73x54; (3) 72 x °55.

Observations.—This splendid little Honey-eater dwells in the
depths of forests, especially where the thick undergrowth grows
in moist or swampy places, or in mountain water-courses. The
bird has a range from South Queensland to Tasmania.

It seems a misnomer to call the bird Tasmanian, for although
it is numerous on that island, itis by no means uncommon in
favoured localities on the mainland. The black lunar-shaped mark
down each side of the breast of the male naturally suggests
“Crescent” or “ Horse-shoe” as a more appropriate and at once
distinctive name for this Honey-eater.

The female is, however, destitute of the herse-shoe markings, a
fact in favour of separating the species, as it was formerly, under
the genus Lichmera, from the Meliornes, which have the sexes
alike in plumage.

NESTS AND EGGS OF HONEY-EATERS. 631

The first nest I found of the Crescent Honey-eater was in 1879
in dense Ti-tree scrub that marked the course of Scotchman’s Creek,
near Oakleigh. Unfortunately it contained young. Guided by
the cue for time and place, the following season (in September),
almost in the exact spot, I found another nest, prettily situated a
foot or two from the ground ina bunch of graceful coral fern
(Gleichenia) that was supported by the scrub, containing a richly
coloured clutch of three eggs.

Writing from Tasmania, Mr. A. E. Brent says: ‘“ We rarely
come across more than three eggs to a nest of this little bird, but
I on one occasion took four eggs from a nest in the head of bracken
ferns at Austin’s Ferry, November, 1885.”

Breeding months, August to December.

MELIORNIS NOVE-HOLLANDIA, Latha.
‘“* Honey-eater.”

Figure.— Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 23.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 253.

Previous Descriptions of Eggs.—Gould, Bds. of Austr. (1848),
also Hdbk., vol. 1, p. 487 (1865). North, Cat. Nests and Eggs,
Austn. Mus:, p. 191 (1889).

Geographical Distribution.—South Queensland, N. 8. Wales,
Victoria, South Australia, Tasmania, and intermediate islands in
Bass Straits.

Nest.—Cup shaped, sides somewhat thick ; composed outwardly
of twigs, bark, and grass; lined well inside, especially on the
bottom, with particles of the brown velvety inner particles of
Banksia cones, or soft seed-vessels of certain plants (an example
from the Upper Werribee is lined entirely with beautiful soft
yellowish-white seed-casings of a particular shrub) ; usually placed
in a small fork, or among the upright twigs of a low thick bush,
or in scrub. Dimensions over all, 3-4 inches by 24-33 inches in
depth ; egg cavity, 2-2} inches across by 14-1} inches deep.

Lggs.—Clutch, 2-3, rarely 4; oval in shape, slightly compressed
towards one eud; texture of shell fine; surface without gloss;
colour, pinkish-buff, with a darker hue around the apex, where is
a belt of rich reddish-chestnut spots, intermingled with a few dull
brown ones. Dimensions of a clutch in parts of an inch: (1) ‘82
mG aes) (2), Cx: -62:

Observations.—Gould’s initial genus of the numerous family of
Australian Honey-eaters is peculiar to the southern parts of the
continent. On account of their great love for Banksia trees they
might have been fitly called Banksian-birds.

The species under notice, commonly called the New Holland
Honey-eater, has its focus of numbers in Victoria and Tasmania,

632 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

including islands in Bass Straits, the birds thinning out to South
Australia on the one hand and up to Southern Queensland on the
other.

The coastal scrubs of Leptospermum (Ti-tree) interspersed with
Banksias are the delight of the familiar New Holland, where its
loud, shrill, and scolding note is always heard. It regales itself
on the nectar of the flowering cones or ‘‘ honey-suckles ” as they
were first called of the Banksias, while through half the year
individuals may be found nesting in the warm Ti-tree scrub.

These interesting birds may frequently be seen airing their
golden-edged wings in the private gardens of Toorak, as well as in
more public domains near Melbourne. It is also pleasing to
observe this attractive bird in the dry and arid Mallee tracts
when that scrub is intersected with belts of dwarf Melaleuca
(Ti-tree) bearing puce-coloured flowers. In such country I found
two nests with a pair of eggs each during October, 1884.

The principal breeding months are from August to December
or January, but individuals occasionally lay much earlier in the
season, as the following dates prove:—On the 24th May, 1885,
my friend and sportsman, Mr. J. F. Bradly, while shooting at
Mordialloc, observed a nest of a New Holland Honey-eater con-
taining two fresh -eggs ; while Mr. Scott, on Ist July, 1884, saw
a nest with young birds.

T well recollect the first nest of this species I chanced to find.
It was situated in a thick bush near Brighton, November, 1880.

It is interesting to note the variation of materials used in nest-
lining in different localities. The Mallee nests were lined with
rabbit fur and soft grass-seeds. Another nest from the Upper
Werribee was furnished entirely with small calyxes of soft
yellowish-white flowers belonging to some shrub.

I have never found more than three eggs or young in a nest
of this Honey-eater, but Mr. A. E. Brent informs me he has
occasionaliy found four to a clutch in Tasmania.

I have observed the egg of the Narrow-billed Brown-cuckoo in
the New Holland Honey-eater’s nest. The honey-eater is also a
foster parent of the Pallid Cuckoo,

MELIORNIS LONGIROSTRIS, Gould.
“ Long-billed Honey-eater.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 24.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 254.

Previous Descriptions of Eggs.—Gould, Bds. of Australia
(1848); also Hdbk., vol. i, p. 489 (1865). North, Cat. Nests and
Eggs, Austn. Mus., p. 192 (1889).

Geographical Distribution.—South and West Australia.

NESTS AND EGGS OF HONEY-EATERS. 633

Nest.—Cup-shaped ; somewhat rough outwardly, but thoroughly
constructed of fine twigs, strips of bark, leaves, dc. ; in some
instances nearly all dry grass; inside of variegated appearance
lined with Zamia (Cycad) wool and downy substance from Banksia
cones, sometimes soft leaves or a feather are added, in other
instances silky seed-vessels or Clematis-down are used chiefly ;
usually situated low in the centre of bushes. Dimensions over all,
3? inches by 2} inches in depth ; egg cavity, 2 inches across by
13 inch deep.

L£ggs.—Clutch, 2 usually, sometimes 3; oval, slightly compressed
towards one end; texture of shell fine ; surface without gloss ;
colour, pale or delicate buff, spotted, and sometimes blotched with
reddish-chestnut, the markings being more around the apex.
Dimensions of a clutch in parts of an inch: (1) ‘82 x ‘61; (2)
tho x *6.

Observations.—The Long-billed Honey-eater is the beautiful
western variety of the familiar New Holland Honey-eater. It has
been found as far east as Encounter Bay (8.A.). Dr. Ramsay, in
his ‘List of Australian Birds,” assigns the bird to the New South
Wales and Wide Bay District columns, and makes the bird a
sub-species. No doubt the New Holland Honey-eater and the
Long-billed are very closely allied ; but to see the respective birds
at home, as I have enjoyed doing, there appear characteristic
differences even in their voices, not to mention the specific dis-
tinction of the longer bill of the western bird.

In the recesses of the western forests I found many nests and
eggs which agree with Gilbert’s original description of those of the
bird, which is locally called, the “ Yellow-wing.” The birds are
numerous and frisky about the under scrub, chirping like chickens,
or perhaps may be seen turning somersaults from some swaying
bough after insect prey. The nests are usually placed a foot or
two from the ground in a thick, low, bush, such as an Acacia.
The birds sat closely, in many instances letting me almost place
my hand upon them. Sometimes at my approach a pretty bird
settling well down in its nest would ominously watch me with its
pearly-white eyes.

Breeding season, July to December, the principal months being
the last three.

MELIORNIS SERICEA, Gould.
“ White-cheeked Honey-eater.”
Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 25.
eference.—-Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 254.

Previous Descriptions of Eggs.—Campbell, Southern Science
Record (1883). North, Cat. Nests and Eggs, Austn. Mus. p. 193
(1889).

634 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Geographical Distribution.—Queensland, New South Wales,
and Victoria.

Nest.—Cup-shaped ; outwardly composed of fine twigs, strips of
bark and fine grasses ; lined inside with nests of spiders, and the
soft downy substance of Banksia cones ; another example in the
Australian Museum is almost entirely composed of strips of bark,
with a lining of dried portions of Flannel flower (Actinotus). Dimen-
sions over all, 34 inches by 3 inches in depth ; egg cavity, 2 inches
across by 12 inches deep (North).

Eggs.—Clutch, 2 usually ; somewhat lengthened and pointed
(at one end) in form; texture of shell fine ; surface without gloss ;
colour, pale. buff or flesh tint, darker on the apex, which is sur-
rounded with pinkish-red or reddish-brown spots. Dimensions of
a smallish clutch in parts of an inch: (1) ‘78 x 55; (2) ‘72 x :54,

Observations. —This showy Honey-eater, with white cheeks, is an
inhabitant of the eastern coastal country. The bird, Gould states,
differs materially in its habits and disposition from the New
Holland Honey-eater, being less exclusively confined to the scrub,
and affecting localities of a more open character. He found it
tolerably abundant in the Illawarra district, particularly among
the shrubs surrounding the open glades of the forest. It is also
common at Botany Bay and most parts of that coast. Gould did
not meet with the bird during his excursions inland, nor did he
succeed in finding its nest.

The eggs of the White-cheeked Honey-eater in my collection,
which I described (1883) on the authority of Dr. A. E. Cox, were
taken in Sutton Forest, Illawarra.

Mr. North informsus that the nest of the White-cheeked Honey-
eater is usually placed in the fork of a Banksia or Hakea, partly
resting with the rim of the nest attached to the branches holding
it in position, but it is often found in orange trees in gardens, in
which case the nest is always suspended by the rim.

Breeding season, June to November, and probably later.

MELIORNIS MYSTACALIS, Gould.
‘‘ Moustached Honey-eater.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 20.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 255.

Previous Description of Eggs.—Gould, Bds. of Australia (1848),
also Hdbk., vol. i, p. 492 (1865).

Geographical Distribution.—West Australia.

Nest.— Formed of small dried sticks, grass, and narrow strips of
soft bark ; usually lined with Zamia wool ; but in those parts of the
country where that plant is not found, the soft buds of flowers
or the hairy flowering parts of grasses form the lining material,
and in the neighbourhood of sheep-walks wool collected from the

NESTS AND EGGS OF HONEY-EATERS. 635

scrub ; usually placed near the top of a small, weak, thinly-
branched bush of about 2 or 3 feet in height, in a scrub of sapling
Eucalypts, &e. (Gilbert-Gould). Dimensions over all, 3 inches by
3 inches in depth ; egg cavity, 2 inches across by 1} inch deep.

~ Eggs.—Clutch, 2 usually; moderately lengthened in form ;
texture of shell fine; surface without gloss; colour, pale buff,
darker on the apex, around which is a belt of fine spots of reddish-
chestnut intermingled with purplish-grey ones, spots also appear
here and there over the shell. Dimensions of a clutch in parts of
an.inch: (1) 84x ‘6; (2) °78 x °59.

Observations.—The Moustached Honey-eater is an inhabitant of
Western Australia, where, as Gould states, it beautifully repre-
sents the White-cheeked Honey-eater of the eastern coast.

The Moustached Honey-eater is fairly abundant in the scrubs
about Perth Waters, and especially on the scrubby limestone hills
in the vicinity of Fremantle. In both these localities I observed
the birds which were remarkably shy compared with their Long-
billed brethren of the Cape Leeuwin forests. I also discovered a
nest building but did not obtain the eggs. The nest was con-
structed of Melaleuca (Ti-tree) bark, rimmed with fine dead twigs
and lined with soft portions of Banksia cones (two varieties) and
other soft seeds. However, eggs taken by a young local acquaint-
ance the following season (8 Oct., 1890) reached me safely.

Gilbert found this species an early breeder, young birds ready
to leave the nest having been seen on the 8th August. The time
when I observed the nest building was towards the end of Novem-
ber. Therefore, we may infer that the breeding season is from
the end of June or the beginning of July to December.

MANORHINA MELANOPHRYS, Latham.
‘“* Bell Minah.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 80.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 259.

Previous Discriptions of Eggs.—Campbell, Southern Science
Record (1883). North, Cat. Nests and Eggs, Austn. Mus., p. 231
(1889).

Geographicai Distribution.—South Queensland (Highfield), New
South Wales, and Victoria.

Nest.—Cup-shaped, round, neat, but somewhat frail; composed
of fine twigs partially covered outwardly with fine shreds of bark
and cocoons, but sometimes entirely covered with moss and
cocoons, occasionally ornamented round the rim with broad soft
leaves ; inside lined sparingly with rootlets and fine twigs, and on
the bottom with downy seeds; usually fastened by the rim as if
sewn by spider’s web to the horizontal twigs of a bush or small

636 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

tree, sometimes attached to a bracken frond, in forest country.
Dimensions over all, 3-4 inches by 2 inches in depth ; egg cavity,
24 inches across by 14 inch deep.

Lggs.—Clutch 2, rarely 3; long, oval, compressed towards one
end; texture fine; surface slightly glossy ; beautiful rich flesh
colour distinctly marked and spotted, more especially on the apex
with rich chestnut or reddish-brown and dull purplish-brown.
Dimensions of a clutch in parts of an inch: (1) °95 x 65 (2) ‘9
x Os,

Observations.—Capt. Grant, when in Western Port, Victoria,
1801, wrote :—“ Among the birds noticed was the Bell-bird which
has a note not unlike the tinkling of a bell, so that when a number
of these birds are collected together, the noise they make is similar
to that made by the bells of a team of horses.”

‘* Softer than slumber, and sweeter than singing,
The notes of the bell-birds are running and ringing.” —(Kendall.)

Some romance and sentiment have been attached to the Bell-
bird which is a type of Honey-eater wearing an esthetic yellowish-
olive plumage, but has not the sprightly appearance of the Oreoica
—the Bell-bird of the drier provinces of the interior.

Bell Minah is a good vernacular name, because the bird is closely
connected with the M/yzanthe,; moreover the name serves to dis-
tinguish it from the other Bell-bird. Yet the Bell Minah is lively
enough in its actions, and is for ever examining in a most inquisi-
tive manner and picking at the green gum foliage in search of
food. A querist writes:—‘ The great curiosity of the Bell-bird
to my idea is ‘What does it feed upen?’ It picks continuously
at the back of the gum leaves in the same trees from year to year,
and although I have crept to within a few yards of them when
feeding on the Apple and Yellow-box scrub, and plucked the leaves
afterwards and examined them, I could discover nothing. — Per-
haps it sucks a saccharine matter off the leaves, like Swainson’s
Lorikeet ard the King Parrot do off the Stringybarks at certain
seasons of the year. I should like someone who has studied the
birds to kindly answer this.”

The Bell Minah is very local, is gregarious to an extent, living
in companies in certain restricted areas chiefly near water or
humid swampy tracts in South Queensland, New South Wales,
and Victoria.

In the early days of the colony of Victoria Bell-birds used to
exist in the timber along the course of the Werribee River and on
the Yarra above Hawthorn. The birds were never destroyed, yet
they have mysteriously disappeared—probably removed to other
forest retreats—notably to Gippsland, where from trees and scrub
in certain favoured localities in summer or winter, in wet weather
or dry, from sunrise to sunset, may be heard the incessant tinkling

NESTS AND EGGS OF HONEY-EATERS. 637

voices of scores of birds. In no place I have ever visited are the
Bell-birds more numerous than along the wooded slopes and dark
gullies on the northern shores of Lake King.

On the subject of the departure of Bell-birds Mr. Issac Batey,
of Sunbury, writing to Zhe Australasian, states: ‘‘ As regards birds
that have left here one was the Bell-bird with its clear metallic
ringing notes. This delightful little bird was very numerous on
all the creeks years ago, and gradually dwindled away till there
were only six of them left down the river, 9 miles from our house.
This was in 1854 when those last of the Mohicans one day came
flying up stream, and we boys remarked, ‘It is good-bye to the
Bell-birds,’ a supposition that proved quite correct, as I have not
seen a single one of them since on the whole length of Jackson’s
Creek.” Mr, Batey was inclined to the belief that the coming of
the Butcher-bird, which he said arrived from a westerly point
about 1850, and was unknown in the district before, had some-
thing to do with the clearance of the Bell-birds.

We are aware that if the breeding grounds of birds are inter-
fered with the birds will desert the place. So it is, I fancy, the
case with the Bell-birds. They breed near the ground in low scrub
and saplings underneath their particular food-trees. Therefore,
when the country became stocked, cattle roamed and camped in
these. sequestered avenues, and so being disturbed the delightful
birds departed.

At Metung, on Lake King, I was encamped for ten days or a
fortnight when the majority of the Bell-birds appeared to have
nested very early. In the middle of October, 1881, I found all
the season’s birds fully fledged and flying with their respective
parents. I could not find a single nest containing eggs, although
I found a great number of old nests, sometimes two or more in a
bush. Any site seemed to be chosen for the nest, from scrub and
bushes 12 feet high down to the common bracken fern. Some
of the nests were the crudest and simplest of all Honey-eaters I
am acquainted with, being constructed of just sufficient materials
to ensure the safety of the eggs, and suspended by the rim to any
convenient twig. The nests are sometimes patched and inter-
woven with portions of moss and lichen.

However, the same season Mr. R. A. Poole, who lived in the
locality, secured for me several clutches of the second broods, also
some of the early ones the following season, which were originally
described before the Field Naturalists’ Club of Victoria.

From some interesting observations on the Bell-bird sent to
The Australasian, February, 1894, by a correspondent (‘‘ A.J.B.”)
at Metung, I extract the following :—‘ They make their nests
usually in the fronds of the bracken fern, or in the low Dogwood
scrub, making little attempt at concealment. I think the Bell-
birds must lose a lot of their eggs and young ones through snakes,

638 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

as I have seen dozens of empty nests tilted over on the one side
as though the snake had supported itself whilst helping itself to a
delicate mouthful. During nesting-time the birds ave bolder than
ever, and will not hesitate to attack a dog if he ventures too near
the youngsters. Several times when forcing my way through the
scrub on hands and knees to try and see the Lyre-bird dancing on
the mound, I have been defeated by getting too near their nests,
as they at once set up their call, and in a few minutes dozens of
them were flying around me, which was so good a hint to the
Lyre-bird that it at once stopped its mimicking or whistling and
made itself scarce.”

Riding along the Murray frontage, near the Moira Lake, early
(at sunrise) one April morning, I was agreeably surprised to hear
from the living lines of gums that protected the river the voices
of numerous Bell-birds. I hardly expected to find these birds so
far inland, and I drew rein to listen to the chiming of the “ ting-
ting” notes that were piercing the crisp air of that delightful
morn.

Then away in the sub-tropical parts of New South Wales, near
the Tweed River, I have another pleasant reminiscence of Bell-
birds. I recollect hearing their voices floating through a splendid
forest of Ironbarks (Eucalypts) and Pines, where tree-orchids with
clusters of yellowish flowers beamed from the trees as we passed
in the coach, while the ground scrub around was rendered
attractive by the presence of the stately figures of fern-trees,
palms, and cycads.

The Darling Downs (Q.), is probably the most northerly habitat
of the birds. Here I must give you Mr. Hermann Lau’s own
description taken from his MS. :—

“ Bell-bird.—The outskirts of the so-called cedar scrubs have
often favoured water tracts emerging either from the thickets or
are kept in rocky enclosures. Here is where these interesting
birds gather in numbers, sending forth their short, varied, bell-
like notes, which tell the stray and thirsty wanderer that water
is near.

* * ** % * *

In clumps and circles of prickly shrub belonging to the Solanaceous
family adapted much by the lichens, the Bell-bird resorts for
nidification. Often have I found three nests in one little bush,
advantage being taken of the lichens—the only material used for
building purposes, except the lining, which is taken from a fibrous
tree. The eggs are two, rarely three. Highfields, 22 miles north
of Toowoomba, October, 1875.”

There is, of course, a focus to the breeding season of the Bell-
bird, probably August or September, but like many other honey-
eaters some breed early, others late. Some years ago Dr. D’Om-
brain took a Bell-bird’s nest after Easter, while a relation of Dr.

oe

NESTS AND EGGS OF HONEY-EATERS. 639

Snowball took a pair of eggs the first week of May (? April), 1896,
at Drouin, and shot the parent bird for his collection. The same
season, in another part of Gippsland, a correspondent of Mr, C.
French, jun., noticed young birds at the end of June.

On the other hand, Mr. Geo. H. Morton, who was enjoying his
summer vacation at Gippsland Lakes, reported he had found a
nest of the Bell-bird containing eggs, New Year’s Day, 1889.
Therefore, between these two extremes may be taken the breeding
season of the Bell-bird.

MANORHINA GARRULA, Latham.
“ Minah.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 76.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 260.

Previous descriptions of Eggs.—Gould, Bds. of Austr. (1848),
also Hdbk., vol. i, p. 575 (1865). North, Cat. Nests and Eggs,
Austn. Mus., p. 229 (1889).

Geographical Distribution.—South Queensland, N. S. Wales,
Victoria, South Australia, and Tasmania.

WNVest.—Cup-shaped ; constructed of fine twigs and grasses or
dead flowering-stalks of plants (herbs), or sometimes chiefly root-
lets, occasionally ornamented with spiders’ cocoons ; inside lined
with a ply of very fine grass, bark, or white cottony substances,
sometimes hair, wool, &c., are added; usually situated amongst
the thin forked branchlets of a low tree, sapling, or bush. Dimen-
sions over all, 6-7 inches by 4 inches deep ;. egg cavity, 34 inches
across by 24 inches deep.

Eggs.—Clutch, 3-4 ; oval, compressed towards one end ; texture
fine ; surface slightly glossy ; colour, warm white, mottled and
spotted all over, more thickly on the apex, with rich reddish-chest-
nut and purplish-grey. Dimensions in inches of a pair taken in
Tasmania: (1) 1:1 x ‘79; (2) 1:1 x-78. Of a fine clutch from
the mainland: (1) 1:04 x ‘78; (2) 1:04 x ‘76; (3) 1:03 x ‘78;
(2) O02 77.

Observations.—The familiar Minah, or, as it is called in some
parts, the Soldier-bird, is one of the most common of our Honey-
eaters. Wherever you meet the birds, whether near the coastal
scrub, in belts of timber along a river, on a plain, or in the
Mallee, by their scolding voices they at once make their presence
known, and yours too, should you happen to be stalking upon
rarer game. However common and annoying the birds may be, the
shapely-built nest and reddish-coloured eggs are both very beautiful.

Two eggs I took from a nest near that grand natural sight—
Corra Linn, Tasmania—were slightly larger than those generally
taken in Victoria. This agrees with Gould’s observations that
the Minah in Tasmania is a more robust bird and larger in every
respect than the same species found on the mainland.

640 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D,

General breeding months are from July or August to December ;
but it has been noticed in Queensland when some of the birds
built early, in July or August, only one or a pair of eggs are laid
as against a clutch of three or four laid when the season is more
advanced and there is a great supply of food. Young Minahs
have been seen in the nest on the Paroo, N.S.W., as late as April.

Mr. Lau discovered at Warroo (Q.), a “poor soldier” hanging
dead, having been strangled with a long horsehair, which the bird
had been evidently conveying to its nest.

This Minah’s nest is sometimes the receptacle for the smaller,
flesh-coloured egg of the Pallid Cuckoo (Cuculus pallidus). I have
never been fortunate enough myself to discover the strange egg in
the Minah’s nest, but have seen several examples that were taken
from such receptacles in the Ararat district.

The young of the garrulous Minah assume the adult colouring
from the nest.

In 1891 Mr. C. F. Belcher, B.A., found a Minah’s nest near the
ground, built in long grass and bracken—a somewhat unusual
site.

MANORHINA OBSCURA, Gould.
“Dusky Minah.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 77.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 260.

Previous Description of Egqgs.—Gould, Bds. of Austr. (1848) ;
also Hdbk., vol. i, p. 577 (1865).

Geographical Distribution.—South and West Australia.

Nest.—Cup shaped ; composed chiefly of dead twigs, lined inside
with soft grasses, feathers, &c., and usually situated amongst the
topmost forked branchlets of small trees or saplings.

Eggs.—Clutch, 3-4; oval, compressed towards one end ; texture
fine; surface slightly glossy ; colour, rich salmon, or rich reddish-
buff, obscurely or softly marked with rich reddish-brown or
chestnut and dull purplish-brown, forming a patch round the
apex; resembles those of J/. flavigula, both being altogether
different from the eggs of Jf, garrula. Dimensions in inches: (1)
ay aes (CA) MOE Sc 27/1:

Another pair taken near Broomhill, November, 1889, are some-
what round, exceedingly rich in colouring—one example, contrary
to the rule, being darkest on the smaller end: (1) ‘94 x ‘74; (2)
O2ix “14,

Observations.—I found this bird just as clamorous in the great
western territory as the common species is in the eastern parts.
The voices are almost identical in the two species, likewise the
unmistakable struggling flight, and rapid motion of the wings,
when the bird is flying from tree to tree.

NESTS AND EGGS OF HONEY-EATERS, 641

MANORHINA FLAVIGULA, Gould.
“ Yellow-throated Minah.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl.-79.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 261.

Previous Descriptions of Eggs.—Ramsay, P.L.S.N.S.W., vol.
vii, p. 52 (1882). Campbell, Southern Science Record (1883).

Geographical Distribution.—Northern Territory, Queensland,
N.S. Wales, Victoria, South, West, and North-west Austr: lia.

Nest.—Cup-shaped ; somewhat more compactly constructed than
that of the more familiar Minah (Jf. garrula), and like the other
species sometimes ornamented with spiders’ cocoons ; inside well-
lined with soft, fibrous material, in some instances wool. Inside
dimensions, according to Dr. Ramsay, are 3 inches by 2} inches
deep.

Lggs.—Clutch, 3-4, occasionally 5; oval, compressed towards
one end; texture, fine; surface, slightly glossy; colour, rich
salmon or rich reddish-buff, minutely and obscurely spotted with
reddish and purplish-brown, especially at the larger end. Dimen-
sions in inches of odd examples, (1) 1:02 x ‘77; (2) 1:0 x ‘72.

Observations.—This smaller species may be said to be the great
interior representative of the Manorhine. But outlying or isolated
families of the Yellow-throated Minah are found in such localities
as Darling Downs, Riverina, and the Lower Murray district. It
has not the exceedingly noisy disposition of its larger cousins.

Mr. Lau observed on the Darling that the Yellow-throated
Minah built higher than the common variety usually did, while
Dr. Ramsay says in N. 8. Wales the bird builds in trees and
shrubs, frequently near the ground.

During the exploration of the North-west by the unfortunate
Calvert party, Yellow-throated Minahs were frequently seen, and
several shot between Lake Way and Separation Well. Isolated
pairs were also noted in the sandhills of the desert until nearing
the Fitzroy River. The late Mr. G. L. Jones, the youtl ful
explorer—the first of the two lost ones to succumb to the burning
desert—took a clutch of three eggs of this Minah during August
(1896) a short distance north of Lake Augusta.

MANORHINA LUTEA, Gould.
“Yellow Minah.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 78.
Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 262.
Geographical Distribution.—N orth-west Australia and.Northeru
Territory.
Nest and Eggs.—Unknown.
2 8

al

642 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Observations.—Gould considers this to be the finest species of
the genus, exceeding as it does every other, both in size and in
the brilliancy of its colouring. Absolutely nothing is known of
its economy.

ACANTHOCH/HRA CARUNCULATA, Latham.
* Red-wattled Bird.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv., pl. 55.

Reference.—Cat. Bds, Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 263.

Previous Descriptions of Eggs.—Gould, Bds. of Austr. (1848) ;
also Hdbk., vol. i, p. 539 (1865). North, Cat. Nests and Eggs,
Austn. Mus., p. 215 (1889).

Geographical Distribution.—South Queensland, N. 8. Wales,
Victoria, South and West Australia.

Nest,—-Open, occasionally somewhat flat ; composed of twigs
and strips of bark matted together, in Western Australia, but in
the east composed of twigs ; lined with grasses or soft bark, wool,
and a few feathers. Dimensions over all, 6-7 inches ; egg cavity,
34 inches across by 2 inches deep. Variously situated, from a
low, open bush up to closely-set branchlets, or mistletoe clump of
a tall tree.

Lggs.—Clutch, 2-3; nearly oval, compressed towards one end ;
texture fine; surface slightly glossy ; colour, pinkish-buff or
salmon-tint, blotched and spotted, especially around the apex,
with rich reddish-brown, and dull purplish-grey. Dimensions of
clutches in inches, eastern examples, (1) 1:26 x -9; (2) 1:25 x ‘92.

Examples from Western Australia are usually rounder in form,
ground colour a lighter pinkish tone, and are smaller in size,
(COG aks ie a(2) lisloiad “SG;

Observations.—The restless and shy Wattle-bird is found chiefly
in the coastal regions, from South Queensland round to Western
Australia, and is regarded as a common species. They are good
eating—10 birds averaged 43 oz. in weight. My first experience
of the bird was many years ago, when I took its lovely, salmon-
pink eggs in Albert Park, near Melbourne. Since I have taken
their nests in such places as Mistletoe on Gum-trees in the
Brighton and Oakleigh districts, in the open, prickly Bursaria
bushes, in the Mallee, as well as in bushy trees in Western Aus-
tralia.

In Mr. Lau’s Queensland (South) note he says :—“ I have seen
the Wattle, or Gill-bird, near the Pacific, where Honeysuckles
(Banksia) or sandy ground abound ; nevertheless, as such trees are
often abundantly to be seen towards the interior, this bird has
found them out, and there is where I have met with nests, which
were situated mostly on the top of a slender sapling. Nests
formed of dry sticks, and rootlets inside ; eggs, 2-3, mostly the

oD”)
latter number.” My own experience in the south is that the eggs

NESTS AND EGGS OF HONEY-EATERS. 643

are usually a pair, although I possess records of having taken two
nests with each three eggs. I was able to verify Gilbert’s cute
observation, that the nests of the Wattle-bird in Western Aus-
tralia were usually built without lining.

In the years 1853-60, I am told, Wattle-birds were very
plentiful at Frenchmen’s Amphitheatre, Warrnambool, and other
places in the western district of Victoria, where seventy birds might
be easily shot in a morning.

Mr. J. Sommers, Cheltenham, reported that he had found the
single egg of the Pallid Cuckoo in a Wattle-bird’s nest, 28—-9—95.

The following ‘‘snake yarn” is a clipping from a Melbourne
newspaper :—‘‘Some years ago, while in Pyalong, my attention
was attracted by the noise and fluttering of a Wattle-bird. I
was surprised to see a snake up a Wattle-tree, in the act of swal-
lowing a fully-feathered bird. His body was balanced on the
limbs near the nest, which was 12 ft. or 13 ft. from the ground.
The bird was slimed all over, and with great effort the snake was
trying to gulp it down head first. I watched the process for some
time, and then despatched the snake. The bird was dead. Near
the log close by were some feathers (same sort), so I guess the
reptile swallowed two birds. The snake was about 4ft. long; it
had a thick neck, and was dark in colour.”

The breeding months include August to December, but princi-
pally September and October.

ACANTHOCHERA INAURIS, Gould.
“ Yellow-wattled Bird.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 54.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 263.

Previous Descriptions of Eggs.—Gould, Bds. of Austr. Hdbk.,
vol. i, p. 537 (1865). North, Cat. Nests and Eggs, Austn. Mus.,
p. 214 (1889).

Geographical Distribution.—Tasmania and King Island.

Nest.—Open, flat; composed of moderately-sized twigs and
grasses ; lined with wool or other soft material ; usually situated
in a low thick tree. Dimensions over all various, from 7 to 10
inches, depth about 3 inches.

Lygs.—Clutch, 2-3 ; lengthened in form; texture fine ; surface
glossy ; colour, pinkish-buff or salmon-tint, moderately but boldly
marked with blotches and spots of reddish-brown or chestnut and
dull purplish-grey, the majority of the markings being on or about
the apex. Dimensions in inches of odd examples—(1) 1°52 x -98 ;
(2) 1:4 x °9.

Observations.— During three excursions to the different groups
of islands in Bass Straits I noticed this fine large Honey-eater on
King Island only ; therefore, excepting that island, we may infer

644 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

that the larger Wattle-bird is found nowhere out of Tasmania.
There is just a possibility that we may have missed it on Flinders—
a large and scrubby island.

This Wattle-bird has a remarkable voice, which has been com-
pared to that of a Blue Mountain Lorrikeet with a cold in its
throat.

Mr. A. E. Brent writes: ‘On the Barren Plains, at the Great
Lake, these birds build in hundreds; the trees are merely low
bushes. I had ten days’ nesting there in December, 1885 or 1886,
and took several nests containing four eggs, also saw many
containing four young birds.”

The Wattle-birds are excelient eating, this species weighing
5¢ or 6 oz. each.

Breeding months, August to December.

ACANTHOCHEZRA MELLIVORA, Latham.
“ Brush Wattle-bird.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 56.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 264.

Previous Descriptions of Eggs.—Gould, Bds. of Austr. (1848) ;
also Hdbk., vol. i, p. 542 (1865). North, Cat. Nest and Eggs,
Austn. Mus., p. 216 (1889).

Geographical Distribution.—North (?) and South Queensland,
New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, and Tasmania.

Nest.—Somewhat small, flat, in instances fairly built; com-
posed of fine dead twigs ; centre lined with small quantity of soft
brownish strings of bark or other fibrous material ; generally built
in a closely-forked branch of bush or tree. Dimensions over
all of a well-built nest 4-5 inches by 4 inches in depth; egg
cavity 3 inches across by 2 inches deep.

Eggs.—Clutch, 1-2, in Tasmania occasionally 3; long or oval
in form, slightly compressed towards one end; texture, fine ;
surface, slightly glossy; colour, pinkish-buff or salmon-tint, moder-
ately blotched and spotted with reddish-brown or chestnut and
dull purplish-grey, the markings being more numerous about the
apex. Dimensions of single examples—(1) 1:16 x ‘74; (2) 1:12
Xho,

A pair from Tasmania are much darker and richer in the ground
colour, and with markings larger and bolder. (1) 1:1 x ‘78; (2)
1:07, x “78.

Observations.—All round the eastern coast and in some portions
of Tasmania, wherever the Banksias flourish there will be heard
the harsh, guttural notes of the Brush Wattle. In such places as
the shores of Lake King, Gippsland, and the park-like land near

NESTS AND EGGS OF HONEY-EATERS. 645

Ararat, Victoria, I have seen these birds numerous. It was in
the gullies running into the foot-hills of the Pyrenees that I secured
the examples of eggs in my collection.

Gould mentions that two of the Brush Wattle-bird’s nests and
eggs, forming part of his great collection, were taken from the
shrubs growing near the Botanical Gardens, Sydney, where these
birds in those days were plentiful.

Breeding months, August or September to December,

ACANTHOCHERA LUNULATA, Gould.
“ Little Wattle-bird.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 57.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 265.

Previous Descriptions of Hggs.—Gould, Bds. of Austr. (1848) ,
also Hdbk., vol. i, p. 544 (1865).

Geographical Distribution.—West Australia.

Nest.—Slightly concave, and lightly constructed ; composed of
very fine twigs ; centre lined with shreds of soft reddish-coloured
bark, portions of grass, and one or two spiders’ greenish-coloured
cocoons. Dimensions over all—about 4 inches by 1% inches in
thickest part.

Eggs. — Clutch, 1 usually ; long, oval, slightly compressed
towards one end; texture, fine ; surface, slightly glossy ; colour,
rich or dark pinkish-buff or salmon-tint, marked and spotted more
numerously around the apex with rich reddish-brown and dull
purplish-grey. Dimensions in inches of single examples—(1)
Paria 38 7 (2) P17 x “79.

Observations.—My first field-outing in Western Australia was
to Middleton Harbour, part of King George’s Sound. The locality
was simply a repetition of some parts of the shores of Port Phillip
—slightly undulating sandy ridges sustaining Banksias, Acacias,
&c., between the beach, and Ti-tree (Melaleuca) swamps at the back
—hbut the species of the vegetation was changed, likewise some of
the birds, amongst which was the Lunulated Wattle-bird. It was
the last day of September, 1889, and I found three nests in different
stages—one building, one containing a beautiful egg, and the third
occupied with a young one. All the nests were situated in thick,
silky, or velvet bushes (Adenanthos). The week following, in the
same locality, I took another nest with a fresh egg. Then on the
west coast, towards the end of November, I obtained two more
nests, each containing a single egg—one in the Karridale forest
and the other at Coogee, near Fremantle. Incubation had com-
menced in both these instances.

The singular circumstances mentioned by Gilbert that the
Lunulated Wattle-bird laid but one egg was proved in the five

-nests I found.

646 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

ACANTHOCH#RA RUFIGULARIS, Gould.
‘“‘Spiny-cheeked Honey-eater.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 53.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 265.

Previous Descriptions of Eggs.—Gould, Bds. of Aust. (1848) ;
also Hdbk., vol. 1, p. 535 (1865). North, Cat. Nests and Eggs,
Austn. Mus., p. 213 (1889).

Geographical Distribution.—South Queensland, New South
Wales, Victoria, South and West Australia.

Nest.—Cup-shaped, strong, but thin, so thin that in some in-
stances the contents may be seen from beneath ; composed of long,
round pieces of greenish grass, interwoven or matted with spider’s
web, some with the addition of a few cocoons; scantily lined on
the inside bottom with wool and such like material, in some in-
stances there is no particular lining; usually suspended by the rim
in a bush—Acacia, &e.—or swaying branch of Casuarina or other
low tree, in open forest. Dimensions over all, 4—5 inches by 24
inches in depth; egg cavity, 23-3 inches across by 1-2 inches deep.

Eggs.—Clutch, 2-3 ; oval, compressed and pointed at one end ;
texture, fine ; surface, glossy ; colour, light olive, moderately marked,
but more thickly about the apex with umber and dull grey spots.
Dimensions of a clutch in inches—(1) 1°06 x ‘76; (2) 1-01 x °74.
Another pair—(1) 1:06 x ‘72; (2) 1:05 x ‘72.

These eggs are quite an exception to the usual character of
colouring for Honey-eaters’, and more resemble types of the Yellow-
breasted Thickheads (Pachycephale).

Observations.—Probably no Australian Honey-eater is more
interesting and pleasing than the elegant Spiny-cheeked. Its
geographical range extends from Southern Queensland down south
and across to Western Australia. It may be regarded as an inland
species, but in winter it moves towards the seaboard, and is a
visitor to the parks, cemeteries, &c., around Melbourne, Geelong,
&e., where its peculiar gurgling call may be frequently heard.

The earliest I have heard the Spiny-cheeked Honey-eater about
Melbourne (exact locality, Armadale), has been the 22nd May.
The latest I have heard them being the Ist September, in the
Botanical Gardens. About September these birds commence to
return inland to their breeding haunts, which in some instances
are not far away.

In October, 1882, I found two nests in the Mallee, near Nhill,
Victoria. One was in an Acacia bush within reach. It was then
building, the first egg being laid on the 20th, the second three
days afterwards, when the nest was taken. The other nest was
at a height of about 10 feet in an erect Casuarina (Bull-oak). It
was also building. The first egg was deposited on the 18th, then
an egg on each of the two following days. Full clutch, three.

NESTS AND EGGS OF HONEY-EATERS. 647

Nearer home, on the Upper Werribee, November, 1890, with
the Messrs. Brittlebank, I found two more Spinies’ nests, as we
called them. One was most charmingly situated in a wreath of
feathery seeding Clematis that adorned a bushy Acacia, the other
being situated in a shapely Native Cherry-tree (Hxocarpus). Dates,
8th and 11th respectively.

The Messrs. Brittlebank have found the nests of the Spiny-
cheeked Honey-eater in the following trees and shrubs, namely :
Bursaria, Leptospermum, Dodonzea, Casuarina, Exocarpus, and in
another tree that grows by the river bank which they forgot the
botanical name of ; also in Clematis and Loranthus.

Breeding months, end of September or beginning of October to
December.

ENToMYZA CYANOTIS, Latham.

‘“ Blue-faced Honey-eater.”

Fiaure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 68.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 268.

Previous Descriptions of Eggs —Gould, Bds. of Australia
(1848) ; also Hdbk., vol. i, p. 562 (1865). North, Cat. Nests
and Eggs, Austn. Mus., p. 223 (1889).

Geographical Distribution.—Queensland, New South Wales,

Victoria, and South Australia.
_ Nest.—Cup-shaped, round, neat ; composed of strips of bark, in
some instances with grass ; usually placed in a depression on the
top or side of the deserted large-domed stick nest of the Chatterer or
Pomatostomus temporalis. In some instances the nest is suspended
in the ordinary Honey-eater-like fashion in the branchlets of a
tree, and is substantially constructed of coarse strips of bark ;
lined inside with fine, reddish-brown (inner) bark, and a small
quantity of grass. Dimensions over all of the latter kind of nest,
about 6 inches by 4 inches in depth ; egg cavity, about 3} inches
across by 2 inches deep.

Eggs.—Clutch 2, rarely 3; oval, compressed towards one end ;
texture, fine ; surface, slightly glossy ; colour, pinkish-buff or
delicate salmon-tint, boldly blotched and spotted about the apex
with rich chestnut-brown and dull purple. Exactly resemble
those of the Wattle-bird (Acanthochera carunculata), and with the
exception that the markings are usually less numerous, more
confined to the larger end. Dimensions in inches of clutches—
Taken in Victoria (1), 1°32 x -9; (2) 1:23 x -9. Taken in Riverina
(1), 1°29 x °86 5 (2) 1-24 x -85. 5

Observations.—This large and splendid Honey-eater enjoys a
goodly range, chiefly throughout the eastern half of Australia,
and especially along the rivers of the interior.

It may be considered an inland species, and in Victoria it does
not pass the Dividing Range—the southern limit of its habitat.

648 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Gould, who says this attractive and beautiful Honey-eater is one
of the finest of our indigenous MJeliphagide, gives us a refreshing
mental picture when he writes :—‘ I have frequently seen eight
or ten of these bold and spirited birds on a single tree, displaying
the most easy and elegant movements, clinging and hanging in
every variety of positions, frequently at the extreme ends of the
small, thickly-flowered branches, bending them down with their
own weight. They may be easily distinguished from other birds
with which they are frequently in company by their superior size,
the brilliancy of their blue face, and the contrasted colours of
their plumage.”

I had an opportunity of proving the curious fact mentioned by
Gould of the Blue-faced Honey eater depositing its eggs in the
deserted nest of the Chatterer (Pomatostomus). In the beginning
of September, 1881, in the Bendigo district, I was wending my
way along a track through timber—in fact, I had lost my road—
when I observed a splendid Blue-face in a small tree. There was
also an old Pomatostomus nest in the tree. I recollected Gould’s
remarks, and ascended to prospect. In the crown of the large stick
nest I found embedded a round, open, bark-made nest, containing
a large and lovely pair of the Honey-eater’s eggs.

Gould further remarks, “that ia places where no substitute is
to be found, the Blue-face makes a nest like other species of its
tribe.”

On the 16th October, 1885, when at Coomoobcoolaroo, Queens-
land, with Mr. Harry Barnard, I had an opportunity of observing
a nest suspended in a Eucalypt, which was owned, and apparently
built by the Blue-faced Honey-eater, and from which we took a
specimen of that bird’s eggs. The nest resembled that of an Oriole,
or Friar-bird, only was not so heavily constructed.

Mr. Harry Barnard’s experience is that “ In nine cases out of
ten the Entomyza breeds in another bird’s nest, mostly in old nests
of Pomatostomi ; but the entrance is always enlarged, and the
Entomyza builds its own nest inside, lining it with stems of dry
grass, like the inside of a Friar-bird’s nest.

“When the Entomyza builds its own nest independently, it very
closely resembles that of a Friar-bird ; but is more loosely con-
structed. A pair once built close to our cow-shed, and obtained
the material for it about the house. We had a quantity of rails
(Lance-wood or Bastard Brigalow) about, which had the outside
bark taken off. The birds pulled off the inner bark in strips for
their nest.”

Mr. Thos. R. McDougall, Claremont, (Q.) writes:—I have seen
them (Entomyzas) breeding in the deserted nest of the Leather-
head ; have also seen them build a nest similar to that of the
Leather-head (Friar-bird).

NESTS AND EGGS OF HONEY-EATERS. 649

During a delightful excursion to the Lower Murray, beginning
of November, 1892, Mr. J. Gabriel and I found a Blue-faced
Honey-eater’s nest in the topmost branches of a small Red-gum by
the river. Our host, Mr. G. H. Morton, climbed the tree for the
pair of eggs. After a consultation the three of us agreed that the
nest had evidently been constructed by the bird itself. Mr.
Morton, 3rd December, following year took another nest, appar-
ently made by the Entomyza. Clutch, two eggs.

Mr. A. J. North, although he has not recorded having taken a
nest of the Entomyza, says: “I have never heard of this bird
constructing a nest itself, but relines the deserted tenements of
Myzantha garrula (Minah) Acanthochera carunculata (Wattle-
bird), or a depression in the top of the dome-shaped nest of
Pomatostomus temporalis (Chatterer).”

Here is the story of my venerable friend and acute field
observer, Mr. Hermann Lau, respecting the Blue-faced Honey-
eater, from the Dowling Downs (Q.): “It is one of our most hand-
some forest birds, and lively by nature. When other birds—The
Soldier (Minah), Leatherhead, &c.—are building, this nest-robber
either goes out foraging the material to make its own nest, gather-
ing it from its neighbours, or puts itself in possession of their
whole edifice—tkat is, supposing the neighbour is a weaker bird,
and before the latter deposits its eggs. Once I witnessed a sight
never to be forgotten. A Butcher-bird when returning with
building stuff found an Entomyza deftly pulling away at its (the
Butcher-bird’s) property. The Butcher-bird drove off the other
and kept it at bay, when to its horror the mate of the Entomyza
arrived to help at the thievish work. Evidently a thought struck
the Butcher-bird, so that it placed itself in the middle of the nest,
which enabled that bird with its formidable beak to put both
enemies to flight. Such is the habit of the Entomyza, the sequel
being that its nest is like that of a Minah (Myzantha), in which
2-3 eggs are placed, and is hung fairly high. Twobroods. Septem-
ber, 1874.”

Breeding month, August to January, and sometimes, Mr.
North states, as Jate as February.

ENTOMYZA ALBIPENNIS, Gould.
““White-quilled Honey-eater.”
Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 69.
Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 269.
Geographical Distribution.—Northern Territory and North
Queensland.

Nest and Eggs.—Unknown, but probably similar to those o
Entomyza cyanotis.

LI@RaRY
Rp & Qe

(a TY

650 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Observations —The white at the basal of portions of the quills
of the wings at once serves to distinguish this fine bird from its
southern ally. Little is known of its economy except an interest-
ing paragraph or two from Gilbert’s observations in the Port
Darwin district.

PHILEMON CORNICULATUS, Latham.
Priar-bird.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol iv, pl. 58.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 271.

Previous Descriptions of Eggs.—Gould, Bds. of Austr. (1848) ;
also Hdbk., vol. i, p. 547 (1865). North, Cat. Nests and Eggs,
Austn. Mus., p. 217 (1889).

Geographical Distribution.—Queensland, New South Wales,
Victoria, and South Australia.

Nest.—Large, open, deep, solidly built ; composed of strips of
stringy-bark, Sometimes cocoons and string gathered near habita-
tions are added : inside lined with a good supply of grass ; usually
suspended or stitched, as it were, by the rim to the forked branch-
lets of a pendulous limb of a EN y(t in forest or open forest
country. Dimensions over all, 5—7 inches by 3—4 inches in depth ;
egg cavity, 4-5} inches across ‘by 2-24 inches deep.

Eggs. —Clutch, 3 usually, but sometimes 4— 5 ; oval, compressed
towards one end ; texture, fine; surface without gloss : colour, pale
salmon or yellowish-buff, indistinctly marked with dull-chestnut,
and dull-purplish spots, especially round the apex. Dimensions
in inches of a pair taken in Victoria, (1) 1:3 x ‘89; (2) 1:3 x °88.
Of a Queensland pair, (1) 1:22 x -88; (2) 1:22 x 86.

Observations.—This large, and remarkable Honey-eater,with its
curious appearance and chattering calls, is not only well-known in
collections, but likewise to all bush folk. It ranges over much of
Australian forest and open country alike, west and north excepted.

Gould regarded the Friar-bird as a summer visitant to the more
southern limit of its range. Probably he was correct, and that its
visits are regulated by seasons, and the blossoming of various
Eucalypts. One season (about 1870) these birds were in great
numbers in the district of Springvale, Victoria, and no doubt in
other localities contiguous. The forest everywhere resounded with
their vocality. We shot as many birds for the table as our bags
could conveniently hold. If a bird were wounded we soon learnt
to be careful of its bill and powerful claws.

T shall always recollect my first Leather-head’s nest, which I
took asa boy. On the 9th November, of the season mentioned,
we found a nest building, or about ready for eggs, in a medium-
sized tree near Fern-tree Gully, at the base of the Dandenongs. A
fortnight afterwards we walked from what is now Armadale to the

NESTS AND EGGS OF HONEY-EATERS. 651

ranges and back in one day—45 miles—for the precious set of
eggs. Of course we also found other species of eggs—Thickhead’s,
Fantail’s, Robin’s, &e.

We started about 4 o’clock a.m., when a waning moon and the
bright morning star gave the eastern sky an additional charm.
When we got beyond Malvern (Gardiner in those days), we over-
took a spring-cart drawn by a restive colt. In the vehicle there
sat a boy crying bitterly. In answer to our questions he said his
father had got drunk or was locked up, and begged us to take him
(the boy) home to Oakleigh. Taking compassion upon the lad
(which also would give us a lift on our way), we saw all safely to
the house, and placed the position of affairs before his mother.
But just imagine our intense surprise, when, instead of receiving
her gratitude for our little trouble, she scattered us with a stick,
informing us that in future we had better mind our business.
What subsequently happened to the poor boy, and to the “old man”
when he returned home, was not left for me to record.

Gould states the Friar-bird commences breeding in November,
when the birds become animated and fierce, readily attacking
Hawks, Crows, and Magpies, or other larger birds that may venture
within the precincts of the nest, never desisting from the attack
until they are driven a considerable distance. So numerous did
Gould find the Friar-bird breeding in the Apple-tree (Angophora)
Flats, near Aberdeen and Yarrundi, on the Upper Hunter, New
South Wales, that he remarks the birds might almost be termed
gregarious.

I take the following interesting notes relating to the Friar-bird
from Mr. Hermann Lau’s MS. :—‘‘ Not gaudy in plumage, never-
theless of great interest. With it everything is odd. The tongue,
unique in itself, expresses laughable articulations. The naked
cowl-like head looks ridiculous. Impudent and daring, it steals
material for its nest whenever a chance offers. The wool-shed of
a station is very handy, where it finds twine and wool. It was at
Yandilla (Q.) where I found a nest wholly constructed of these
two articles. At another place (Warroo) the greater part of a nest
was, I believe, about } tb. of twine. This stuff the bird wound
within and out and round the neighbouring branches, at the same
time sewing it into a substantial grass nest padded with wool.
Far from habitation, it takes for its nest the produce of land—dry
grass—save now and then you will see a string or ribbon inter-
woven and dangling down. The Leatherhead is a bold orchard
robber, and, approaching the site of its nest, it darts down like a
Magpie, inflicting harm with bill and claws, whenever opportunity
offers. I once killed such an infuriated bird with a stick. Breeds
twice in a season, laying 3-5 eggs. Partly migratory. All over
the Darling Downs. Nests generally in October.”

Breeding months, end of September to December.

652 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

PHILEMON ARGENTICEPS, Gould.
‘‘ Silvery-crowned Friar-bird.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 59.

heference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 272.

Geographical Distribution.—North-west Australia, Northern
Territory, and North Queensland.

Nest and Eggs. —Unknown.

Observations.—As Gould points out, the Silvery-crowned Friar-
bird is somewhat inferior in size to the common species (P. cornicu-
latws), from which it may also be distinguished by the crown of the
head being adorned with well-defined, small, lanceolate feathers.

PHILEMON BUCEROIDES, Swainson.
“ Helmeted Friar-bird.”

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol. sup., pl. 44.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. 1x, p. 272.

Previous Description of Eggs.—Campbell, Southern Science
Record (1883).

Geographical Distribution.—Northern Territory and North
Queensland.

Nest.—Open, bulky, somewhat loosely constructed ; composed
of grass (including roots) and strips of Melaleuca bark interwoven ,
in our example is a rag and a piece of hay-band ; inside lined with
long, pliable, dark-coloured twigs; usually suspended in a fork at
the extremity of a branch, in forest country. Dimensions over all :
8-9 inches by 7 inches in depth ; egg cavity, 5 inches across by
3 inches deep.

Eggs.—Clutch, 3-4, occasionally 5; lengthened in form, tapering
towards one end; texture fine; surface slightly glossy ; colour,
different from those of the other known species of the genus, being
pinkish-white, boldly and beautifully blotched and_ splashed,
especially on the larger end, with brownish-red and purple, the
rest of the surface or intervening spaces being minutely dotted
with the same colours. Dimensions of a clutch in inches: (1)
1:28:x -87; (2) 1:26 x -88; (3) 1:25 x °88. Three from/another
clutch of five, taken on Magnetic Island, near Townsville, 1893,
gives—(]) 1:24 x -91; (2) 1:22 x ‘91; (3) 12x °9.

Observations.—This fine bird is restricted, as far as is known,
to Northern Queensland, including the Gulf of Carpentaria district,
where it represents the ordinary Friar-bird of southern latitudes.

In 1893, in the Bloomfield River district, Mr. D. Le Souéf found
the Helmeted Friar-bird numerous, where it commenced nest-
building about the end of October. He was presented with a
splendid nest by Mr. T. A. Gulliver, who obtained it from Mag-
netic Island, near Townsville. This example, together with three

NESTS AND EGGS OF HONEY-EATERS. 653

eggs (there were originally five), found their way into my collection.
The nest seemed to have been attached to mangroves.

Mr. Harry Barnard, while collecting at Cape York, found many
nests with beautiful sets of eggs during the months of November,
December, and January.

PHILEMON CITREOGULARIS, Gould.
Yellow-throated Friar-bird.

Figure.—Gould, Bds. of Australia, fol., vol. iv, pl. 60.

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 277.

Previous Descriptions of Eqgs.—Campbell, Southern Science
Record (1883). North, Cat. Nests and Eggs, Austn. Mus., p. 219
(1889).

Geographical Distribution.—N orthern Territory (?), Queensland,
New South Wales, Victoria, South and West Australia.

Nest. haped ; loosely constructed ; composed of grasses
(dry and green), fine twigs, wool, cocoons, &e. ; Inside lined with
fine, dry grass ; usually suspended from a pendulous branch of a
Eucalypt, sometimes near or overhanging water, in open forest.
Dimensions over all, 5 inches by 6 inches in depth; egg cavity,
3 inches across by 2? inches deep.

£9. —Clutch, 3-4, one instance 5 ; nearly oval, slightly com-
pressed towards one ‘end ; texture fine ; slight trace of gloss on
surface ; colour, pinkish or purplish- buff indistinctly smudged or
blotched with umber, and chiefly light purplish-brown. Dimensions
in inches of two from a clutch taken in Riverina: (1) b09)
77; (2) 1:07 x ‘76. <A clutch of three from Central Queensland
are of a pinker coloured buff, and more distinctly blotched and
spotted with ene or reddish-brown and purplish-brown—(1)
Pie Pore (ay OF POGOe Osx “15.

Observations._-This smaller and plain-coloured Friar-bird is a
dweller of almost the whole of the great intericr tract of Australia
suited to its habits, except, perhaps, west and north-west.

My introduction to this species was in November, 1877, at
Wentworth, on the Darling River, where the birds, with chattering
voices, were ravishing the bell-shaped flowers of imported trees
(Lagunaria) that bordered the shrubs. On the Prince of Wales’
Birthday, when a picnic of the towns-folk was being held up the
river, having proceeded thither by steamboat, I found my “record ”
nest within reach in a bough overhanging the river-bed. The
eggs, however, were much incubated. Another nest I found sub-
sequently was placed in a low “ Box” (Hucalypt) and contained
a lovely fresh set of three richly coloured eggs.

From Mr. Hermann Lau’s, MS., I take “ Mocking-bird (P.
citreogularis). It is not unlike the ordinary species with the
exception of being smaller and having no protuberance over the

654 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

bill root. Its nest is more simply made from dry grass with
rootlets for a lining. The site chosen for the cradle is the dense
foliage of an Apple-tree (Eucalypt), not high up. The number of
the eggs is always four. Found in open forest on the Darling
Downs, Tummaville, October, 1868.”

Breeding months, September to December.

PHILEMON sorDIDUS, Gould.
* Little Friar-bird.”

Figure.—

Reference.—Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., vol. ix, p. 277.

Previous Description of Eggs.—Ramsay, P.L.S.N.S.W., vol.
vil, p. 52 (1882).

Geographical Distribution.—North-west Australia, Northern
Territory, and Queensland (probably).

Nest.—Cup-shaped ; constructed of bark and grass, suspended
by the rim to the forked twigs at the end of some horizontal or
drooping branch. In size about half that of the P. corniculatus
or equal to that of P. citreogularis (Ramsay).

Fggs.—Clutch, 3-4; rich salmon-red, spotted with a darker tint,
some of the spots fleecy, confluent, and distributed alike all over
the surface of the shell, rather closer near the thicker end, but
not forming a row there ; in A a few confluent on the thick end
forming a blotch on the top of the egg. In B the spots are more
scattered and obsolete markings of pale lilac are disposed here and
there over the surface. Length (A) 1:04 x 17 inch; (B) 1:05 x
‘75 (Ramsay).

Observations.—This northern Friar-bird is very similar to the
Yellow-throated, the more southern and interior species, but is
smaller in all its measurements except the bill which is larger.
In the neighbourhood of the Fitzroy River, North-west Australia,
Mr. G. A. Keartland observed many of the nests of this Friar-
bird, but only two eggs were obtained. The nests were usually
made of coarse grass, cup-shaped, and were placed in the drooping
foliage of a Eucalypt.

Dr. Ramsay gives the habitat as far south as the Dawson River
district, and described the nest and eggs from the collection of the
Messrs. Barnard of that locality, who, however, are not aware
that that particular species is found in their neighbourhood.

PHILEMON OCCIDENTALIS, Ramsay.
“ Western Friar-bird.”
Figure.—
Reference.—Ramsay, P.L.8.N.S.W., vol. ii, 2nd series (1887).
Geographical Distribution.—North-west Australia.
West and Eggs..—Unknown.

RANGE OF VISION IN SOME ARANEIDS. 655

Observations.—With regard to this doubtful species Dr. Ramsay
says itis “similar to P. sordidus, juv., but having the sides of
neck and chest tinged with citrous-yellow.” Mr. G. A. Keart-
land, at Derby, North-west Australia, shot a bird answering this
description. He says, ‘‘ Whether another species or simply a
variation in plumage I was unable to determine. It was being
constantly attacked by the other Friar-birds which were numerous
in the locality where it was shot.”

No. 2.—NOTES AND OBSERVATIONS ON THE RANGE
OF VISION IN SOME ARANEID..

By W. J. Rartnsow, Entomologist to the Australian Museum.

(Read Monday, January 10, 1898.)

ALTHOUGH a great deal of time and study has been.devoted by
naturalists to working out the life-histories of the Araneidae, very
little attention has been devoted to the question of range of vision.
Among those who have treated upon the subject, the most note-
worthy are Simon*, McCook+, Forel{, Bingley$, Plateau||, and Dr.
and Mrs. Peckham]. Of these writers, Simon, McCook, and Peck-
ham agree in declaring that the Citigrade and Saltigrade are
possessed of good powers of sight, while Forel and Plateau contend
that their vision is very bad.

It is my intention, in the present paper, to give a résumé of a
series of observations and experiments, made for the purpose of
determining the distances at which objects are clearly discernible
by some of our native species.

In studying the question of range of vision, it will be conceded
by those who have given the life-history of spiders any attention
or consideration, that the groups most likely to yield important
results are those whose existence depends upon their activity ; con-
sequently, we are the most likely to find them among the Lateri-
grade, Citigrade, and Saltigrade. None of these spiders fabri-
cate snares for the capture of prey. The first of these groups, the

* Histoire Naturelle des Araignées, Premiére Ed., p. 364.

i Spiders of the United States, p. 57 ; and American Spiders and their Spinning Work,
vol. ii, p. 286.

t Sensations des Insects, Premiére Partie, Recueil Zoologique Suisse, T. iv, No.1, p. 41.

§ Animal Biography, vol. iii, p. 455.

|| Recherches Expérimentales sur la Vision chez les Arthropodes, Deuxieme partie.

a Sense of Sight in Spiders, Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci. Arts, and Letters, vol. x,
pp. 231-249.

656 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

Laterigrade, or “ Crab” spiders, usually conceal themselves
amongst herbage, the bark of trees, rocks, and walls, whence they
sally forth to capture prey, a habit which would point to a toler-
ably long range of vision, but which was not satisfactorily estab-
lished by experiment, although at close quarters their eyesight
appeared to be very keen. For instance, prey placed at a distance
of 3 inches from one of these spiders (Stephanopsis altifrons, Camb. }
failed to attract attention ; but, when the distance was reduced to
3, an inch, the insects were ‘instantly seized. This was tried several
times with unvarying results. Another experiment was that of
tying a silk thread to a living but maimed insect, which was placed
at about 1 ¢ Of an inch from the spider. Immediately the latter saw
the i cca it made a rush to seize it, but was compelled to make
chase, the insect being pulled quickly away from it. An occasional
jerk, made for the purpose of increasing the space between the
spider and the insect, appeared to confuse the former, for it would
stop and move, now to the right and then to the left, as though
in search, and, failing to locate it, seemed disposed to give it up ; 3
but, upon the bait being placed, practically, ‘ under its nose,”

resumed the chase. Such was the result of several experiments
with Stephanopsis altifrons, Camb., and Cymbacha saucia, L. Koch,
put I do not claim that as sufficient evidence in denoting the limit
or extent of the range cf vision in spiders of this group. It is
interesting as far as it goes, but before the question can be settled
with regard to the Laterigrade, many experiments, spread over
not only a wide collection of species, but also individuals, must be
made before we can arrive at a definite conclusion.

That the Citigrade possess a long range of vision has been
proved by such eminent writers as Simon, McCook, and Peckham.
McCook says, ‘He has seen a young Dolomedes sexpunctatus
leap the side of a box and catch a fly on the wing, and return to
its perch by the rebound of its drag-line. Such an act not only
shows ability to see, but also some faculty to estimate distance,
unless we suppose it to have been a chance shot.” On the other
hand, Felix Plateau says that “ After experimenting with a small
number (tive) of species, that the sight of two large groups of
spiders, the Attidw and the Lycosidee, is very bad, the limit of
clear vision being about two centimeters.” In their interesting
paper on “ The Sense of Sight in Spiders,”* Dr. and Mrs. Peckham
give several quotations from Felix Plateau’s papers on ‘ The Sense
of Sight in Arthropods,”t from which they conclude—and rightly
so, I think—that his experiments ‘show not how far the spider
can see distinctly, but at what distance it usually seizes its prey”
and they argue that “‘it is not safe to take for granted that if the
spider does “not try to catch the fly, he, therefore, does not see it.

* Trans. Wisconsin Acad. of Sci., Arts, and Letters, vol. x. f
+ Recherches Expérimentales sur la Vision chez les Arthropodes, Deuxiéme partie,

RANGE OF VISION IN SOME ARANEIDA. 657

As a mater of fact, spiders will often let flies—which certainly
are as M. Forel has said, both stupid and imprudent—not only come
within two centimeters of them, but climb upon them, and walk
all over them, practically putting their heads into the lion’s mouth,
and yet will seem unconscious of their existence ; perhaps they are
not hungry.” My observations, when in the field, have always
impressed me with the idea that the Citegrade were endowed with
considerable length and keenness of vision, and the experiments I
have made, with a considerable number of individuals of the genera
Lycosa and Dolomedes, have certainly strengthened that view. On
one occasion, when digging in my garden, I noticed a Lycosa
godeffroyi, L. Koch, capture a beetle that was fully 3 inches away,
and what made this feat the more remarkable was the fact that a
small tuft of grass lay between it and its prey ; likewise Dolomedes
neptunus, Rainb., detected, at a considerable distance, prey that
in colour bore a strong resemblance to the sea-wrack, amongst
which it was hunting. These facts prove that M. Plateau, when
he arrived at the conclusion that the vision of the Lycoside was
“very bad,” did so upon insufficient data. Nevertheless, one
would not feel disposed to criticise an author upon solitary
instances, such as I have detailed, were it not for the fact that.
others, equally as conclusive, have been noted. As far as my
experience goes, I have always found that whether in captivity,
or in the full enjoyment of liberty, the Citigrade can, and do, see
prey at a much greater distance than two centimeters.

For the purpose of testing the range of vision of these interest-
ing creatures, I procured a box 15 inches long and 8 inches broad,
and covered the bottom with paper that had been ruled off into
inches. A specimen of Lycosa godeffroyi was then placed therein,
and kept without food until the following day, when a beetle was
introduced and placed at a distance of 6 inches from the spot
whereon the spider was resting. Fora few seconds the spider
remained perfectly quiet, during which time the beetle had
increased the distance by nearly an inch and a half. At length
the Arachnid seemed aware of the presence of prey, and commenced
to move towards it, slowly at first, but afterwards rapidly, and
having secured it, conveyed it to a corner, where it devoured its
meal. This experiment was repeated on several occasions and at
varying distances, but the spider always made direct to the spot
where the prey happened to be. By this means I was able to
satisfy myself that Lycosa godeffroy: could see faintly at 8 inches,
and distinctly at 5.

With Dolomedes neptunus I have made similar experiments,
and with equally convincing results. Furthermore, rude imita-
tions of insects never failed to attract, at a distance of 5 inches,
when the spiders were hungry, proving, as has been asserted by
Peckham, that these spiders are influenced, not by scent, but

2T

658 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

by sight.* Similar experiments were made by Plateau, who
states that the artificial insects upon being moved about were
pursued, and in some cases seized by the spiders, just as in the
case of the true fly. ‘But these facts,” says Peckham, in com-
bating Plateau’s assertion, ‘‘do not argue that their vision is
very poor, since in nature they must be constantly meeting with
new forms of life upon which they may prey. Spiders eat a great
variety of things: caterpillars, beetles, bugs, ‘ walking-sticks,’ and
in fact, all manner of insects, as well as other spiders.” T

Now, in conducting experiments upon such subjects as the
Athropoda, it is not only easy to make mistakes, but also to
arrive at what appear to be hasty conclusions, because it is a
difficult matter to decide upon a subject of which we can have
little conception, and the sensations of these creatures is a case in
point. This fact is clearly and logically demonstrated by Dr. and
Mrs. Peckham} in their remarks upon the conclusions arrived at
by MM. Plateau and Forel. The last-named authors experimented
with several Citigrade spiders by separating them from their
cocoons, “and having noted their difficulty in finding them again,
concluded that their sight was very poor and short.” As a matter
of fact these spiders, when so treated, do not rely upon, or even
apply, the sense of sight when searching for their lost treasures.
Those who have studied the habits of spiders know that the
genus Lycosa carry their cocoons attached to the extremity of the
abdomen, while those of the Dolomedes carry them with their
falces. ‘‘It is indeed a well-established fact,” as the Peckhams
say, “that when the cocoon is taken away from one of these
spiders, she is very much disturbed by its loss, and searches eagerly
about for it, and yet she may run all around it without finding it,
never recognising it unless she comes very close. This is the
truth, but not quite the whole truth. As a matter of fact she
never recognises it unless she touches it ; but let her graze it ever
so slightly with any part of her body and she instantly seizes it
and reattaches it to her abdomen.

“The action is so sudden and rapid that one may easily make the
mistake of supposing that the spider, in coming very near, recog-
nises the cocoon through the sense of sight, but close attention
will prove that this is never the case. She always comes into
actual contact with it before taking it. We feel very confident that
when the spider loses the cocoon she never looks for it, but feels
after it. This is not so strange as at first appears, for it is quite
possible that the spider constructs the egg-sac, deposits her eggs
in it, closes the aperture, and attaches it to her body without ever
seeing it.Ӥ These remarks are followed by a record of a number

*Trans. Wisconsin Acad. of Sci. Arts, and Letters, vol. x, p. 249.
f Loc. cit., p. 236. t Loc. cit., p. 286. § Loc. cit., pp. 236, 237.

RANGE OF VISION IN SOME ARANEIDA, 659

of interesting experiments, which appear to fully prove the correct-
ness of the authors’ (Dr. and Mrs. Peckham) conclusion that the
spiders only recognise their lost cocoons by the sense of touch.
Several Citigrade spiders were experimented with, but one or two
references will suffice. The cocoon was taken from a female of
Pirata minutus, and “no matter how anxious she was to find her
eggs, and no matter how close they were brought to her, she
never recognised them except by touch.’* For the next experi-
ment, the cocoon of Pirata montanus was suspended at the end
of a thread: “As the spider searched anxiously about, it was
lowered until she could barely pass beneath without touching it.
This arrangement required some manipulation, but we finally
succeeded in suspending several cocoons at exactly the right
height, and then watched the spiders as they passed and repassed
without observing them. If, however, we allowed the cocoon to
graze one of the posterior legs, the spider instantly turned and
seized it. The position of the eyes of these spiders is such that
unless they are totally blind they must have seen these suspended
cocoons ; but they are as dependent upon touch for recognising
their eggs as thoroughbred bloodhounds are upon the sense of
smell when hunting their game, or as English greyhounds upon
sight.” +

As far as my experience goes, I certainly agree with Peckham.
Lycosa godeffrow, L. Koch, and L. tristicula, L. Koch, when separ-
ated from their cocoons, never recognised them until they hap-
pened to touch them, and then they were eagerly seized, so that it
would appear from these tests that Plateau and Forel formed a
hasty conclusion when they said that the difficulty in finding their
lost cocoons was evidence that the sight of the Citigrade was “ very
poor and short.” But if further evidence were needed, it is only
necessary to point out that in two instances the cocoons of Lycosa
godefiroyi, after being taken from the spider, were tinted a pale
green and replaced in the experimenting-box. This fact alone
would, one would think, be sufficient to deceive them—that is, if
they depended upon the sense of sight to discover their lost trea-
sures ; but, nevertheless, directly one of the spiders touched its
cocoon the latter was instantly seized.

It is only reasonable to assume that spiders, dependent upon
dexterity and cunning for the capture of prey, must be endowed
with a long range of vision ; and this has been abundantly proved
by Dr. and Mrs. Peckham in their extensive experiments with the
Attide. These spiders, as Peckham says, lend themselves, by
their natural habits, to more successful treatment under experi-
ment than any other group, because, “when shut into a box which
is supplied with light and air, they seem entirely unconscious of

* Loe. cit., p. 237. + Loe. cit., p. 237.

660 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

the fact that they are prisoners. They catch flies and devour them,
sun themselves, mate, lay their eggs, and, indeed, carry on all the
affairs of their daily life in the most natural and unconcerned
manner imaginable, passing a whole summer in confinement with
an appearance at least of perfect contentment.” * Anyone who
has watched the Attzdw when stalking prey cannot but conclude
that they are possessed of a long range of vision. Probably one of
the earliest references to range of vision in spiders is that found
in Evelyn’s “Travels in Italy.” In that interesting work the
writer gives the following lively narrative :—“ Of all sorts of
insects there is none has afforded mo more divertisement than the
venatores (hunters), which are a sort of dup (wolves) that have
their dens in rugged walls and crevices of our houses; a small
brown and delicately-spotted kind of spiders, whose hind legs are
longer than the rest. Such did I frequently observe at Rome,
which, espying a fly at three or four yards’ (!) distance, upon the
balcony where I stood, would not make directly to her, but crawl
under the rail, till, having arrived at the antipodes, it would steal
up, seldom missing its aim ; but if it chanced to want anything of
being opposite, would, at first peep, immediately slide down again
till, taking better notice, it would come the next time exactly
upon the fly’s back ; but if this happened to be not within a com-
petent leap, then would this insect move so softly, as the very
shadow of the gnomen seemed not to be more imperceptible, unless
the fly moved, and then would the spider move also in the same
proportion, keeping that just time with her motion as if the same
soul had animated both these little bodies ; and, whether it were
forward, backwards, or to either side, without at all turning her
body, like a well managed horse ; but, if the capricious fly took
wing and pitched upon another place behind our huntress, then
would the spider whirl its body so nimbly about as nothing
could be imagined more swift, by which means she always kept the
head towards her prey, though, to appearance, as immovable as if
it had been a nail driven in the wood, till by that indiscernible
progress, being arrived within the sphere of her reach, she made a
fatal leap, swift as lightning, upon the fly, catching him in the
pole, where she never “quitted hold till her belly was “full, and then
carried the remainder home.”

Writing upon the question of vision in the Attedw, Dr. McCook
says :—‘ Their rapid and marked change of manner when prey is
sighted, the mode of approach, like the action of a cat creeping
upon a bird, the peculiar behaviour displayed when the final
spring is made, are not to be accounted for on any theory other
than a keen sense of sight,” and as this eminent naturalist has
devoted many years to the study of these creatures, his view of the

——

* Loc. cit., pp. 240, 241. t Spiders of the United States, p. 286.

THE RECURRENT LARYNGEAL NERVE. 661

question is not only entitled to respect, but must bear very great
weight. The species possessing the longest range c Ff vision with
which I am acquainted are the beautiful Afftus volans, Camb., and
A, splendidus, Rainb. These spiders detected prey at a distance
of 7 inches. The instant one of them saw an insect in the box
in which it was imprisoned, it sprang upon it with unerring
precision, proving not only that it saw it, but also that it had
accurately gauged the distance. With other species with which I
experimented, such as Hrgane scutulata, L. Koch, the distance at
which they detected prey was less, ranging from 5 to 3 inches.
Whenever a fly was introduced, if the imprisoned spider was
resting in a corner, it instantly displayed signs of activity and
keeness of vision, for which ever way the fly moved, the Attid
would follow its course by moving its cephalothorax either to the
right or left, so as to keep its prey in view ; when the fly stopped,
the spider would commence to draw upon it with a slow, stealthy
movement ; if it moved, then the pace would be quickened, and
so on until it had, unperceived by the fly, arrived within leaping
distance, when the final spring was made.

CONCLUSION,

From a study of the foregoing evidence, therefore (leaving out
of the question the experiments upon the Laterigrada, which were
not sufticient to be conclusive) | am compelled to support the
decisions arrived at by Simon, McCook, and Dr. and Mrs. Peck-
ham, that the Citigrade and Attidw are each endowed with long
range of vision, and that this is the only theory that can be safely
advanced in explanation of their habits either in the field, or in
confinement.

No. 3.—TRANSPLANTATION OF THE RECURRENT
LARYNGEAL NERVE.

By T. F. Macponap, M.B., C.M.
(Read Tuesday, January 11, 1898. )

To appreciate the idea underlying the above experiment, the
peculiar anatomical relations of the recurrent must be kept in mind.
The nerve is a branch of the vagus given off in the thorax ; on the
left side it dips round the arch of the aorta, and runs back from
thence to supply the crico-arytenoid muscle of the larnyx. This
disposition of the left nerve round the aorta renders it peculiarly
liable to injury as seen in cases of aneurism of the arch of that

662 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

vessel in man when loss of voice isa common symptom due to
pressure of the aneurism upon the nerve producing paralysis of
the muscles supplied by it.

This is the pathology of that disease in horses known as roaring ;
the crico-arytenoid muscle of the left side of the larnyx is paralysed,
the paralysis being caused by injury to the recurrent nerve.

Such being the case, it struck me that if the nerve could be cut
in the neck and replanted into the vagus, that not only would it
be freed from further injury from the aorta, but that in cases of
disease it might be regenerated and in turn regenerate the muscles
at fault in roaring.

Having obtained a license from the Government to experiment
upon donkeys, I carried out several experiments in this direction
in the Royal Veterinary College, London. I had intended to do
twelve cases of transplanting, but my first attempts were so
completely successful as to preclude the necessity of further
experiment.

Under chloroform the recurrent larnygeal and vagus nerves
were exposed by dissection at the junction of the middle and upper
third of the neck ; the recarrent was then cut and looped through
a slit made in the vagus with a scalpel ; a catgut suture lightly now
fixed the nerves together, and the wound in the neck was aseptic-
ally stitched and dressed.

Upon section of the nerve distinct roaring was immediately
produced in the donkey, and this continued for about three weeks
when improvement could be observed ; the animal was then turned
out near Hampstead and seen from time to time for eighteen
months, the breathing became perfectly sound. It is, therefore,
possible to transplant the recurrent nerve with impunity, and
there are now no theoretical reasons at least why other nerves
should not be dealt with in a similar manner. I have thought
that in those cases of loss of voice in man from aneurism of the
arch of the aorta that transplantation of the recurrent might be
tried.

In conclusion, I may may say that up to the date of my experi-
ments in this direction, physiologists held the firm opinion that
nerve could not be transplanted, and, therefore, from a purely
scientific point apart from its practical bearing upon veterinary
surgery, the experiment thus described is not devoid of interest.

ON THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE BRAIN OF MARSUPIALS. 663

No. 4.—ON THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE BRAIN OF
MARSUPIALS.
By J. F. Firasuman, M.D., Ch.M.
(Read Monday, January 10, 1898.)

No. 5.—THE DISTRIBUTION OF LIZARDS IN THE
PACIFIC.

By A. HOS. livcas, MA., B. Se.
(Read Monday, January 10, 1898.)

No. 6.—NOTES EXPLANATORY OF AN EXHIBIT OF
SOME INTERESTING AUSTRALIAN FISHES, AND

THE JAWS OF AN APPARENTLY UNDESCRIBED
SHARK.

By J. Doveias OcILby.

(Read Monday, January 10, 1898.)

No. 7.—ECONOMIC ORNITHOLOGY ILLUSTRATIONS.

Exhibited by A. J. Nortu, C.M.Z.8.
(Tuesday, January 11, 1898.)

No. 8.—ON SOME POINTS OF INTEREST IN THE
STRUCTURE OF CERTAIN COCCIDS.

By C. FuLiEr.
(Read Saturday, January 8, 1898.)

664 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.

No. 9.—ON SIGHT- AND SMELL-FEEDING IN
AUSTRALIAN FISHES.

By Grece Witson, M.A., D.Sc, Ph.D.

(Read Monday, January 10, 1898.)

No. 10.—NOTES ON EXHIBITS OF ENLARGED
MODELS OF AUSTRALIAN PLANTS.

By R. T. Baxer, F.L.S.

(Read Monday, January 10, 1898.)

No. 11—NOTES ON THE HISTOLOGY OF PODO-
CARPUS.

By A. HS. Lucas, M.A\; BiSe.

(Read Monday, January 10, 1898.)

No. 12.—NOTES EXPLANATORY OF AN EXHIBIT OF
A FINELY PRESERVED SERIES OF SPECIMENS
OF PERIPATUS AND LAND PLANARIANS.

By T. Steet, F.L.S.

(Read Tuesday, January 11, 1898.)

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 665

Section E.—GEOGRAPHY.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
By Sir James Hector, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.B.S,

(Delivered Friday, January 7, 1898.)

[ Abstract. |

Be1NG unable to attempt any review of the great achievements in
geographical exploration since the last meeting of this section,
seeing that I have not had access to the extensive literature on
the subject, I am glad to observe that the papers which are to be
communicated to the section will review the most salient advances
that have been made, of which I may indicate the following.

Since our last meeting the results of the exploring expeditions
equipped by the munificence of the late Sir Thomas Elder and Mr.
Horne have been made public, and the wonderful expansion of
the knowledge of the central and western parts of the Austral-
asian Continent, obtained through their intrepid journeys, will
greatly assist the material development of the vastly rich but
hitherto neglected interior area of Westralia.

Another feature of great prominence to the future advance of
geographical discovery in the more difficult parts of the Austral-
asian Continent is the steady extension of the ‘“ Artesian well ”
system into the arid areas of the interior, where the absence of
a reliable water supply has not only prevented the settlement of
the country but even its exploration, and has caused the loss of
many enthusiastic and brave pioneers under circumstances of
intense personal suffering. When the courses of underground
water circulation are fully comprehended and _ utilised both ex-
ploration and occupation of large and almost unknown areas will
become possible.

In New Zealand the additions to our geographical knowledge
of most interest are chiefly those arising from the detailed explora-
tion of the Alpine fastnesses of the higher mountain ranges and
peaks. These explorations which are partly due to the Govern-
ment surveyors, but also largely to the efforts of the New Zealand

666 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E.

Alpine Club, will, it is to be hoped, greatly increase the attractions
of New Zealand for the more adventurous class of tourists.

The retouching of Victoria Land in the Antarctic by the s.s.
“Antarctic,” after the lapse of so many years since Ross’s discovery,
also deserves passing mention, as, though only a whaling venture,
the expedition was largely guided and assisted by the Melbourne
branch of the Geographical Society of Australia. The voyage of
the “ Antarctic” has been described in several articles by Capt.
Kristensen and Mr. Borchgrevinck. The “Antarctic” was the first
and only vessel with steam power that has yet visited Victoria
Land, first discovered by Ross, in 1840. She had a very small
steaming power, and was inefficiently equipped in many ways, so
that the’ease, celerity, and safety with which she penetrated so
far south proves that an organised expedition with ample steam
power should have no difficulty in making extensive explorations.

The phenomenal development of both political and physical
geography in Africa has been very pronounced in late years, and
modern civilisation is developing rapidly over the “ Dark Conti-
nent.” An extraordinary feature in its past geography is the
Suggestive discovery of forms of life having marine affinities in
the great freshwater lakes that occupy the elevated interior
plateau of Africa, 2,000 feet above the present sea level.

In Asia rapid and practical expansion of geography is in pro-
gress, not only by continued preliminary explorations in the
austere regions of Northern Siberia, but also through the ener-
getic development of a railway system through the extensive area
of temperate country the nature of which has been little known
hitherto ; and further additions to ow: knowledge have also been
made, it is sad to say, by the military expeditions which it has
been found necessary to organise to invade the fastnesses of the
great mountainous districts of Northern India.

On the American continent a great impetus has been given to
fresh explorations by the discovery of the rich Klondyke Gold-
field in the far north-west of Alaska, a region that has been con-
sidered hitherto as being too inhospitable and worthless to be
worth attention. Its survey, which is now in progress by the
Canadian Government, will be attended by enormous hardship
and difficulties, as I can testify from personal experience ; but the
results will be gladly welcomed by geographers.

The physical surveys in other parts of America are being pushed
forward vigorously, and the results of these by the United States
Government are published with minute details, owing to a liberal
munificence that is unequalled in other countries.

But the crowning event that has absorbed the interest of
geographers since the last meeting of this section is the successful
achievement of Nansen. With high courage and great prevision

‘SYA OWN OWI 'YOLITH SINUP 418 UOlIPEGXT ,, AdsUa]|DYD,, AY} [0 SJAogay ay} Word paygupy
‘AYG0ABOIY AULADUGNS

IXXX ILV1d

‘B68t TA TOA ‘OS “AGY ‘OOSSY NYISWIWYLSAY

‘ef

eee eee

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 667

he entered on what was at the time of its organisation considered
by almost all who had experience of Arctic voyages to be a hope-
less expedition. With faithful reliance on his theory, he per-
mitted his strongly-built and specially well-equipped vessel the
“ Fram” to become embedded in the great Arctic ice mass, appa-
rently with no chance of escape. But, as he had expected from
his better knowledge, the ice carried his stout vessel in a definite
direction, and, drifting over the Polar region, was freed from the
ice-grasp after three years’ imprisonment, with the whole party in
excellent health. Nansen and his companion Johansen had left
the “Fram” in the second year, and returned on foot and in
kayaks, spending a whole dark winter of six months’ night on the
north end of Franz Joseph Land under circumstances of the
greatest conceivable hardship. Yet they returned to civilisation
almost on the same day as the “Fram.” It is not necessary to
dwell .on the details of this attractive subject, which has so
recently aroused such intense public interest. The scientific
results of this wonderful venture have not yet been published,
but two remarkable advances in geographical science have been
announced :—Ist. That the North Polar Ocean is not a shallow
sea with scattered islands distributing icebergs, as has hitherto
been supposed ; but it is a profound ocean basin, which should
hereafter be known as Vansen’s Basin. So little had this condi-
tion been expected, that the “ Fram” was not provided with deep
sea sounding apparatus, and Nansen had to manufacture some
from wire shrouds; and on frequent occasions, after boring
through 37 feet of ice, obtained a depth of nearly 2,000 fathoms,
or 2} miles, without touching bottom. 2nd. That there are
definite movements of the great Polar ice-cake, and that they
cross and do not merely circulate round the Pole. It is as if the
ice in winter accumulated in greatest abundance along the Sibe-
rian border of the Polar Sea, and in summer progressed like a
great melting and plastic glacier in the direction of Spitzbergen
and Greenland, gravitating towards the warm currents close to
the Gulf Stream, which, by melting the ice-border at that point,
diminish the pressure. This brings me to the subject on which I
wish specially to address the section.

SUBMARINE GEOGRAPHY.

Three quarters of the whole earth’s surface is concealed from
us by the oceans, which have an average depth of 3 miles, and an
extreme depth, so far as known, of 5,%; miles, while its cubic
contents exceed 400,000,000 cubic miles. The larger area of the
sea bottom ranges from the shore line to 2 miles in depth.

For our knowledge of the ocean bed we are dependent on the
sounding-line, and the improved appliances in connection with it
which have been introduced within the last twenty years. The

668 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E.

earliest knowledge that we have does not extend back further
than fifty years; but it was not till the ‘‘Challenger” expedition,
only twenty years ago, that any thorough and extended accumula-
tion of facts was made. Since then we have had the soundings in
the North Pacific by the ‘‘ Tuscarora” and the ‘‘ Enterprise” (both
American). And in the Atlantic and Indian seas, moreover, we
have had numerous sectional soundings of the ocean bottom made
in connection with the multitude of submarine cables, which have
greatly added to the knowledge of the subject. But for fullness of
detail in every particular that demonstrates the nature and physical
character of the ocean at every depth, and the form and com-
position of the bed of the ocean, nothing has approached the results
obtained by the scientific staff of the “Challenger,” which have
now been completely published in some fifty bulky quarto volumes.

As these are rarely accessible, I have availed myself of them,
and particularly the last two volumes, which contain the masterly
summary of my friend Dr. John Murray, who took up the work
after the lamented death of Sir Wyville Thomson.

Yet, after all, our knowledge of the subject is still very slight
and only provisional, seeing that the observations have been
limited to irregular lines very sparsely distributed over the ocean
according to the tracks of the exploring ships. Even a few miles
north or south of their course, great features may exist which
escaped notice.

The observations made at the different stations or points
of deep water were, Ist, the depth; 2nd, the temperature at
frequent intervals from the surface to the sea bottom, and also
the chemical composition and specific gravity of the sea at all
depths ; 3rd, the nature of the material which formed the deposit
at the bottom ; 4th, the determination of the nature of the animal
and vegetable life at every depth and at every distance from the
nearest shore land.

The result of the investigation goes to show—

1. That surrounding all continents and the satellite islands a
wide fringe or shelf has been formed by the spreading out of the
detritus, resulting from the atmospheric denudation of the land
and the erosion of the shore line by the sea waves. The coarse
detritus, including the finest sand, rarely extends to 500 fathoms
or half a mile indepth. The mean slope of the shore or terrigenous
deposits is about 1 in 40, or about our steepest railway grade.
There are exceptionally steep grades in some cases which are most
probably due to the shelving shore formation having been eaten
into by deep ocean currents, as for instance, west of Europe,
when the shelf contour continues as a flat plateau, the depth of
the water being only 600 feet 200 miles west of Lands End ; it
then descends with a slope of 1 in 12 to a depth of 12,000 feet,
which is about the average depth of the great flat bottom of the

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 669

East Atlantic Basin. Some of the shoreward slopes round the
isolated oceanic islands must be still steeper—for instance, the
Bermudas and the solitary Island of St. Thomas in mid-Atlantic,
rise high above the surface of the sea, while at no great distance
we find that the depth of the ocean is 17,000 feet.

2. The next great feature of the ocean-bed is the existence of
extensive submarine plains rising almost to the middle depth
reached by the terrigenous deposits, but separated from them by
deep, wide channels, and often having great basins or circumscribed
depressions like submarine lakes on their surface. Occasionally
these plains show evidence of having been caused by the subsi-
dence of formerly existing land surfaces, but as a rule, the nature of
the material of the sea bottom on these plateaux indicate only such
deposits that settle from the ocean water far from land. They are,
however, often traversed by steep ridges like submarine mountain
chains, the peaks of which sometimes reaching almost to or above
the sea level as oceanic islands, but in such cases the rocks are
almost, without exception, of igneous origin and coral formations
which indicate the influence of volcanic activity. The Pacific
Archipelago presents a wonderful development of this character
of the ocean bed. In every part of the sea bottom the deposit
contains fragments of volcanic rock, especially pumice-stone, but
these have been mostly derived from the slow sinking of particles
that have fallen on the surface of the sea and been waterlogged
while drifting along far from where they were dropped into the
sea or washed out by the rivers from the land.

3. The great channels which form the deeper but not the most
profound parts of the ocean floor. They lie between the land
and the submarine plains, at an average depth of 35 miles. They
form a continuous reticulation all over the ocean bottom. If the
ocean were gradually dried up until the shoreward shelf and the
oceanic plains were exposed, the outline of the remaining ocean
would somewhat resemble the form of the canals that have been
observed to reticulate the surface of the planet Mars.

4. Further evaporation of the sea would disclose the existence
of profound and abrupt depressions—termed ‘“ deeps” in the floor
of the most profound parts of the ocean bed. Probably only a
few of them have been discovered by the sounding-wire, but they
present remarkable features. They are generally in close vicinity
to greatly elevated land, or to land on which intense volcanic and
seismic or earthquake activity is prevalent. The most remarkable
of the great depressions is the Tuscarora Deep, parallel with the
east coast of Japan; the Kriimmel Deep, parallel with the west
coast of South America ; the Ross Deep, in the Antarctic regions ;
and the Penguin Deep, east of Kermadec Island, north-east of
New Zealand, where the deepest sounding ever found was lately
taken by H.M.S. “ Penguin.”

670 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E.

While the slopes or grades of the sea bottom in the basin and
deep channels is very flat, the few measurements which have been
made of the sides, one may almost say walls, of the profound
abyssal deeps, show a very steep angle for subaqueous material
to form a slope having even a slight degree of stability. The few
observations made indicate that there exists a slope steeper than
1 in 20 from the 2-mile level of the surrounding ocean to a depth
of 54 miles. These wonderful deeps have cenerally a lesser
extension and are deeper than the height of the highest mountains,
and it has been conjectured that they have a relation to the
nearest great mountain range, with which, as it were, they are
paired, the relation being like that of a model and its mould.

The causes of the inequalities in the form of the ocean bed are
no doubt the same as those which have caused the great inequali-
ties of the land surface, great swelling elevations producing
plateaux ; slow-moving subsidence, producing troughs like the
Caspian basin on land, and the larger submarine basins of the
ocean.

The abyssal deeps of eke ocean appear to mark areas of rupture
and extreme faulting of the earth’s crust analogous, but in the
reverse direction, to the mighty upliftings and crushings which
have produced our most mighty mountain chains of the class
which have linear extension.

We can, therefore, safely conclude that the same onward
moving waves in the earth’s crust which lift up the continents
and produce the mountains are at work also under the ocean.
Some, however, hold that much of the deeper portion of the flat-
bottomed ocean has never suffered emergence, having always been
what are termed permanent ocean-beds. The chief argument for
this assumption is, that material similar in chemical and mineral
character to that which floors the great depths of the ocean has
never been detected in any geological formation even of the
highest antiquity. No student of geology can doubt the enormous
changes which have taken place in very recent times on land,
both by placid swelling and sinking, and also by what look at
first sight as violent disruptions, but which are really movements
and involvements due to small but frequently repeated movements
in the upward or downward direction.

We thus arrive at the following inferences :—

1. That an extensive terrigenous shelf must indicate a long-
continued period of stability, with only moderate oscillation of
the contiguous continental shore line.

2. That the basins are large, inert areas that have been sunk
by a slow, unbroken, and wave-like movement, with crests and
troughs as waves which traverse slowly the crust of the earth.

3. That the abyssal deeps have been caused by abrupt faulting
and volcanic fracture.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS, 671

NOMENCLATURE.

This is always an important point in geography, and I have
constructed the map exhibited, showing all the names that have
been proposed and a few more which I suggest as probably useful.

The subdivision of terms employed is—

{ a. Slopes or shore plateaux.
b. Oceanic plateaux.

Basins ... ... ¢. Ocean channels and basins.

Deans. - .... -« 4. Deeps.

Plateaux ...

The following is the list of names by which each of these is
distinguished :—
Atlantic Ocean.

1. Ross Deep. 13. C. Verde Plateau.
2. Havergal Deep. 14, Monaco Deep.

3. Bromley Plateau. 15. Nares Deep.

4, Lizard Deep. 16. Carib Basin.

5. S. Georgia Plateau. 17. Bartlett Deep,

6. Falkland Island Plateau. 18. Mexico Basin.

7. Wild Rise. 19. Luhm Deep.

8. Buchanan Deep. 20. Iceland Plateau.
9. Challenger Plateau. 21. Sub. Arctic Basin,
10. Connecting. Plateau. 22. Nansen Deep.

11. Dolphin Plateau. 23. Greenland Plateau.

12. Moseley Deep.
Pacific Ocean.

24, Barker Basin. 40. China Basin.

25. Buchan Basin. 41. Sulu Basin.

26. Juan Fernandez Plateau. 42. Philippine Basin.

27. Harckel Deep. 43. Celebes Basin.

28. Richards Deep. 44. Banda Basin.

29. Kriimmel Deep, 45. Moore Basin.

30. Milne Edwards Deep. 46. Caroline Plateau.

31. Galapagos Plateau. 47. Ladrone Plateau.

32. Albatross Plateau. 48. Okhotsk Basin.

33. Grey Deep. 49. Solomon Island Plateau.

34. Hawaii Deep. 50. Carpenter Basin,

35. Challenger Deep. 51. Momson Basin.

36. Swire Deep. 52. Enterprise Basin.

37. Brooke Deep. 53 Maori Plateau.

38. Tuscarora Deep. 54 Tasmanian Plateau,

39. Japan Basin. 55. Erebus Deep.
Indian Ocean.

56. Jeffry Deep. 61. Seychelles Plateau.

57. Tobarton Deep. 62. Chagos Plateau.

58. Maclear Deep. 63.- Maldive Plateau.

59. Kerguelen Plateau. 64, Andaman Basin.

60. Rodriguez Plateau.

In conclusion.—The practical use of a more extended study of
submarine geography is undoubted.

672 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E.

By gaining a familiarity with the geography of the sea bottom
such as we have with land surface, how much the expensive work
of laying telegraph cables would be rendered less liable to meet
with failure.

And again, by tracing where land areas have disappeared or
are now only expressed by an island archipelago, and by discover-
ing the degree of antiquity of the movements by which this has
been brought about, we might hope to restore the land connections
that were in existence before and since the human race, and so
afford somewhat sounder data than mere vocal sounds for the
ethnologist with which to determine the lines of immigration by
which the many recently formed varieties of the race have been
produced. From every point of view, a clearer conception,
founded on closer surveys of submarine geography both present
and past, would be of great use to the zoologist and paleontologist.

No. 1.—SIXTY YEARS’ PROGRESS OF GEOGRAPHICAL
DISCOVERY (1837-1897).

By A. C. Macponaxp, F.R.G.8., F.R. Hist. Society, Fellow of the
Imperial Institute. Melbourne

(Read Monday, January 10, 1893.)

In every department of science rapid progress has been made
during the past sixty years. The science of Geography, upon
which I have been asked by my friend, Mr. Crummer, to address
you to-day, has, during the past six decades, made vast strides.

In a letter dated the 8th July, 1837, the President and Council
of the Royal Geographical Society of England, in offering their
congratulations on the young Queen’s accession, expressed their
“ heartfelt thanks for Her Majesty’s generous condescension and
munificence in granting the honor of her royal patronage, and in
bestowing upon that Society a royal premium for the encourage-
ment of geographical science and discovery. They confidently
anticipated that Her Majesty’s reign would be rendered illus-
trious as the era of important geographical discoveries which may
diffuse the blessings of civilisation throughout the globe, as well
as endear Her Majesty to the affections of a free and grateful
people.” |

How fully this moderate and dignified anticipation has been
fulfilled the record of the past sixty years attests. Her subjects,

SIXTY YEARS OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOYERY, 673

and even those of other monarchs, have delighted to plant our
Queen’s name on the dominant features of the earth, as they have
been unveiled in every land and in every sea.

On our modern maps there are now probably one hundred place-
names of “ Victoria,” where in 1837 there were not more than
half a dozen. The name “ Victoria” was suggested for one of the
hypothetical divisions of Australia, although about fourteen years
elapsed before it was bestowed on the colony which now bears it.
The name of our beloved Queen was given by James Clarke Ross
to the most southerly-discovered land. of Antarctica ; and later to
an inlet in Nares Land; and also to that part of the Arctic
Ocean north of Alexandra Land in the farthest north. It is
borne by flourishing commercial cities at both ends of the great
transpacific route, in British Columbia and Hong Kong. It
graces the largest lake in, and the grandest falls on “the Zambesi,
in Africa, the highest lake above sea-level in Asia, and it crowns
the highest peaks of two of the mountain ranges in New Guinea
and Equator ial Africa. The Colony of Queensland was also
named in honour of Her Majesty.

It has been well said that ‘as Alexandria, the sacred city of
early geography, perpetuates the memory of Alexander of Mace-
don, so will the name of Victoria on owr maps, keep the Victorian

era in Geography in everlasting memory.

The geographers of 1837 were a scattered band of distinguished

explorers and men of science, whose enthusiasm was deeply stirred
by the vast fields of research lying before them, buoyed up by the
consciousness that they were labouring for the good of their
fellow-creatures.

The explorer feels delight that he is on ground hitherto un-
trodden by man, that at every step he makes will serve to enlarge
the sphere of human knowledge, and that he is laying up for
himself a store of gratitude and of fame.

Maury, in America, was engaged in the studies which led to his
great work on the Physical Geography of the Sea. In Great
Britain—Parry, Franklin, Back, and Ross were famous Arctic
heroes ; Biscoe had awakened interest in the Antarctic regions ;
Murchison and Charles Darwin were already recognised as clever
observers, and the great Arrowsmith was producing his exquisitely
engraved maps, such as have not gladdened the eyes of geo-
araphers for a generation past; British travellers were in all
parts of the earth. Ainsworth (who died only the year before
last) was exploring Asia Minor, Everest was pushing on the great
trigonometrical survey of India, which has fixed his name on the
greatest mountain in the oro sient Everest, 28,994 ft. high.

Africa had just claimed as a victim the intrepid Davidson while
making his way across the Sahara to Timbuctoo, and British
surveying ships were engaged in constructing for the whole eastern

2u

674 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION FE.

and western coasts of Africa, from Suez round the Cape of Good
Hope to the Pillars of Hercules, charts which may be said “to
have been drawn and coloured with drops of blood,” so terrible
was the mortality amongst the crews before the elements of
tropical hygiene had been learned.

A glance at the maps of Africa in 1837 and 1897 (on the wall)
will serve to show the marvellous progress of geographical dis-
covery during the sixty years’ reign of Queen Victoria. Egypt,
to the Second Cataract on the Nile, the Barbary States, and part
of Abyssinia were amongst the limited portions of that dark
continent then known to Europeans. Little was known of South
Africa, beyond the Orange River north of Capetown, prior to
1837, when Sir James Alexander made a journey through
Namaqualand of 1,500 miles; with these few exceptions the
map of Africa was a blank. Cartographers had laid down the
imaginary mountains of the moon, stretching almost across the
continent from the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean, and also another
range which they called “ Laputa, or the backbone of the world,”
features that we now know had no existence. Nearly all the
ancient maps were drawn from imagination, and I dare say many
of our modern maps of the land boom period were more or less so,
as many of us know to our cost.

Very little of the interior of this great Australian continent
was known in 1837. Hume had discovered in 1824 one of our
largest rivers, which bore his name for many years, but which
Captain Charles Sturt subsequently traced to the sea from its
junction with the Murrumbidgee in 1829-1830, naming its lower
portion after Sir George Murray, the second president cf the
Royal Geographical Society of England. Sir Thomas aS
then Surveyor-General of this Colony (New South Wales), i
1836 discovered Australia Felix, now the colony of Vicious
Numerous exploring parties were in the field in these early years,
and a town called Melbourne was laid out in 1837 on the north
bank of the river Yarra, in what was then, and for many years
afterwards, in New South Wales territory. Grey and Lushington’s
expedition on the north-west coast of Australia was in pro-
gress, and the rest of the map. central, northward, and westward,
like that of Africa was an unknown blank.

The interior of Australia has, thanks to the munificent generosity
of the late Sir Thomas Elder, and Messrs. Horn, Calvert, and
Carnegie in a lesser degree, been opened up, save a few patches of
desert in the west, entirely within the period under review.
Nowhere has more heroism been shown by explorers, and no
explorers have received scantier recognition by the public than
those who have made known the interior of the “only entirely
British continent.” The names of Eyre, Hume, Sturt, Leichhardt,
the two Gregories, Macdouall, Stuart, Burke and Wills, Forrest,

SIXTY YEARS OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERY. 675

Giles, Lindsay, Wells, Landsborough, the Honorable D. W. Car-
negie, and others, are too unfamiliar to English, and, indeed,
Australian readers also, although nearly all have been honoured
by Geographical authorities, and the romance of their exploits
will some day let us hope be adequately told by an Australian
historian.

The great island of New Guinea has been to a large extent
explored by the British, Dutch, and Germans, who administer its
various divisions and the present Lieutenant-Governor, Sir William
Macgregor, “ has earned for himself a place in the history of the
island only comparable to that of Livingstone in the history of
Africa.” Mr. Theodore F. Bevan has also done good work in
British New Guinea as an explorer. The success of the expedi-
tion was largely due to the perseverance and indomitable energy
of Mr. Lawrence Hargrave, who accompanied D’Alberti on his
expedition up the Fly River, as engineer of the steam launch.

In South America vast tracks of country were entirely unknown
and the courses of the many navigable rivers in the interior were
undiscovered sixty years ago. In the Indian and Pacific Oceans
many islands were practically unknown and little or nothing of
New Guinea—as I have said before—had been explored.

Time will not admit of my doing more than merely glancing at
one aspect of the progress of Geography during the sixty years of
the Victorian era ; and perhaps the best aspect is that of discovery
and exploration for in it British work has been preeminent.

The problems of general scientific geography formulated by the
President of the Royal Geographical Society in 1837 and put
forward by him as deserving of immediate attention are to a dis-
couraging extent still problems of the future. This has been
largely due to the lack of international co-operation, and the
mutual independence of the workers in different countries—a
state of things which the development of international congresses
in recent years may be hoped soon to improve.

Until James Clarke Ross’s expedition in 1839, nothing was
known of the Antarctic region, except where Cook had reached
the 70th° and Weddell the 74th° parallel of south latitude.

The history of Antarctic discovery opened with the accession
of Queen Victoria to the throne. Ross, who had previously spent
eight winters inthe Arctic—and had passed no less than sixteen
navigable seasons in the polar regions, left England in 1839 and
crossed the Antarctic circle on the first day of January, 1840.
“Tn the short space of one month made one of the greatest
geographical discoveries of modern times—amid regions of per-
pectual ice he discovered a southern continent which he named
South Victoria Land—two volcanoes, one of which in a state of
active eruption, 12,400 feet high, he named after his ship the

676 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E.

“ Erebus.” Since Ross’s return, by way of Hobart in 1842, no
expedition worthy the name has been sent out to continue his
work.

We fr equently meet people who ask ‘ what is the use of spending
money in Antarctic exploration?” One of our millionaire squatters
when asked recently to subscribe to that object replied—* Oh,
whats the good! there’s no sheep or cattle country so far south”!
T have little sympathy with those of our wealthy colonists—many
of them Australian born-who are so wanting in patriotism and
so densely ignorant of the vast results to be obtained by Antarctic
exploration. In this connection I cannot do better than quote
from Sir Clements Markham’s annual address before the Royal
Geographical Society of England in May of 1895. Mr. Markham
said :—‘ Of late years the necessity for an Antarctic expedition
has become more and more urgent for many reasons, but chiefly
because the science of terrestrial magnetism is at a standstill,
owing to the absence of any observations in the far south during
the past fifty years. The knowledge which would be gained by
such a magnetic survey will not only be of scientific interest, but
it will also be of practical importance to navigation. Deep-sea
soundings, dredgings, temperatures of the ocean at various depths,
meteorology, the distribution of marine organisms, are some of
the investigations which would be undertaken by an Antarctic
expedition with reference to the ocean. Equally important objects
would be to determine the extent of the south polar land, to
ascertain the nature and extent of its glaciation, to observe the
character of the underlying rocks and their fossils, and to take
meteorological observations on shore.

“ As the geographical history of Queen Victoria’s reign com-
menced with Antarctic exploration, so the sixtieth year from Her
Majesty’s accession should be worthily commemorated by prepara-
tions for continuing the exploration of, the southern continent
which bears the name of our Queen.”

The cablegrams that have appeared in our Sydney and Mel-
bourne daily papers during the past few months indicate that the
Royal Geographical Society of England has been influenced by
Sir Clements Markham’s address. “An appeal has been made, or is
to be made, to the Imperial Government, and also to the Govern-
ments of the Australasian colonies, for their co-operation and
financial support, and the Royal Geographical Society has headed
the list with a subscription of £5,000. In the cause of science
which is cosmopolitan, and in the carrying out of a project so >
pregnant with scientific and commercial good to Australasia, all
local feeling and prejudice should be cast away. Let this Associa-
tion see to it that the glory of making discovery and exploration
in these southern seas be not borre from us by others, to our
everlasting discredit. It would, I thiak, be a step in the right

SIXTY YEARS OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERY. 677

direction if this Association were to appoint a committee to
co-operate with the Antarctic Committees in Melbourne and
London, and address the several Australasian Governments upon
the subject.

The polar work of the last sixty years has been of surpassing
interest and of immense importance. In other parts of the world,
the ceaseless activity and zeal of her subjects has also rendered
Her Majesty’s reign a memorable epoch in the record of human
progress. On the Asiatic continent one generation after another
of British surveyors and British explorers has pushed forward our
knowledge, and the work is now approximating completion.

The trigonometrical survey of India is the grandest monument
of the Queen’s reign on the Asiatic continent. When Her Majesty
ascended the throne Colonel Everest was succeeded by General
Walker, who has since completed the principal triangulation of
India. This great work presents a record which forms one of the
proudest pages in the history of British domination in the East.
‘© We look back,” says a recent writer, “with pride and admira-
tion upon the Asiatic labours of the Queen’s geographical sub-
jects.” The geological and natural history survey of Canada,
under the late directorship of A. R. C. Selwyn, formerly head of
the Geological Survey Department of Victoria, is second in
importance to that of the trigonometrical survey of India.

Arctic exploration has always been viewed with interest and
often with enthusiasm, but never have the romance and tragedy
of exploration held so sustained a hold upon the world as during
the fifteen years which followed the departure of Sir John Franklin
in 1845. In that year the “Erebus” and “ Terror,” just returned
from the Antarctic, sailed to complete the survey of the Arctic
coast of America, and achieve the North-west Passage, ‘‘ the vain
dream of the merchants of the sixteenth century.”

Towards the end of the summer of that year (i845) they were
seen by a whaler in Melville Bay, and this was the last direct
news of that illfated expedition. In 1848 Sir James Clarke
Ross started on the first search expedition, and during the next
few years ship after ship went out through Lancaster Sound on
the east and Behring Strait on the west, while land parties,
under the guidance of the Hudson’s Bay Company, whose officers
were exploring the Arctic coast of America.

The Arctic Archipelago was very fully explored in this way.
In 1850 no less than fifteen vessels were prosecuting the search
for the missmg Franklin Expedition, and in that year Captain
McClure, who went out by way of Behring Strait in the “ Inves-
tigator,” discovered the North-west Passage, but he found the ice
conditions so severe that he had to abandon his ship and return
by one of the vessels pursuing the Franklin search from the
eastward.

678 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E.

Five years later (1855), after relics of the lost ships had been
found by Dr. Rae, the British Government abandoned the search,
but the devotion of Lady Franklin, and the determination of the
public to discover fuller details, led to the splendid private expe-
dition of the ‘ Fox,” from 1857 to 1859, in which Sir Leopold
McClintock and Sir Allen Young explored nearly 1,000 miles of
new coast line under conditions of the greatest difficulty, and dis-
covered the only document throwing light on Franklin’s fate
which has been found. It proved that to Franklin belongs the
honor of first discovering the North-west Passage.

In 1871 Captain Hall, in the American steamer “ Polaris,”
entered Smith Sound, and reached the highest latitude so far
attained (82° 16’ north). In the following year an Austro-
Hungarian Expedition, under the command of Payer and Wey-
precht, were carried by drift ice from Nova Zembla, and discovered
Franz Joseph’s Land, the remote region in which the English
explorer Jackson and his party have been at work during the
past three and a half years.

The Great British Government Expedition of the “ Alert”
and “ Discovery,” under Sir George Nares, penetrated Smith
Sound in 1875, and Commander A. H. Markham led a sledge
party to 83° 20’ north of Greenland, which remained the
highest observed latitude until Lockwood, of Greeley’s American
Expedition, reached 83° 24’ in 1882. In 1878-9 the Swedish
professor Baron Nordenskiold accomplished the North-east
Passage in the ‘“ Vega,” and circumnavigated the continent of
“ Eurasia” for the first and only time. Peary, in three suc-
cessive years (accompanied part of the time by his wife), made
some of the finest journeys ever accomplished over the inland ice
of Northern Greenland. Great as these achievements were, they
have heen excelled by the scientifically-planned expedition of Dr.
Nansen inthe “Fram.” By relinquishing the time-honoured plan
of following a coast line, or fighting against drifting ice-floes,
and allowing the moving ice of the polar basin to carry his ship,
he succeeded in drifting from near New Siberian Islands to
Spitzbergen across an absolutely unknown area. In his sledge
journey, alone with his companion Johansen, he reached 86° 14’
north in 1895, an advance of nearly 200 miles on the farthest
north ever made before; and his expedition, in its safety, suc-
cess, and exact conformity to the plans previously laid down,
must be looked upon as the culmination of Arctic travel in the
Victorian era, unless, as I fully anticipate, it will be equalled,
if not eclipsed, by the balloon voyage of Dr. Andree.

Next to the polar areas, Africa is the region in which the
explorations of the last sixty years have led to the most striking
advances of knowledge. The trade of centuries on the west coast
had led to no exploration worthy the name, and it was not until

SIXTY YEARS OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERY. 679

the missionary travels of Dr. David Livingstone in the fifties that
any real interest was evinced in the continent asa whole. Asa
pioneer of African discovery, Livingstone may be looked upon as
the initiator of the modern period, “and in his methods of work
and his treatment of natives he remains a model for all time.
His discovery of Lake Nyassa in 1859, Burton’s discovery of
Tanganyika in 1858, Speke’s of the Victorian Nyanza in 1862,
threw open the great Lake region of East Africa along its whole
length ; and the main lines of the geography of the eastern strip
of Africa, under the rule of the Sultan of Zanzibar, were quickly
laid down by an increasing number of explorers.

The sources of the Nile have exercised a fascination for
travellers in Africa like that of the search for the North-west
Passage or the North Pole for Arctic voyagers.

Livingstone with the assistance of the faithful Makololo tribe
started in 1854, from Luanda, on his memorable journey across
Africa down the Zambezi. The wonderful falls of that river,
more splendid even than Niagara, received from Livingstone the
name of Our Queen. In his second journey, accompanied by Sir
John Kirk, he ascended the Shiré River, discovered Lake Nyassa
and the highlands , attaining a height of 6,000 feet. The wishes
of the discoverers were amply fulfilled in the subsequent history
of Nyassa Land where there is now a flourishing colony with
steamers on its rivers and lakes, an increasing trade in ivory
and coffee, law and order fully established under the able
administration of Sir Harry Johnstone, and every prospect of
increasing prosperity in the future.

Livingstone and Sir John Kirk traced the great river Lualaba
which flowed northward, west of Lake Tanganyika to its source
in Lake Bangweolo, when death overtook Livingstone in 1873.
Believing this great river was the Nile he could not yet resist the
suspicion that it might after all turn out to be the Congo. This
supposition was turned into certainty by Mr. H. M. Starley’s
magnificent journey in 1877. When he traced the Lualaba round
its great Equatorial bend, and opened up the vast waterway from
Stanley Falls to Stanley Pool on his way to the sea.

Yerney Lovat Cameron who went out to search for Livingstone
in 1872, made a remarkable journey in the interests of geographi-
cal discovery, after he had ascertained without doubt, the great
explorer and missionary was no more. He was the first European
traveller who walked across the African Continent from east to.
west, a journey occupying 3 years and 5 months—but no journey
i Africa has been so fateful as that of Stanley, down the Congo,
it led to the foundation of the Congo Free State and the opening
up of the whole great river to steamer trattic, affording a base from
which the northern and southern tributaries could be explored to
their sources.

680 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E.

In 1884 commenced the scramble of the European Powers for
African possessions and the resulting partition of the coast into
spheres of influence, whence the explorers of each nationality
pushed inland in the effort to secure the hinterland and command
the sources of internal trade. The remotest deserts of Sahara,
isolated parts of Equatorial forests and portion of Somaliland are
the only regions now remaining entirely unknown.

South America was, of all continents, the most rapidly explored
as far as its main outlines are concerned—(on the great water-
shed of the Amazon River there are tracts of unexplored country
as large as the whole of France, of which we as yet know less than
of almost any equal area on the globe. Tribes of men are living
there who are yet absolutely in the Stone age, and who, even by
barter or distant rumour, never heard of the European race or
the use of metals)—and such work as has been done within our
period has been chiefly the better mapping and more complete
tracing of river systems, the climbing of mountains like Roraima,
Chimborazo, and Aconcagua, and the exploration of the wilderness
of the Grau Chaco and Patagonia.

Schomburgk was engaged in surveying the western frontier
regions of British Guiana and stirring up a controversy, the end
of which it is, perhaps, not unduly optimistic to look forward to
in this the 61st year of Her Majesty’s reign.

The naturalist geographers of South America did not die out
with Humboldt. The works of Wallace, Bates, and Von den
Steinen in the Amazon district, Schomburgk and Im Thurm in
British Guiana, Burmeister and Hudson in the Argentine Republic,
will never be forgotten.

Time will not admit of my doing more than merely mentioning
the great science of Oceanography in the Victorian era. The
cruise of the “Beagle,” with Darwin on board, may be said to have
passed on the torch kindled by Cook to the Antarctic Expedition
of Ross. Observations made casually in these cruises were
systematised by Maury, who, with the force of his magnificent
enthusiasm, has given a vitality to his “ Physical Geography of
the Sea” which enables that unique work to survive the theories
it propounded. The voyage of the “Challenger,” and the progress
of telegraph surveys, gave a secure basis for the study of
Oceanography, and many minor expeditions have since advanced
it. The time is now ripe for another well-organised and fully-
equipped expedition for the study of the oceans, a subject so ably
dealt with by Sir James Hector in his Presidential Address
delivered in this hall on Friday last.

The phenomenal progress of Japan in Western civilisation has
lel to a vast advance in geographical knowledge concerning that
remarkable archipelago, and slower progress has been made in

SIXTY YEARS OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERY. 681

the rich islands of the Malay Archipelago, where the travels of
Wallace have been followed by the researches of many other
naturalists. ;

Nor can I refer in detail to explorations in Central Asia, the
United States, Canada, and elsewhere, and although I feel I have
trespassed too much on your patience, it would be impossible to
conclude this imperfect sketch of the sixty years’ progress of
geographical discovery without saying a few words on the services
to geography rendered, during the Queen’s reign, by those of her
own sex. At the accession, Mrs. Somerville was the best physical
geographer in Great Britain, and her distinction won for her the
gold medal of the Royal Geographical Society in 1869, an honor
only accorded to one other woman—Lady Franklin. In 1842,
Frau Ida Pfeiffer commenced her wanderings, which covered
almost every quarter of the globe and led to a number of popular
books of travel. Since then, Miss North followed in Madame
Pfeiffer’s footsteps in search of flowers to study and paint in all
climates, Miss Gordon-Cumming, the late Lady Brassey, the
indefatigable Mrs. Bishop, and Miss Kingsley have performed
feats of travel far beyond the averages of globe-trotters or
pleasure-seekers. Lady Baker accompanied her husband on_ his
expedition up the Nile to the Equator, and Mrs. Peary stayed by
her husband during an Arctic winter in Northern Greenland.
The ill-fated Mdlle. Tinne lost her life in the attempt to penetrate
the Sahara, Mrs. Theodore Bent has accompanied her husband
into parts of Africa and Arabia, where no white woman has been
before. Lady Anne Blunt in another part of Arabia rendered
real services to geography.

It would be impossible to enumerate the noble company of
lady missionaries, who have followed hard on the explorer and
trader into the inmost recesses of Africa and Asia, sometimes, as
in the case of Miss Taylor, who went far into Tibet even opening
up entirely new ground.

The great names of British and Australian geographers and
explorers at the beginning of the reign find worthy counterparts
at the 60th anniversary. Men of the originality of Francis
Galton, the versatility and wider knowledge of Sir Clements
Markham and Hugh Robert Mill, and the scientific strength of
Dr. John Murray, of the “Challenger ;” nor. are the names of
General Strachey, Admiral Wharton, Ravenstein, Bartholomew,
and the late Baron von Mueller likely to be soon forgotten, or
their influence on the progress of geographical science to be
effaced.

Everywhere, the scientific geographers of the present day aie
more numerous than at any previous time. In physical geography
Suess and Penck in Austria, Richthofen and Supan in Germany,
Dr. Lapparent in France, and W. M. Davis in the United States

682 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E.

are representatives of the most modern developments of geography.
Elisée Reclus must also be mentioned as the author of the most
important treatise on general geography of modern date ; and
only the impossibility of adding names to a paper already over-
burdened with them, prevents me paying a well deserved tribute
to a hundred others.

In the preparation of this paper I have availed myself freely of
Sir Clements Markham, Hugh Robert Mill, and W. M. Davis of
America. In some places I have quoted their own words, and I
desire to express my indebtedness for such valuable information.

No. 2.—OVER LAND AND SEA; or ANDREE’S AERIAL
VOYAGE TO THE NORTH POLE.

By A. C. Macponanp, F.R.G.S8., FR. Mist. S.-i
(Read Monday, January 10, 1898.)

No. 3.—REMARKS ON CENTRAL AUSTRALIA,
SUGGESTING FURTHER EXPLORATION.

By W. H. TIerKkens.
(Read Wednesday, January 12, 1898.)

NorwitustanpinG the labours of the past, the last volume of
Australian discovery is still incomplete. When written it will
be found replete with accounts of intrepid deeds of daring and
contempt of danger, and future generations will become acquainted
with the difficulties and privations which their pioneer ancestors
faced in their endeavours to solve the mysteries of the unknown
interior.

The chapter so recently closed is full of tragic interest ; hoy
nobly those brave men (Charles F. Wells and George L. Jones)
met their death on the burning sands is an occurrence still fresh
in the minds of us all, and affords a fitting opportunity for this
association to offer a tribute to the memory of those devoted men
who fell in the Calvert Expedition of 1896.

The early explorers of the eastern parts of Australia have had
their labours rewarded by knowing that the waggons and flocks
of the pastoralist followed in their footsteps. Those who were
the first to travel west of the overland telegraph line have been

REMARKS ON CENTRAL AUSTRALIA. 683

less fortunate, for instead of the pioneer settler we now, profiting
by experience, find explorers, with more elaborate equipment,
journeying in other latitudes, hopeful that a more fertile country
will reward their labours.

It would nevertheless appear that there are discoveries yet to
be made that will open out an extended field for employment
and enterprise.

No settlement has yet been effected to the northward of the
Great Australian Bight.

The formation of crystalline limestone which there prevails
extends northwards for over 100 miles ; this has been tested by
the South Australian Government for water, to a depth of more
than !,000 feet, but without success. There are no surface clays in
which reservoirs could be made. The rainfall is less than 6 inches
per annum, so this extent of country may be said to be water-
less. Continuing northwards, after passing over these Limestone
Plains, the traveller enters a sandhill country, covered with various
leguminous trees and shrubs, and the ever-prevailing and dreaded
spinifex. With the exception of a few outcrops of rock where
water may be found, or an occasional native well, this tract ma
be said to be almost waterless. Such waters are difficult to
find, and for the most part they barely supply the wants of a
passing caravan. This description of country continues with
unbroken monotony to about south latitude 29° 15’, when moun-
tain ranges of 2,000 feet are met with. These extend east and
west almost uninterruptedly for a distance of over 200 miles ;
they are known as the Musgrave, Mann, Tomkinson, and Cavanagh
Ranges. Their rugged slopes are torn and riven by the torrents
of water that pour down in times of the phenomenal rains which
occasionally fall in those regions. Large creeks issue from the
gorges, and, flowing southward, are swallowed up and absorbed
by the vast hanks of sand which, rolling up from the southwards,
defy the torrent to force its way through them. These ranges
were discovered in 1874 by the expeditions under Gosse and Giles.
Very heavy rains must have fallen just previous to their visit,
for there was water in abundance, grass and herbage were green
and luxuriant, nearly every creek and gully was a purling brook,
and, for the time being, there was relief from the anxiety which
the continued search for water entailed.

These conditions prevailed until the west extremity of the
range at Elder’s Creek was reached. Further progress westward
was then checked by a waterless, sandy waste that appeared to
extend indefinitely towards the west.

Giles turned to the northward, and, after travelling over 80
miles, discovered and named the Rawlinson Range, in latitude
24° 40’, which, with the Petermann Range, extend in an east and
west direction for nearly 200 miles. At the west extremity of

684 PROUEEDINGS OF SECTION E.

the Rawlinson a sandy waste was encountered which defied every
effort to traverse. At this point, in his endeavour to cross to the
westward, his only companion (Gibson) lost his life. The hard-
ships of that journey may be conceived when we remember that
the return journey of 100 miles to the Rawlinson was completed
by Giles on foot and alone. In the following year, however,
Giles, provided with camels, crossed with comparative ease from
the west.

This waterless waste appears to extend, perhaps, to the water-
shed of the River System, which flows northward to the Timor
Sea. It was traversed by Colonel Warburton in 1873. The
record of that journey is one of privation, anxiety, and distress.
The few native watering places found barely sufficed to supply
the wants of the party even for a day.

The private expedition fitted out, maintained, and led by the
Hon. David Carnegie, which has just returned to the settlements,
has largely added to our knowledge of the country northward of
the Rawlinson Range. It appears to be the most successful of
= recent desert journeys. The diaries are not yet available, but

e learn that the party of four men and a black-boy left Cool-
gardie in July, 1893, and travelled to the Margaret River, latitude
18° south longitude 126° east, and to Termination Lake of Gregory,
1856. From this point the party travelled south-westerly to
Lake MacDonald, to Alfred and Marie Range, thence to Lake
Darlot and Coolgardie, where they arrived in August, 1897. The
country between Termination Lake and the west end of the Raw-
linson is described as of the ‘worst class, holding out no hope
of being either of mineral or pastoral value.”

It is worthy of remark that a native population, necessarily
very scattered, will be found living in the sandy wastes which
occupy so vast an extent of country in the interior. The few who
granted us an interview were sinewy, lithe, and well made, possibly
they are compelled to travel great distances without water, but
they had not the appearance of being at any time reduced to
want.

The only part of the Australian continent of any extent which
appears unable to support a native population is the Lime-
stone plateau, north of the Great Bight already referred to.

The trigonometrical survey of South Australia has been
extended to the 129th meridian upon the Musgrave and Mann
Ranges ; these have recently been visited by Mr. 8. G. Hiibbe,
an experienced officer of the Lands Department of South Aus-
tralia. His very carefully prepared maps and journals have been
kindly forwarded to me ;—they give valuable detailed information
regarding the waters in these ranges. The object of this survey
was to ascertain the possibility of establishing a stock route from
the settlements of South Australia to those of the west.

REMARKS ON CENTRAL AUSTRALIA. 685

The season was not a favourable one, but it would appear that
any waters that were found were not of sufficient extent or volume
to encourage the hope that stock in any numbers could venture
to adopt this route with any degree of safety.

So many travellers have visited these ranges at different times,
especially since the gold discoveries in Western Australia, that it
may now almost be termed a highway between the two colonies.

It would be well, then, to turn our attention to the two moun-
tain chains—the Rawlinson and Petermann Ranges—that lay to
the north of the Mann and Tomkinson Ranges, and which are
bounded on all sides by such barren and inhospitable sandy
wastes, where the powerful rays of the sun scorch the stunted
vegetation, and which may be said to be the birthplace of the hot
wind “that scatters death on all that yet can die.” To the best
of my belief, these ranges have not been visited, except by Giles,
whose party was much reduced ;—he had been at that time nearly
twelve months in the field, one man had perished, as also had
many of the horses, provisions were exhausted, and the members
of the party were subsisting principally upon the flesh of their
worn-out and exhausted horses. Under such circumstances, close
examination of the country was impossible. Many large gum
creeks were crossed, all trending to the northwards. These were
erroneously charted as running into Lake Amadeus, which was
supposed to le in that direction.

In 1889, an expedition which I had the honor of leading, was
fitted out under the auspices of the South Australian branch of
the Royal Geographical Society, one object of which was for the
purpose of determining the outline of Lake Amadeus. The most
westerly point reached on this occasion was Mt. Leisler, 2,500
feet, in south latitude, from the summit of which the view in all
directions was over an expanse of sand, scrub, and waterless
country. This mountain is a conspicuous feature from any point
of observation for very many miles, and serves as a beacon
warning the traveller against approaching its dreary surroundings.
Sandhills roll like the tumultuous waves of the ocean up to its
very base; the scene is one of silent, barren desolation. From
this point the travellers turned south-easterly towards Mt. Unap-
proachable, and there found the west extremity of Lake Amadeus,
which we now know contains an area of about 900 square miles ;
that it is about 1,000 feet above the level of the sea; that no
water channel of any consequence empties into it, and that it is
surrounded on all sides for very many miles by the most inhos-
pitable spinifex sandhills.

The Petermann Ranges extend east and west for about 70
miles and may be said to be the eastern continuation of the
Rawlinson chain. They are more remarkable for their extent
than for great elevation or their imposing outline. From Mt.

686 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E.

Olga they would perhaps not even be seen, but they gradually
increase in height until the Rawlinson Range is reached. Here,
then, is an extensive and fertile field awaiting scientific and
systematic examination, in which much that is now a matter of
conjecture requires to be verified.

An expedition such as that fitted out by Mr. W. Horn, of
South Australia, is required for the work. The party equipped
and maintained by the above-named gentleman called for savants
from the Universities of each of the colonies, New South Wales
being represented by Mr. J. A. Watt, M.A., B.Sc. This party
was most ably conducted by Mr. C. Winnecke, of Adelaide, and
returned after its four months’ ramble in the Macdonnell, Kric-
hauff, and Gill Ranges rich in discovery to every branch of
science.

An opportunity here presents itself to those upon whom fortune
has largely smiled to shed the lustre of discovery upon their
names by the equipment and maintenance of an expedition that
shall have for its object scientific search in this almost unknown

region. Such a party would leave the settlements at Gill’s

Range or Erldunda and proceed from there to Mt. Olga, where
the first depot would be formed pending the discovery of a
suitable water being found further west, and nearer the scene of
operations. No difficulty would then be experienced in reaching
Sladen Water. It may almost be taken for granted that valuable
waters would be found before reaching so far west. From the
western end of the Rawlinson, the party would return by a
slightly different route, and if time and circumstances allowed,
before leaving Sladen Water light parties would be formed to
visit Fort Mueller to the south, and Mt. Leisler to the north.
Taking advantage of the winter months by being at Mt, Olga in
April, the party would return to the settlements before the
excessive heat of summer.

It is with the hope that it will lead to a close examination of
this country that these remarks are offered. The discovery of
gold- bearing rocks in Western Australia in country that had been
traversed by such close observers as Gregory Austin, Lefrey
Forrest, and many others, leads me to think that somewhat
similar conditions will prevail here, for we know that where
Devonian slates, sandstones, and granites protrude, precious
metals impregnate the fissures to a greater or less extent.

The conviction is now forced upon us that no pasture lands of
sufficient extent may be looked for that would develop the western
interior, but we may reasonably entertain the hope that the
mining industry in this latitude will challenge the enterprise of
the Australian people.

A CONTRIBUTION TO AUSTRALIAN OCEANOGRAPHY. 687

No. 4.—A CONTRIBUTION TO AUSTRALIAN
OCEANOGRAPHY,

By THomas WALKER Fow er, M.C.E., F.R.G.S., F.G.S., &c.
(Read Wednesday, January 12, 1898. )

On examining the reports of the “Challenger” Expedition some
two years ago, it appeared to the writer that there was still room
for a large amount of investigation in connection with Australian
Oceanography, and more especially as to the currents, densities,
and temperatures of our seas. The “Challenger” touched at few
points in Australia and New Zealand (Melbourne, Sydney, Wel-
lington, and Cape York), and these points were each visited but
once, so that a complete examination of our waters was not made
during that expedition. To make such an examination would,
probably, have taken up considerably more time than that occu-
pied by the whole “Challenger” Expedition in the voyage round
the world. The scientists engaged in preparing the “Challenger”
reports had, of course, access to observations other than those
taken on board that ship, but there appeared to be room for much
further work. ‘The writer has endeavoured to advance the work
a little, more especially with the view of ascertaining the varia-
tions in temperature and density of our waters.

Necessarily, the method adopted in obtaining information was
very different to that followed on the “Challenger.” Being only
able to devote spare time to the work, the writer was unable to
visit in person the different localities from which it was desirable
to obtain samples. He, therefore, applied to the captains or
officers of various intercolonial steamships proceeding at regular
intervals along the Australian coasts for assistance, which they
kindly granted by obtaining samples of the waters passed through
by them and noting the temperature of the sea at the time each
sample was obtained. The samples were obtained as near to the
vessel’s bows as possible and placed in well-cleaned bottles which -
were tightly corked and forwarded to the writer for examination
at the Melbourne University.

After careful consideration the writer decided to determine the
densities by means of a hydrometer provided with movable
weights. This was the method adopted by Mr. Buchanan on the
“Challenger.” Previous to arriving at this decision, the advis-
ability of using other methods, such as Sprengel tubes, was
thought of, but laid aside as impracticable, considering the

- 688 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E.

number of samples to be dealt with in a short time. Experi-
ments were also tried with a modified type of the Nicholson
hydrometer, the fiducial point being a glass pointer projecting
upwards from the hydrometer bulb instead of a mark on the stem
as usual. The contact of this pointer with its reflection at the
surface of the water, as seen by looking upwards through the
hydrometer glass, could be observed w ith very great precision,
the whole arrangement being similar to that of the fiducial point
of a Fortin barometer inverted. The ease with which separate
determinations could be obtained by Mr. Buchanan’s method, using
different weights, caused the writer to finally adopt it. The
hydrometers used were two in number, the first having a volume
of 904 cubic centimetres with stem diameter of, approximately,
5 millimetres, and the second a volume of 1374 cubic centimetres,
with stem diameter of, approximately, 4 millimetres. Both instru-
ments were made by a Hicks of London. The diameters of the
stems were carefully measured by micrometer gauges and the
distances between the graduation marks verified on arrival of the
instruments in Australia, and the accuracy of the zero graduation
verified by testing in distilled water. From the above informa-
tion and the weights in vacuo cf the hydrometers and weights
used (which were carefully obtained), the value of each stem-
reading of the hydrometer for each applied weight was ascertained.
These were checked by testing the instruments in solutions of
known densities. The hydrometers are standard at 60° Fahr.,
and the corrections to apply to readings taken at other temper-
atures were carefully determined by experiment. The densities
were determined, as far as possible, when the surrounding temper-
ature did not differ greatly from 60 degrees.

The observed densities are given in the attached tables, A to F
inclusive, and are means of three readings of the hydrometer with
different weights in each case. In almost every case the results
obtained with the large hydrometer for each individual reading
does not differ from the mean by more than 0:0006, the average
difference being about half of this amount. With the small
hydrometer these figures would be doubled. The densities given
throughout are those of the sea-water at 60° Fahr. referred to dis-
tilled water at 39:2° Fahr. as standard. The temperatures given
are those reported by the gentlemen obtaining the samples, all of
whom were carefully instructed as to the importance of reading
the thermometer whilst the bulb was in the water. The ther-
mometers used were ordinary ship’s thermometers, the special
thermometers which the writer had ordered not being available in
time. Attempts were made to obtain the samples in the months of
February, May, August, and November, as being months when
the greatest variations (ze., in Iebruary and August), and mean
results (z.e., in May and November) might be expected.

A CONTRIBUTION TO AUSTRALIAN OCRANOGRAPHY. 689

Tables A give results obtained between Fremantle and Mel-
bourne.

Tables B give results obtained between Melbourne and Bris
bane.

Tables C give results obtained north of Brisbane.

Tables D give results obtained between Melbourne and The
Bluff, N.Z.

Tables E give results obtained between The Bluff, via East
Coast, N.Z., and Sydney.

Table F give results obtained from samples taken by the writer
in Bass Straits, off Sorrento.

Samples A to M (Table F) and Nos. 1 to 165 and 202-4, all
inclusive, were tested with the small hydrometer, all others with
the large one.

An examination of Tables A, will show that the density in St.
Vincent’s Gulf is always considerably higher than in the Great
Australian Bight, whilst the latter shows a lower density gener-
ally in November, 1596, than in the previous August or May.
In May only do we find traces of the high density shown by Dr.
Buchan in the “Challenger” reports as existing on the west coast
of Australia. Tables B show lower densities between Melbourne
and Brisbane in December, 1896, and March, April, and May,
1897, than in May and August, 1896. Tables C show through-
out a remarkable drop in density on passing north of Mackay,
Queensland, due, no doubt, to the heavy rains discharged by the
coast rivers into the sea within the Barrier Reef. Tables E
disclose a remarkable rise in temperature and density at latitude
46° 16’ 8S. and longitude 165° 46’ E. in May, 1896, and peculiar
variations in both temperature and density at this locality in
November, 1896. One is tempted to speculate as to the existence
of any peculiar currents in this locality. Tables E show very
clearly the increase in density in passing through Cook Strait from
the east coast of the South Island of New Zealand, westerly
towards Sydney.

Table F gives a series of density determinations made by the
writer on waters obtained by him in Bass Strait, and are interest-
ing as showing the variations met with at one spot. The writer
has made these determinations as often as possible, and the series,
Nos. 258 and onwards, are specially interesting, as the observa-
tions were made almost daily. _

Table G gives a series of sea temperature observations taken by
the writer in Bass Strait. Observations of this character are
useful in determining the positions of the surface isothermal
lines of the ocean at different periods of the year. The results

DX

690 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E.

obtained lead the writer to suspect that errors are frequently
made in observing sea temperatures, either by withdrawing the
thermometer from the water prior to noting the reading, in which
case evaporation commences, and the reading obtained is too
low, or by letting the sun’s rays reach the thermometer when in
the water (usually contained in a bucket), in which case the
reading will be too high.

The information contained in the attached Tables is, of course,
very incomplete, and the writer is fully aware that only by years
of close observation and study can a full knowledge of Australian
Oceanography be obtained. ‘That the study w ill be of practical
utility ultimately, he has no doubt. The immense volume of
water situated to the south and west of Australia must have very
powerful influences on the seasons experienced in the southern
portions of the continent. A very slight increase in temperature
of the ocean must exert a considerable effect on the seasons, giving
a mild winter or hot summer, whilst the density of the waters
will affect the rate of evaporation therefrom, increasing or dimin-
ishing the moisture in the atmosphere. It seems, therefore,
important to have observations of at least the temperature of
sea-waters taken regularly as an important meteorological element.
To be of use, however, such observations must be taken at stations
properly exposed. The results, for example, obtained at the
Gellibrand Lightship, Melbourne, are affected largely by the
temperature of the river Yarra, and probably those obtained in
Sydney Harbour are similarly affected by the Parramatta River.
Observations made at many of the coast lighthouses would be
free from the objection, but great care should be taken that the
temperature observed is of water drawn from the sea itself, and
not from shallow pools left by the ebbing tide.

The writer is deeply indebted to Captains Armstrong, Lee,
Rossiter, and Thomson, of the A.U.S.N. Company’s service, and
‘Captain Phillips, of the Union 8.8. Company’s service, also Chief
Engineers Burwood and Orr, of the former company, for their
kindness in obtaining samples and observing temperatures. He is
also deeplyindebted to Messrs. D. Mills, of the Union 8.8. Company,
Melbourne, and C. W. McLean, A.M.I.C.E., of the Marine Board,
Melbourne, for valuable assistance. Captain T. H. Tizard, R.N.
and F.R.S., of the Admiralty Office, and R. H. Scott, Esq.,
F.R.S., of the Meteorological Office, London, and the Superin-
tendents of the Fish Commission and the Coast and Geodetic
Survey, Washington, have supplied very valuable information.
Messrs. Ellery, F.R.S., and E. J. Love, F.R.A.S., as well as
Professors Kernot, Lyle, and Masson, gave most valuable assist-
ance and advice. To all of these gentlemen the writer has to
tender his sincere thanks,

A CONTRIBUTION TO AUSTRALIAN OCEANOGRAPHY.

Table A 1.—Densities of Waters obtained between

691

Fremantle

and Melbourne, May and June, 1896 :—

Notre.—The latitudes and longitudes given are those recorded by the gentlemen who

obtained the samples.

In some cases they correspond with positions remarkably close to

or on land, but they still will indicate the localities from which the samples were obtained.
Opportunities of checking them, except by chart, have not arisen, and it was thought
better to give the actual record with this note.

Remarks.

», Cape Leeuwin.
Australian Bight.
9? 9?

” 2

Near Cape Leeuwin.
;, Fremantle.

», Cape Leeuwin.
Australian Bight.

” 29

Gulf of St, Vincent:

29 2”

Sn
£3 Date when | Latitude | Longitude as Density of
Be obtained, 8. E. ® 5 | Sample.
o4 25
—_ vz =
1896. OX ada 7
1 | 12 May 32 3] 115 45 102641 | Near Fremantle.
Doles as 34 25 115 29 1:02619
oe pae 55 35 19 126 17 1:02607
4) lai 5 Si) 7 130 15 we 1°02595
Orinl6: 5; 35 28 lisby 8) see eels02579
29a elie ss Si) 7/ 134 25 60 | 1°02589
SN Ie aan 30 24 131 28 64 | 1:02573
SEP |S? <5 645) Ns) 129 26 60 | 1:02589
S2r alse 3 Bi) JPY IIPAre as 58 | 1:02589
Sou LO! 5s 35 10 124 44 62 | 1:02624
34/19 ,, 35 11 1298 62 | 1:02598
Son 20) 45 ool 118 52 62 | 1:02619
SOLleale 5, ai. Wale te) 66 | 1°02638
SHlecly ss 34 27 HS 3 69 | 1:02589
Ste) Vase an 32 51 1s; 9) 68 | 1:02592
39) "28> 55 a) ts} 115 30 68 | 1°02604
20,285 ,, 34 8 115 8 69 | 1:02607
4129), ai ity, wo) 68 | 1:02609
| 29e am) 118 3 68 | 1:02612
4033 1110) wha Sy 283 PAL Ips 62 | 1:02587
Age 30% 55 3d 19 123 40 62 | 1:02582
CS eal: ae 30) By 125 56 60 | 1°0257
46 | 31 ,, 35) Bs: 128 3d 60 | 1°02596
47 1 June 30) 27 | lst 37 60) 1 1-02576
48 | a es 35 30 134 28 61 | 1:02607
49 2s, sin 11s 137 46 59 | 1:02656
50 eae Sy Pui 138 7 || IO ParAly/
ial Aes S128 139 44 58 | 1:02627
Donk DO: 55 38 35 142 0] 59] 1:02625

692 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION

Table A 2.—Densities of Waters obtained between Fremantle and
Melbourne, August, 1896 :—

g 2 Date when | Latitude | Longitude
§ 3 | obtained. 8. i.
OF
1896. sige eis
115 | 31 July 35 19 | 134 46
ANG) || Sy es 35 15 | 132 49
117 1 Aug. 39) 9) |) 129° 0
THC e, Pee 35 8! 126 46
IBS) Pe a 35 11} 124 16
120 |". ,, 35 8] 121 42
UPA |)! op 35 8} 119 52
TOD Ce 35 11] 117 40
U8) ||) 5p 34 39 | 115 26
2A Oss 33° 0; 115 O
1743) || 18) 5 29 25} 114 40
AG | Pal oo 30 16 | 114 45
27 22 35 _ 31 54) 115 37
1s}. |) Ps 32 25] 115 15
UPA) || 9433" 34.10] 114 53
130 | 23 ,, 30) 198) ulGr or
131 | 24 ,, 35 4] 118 13
132 | 24 ,, 35.13 | 120 12
133 | 25 ,, 35 29 | 123 3
134 | 25 ,, 35 30 | 125 38
oom a2Opes, 35 34 | 128 14
eS Ou |20) a5 35 26 | 130 48
USY/ |) Path 55 35 25 |} 1383 0
138 | 27 ,, 35 28 | 135 12
NB) As) 5p 35 23 | 1387 4

Seatempera-
ture, Fahy.

fe}

Density of
Sample.

Remarks.

Australian Bight.

99 9

Near Cape Leeuwin.
Near Fremantle.
West Coast of Aus-
tralia,
3”) 3)
bP] 3)

29 29
Near Cape Leeuwin.

Australian Bight.

2? 9
> 37

9 29

St. Vincent’s Gulf.

a

A CONTRIBUTION TO AUSTRALIAN OCEANOGRAPHY. 693

Table A 3.—Densities of Waters obtained between Fremantle and
Melbourne, November and December, 1896 :—

Be |
£3 Date when Latitude | Longitude 28 Density of
58 | obtained. | S. E. S| Sample. > PRCIUETES:
OF | 35
| ne
1896. ° / ° / °
140 | 2 Nov. 39 16 | 12413 56 | 1°02557 | Australian Bight.
AND) 3? 5, 35 16 | 118 50:| 59 | 1:02573
142") 4°. ,; 39 10} 117 O| 64] 1:02598
AS 5: |, 35 00} 115 30} 68 | 1:02585
144 Sirs 32 10 114 55 64 | 1°02570
11255) | ts ea 3400) 117 00 64; 1:02570 | Longitude in error ;
should be about 115°,
1468) 9)-;; 35 05; 118 40} 64] 1:02573
WEF Ae Db a5 35 08 | 120 40 | 62) 1°02551 | Australian Bight.
1455), 10 55 30 10) 128 40.) Gly) 102554 - 5%
TAGE LOS 55 35 30 | 127 00} 60] 1:02548 - >
150) |e es 35 39 | 129 10] 59] 1:02533 Ai a
Vols 5, 35 36 | 1382 10] 60] 1:02537 | 2 5s
115)2) I) IP eee 35 338 | 134 50] 60] 1:02531 | = a
LOS 2? 25, 35 15 | 137 50 | 60] 1:02631 | St. Vincent’s Gulf.
23417 ,, 38 30 | 142 20] 58 | 1:02549 |
Zeooilid 5 37 50 | 14010 | 56 | 1:02536 |
236-| 19° 5, 38 10 | 188 20] 59] 1°02571 |
Zora 20) °., 30 15 | 137 49 | 62 | 1:02580 | St. Vincent’s Gulf.
Zoo! 20.5; 35 23 | 13210) 60) 1:02555 Australian Bight.
eB) aa Ne 35 20} 13056 | 58 | 1:02529 | Pe 55
PAW EZ, op 24.) 135 12 | 60: | 102574 x ne
FAT ODP 35 20 |} 127 02} 60 | 1:02566 | . AP
DEP BS" 30 1d) 12420") 627) 7 ae 50 AA
DAD a Doe as 30, 10) Tiss |) 160s) 102527 Als A6
244 | 24 ,, 30 O° || TISi27 | 64) 1 ‘ORES
2AD | 20 5 3006; |) U7 dae 162.) 1702527
246%) 26> 5; 34 20; 115 00) 62) 1:02548 | Near Cape Leeuwin,
247 | 26° 4, 32 45 | 114 59 | 66 1:02544
248 | 2 Dec 33 36 | 114 35 | 62) 1:02565
DADE Di ss 35 28 | 127 43 61 | 1:02541 | Australian Bight.
2505: Gy 5; go 82 | 12725 60) 1:02537 i as
Zo Gi sy, 35 28 | 130 20] 60) 1:02515 irs oe
BOA ME 55 35 40 | 135 06 61 | 1:02542 hs oe
2251339) a ame 35 15 | 137 30 | 63 | 1:02581 | St. Vincent’s Gulf,
24) 8. ,, 35 32 | 138 09 | 64! 1°02646 43 a5
ZOOM S55 36 51 | 139 15} 60) 1° 02527
Z5GCi | 1S) = 55 38 57 | 148 34) 58 | 1°0251
ZO | Boh 55 38 51 | 143 08); 61] 1 02539

694 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E.

Table B 1.—Densities of Waters obtained between Melbourne and
Brisbane, May and June, 1896 :—

|":
23 Ww itu Longitu a Density of
22 Pe meek = E. = = Sainte Remarks,
OF, g5
nmr
1896. ° if ° {d °
15 | 23 May 27 02 | 153 33 68 | 1:02595 | Near Cape Moreton.
IG | P33 5p 28 39 | 153 42 | 70] 1:02607
Lj) 2455. 31 37 | 153 03 | 68] 1:02601
tl} || 2 op 32 20 | 152 44] 67 | 1:02596
IK) |) 2a og 37 00 | 15009 | 62 1:02588
PAU) | Pah sp 37 50 | 149 10} 59] 1:02601
NSS tase 39 07 | 146 32 | 57 | 1:02570
PP) ORS oy. 38 24 | 144 42 57 | 1:02570 | Near Port Phillip.
Pas) || Gish ae 27 00 | 153 33 | 72 | 1:02613 | Near Cape Moreton.
26 | 31 30 553) 153 64) 71 | 1:025938
27 | 3 June 37 34 | 149 55 | 60] 1:02604
25a metus 38 30 | 144 53] 58 | 1:02604 | Near Port Phillip.
53 | 17 May 38 31 | 147 59 | 60 | 1:02604 | Off 90-mile Beach.
54 8, 36 51 | 150 25) 62] 1:02592
Do P21, 28 47 | 153 40) 73 | 1:02572
64 | 6 June 27 263) 153 36 | 72 | 1:02585 | Near Cape Moreton.
65 nf 32 273] 152 393) 70 | 1:02590
GGN/HIO 2s, 37 1534! 150 05 | 65 | 1:02573
Cp |) LBL sp 88 25 | 147 58 | 59 | 1:02579 | Off 90-mile Beach.

Table B 2.—Densities of Waters obtained between Melbourne and

Brisbane :—
Bs
£8 Date when i i eG ity a
oF, 25
me
1896. ak Soi F
107 | 15 Aug. 27 00 | 153 25 61 | 1:02598 | Near Cape Moreton.
108) 16) 7, 29 50} 153 30} 64 | 1:02598
OR Gi. 3110} 153 5] 59 | 1:02598
TIL || 940) oe 36 15 | 150 30! 53 1:02598
TOI} || 0) ne 37 50 | 149 32| 49 | 1:02571
i183 || 220) Ag 38 30 | 148 00; 50) 1:02589
Hit || Oak 39 00 | 14610] 47 | 1:02597 | Near Wilson’s Pro-
montory.

A CONTRIBUTION TO

AUSTRALIAN OCEANOGRAPHY.

695

Table B 3.— Densities of Waters obtained between Melbourne and
Brisbane, December, 1896 :—

Date when

Sea tempera-
ture, Fahr

Density of

= 3 ati ngitude
25 obtained, aoe si i Sample. PS
oF |
1895. ee ee ;
161 | 5 Dec 27 31 | 153 32 | 77 | 1:02549 | Near Cape Moreton.
162,10" 55 3115 | 153 15} 76} 1:02558
NGS a) Ge 55 32 45} 152 15 | 69 | 1:02534
UG} Oe 37 50} 149 30] 62 | 1:02526
165) 10”, 39 00 | 145 50] 62] 1:02528 | Near Wilson’s Pro-

montory.

Table B 4.—Densities of Waters obtained between Melbourne
and Brisbane, March, April, and May, 1897 :—.

General
Number.

Date when
obtained.

Latitude

Longitude

Seatempera-
ture, kahr.

|

Density of |

Sample.

1:02541
102562
1°02563
1:02529
1:02532
1:02533

Remarks.

| Near Cape Byron.

| Near Cape Howe.
Off 90-mile Beach.

Near Cape Byron.

Off 90-mile Beach.

696 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E.

Table C 1.—Densities of Waters obtained on the East Coast of
Australia, North of Brisbane, May and June, 1896.

5 Ss |
aa 26 |
S52 | Date when] Lati eit =S | Density of |
3 2 | obtained. ea ae BS | secre: Rename
ore, 8 =
Bs
1896. ° , ° / °
6 | 16 May 15 30 145 20 | 76 | 1:02394 | Near Cooktown.
Ta hG eee 16 45 145 50 | 74 | 1°02417
Salle 18 20 | 146 20} 74 | 1:02483 | Of Hinchinbrook Isld.
allies 19 20) 147 15) 714) 1:02473
OM 9) ee 20 10 148 50} 72 | 1:02350
Dt || yey Se 2] 35 150 00 | 71 | 1:02518
LZ D0 23 10 151 05 70 | 1:02599 | Near Cape Capricorn.
13) | 20) 5; 24 00 152 30 | 74] 1:02608
AD CDN es 26 11 153 27 | 72 | 1:02584 | Near Cape Moreton.
PB) |) BBY 5 15 30 | 145 30 | 7d | 1:02419 | Near Cooktown.
DA OTe 23 00 | 152 00 | 72 | 1:025SS8 | Near Cape Capricorn.
56 | 24 ,, 26 11 | 153 21 | '73°7| 1:02594 | Near Cape Moreton.
57 | 24 ,, 24 08 152 40 74 | 1:02601
On| Dur: 23 09 | 151 04 | 74] 1:02592 | Near Cape Capricorn.
59 | 26° 5, 21 09 149 183) 71 | 1:02412
60 | 2 June 19 405) 147 263; 76 | 1:02493 | Near Cape Upstart.
61 oh 23. 9| 151 41} 74] 1:02610 | Near Cape Capricorn.
O25 oo ss 24 5 152 40 73 | 1:02603
63 | 4 26 13 | 153 28 | 73 | 1:02597 | Near Cape Moreton.
89 | — May 13 30 | 143 42 | 77 | 1:02476 | Near Cooktown.
99) 4 12 00; 143 14] 78 | 1:02441 | Off Cape Greville.
Ol) || we2855 10 45 | 142 38 | 80} 1:02398 | At Albany Pass.
92 naa 10 36 | 141 55 | 80 | 1°02520 | At Booby Island.
93| BEB | 1319] 141 28| 78 | 1:02412 |) In Gulf of Carpen-
“eh || eyeui~ 15 39 | 14056] 78 | 1:02501 taria.
Table C 2.—Densities of Waters obtained on the East Coast of

Australia, North of Brisbane, August, 1896.

Vee
a2 ate W ati 2 ai a nsity of 2
a a Moet as one a3 3 S Peale Remarks.
oF ae
mr
1896. cand Sad 2
96 | 8 Aug 15 40 | 145 23} 71 | 1:02594 | Near Cooktown.
SS ors. 17 06 | 146 02] 693) 1:025n2
99)5|_ 9) 55 18 22} 146 24 | 693} 1:02521 | Off Hinchinbrook Isld.
WOO) LE ss 19 46; 148 07 | 68 , 1:02506
Kal || Unt 5. 20 30; 149 01) 66) 1:02530
102) 11) —5; 2114) 149 23, G4 | 1:02469
1039) 2 35 22 49 | 151 00} 63 | 1°02559
10452) 5; O3e ole de 2eOo8 66) 1202572
HOSa lowes, 25 40 | 158 25 | 70 | 1:02572
LOGS PlSierss 26 46 | 153 25] 68 | 1:02569
oe SS EEE EEE —— ee

A CONTRIBUTION TO AUSTRALIAN

OCEANOGRAPHY. 697

Table C 3.—Density of Waters obtained on the East Coast of
Australia, north of Brisbane, November and December, 1896.

General
Number.

Date when

obtained.

Sea tempera-
ture, Fahr.

Density of

Sample.

Remarks.

| Near Cape Capricorn.

Table C 4.—Densities of Waters obtained on the East Coast of
Australia, north of Brisbane,-March and April, 1897.

reneral
Number.

Date when
obtained.

\Seatempera-
ture, Fahr.

Density of

Sample.

Remarks.

222
223
224
225
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217

10 ”
17 April
18

»)

1:02574
1:02543

698 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E.

Table D 1.—-Densities of Waters obtained between Melbourne
and The Bluff, New Zealand, May and June, 1896.

Se
ae D whe i gi ES Density of
z E Stee ae ae mee ae Sain ple Remarks:
mF, g 5

mM?

|
1896. ° , ° \ °

88 | 23 June 38 31 144 51 Sel eO2612
68 | 17 May 40 244) 147 4134) 61 | 1:02561
GOR leas 42 20 | 148 24 563: 1:02528
200) VS! 45 43 20 148 09 58 | 1:02584
ile a 44 04 | 15200] 55 | 1-02573
724 || N@) 2. 44 38 155 15 55 | 1°02576
Wes || 20 35 45 19 158 39 54 | 1:02531
74 | 20 ,, 45 53 162 19 | 53°5 | 1:°02528 \
76) |) Pal 46 16 165 46 | 56°5 | 1°02545

Table D 2.—Densities of Waters obtained between Melbourne
and Bluff, November, 1896.

eS
ia neta Ua aa a Sa eee Remarks,
Or g =
Nees s

1896. ° , ° / °
166 | 18 Nov.| 38 33] 144 51/ 60 | 1-02543
1675195; 40 00} 14703) 59) 102511
168 | 19 _,, 42 13| 148 29| 57 | 1-02512
16971020) 5 4318 | 148 01 | 56! 1:02484
70321, 43 53 | 151 08 | 53 | 1:02474
71321 oe, 44 29 | 154 41 | 54 | 1-02474
17222". 45 04 | 158 03 | 52 | 1-02480
7s | 22: ;, 45 26| 16019 | 52] 1-02473
174 | 22, 45 32 | 160 54 | 52 | 1-02486
175 | 22, 45 38 | 161 30 | 52 | 1-02480
176 | 22), 45 44} 162 06 | 52 | 1-02488
| 2a 45 49 | 162 38 | 52) 1:02497
178 | 23 ,, 45 54 | 16310 | 53) 1-02478
1797) O3i,; 46 00 | 163 45 | 53 | 1-02497 |
180 | 23 ,, 46 06 | 164 20] 53 1-02465
1810) 23055, 46 11 | 164 55 | 533! 1-02472
182 2300, 46.17 | 165 30| 54 | 1-02460
183 | 23. ,, 46 23 | 166 09 | 53 | 1-02454
1849/23, 46 45 | 167 35 | 53 102474
185 | 23 ,, 46 39 | 168 08 | 5441-02435

A CONTRIBUTION TO AUSTRALIAN OCEANOGRAPHY.

699

Table E 1.—Densities of Waters obtained between Bluff, New
Zealand, and Sydney, via Cook Straits, May, 1896.

Remarks.

Near Bluff Harbour.

| 3 rh
ES Date when | Latitude | Longitude eS Density of
§ § | obtained. s. E. Ss | Sample.
Or Ss
bm

1896. ° / °o / °
76 | 22 May 46 43 168 51 | 533) 1:°02486
‘crime 45 26 | 170 593, 52/| 1:02514
7st | Ane es 43 55 173 04 | 523) 1:02470
TMM PTs BA 41 47 174 26 524' 1:02495 | Cook Strait.
80 | 28 ,, 39 56 WAL Sy¥/ 60 | 1:02523
Sle 28. 55 39 O1 168 33 60 | 1°:02575
teh || P40) Sar 38 08 165 37 61 | 1:02621
SSE 29) 55 37h 1a 162 30 63 | 1:02548 j
S4aiO! 55 36 14 159 25 65 | 1:02536
85 | 30 ,, 35 18 156 29 67 | 1:02613
SOulpoll 5; 34 18 153 36 70 | 1°02612
87 6 June 33 51 151 20 68 | 1:02604

Near Sydney.

Table E 2.—Densities of Waters obtained between Bluft, New
Zealand, and Sydney, via Cook Straits, November and
December, 1896.

General
Number.

186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201

Date when
obtained.

cS .¢
54
Latitude | Longitude| 2 | Density of
Ss. E. ions Sample.
33
M as
46 43 | 168 51 54 | 1:02418
45 55 | 170 48 | 523] 1:02459
45 31 171 05 | 52] 1:02459
43°56) )|) 73045 |) a3" |) 102459
41 47 174 27 | 554) 1:02466
40 37 | 17403 | 58 | 1:02489
40 15 172 39 58 | 1:02473
29 21 169 46 | 60] 1:02511
38 26 | 166 48 | 613] 1:02534
Sh oot 6a) Sh) ole! 102522,
36 36 | 160 55) 65 | 1°02549
36 00} 158 34] 65 | 1:02542
35 31 156 52 | 69] 1:02556
SOOon | lbd Ol 700) 1602528
3428) 153 05 | 71 | 1:02558
3ono2) |) ole 23) | (67) |) 102529

Remarks.

Near Bluff Harbour.

Cook Strait.

bb) 99

Weather very hot.
Wind northerly.

Southerly set changed
inshore to northerly,
hence change in tem-
perature.

Near Sydney.

700 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E. -

Table F.—Densities of Waters obtained on Sorrento Back Beach,
Bass Strait.

Se:
aH Eee|
531] Date when] Lati oi ae asity ep
a arene ea ee ae great Bena
Oe 3 3
mr
|
1896. ° / ° , °
A | 28 Feb 38 223) 144 46 | 64:2) 1:02632 |)
C 7 Mar 38 223| 144 46 | 66:1{ 1:°02627
1D) |) 183 5. 38 223) 144 46 | 66:0, 1:02605
ioe hie ae 38 223| 144 46 | 66-0! 1-02605 || Norr.—Readings A
1D PAs ce 38 223} 144 46 | 64:2} 1:02623 to M inclusive
Go| a2 38 223| 144 46 | 64-2} 1:02605 |, depend upon one
iat | one 38 223] 144 46 |64:0| 1-02596 |f reading of the
| 285, 38 223) 144 46 | 64:0/ 1:02614 small hydrometer
J | 3 Apr 38 221) 144 46 | 64:0| 1-02614 only.
K 4 ies 38 223} 144 46 | 63:0) 1:02623
L OD! Pass 38 223} 144 46 | 62°5| 1:02641
MS 1G oie. 38 223} 144 46 | 61°5| 1:02623 | J
1897.
202 | 3 Feb 38 223) 144 46 | 65:5 | 1:02596
2084 55 38 2234) 144 46 | 63:5} 1:02588
204 Sian 38 223) 144 46 | 65:0) 1:02591 ;
258 |- 8 Dec 38.224} 144 46 | 63:0| 1:02548 | Max. air temp. 67°0
259) loess 38 223] 144 46 | 64:0] 1:02565 52 67.8
260 | 14 ,, 38 223} 144 46 | 64:0] 1:02553 55 70°5
260) | Wd" 5 38 223} 144 46 | 65:0| 1:02545
262 liens 38 223) 144 46 | 65°5| 1:02573
263028" os, 38 224) 144 46 | 64:5) 1:02574 | Max. air temp. 67°5
264 | 24 ,, 38 223) 144 46 | 65:0! 1:02549 55 69°5
26925) 5; 38 224) 144 46 | 65°5| 1:02548 AD 68°8
2667526", 38 224} 144 46 | 66°7 | 1:02523 a5 84:2
267) (28) 55 38 2234) 144 46 | 66°5| 1:02538 5p 76°0
2685029" 5. 38 224) 144 46 | 66°5| 1:02520 5° 86°6
AA) || Sil 55 38 223) 144 46 | 67°8| 1:02543 3 95:0
1898.
270 | 1 Jan 88 224) 144 46 | 65°8| 1:02546 a5 aw
271 Pe i 38 224) 144 46 | 66:0| 1:02559 no 728

A CONTRIBUTION TO AUSTRALIAN OCEANOGRAPHY. 701

Table G.—Observed Temperatures of Sea-water at Sorrento
Back Beach, Bass Strait. Latitude, 38° 223’ 8. ; longitude,

144° 46’ E.
Dates. Peter ta Maximum. Minimum. | Mean.
1895. i 3 :
1-14 February ...... 2 67°0 66:0 66°5
JES April ........... 3 64:0 63°0 63°3
1-15 November ... 4 61:0 59°8 60°3
1896.
1-15 January ...... ll 68:0 64'3 661
16-31 MR eres 12 68:0 66:0 66.6
1-14 February ...... 12 68:0 64°5 66°4
WSO 5 tN oosleen 15 68-0 62°5 65°5
SUS Nameday | cossiccas 15 67:0 64:0 65°6
16-31 Hn) eece eee 15 67°0 62:0 64°3
Pb PApril co... sens 7 64:0 61°5 62°7
1-15 November 6 60:0 58'5 59:0
IG=30! 55 4 64:0 63:0 63°5
1-15 December 3 66°0 65°'5 65°7
T6=30 55, 8 66°0 64°2 65'8
1897.
1-15 January ...... 12 66°5 63°2 65-4
16-31 Roane * ba ened 10 66:3 63°7 65'0
1-14 February ...... 9 67°5 63°5 65-4
ESS) el RE eee 3 66'8 66°2 66°5
115) Marcela *.. sce. 2 65°0 64:7 64:9
16-31 Ser. Minsieeene 1 | a Ae RO a | tA Rc 61°'8
L5=S October <csca. A ore te sto TE ess 57°8
1-15 November ... i! 61°0 58:0 59°7
16-30 __—i,, ame 8 62°5 59°8 61°2
1-15 December...... 6 65:0 62°0 63°6
16-31 Pic iehda aortas 14 67°7 64°5 66:1

702 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E,

No. 5.—THE DETERMINATION OF HEIGHTS BY
BAROMETRIC METHODS.

By Toomas WaLker Fow ter, M.C.E., F.R.G.S., F.G.S. .
(Read, Wednesday, January 12, 1898.)

THE geographer, surveyor, or civil engineer frequently requires
to ascertain the relative heights of various points upon the earth’s
surface or their absolute heights above sea-level. The most accu-
rate method of making such determinations is that termed by
geodesists “ precise levelling,” being a method somewhat similar
to that adopted by civil engineers for determining the relative
heights of points close together, and known as “spirit levelling.”
Work of this character is, however, both tedious and expensive,
and is but rarely resorted to, more especially when the points to
be connected are a considerable distance apart, or separated by
obstacles, such as dense forests or precipitous mountains. In
such cases even the civil engineer’s “ spirit levelling ” becomes
very costly, and, for preliminary investigations, has to be
abandoned.

Two other systems remain, one by ascertaining the atmospheric
pressure at the different places whose altitudes are required, and
from such pressures deducing the heights, the other by measuring
the angles of elevation or depression which the objects subtend
from each other or from other points at which such objects are
visible. The first method is that generally termed ‘‘ barometric
levelling” and the second “ trigonometric levelling.” The writer
has for several years, when opportunity offered, made experiments
with both methods, and he hopes that the results of his baro-
metric experience may be useful to others.

Under the head of “barometric levelling” it will be well to
consider—Ist, the instruments used ; 2nd, the methods of taking
the observations ; and 3rd, the methods of computing the results.
The instruments used are necessarily some description of baro-
meter, supplemented by thermometers, for the purpose of ascer-
taining the air temperature. The barometer may be one of
several types, mercurial, aneroid, or boiling-point thermometer.
For mountain work the mercurial barometer is generally of either
the siphon or the Fortin type, most of the writer’s work (so far
as mercurials are concerned) having been done with the former.

The great advantage claimed for the siphon barometer is that
as the diameters of the tube at the upper and lower limbs are the
same the capillary depressions in the two limbs would be equal,

DETERMINATION OF HEIGHTS BY BAROMETRIC METHODS. 703

and consequently they neutralise each other. The writer’s
experience does not support this view completely. The meniscus
at either end is formed under different circumstances; if the
mercury has been rising in the one it has necessarily been falling
in the other, and examination will at once show that the shape of
the meniscus, and presumably the amount of the depression,
differs considerably under these circumstances. The writer finds
that siphon mountain mercurials (which, to be portable, are neces-
sarily of small bore) require vigorous tapping. Further, when
the instrument is inverted and ready for travelling the (normally)
lower limb is free from mercury, whilst, when in use, the mercury
will run up that limb to an extent depending upon the atmospheric
pressure. Hence this portion of the mercury is brought succes-
sively in contact with a very large area of tube in proportion to
its mass, and it speedily becomes more or less foul when in use.
The advantage possessed by the siphon over the Fortin mercurial
for mountain work, in the writer’s opinion, is that owing to the
absence of the cistern at the bottom the volume of mercury
required and consequently the weight of the instrument is very
much reduced. Latterly the writer has been using a Fortin
mountain mercurial, in addition to the siphon ones, and so far as
his experience goes he decidedly prefers it. In mounting the
instruments prior to reading it is of course essential to have
them perfectly vertical, and, in the writer’s opinion, made
fast at both top and bottom. Sufficient steadimess cannot be
obtained by supporting the instrument in gimbals, as is frequently
done, or by suspending them from the top only. The writer's
system of plumbing a Fortin barometer is as follows :—Having
suspended the instrument and made it fast at the bottom, set the
mercury to touch the fiducial point, then rotate the instrument
through 180 degrees on its vertical axis. If the setting is still
perfect the instrument is perpendicular in the vertical plane
passing through the centre of the tube and the fiducial
point. If not, alter the bottom clamping screws until the
above adjustment remains correct on rotation through 180
degrees. Then rotate through 90 degrees and adjust in plane
perpendicular to the first. Care must be taken in erecting the
instruments to place them so that the sun will not shine on
them when in use, as otherwise the temperature of the mercury
in the tube will probably differ from that of the attached thermo-
meter. It is scarcely necessary to say that they must always be
inverted prior to being carried. If a siphon barometer it should
always be inverted or restored to the normal position with the
short hmb wpwards, otherwise air is certain to get in the tube.
If a Fortin, the mercury should be caused to fill the cistern (by
using the adjusting-screw) prior to inversion. Mercurial baro-
meters require most careful carrying. When carried in a vehicle

704 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E.

the lower end should rest on a soft cushion or bundle of blankets,
whilst, if carried on horseback, they should be on the rider’s back,
and the horse should not be permitted to go out of a walk. The
writer always feels safest with them when he is on foot with the
barometers strapped across his back. The bearer of the instru-
ments should, of course, be very sure-footed, as, if he fall, the
barometers are certain to be ruined.

Aneroid barometers have the advantage of being much more
portable than mercurials though, of course, they are less reliable.
The writer finds that the arrangement [suggested by Admiral
Wharton] of having a small disc placed at the end of the hand
and perpendicular to the dial of the instrument useful in reducing
parallax error in readings. Care should be taken to always hold
the instrument in the same position in reading and to gently tap
it, thus eliminating instrumental friction. It is advisable to
keep the instrument in the shade as much as possible when in use.
The verification of an aneroid barometer is a most important
point and should be very carefully done. The testing-chamber
used by the writer at the Melbourne University is arranged
so that the instrument can be gently tapped prior to read-
ing whilst being tested, thus the testing conditions are similar to
the wsing conditions. The ‘“ recovery ” test is an important
one which the writer applies by exhausting the air-chamber as
far as possible and restoring full atmospheric pressure again,
in about two minutes. This is repeated six times, and the varia-
tion in the correction at full atmospheric pressure is noted. The
writer has, through the kindness of Professor Kernot, experimented
with an aneroid of the ‘ Goldschmid” type in which the ordinary
mechanical magnification has been replaced by optical magnifica-
tion, but has not found any advantage therefrom, whilst the
difficulty of verifying the instrument is greatly increased.

The boiling-point thermometers used by the writer were made
by J. Hicks, London, and have proved most satisfactory imstru-
ments. During construction they were subjected to his method of
fixing the zero, and no trouble has been experienced from change
of zero whilst in use, though some of the instruments were made
three years ago. The instruments have an extremely open scale
(about 1 inch to the degree Fahr.), and are graduated to 0-05",
so that they can be readily read to 0-01° Fahr., which corresponds
to about 0-006 of an inch of mercury. During a series of some
thirty readings taken with each instrument on Mount Juliet in
December, 1896 (extending over five days), a pair of boiling-point
thermometers proved to be slightly more sensitive and accurate
than two siphon mercurial barometers used on the same expedition.
The great difficulty in connection with the boiling-point apparatus
is the verification of the thermometers, and a method with which
the writer is experimenting bids fair to overcome this. Immersed

DETERMINATION OF HEIGHTS BY BAROMETRIC. METHODS. 705

in steam the reading of the thermometer can be ascertained with
the greatest ease to 0:01° Fahr., but if placed in the ordinary
water-bath for comparison with other thermometers the writer
has been unable to get a steady reading no matter how vigorously
the stirring operations are carried on. Further, when compared
in the water-bath at (say) 200° Fahr., the thermometer being
vertical, its bulb is subject to a considerably greater pressure than
it would be if immersed in steam at the same temperature, and
consequently the thermometer reading may be expected to be
somewhat higher. The apparatus with which the writer is experi-
menting consists of a boiling-point apparatus with air and steam
tight joints, and glass tube as a thermometer chamber, the whele
being connected with a water-jet exhaust, and the barometer of
the aneroid testing chamber. The supply of steam can be regu-
lated by control of the gas-jet heating the apparatus, while the
exhaust can also be readily adjusted so that there is no difficulty
in getting absolutely steady thermometer and barometer readings,
and hence determining the pressure of the steam corresponding
to a given reading of the thermometer. It is of course unneces-
sary for the present purpose to know what the absolute tempera-
ture of the steam is, and indeed it would seem desirable to
graduate thermometers used for determining heights by the boiling
point of water, not in degrees Fahr., or cent., but in inches or
millimetres of mercury.

The apparatus in which the thermometer is placed when in use
consists of a boiler to which a jacketed-tube (of length sufficient
to contain the whole of the thermometer) is attached. A light
wire carrier is placed in the tube, and prevents the bulb of the
thermometer touching the sides of the jacketed-tube. A vent-
tube placed near the top of the tube discharges the steam at one
side, the thermometer passing through an india-rubber washer at
the top. In use the thermometer is inserted as far as possible in
the jacketed-tube, so that stem and bulb shall be at the same
temperature, and about half an inch of the mercury column alone
need be visible. The bulb of the thermometer should be about
4 inches (as a minimum) above the water in the boiler so as to be
fairly free from the splash of the water when boiling. The spirit-
lamps burning vaporised spirit seem the most suitable for use with
the apparatus in the field, though if care be used the ordinary
camp fire may be used. The heat and flame must be applied to
the boiler alone, however, and not allowed to reach the sides of
the steam jacket, or a broken thermometer will probably be the
result.

The use of maximum thermometers has been suggested for
taking boiling-point observations, but the writer considers them
unsuitable for the purpose in view of the alteration in the reading
due to variations in the temperature of the stem (vide note by

De Ne

706 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E.

writer in Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society
vol. 23, page 305). Boiling- ‘point thermometers are, of course,
fragile instruments, and require more care in transport than an
aneroid barometer, though much less than a mercurial. On one
of the writer's expeditions a bundle of blankets in which the
thermometers packed tumbled down the side of a mountain
for some 30 feet without injuring the instruments. <A further
advantage with the thermometer is that if injured it discloses
the fact at once ; whilst unbroken it is trustworthy, when broken
it refuses to give any indication. On the contrary, a mercurial
barometer with air in tube, or an aneroid barometer, the index
of which has been deranged by a severe fall, will continue to give
some readings and not of itself disclose the injury.

But little need be said as to the methods of taking observations
save that for accurate work simultaneous readings at upper and
lower stations are essential. The writer does not believe in the
system of reading the aneroid in the morning prior to leaving
home, taking readings at different places during the day, again
reading the aneroid on returning home at night, and expecting
accurate determinations of the altitudes of the stations visited
from such observations. In settled weather the ordinary atmos-
pheric tides alone are sufficient to introduce most serious dis-
erepancies, whilst in unsettled weather irregular fluctuations of
pressure will upset the results. Care must be taken to observe
the air temperature a the shade, and if the humidity formulz are
used in the computations the temperature of the wet bulb must
also be noted. With reference to the use of the boiling-point
apparatus fresh water should be used for each observation, as if
this be not done the percentage of impurities in the water becomes
increased as portions of it are evaporated, and the boiling point
is altered in consequence. The writer has not in his work
experienced any difficulty in obtaining water of sufficient purity,
and it should be remembered that water of uniform quality and
not necessarily of absolute purity is required. For determining
with fair accuracy the height of a point situated (say) 30 or 40
miles from the base station, the writer considers that at least
six or seven sets of simultaneous observations should be taken at
(say) hourly intervals. Should the readings at each station
remain fairly constant the work may be considered reasonably
trustworthy, but should the barometers be rapidly altering accurate
results cannot be expected. In such a case the work should be
postponed til] a more suitable occasion.

As to computing the results from the observations we are
practically reduced to the adoption of a formula of one of two
types, the first that in which the air is assumed to be of an average
moisture throughout, and the other in which the actual amount of
moisture at each station is observed and used in the computations.

DETERMINATION OF HEIGHTS BY BAROMETRIC METHODS. (AUK

Of the former the Laplace formula is the most celebrated, and
probably as reliable as any of the modifications suggested by
subsequent authorities, whilst of the latter the one deduced by
Professor Ferrel and set forth in the United States Coast and
Geodetic Survey Report of 1881, may be taken as perhaps the
most convenient and reliable. Reference may also be made to
Lieut. Rennie’s paper in Trans. Royal Inst. Academy, vol. 23,
part 2. The writer has taken many observations for the purpose
of testing these formule against each other, and he generally
finds that the “probable error ” as deduced by the method of
least squares is about two-thirds as great with the Ferrel formula
as with the Laplace. At the same time he finds that the Ferrel
formula gives generally results about one-part in two hundred
greater than those obtained from the Laplace one. This difference
is caused by Ferrel using a slightly larger constant as the first
term in his formula than Laplace (60,521°5 instead of 60,158°6).
In cases where the writer has been able to check his results by
actual “spirit levelling ” as practised by civil engineers, he has
found his Laplace means nearer than his Ferrel ones. He therefore
considers that the Ferrel formula with the Laplace constant
restored would probably give the most accurate and consistent
results. As the Ferrel formula is not often quoted by writers on
barometric levelling the writer’s modification of it is given as an
appendix to this paper. In reducing observations the barometric
grade should always be ascertained and allowed for if possible.
The writer always makes this correction in his work after a
careful inspection of the isobaric charts prepared at the Melbourne
Observatory for the period covered by his observations.

The following series of heights deduced for a mountain, on one
trip, will show what may be done. The observations were made
with a siphon barometer, and at the time the writer considered
the results decidedly inferior. The observations were taken on
one day at hourly intervals. Computed heights, 2,068-°5 feet,
2,070-1 ft., 2,078:2 ft., 2,081°9 ft., 2,090°8 ft. and 2,076°2 ft.
Mean result, 2,077°6 ft. Max. differences from mean + 13:2 ft.
and — 9:1 ft.

As the result of the writer’s experience, it may be said that
really reliable determinations of height (well within one per cent.
of the truth, where the difference in height is considerable) may
be made with mercurial barometers, that with the boiling-point
apparatus an accuracy not very much inferior to that of the
mercurial barometers can be attained, whilst with aneroids, if
frequently checked, either with mercurials or the boiling-point
apparatus, very valuable results may be obtained. Without such
checks, however, they become unreliable.

708 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E.

APPENDIX.
Barometric Levelling Formula.
Mercurial Barometer, with Brass Scale.

At Lower At Upper
Station. Station.

Observed height of barometer... oe pe: ee sh ho
Ap temperature of mercury eas ins nes AR a
35 3 of air (dry bulb) <5. fay t t’
_ a of wet bulb an aos 56 tro tw

Height of mercury reduced to 32° Fahr. AS. sah H,. hy

Vapour tension ofsaturation at temperature of wet bulb b b/

Altitude of lower station above sea-level = S
Mean latitude of stations aA va =

Earth’s radius in feet = 7 = 20,890,000 approximately.

Difference of elevation of stations in feet = Z

H, — H, }1-0-000 089 6(T - 32°)
i ae }1- 0-000 089 6(T —32) |

een: ersten Malicr |) au eet 199 Lay)
140-001 O17 (¢+t' — 64) 5 (1+0-189 ) (+0189 Pa

(

He | , 1—0°000 084 (t—-tw) + 410-000 084 (”—t'w) |

Z=60,159 log z- iS Sa | w et l w) XL
X

28, Z
@e aD (1+ >) 1+0°002 606 cos 2 L

For tables facilitating use of this formula see U.S. Coast and Geodetic
Survey Report, 1881.

ANTARCTIC AND SOUTHERN EXPLORATION. 709

No. 6.— ANTARCTIC AND SOUTHERN EXPLORATION,

By the Hon. P. G. Kine, M.L.C., F.R.G.S.

(Read Wednesday, January 12, 1898.)

[ Abstract. |

Styce Dr. Nansen’s return in safety from his attempt to reach
the North Pole, by means of what Sir William Hooker described
as a ‘ wide departure from any plan which had been put in prac-
tice for the purpose of Polar discovery,” the attention of the
scientific world has been directed to what may prove to be the
more accessible fields of the Antarctic Circle, as evidenced by
the conclusion arrived at during the meeting of the Anglo-
Australasian Conference which was held at London in July last
in the presence of all the Colonial Premiers.

Sir Clements Markham, the President of the Royal Geographical
Society, with a number of distinguished fellow-members, has
been, and still is, advocating the equipment of an expedition
towards the South Pole for the purposes of scientific geographical
research ; such expedition to have especially in view the important
object of closely noting the phenomena of terrestrial magnetism.
This duty was entrusted to Captain James Ross, R.N., in 1841.
Yet, notwithstanding the valuable results then obtained by that
commander, and by others since that time, there still remains a
wide field for further investigation.

It will be remembered that Humboldt, in 1828, established a
small magnetic observatory at Berlin, and concerted with it far
and near able observers of the magnetic variation. Humboldt
was thus the first to open the way to our modern knowledge of
terrestrial magnetism. He was followed by Professor C. F. Gauss
and William Weber, who, with an observatory at Géttingen,
joined in the general work ; they furnished descriptions of their
instruments and published a valuable treatise upon them.

The subject of southern exploration can never be approached
without bestowing a thought upon the adventurous seamen who
in former years, fought their way into the untraversed southern
high latitudes. First on the list stands Captain Cook, who, in
1774, in his small vessel, reached the latitude of 71° S. Next is
the somewhat forgotten name of James Weddell, a master in the
Royal Navy, who, in a private expedition, in the “Jane,” a brig
of 160 tons, with a consort cutter of 65 tons, passed Cocx + imit,
reaching to the parallel of 74° 15’.

710 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E.

Enderbys’ whaling-ships, with Balleny, Bellinghausen, Biscoe,
and Lieutenant Wilkes of the United States Navy, followed in
1839-40.

Her Majesty’s ships “ Erebus ” and “Terror,” under the com-
mand of Sir James Clarke Ross, R.N., who discovered the north
magnetic pole, visited this region in 1841-42. He discovered and
named many important points, such as Cape Adair on the main-
land, Possession Island, and others, also the volcanic mountains.

The voyage of H.M. S. “Challenger,” in 1874, under the com-
mand of Sir G. Nares, R.N., must not be overlooked, though Sir
George did not pass beyond the northern boundary of the South
Frigid Zone, in longitude 78° E. The lowest venipaee
register ed on this occasion by Lord George Gordon was 22° Fahr.

‘Tt will be remembered that the early search for a southern con-
tinent originated in the supposition that the great extent of dry
land in the Northern Hemisphere required a similar area in the
southern, so as to constitute a counterbalancing weight and thus
preserve the equilibrium of the globe. Cook and others dispelled
the idea generally, but Sir James Ross discovered an extent of
connected land to warrant the belief that southward of his “ South
Victoria,’ and eastward and westward of it, there was an area of
ice and snow capped land sutticient to satisfy the assertions of
those who believed in the necessity of a balancing weight.

But whether it is necessary or not that such a continent, or
more than a continent, once existed, there is now little doubt
from the evidence given by animal and vegetable life that it did
exist ; the same genera and species occur in such now widely-
separated lands as South Africa, South America, Australia, and
New Zealand. Professor Huxley was so satisfied with this that
he has even given to such an extensive range of supposed dry
land as would be required to connect those parts, the appropriate
name of Notogea.

The Admiralty does not, at present, hold out any promise of
assistance with ships, ofticers, or men, but Parliament would pro-
bably supplement any private contributions with material aid.

On the colonies immediately interested great expectations are
formed, though none of the Colonial Premiers at the Conference
alluded to gave much encouragement.

It is not to be supposed that there will be any difficulty in
finding a reliable and competent leader to take charge of such a
venture, or of finding a crew well versed in the various necessary
branches of science. The leader need not expect to go through
all the hardships and risks that were encountered by Fridtjof
Nansen, but he must be prepared to push his way beyond where
his ship or steamer may be able to reach. A captive balloon
could only be used from the ship to show where he might go to
beyond her

ANTARCTIC AND SOUTHERN EXPLORATION. jan

For all useful purposes it is not necessary that the explorers
should waste much time in trying to reach the earth’s axis, a mere
mathematical point ; it would be sufficient for all scientific pur-
poses that an approach to it should be made within three or four
degrees of latitude.

It is curious to reflect what would be the experience of those,
if any, who should happen to reach this mathematical point, the
actual position of which could only be determined by an altitude
of the sun, giving as its zenith distance the complement of 90° of
its declination for its latitude. The sun itself from such a point
could have no change in altitude except such as was daily caused
by increase or decrease of its declination or motion on the ecliptic,
coupled with its motion in right ascension. As for “time,” the
explorers would have to make their own, being unable to obtain
an hour angle from any of the heavenly bodies ; they could get no
apparent time, but they might get an approximate time by observ-
ing a Junar distance and getting Greenwich time from a nautical
almanac. Having thus obtained Greenwich time, it would thence-
forth be their time, and the meridian of Greenwich could be deter-
mined as their starting-point. Longitude, they could have none,
being at the convergence of all the meridians. Standing at the
South Pole their only line of vision would be northerly along a
north meridian line.

I may, perhaps, remind you that the so-called N. end of the
needle is also termed the ‘‘marked” end of the needle or North-
seeking Pole, and in France the north-seeking end is termed the
Austral or Southern Pole, and the south-seeking end the Boreal
or Northern Pole.

It is interesting to read Sir J. C. Ross’s accounts of his mag-
netical observations. The fixing of the site of the south magnetic
pole would naturally be the leader’s ambition.

Various positions have been assigned to it. Duperry, the
French navigator, in 1825, had, several times, crossed and recrossed
the magnetic equator, and from observations of variation and dip,
had calculated its position. Professor Gauss, in his study at
Gottingen, had also assigned a position, but no one quite agreed
with Sir James Ross's observations. His approach to it is graphi-
eally described in the account of his voyages.

“We were in latitude 76° 12'S. longitude 164° E. ; the magnetic
dip 88° 40’, and the variation 109° 24’ E. We were, therefore,
only 160 miles from the Pole. It was painfully vexatious to
behold at an easily accessible distance, under other circumstances,
the range of mountains in which the Pole is placed. I felt myself,
however, compelled to abandon the perhaps too ambitious hope,
that I might plant the flag of my country on both the magnetic
poles of our globe.”

(A PROZEEDINGS OF SECTION E.

In his report of his discovery of the north magnetic pole in
1831, he says, “The north end of the horizontal needle pointed
north 57° W.; magnetic dip had increased to 89° 41’ N.; these
observations enabled me to determine which way we should pro-
ceed, and the distance that lay between us and the great object
we had in view.” On the Ist June, 1831, he camped in latitude
70° 5’ 57” N. and longitude 96° 46’ 45” W., the dip was 89° 59, or
within one minute of the vertical, the horizontal needles being .
perfectly inactive.

Deep-sea soundings will occupy much attention, and it will
be curious to find that great depressions in the ocean-bottom are
found in connection with such volcanic action as must from time
to time, occur in the vicinity of such volcanoes as Mount Erebus,
of 12,000 feet elevation, and Mount Terror of 7,000 feet.

Whenever the proposed expedition from England is fitted out,
and gets away upon its field of operation, the greatest interest in
it will be taken by all the Australasian Colonies, not from any
expected commercial advantages so much to be gained as from an
earnest regret that the South Polar or Antarctic Circle should
exhibit so large a blank, in a geographical point of view, as it
does.

No. 7.—IHE DISCOVERY OF NEW GUINEA BY
ANTONIO DE ABREU.
By J. R. McCrymont, M.A.
(Read Wednesday, Janwary 12, 1898.)

THE various methods of teaching and of studying geography may
be described as—Pictorial, Descriptive, or Historical.

The Pictorial method is that which teaches by means of maps—
more or less highly conventionalised representations of the surface
and outlines of the earth. Many early maps, between the twelfth
and the sixteenth centuries, were mere mnemonic diagrams. A.
circle with a few radii represented the distribution of land and
water. Sometimes the zones were named, at other times the
known continents. ‘Then the outlines of the known continents
were drawn, more or less vaguely. Contemporaneously with these
mappemondes there appear, in the fourteenth century, portulani,
or hydrographic charts of a high degree of excellence, called forth
by the requirements of an extending commerce. ‘These are prin-
cipally charts of the Mediterranean, and amongst them those of
Pietro Vicente, 1311, and of Dulcert, 1339, already presage the
highest attainments of modern hydrography.

ry

THE DISCOVERY OF NEW GUINEA. 713

One objection to maps is that they afford to the theorist a
ready means of illustrating his pet theories, and this fact has
been largely taken advantage of in all times. Islands, and even
continental land of great extent, have been represented on maps
of quite recent date, although these have no existence. Thus the
islands Dina and Marsevin appear on maps in use at the present
day, and an Antarctic continent is pourtrayed upon some of them
with as great definiteness of outline as is given to Africa or to
Australia. There exists also a tendency to convert a map into a
mere index of place-names without the advantage, which an index
possesses, of alphabetical arrangement.

It is only fair to add that the construction of maps in relief
does much to remove the objection on the score of conventionality.
A relief map constructed, without distortion, upon a natural
scale would be, perhaps, the highest achievement of the Pictorial
system.

A method of teaching geography in which a portion of the
earth’s surface is used as if it were a relief map, and from that
portion the whole explained—such a method is a development of
the Pictorial. Instead of teaching from a picture, the pupil, by
this method, is taken out of doors and taught directly from Nature
the facts of geography, and if desired, of physiography also.
Whatever can be said in favour of bringing the pupil in actual
contact with the subject-matter of his studies may be said in
favour of this method,—the logical extension of which would be
teaching by means of fo reign “travel. Unfortunately, the diffi-
culties and the expense attendant upon travelling effectually
prevent its general adoption, and I do not suppose such a method
is ever practised preceptorially except on a very limited scale, and
then chiefly in connection with archeology and hagiology.

The method of foreign travel being impracticable, its place is
supplied by the second principal method, namely, the Descriptive,
which is generally used in association with the Pictorial. Every
book of travels is an aid to the Descriptive system of teaching.
Such books, if they happen to be of ancient date, are commonly
supposed to come within the domain of historical geography.
They do come within its domain as materials for the historical
geographer to work with, but they are not historical geography
properly so called, for that implies the critical comparison of such
materials, and cannot exist as a complete system until every
portion of the earth has been scientifically explored, and every
extant geographical monument of the past has been elucidated.

The third method,—the Historical—is one of private study,
rather than of public tuition, although I can conceive of its being
adapted to public tuition in conjunction with the other methods.
This method, I venture to think, impresses the facts upon our
mind in a more forcible way than any other practicable method.

(ut PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E.

For it aims at acquiring a knowledge of the whole history of the
discovery of the earth by civilised man, and so has an educational
thoroughness about it which cannot be surpassed. To know the
coast-lines, say of South America, as they appeared to successive
geographers, from Columbus onwards, will be to know them much
more thoroughly than if I had received them into my mind as a
finished product, and I will be possessed of the whole process, by
means of which that product has been evolved. This is to watch
the manufacture of a porcelain vase from the clay through all the
processes of moulding, painting, and firing. The other plan is to
look at it when it is finished and exposed in the show-room. The
historical method links the study of the earth with the study of
man, not only as a living entity, but also as a sentient being.
There is no human feeling, no aim, nor aspiration that has not
been awakened for good or for evil in the course of geographical
discovery. The study of it reveals the plans, the antagonism, and
the alliances of nations.

I shall now give you an example of the use of the historical
method, as applied to South-western New Guinea and Prince
Frederick Hendrick Island—the cradle of Australasian discovery.
Time will only permit me to deal with the earliest period of its
history, that namely, in which the Portuguese, under Albuquerque,
having taken Malacca, after an arduous investment, despatched
three vessels in November or December, 1511, to explore the
Eastern Archipelago, and to open up a trade with the islands.
A native junk, commanded by a Malay named by Barros Nehoda
Ishmael, either preceded or accompanied the other vessels in order
to inform the islanders that Malacca was in the hands of the
Portuguese, and that they would find a market there for their
wares. Antonio de Abreu, in the Santa Caterina, was placed
in command of the entire expedition, with Francisco Serrao,
and Simao Affonso Bisagudo, in command of the two accom-
panying vessels. There is an account of this voyage in the
‘Discoveries of the World,” by Antonio Galvano, who was
captain or governor of the Moluccas, from 1537 to 1540. When
he wrote his treatise he was living in great neglect and poverty
in a hospital in Lisbon, and the manuscript was bequeathed to his
friend Francisco de Sousa Tavares, by whom it was published in
1563, six years after the death of the author. Some of the infor-
mation which it contained relative to voyages to the Moluccas
was gathered directly from those who had taken part in them.
This was the case, for example, with respect to the voyage of
Alvarado, in 1537, and that of the survivors of the vessel com-
manded by Hernio de Grijalva. Galvano, who had spent his
days, and also his private fortune, in the service of John ITI, in
the East, and who had refrained from amassing wealth for himself
as seems to have been the practice of most of the Portuguese

THE DISCOVERY OF NEW GUINEA. 116

officials in the East at that time,—Galvano was coldly received by
his sovereign, and was refused the moderate pension for which he
petitioned. Being thus in antagonism with the authorities govern-
ing Indian affairs he was not under any official restraint, and he
records discoveries in his book which are not recorded by the
official historians of his time, because to record them was to place
information at the disposal of Spain, which might have been taken
advantage of to the detriment of Portuguese conquest and
commerce,

It appears, then, from the narrative of Galvano, that Abreu,
on leaving Malacca, steered a south-easterly course across the
main strait, and then passed through the strait of Saban. “ Salat”
is the Malay word in general use for “strait”; so the Portuguese
called all the islands which they left on the port side ‘ Los islas
dos salites,”—the Straits Islands. Upon issuing from this strait,
Abreu directed his course towards Java, and ran eastwards along
its north coast as far as Agagai, which Valentijn identifies with
Gresik, near Sourabaya. Oud en nieww Oost-Indien, Deel IT ;
Moluksche Zaken, Hoofdstuk vi. There he shipped Malay and
Javanese pilots, and, passing thence through the Strait of Madura,
continued along the north side of the Sunda Chain as far as
Wetter. Galvano mentions, amongst the islands which they passed
near or sighted, Bali, Anjano, which Mr. Tiele identifies with
Kangeang, Sumbawa, Kalao, Solor, Mauluca (perhaps Malua or
Ombay), Wetter, and Rosolangium, which I am inclined to think
may be a corruption of Nusa Kalkoun, just as we find Nusa Telo
corrupted into Rosetelo, and Nusa Laut into Rosalao. Against
this must be placed the authority of Barros, who identifies Roso-
langium with Rosengain.

Other chroniclers of this voyage now conduct the ships to
Amboyna, but Galvano states that the voyage was continued
eastward to the Aru Islands. Not only does Galvano’s careful-
ness and trustworthiness make it morally certain that his state-
ment is correct, but also the fact that he mentions a local detail,
which shows that he knew what group he was writing of :—‘“They
came to other islands, the Arus, from which the dried birds come,
which are so highly esteemed because of their feathers.” The
dried birds, “Os passaros myrrados,’ were no doubt the great
Paradise Birds, Paradisea apoda of Linnzeus, so named in 1760
from dried specimens. Maximilian Transylvanus wrote in 1523
that the people of Marmin—by which possibly Aru is meant—
hold the bird in such reverence that they believe that by it their
chiefs are safe in war. They reverenced the bird because the
Mahometan Malays had told them that it was born in Paradise,
and that Paradise was the abode of those who had died, and in
consequence of this doctrine, and because Mahomet promised
such wonderful things concerning this abode of souls, the Marmin

716 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E.

chiefs embraced Mahometanism. The legend about Paradise being
the birthplace of these birds, and that other form of the same
legend to the effect that they never rested upon the ground, nor
upon anything that grew upon it, but that they sometimes fell dead
from the sky, arose probably from the Aru methods of killing and
preserving the birds ; for the islanders conceal themselves under
mats of leaves placed in the trees which the birds frequent, and
shoot them with blunt-capped arrows, so that they are killed with-
out any wound and without blood being shed. Then the wings
and feet are cut off, and the skin is preserved by smoking, and
perhaps in Galvano’s time by embalming, as he calls “them
“ Passaros myrrados.” As the skins were not seen in a complete
state, with wings and feet—by the traders, it was supposed that
the birds possessed neither, but that they floated through the air
in a beatific way.

There are traditions extant in the Arus to the present day re-
specting the contact of the islanders with certain strangers who
came to Wanumbhai before the Bugis came to trade there. This
must have been before the time at which Galvano wrote, for the
dried birds of which he speaks were no doubt exported by the
Bugis. These strangers ‘‘ were wonderfully strong, and each one
could kill a great many Aru men, and when they were wounded,
however badly, they spit upon the place, and it immediately
became well.” And they made a great net of rattans, and
entangled their prisoners in it and sunk them in the water ; and
the next day, when they pulled the net up on shore, they made
the drowned men come to life again and carried them away.
(Wallace's Malay Archipelago, chap. xxxi.) It is very probable
that these legends originated in a Portuguese visit to the Aru
Islands ; indeed, it may have been this very visit of Abreu
which gave rise to them. They are to us very childish and
absurd, but it must be remembered that many ‘of the legends
beliey ed by European writers in the seventeenth centur y are much
more childish and absurd than these.

Galvano’s statement about the Aru Islands is not so important,
as the further statement that Abreu came “to other islands which
lie in the same parallel of south latitude in 7 or 8 degrees, and
they are so close to one another that they appear all one land.”

Abreu then, it appears, continued his voyage eastward from
the Arus. Most probably he directed his course to the south of
these islands, leaving their shallow tripang banks to the north.
In five or six days’ sailing he would be off the coast of New
Guinea. At first the land appeared to be continuous, but as he
came nearer he discovered that there was more than one island.
The only break in the coast-line at this part, namely between
7 and 8 degrees south, is the northern entrance of Dourga
Strait, between New Guinea and Prince Frederick Hendrik

THE DISCOVERY OF NEW GUINEA. az

Island. Here, then, I suppose Abreu to have arrived. The
southern outlet of the strait is in about 8° 20’S., and because
this is a higher latitude than that indicated by Galvano, as well
as for another reason which I shall adduce later on, I am inclined
to think that Abreu did not pass through the strait, but that he
only proceeded to a point about 15 miles within the entrance,
that is, to about 7° 36’ 8. At this point he would have pro-
ceeded far enough to ascertain that he was in a strait or deep inlet,
not in the estuary of a river. As to the value of his discovery
from an Australian standpoint, that may be roughly indicated by
recalling the fact that in Dourga Strait Abreu was within 320
miles of Cape York, or 50 miles nearer to Australia than Columbus
was to America when he discovered San Salvador in his first
voyage.

At New Guinea (a name which only appears at a subsequent
period) Abreu had accomplished a course of more than 500
leagues, but from what point Galvano does not definitely state.
The distance from Dourga Strait to their halting-place at Gresik
would be about 500 leagues or 2,000 miles.

From the New Guinea coast Abreu directed his course towards
Banda, and passed to the north of the volcanic island of Gounong
Api—a name which, with the usual uncertainty of the Portuguese
about native names, is corrupted by Galvano or his editor into
“Guamape.” Banda, however, is left behind for the present, and
the ships continue their course to Bourn. This island should have
been the point of departure for Ternate had Abreu been desirous
of proceeding to the Moluccas proper, but instead of doing so he
retraces his course in order to visit Amboyna, then “‘coasted along a
coast there which is called that of Muar d’ Amboyna,” apparently
Ceram, the western peninsula of which, Hoewamo, was sometimes
called ‘“ Batochina de Muar.” About 10 miles west of the narrow
passage of Kebba Kebba, between Kefting and Ceram, there is a
round bight with a high cliff on the east side of it, on which
stood the village of Guliguli, whilst at the bottom of the cliff lay
the associated hamlet of Keliwalanga. In this harbour Abreu
anchored.

Valentijn tells us that the people of this part of Ceram were
more like Macassar men than like the other Ceramese, but he is
probably referring to settlers from Celebes, who came here at a
later period than that of the visit of Abreu. This part of Ceram
became a great trading centre for the Bugis, and they, as well as
the people of Goram and Ceram Laut, made voyages to Onin, in
the west of New Guinea, in search of massoi bark, wild nutmegs,
and boxes of native manufacture ornamented with shell-work. In
the seventeenth century the inhabitants of Guliguli made them-
selves obnoxious to the Dutch by their smuggling practices, and
could not be persuaded to obtain permits to carry on their old

718 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E.

trade from the officials of the Company. As a chastisement the
Dutch burnt Guliguli in 1621, but the Bugis replied by fortifying
their cliff. In 1659 three of the Company’s ships and a fleet of
kora-koras was Sent against them and dislodged them from Guliguli,
but they speedily established another fortress at Solothay, 2 miles
further east. This place was also taken and destroyed, and a
Dutch fort erected on the site of Guliguli. When peace was at
last made a few people returned to Guliguli, but their numbers
were so greatly reduced by the attacks of the Dutch and the raids
of Kilwaru slave-traders that in 1705 Willem de Rieu, who was
conducting a hongi round Ceram, found only one homme standing
on the cliff and two houses in Keliw alanga. Valentijn’s Oud en
niew Oost-Indien 11, 11, 2, and iv, 4. In this bay, then, Abreu
landed and took possession of a village. Dead bodies were found
suspended in the houses, “for,” says Galvano, ‘here they eat
human flesh.” This was a hasty and unjust conclusion to draw,
partly based, no doubt, on the dictum of Ptolemy that the
inhabitants of the Javas were man-eaters, whilst Ptolemy in turn
drew his information from Arab traders, always ready to magnify
the barbarism of the non-Mohammetan races with whom they
came in contact. I am inclined to think that the dead bodies
which Abreu saw were awaiting burial. The account which is
given by Mr. H. O. Forbes of the burial customs of the Timorese
throws some light on this matter. When a death takes place
amongst them not only must every blood relation of the deceased
present a gift to the departed, but a death feast, and also a burial
feast, must be celebrated. The death feast alone is sometimes on
so extensive a scale that the family is reduced to poverty by it,
and cannot afford to give the burial feast for a long time after-
wards. Indeed this duty is sometimes postponed so long that it
is only carried out by remote descendants. But as custom requires
that the body shall not be interred until the feast can be given, it
is folded up at the hips, inclosed in a mat, and suspended by a
cord underneath a small pent-house formed in the branches of a
tree, where it is left hanging until such time as the burial feast
can take place. (H. O. Forbes : “A Naturalst’s Wanderings in
the Kastern Archipelago,” p. 435.) From what I have gathered
about Guliguli and its inhabitants, I am inclined to think
that Abreu’s visit took place before any migration of Malay
settlers to that place, and that the people with whom he came
in contact were indigenes of that division of the Papuans
known as brown Papuans and sometimes as Alfuros. I have
dwelt thus long on Guliguli and the vicissitudes of its history
because it is an interesting village from many points of view—
from a geographical, a historical, and an ethnographical—and
because it is one of the few spots in the world which can be
identified in connection with a great discovery voyage of the

THE DISCOVERY OF NEW GUINEA. 19

sixteenth century. At Guliguli the ship commanded by Serrao—
an Indian vessel taken at Goa—was burnt, ‘‘ for she was old and
rotten.” Other accounts say that the vessel was wrecked and the
crew taken on board the two other ships, which then proceeded to
Banda, where at ‘‘ Lutataio” the Portuguese were well received by
the natives. The main Banda group consists of three islands—a
larger and two smaller ones. One of the latter is merely a volcanic
cone, named Gounong Api, a generic term signifying mountain
of fire, borne by several islets of the archipelago. Gounong Api,
together with Bandaneira and Lonthoir or Great Banda, form
a secure land-locked harbour of great beauty, its shores clad with
vegetation, except where the volcano raises its barren eminence
above the bush-covered lower zone. ‘ Lutataéo” is probably a
corruption of Ortattan, a village on tke north coast of Great
Banda and one of the principal trading centres of the group in
the sixteenth century.

Banda is the home of the nutmeg, and here Abreu was able to
obtain a full cargo of nutmeg and mace as well as of cloves.
Here, too, he erected on the beach a stone pillar with the arms of
Dom Manoel, as he had also done at Gresik and in Amboyna, in
token that these places were henceforth under the supremacy of
the Crown of Portugal. Having taken in his cargo, Abreu sailed
for Malacca. Why he did not proceed to the Moluccas proper is
uncertain. Castanheda attributes it to unfavourable weather.
Others say that his cargo was fully made up at Banda. But he
seems to have had some special reason distinct from these for
curtailing his voyage, because he wished to make great haste to
return to Portugal, in order personaily to convey to the king the
assurance that the way to Banda was an open one. But Maffei
relates that he died on the homeward voyage, ‘‘ deluded by a vain
hope.” As for Francisco Serrao, he was either separated from
the other ships by accident or parted company designedly, and,
after many exciting adventures, found his way to Ternate, from
which place he maintained an important correspondence with his
friend Magellan, and where he died in 1521.

When Abreu took possession of the island of Banda, he fixed
its position by implication; for, by treaty with Spain, the
Portuguese were only entitled to annex territory for the space of
180 degrees eastward from a line of demarcation fixed in 1494 by
the capitulation of Tordesillas at 370 leagues west of the Cape
Verde Islands, or in about 47° 30’ W. of Greenwich. After the
discovery of the Amazon by Vicente Pingon in 1499, the line was
considered to fall through the western mouth of that river, or
about 25 degrees too far to the west, for the fiftieth meri-
dian of west longitude crosses the western mouth. If we
measure 180 degrees eastward from that point, we arrive almost
exactly at Bandaneira, which lies under 129° 50’ of east longitude.

720 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E.

Here we gain a glimpse of at least one reason why the Portuguese
historians make no reference to Abreu’s visit to the Arus and
New Guinea. These places lay outside of the Portuguese Hemi-
sphere, and it would not have been expedient to enlighten the
Spaniards regarding newly-discovered land within their boundary.
For the Spaniards did not accept a delimitation which placed the
Moluccas outside of their hemisphere. It must be remembered,
in justification of the Spanish claim, now known to have been
erroneous, that the existence of the wide Pacific, and all its
enchanting islands, was not even surmised at the period of which
we speak. It was not till Magellan had actually crossed it that
the Spaniards had any idea of the distance from the new world
discovered by Columbus to the old world of Ptolemy and the
ancients ; and even after that voyage, and in consequence of
miscalculations of longitude made in the course of it, the width
of the Pacific was greatly under estimated.

To find a short and direct passage to the much-coveted Islands
of Spices was the great ambition both of Spaniards and Portuguese
before the eventual discovery of Magellan. Columbus held that
a strait existed through the Panama Isthmus, misunderstanding,
perhaps, the accounts which he received from the Indians of a
sea beyond the isthmus. One of the objects of his last voyage
of 1502 was the discovery of such a strait. Further south, to
the coasts of Brazil and Patagonia, the Portuguese, from 1501
onwards, were continually sending out expeditions in search of
such a passage, and several breaks in the coast-line, such as the
mouth of the Rio de la Plata and the Gulf of St. Mathias, had
been taken for the entrances of straits.

The idea of finding a strait by sailing eastward from the so-called
South Sea into the Atlantic occurred to the Spaniards immediately
after they had established themselves in Darien. And it is not
unlikely that the idea of making the discovery by sailing round
the Cape of Good Hope and on eastwards until they reached the
Columbian land-barrier may have occurred to the Portuguese.

Albuquerque, we know, held that the distance from Malacca to
Brazil was only a short one. This appears from one of his letters
to Dom Manoel. (Cartas de Albuquerque. I, 64-65.) And
there would be nothing unreasonable in conjecturing that Albu-
querque had ordered Abreu to sail on till he reached the new
world with the object of reconnoitring it in the hope of finding a
passage through it, should the time at his disposal permit. That
Abreu thought he had made a discovery of some importance is
evident from his desire to return at once to Dom Manoel with the
news that the way to Banda was open. But the eastern route to
Banda had been known to be open ever since the discovery of the
Cape route. It was the western route that it was feared was
closed by intervening land of great extent and to say that the

THE DISCOVERY OF NEW GUINEA. 721

way to Banda was open before the Pacific Ocean had been even
seen could only mean that Banda was attainable by sailing west-
wards from Europe as well as by sailing eastwards.

In concluding the examination of this voyage, let us inquire
what trace it has left on the cartography of the period. I only
propose to deal now with the New Guinea portion of the voyage.
I would remark by way of preface that experience has shown
me that it is only safe to accept the evidence of maps when
the indications of discoveries which they contain are supple-
mented by the journals of the discoverers, or by the well-tested
evidence of historians belonging to the period in which the dis-
covery was made.

The earliest reliable representation of this part of the New
Guinea coast known to me is to be found on a map entitled “Asia
Partium Orbis Maxima,” in the atlas “Speculum Orbis” of
Cornelis de Jode, Antwerp, 1593. The same outlines, now
united to the eastern portion of New Guinea so as to form one
large island or portion of a continent, are repeated on the chart,
“ Molucce Insule” by N. J. Visscher, 1617, reproduced in
Mr. Coote’s “ Remarkable Maps,” Part II. They represent New
Guinea very rudely, but place that island in its true relation
to neighbouring islands of the Eastern Archipelago.

Now the only recorded voyage to the extreme south-west coast
which took place in the sixteenth century was that of Abreu ;
hence, until adverse information is forthcoming, I think we may
venture to associate these maps with his voyage. The entrance
of a deep inlet is placed to the south-east of the Arus, approxi-
mately in the position of the entrance to Dourga Strait. But if
Dourga Strait is intended, the inlet is erroneously prolonged in a
north-easterly direction. Perhaps this may be explained by sup-
posing (as I have already done on other grounds) that Abreu
only reached that portion of the strait—about 15 to 20 miles
within the northern entrance—which trends in an E.N.E. direc-
tion, and that this direction was supposed to be the constant one.

Time will not permit of my tracing in detail the subsequent
history of this geographical problem ; I must content myself with
giving you a few leading dates in connection with it :—

1511-12. Voyage of Abreu.u—New Guinea discovered, and re-
garded as a portion of the Columbian land-barrier.

1519-22. Voyage of Magellan and Del Cano.—The Pacific Ocean
crossed, and New Guinea proved not to be a portion of that
barrier.

1606. Voyage of Willem Jansz.—Abreu’s discovery of New
Guinea corroborated, and the land supposed to be con-
tinuous with the south land known later as New Holland
and Australia,

2 Z

722 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E.

1762. Relation of De Torres showing that in 1606 he discovered
the separation between New Guinea and Australia found
at Manilla.

1825-26. Voyage of Kolff.—Re-discovery of the northern entrance
of Dourga Strait, now so named.

1835. Voyage of Kool.—First passage through Dourga Strait,
demonstrating the separation of Prince Frederick Hendrik
Island from New Guinea.

T have tried to say something which would tend to remove the
impression, prevalent in some quarters, that historical geography
is a mere antiquarian fad ; I uphold the position that it is emi-
nently practical. Perhaps I could not better illustrate that posi-
tion than in this manner :—Let us suppose that Dourga Strait
had never been re-discovered to this day. The supposition is not
an unreasonable one, since it was only discovered in its entire
length sixty-three years ago. Now I hold that we have good
grounds for believing that any intelligent and properly qualified
captain of a ship or steamer having in his hand the account of
Abrew’s voyage as written by Galvano, and being furnished with
the explanation of a few obscure points in the narrative, could
sail from Sydney or any other port to the “islands lying in the
same parallel” as the Arus, and there discover Dourga Strait. A
result of that kind, the possibility of which seems almost self-
evident, would surely be sufficiently practical to demonstrate the
utility of this study to the most utilitarian mind.

VW “LNOWATIIOW '& '7 Ag ‘Dauiny may fo Asanorsig ay]

< ———

ae of 5 mM |
(| bho e =k ‘i
howe y Ole N
ae | Seater ay ating
{ : = ane Ge" mee

= He
vas saaq’lao ae
- ales
Leal -” ot ~ k

AAUAV AO WLOOM AHL ‘
ALVOIGNE OL OOWIAdIHOUV PB
OLLVISV AHL 40 LHVHO

ms,
Res Ee
4"

—
ee

Fei 4e3uq

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 123

Section F.

ETHNOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

By A. W. Howirr, F.G.S., and Corresponding Member of the
Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Anthropo-
logical Society of Washington, U.S.A.

(Delivered Saturday, January 8, 1898.)

ON THE ORIGIN OF THE ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA
AND AUSTRALIA.

THE subject of my address has received the attention of many
writers, who have attempted its solution, not by direct evidence,
which, from the nature of the case, is not existant, but by infer-
ences drawn from language, from custom, from the physical
characters of the savages of Tasmania and Australia, and also, I
regret to say, apparently out of the imagination of some writers
as to what they assume must have been the facts.

Before entering upon the conclusions to which I have been led
in this inquiry, it will be well to note in chronological order the
views of various authorities :—

Mr. R. H. Davis* considered the Tasmanians to be scions of
the Australians, and that their ancestors, being driven to sea in a
canoe from the vicinity of King George’s Sound, would, by the
prevailing winds and currents, be apt to reach the western part
of Van Diemen’s Land. He selected that point of departure
apparently for the reason that the word for “water” among the
western tribes of Tasmania is similar to that used by the natives
of Cape Loeuen.

In 1839, Captain Robert Fitzroy,t in his narrative of the
surveying voyages of the “Adventure” and the “ Beagle,” between
the years 1826 and 1836, attributes the origin of the aborigines
of Tasmania and Australia either to a party of negroes who might

* XII. 7 xIx, vol. 1, p. 654

724 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F,

have been driven by storms from the coast of Africa, and thus
reached New Holland or Van Diemen’s Land, or to negroes either
escaping or being brought to the northern shores of Australia as
slaves by ‘‘red men.”

The conclusions of Dr. Pritchard* as to the derivation of the
Tasmanians and the Australians are noteworthy. They mark
the great advance made in Ethnology since the year 1847, but
they also disclose the germs of those beliefs as to the primitive
races of mankind who inhabited the Australian and Melanesian
regions and the Indo Malayan archipelago, which are now fairly
established and accepted by Ethnologists.

He goes back to primitive black tribes inhabiting “ Oceania,
Oceanic Negritia, or Oceanic Negroland,” at a time when the
‘**Malayo-Polynesian” race had not yet entered the Indian Archi-
pelago. ,

He considered that this Negrito race was spread by way of
New Guinea over the adjacent Archipelago of islands, and that
one branch took a more southerly course by the chain of islands
ending at Timor, and lastly entered Australia.

In the same year Dr. Latham? stated in the Appendix to the
narrative of the surveying voyage of the “Fly,” during the years
1842-1846, that the Tasmanian language has aflinities with both
the Australian and New Caledonian languages, but in a stronger
degree with the latter than the former. This he considered will
at once explain the points of physical contrast between the Tas-
manian tribes and those of Australia, and will indicate that the
stream of population for Van Diemen’s Land ran round Australia
rather than across it.

Mr. Edward John Kyre{ expressed the belief in the journal of
his expedition of discovery into Central Australia in the years
1840-1, that there are grounds for the opinion that Australia was
first peopled on its north-western coast, between the parallel of
12° and 16° south latitude. Thence he surmises that three great
divisions branched out from the parent tribe, and from their offsets
the whole continent was overspread.

Mr. McGillivray,§ after quoting Eyre, Pritchard, and Latham,
says in his acconnt of the voyage of the ‘“‘ Rattlesnake,” published
1852, that a common origin is implied by the belief in the unity
of the Australian race. That it was not derived from. New
Guinea can scarcely be doubted, since Cape York and the neigh-
bouring shores of the mainland are occupied by genuine and
unmixed Australians, while islands of Torres Strait and the
adjacent coast of New Guinea are occupied by equally genuine
Papuans. Intermediate in position between the two races, and
occupying the point of junction at the Prince of Wales Island,

* XLIV, vol. Vv, p. 214. t+ XXXVI. } xvii, p. 405. § xxXvil, Vol. 1, p. 81.

(p

bo

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. 5
is the Kowrarega tribe, according to McGillivray, an Australian
tribe altered by contact with the Papuan tribes of the adjacent
islands so as to resemble the latter in most of their physical,
intellectual, and moral characteristics.

Mr. James Bonwick,* in his work on “The Daily Life and
Origin of the Taeuipaine published in 1870, devotes a long
chapter to their origin. So far as I am able to gather his views,
they appear to be that at the time when a now sunken continent
connected Tasmania with New Zealand on the east and with Victoria
on the west, the Tasmanians migrated therefrom and ranged round
the coasts of the continent as the highway between what are now
distinct lands.

He considers that the Australians came from the same centre
as the Tasmanians, namely, the ‘sunken continent,” and there-
fore, in their emigrations, established themselves directly upon the
south-western part of Australia, and possibly after the separation
of Tasmania from it.

The Tasmanians were thus isolated for several or many thou-
sand years from the world’s progress, and Mr. Bonwick feels
“wonder that the Tasmanians retained the speech and form of
man and the strength of human thought, the power of human
love.”

Professor Giglioli,t in the conclusion to his work on the Tas-
manians (1874), regards them as being Australians with the hair
of Papuans, retaining, but in a primitive form, the habits and
eustoms of the former, or, to speak more correctly, as being the
descendants of an earlier black race with woolly hair-who -were
settled in the continent of New Holland. The Tasmanians were
the last remainder of that race, having been preserved through
the isolation of their country.

He says, in conclusion, that the Tasmanians were members of the
great Papuan family, and owed their inferiority to the complete
state of isolation in which they had existed since a very remote
epoch.

The Rev. William Ridley? appears to have held the view,
although he states it (1875) with some hesitation, that the
Australians passed from New Guinea, from island to island, to
Cape York. Having found their way onwards to the south and
west, the necessities and jealousies of the numerous families that
followed them forebade their return.

Mr. H. Ling Roth,§ in his most excellent work on the Abori-
gines of Tasmania, discusses the views of M. Topinard, Professor
Huxley, Professor Friedrich Miiller, MM. de Quatrefages and
Haura, Dr. Garson, Mr. Barnard Davis, and other authorities,
as to the origin of the Tasmanians. He says that it is quite

*IV, pp. 264, 265, 269. + Xxul, p. 147. } xuvI, p. 119. § XLVII

726 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

impossible to define exactly the race to which they were most
closely allied, but that a comparison of their physical and mental
characteristics with those of other races which appear to have
close similarities, tends to the conclusion that the Tasmanians
were more closely related to the Andaman Islanders than to any
other race.

Mr. R. Brough Smyth,* in the introduction to his work on the
Aborigines of Victoria, published in 1878, says that it is difficult
to believe the Tasmanians were scions of the continental tribes,
and that if Tasmania was peopled from Australia it was at a time
when the latter supported a race that in feature, character, and
language was Tasmanian.

As to the Australians, he says that they may have landed from
Timor, but that it is doubtful whether if a canoe full ef natives
landed anywhere upon the coast of Australia they could find sub-
sistence. Yet he speaks of one stream of migration coming from
the north-east, which divided one branch of which following the
coast northwards, ultimately reached Gippsland ; the other again
dividing at the south-eastern shore of the Gulf of Carpentaria,
one section took a course along the coast westward and. south-
ward to Western Australia, and the other followed the course of
the rivers that flow southwards into Cooper’s Creek and the
Darling.

In the “ Australian Race,” published in 1886, Mr. E. M. Curry
formulated a theory which may be condensed as follows, leaving
those who desire to do so to peruse the somewhat remarkable
reasons which are advanced in its support.

All tribes of Australia are descendants from one source, pro-
bably, indeed, from a shipload or canoeful of persons who originally
found their way to these shores. According to the agreement
between custom and language, they were negroes from Africa.
These ancestors of the Australian race landed on the north west
coast many ages back, and their descendants spread themselves
over the continent by travelling along the north, west, and east
coasts, and also through the interior.

In 1889, the Rev. John Mathew,{ who has had opportunities
of becoming personally acquainted with many examples of the
aborigines, published an elaborate paper on the “ Australian
Aborigines.” He considers them in relation to their origin,
mytholog y, and traditions ; their implements, customs, language,
mental characteristics, food, institutions and superstitions. He
considers that Australia was first occupied by a purely Papuan
people, or possibly by a people produced by a fusion of Papuans
and Melanesians sparsely and unevenly distributed over the con-
tinent. Taking for granted that the cradle of the human race was

* XLIxX, p. LXII et infra. t+ vu, pp. 158 to 190. { XxxIx, vol. xxi, part 11, 1889.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. Tait

in Asia, he derives them from the north by way of New Guinea,
and he looks upon the now extinct Tasmanians as the lineal
descendants of the original Australians. t

He then supposes Australia to be invaded by a more advanced,
fairer, straight-haired race which arrived at a very early period
of the world’s history, perhaps on the north-west coast, and poured
into central Australia with a generally south-easterly current.
Partly driving before it, partly darkening itself by the tide of
life upon which it pressed, the stream inundated the whole country,
but not to an equal depth.*

Finally, it is supposed that another invasion, apparently of
Malays, took place from the north, first with some degree of
continuity and then intermittently, winding about here and there,
touching the shores at various places, and bending back inwards. t+

The author then says that upon the Papuan aborigines “the
Dravidian influx” made a deep and general impression. The
influx of the final arrivals, the Malays, was slighter and more
partial.

Mr. R. Etheridge, junr., in 1890, in a most valuable contribu-
tion on this subject asked the question, “Has man a geological
history in Australia?’; After reviewing the evidence derived
from the discovery of stone axes, bone implements, oven mounds
common in parts of Victoria, and the occurrence of a human molar
in the Wellington Cave in New South Wales, he reaches the
conclusion that the matter cannot be summed up better than by
the Scotch verdict ‘“ not proven.”

As to the Tasmanian aborigines, he remarks that the former
geological connection of Australia and Tasmania appears to be a
generally accepted fact, and that if such be the case, a vast period
of time must have elapsed since that connection, allowing for the
formation of Bass’s Strait. He very justly observes that herein
lies one of the strongest proofs of man’s early existence in the
island continent, although trustworthy geological evidence is still
wanting as to the approximate date of his first advent in Aus-
tralia.

Following Mr. Etheridge’s paper, there appeared in 1892 a work
on the Geology and Paleontology of Queensland, by Mr. R. L.
Jack and R. Etheridge, junr.{ In this, after quoting the paper
just referred to, Mr. Jack discusses the question whether the
dingo was introduced into Australia by the agency of man, and
says that, although he is quite willing to admit that the dingo is
an alien, it is yet open to question whether the agency of man
was the only possible means of effecting his introduction to this
island. He appears to think that the dingo may have arrived in
Australia by some chance means of conveyance, or may have

* XxXIX, p. 382, + XV, pp. 259 to 266. } XxxI, vol. I, p. 622,

728 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

simply walked overland. Mr. Etheridge adds to this in a foot-note,
that there is not a fragment of evidence to show that the arrival
of man was coeval with that of the dingo.

Dr. John Fraser has stated his views of the origin of the Aus-
tralians in the introduction to his work “An Australian Lan-
guage,” published in 1892.* He holds that the negroid popula-
tion of Australia or iginated in Babylonia, and that it was driven
into southern India by the “ confusion of tongues ” which followed
the attempt of Nimrod to establish dominion over his fellows.
The overthrow of the Chaldean monarchy, about 1500 B.c. by
Arab tribes drove thousands of Kushites into southern India,
where they took refuge in the mountains of the Dekkan, and
where to the present day there are Dravidian and Kolarian black-
skinned and savage races.

The Babylonian Kushites are then supposed to have been driven
out of India into the Malay peninsula, Papua and Timor by
Dravidian tribes who came down from Central Asia. Finally
they found their way into Australia.

These conclusions appear to rest mainly if not altogether upon
philological deductions which also cause the author to argue that
the Australians, the Dravidians, Malays, Papuans, Fijians, Sa-
moans, and the New Hebrideans were at one time part of a com-
mon stock.

A. very important contribution to the literature of this subject
was a memoir which appeared in 1896, the joint authors of which
were Mr. R. Etheridge, jun., and Professor T. W. Edgeworth
David, and Mr. J. W. Grimshaw.t+

In carrying out the excavation for a canal at Shea’s Creek an
old land surface was disclosed with standing stumps of Eucalyptus
botryoides ; bones of dugong were also found confusedly heaped to-
gether, some of which were scarred transversel y and obliquely with
cuts having the appearance of cuts made by the direct blows of a
sharped- edged stone tomahawk. Stone tomahawks were also
found at a “depth of six feet, the submerged forest being ten feet
below low water.

The latest work with which I am acquainted which expresses
an opinion as to the derivation of the Australian aborigine is the
second edition issued in 1897 of Mr. G. W. Rusden’s History of
Australia. {

The author places the original site of the Australian stock
among the Deccan tribes of Hindustan, and says that in a prehis-
toric time some powerful class or race of invaders sought to impose
the peace of death upon the ancestors of the Australians. Their
safety was in flight, and they migrated southwards from island to
island until in Australia they marched free from molestation.

®XXIL ft XVI, pp. 18 et seq. pxbyul, vol. 1, pp. 84 ebseg.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 729

The Tasmanians, he thinks, once occupied the mainland, and were
driven southwards by more warlike or skilful tribes. Although
to float across Bass’s Straits in a canoe might be sometimes
hazardous, yet in calm weather it would be easy, and the so-called
catamarans of Southern Tasmania could not be filled with water
or upset.

Such then are the views which have been recorded by various
writers on the Tasmanian and Australian aborigines.

I shall now proceed to deal with this subject as it presents
itself to me when looked at from the standpoint of present know-
ledge.

The level of culture of the Tasmanians is best indicated, apart
from their customs and beliefs, by the the primitive character of
their weapons and implements. The former were a spear, which
was merely a thin pole hardened and pointed in the fire, and a
club which was also used as a missile weapon. Flints chipped on
one side were used for cutting, scraping, and being held in the
hand, without a handle, for chopping.*

The only means they had for navigating the waters was a rude
raft, or a bundle of bark tied with grass or strips of kangaroo skin
into a canoe-like shape, by which a river or a narrow strait of the
sea, such as that between Maria Island or Brune Island and the
mainland, could be crossed in calm weather. +

Thus, as pointed out by Dr. E. B. Tylor,} the Tasmanians were
representatives of the stone age development in a stage lower than
that of the Quaternary period of Europe, and the distinction may
be claimed for them of being the lowest of modern nomad tribes.

The Australians stand on a somewhat higher level than the
Tasmanians. They are better armed, with the formidable reed
spear propelled by the throwing stick, the boomerang, and
variety of clubs which served either at close quarters or as mis-
siles, and for defence they had the shield. Their canoes are far
in advance of the raft or the bundle of bark of the Tasmanians,
and are able if necessary to cross narrow sea straits under circum-
stances where those would have been destroyed.

Their stone implements are either ground to an edge or fashioned
by chipping, as among tribes living where material for the ground
and polished type of hatchet is not procurable. But even in such
tribes these are obtained by barter from other tribes.

The Australians may therefore be classed as_ representing
hunting tribes of the neolithic age.

Certain inferences may be drawn from a consideration of
their social customs and social organisation, but these may be
more appropriately made at a later time in this address.

* XLYII, chap. Iv. } XLVH, p. 161. { Lyu.

730 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

Some of the writers whose opinions I have quoted have either
stated in so many words, or have left it to be inferred by their
statements, that the Tasmanians reached this continent by canoe
or ship.

But there is not a tittle of evidence in support of the belief that
the Tasmanians ever were acquainted with the art of constructing
a canoe able to cross such a sea strait as that between Tasmania
and Australia, much less wider extents of ocean. On the con-
trary the whole of their culture was on a par with the rudeness of
the bark rafts.

T have long since come to the conclusion that one of the funda-
mental principles to be adopted in discussing the origin of those
savages must be that they reached Tasmania at a time when there
was a land communication between it and Australia.

It is only in the work of Professor Giglioli that I have found
this clearly seen, where he says that there is no instance recorded
of a people who have lost the art of navigation which they had
once acquired.*

The Australians have also by most authors been credited with
arriving in canoes or ships on the coasts of Australia.

But I am quite unable to understand how, since these authors
picture them as settling down upon and then spreading along the
coasts, they should have lost the art of constructing sea-going
canoes, which would be as necessary to them as to the southern
seacoast tribes of New Guinea or to the islanders of Torres
Straits of the present time. There is no evidence of such a
degeneration in culture, and before this belief can be accepted as
a settled proposition some evidence in support of it must be forth-
coming.

It might however be urged that the tribes living on the east
coast of Cape York Peninsula and of the Australian coast of
Torres Straits, as far as Port Darwin, are acquainted with and
use outrigger canoes, and therefore may represent the condition
of the first arrivals. On this the observations of the earlier navi-
gators, and especially of those engaged in surveying voyages, are
much to the point.

Mr. McGillivray, speaking of the year 1847,} says that the
canoes seen in Rockingham Bay were constructed of a single
sheet of bark brought together at the ends and secured by
stitching. Near Shelburne Bay, on the east side of Cape York
Peninsula, they were constructed of a tree trunk with a double
outrigger, “‘and altogether a poor instance of those used by the
islanders of Torres Straits.” Further on, when at Cape York,
he speaks of the ordinary outrigger canoe of the Straits, and of

® xxir, p. 146. + XXXVIII, pp. 81, 119, 125.

led

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 731

the friendly intercourse existing between the “natives of the
southern portion of Torres Straits and those of the mainland
about Cape York.”*

These observations indicate the distance to which a knowledge
of the outrigger canoe, derived from the islanders of the Straits,
had passed southward at the time spoken of by Mr. McGill-
ivray. To this may be added that, according to oral information,
for which | am indebted to Mr. R. L, Jack, the use of the out-
rigger canoe extends now as far southward as Hinchinbrook Island.

As to the knowledge of the outrigger canoe by the Australians
on the western part of the shores of Torres Straits, Mr. MeGill-
ivray also mentions that two years after the founding of the
English settlement at Rafiles Bay in 1827, the Bugis had taken
advantage of the protection afforded to carry on trepang fishing,
and that formerly bark canoes had been in general use, but that
they were then completely superseded by others hollowed out of
trees, which they procured ready made from the Malays in
exchange for tortoiseshell, and in return for assistance in collecting
trepang.*

Captain Stokes,f also speaking of the visits of Malays to Port
Essington, says that the Aborigines obtained their canoes chiefly
from the Malays, whom he elsewhere calls “ Bugis.” At the time
at which he wrote, namely, the years 1837-43, canoes were used
as far as Clarence Strait, but beyond that place he saw no single
instance of any “proa or canoe.” t

It is therefore possible to fix the limits beyond which the
knowledge of the outrigger canoe did not extend, namely, from
Hinchinbrook Island, on the north-east coast of Queensland, to
Clarence Strait in North-western Australia.

Some further light is afforded by a statement made by a man
from Prince of Wales Island, whom I once met. It was that
his tribesmen are accustomed to migrate periodically in their
seagoing canoes, according to the prevalent winds, either south-
wards along the coast of Queensland, or northwards to the further
islands of Torres Straits, or even to the mainland of New Guinea.

It seems to me that this practice must have existed for ages ;
indeed, since that time when the Papuan population settled on
the Straits Islands and thus came to be neighbours of the tribes
inhabiting the Australian mainland.

It is difficult to believe, if this coast at that time had been un-
occupied by Australians, that the Papuans would not have settled
on it as well as upon islands at no great distance northwards.

The Kaurarega of Prince of Wales Island are usually considered
to be Australians with a strong Papuan mixture, which, judging
from the example I saw, would be very marked. This mixture is

* XXXVIII, vol. I, pp. 141, 146. f Li, vol. 1, p. 388. * prt, -vol. 1, p. 81.

732 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. -

easily to be understood when one considers the annual voyages by
these people down the Cape York coast on the one side and
across Torres Straits on the other, and that on these voyages
they obtain wives from the Australian mainland and the New
Guinea Islands.

Tam therefore led to believe that the Australian ancestors
must, equally with the Tasmanians, be held to have reached this
continent by some land connection, or, at least, a land connection
so nearly complete that the breaks in it might be crossed in
vessels no better than the bark canoe of the present time.

If these conclusions are well founded there arise certain
questions which demand answers. What evidence is there of a
former land conneetion between Australia and other lands to
the north or north-west, and between Australia and Tasmania
within the limit of time fixed by the probable existence of man ?

A reply to these questions can only be given by the sciences of
physical geography and geology, and the time limit restricts the
inquiry to those later Tertiary or Post-Tertiary lands from whence
such migrations might have proceeded.

Thus their direction is indicated as having been probably from
the north or north-west of Australia.

Dr. Wallace, in his classical work on the Malay Archipelago,*
directed attention to several matters bearing upon this question,
which still remain as significant as when he wrote them in 1869.

A deep but narrow sea channel, being part of what is now
known .as ‘“ Wallace’s Line,” separates areas of shallow seas
bordered by great ocean depths,+ while the boundaries of the
shallow seas indicate the former extension on the one side of the
Austral and on the other of the Asiatic continent.

The chain of islands which extends from the Malay Peninsula
towards Australia, ending with Timor, when considered in con-
nection with the boundaries of the shallow sea, represents a former -
continental extension, probably only broken by the channel
between Bali and Lembok,{ and a channel between Timor and
Australia, 20 miles in width§ The former, which is onl
15 miles wide, has sufficed to stop the advance of the larger
mammals from the Asiatic to the Austral region, and the latter
strait has similarly prevented the Australian mammals from
entering Timor.

If this was the line of migration of the early Tasmanians and
Australians, we should have to assume either that they were able
to cross the deep sea straits on rafts or in bark canoes, or that
those sea straits were at such a comparatively recent geological
time much narrower than the soundings suggest.

* LYMM. ARG. { Lvl. § LVI, p. 823.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 730

An alternative line of migration would be by way of Torres
Straits.

The position of the Great Barrier Reef as to North-eastern
Australia strongly suggests a submerged shore Jine of the conti-
nent ; and if so, the numerous islands, islets, and reefs between
Cape York Peninsula and New Guinea also suggest the former
existence of a land connection now broken by subsidence.

Mr. Robert L. Jack points out that from Cape Palmerston to
the Herbert River the coast is fringed by a strip of alluvial flat
composed of alternating beds of clay, sand and gravel, the latter
probably belonging to river beds. The old land surface, as proved
by boring, is from 80 to 100 feet below the present sea level, and
no river could possibly have excavated a channel to this depth
while the land stcod at its present level. This submergence, in
all probability, took place after the period to which the extinct
mammalia belonged.*

Mr. Jack has also pointed: out to me orally that bays and
estuaries into which rivers flow on the east coast indicate sub-
merged valleys, and he has suggested that this comparatively
recent submergence of the eastern part of Australia gave rise to
Sydney Harbour on the one hand and Torres Straits on the other. +

An inspection of the Admiralty chart of Torres Straits between
Cape York and the nearest part of New Guinea shows, not only
a number of islands of some size, but innumerable islets and
reefs studding a sea so shallow that it is only exceptionally that
in the channels there isa depth of 10 fathoms. Therefore a move-
ment of elevation of 60 feet would connect Australia and New
Guinea by land. The 80 to 100 feet of subsidence which Mr.
Jack assigns to the north-east coast in comparatively recent times
would do more than merely connect the two lands.

So far as is yet known, the extinct mammalia to which Myr.
Jack refers did not extend into New Guinea, and the absence of
the platypus and the feeble development of the polyprotodont
fauna in north-eastern Australia is considered by Professor
Spencer to indicate that they spread northwards rather than
southwards, { thus negativing the existence of an upraised Torres
Strait at that time.

This suggests that, although there had been a land communica~-
tion which admitted of a certain migration of Australian forms, it
had ceased before the giant extinct marsupials spread into the
extreme of Northern Queensland, and according to Mr. Jack that
would probably have been in Post-Tertiary times.§ It seems
therefore evident that there was a land communication between
New Guinea and Australia at a comparatively recent period by
which the Tasmanians, and subsequently the Australians, might

* xxxI, vol. 1, pp. 618, 614. fT XXXI. } LII, p. 180. § XXXI,

734 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

have entered this continent. But this would have been anterior
to the subsidence of Torres Strait as we now see them.

Thus all the evidence which I have been able to collect points
to there having been a more practicable line of migration by way
of New Guinea than by Timor.

At present too little is known of New Guinea to enable anything
to be said as to traces of the Tasmanian and the Australian stocks
in that island. But it is to be noted that New Guinea, Australia,
and Tasmania were during our time, and as to the two former,
still are occupied respectively by three well-defined types of man,
effectually separated from each other by Torres Strait to the
north and Bass’s Strait to the south of Australia.

The relative positions of these peoples show that the Papuans,
Australians, and Tasmanians must have occupied their respective
locations in such manner that Bass’s Strait stopped the march of
the Australians, and Torres Strait of the Papuans.

It is now to be considered whether there are any data from
which a fair inference may be drawn as to the former existence
of a land bridge between Australia and Tasmania, across which
the Tasmanians might pass to the latter country.

The time when such a land bridge between Australia and
Tasmania may be thought to have existed is, so far as relates to
the primitive Tasmanians, necessarily limited by the probable
period of man’s existence on the Australian continent, or in lands
connected therewith in the past.

At present there is difference of opinion as to the precise
geological age of the older Tertiary marine formations of Victoria,
South Australia, and Tasmania.* But, for my purpose, I need
merely refer to the period of depression during which the marine
series of formations of older Tertiary age were laid down in Aus-
tralia from the Snowy River, in Gippsland, to the Great Aus-
tralian Bight, and on the north coast of Tasmania, as at Table
Cape. It is clear that upon this followed an upward movement
of the land, which was accompanied by, or culminated in, volcanic
action in central and south-western Victoria, constituting the
newer volcanic era, which by Victorian geologists has been placed
in the Pleiocene epoch.t At that time a large extent of the
central-western portion of Victoria was covered more or less by
sheets or strips of basaltic lavas. Most of the ancient river-beds
trending north and south from the Main Divide were more or less
filled in by lava flows, which, while often confined between
elevated Silurian ridges near the hilly country, spread out and
united with the wide sheets that now constitute the plains.

To the northward of Ballarat portions of the Main Divide is of
volcanic formation, and a wide sheet extending to the northwards

* XLV, p. 358. ¢ xLu, p. 117.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 735

finally disappears under the Post-Tertiary deposits of the Lodden
Valley, and covers the ancient river-courses which trend towards
the Murray River.*

Allowing for the previous depression during the Miocene and
Kocene epochs, and an antecedent greater depression during the
formation of the Victorian carbonaceous beds, there must still
have been a continuous land surface of mountainous country far
back into pre-Friassic, if not into Upper Paleozoic, time. During
all that vast extent of geological time the rivers had been eroding
their valleys in the higher parts of central-western Victoria, which
in the upper volcanic era of the Pleiocene epoch were sealed up and
levelled off by flows of basaltic lavas.

As seen in the Ballarat district, flows of basalt followed
each other, separated by periods of time which permitted the
accumulation of alluviums, until finally vast areas became basaltic
plains, studded with volcanic cones. t

The older dividing range is in many parts covered, and the
newer river-courses do not in places accord with the older drainage
areas.

Thus were formed what are known to miners as the deep leads,
trending from Ballarat northwards towards the river Murray,
and southwards towards Bass’s Strait.

It is not possible in the present state of information to fix with
any degree of accuracy when in geological time these deep leads
were formed, when volcanic activity was greatest, or when it
finally terminated with the voleanoes of south-western Victoria,
and the south-east of South Australia.

These latter are placed by Professor Tatet in that time when
Diprotodon, Phascolomys Pliocenus, were still existing, and when
the flora included Casuarina and Banksia.

The late discoveries of bones of Macropus Anak and other
extinct kangaroos in the mine of the Great Buninyong Estate
Company, to which I have more fully referred elsewhere,§
probably places the voleanoes of Mount Buninyong in the same
time, and this can scarcely be placed further back than the later
Pleiocene, if so far. This, however, I do merely as an approxima-
tion to the time when the Pleiocene rivers of central Victoria were
sealed up by the basalts of the newer volcanic era, and thus
formed certain of the deep leads of Victoria.

More recent marine formations of somewhat limited extent
occur in Victoria, and elsewhere on either side of Bass’s Strait,
the position of which appears to indicate a comparatively slight
downwards oscillation, followed by a still slighter upward move-
ment, which, so far as I am able to form an opinion from the

* xu, p. 117. + XLU, p. 129. t LV, p. Ixix. § See pp. 741, 752, &c.

736 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F,

position of Post-Tertiary deposits in Victoria, Tasmania, and the
islands of the Strait, may not exceed 50 to 60 feet.*

There are some grounds for the belief that the upward move-
ment is still continuing.

In this brief summary the main features in geological history,
and in the physical geography of Victoria and South Australia,
which seem to have a bearing upon the questions discussed in this”
address, are the following :—

‘An elevation of the land following an Eocene or Miocene sub-
sidence, which in the Pleiocene was accompanied by or culminated
in the newer volcanic when the newer deep leads of Central
Victoria were formed. Finally a resubmergence of the land in
late Pleiocene or Post-Pleiocene times, by which Bass’ Straits were
formed.

I have been long impressed by the fact that the “deep leads”
referred to—that is, the ancient. river channels—are now at con-
siderable depths below the surface over which the modern rivers
flow, with but a slight fall to the sea by way of the Murray River
valley.

During the past thirty years the Victorian Department of
Mines has carried out an immense amount of boring with the
diamond drill, by which the underground contours of the valleys,
and also the trend of the deep leads, extending north and south
from Ballarat, have been ascertained.

Tt seemed to me that a comparison of the data thus obtained,
with the surface features, might prove of interest, and for this
purpose I have selected the statistics of bores put down furthest
north on three main leads, where the hilly country subsides into
the great levels of the plains through which the river Murray
winds its course towards South Australia and the sea.

Each locality chosen was also not far distant from the termina-
tion of the flow of basalt, by which the old valley had been levelled,
and which itself was, at its termination, levelled of by the later
alluviums of the plains.

The following are the data from which I was able to draw
certain conclusion :—

No. 9 Bore at Bung Bong.

Height of surface above sea-level ; ane ... T14 feet.
Depth of deep lead channel below the surface} iy OOCwas
Distance from the bore to Swan Hill, on the river

Murray, by way of Bet Bet Creek and the Lodden

River oh 3 Pe ue fe . 200 miles.

* XXXII, p. 320 et inpa.

+ In each case, in order to approximate the conditions of the “lead” with those of the
river Murray, ‘I have deducted from the results of boring the depth of ‘‘ wash,” and have
also allowed 5 feet for the possible depth of water.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 73

ba |

Vo. 8 Bore at Charlotte Plains.

Height of surface above sea-level* _... ee san (the Teets
Depth of deep lead channel below the surface ... 240 feet,
Distance from the bore to Swan Hill by way of Talla-

roop Creek and the Lodden River ae ... 180 miles.

No. 5 Bore of second line, near Baringhup.

Height of surface upove sea-level... oe ... 600 feet,
Depth of deep lead channel below the surface, it On 3,
Distance from the Swan Hill by way of the Lodden

River Se is we ee sie sea 1 OW mashes:

The distance from Swan Hill to the sea, following the channel
up the Murray River, is about 950 miles.

The fall of the surface to Swan Hill is—from Bung Bong,

ft. 6 in.; from Charlotte Plains, 2 ft. 9 in.; and from
Baringhup, 2 feet per mile. But the fall of the surface to the
sea, by way of the channel of the river Murray, is only 2°75 inches
per mile, and even that is not much, since, at Morgan, 400 miles
up from the sea, there is only from 3 feet to 10 feet above sea-
level, according to the season. {

Thus, if these deep leads are imagined as being restored to their
former condition of rivers, they could not flow out to sea by way
of the river Murray miles the land were raised up, taking the
mean of the three examples first given, by about 270 feet above its
present height as compared with the sea level. This height of 270
feet, may, moreover, be taken as the minimum elevation required,
since it would give no more than the present fall, which is im-
probable, when, as I shall point out, the character of the sea
bottom in Bass’s Strait is taken into consideration.

The fall southwards of the country from the main Dividing
Range, near Ballarat, to the sea, is, also for a long distance over
Newer Volcanic basaltic plains, analogous to those through which
the abovementioned bores have been put down.

Here, also, the deep leads trending southwards have been proved
by boring, and the same results have been obtained. But it must
be borne in mind that there is a marked difference in distance to
the sea in this direction. From Bung Bong, for instance, to the
sea is 1,150 miles, while from Mount Mercer, where is one of the
most southern bores, to Bass Straits is only 50 miles. Thus the
face of the land in the latter case is much steeper when compared
with the distance.

*On the authority of Mr. A. Everett, chief draftsman, Department of Mines and Water
Supply, Victoria.

j{ Lam indebted to Mr. Jas. Travis, Acting Secretary for Mines in Victoria, for this in-
formation.

t Mr. Stewart Murry, Chief Engineer of Water Supply, Victoria, has furnished me with
these heights above the sea of the river Murray.

3A

738 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

A bore put down to the west of Mount Mercer, proved the
deep lead gutter at a depth of 113 feet from the surface, and
one at Glenfine, near the Woady Yalloak River, bottomed at
161 ft. 4 in., of which 2 ft. 9 in. was heavy wash. All that can
be said as to the leads on this side of the main divide is that they

show the same general features as those on the northern side, but
that any comparison with the outlets of these old rivers is not
possible.

In order to test the conclusions drawn from the data obtained
from considering the deep leads, I also examined the Admiralty
Charts of Bass Strait and of the coast of Tasmania and the
opposite Australan mainland.

On the accompanying map are shown the 50 and 100 fathom lines
of soundings in Bass Strait, extending westward to include the
mouth of the Murray ive, and eainion d as far as Jervis Bay in
New South Wales.*

A line of soundings isalsoshown connecting Wilson’s Promontory,
in Victoria, with Cape Portland, in Tasmania, by way of the
islands pans between these points, On this line the greatest
depth is 32 fathoms, between Wilson’s Promontory aah Kent’s
Group. It is shallower between that island and Flinder’s Tsland,
and still shallower thence to Cape Portland.

A 30-fathom line on either side would indicate a plateau 80 or
90 miles wide about midway between the shores of the strait,
and on the Victorian side widening ont so as to extend up to
Cape Howe.

There would be a low ridge from Wilson’s Promontory to Cape
Portland, with eo as elevations—now islands—rising at
Mount Strezlecki to over 2,700 feet above the sea. These islands
are, therefore, a aemereed continuation of that part of the
Cordillera which, in Victoria, ends at Wilson’s Promontory, and
as seen at Flinder’s Island, they show the same features as Wilson’s
Promontory. The prevailing rocks, except a few isolated peaks of
recent igneous origin, are granite and schists, which, on the low-
lying tracts, are overlaid “by deposits of Eocene age covered by
recent formations. t

These islands are, therefore, composed of similar Paleozoic
Plutonic rocks and metamorphic schists to those so largely repre-
sented in the Gippsland mountains, which terminate in a southerly
direction in Wilson’s Promontory.

An inspection of the soundings shows that the 50-fathom line
encloses a comparatively level plateau which falls more rapidly,

* From the Admiralty Chart.

+ XXxxil, p. 365.

While preparing this address my attention was directed by Mr. Everett, chief drafts-
man of the Department of Mines and Water Supply, to a paper read by Dr. Becker before
the Philosophical Institute of Victoria, in which h2 points out the features referred to in
this passage. 1 vol., p. 15.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 739

and in places almost suddenly, to the 100-fathom line, especially on
the western and southern side of Tasmania. Beyond this there
are few soundings, but from those given the following statements
may be noted.

The 50-fathom line is distant about 40 miles in a south-westerly
direction from Cape Otway; at 10 miles further off is the
100-fathom line ; at 20 miles further the depth is over 900 fathoms ;
finally, at 150 miles from Cape Otway,-in the same direction,
there is a sounding of over 2,300 fathoms.

Similarly, in a south-easterly direction from the Ninety-mile
Beach in Gippsland, the 50-fathom and 100-fathom lines are
distant 50 and 70 miles respectively.

South-easterly from Cape Pillar, in the extreme south of
Tasmania, the soundings of 50, 100, and 1,000 fathoms are distant
respectively about 5, 8, and 50 miles.

The lines of 50 and 100 fathoms soundings off the Murray mouth
are distant therefrom about 100 miles, the two lines being
apparently no more than 5 miles apart. At 100 miles further
south there is a sounding of 2,840 fathoms.

The general conclusions derivable from a study of these charts
are that the 50-fathom line represents a submerged plateau con-
necting Victoria approximately from Cape Howe to Cape Otway
with Tasmania. From it there is a more rapid slope to the
100-fathom line, and thence a still greater slope into ocean depths.
An elevation of 300 feet would therefore lay dry a tract of com-
paratively level country between Victoria and Tasmania, rising
to a central ridge on the eastern side. The plateau would mainly
lie not more than 100 to 200 feet above sea-level, but in places
rising up to 3,000 feet. On the western side a deep bend to the
north-east indicates the former channel of a river conveying the
combined waters of all streams and rivers which now debouch
between Cape Otway and Wilson’s Promontory, whose deposits
probably account for the unusual distance between the 50 and
100 fathom line, from the embouchure down to Cape Sorrell.

The plateau of low-lying land thus indicated flanking the
eastern side of the chain of denuded and eroded mountains, where
peaks are now islands in Bass Strait, would probably resemble the
sandy and swampy country covered with dwarf scrub and coarse
sedges which border Corner Inlet and separate Wilson’s Pro-
montory from the Gippsland coast ranges.

A great delta is indicated by these soundings, extending between
Kangaroo Island and Cape Jaffa, a hundred miles beyond the
present Murray mouth.

The former elevation of the land surface in the newer volcanic
era may not unreasonably be held to be connected with the
conditions shown by the soundings in Bass Strait. If so, the

740 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

50-fathom or even the 100-fathom line may be taken as marking
the extension of the Australian continent southwards at the
time in question.

That the elevation and subsidence of the land has been by
widespread and not merely local movements is shown by the
Eocene and Miocene marine series of Victoria, South Australia,
and Tasmania, which, although subjected to elevation, are in the
whole, at low angles, little beyond horizontal.

Mr. A. Montgomery, lately Government Geologist in Tasmania,
to whom I communicated briefly the results of my researches as
to the Victorian deep leads, most kindly favoured me with his
views as to the evidence of movements of elevation and subsidence
observable in Tasmania. I briefly summarise these from his
written communications and from his published reports.*

In early Tertiary or even late pre-Tertiary times, equivalent to
the age of the Flemington Plaut Beds of Victoria, the northern
part of Tasmania was relatively higher above sea-level by at
least 270 feet than it is now.

A. period of great basaltic extrusion covered and protected
many of the Older Tertiary Sediments and culminated in a wide-
spread subsidence to some 1,000 feet on the west coast and 700
feet on the north coast of Tasmania, where, for instance, the
Beaconsfield lead is now below sea-level.* Subsequently there
was a re-elevation of the land during Pleiocene and more recent
times.

Two elevations of the land surface are here indicated, the older
of which may be considered as being represented in Victoria by
the position of old river valleys now filled in, but still indicated
by flows of the “Older Volcanic.” Such an example is that
where, near Melbourne, the vestiges of a river system may be
traced which drained approximately the same country as that
now traversed by the Yarra and its tributaries, the Plenty, and
Saltwater Rivers.j Another example is afforded by the stretches
of Older Volcanic which extend from Neerim through Western
Gippsland, and are apparently connected with the basalts of
Phillip Island and perhaps Cape Schanck, thus indicating a river
where embouchure is now below sea-level. |

These observations on both sides of Bass Strait indicate a
probable extension of the land southwards connecting Australia
and Tasmania, but at a time far back from the Newer Volcanic
Era, and beyond the limit of man’s existence so far as it can be
fixed in the present state of knowledge.

But it may perhaps be correlated with a “second connection
between the Australian continent and Tasmania,” which Professor
Spencer§ considers to have existed “just at the close of the

#* XI, p. 44, } XLU, p. 129. } xu. § LI, p. 180.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 741

Cretaceous period and before the deposition of the Eocene beds
of Table Cape and along the northern shores of Tasmania.”

The re-elevation of the land to which Mr. Montgomery refers
may be reasonably considered as that which I have connected
with the Newer Volcanic Era in Victoria.

The commencement of this later connection of Tasmania and
Victoria may be provisionally placed in the Peiocene epoch.
What may have been its duration it is not possible to state within
definite limits; but it may have been as late as the more recent
voleanoes of south-western Victoria and the south-eastern district
of South Australia.

Professor Tate says of the latter that they are newer than the
Pleiocene sand and loess which are interstratified between the
Mount Gambier limestones and the ashbeds of that place. He
considers that man probably witnessed the showers of ash and
the glow of internal fires from the cones of these voleanoes.*

The late discovery by Mr. 8. Hart of the fossilised bones of
extinct marsupials in black clay beneath the “second rock ” and
resting on volcanic ash in the mine of the Great Buninyong
Estate Company, which I have more fully noted later in this
address, shows that some at least of the volcanoes of the Ballarat
district were active when Macropus anak was living.

If the cuts on one of the bones found there are finally accepted
as having been on them at the time of their discovery, there will
be evidence of man’s existence as the contemporary of the extinct
giant marsupials in the Newer Volcanic Era.

I may now advance a further step and consider what was the
derivation of the primitive Tasmanians and Australians.

From the conclusions to which I have now been led, it follows
that the Tasmanians were the autochthonous inhabitants of
Australia, and that their preservation in Tasmania was due to
isolation by the formation of Bass Strait.

The occupation of the continent by the Australians who, it
may be reasonably held, were ina higher state of culture, and who
were better armed than the Tasmanians, must have resulted in
the amalgamation of the two races, either by the subjection of
the latter, or, what is more likely from what we know of the
Australians of the present day, by the extirpation of the former
inhabitants, so far at least as regarded the males, and the absorp-
tion of the females into the tribe.

At any rate, whatever the process may have been, the result

may be accepted of a strong negroid cross in the Australians.

Deducting this negroid element, there remains a residuum from
which also must be deducted the “ Malay element” of Mr.
Mathew,} who finds in the Australian language traces of Malay

yap: xix: (ARK,

(4 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

influence. He says that they are not numerous, are not met
with in the extreme north-west, where they might be expected,
but turn up in unexpected parts of Australia, far removed from
casual intercourse with Malays.*

In order to account for this Malay element, he introduces
parties of Malays, who, either from choice or necessity, landed and
became naturalised at various spots on the east, north, and west
coasts of Australia. These Malays are thus supposed to have
modified the speech of the people first immediately round them,
and then landwards. +

As to this, it may be pointed out that Australia is three-fourths
the size of Europe. What would be thought of an hypothesis
based upon the landing of occasional parties of Asiatics upon the
northern coasts of the Mediterranean, thereby introducing an
Asiatic strain into the people inhabiting, for instance, Northern
Germany

The linguistic ground upon which this “ Malayan” hypothesis
rests consist first in identification of the interrogative pronouns,
for instance, “ minyanggai, or minna,” of the Kabi language in
Queensland, with the Malayan “mana,” which, as Mr. Mathew
himself points out, is properly the adverb “where,” but which is
used idiomatically to signify who, whom, which, and what ; second,
on twelve words selected from vocabularies of Australian tribes.
Of these words, three, namely, the Malay terms for moon, raw,
and sun, are, on reference to Dr. Codrington’s work,{ found to
be also Melanesian. A fourth word, namely, the West Australian
‘“yoora” or “ura,” meaning “man,” he identifies with ‘“ orang,”
but does not rely on it. As to the remaining eight words which
are scattered over the continent, it may be that some might also
be identified with Malayan and Melanesian words, and as in the
case of isolated occurrences, it is always open to doubt whether
the average collector of Australian vocabularies has correctly
reported them. Even to the occurrence of the word “bapa”
over wide areas in Australia meaning “father,” much weight
cannot be attached, since a similar or identical term may be
found in languages the world over.

The Rey. Mr. Threlkeld, than whom no one has obtained so
great a knowledge of an Australian language, denies that it has
any close affinity with the Malay, either in word or construction.§
This opinion carries weight, not only by reason of his special
qualifications, but because it relates to the languages of south-
eastern New South Wales, where Mr. Mathew finds a strong
Malay element.

A passage in Crawford’s “Grammar of the Malay Language,”
published in 1852, speaks on this question with authority and

F XKKIX, DP.) Odile } XXXIX, p. 378. tx, p. 78. § LVI, p. 82.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 743

with no uncertain voice.* It is that he examined thirty languages
from all the then discovered parts of Australia in quest of Malayan
words without finding one, or the trace of one. They might have

been expected in the. language of Raffles Bay, not ‘distant from
_the trepang fisheries of the nee es of Celebes, but were absent
from this as from all other of the languages. He remarks that,
although the trepang fishers occasionally see natives of Austr alia,
they hold no intercourse with them, and from what he knew of
the opinions and prejudices of the former, he was satisfied that
they would no more think of a social intercourse with them than
with the kangaroo or wild dogs of the same country.

The trepang fishers here spoken of are the Bugis, a Malayan
people, who form the principal nation of the Island of Celebes, i
of whom M‘Gillivray says that two yeurs after the foundation
of the English ; settlement at Raffles Bay they had taken advan-
tage of the protection of Europeans to carry on the trepang
fishery i in the bay.{

These remarks are confirmed by Captain Stokes,§ who says, in
speaking of Raffles Bay, that six Malay prows came in, followed
by others, soliciting permission to erect their establishments for
curing trepang under the protection of the British flag, now for
the first time secure from the attacks of the natives, whose
hostility had until then forced every other man of them to keep
under arms whilst the rest worked.

The visits of the Bugis to the north coast of Australia appear
to have been far more numerous annually than might have been
suspected. Mr. Earl, writing in 1837|| of these very people,
says that they visited the northern shore of New Holland
annually with from 80 to 100 praws, and that their trepang
and tortoise-shell fishing afforded employment for 1,000 men.

If this may be taken as having been a custom of long con-
tinuance, one might reasonably expect not only that there should
be a strong Malay (Bugi?) cross in the tribes inhabiting the coast
from Clarence Strait to Raffles Bay, but that there should be
found a strong Malay element in the language of these RL Sess
But from the quotations which I have given, the relations of
the two peoples appear not to have been always friendly, and
this may account for the absence of words of Malay origin in
this very part of Australia where Mr. Mathew says we might
expect to, but do not, find them.4]

It seems that all that can perhaps be properly said as to the
influence of Malays (Bugis) upon the Australian languages is
that on the north coast, limited probably to the range of the
trepang, words might become naturalised in the languages of

*x, Dissertation, clxxxii. xX, p.ccvi. { xxxviul, Vol. I, p. 141. § i, vol. 1, p. 388.
|| X11, p. 390. {| xxxix, p. 377.

744 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION PF.

coast tribes, and be thence transported inland to such distances
as the interchange of women as wives by those coast tribes might
extend.

As I have pointed out, three of the twelve words identified by
Mr. Mathew as Malayan are found, on reference to Dr. Codring-
ton’s work on the Melanesian languages, to be also Melanesian.
Dr. Codrington shows conclusively that the elements which are
common to them and the Malay have not been derived from the
latter, but are common to all the ocean languages, from the
Malagassy i in the west to the Hawaiian in the east and the Maori
in the south. He says, further, that this indicates an original
oceanic stock language, from which the Polynesian, Melanesian,
and Malay tongues have derived their common elements, which is
now extinct, and of which the Malay is one of the younger
descendants.* The presence of certain common words in the ocean
languages testifies that the ancient speakers made canoes, built
houses, cultivated gardens before the time when their posterity
branched off in their way to Madagascar and Fiji. t

Such being the case, the primitive home of those speakers of the
“ocean language” may be supposed to have been somewhere in
the Indo- Malay an or Austro-Malayan regions, or, perhaps, to
speak more correctly, in the ancient extensions of the Asiatic and
Austral continents which they represent.

At any rate, the dispersal of the primitive speakers of the ocean
stock-language must have been long after the migration of the
Australians, and still longer after that of the Tcenanmee)

It seems, however, not a little remarkable that the migrations
of the offshoot, which is now represented by the Melanesians,
should have extended from New Guinea, if not from a point
further west, around, but at a distance from, and thus not touching
Australia.

Compared with the sea distances, which must have been passed
over (since the common stock- language proves that they were
acquainted with canoes) before reaching Fiji, the stretches of sea
between Timor and Australia, and New Guinea and Australia,
must have been comparatively insignificant.

At any rate, it would seem that Torres Strait separated the
Papuans from the Australians almost as effectually as Bass Strait
separated the latter from the Tasmanians.

The Melanesians occupy a vast insular extent, touching New
Guinea at the one end and Fiji at the other end, probably repre-
sent the older race on which the Papuans have intruded.

It seems not unreasonable to consider these facts as indicating
migrations of three branches of mankind in successive stages of
ethnical development and culture.

* 1x, p. 11, 26, 31, passim. } ax; p. 78.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 745

If the Australians migrated from the north-west by way of
New Guinea as I have suggested, it may be that they brought
with them some elements of language common to the ancient
oceanic stock-language, to crop out here and there in the Australian
speech as words having a resemblance to Malay.

At any rate, as it appears to me, there must be very grave
doubts as to the Malayan element in the Australian aborigines
as formulated by Mr. Matthew.

Deducting, therefore, the hypothetical Malay ethnical element,
which, if it exists at all, may be considered as merely local in
Northern Australia, there is yet a limited Papuan or Melanesian
element in Northern or North-eastern Australia, which cannot be
altogether overlooked, and which in its negroid character cannot
be altogether attributed to the original cross of the primitive
Tasmanians.

I was much struck when comparing some men from Pyince of
Wales Island in Torres Strait, in near proximity to Cape York,
with other men from the Cloncurry River, on the mainland, by the
marked Papuan character of the former, and the marked Austra-
lian character of the latter. The intermixture, through friendly
intercourse, between the Kaurarega of Prince of Wales Island and
the Gudang of Cape York is well known.

The Prince of Wales Islanders told me that they voyage
periodically in outrigger canoes according to the direction of the
wind, southwards along the Queensland coast, or northwards across
the Straits to New Guinea.

This intercourse between Papuans and Australians by the inter-
mediary islanders has probably existed for ages, and the admix-
ture of race is indicated by the statement made by the latter to
me that they obtained wives from Australia, and also from the
islands to the north and from New Guinea.

Deducting these various elements, the apparent strong cross of
the qlee cer stock, and the certainly small admixture on the
northern coast due to visits by the Bugis and the Papuan
Islanders, there remains a large residuum to which the distinctive-
ness of the Australian type may be attributed.

To which of the great divisions of the human family may this
Australian stock, on which the Tasmanian scion has been grafted,
be assigned? Here is a difficult problem ; but this much may
with safety be asserted, it is not Ethiopic or Mongolian, and
leaving out of question the American stocks, which can scarcely
be seriously considered, there remains, therefore, only the so-called
Caucasian as that great division to which the primitive type of
the Australian may be referred.

In considering all the facts before me bearing upon the question
of the origin of the Tasmanians and the Australians, [ have been

746 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

much impressed by the immense periods of time which seem to
be essential as one of the elements of any solution of the problem.

The level of culture of the Tasmanians has been termed by
Dr. E. B. Tylor, “ Eolithic,’* and that of the Australians
probably stands in the Neolithic if not as regards some tribes on
the border between that and the Paleolithic age.

The tribes of the Barcoo Delta were, when I knew them, still
in their completely savage condition, and they used roughly
chipped flints either held in the hand or fastened in handles with
sinews and gum. This was, however, not from want of acquaint-
ance with the Australian form of ground and polished hatchets,
since they obtained such by barter from the hill tribes to the south,
but because their country did not supply the material of which
such hatchets were made.

The social organisation of the Tasmanians, so far as it ‘can be
made out from the unfortunately meagre accounts afforded by
writers, appears to have been in some respects analogous to that
of the Australians, but in so far of a character consonant with
the Jower level of culture of the Tasmanians. +

The organisation of the Australians, as seen in the socially most
backward standing tribes—for instance, such as those of the Lake
Eyre Basin—is that of a people but little advanced out of a
regulated promiscuity, based upon the intermarriage of two
totemic groups into which each tribe is divided.

The relationships and kinships of these people are also based
upon, and naturally arise out of, the totemic intermarrying div1-
sions, defining the relations of individuals to each other, in
accordance with the principle of group marriage and descent,
which are existing facts in those tribes; while in those which
are socially more advanced group marriage is recognisable only in
traces, or as mere survivals of custom.

Yet in these socially more advanced tribes, where there is
individual marriage together with the recognition of descent
through the father, the older system of reckoning relationships
based upon group marriage still exists a living “evidence of a
departed fact. f

The level of culture of the Australians cannot be held to be
lower than that of the ancestral stock from which they separated.
Their language discloses nothing that can point to a former know-
ledge of the arts higher than that of the present, in their naturally
savage state; on the contrary, the terms of relationship show
that the most advanced tribes were at one time in the status of
those of Lake Eyre with group marriage and descent.

Therefore it seems clear that the Australians have advanced
from group marriage to individual marriage, from descent counted

* LVII. ¢ XLV, p. 11, passim. { XVII, XXV, XXVI, XXVII, XXVIII, XXIX, passim.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. T47

in the female line to descent counted in the male line; in fact,
that they have progressed in so far along the same path of social
development which the ancestors of the most advanced civilised
races have pursued. This is not a little remarkable, and, indeed,
suggestive, when we consider that the advance has been made
evidently during a time, immense in years, during which the
Australians have been apparently isolated in this continent from
outward impulse, to work out as they have done their own
society.

A long continued study of the organisation of Australian
tribes has led Dr. Fison and myself to see that the division of the
tribe into the two primary divisions, with definite social laws,
points directly to that which we have termed the ‘“ undivided
commune,” and which is moreover clearly pictured by the Mura-
Mura Legend of the Diéri,* and the entirely parallel Bungil
Legend of the Woéworung Tribe of Victoria.

It seems, therefore, quite justifiable to hold that the social
conditions of the parent stock of the Australians was that of the
Lake Eyre tribes, if not, indeed, that of the Mura-Mura and
Bungil Legends.

This would take us back far into primitive society, and the
conclusion already provisionally arrived at, that the Australians
must have reached this continent probably by a land connection
complete, or almost complete, with the Indo-Asiatie or the exten-
sion north-westward of the Austral continent, will necessarily
land us in distant prehistoric, if not in Pleistocene or older time.

It has been and still is frequently assumed that there is an
ethnical relationship between the Australians and the Dravidian
tribes of the Hindostan peninsula, and therefore this requires
some special attention.

According to Professor Huxley,t any one who has ever seen an
Australian and a Dravidian will be struck with the resembiance
between the two. But this resemblance includes a negroid
element of the Australian, which is not, according to other
observers, always apparent in the Dravidians, who have, however,
been subject to racial influences during long ages in India, from
which the Australians have been protected by isolation.

The Dravidians are evidently not so uniform as appears to have
been assumed, nor so marked a type as the Australians. Professor
Keane? says that the separation of populations resident between
the Himalaya and the Vindhya Mountains, from the Dravidian
of the Deccan, is based wholly on the fact that the two former
speak languages which are more or less directly descended from
the Sanscrit. According to Mr. Baden-Powell,§ the Dravidians
have been greatly affected by admixture of northern, possibly

* XVIII, p. 25. t xxx, p. 89. } xxxiv, pp. 417, 418. § 1, p. 88.

748 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

Aryan blood. At any rate, the admixture must be considerable
on account of the tribal custom, as among the Nairs of the south-
west coast, of taking temporary Brahman husbands for their
female relatives.

From the time of Bishop Caldwell’s “Grammar of the Dravidian
Languages,” in 1856,* to the publication of Dr. Fraser’s work,
*“ An Aboriginal Language,” in 1892,* almost all writers on the
Australians, who heme freated of the language, have remarked
more or less strongly upon the resemblance—in some instances,
the apparent identity—between them and certain features of the
Dravidian languages.

It is not within the scope of this address to do more than to
note that some of the more striking features of the Australian
languages. The fundamental character is that of agglutination,
the numerals are restricted to two, three, rarely four, and more
rarely five. There is an absence of an article, of numbers, and
of gender, unless in rare cases, when, for instance, a postfix
nbiached to a totem name indicates that a female bears it.T

The verb of the inflexional languages is represented by the aid
of postfixes, and by the same means nouns may be declined in a
variety of cases.

When compared with the Dravidian the Australian languages
show a more primitive character, but there is a resemblance in
structure, and, in some few points, even an apparent identity, as,
for instance, in the first and second personal pronouns. But this is
not much more than could be said as to analogous resemblances or
identities with other languages of the same great ‘“ Ursprache,”
to which both the Australian and the Dravidian tongues belong.

Bishop Caldwell{ directed attention to the personal pronouns,
upon which so much stress is laid, and pointed out that the root
“ni” is identical with the Dravidian and the Behistun-Scythian
pronoun; so also is the “ni” of the Horpa dialect of the
Thibetan nomads, with which the Australian ‘‘nunnia,” “ngounie,”
and “ nginte” may be compared.§

Dr. Bleek also writes much to the same effect.||

More recently Dr. Fried. Miller,{] than whom no one can speak
with higher authority in linguistic matters, says that no scientific
objection can be taken to a statement that the Australian as well
as the Dravidian languages belong to that family which Professor
Max Miieller has termed Turanian, but that there is no founda-
tion for saying more, and that even the statement that the
Australian languages are all derived from one primitive tongue

must be regarded atk caution.

* vin, p. 51. ies { XXV, XXVIII. § vil, p. 316. lv, p. 89.
| xul, p. 248.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS, 749

To connect the Australians with the Dravidians in the manner
commonly done seems to entirely overlook some essential elements
of the problem. These appear to require that the original parent
stock of the former must have existed far back in prehistoric or
even in Pleistocene time, when the physical geography of the
Asiatic and Austral continents and the racial character and dis-
tribution of the peoples inhabiting them must have very materi-
ally differed from those of the present time.

_ Therefore, any ethnical or linguistic connection between the
Australians and the Dravidians must be considered to be the
relationship merely of two tribes co-descendant from a common
and distant ancestral stock.

I should be most unwilling to appear to underrate the great
services which the science of phylology is capable of rendering to
anthropology ; but it must be admitted that its professors are,
unfortunately, not always possessed of that scientific caution
which is so essential in all ethnological .or anthropological
inquiries. In Europe this has been shown by the results of the
Aryan controversy ; and it is sincerely to be hoped that no
analogous results may be experienced here through attempts
to solve the Australian problem by the aid of philology alone.

That science is merely one of the components of the compre-
hensive science of anthropology, and is, therefore, incapable of
' being a safe guide alone when attempting a solution of so com-
plicated a problem as the origin of the aborigines of Tasmania
and Australia.

The various provisional conclusions to which I have so far
been led, will now admit of my advancing a step further in this
inquiry and to attempt to indicate what appears to be the most
probable source from which the Tasmanians and Australians have
come.

Of all the attempted solutions of this problem, that which has
been offered by Sir W. H. Flower and Mr. R. Lydekker* appears
to me most nearly to fit in with the requirements of this case.
They suggest that Australia was originally peopled by frizzly-
haired Melanesians, such as the Tasmanians, but that there was
a strong infusion of some other race,-probably a low form of
Caucasian Melanochroi. As to the identification of the Tasman-
lans with the Melanesians, the following may be applicable :—

Mr. H. Ling Roth has recorded certain conclusions, based upon
the mass of data collected and discussed by him in his work on
the Aborigines of Tasmania. Among others there is one which
may be well accepted as agreeing with the weight of evidence,
namely—that the Tasmanians were more closely related to the
Andaman islanders than to any other race.{

* xx, p. 748. { XLVII, p. 351.

750 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

This would, however, place them among the Oceanic Negritos,
who are now found scattered in small tribes from the Andaman
Islands to the Phillipines and New Guinea,* and not among the
later Melanesians.

It is noteworthy that all these scattered Oceanic Negritos
appear to be mere survivals of a former widespread autochthonous
race, which have been preserved either in inaccessible parts of
Malaysia, like the Samangs of the Malay Peninsula and the now
extinct Kalangs of Java, or isolated in islands which, like Tas-
mania and the Andamans, have been cut off by subsidence of
parts of a former continent.

While it may be accepted that the present distribution of the
Oceanic Negritos indicates a primitive population spread over
Malaysia, or rather inhabiting the former southern extension of
the Indo-Asiatic continent, it does not necessarily follow that
they all represent the same branch of the primitive stock, but
rather, more or less, nearly successive offshoots.

As to the Melanesians, Dr. Codrington’s argument, which I
have already quoted,+ may be again poreared to, in so far that the
stock from which they have branched off must have been
acquainted with (sea-going) canoes, houses, and the cultivation
of gardens ; therefore, ‘those ancient Melanesians could not have
been the progenitors of the ancestors of the Tasmanians, being in
a far higher level of culture.

It seems to me also permissible to distinguish the Tasmanians
and Andamanese from tribes such as the Samangs and Kalangs.
On these grounds I would suggest the following tentative
hypothesis :—

An original Negrito population, as represented by the wild
tribes of Malaysia; a subsequent offshoot represented by the
Andamanese and Tasmanians, and another offshoot in a higher
state of culture originating the Melanesians.

As to the Australians, [ may say that the discussion of the
problem as to the origin of these savages and of the Tasmanians,
has led me to conclusions which require, as the original stock of
the former, such a race as would be supplied by the “low form
of Caucasian Melanochroi,” suggested by Sir W. H. Fowler and
Mr. Lydekker. From such a ‘stock the Dravidians may be also
thought to have been in part derived.

Here and there in Asia are sporadic groups of people, charac-
terised by black hair and dark eyes, with a skin of almost all
shades, from white to black, frequently with profuse beards and
body hair, and being in many cases in a condition of low savages. {

Such are the Veddahs of Ceylon, the Hairy Ainus of Japan,
the Maoutze of China, and perhaps the Todas of India. Such a

* XXXIV, p. 254. fT 1x, p. 78. { Xxx1v, p. 418.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. yas)!

stock might have given the characters of the hair to the other-
wise negroid primitive inhabitants of Australia, and also certain
peculiarities of feature which are occasionally observed, and
which are evidently and certainly not negroid in character.

I have before said, and desire again to repeat, that the conclu-
sions to which I have been led as to the origin of the Tasmanians
and Australians, necessarily demand a vast antiquity on the Aus-
tralian continent for the former and even a very long period
of at least prehistoric time for the latter.

There has been much hesitation in accepting any great antiquity
for man in Australia, Mr. R. Brough Smyth* pointed out as
far back as 1878, that in the hundreds of square miles of alluvial
deposits which have been turned over by miners in Victoria very
few aboriginal stone hatchets have been found, and there even at
inconsiderable depths below the surface. Since that time, how-
ever, evidence has been forthcoming which may be held to
probably assign nan in Australia into Post-Tertiary, perhaps into
Pleistocene times.

It may be well, therefore, to bring together those instances
which have come under my notice in order that the evidence
from these sources may be seen concisely in one view.

Mr. Bonwicky records the discovery of a “stone tool” by
miners at Ballarat, 22 inches below the surface, in a place which
had not been before disturbed. The author, however, according to
his practice, gives no reference to his authority.

Dr. A. R. Wallace has communicated to me, for the purpose of
investigation, the discovery in 1855, of an axehead of basalt at
Maryborough, in Victoria, by Mr. A. C. Swinton, who was at the
time engaged in mining.

Mr. Swinton says that he and Mr. M. C. Shore were sinking a
shallow shaft on a small tributary leading into the main lead, when
at a depth of about four feet from the surface and one foot from the
bottom, Mr. Shore drove his pick into an axehead made of basalt.
The shaft was sunk through cemented gravel with three false
bottoms, and about half way down there was a hard band of
cement.

By the courtesy of Mr. James Travis, the acting Secretary for
Mines and Water Supply, Mr. Stanley Hunter, one of the
officers of the Geological Survey, examined the place referred to
by Mr. Swinton, and marked by him upon a parish plan of Mary-
borough.

Mr. Hunter reported to the effect that the tributary referred
to by Mr. Swinton is one of the heads of the main Bet Bet lead,
and as that lead is covered by Pleistocene basalt the lower strata
in the contributary lead in question may be of the same age. Yet

* XLIX, vol. I, p. 364 f iv.

52, PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F,

this is merely an assumption, as no fossil evidence of any kind
is to be found.

In 1865, the late Mr. C. 8. Wilkinson* together with Mr,
Forde, found flint chips, a sharpened stone tomahawk, and several
bone spikes or needles, together with bones of animals, in the sand
dunes near Cape Otway. In the same locality they also found a
similar bone spike with numerous seal-bones and shells of
apparently existing species in beach material of pebbles and humus,
resting upon carbonaceous sandstone and apparently intermediate
between it and the overlying dunes.

In 1870, when visiting the Upper Dargo River in Gippsland,
I was informed by some miners that in cutting a race for mining
purposes they had turned up a stone tomahawk at about 2 feet
below the surface. But as the race was cut out of the shingly
alluvium at the side of the valley the find does not necessarily
imply any great antiquity.

Mr. Bennett in his history of Australian Discovery,} makes
a statement that in sinking wells and other excavations in the
Hunter River Valley flat rocks were found with marks such as
are made by the aborigines in sharpening their stone tonahawks.
These were ata depth of 50 feet or more below the present surface
and covered with a drift or alluvium.

In 1896, an important find of aboriginal stone hatchets was
made at Shea’s Creek, near Sydney, at a depth of 11 feet below
water level, together with bones of dugong bearing such cuts and
scratches, not recent, as would be made by direct blows of a sharp
edged stone tomahawk. ‘There were also several standing stumps
of Eucalyptus botryoides, indicating a land surface, and the whole
was covered by estuarine beds full of marine shells. The total
alteration in the level cf the land and sea was about 15 feet below
high-water.

Mr. R. Etheridge, junr., Professor T. W. Edgworth David,
and Mr. J. W. Grimshaw, the authors of the account of this dis-
covery,{ say that the date of the “aboriginal feast upon dugong,”
cannot be much below the limit of Post-Tertiary time, and it is
even doubtful whether it is likely that the date can be carried
back into Pleistocene times.

Jn 1897, an interesting discovery was made in the mine of the
Great Buninyong Estate Company near Ballarat, of fossil
marsupial bones beneath what is called by miners ‘the second
rock.”

At a meeting of the Royal Society of Victoria, held on the 2nd
December, 1897, Mr. T. S. Hart, M.A., of the Ballarat School
of Mines, exhibited these, being fragments of bones of two or three
species, among which MJacropus Anak was identified ; the bones

# XTV. + Il, p. 263. } XVI, p 23.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 753

were much mineralised, and on one, being part of a rib of a much
larger species of kangaroo than Wacropus Anak ; there were cuts
and marks, one on either side of one end, cutting off smoothly the
broken edges of the bone, others on the flat side and one on the
edge lengthways.

The cuts and marks had evidently been made with some sharp
instrument, and the surface of the cuts appeared of the same
character as the surface of the mineralised bone, but different in
appearance to the surface of the edge where the bone had been
broken, apparently by the point of a pick in extracting it.

However, as this bone was not found by Mr. Hart, but by
some other person before his visit to the mine, the certainty that
the cuts and marks upon it were not made after its discovery is
still wanting.

The bones were found in a bed of black clay which contains in
its lower part layers of volcanic ash. This interstratification of
ash and clay rests partly on unstratified ash with many boulders,
and partly upon the Silurian rock, and is 238 feet below the sur-
face, being covered by two separate flows of lava. The black clay
is part of an old swamp.

It is much to be regretted that the incised rib was not, as were
other bones, found in situ by Mr. Hart, because if authenticated
by the marks having been already made on it when discov ered, it
would be almost, if not quite, conclusive evidence of the presence of
man in Australia in the Newer Volcanic Era as the contemporary
of the now extinct kangaroos.

There may be added to this evidence the discovery of the crown
of a human molar by the Jate Mr. Gerard Krefft in the W ellington
Caves. As to this discovery, Mr. Etheridge, jun.,* says that the
tooth appears to be completely fossilised, for on comparing it with
the teeth of the larger marsupials from the Wellington Caves, the
normal condition is without question similar. Yet its position in
the cave, and association with the other organic remains entombed
there, is open to doubt; and as no other human remains have
been found at Wellington under similar circumstances, its precise
age must remain uncertain.

If any reliance may be placed upon aboriginal tradition, the
affirmative belief in the presence of man in Victoria during the
Newer Volcanic Era is much strengthened.

It is said that there was a tradition to the effect that Mount
Buninyong had at a distant time thrown out fire.

Mr. Dawsonj7 also reports a tradition among the aborigines of
the western district of Victoria that fire came Vout of a hill near
Mortlake, and of ‘‘ stones which their fathers told them had been
thrown out of the hill by the action of fire.”

* xv. } x1, p. 101.

3B

754 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

Although the “aboriginal feast upon dugong” at Shea’s Creek
may not be placed beyond the limit of Post-Tertiary time, and
perhaps not even into Pleistocene time, the period of man’s pre-
sence in Australia must have been very long.

The other evidence, if we could rely upon it, would, as to the
tooth from the Wellington Caves and the incised bone from the
Great Buninyong Estate Company’s Mine, still further extend
the human period, since man would then be seen to have been
the contemporary of the extinct gigantic kangaroos at the time
of the Newer Volcanic Era of Victori ia.

Incidentally, as regards the period of man’s occupancy of
Australia, there is the question of his having been the contem-
porary of diprotodon and other giant extinct marsupials; and
also another minor question: Mr. Robert L. Jack,* in repeating
the question put by Mr. Etheridge, ‘“ Has man a geological history
in Australia?” concludes with the further inquiry whether the
dingo was introduced by him ; and decides, although admitting
that the dingo is an “alien,” that the agency of man is not the
only possible means of effecting his introduction to the island.
He points out that the dingo may have simply walked overland ;
and to this Mr. Etheridge adds in a foot-note that there is not a
fragment of evidence to show that the arrival of man was coeval
with the dingo.

If my conclusions are correct as to there having been a land-
bridge to Tasmania in the Newer Volcanic Era, by which we may
suppose the Tasmanians to have crossed from the main land, the
dingo could not have at that time been in what is now Victoria,
or he would have “ walked overland,” even if he did not accom-
pany the Tasmanians. The inference, therefore, is that he did
not reach the southern coast until after the formation of Bass’s
Strait, although he may have entered Australia by way of an
upraised Torres Strait.

A somewhat similar argument applies to diprotodon and his
gigantic fellows. The formation in which diprotodon remains
have been found in Victoria have usually been referred to as
Pleiocene ; but there must be great doubt, since, although occurring
in tracts of country covered with newer volcanic basalt in the
western district and near Gisborne, the deposits in which the
remains have been found seem to have been superficial alluvium
or dried-up swamps. t+

Sir Frederick M‘Coy has informed me in conversation that, in
his opinion, the formations containing diprotodon remains in
Victoria have usually been placed too far back into the Pleiocene.
Mr. Robert Jack * says that in Queensland there is no evidence
that the extinct mammalia went back to the Tertiary epoch. The

* XxXxI, p. 608. ft As, for instance, at Timboon, in Western Victoria.

fod

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 155

tendency of evidence at present seems to be that diprotodon may
have lived in Victoria in Pleistocene rather than older time ; but
it seems necessary that whenever it was, the connection of Victoria
and Tasmania should at that time have been already broken. In
other words, although the southern extension of Australia in the
Older Volcanic and in the Newer Volcanic Era may have connected

vith Tasmania, and thus served as means for the migrations
of marsupials, either from Australia to Tasmania, according to
the views of Mr Lydekker,* or from Tasmania to Australia,
according to those more recently advanced by Professor Spencer, }
the land connection in the Newer Volcanic Era was not available
for diprotodon, although it probably was for the ancestors of the
Tasmanians.

In dealing with the origin of the aborigines of Tasmania and
Australia I have attempted the solution of a most difficult prob-
lem. I have looked at the questions arising out of it from more
than one standpoint, and I have thereby been led to conclusions
which contradict the views held and enunciated by fellow-workers
whose opinions are deserving of respectful consideration.

All that I attempt to claim is that I have offered what seems
to me to be a reasonably probable tentative hypothesis, based
upon known facts.

My views will be accepted or rejected by competent authorities
according as they stand the test of criticism, of time, and of the
accumulation of further knowledge.

The conclusions to which this inquiry has led me may be doubt-
less modified by increased knowledge of new facts ; but I venture
to think, with some confidence, that the antiquity of occupation
which I have postulated for the aborigines of both Australia and
Tasmania in this continent will not be lessened.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

1. Baden-Powell, B. H.—The Indian Village Community, «ce.
a aes New York, and Bomway, 1896.

Becker, Ludwig.—On the Age of the Animal and Vegetable
ead of Australia, &e. Transactions of the Philosophical
Institute of Victoria, 1855 to 1880.

ir. Bennett, Samuel.—The History of Australian Discovery
and Colonization. Sydney, 1867.

Bonwick, Jas.—The Daily Life and Origin of the Tas-
manians. 1870.

v. Bleek, W. H. J.—The Library of His Excellency Sir George
Grey. Philolog gy. Vol. m1, Part 1, Australia. London, 1858.

* XXXVI, p. 54. } Lil, p. 187.

756 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

vi. Bleek, W. H. J.—On the Position of the Australian
Language. Journal Anthrop. Inst., Vol. 1, 1871.

vu. Curr, E.—The Australian Race. Melbourne, 1866.

vu. Caldwell, Rev R.—A Comparative Grammar of the
Dravidian or South Indian Family of Languages. London, 1856.

1x. Codrington, Rev. R. H.—The Melanesian Languages.
Oxford, 1885.

x. Crawford, John.—Grammar and Dictionary of the Malay
Language, with a Preliminary Dissertation, London, 1852.

x1. Dawson, Jas.—Australian Aborigines. Melbourne, 1881.

x11. Davis, R. H.—The Aborigines of Van Diemen’s Land.
Tasmanian Journal of Natural Science. Tasmania and London,
1846,

xu. Earl, Geo. Windsor.—The Eastern Seas. Voyages and
Adventures in the Malay Archipeligo in 1832-33-34. London,
1837.

xiv. Etheridge, R., junr.—Observations on Sand-dunes of the
Coast of Victoria. Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria,
Vol-Sxi1, 1876.

xv. Etheridge, R., junr.—Has man a Geological History in
Australia? Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South
Wales. Second Series, Vol. v, 1896.

xvi. Etheridge, R., junr., Professor T. W. E. David, and J. W.
Grimshaw.—On the Occurrence of a Submerged Forest, with
remains of Dugong at Shea’s Creek, near Sydney. (ead before
the Royal Society of New South Wales, August 5th, 1896.)

xvi. Eyre, John.

xvi. Fison, Rev. Lorimer and A. W. Howitt.—-Kamilaroi and
Kurnai. Melbourne, 1880.

xtx. Fitzroy, Captain Robert.—Narrative of the Surveying
Voyages of H.M. Ships “ Adventure” and “ Beagle” between the
years 1826 and 1836. London, 1839.

xx. Flower, W. H., and Lydekker, R.—An Introduction to
the Study of Mammals, Living and Extinct. London, 1891.

xxt. Fraser, John.—An Australian Language, as spoken by the
Awabakal. Sydney, 1892.

xx. Giglio, E. H. I.—Tasmaniani conni storice ed ethno-
logici di un popolo estinto. Milan, 1874.

xx. Guillemard, F. H. H.—Australasia. Stanford Series.
Cambridge, 1894.

xxiv. Hall, T. S., and C. B. Pritchard.—On the Age of certain
Plant Beds in Victoria. Aust. Asso. Adv. Sci. Adelaide, 1893.

xxv. Howitt, A. W.—Notes on the Australian Class Systems.
Journal Anthrop. Inst., May, 1893.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 757

xxv1. Howitt, A. W., and Rev. Lorimer Fison.—The Deme and
the Horde. Journal Anthrop. Inst., 1884.

xxvil, Howitt, A. W.—Australian Group Relations.—Smith-
sonian Report. Washington, 1883.

xxvill. Howitt, A. W.—Further Notes on the Australian Class
Systems. Journal Anthrop. Inst., August, 1888.

xxix. Howitt, A. W.—On the Organisation of Australian
Tribes. Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria, 1889.

xxx. Huxley, T. H.—Inaugural Address. Journal of the
Ethnological Society of London. New Series, Vol. 1, 1869.

xxx1.—Jack, R. L., and R. Etheridge, junr.—Geology and
Paleontology of Queensland and New Guinea. Brisbane and
London, 1892.

xxx. Johnston, Robt. M.—Systematic Account of the Geology
of Tasmania. Hobart, 1888.

xxx. Jukes, J. Beete.—Narrative of the Surveying Voyage of
H.M.S. “ Fly” during the years 1842-46. London, 1847.

XXxIv. Keane, A. H.—Ethnology. Cambridge Series, 1896.

xxxv. Keane, A. H.—On the Relations of the Indo-Chinese
and Indo-Oceanic Races and Languages. Journal Anthrop Inst.,
1880.

xxxviI. Latham, Robert M.—Elements of Comparative Philology,
1882.

xxxvul. Lydekker, R.—A Geographical History of Mammals.
Cambridge Series, 1896.

xxxvi. M‘Gillivray, John.—Narrative of the Voyage of H.M.
Ship “Rattlesnake” during the years 1846-1850. London, 1852.

xxx1x. Mathew, Rev. John.—The Australian Aborigines.
Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales,
Vol. xx1m1. Sydney, 1889.

xt. Montgomery, A.—Report on the Beaconsfield Gold-field.
Report of Secretary of Mines for 1890-91. Hobart, 1891.

x~i. Miiller, Friedrich.—Reise der Osterreichischen Fregatte
Novara in den Jahren 1857—1858-1859. Linguistischer Theil.
Wien, 1867.

xLul.—Murray, Reginald A. F.—Geology and Physical Geo-
graphy of Victoria. Melbourne, 1887.

x~iw. Oldham, R. D.—The Evolution of Indian Geography.
Geographical Journal, 1894.

xuiv. Pritchard, J.C.— Researches into the Physical History of
Mankind. London, 1847.

xLy. Pritchard, G. B.—On the Present State of Our Know-
ledge of the Older Tertiaries of Southern Australia. Aust.
Association Advt. Sci. Brisbane, 1895.

758 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

xtv1. Ridley, Rev. William.—Kamilaroi and other Australian
Languages. Government Printer, Sydney, 1875.

xtvul. Roth, H. Ling.—The Aborigines of Tasmania. London,
1890.

xLvul. Rusden, G. W.—History of Australia. 2nd. Edition.
Melbourne, 1897.

xLIx. Smyth, R. Brough.—The Aborigines of Victoria. Mel-
bourne, 1878.

Lt. Smyth, R. Brough.—The Goldfields and Mining Districts
of Victoria. Melbourne, 1869.

LI. Spencer, Professor W. Baldwin.—The Fauna and Zoo-
logical Relationships of Tasmania. Presidential Address. Aust.
Association Advt. Sci. Hobart, 1892.

Liu. Spencer, Professor W. Baldwin.—Summary of Zoological,
Botanical, and Geological Results of the Horne Expedition.
Melbourne, 1896.

Lilt. Stokes, J. Lort.—Discoveries in Australia, &c., during the
voyage of H.M.S. “Beagle” in the years 1837-43. London, 1846.

tiv. Tate, Professor Ralph.-—On the Influence of Physiographic
changes in the distribution of Life in Australia. Aust. Associa-
tion Advt. Sci. Sydney, 1887.

Lv. Tate, Professor Ralph.—Anniversary Address. Trans-
actions of the Philosophical Society of Adelaide for 1878-9.
Adelaide, 1879.

tv1. Threlkeld, Rev. L. E.—Key to the Structure of the
Aboriginal Language. Sydney, 1850.

tvu. Tylor, E. B.—On the Tasmanians as Representatives of
Paleolithic Man. Journal Anthrop. Inst. November, 1893.

Lyi. Wallace, A. R.—The Malay Archipelago. London, 1869.

LIx. Wallace, A. R.— Australasia—Stanford Series. 1879.

Lx. Wilkinson, Ch.—Anniversary Address. | Royal Society
of New South Wales. Sydney, 1888.

LxI. Woods, Rev. J. E. T.—Proceedings. Linnean Society of
New South Wales. Vol. 11.

No. 1.—LE DIEU, LA NATURE, LAME.
By Monsreur D. Marceron.

(Read Friday, January 7, 1898.)

PLATE XXXI/11.

VoL. VII, 1898.

AUSTRALASIAN Assoc. ADv. Sc.

NRL

JIVM_HLNOS M3

VINVWSWL XY WIMOLOIA

40 S1SVOD 3H! NO
SUOY IP] 001 BOS 40 Sauiz ay) buimays

dVW

=

The Origin of the Aborigines of Tasmania.

F.G.8.

’

A. W. HOWITT,

By

|
ol
©

THE MYTHOLOGY OF THE EFATESE

No. 2.—THE MYTHOLOGY OF THE EFATESE.

By Rev. Dr. Macponatp, Efate, New Hebrides.

(Read Friday, January 7, 1898.)

In a paper read before the Australasian Association for the
Advancement of Science, at Hobart, 8th January, 1892, on
““ Efate, New Hebrides,” I made a few concluding remarks on
“ Mythology,’ which I purpose now to expand. It will be of
interest to Polynesian scholars to compare the Efatese mythology
with that of other parts of Oceania, with a view to the solution
of problems familiar to all such scholars. My object in this
paper is simply to set forth what the mythology of the Efatese
really is, and that without professing to deal exhaustively with
the subject.

I. MAUI-TIKITIKI AND TAMAKATIA,

The Efatese say that these were the first men, the former being
the grandfather (tobwna), the latter his grandchild (sw/ina). There
seems to be a general notion that the story about them is best
known among the Efatese of the islets to the north of Efate,
called the Shipherd group, and a rock is shown to this day on one
of these, Mai or Three Hills, to which the rope was attached by
which they drew up the islands from the sea, and which bears the
marks of the rope and of their feet. However, another version
of the story has it that the rock to which that rope was attached
is not on Mai, but on the top of a certain hill on the north side
of Efate. Not only is the site of the rock various, but the story
as told by different persons varies in particulars. Generally,
however, it is to the effect that Maui-tikitiki and Tamakaia dis-
puted as to which of them was the greater, and that Tamakaia
proved his superiority. I shall, therefore, give the story, not as
told to me by any individual, but as gathered from several
separate accounts. It may be observed by way of preliminary
that these names Maui-tikitiki and Tamakaia were obtained from
the Efatese by the first missionaries who visited the island.
Thus Mr. Gill, in his “Gems from the Coral Islands,” says :—‘‘ It
was found that these ignorant and degraded people needed not a
Divine revelation to teach them the existence of a God. In com-
mon with all the Polynesian tribes yet visited they believe in the
existence and dominion of a God, which they call Maui-tikitiki.”
And my friend, the late Mr. Murray, in his ‘‘ Missions in Western

760 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

Polynesia,” says, ‘They worship two gods whom they call Maui-
tikitiki and Tamakaia, and to whom they trace the origin of all
things.” If Maui-tikitiki and Tamakaia are to be called “ gods,”
they are no otherwise gods than other Natemate (literally, spirits
of the dead), and it is quite erroneous to regard Maui-tikitiki as
the chief god, or object of worship of the Efatese. I have only
found one man who knew anything about Maui-tikitiki being
worshipped ; he said that Maui-tikitiki’s grave is on Mai, and
that he had heard of fowls being sacrificed at his grave. The
Natemate were the deities of the Efatese, and their religion a
form of ancestor-worship. A general name “Supe” (‘ the ancients
or the ancient, the ancestors or ancestor’), may be used either to
denote ancestors or ancients, considered as men in this world
(that is before they died), or as natemate dwelling in Hades (after
they died). And hence such mythological persons as Maui-tikitiki
are sometimes either individually or collectively spoken of under
this name. As this word occurs in some of the following stories,
what has just been said may sufice as to its meaning. We now
come to the story itself :—

Efate (or Mai, as the case may be) was at the beginning the
only land in existence, and Maui-tikitiki, his wife, and grandson,
were the only human beings in existence. Maui-tikitiki used to
give Tamakaia food, but concealed from him where he got it.
He determined to watch carefully and find out for himself. At
last he discovered that Maui-tikitiki had in a carefully enclosed
place, shut in above as well as around, one banana plant and one
yam plant. There were no other plants in existence, and, of
course, no weeds. When the banana bunch was plucked off this
plant, another bunch always replaced it, and so with the yam.
A yam taken away was immediately replaced by another. Maui-
tikitiki and Tamakaia bilulw ki nafanwa—that is, strove for
mastery in the world. Tamakaia said Vamanau ba wora, ‘ grass
{or vegetation), spring up,” and it did so. When Maurtikitiki

saw these plants growing where none had been before, he began
to pluck them up, but as he went on clearing they immediately
sprang up behind him again. Tamakaia charged him with being
lazy, and said he did not want on this account to have e any plants
in the land except the one banana, and the one yam. Maui-
tikitiki replied, ‘‘ You will be the master of the world, #f you can
cover the face of the earth with vegetation (nafurafura).” Tama-
kaia did so. There was then a contest between them as to which
of them should be the master of birds and fishes. Tamakaia
called a bird, and in response to his call it came to his hand.
Maui-tikitiki called it in vain. Tamakaia in like manner called
to the fishes in the sea, and they came to his hand. Mauitikitiki
tried this also in vain. The next point of contest was as to the
drawing up of the land out of the sea. Tamakaia made a

THE MYTHOLOGY OF THE EFATESE 761

tremendous swing of a long rope fixed to the sky. He sat in this
swing, and Mauitikitiki swung him so that he went far out of
sight ; then from the swing he cast his. hook, and, as the swing
swept backwards, hauled up a land from the sea. Maui-tikitiki
then took his place in the swing, and in like manner cast his hook,
but in vain. Tamakaia hauled up all lands: when hauling up
Natonga (distant or foreign lands, as Australia, England, &c.) his
hook broke. It should have been noted that just as Maui-tikitiki
had concealed his garden from Tamakaia, so the wife of Maui-
tikitiki, in conjunction with her husband, had concealed the sea
from him at first. It was shut in, in an enclosure, and he only
discovered it by watching her when she went to bathe in it. He
opened the door of the enclosure, and the sea, let loose, rushed
out and spread all over the world as we now see it.

In another version of this story, of which the above contains
the essential points, no mention is made of the swing. Tamakaia
went out to sea, and, looking down, saw the various lands beneath
the waters. Coming back to Maui-tikitiki he said, ‘“*Do you see
anything by which you can show your superiority over me?” He
replied, ‘No; and if you do, produce it, and you will be the
greater.”

“Cast your hook,” said Tamakaia, “and get mea fish.” He

caught a turtle.

“ Cook it,” said Tamakaia, “that I may eat.” He then drew
up Tongoa from the sea, and founded it upon the bones of the
turtle.

This process was repeated for every land. When Epi was
drawn up it touched heaven. Tamakaia knocked it down, hence
the great length of that island.

“Cast your hook,” said Tamakaia, ‘“‘and get me a fish.” Maui-
tikitiki did so, and got a whale.

“ Cook it,” said Tamakaia, “that I may eat.” He then drew
up Efate from the sea depths, and founded it upon the bones of
the whale.

“ Cast your hook,” said Tamakaia, ‘‘and get mea fish.” Maui-
tikitiki did so, and got a porpoise and a dugong. Their bones
were made by Tamakaia the foundation of Sydney (that is, of
Australia).

At this point the grey-haired heathen (it is nearly twenty years
ago) who was gravely narrating the story was interrupted by a
travelled native standing by, who said, “‘ No Sydney ; England.”

In drawing up Sydney and England (Natonga), however, so
heavy was it aaah bulumakau (cattle), &e., that Tamakaia’s rope
broke, and, but for that accident, there would now be overland
communication between Australia and the New Hebrides.

“ Tamakaia then got the skin of a banana, and made a boat of
it, determined to go and see England,” continued the old man.

762 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F,

“ He went to England, and never returned. He is known there
as Jehovah. His banana-skin vessel became the white man’s
ships and boats. To this day there remain on two rocks on Mai
two marks showing the truth of all this—-the mark of Tamakaia’s
rope on the rock he used.as a block, and the mark of his firmly-
planted feet, where he stood when engaged in drawing all lands
into visible existence. Maui-tikitiki died, and was buried on
Mai.”

The following is given in Efate as the song of Supe (Tamakaia)
which he sang when pulling up the land from the sea :—

Maui-tikitiki ko maurimai
Ku matuatua,

Kinau mitau ki tonga,
Tonga mau :

Serinmatau, serinmatau,
Serinmatau ¢é.

This song is sung by the people of Efate now in hauling up a
heavy canoe, in dragging heavy logs, or anything heavy.

In Efate, Maui-tikitiki is said to have drawn up the lands from
the sea, and little seems to be known about Tamakaia.

Il, LEI MAULTIKITIKI,

In the above story the wife of Maui-tikitikiis mentioned. Lez,
that is, female, Maui-tikitiki, is said by the Efatese to dwell in
the sky (heaven); more particularly what we call “the man in
the moon ” is said to be Let Maui-tikitikit me atenina, “ Lei Mani-
tikitiki and her grandchild.”

On Efate she is regarded as having been present when the
lands were drawn up from the sea. She saw the land in a
fluctuating condition, just after it arose from the waters, and
dashed the earthenware water pots, which she was carrying,
violently upon it, with such a shock as to make it fixed and
stable. But the pots were shivered into fragments, and hence
the fragments of pottery found strewn all over Efate are called
nabura mai ki Let Maui-tikitikt, the shells of the water-pots of
Lei Maui tikitiki.

The art of making earthenware pots, which is still preserved in
Santo, had been lost by the Efatese before the advent of Euro-
peans. But these fragments of pottery are sometimes called
nabura ki Supe, the shells of the water-pots of Supe, where Supe
may denote either Lei Maui-tikitiki or the ancients, or ancestors.
Efatese axes used to be made out of shells and called karau. Now
that European axes have come upon the scene, these, discarded,
are found in the bush, near villages, and are called karaw ki Supe,
the axes of the ancients.

-

THE MYTHOLOGY OF THE EFATESE. 763

Ill. THE ADVENT OF LIGHT.

This story is told by a Mai man. There is a place on Mai
called Lim. Formerly there was no light, and a man living here
was annoyed at this, and at the consequent dampness and
muddiness that prevailed. He took a club called ta, or maltalia,
and smote at the sky, or floor of heaven. Five times he swung
his club, and five times missed. The sixth time his blow was
effective, splitting open the sky and letting in the Sun and Light.

IV. THE SEPARATION OF THE SKY FROM THE EARTH.

In the primeval times, the sky was close to the earth. A woman
was raking the stones in her oven with a long pole. The top of
the pole came against the sky, interrupting her work. Angry,
she smote the sky with the pole, bidding it, with a loud voice,
“ Ascend!” The sky immediately began to ascend, and, not-
withstanding that she entreated it to stop, it kept on ascending
till it reached the position which it now occupies.

V. THE ADVENT OF NIGHT.

A chief of Mel had two children who were always crying, and
as the sun was always shining in that primeval time, he could get
no rest because they never went to sleep. He therefore set out
on a journey in quest of Darkness and Night. He went round
the island by way of Havannah Harbour, calling at the various
villages. W hen he called at a village, the people—(this part of
the narrative is sung)—asked him where he came from? He
replied, “I come from the lower side of the island.” ‘ What
have you come in search of?” “TI have come in search of Night
and Darkness.” He went on and on till he came near to the most
eastern point of the island, or south-eastern. Here the people
directed him to a jutting promontory, called Baulelo, as to where
he should obtain the object of his search. Provided with a
bamboo vessel, he lay in wait on this promontory, and having
seized Night-Darkness and enclosed it securely in his bamboo,
started triumphantly on his return journey. Again he called at
the various villages, and in return for the hospitality accorded
him, and at tbe end of the meal, sang a song of complete satis-
faction, took out from his bamboo a portion of the Night-Darkness
and covered the land with it. Then the swpe, or ancestral chief,
wound up by falling into a sweet sleep.

VI. MAN, THE LORD OF CREATION.

In the beginning, it was still undecided whether man or some
other should be superior in the world. They tied up man as if

764 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

he were a pig, and jet the pig go as if it were a man. ‘The pig
went roaming about all day, and, caring only for itself, returned
at night with its stomach well filled. It took no thought for the
man, and cared not that he was hungry. Man tangisi nerei
pitied man, seeing him in this evil case, and sundered the cords
by which he was bound. He, seeing how inhumanly selfish and
unfit to have authority over others the pig was, ordained that
man should be man having the lordship, and that pig should be
put in subjection, as we now see it.

VII. THE ADVENT OF DEATH.

At the first, it was not settled whether men should die (mate),
or renewing their youth perpetually be immortal (m/w). Some
said, ‘ Let us die” ; others said, “ Let us be immortal (mulw).”
Man tangist neret wished this latter to prevail ; but Pilake burst
in upon them while the deliberation was going on and exclaimed,
“You are deliberating about what ? (the matter is practically
settled). I have just buried my father and my mother. Beget
offspring instead of them” (or to take their places). Man tangisi
neret wept, bewailing us (tangisi ngita), so that his eyes are red
to this day. Thus was established the existing order of things in
which are set Death and Birth, the one over against the other,
and in which as one generation eoeth another Aone dy

There are two little birds in Efate called respectively Pilake
and Man tangisi neret. The word Pilake signifies to be in mortal
terror. Pilake is a dingy-looking bird, afraid of man, and keeping
at a distance from him. Man tangist nerev denotes, literally,
“bird bewailing man” —that is, loving, pitying, and weeping over,
or bewailing them involved in misery and death. Man tangisi
mere 18 a& bird something like robin red- breast, venturing near the
dwellings of men. It has beautiful bright red marks “under its
eyes ; these are the marks said to have been caused by “ weeping
for men.”

With respect to the word mulu in the above story it may be
remarked that the Efatese explain its meaning in this connection
in the following way :—The serpent, they say, casts its skin—that
is, it mulus. By casting its skin it, so to speak, renews its youth.
The old worn-out withered husk is slipped off and cast away, and
the animal comes forth from it as if new-born, at once delivered
from the effects of the wear and tear of time, and endowed afresh
with youthful beauty, vigour, and life. If at the dawn of the
world Man tangisi neret had prevailed, and the decision of the
fates had been that men should m/z, they should have never died.

The first man who buried the first dead in the beginning of the
world is called Waka Tafaki. This, however, throws little light
on the matter, as tafaki is from afaki, to bury.

THE MYTHOLOGY OF THE EFATESE. 765

VIII. HADES.

A chief of Bau was making an intamate (heathen feast), and
-searched for Vabuma Nakabw to be his aure (singer, or bard) at
it. They told him that Nabuma Nakabu had gone to Tukituki,
the west point of Efate, where is the entrance to Hades. He
went to Tukituki and was told that Nabuma Nakabu had died,
and been buried, and gone to Bokas. He went down to Bokas
(the first stage of the under-world), and was told that Nabuma
Nakabu had died, and been buried there, and gone to Magapopo
(next lower stage of Hades). He went down to Magapopo, and
was told that Nabuma Nakabu had died, and been buried there,
and gone to Magaferafera. He went down to Magaferafera and
was told that Nabuma Nakabu had died, and been buried there,
and had gone to Maganaponapo. He went down to Maganapo-
napo and was told that Nabuma Nakabu had died, and been
buried there, and had gone to Matika (the lowest stage of the
under-world). He went down to Matika and inquired for Nabuma
Nakabu, and they said to him, ‘ Behold, there are his bones at
the foot of a malas” (a dark-leaved plant). He went and gathered
his bones into a basket, and, reascending into the world carried
them to Bau to the Jalel (the napea, or dancing and singing
ground of the amtamate). The drums were beaten, and as the
(to Efatese ears) inspiriting, measured sounds thundered forth,
the bones of Nabuma Nakabku, heaped together in the basket,
burst forth into singing !

Acccording to the Efatese every man dies six times, each time
passing down to a lower stage, till he reaches Matika, and finally
disappears.

IX, KARISIBUM AND MAKA TAFAKI.

The people of the sky perceiving that the tide was out and the
reef bare, as it is at low water, came down and took off their
wings (literally “thin sails ’—zlatlaita), which were white, and
proceeded to fish with torches along the shore. Sosoan (a bird
whose song begins at dawn) began to sing (like one at ‘ cock-
crow”), when they immediately came together, and, having laid
down the fish they had taken, put on their wings. Then all
joined in singing, and the wind rising blew them for a time back-
wards and forwards, till ascending they went on up into the sky.

This they often repeated. One night they came down and laid
aside their wings, as usual, in order that they might fish along
the shore. A man of the country, who had been watching them,
saw where they had laid their wings, and when they were out of
sight took the wings of one and hid them in a banana stem. In
the morning, at the earliest dawn, they came together, laid down

766 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

the fish they had taken, and began to put on their wings pre-
paratory to their return ascent. All did this but one whose wings
could not be found after the most anxious search, and who was
therefore left behind. She proved to be a woman, and the man
who had stolen and hidden her wings came and took her for his
wife. They lived peaceably together and had two sons. The man
said to his wife “Let us give them names.” The woman said
*“ No, let them call each other what they please.” One day the
two youths were playing with bows and arrows, the one inside,
the other outside the house, when the one called to the other
“ Maka Tafaki,” who responded to his brother, addressing him as
“ Karisi Bum.” Thus they received their names.

By-and bye trouble arose in the hitherto peaceful household.
The man illtreated his wife, and said to her, ‘‘ You are a wicked
woman, cause of trouble and sorrow; go back to your own
country.” This made her heart sore, and she sighed for the lost
wings, that she might fly away from all this turmoil and be at rest.
One day she and her two sons were out. By accident the youths
discovered a white thing in a banana stem. It was the thing
their father had hidden there, Their mother was overjoyed.
Determined to go, she first gave to her sons some information
about her kindred, expecting that they would eventually see them.
Then, putting on her wings, she sang the appropriate song,
swinging backwards and forwards a few times while doing so, and
went swiftly into heaven. They went home and told their
father.

The two brothers grew up and became exceedingly clever and
successful men. They excelled in everything, and became richer
than any of the people of the land. They were therefore envied.
They were told that they did not belong to that country at all,
and bidden go in search of their mother’s country. Their riches
were the principal cause of this ill-will... The aborigines, no doubt,
expected to possess these by driving them away. These brothers,
however, were not to be trifled with. They did things that made
them both renowned and feared. For example, on one occasion
they “‘beat the winds” with a club. For this purpose they
climbed a high nierw tree (casuarina), and lay in wait for the
winds. First came Swepate (‘sua,’ to come down from), the trade
wind, at which they aimed a terrible blow but missed.
Then came TZokelan, the east wind, which they also missed.
So with some others. Finally came J/astan, the south-west wind.
This was their last chance, and they determined to make the most
of it. On came the towering wind in all its pride; down came the
club on its forehead with thundering crash, and it fell with a
shriek, lifeless and prone. And this is the reason that, while all
the other winds blow rude and strong, the south-west wind blows
gently, or at any rate, soon dies away.

THE MYTHOLOGY OF THE EFATESE. 767

The brothers, continually taunted with being adventurers,
longed to get way to their mother’s country. One day they were
shooting birds with arrows. An arrow went up into heaven and
stuck fast in the roots of a namanga (banyan) tree. Another
arrow sent after it stuck in the end of its shaft, and so on and so
on, until the chain of arrows reached from heaven down to the
brothers’ foreheads. They took hold of the nearest and pulled.
It was firm. They climbed up to heaven. On getting up and
climbing in over the roots of the banyan tree, they saw an old blind
woman cooking six yams. They immediately thought, ‘“ Perhaps
this is our grandmother of whom our mother used to tell us.”
Being blind she counted the six yams by feeling them with her
hands. They went forward without making any noise, and took
one away. She again went over the yams, counting them, and
could make outonly five. ‘“ Perhaps,” thought she, ‘“my grandsons,
of whom my daughter told me, have come and taken the sixth.”
Remembering thei names as they had been told to her, she called
out, “MakaTafaki! Karisi Bum!” They immediately replied, ‘It’s
we.” Thus ended their troubles.

According to another version of this Efatese story, the mother of
Maka Tafaki, and Karisi Bum, was called Taurere. Before leaving
her home in the world on account of the ill-treatment to which
she was subjected by her husband, she comforted her two
sons, and told them not to cry but to watch for a long rope
that should be let down from’ heaven till it reached the foot
of a banyan tree. They kept on watching, till one day the
rope appeared as their mother had said. One of them first
climbed up far out of sight into heaven, and shook the rope as a
signal to his brother below of his safe arrival. The other then
climbed up also. They saw their old blind grandmother and
addressed her as Lata! She, on her part, had been forewarned by
her daughter of their coming, and being requested to entertain
them kindly, giving them sugar-cane, flesh, and yams to eat. After
eating they said to her, “ The skin of this sugar-cane is sharp for
cutting. We will cut open your eyes with it that you may see.”
This they did. She said, “Oh children, you have made me all
right ; I am well.” When finally they resolved to go down again
to the earth they made a big kawa (woven basket), and put into
it all thingswe now see in theearth, as fowls, pigs, male and female,
and all the different kinds of food, one by one. They let down
this loaded ‘awa from heaven by means of a long rope. At the
end of this rope it kept swinging in the air over every land
(or all lands), but the mountains at none of them were high
enough (so that it might touch them). They hauled it up, and
finally lowered it down at Utanilangi, in a valley called Papalaha,
between two high mountains, so that the mountains should over-
hang the kawa and prevent it from swinging off into space. At

768 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

Papalaba the brothers took all the things out of the kawa.
On this account (that is, because Maka Tafaki landed here),
Nakainanga bist Maka, the tribe that begets children entitled to
the prefix name Maka (or Mako), dwell at Utanilangi.

xX. LAUTUMETA.

Lautaumeta was making an tintamate in heaven. There were
no animals (as pigs) for sacrifices, but only food (yams). All the
different kinds of yams were at that time in heaven. There was
only one kind in the earth then called nakabu. (But there are now
twenty-seven different kinds of yams.) Lautaumeta was looking
out for an aure to sing at his antamate, and heard that there was
one on the earth called Nabuma Nakabu. This latter was asked
to act as aure, and having consented went up to heaven to the
malel of Lautaumeta. (It should be understood that Lautaumeta,
and Nabuma Nakabu are both yams.) Maka Tafaki, and Karisi
Bum said, “ Let us beat for them the napeas” (drums.) They
did so, and Nabuma Nakabu sang. Then all the different
nakaimaga nant (tribes, or kinds of yams) came and danced in
the male/, till they stumbled and fell broken to pieces. Maka
Tafaki and Karisi Bum gathered all the broken yams into a
basket, and, when the song was ended, carried them down to the
earth.

No. 3.—NOTES ON SOME CUSTOMS AND SUPERSTI-
TIONS OF THE MAORI

By Exspon Best, TunozE Lanp, We uineTon, N.Z.
(Read Friday, January 7, 1898.)

THE customs, traditions and superstitions of a barbarous race ever
contain an element of great interest to those engaged in studies
pertaining to the evolution of human culture in various forms, as
also to the ethnologist, who seeks to determine the origin of races,
their original habitat and migrations. Of the various neolithic
races which have been overtaken by the advancing wave of
western civilisation within the last century, none present more
varied features of interest than that far-reaching people known
collectively as the Polynesian race, and which people are found
scattered over so vast an area of the island system. The Maori
of New Zealand comprise one of the most vigorous divisions of
that race, and in few groups throughout the Pacific can more

by

CUSTOMS AND SUPERSTITIONS OF THE MAORI. 769

interesting matter be obtained anent the customs and strange
observances of that ancient people who, for unknown centuries,
have wandered “on from island unto island at the gateways of
the day.”

From the unknown Hawaikian fatherland, the ancestors of the
Maori came in the dim past to seek their fortune on the many-
isled sea. With dauntless courage they sailed forth in rude
vessels to explore the ocean world, making voyages of astonishing
length and settling in many lands, often driving out, or at least
conquering, the original inhabitants of such lands. But ever as
they wandered on, they bore with them the strange customs and
sacred knowledge of their fathers. Though the loved Hawaiki
had long since sunk down below the far horizon, yet did the hearts
of the old sea-rovers turn to the west as of yore; albeit,as time
passed by, the name of the shadowy fatherland was transferred to
newer and known lands.

The Maori was in nowise belhindhand in conserving the rights
and records of the past. Though isolated in these isles for
centuries, cut off from his northern brethren by a great stretch
of ocean, yet has he preserved by oral tradition the legends,
songs, genealogies, and sacred lore of the old-time people who
roved to and fro on the vast Pacific in the days of the long ago.

One of the most interesting examples of the sur vival of an
ancient Eastern ceremony was recently described to me by a
native of the Ngati-Awa tribe, of the Bay of Plenty District.
This was the wondrous fire-w alking feat—the strange, unexplained
power, held by members of different races from India to Fiji and
Tahiti, of being able to pass through fire, or walk barefooted over
red- hot stones, without sustaining any injuries therefrom. This
singular power was doubtless brought from the East in by-gone
times by the pioneer ancestors of the Polynesian or Melanesian
people, possibly by both, inasmuch as it obtains among both races
at the present time.

STORY OF TE HAHAE, THE FIRE-WALKER.

In the time of Te Hahae and of Tikitu—that is to say, five
generations ago—the Ngamaike people were living at Tauranga.
And it fell-upon a certain day that Te Rangi-kaku, of Te Awa-o-
te-atua, went forth in his canoe for the purpose of fishing. And
the winds arose, so that the ocean became violent, so much so
that the canoe was upsetand Rangi was drowned. His body was
cast ashore at the entrance to Tauranga Harbour, where it was
found by Ngai-te-rangi, who cooked and ate it. Te Hahae heard
of this act, and calling his daughter Rere-wairua to him, he said,
“Alas! my grandson has been eaten by Ngai-te-rangi. Go you
to Puketapu, to your brothers, to Ouenuku and Rehe and Tikitu

3 C

770 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

Tell them to consent to this my request, that they prepare a plot
of ground for the cultivation of the taro, that they prepare
seventy whawharua, and cultivate, in each hole but one taro,
which must be carefully cultivated, so as to grow large and
fine.” So the taro were carefully cultivated, and grew to a
fine size, while other kinds of food were also prepared, and the
whole were presented to the people of Ngai-te-rangi. Then great
quantities of firewood and stones were collected in order to cook
the food in the native manner—that is, insteam ovens (hangi or
um). But the sacred oven in which the seventy large taro were
cooked, that oven was reserved for Te Hahae to manipulate.
Then that tohunga dug a hole in the ground—a large hole—and
filled it with dry fuel, upon which he placed a number of stones.
Then he obtained fire by friction, and kindled the fuel, and during
the whole time he repeated certain karakia (invocations, incan-
tations). When the fire had burned down to a fierce heated mass
of glowing coals, and the stones were red-hot, then it was that
Te Hahae walked into the wm and stood upon those stones amid
the fierce heat, clothed merely in a maro (girdle) made of the
leaves of the shrub known as kokomuka-tutara-wiare. Though
he stood a long time in the wmw repeating karakia, yet was he
not burnt or in any way injured by the fire, and the green leaves
of which his girdle was formed were not even shrivelled or
withered nor affected in any way.

Then Te Hahae came out of the oven, and taking the seventy
taro he placed them in the oven whole—that is, without dividing
them. They were protected from the hot stones above and
beneath by green leaves, and he then covered the whole with
earth, still repeating karakia. When the taro were cooked he
took them out and presented them to the Ngai-te-rangi people,
who had eaten the body of Te Rangi-kaku, and upon whom he
wished to inflict a great punishment. During all this time he
never ceased his incantations. Then the people of Ngai-te-rangi
and Ngati-Pukenga ate those taro, after which they entered their
canoes, and went out to sea to the fishing grounds to catch
hapuku that they might make a return present of food to the
men of Nga-Maihe. Then Te Hahae sent his tribe back to their
homes, and he went down and stood in the waters, and there by.
his potent spells he caused the sea to rise, and also raised the
fierce sea wind known as Uru-karaerae. Thus the winds came
and the lightning and thunder and hail, and a great storm arose,
which overturned those canoes far out upon the ocean. So the
man-eaters of Tauranga went down to death.

The object of the fire ceremony in the above was to give mana
(power, force) to the karakia of the priest. Unfortunately, my
informant was not able to give me these karakia, and they are
probably lost for ever. Some state that the above fire was known

bh

CUSTOMS AND SUPERSTITIONS OF THE MAORI. 771

as ahi taitaa. My notes concerning the latter tell me that it was
a sacred fire kindled by a priest, and at which certain ceremonies
were performed and karakia repeated. It seems to have given
force to the invocation of the priest. It was the haw or mauri
(essence, spirit, protecting power) of the village home. In some
cases sacred food, such as kumara (sweet potatoes) or a bird was
cooked at the ahi taitat. A portion of the bird would be suspended
over the sacred fire, and afterwards buried in the ground, where
it would act as an tha purapura or manea—that is, as the essence
or protecting genius of the people, the land, and the homes. By
its subtle power witchcraft would be warded off and prosperity
retained ; the life of man was preserved by such means. J/anea
is truly the haw or essence of a man as well as of land or a
village. Te Whatu, of the Urewera tribe, thus described it to
me: “It is the essence or unseen spirit of man, and his footsteps
are impregnated with it. Should you walk across yon plain, and
should I chance to come upon your trail and extract your manea
from your footsteps, and take that manea to my place and suspend
it on the whata puaroa.? And then when the sacred mara
tautane* is being cultivated I take the manea to that place and
bury it in the earth, together with some of the seed kwmara.
It is then, O Son! you will pass from the world of life and know
death.”

When a party of natives chanced to be travelling by the coast-
line through an enemy’s country they would be careful to walk
in the water, thus leaving no footprints, and rendering it impos-
sible for any evil-disposed person to capture their manea.

The remaining portion of the bird, cooked at the sacred fire,
was eaten by the priest. Should there chance to be no priest of
sufficiently high rank present to eat that portion, then would it
be placed upon a tree to be eaten by Tane—that is, as an offering
to Tane, god of forests and birds.

Of a similar nature to the above is the wmw tamoe or wmu
taoroa. Such a fire was kindled by a priest of the Tuhoe tribe
after they had defeated the Ngati-awa tribe at Te Kaunga.
The priest recited sundry karakia to “harden” himself, and then
walked into the fire, where he stood and repeated invocation to
his tribal gods to render the enemy powerless to obtain revenge.

The ahi taitat was in great requisition during the important
ceremonies pertaining to the first fruits, offerings of birds and
fish. The raw huka (leaves of various species of cordyline of
which snares are made) were gathered, and some of them placed
upon the sacred fire, while appropriate karakia were repeated
to ensure many birds being taken. The karakia, known as
tawmaha, were then repeated in order to bring many birds to the
tribal forests, and the first bird taken was spitted and roasted
before the sacred fire. When cooked, the priest pulled the bird

v2 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

off the spit with his teeth and ate it, still without touching it with
his hands, but gnawing it as a dog would and spitting forth the
bones. The bird may only be touched with the hands before it
has been cooked. The balance of the first “take” of fish and
birds are then cooked, and a third karakia recited to cause a
plentiful season.

The term haw is applied to the home or to man as we have
seen. It is the invisible essence of man, that spiritual portion of
his being which controls his existence, but which, if it comes
under the influence of a greater magician than himself, will
assuredly cause his death. In like manner the haw of the home
or of land must be carefully cherished and guarded from designing
tohunga (priests, wizards) lest the tribal homes be lost.

The mawri of a forest or of a tribal home is the material object
which represents the haw. It is imbued with the sacredness of the
hau, and is the material token which absorbs, retains, and protects
the same. The maurt is in some cases a stone. This sacred
stone is carefully concealed, probably at the base of a tree
frequented by bird snarers, for the powers of the maw will
cause many birds to flock to that particular tree. No one but a
priest could discover the mauwri of a forest—no common person
could find it. A small platform (kahupapa) is erected among the
branches of the tree to serve as a seat for the fowler. In some
cases under this platform was kept amoko tapiri, which is a small
lizard of a whitish colour and having a rough skin. Its duty was
to guard the tree and the forest mauri. The maura of the
Rangitaiki River is a boulder in the bed of that stream, near Fort
Galatea. At this spot the first eels of the season are caught. In
other cases the mauri is something constructed of the long wing
feathers (kira) of the kaka parrot. The feathers of the right
wing only are used ; those of the left wing have no mana (prestige,
influence, power). This form of mauri is the one used to
protect the haw of forests wherein bird-snaring is carried on. It
is rendered tapw and efficient by the karakia of the priest, and its
duties are to protect and multiply the various food products of
the forest. Only one or two persons of the community were
allowed to know where the mawri was concealed and how to
preserve the haw of the kainga (village or settlement). Should
the tohunga or priest of another tribe come with the intention of
taking or destroying the haw of a kainga, he would not be able
to accomplish the task should he fail to discover the mauri,
which is the aria or ahua (incarnation, or material form or token)
of the hau. The maurz also plays a part in the first-fruits rites
of the Maori. The first fish of the season were taken to the
tribal maurt of that sea and there deposited. The sea maurt of the
Whanau Apanui tribe is a rata tree at the mouth of the Motu
River. The first kahawai fish of the season were carried to that

CUSTOMS AND SUPERSTITIONS OF THE MAORI. 473

tree and left there, certain invocations being repeated over them.
Another form of the mawri was that of a hollow stone in which
was placed a lock of hair er some other substance. The stone was
then wrapped up and deposited at the base of a tree or by the
side of a stream. The term mawri has many shades of meaning
and different applications. If requested to travel or work imme-
diately after a meal, a Maori will say, “ Wait until the mauri of
the food has settled.”

When the aborigines of New Zealand first obtained the kumara
(sweet potatoe) eon the Pacific isles about eighteen gener ations
ago, and the first crop thereof was gathered and placed in a store-
house, then they slew Taukata, an ancient voyager who first
made this food known to them, ‘and sprinkled his blood on the
linte] of the door of the store-house. ‘This was to prevent the
maurt of the kwmara from returning to Hawaiki, whence the seed
tubers had been obtained.

IHO TAMARIKI.

This is the umbilical cord, severed at the birth of a child, and
connected with it were some singular customs. The zho of a
chief's son was often placed under a stone or on a tree at the
boundary of the tribal lands to maintain and strengthen the
tribal influence over such boundary. The cho of children of
many succeeding generations might be placed in the same spot.
Several such places are known to me here in Tuhoe Land. The
tho was sometimes placed in a tree, and that place would ever
after be known as the “The tho of So.and-So.” At Te Ariki is a
tree in which the cho of a priest’s child was placed, and the hole
closed with a piece of precious greenstone. This latter addition
enhanced the mana of the tho. Te Iho-o-kataka is the name of a
famous hinaw tree which stands in the Upper Whakata Valley,
near unto Ohaua. It holds an important place in the annals of
Tuhoe Land, inasmuch as it possesses the singular power of
rendering barren women fruitful. It came about in this wise :—
When Kataka, the daughter of Tane-atua, was born some
seventeen generations ago, Irakewa took the tho of the child
when severed and placed it on a hinau tree at Ohaua. And it
chanced that Tane-atua, travelling to the interior, sat him down
to rest beneath that tree and stretched forth his hand to pluck
some berries therefrom. What was his surprise to hear a voice
say, ‘ Do not eat me, for I am the cho of Kataka, your child.”
So it came about that Tane-atua rendered that tree tapw for all
time, and also endowed it with strange powers by means of
suspending thereon the tho of another of his children and uttering
these words : “I am here suspended that I may cause children to
be conceived.” And ever since that time has that tree held the

T14 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

strange power of causing children to be conceived ; and when a
woman proves to be barren she proceeds to that tree, and by
embracing it she may become fruitful. She is accompanied by a
priest, who, during the performance, repeats the necessary invo-
cations. One side of the tree, that towards the rising sun, is
known as the male. side, and that facing the setting sun is the
female side. The sex of the child is determined by the side
embraced by the would-be mother.

When the cho of a child was severed and the end thrust back,
then certain karakia were repeated in order to dispel ignorance
from the mind of the child as it grew up, and to give it a quick
understanding.

URUURU-WHENUA.

This is a ceremony performed by a person who, for the first
time, ascends a mountain, crosses a lake, or enters a district
never before traversed by him. The term implies “to enter or
become of the land.” It is an offering to the spirits of the strange
land. It is generally performed at a certain tree or rock situated
on the trail by which travellers pass into the district. Every
person on passing such places for the first time would pluck a
twig or piece of fern and cast it at the base of the tree or stone,
at the same time repeating a short invocation to the spirits of the
land. After passing on such a person would never look back
towards the tree ; it would be an evil omen were he to do so,

OMENS AND SUPERSTITIONS.

Their name is legion in Maoriland. It would appear that at
no single moment during his life was the Maori free from the
harassing and appalling array of evil omens, unlucky acts and
‘words which might well have kept him in a constant state of
nervous dread. Not even during sleep was he free from such,
and good or even fortune was betokened by the movements of the
limbs, twitching of the muscles, and other things equally absurd.

Examples.—lf a traveller should see a lizard in the path before
him, he would know that the creature did not come there of its
own accord but had been sent by an enemy as an aitua (evil
omen) for him and to cause his death. He, therefore, at once
kills the reptile and gets a woman to step over it as it lies in the
path. By this means the evil omen is averted. And he will also
probably cast about in his mind to discover who the person or
persons were who sent this dread object to bring misfortune to
him. Then he will say, ‘‘ May so-and-so eat you.” Thus he will
transfer the aitwa to that person so named.

CUSTOMS AND SUPERSTITIONS OF THE MAORI. 779

To sleep frequently in the daytime is an evilomen. It is known
as a whaka-waikokomuka. To prepare fernroot for food during the
night is also unlucky ; and to pass before a priest is a serious and
dangerous thing. If people of a village collect in the marae
(court-yard, open space) and sing a puha or derisive song without
due reason, that act is a taputapu-ariki and betokens trouble to
come. To camp on a battle-field after a fight is unlucky, and is
termed a whakaupa. To hear the chirping of a moko-ta lizard is
also an aitua of fell meaning. The evil omen known as /rirangt
is a spirit voice heard singing without, when at night the people
are within their houses. That termed mzti aitua is a dryness of
the throat which assails warriors when in battle. The adverse
omen known as a korapa also pertains to war. It is when a man
does not keep time in the war dance, or does not leap so high as
his comrades. As also when a challenger, in defying the opposing
war party, looks behind him towards his own people. Again, if
in battle a warrior spares the life of the first foeman vanquished
by him that is a pahunw (an evil omen), for he will surely be
assailed by Z'u-mata-rehurehu (Tu, “the dim-eyed;” Tu, is god of
war) which means that both his sight and courage will be seriously
affected, and the sight of the enemy will cause him to tremble.
It is also a pahunu to eat of the food left by the first-born of a
family. The only cure for this dire affliction is for the unlucky
person to seek out the first-born female of a family and get her to
step over his body, which act breaks up the pahunu.

Kotwa.—If in travelling to a village I meet a person who
informs me that a relative of mine is dead at that place, and
should I turn back at once, that is a kotwa and an evil omen
for me.

Whakarapa.—This is when a member of a plundering party
stands idly by while his companions are busy loading themselves
with booty ; or when, in travelling, one refuses to stop at a village
when invited.

Kopare.—Should I chance, while carrying food, to meet a friend,
and should I pass on without speaking lest he ask me for some of
my food, that is a kopare, an evil omen for me, on account of my
churlishness.

Tawhanga-rua.—In cooking birds in a native oven (hangi or
umu) if, when the oven is opened, the birds are not quite cooked,
do not on any account cook them a second time (tawhanga-rua)
for that would cause all birds to desert the adjacent forest. This
is a law of Tane, the god of forests and birds, for these are his
children.

Rua koha or rua kanapu.—This is summer lightning seen playing
about the summits of mountains during fine weather. It is a good

776 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F,

or evil omen, according to the direction in which it darts. The
rua koha would appear to have been observed in ancient Rome.
It was the evil omen which portended the defeat of the Roman
legions under Varus by Arminius, the War-man of the North.

Puhore.—There are many items which come under this head-
ing. Pwhore means to be unsuccessful in fishing or hunting, &e.
One of such items is the tovtoi-okewa. Should a native be about
to go out hunting, and should he speak of an animal or a bird as
already secured, that is a tottot-okewa, and the hunter will be
unsuccessful. Reduced to plain English it means, “ Don’t count
your chickens before they are hatched,” which is an Anglo-Saxon
puhore.

When engaged in digging for the edible root called perez, no
digger may mention the name. If anyone desires to speak of the
object of his search, he will term it maukwuwku, for should he
mention the name peret no roots would be found by the party.
In the bird-snaring season should a man mention that he is going
to visit his snares in order to take the birds which have been
caught, he will not make use of the word wetewete (a plural form
of wewete, ‘to untie”), for that would be a puhore. He will use,
in place thereof, the term wherawhera (a plural form of whera,
“to open”). Or should the snarer be going to look at his waka
or water troughs, over which pigeon snares are set, he will not
use the word ¢titiro, ‘to look at,” but substitute that of matat,
that no pwhore may be incurred.

Such illustrations as the above might be carried on indefinitely

by anyone who cares to collect the necessary material from the
older generations of Maoris now living. From my limited know-
ledge of the subjects it appears to me that the unhappy Maori of
pre-pakeha days was simply hedged round by an appalling array
of evil omens, pahore, laws of tapwu and rahui, with other products
of superstition and ignorance. Such superstitions and customs
are, however, extremely interesting, and it is to be hoped that we
of this generation will endeavour to place on record the customs,
language, traditions, and mythology of the various Polynesian
peoples before it is too late. A comparative study of such,
together with those of the Asiatic and Indonesian races, would
certainly lead to interesting results, and open up a vast field of
research for future anthropologists.
_ With the Maori of New Zealand the time is rapidly approach-
ing when the men of knowledge will be no more, and. the last
tohunga shall pass downward ‘through the surging seaweeds of
Te Reinga to the grim underworld of ‘the Goddess of Night.

I
-~I
4

CUSTOMS AND SUPERSTITIONS OF THE MAORI.

NOTES.

(1.) Whawharua.—Holes in which taro are planted. These holes were of
two kinds—(1) The whakarua-kawau, a deep hole in which the taro grew
in an elongated form—(2) Ipurangi, a shallow hole in which the taro grew
round and compact.

(2.) The reason for allowing but a single taro to grow in each hole was
that it might grow large and thus be capable of giving force to the karakia
(incantations) which were to be repeated over them by the tohunga (priest),
Te Hahae. When the tavo were formed on the root, the hole was opened
and all but one taken away, as also many of the rootlets or fibres. The
old leaves would be taken from the plant and placed in the hole around the
single taro, and the hole again filled up. Thus all the vigour of the plant
was expended in the production of one fine taro.

(3.) Whata puaroa.—This appears to be some sacred portion of a priest’s
house or place used as an altar.

(4.) Mara tautane.—A small plot of ground in which is grown the kumara
set apart for the gods, 7.e., the first fruits.

No. 4.—PICTORIAL ART OF THE AUSTRALIAN
ABORIGINES.

By R. H. Matuews, LS.
(Read Friday, January 7, 1898.)

No. 5.—AUSTRALIAN INITIATION CEREMONIES.

By R. H. Maruews, LS.

(Read Friday, January 7, 1898.)

No. 6.—THE DIALECTICAL CHANGES OF THE
INDO-POLYNESTANS.

By Rey. 8. Exua.
(Read Saturday, January 8, 1898.)

~I
~J
(os)

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

No. 7.—LIFE HISTORY OF A SAVAGE.
By the Rey. Gro. Brown, D.D., Sydney.

Read Monday, January 10, 1898.

IT purpose in this paper giving a brief outline of the everyday
life of a savage from his birth to his death. His life as compared
with the busy exciting life of a man in these colonies in this
present 19th century civilization may perhaps be thought of little
importance, but no type of human life can be considered unin-
teresting or uninstructive to the student of anthropological
science.

The life I am about to describe is that of a man born in a part
of the New Britain Group, situate in about 4° 8. lat. and 153° E.
long. His parents were members of one branch of the great
Papuan family and had their home in the midst of a dense bush—
not far from the beach, however, for all the coast natives live in
dread of the bushmen. The village in which they lived was not
laid out in streets, nor were the houses built together on one site.
A New Britain village consists generally of a number of small
communities or families, their houses being built together in small
clusters and separated from those of other similar communities
by patches of uncleared forests through which run irregular and
very often muddy foot tracks, scooped out in some places by ease-
loving pigs into mud-holes in which they can wallow and enjoy
themselves during the heat of the day. These sites, however, are
kept scrupulously clean, and it is always easy to tell an old village
site by a circular mound in the bush caused by the accumulated
sweepings of dead leaves and rubbish.

The houses are all very small and very: poorly constructed.
They are generally oblong in shape and very low. In olden days
there was often a rattle suspended in the doorway at night against
which anyone attempting to enter in the night would hit his head
and so arouse the inmates. This was done as some protection
against surprise and treachery. The furniture in the house in
which my friend’s parents lived was neither Jarge nor varied. It
consisted of a few bamboos along one side, raised a little from the
ground so as to make a kind of bench or seat, a plank from some
old canoe, which served as a kind of bed, a fishing net, some spears,
and tomahawks, a few baskets of yams, green bananas and edible
nuts called tamap, and a few cocoanuts. There were also a few
water bottles and a basket or two containing lengths of native
money called diwara, beads, pipes, tobacco, net twine, betel pepper

gt gs lm i ea al att ain athe

ss

LIFE HISTORY OF A SAVAGE. 779
and areca nuts, and a gourd or bamboo box containing lime to
eat with the areca or betel nut. It might all be summed up as
follows: a man and woman, a house, a fire, a board or leaf to
sleep on, a few baskets of food anda few weapons. Outside these
clusters of houses, however, would be seen evidences of taste and
appreciation of the beautiful in the planting of draccenas, crotons,
and coleus plants of the brightest colours.

In such a place and amid such conditions the man of whose
life I am to give a brief outline was born, and in order to make
my account more definite and clear than it would be if I dealt
with him simply as an imaginary being, I shall take the liberty of
naming him at once by the name which he will bear through life
so far as this account is concerned, though in doing so I am doing
what his own father and mother would not have done themselves,
as aman is rarely if ever known by the same name from child-
hood to old age. I shall call him Tepang, which literally means
“my friend.”

HIS BIRTH AND BOYHOOD.

At his birth the father would have to clear out, but so far as I
know, there would be no particular ceremonies observed except
paying the women who came to nurse the mother. He would
get first a little of the expressed juice of the cocoanut to drink,
and would be clothed only in a warm banana leaf, and probably
carried for a day or so on the sheath of the cocoanut b’o som.
They make no fine mats, and only small and very coarse pieces of
native cloth from the bark of the breadfruit where Tepang was
born, and so his dress was simply the sunshine in the beginning
and a certain quantity of ashes and dirt when he began to crawl
about.

As a boy he lived and acted much as other boys do in more
civilized communities. The games in which he and his comrades
played are many of them very like our own, together with some
others peculiar to them. He and his playmates often built houses
on the beach or away out in the shallow waters of the lagoon, and
got more pleasure from living and sleeping there than they did in
their own homes. Then there were often sham fights in which
reed spears were used in place of the more dangerous ones used by
the grown up men, and in these fights they acquired a skill in
throwing which was very useful to them in after life. In the
day there were fishing, boating, and bathing parties, and at night
there were songs and dancing, amd in many other respects they
aped the doings of their seniors. 'Tepang would work only when
it pleased him to do so. If his father or mother told him to go
to the garden and he did not wish to do so, he simply ran away
to the beach or to the bush and came home when he pleased.
He got his share of the regular evening meal, but the most of his

780 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

food he picked up when and where he could. He was, however
not allowed to eat some things, notably the cuttle-fish, which they
say runs backwards, and so a boy eating that is sure to grow up
to be a coward.

HIS ENTRANCE INTO LIFE.

As Tepang grew up his parents were very properly anxious
that he should become a member of the secret societies, and so
steps were taken for his initiation. The first probably of these
societies into which he was admitted would be the Dukduk.
Many considerations no doubt influenced his parents to take this
step (1) The Society is a powerful one, and there is a certain
amount of prestige in belonging to it. (2) Many of their son’s
comrades were members of it, and Tepang would certainly make
trouble if his parents did not find the money for his entrance
fees. (3) He would certainly be fined sooner or later for some
real or imaginary breach of the Dukduk’s laws, and as they would
have to pay the fine it was cheaper to pay the fees. (4) There
was always a certain amount of plunder obtained by the Dukduk,
and they naturally wished for Tepang to have a share. The
Dukduk is a society of men whose principal object is to extort
money from everyone else who is not a member, and to terrify
women and those who are not initiated. They have a “ sacred ”
piece of land called the ‘“tareu” in which their house or lodge-
room is placed. Here the dresses of the Dukduk are prepared,
and from this place the Dukduk go out whooping and dancing to
terrify or amuse the people. Here also the members congregate
all day long whilst Dukduk operations are in force, and gossip,
eat, and sleep to their heart’s content. No woman nor uninitiated
person dare go near this sacred enclosure. The Dukduk is
represented to the outside public by a figure dressed in a full leaf
girdle, composed of rings of leaves strung together extending
from the breast to below the knees. These when shaken as the
figure dances increase the awe with which Dukduk is regarded.
The upper part of the body is covered by a high conical mask
gaily ornamented, made of wicker work, and covered also with
leaves or cloth. This extends down over the shoulders and arms
and rests upon the leaf girdle, so that the whole of the man’s
body is covered with the exception of a part of his legs. He
often carries a spear or stick, and sometimes also a human skull
in his hands as he goes whooping and dancing along the paths.
Often two or three Dukduks emerge from the ‘tareu.” The
women and boys all hide as these figures go along. They are
supposed to believe that the Dukduk is a spirit from the bush,
and they very wisely pretend to do so. Some of these Dukduks
have only a short black mask instead of the gaily ornamented one.
These are the females who give birth to the Dukduk proper.

V0 Py Pome oe. a A ms «

ode eee So eee

or

i>

; Sere

“>

Se epee .
shi tal aan nt Sata ie a PE ee | eee

LIFE HISTORY OF A SAVAGE, 781

When Tepang first sought admission he became a “ tena-mana”
or candidate, and certain fees were paid, then he and his fellow-
candidates were put through an elaborate system of fooling, and
had to suffer some actual pain in their supposed search for the
Dukduk. After passing through the preliminary fooling they
became “tena-wanai” or apprentices, and had a little more
insight given them, and then, after a while, they became “ tena-
maul,” or fully accredited members, and learnt all the secrets.
These were principally how to prepare the dresses, what to say,
how to dance, and what were the restrictions as to food and
conduct whilst the mysteries were engaged in, and above all how
money was to be made and food procured from other people by
the fear inspired by the Dukduk. It must be said, however, that
this association had its own sphere of usefulness in a state of
society such as existed in Tepang’s birthplace, where there were
few chiefs of sufficient power to compel any obedience to law or
to enforce punishment against a transgression except by the aid
of such a society as the Dukduk.

As Tepang grew up and either found money himself or was
provided with it by his friends, he was initiated into other
societies, all more or less secret. In one he was taught how to
curse his enemies in the most telling manner ; in another, how to
prepare love philters for his own use, or for the use of those who
paid him for them; in another, he’ was shown the secrets of
* Agagara” or witchcraft, and taught how easy it was to make
aman sicken and die just as he pleased. He was taught how to
make new dances and how profitably he could sell them to other
towns. He also became a member of the Iniat Society, and after
the months which were passed in the ceremonies of his initiations
were completed he could never again eat pork, shark, dog, or
turtle,sand he always had to have his food cooked in a separate
oven for fear of contamination from any of those forbidden
delicacies. From all which it will be seen that it is a great
mistake to imagine that a young manin Tepang’s position had no
duties or responsibilities such as we have here, that he had
nothing to do but eat, sleep, and be merry, or that he had no
taxes to pay or any public duties to perform.

HIS MARRIAGE.

It is, however, quite time that I said something about my friend’s
marriage. People in New Britain marry as they do in other
places but they are not “given” in marriage, for there is always
payment made and received. There is, indeed, a fine distinction
in their language with regard to the preposition used, as a man
marries “ with” the woman, but the woman marries “to” the
man. When Tepang, like other young men, thought it was

782 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

necessary for him to have a wife, he found himself at once involved
in a maze of long-established customs and usages, amid which it
was impossible for him to find his way alone, and so he had to
‘submit to the guidance of those who knew better than he did how
to act. He knew, of course, that he must select the lady from the
opposite class to his own. In his land, men and women, boys and
girls, cocoa-nuts, fishing stones, food-bearing trees, &c., are all
divided into two classes, one called Pikalaba, and the other
Maramara. No Pikalaba can marry one of the same class, and
Tepang being Pikalaba, could only marry a girl who was
Maramara. Marriage with a girl of his own class, though no
blood relative, would be considered incestuous, and would have
brought speedy punishment; in fact, the whole of the people
would have been horrified at such an event. When he fixed his
affections upon the girl he wanted for a wife, the first thing to do
was to find out whether the girl liked him or not, and this was
the first difficulty, for young men and young women do not mix
together as they do in other lands. When I asked him how he
found out whether the girl liked him or not without his having
asked her, he said very innocently, ‘‘Oh, I saw it in her eye.”
He then told his relatives, and they agreed to buy the girl, for a
man never buys his own wife, though he has ultimately to pay for
her. When all was arranged, Tepang and his wife became
“‘ webat”—sweethearts or engaged. He then gave his betrothed
what is called a Ka-na-ongrat or betrothal basket, answering to our
engagement ring. In this basket he put some diwara, native money,
beads, tobacco, armlets, shells, cuscus, teeth, with other property.
He gave her this very quietly, or if too modest to do it himself
he got some girl friend to give it. The girl could not, however,
make use of any of the property in the basket until after their
marriage, as she had to take it all with her on her wedding day,
and show that she had taken all proper care of it. When it was
known that the girl had received Tepang’s ka-na-ongrat, no other
young man could seek her without causing a great quarrel. After
this, Tepang’s friends borrowed “ pupulu” money from some chief
or “ pet-palig ” man of wealth, and on a certain day they divided
this out amongst the girl’s friends and relatives, whilst the friends
of the girl brought food. During this time Tepang was invisible.
He had cleared out of the village and hidden somewhere in the
bush, as he was not supposed to know what was being done. The
girl’s relatives who had got the money were not allowed, however,
to use it until all the ceremonies were complete. On a given day
all the friends of each party made a display of their diwara and
other property amid a great blowing of conch shells and shouting.
This was to show the young couple what wealthy relatives they
had. On another day all the diwara which had been given to the
girl’s relatives was brought back again, and each man who had

LIFE HISTORY OF A SAVAGE. 783

received any had to show it andthen give back half of it to the
bridegroom. After this, there was other interchanges of food
between the relatives on either side, all regulated by strict rules,
each basket having its proper place in the display. After this,
the girl remained with her husband, but like a good girl she cried a
good deal, and made a pretence of running away. Then presents
were made to the young couple by their friends. The bride
received some diwara “that she might get more diwara,” some
pearl shells “for knives with which to prepare the food,” leaf
dishes ‘for plates for her husband’s food,” stones “ for the native
oven,” water bottles, bowls in which to prepare her puddings, a
broom “ with which she was to keep her house and grounds clean,”
and other articles too numerous to mention. Tepang received a
spear with which he was to protect his wife, and also a stick as
an emblem of his authority with which he was to thrash her in
ease she failed in the discharge of her duties. After this a
chief, one of Tepang’s relatives, came on the scene, having a club
in one hand and a young cocoanut in the other. He first broke
the cocoanut, and poured the water over the heads of the bride
and bridegroom. Then he took his club and struck a banana
stem as many blows as he had killed enemies in fight. This was
to assure them of his protecting care over them. ‘The final act
was that Tepang had to repay the money which was borrowed for
the purchase of his bride, with 10 per cent. added for interest,
and so he became a married man. He made a good husband so
far as he understood his duties. He cleared the ground for the
garden, and made the fences, but left most of the planting to be
done by his wife, and she had also to carry home the food whilst
he walked behind with his spear or tomahawk only. She had no
trouble about taking care of his clothes, simply because he never
wore any. His wife had all the cooking to attend to, though he
would occasionally help her, and would indeed cook for himself
rather than go without his supper, if the wife was unable to do
it. He was very fond of his children, and generally allowed
them to do as they pleased, as he himself had done when he was
a boy. The time allotted will not allow me to give all details of
Tepang’s every day life after this, and I can only briefly sketch
his social, political, and religious life.

SOCIAL LIFE.

In his social life he had many duties to perform, and many
engagements in which he had to take part. He had to take his
place in the great fishing and trading parties organised by his
people ; he had to give feasts, and to join in the feasts given by
others. When he was not engaged in the Dukduk ceremonies, or
in those of some other society, he had to practice the songs and

784 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F,

dances in which his village was engaged. As aman who knew
the different forms of witchcraft, his services were often secured
by some one who wished either to kill or to extort money from
someone else. To do this he would secure a piece of yam,
banana, areca nut, or anything indeed which had been touched
by the obnoxious party, or which formed any part of his body,
such as hair, skin, blood, or indeed almost anything. Tepang
would then take this and bury it in a hole in the ground together
with small pieces of sharpened bamboo and poisonous plants.
He would then utter some incantation over the lot, and would
probably specify the particular manner in which he wished the
misfortunes to fall upon the man. Then he would cover all up,
and perhaps place some sacred stone of the Iniat Society upon it,
receive his fee, and go to his board bed with a clear conscience,
fully assured that so long as that spell was not removed its power
would be felt, and until that stone was removed the man affected
would be pressed down by disease, and nothing that he did
would prosper. Of course, it soon got known that the agagara
had been made, and if the unfortunate fellow concerned was
not sick he soon got sick from fear, and the consequence was
that he had to come and pay Tepang diwara in order that
the spell might be removed. This was one of the ways in
which my friend began to make his money, and develop into a
capitalist, for nearly every native believes when he is sick that
someone has bewitched him. Death, in the opinion of those
people, rarely, if ever, happens from what are called natural causes.
Tepang was also a doctor. In the course of his education he had
been taught the medicinal properties of many of the plants and
vines which grew in the bush, how to prepare them as medicine,
what quantities of each he might safely use, and above all the
proper prayers which were to be said if the remedy was to be
successful. He was very skilful in the preparation of decoctions
of leaves, over which certain prayers to the spirits of the dead
were uttered. The patient’s body was then carefully dusted with
lime. Then Tepang uttered more prayers over the medicine, which
the man at once drank, so that he might get the full benefit both
of the medicine and the prayers. The lime was then blown off
the body of the patient, taking (so Dr. Tepang informed them) a
good deal of the disease with it. When he got a patient with
plenty of money my friend would vary the latter part of the cure.
In order to drive the disease away, and also the evil spirit who
caused it, Tepang would prepare a steam bath by mixing ina
large bowl a lot of cocoanut juice, burnt cocoanut kernel, ginger
roots, and leaves of various plants and trees. The patient was
seated over this bowl and covered up with broad leaves. Then
hot stones were put into the mixture, some were also put under
his feet, and he had to hold two others in his hands, and so he

LIFE HISTORY OF A SAVAGE. 785

was thoroughly steamed. Afterwards the doctor (Tepang) had a
great feast prepared for the patient and his friends, for which the
patient had to pay liberally, in addition to the doctor’s fees. In
this way also my friend added to his wealth. In addition to these
professions, he was also a debt collector. Being a man of power,
and having plenty of money, he was often appealed to by those
who were unable to collect the debts due to them, or, what
amounted to the same thing, the amount which they consider ed
to be due. A. owes B. 10 fathoms of diwara, but refuses to pay,
or B. cannot wait longer for the money. He goes to Tepang and
presents him with | fathom, and then Tepang pays the 10
fathoms which A. owes, and A. in his turn has to give Tepang 11
fathoms, so that Tepang gets double commission, and nets a clear
20 per cent. on the transaction. In more serious matters Tepang
got still higher commission, as he incurred more risk, and might
have more difficulty i in arranging the affair. A. commits adultery
with B.’s wife. This is a very serious matter, and B. and his
friends at once fight with more or less success. But B. has another

5
remedy, and he takes, say, 10 fathoms to Tepang, who at once

>
gives him 100 fathoms in return—that is, 10 fathoms for each
fathom given hin—and then he demands from A. 120 or 150
fathoms in return, which A. must at once give, or be prepared to
fight the combined forces of T epang and the aggrieved B. and his
family. In these and other similar transactions, such as providing
the money with which to purchase a wife for one of his friends,
advancing the cost of a canoe or house, etc., Tepang became a
comparatively wealthy man, and was always ready to lend on
good security, and at a good rate of interest. Strange as it may
appear, these people have words for getting goods on credit, for
borrowing, lending, pledging, redeeming, and also one for interest,
and Tepang regular ly lent out money at rates never less
than 10 per cent. In this matter Tepang was very like some
people who are in a much higher stage of civilisation than
that to which he had attained ; but in another custom he was
very much at variance with them, for he was an undoubted
cannibal, and what is more, he saw no harm whatever in the
custom, but on the contrary he regarded it much as a religious
duty and at all events as being a very commendable act. The
principal motive which actuated Tepang in eating his enemy was
that of revenge and giving rest or satisfaction to the spirit of his
relative or friend who had been killed, I do not think that the
desire in his case, at all events, was from a craving for animal
food or from the idea of acquiring, by eating his enemy, any part
of the valour or strength of the person eaten. When Tepang or
his friends captured or killed an enemy they bound him securely
and took him to their village and made all kinds of taunting
speeches to him. They showed him the house and grounds of the

3 D

786 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

man whose death they were revenging. ‘ Look (they would say)
you are the man who killed So-and-So; see, there is his house,
these are his weapons ; these trees belonged to him ; this is his
garden ; now we are going to eat you in payment for what you
or your people have done.” If the man were living he would
answer these taunts, either admitting them or denying them, and
saying who it was that had done the deed. Sometimes, in such a
case, some friend of his would produce a large quantity of diwara
and ransom him, but in most cases he was killed and eaten.

This illustrates the idea of revenge as the inducement of
cannibalism. The other idea is shown by another example. One
of Tepang’s relatives is killed, and, of course, there is no rest for
his spirit until proper satisfaction is given. His house is kept in
order, his spears are stuck in the ground in front of the house,
and his tomahawk is hung on the wall. A dead branch of a tree
is stuck in the ground in front and a small basket is hung upon it
in which Tepangand his friends put small pieces of food from
time to time. In course of time they either kill the man who
killed him or one from the same village, or failing that they buy
such a man or a piece of one from some other village. Then the
family of the murdered man assemble and each one eats a smail
piece of him, another piece is put in the basket, which I have
mentioned as being hung near the dead relative’s house, and
another piece is flung in the direction of the village of the man
who killed him. The piece which is put in the basket of the dead
relative is to assure his spirit that his death is avenged and that.
he may now go away in peace. Tepang and his friends then pull
up the spears, take down the tomahawk, uproot the dead branch,
let the house go to ruin and go to their ordinary business quite satis-
fied that they have done their duty. The skulls of these victims,
however, are often kept as trophies and may be seen stuck up on
poles, either in front of Tepang’s house or on the spot where his
relative was killed. In some places the jawbones are kept, and I
have seen in one house thirty-five of these relics hung up on the
battens of the house.

OF TEPANG’S POLITICAL LIFE

T can say but little in this paper. Asa man of influence he had
to take his part in all the deliberations regarding taboos, and help
to enforce the penalties which followed any breach of the laws.
This institution, however, is not so far reaching nor so frequently
used as it is in other groups. He had also to take his full share
of all the fighting, which is frequent enough to satisfy any man.
Tepang and his people were always at feud with neighbouring
towns and villages. Sometimes peace would be made, and there
would be a settling up of all the differences ; but this state never

i
y

LIFE HISTORY OF A SAVAGE, 787

lasted long, and some new cause of offence would revive all the old,
bad feelings. When one town decided to fight again, they would
often send a notice to that effect, and the others would meet them
at the boundary between the two villages ; and Tepang, of course,
had to be present, for all must go.

He and his people fought with sling and stones, spears, and
tomahawks, and in later days with the white man’s musket. There
was never much execution done in these fights. If one man on
either side got speared, that was considered quite enough for that
day, and both sides would disperse. After this there was but
little to do except to guard against surprises, for the war assumed
a chronic state, and each side simply tried to surprise some unfor-
tunate individual when off his guard. Before Tepang went to any
of these fights he had to bathe and offer prayers to the spirits,
asking them to make the tomakawk sharp and the spear good.
When he got to the boundary he, as a man of knowledge, had to
taunt his adversaries with all the foul language he could hurl at
them, and as he knew a good deal of bad language he could do
this pretty effectively. Then he knew many poisonous plants, and
also a poison which he obtained from the sea, probably from some
sea anemone, and with these he anointed his spear, and also those
of his friends, to make them more deadly ; but as I have said, not
many people were killed in fair and open fight.

Peace-making, however, was a very complicated matter, and
many ceremonies were observed. When Tepang and his friends
desired to make peace with those with whom they were at enmity,
they first sent a draccena plant as a sign of their wish. If the
other chief was favourable he accepted the dracena and planted it
in his ground. Then he pulled up one from his own ground and
returned it by the messenger. After this, negotiations were
entered into and a day fixed for the settlement. On the appointed
day Tepang and his people assembled on one side of the appointed
place and the other chief and his party occupied a position opposite
to them. All were armed as if for fight, and at a given signal
they advanced, brandishing their spears and shouting defiance to
each other. Then they rushed madly against each other with
spears poised ; but as they met each man turned his spear aside and
turned his shoulder to his opponent, and they bumped together.
This was done several times, first one side and then the other
‘being the challenging party. After each bumping, small pieces
of diwara were interchanged. Then Tepang made a speech, in
which he laid all the blame of the wrongs which had been done
on some member of his village, and assured his opponents that the
evil was committed without his consent. The other chief replied
in a similar manner, laying all the blame on someone who was
dead. Then Tepang and his people tied a lot of money on a large
branch of a tree and cried out, “ This is for So-and So,” mentioning

788 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

the name of someone of the opposite side whom they had killed.
As soon as the other side saw this they appeared to refuse it, and
advanced as if to fight, but finished, as usual, by bumping
shoulders together. They took the money and were carrying it

away, when “Tepang and his friends pursued them as if to regain
their property. This, however, was only a pretence, and ended,
as usual, in the curious bumping ceremony. The other side then
brought payment for one of Tepang’s friends whom they had
killed, and the same scene was enacted; and so on alternately
until all the killed on both sides had been paid for. Then there
were large quantities of food brought by both parties, more sham
fights, and more bumping. The food was all mixed together, to
guard against any witchcraft and to show that no poison had
been put in. After this, Tepang and his friends rose, yelling and
shouting, and circled round the food, and the other side did the
same, and Tepang and his party finally sat down on the side
which had been previously occupied by the opposite party, whilst
they sat on the spot where Tepang and party had been, and so
peace was made. During these ceremonies there were also several
symbolic actions, such as darting a spear apparently at one of the
opposite party, but burying the ‘point in the ground instead ; and
also when one man from either side advanced as if to fight, but
instead of hurling their spears, each man put his foot on his spear
and broke off the point by a sudden twist of the hand.

SICKNESS AND DEATH AND BURIAL.

As Tepang got old he was often sick, and at such times all the
spells which he had been accustomed to use to others were tried,
with varying success. Sometimes he was better, but as months
went on, both he and his friends saw that his strength was
declining. During all this time his friends were very attentive
to him, for they never desert the sick.

At length, the old man felt that the end was not far away ;
that all spells had failed, and he must prepare to die. He then
told his friends what he thought and what he wished. He dis-
posed of part of his property, but the bulk he left to be divided
according to native custom. His friends then made a litter for
him, and on this the old man was taken to all the old familiar
places where his life had been lived, that he might see them again
for the last time. They took him to the tareu, and to the lodge-
room where he had been wont, year by year, to take part in the
Dukduk ceremonies; to the house where his canoes were and
where his nets were hung, which he would never use again ; to
the garden which he had fenced ; to the trees which he had
planted ; to the boundary where he had often fought ; and to the

LIFE HISTORY OF A SAVAGE. 789

houses where his friends and relatives lived; and then, weary and
tired, they took him home to die; and when he passed away,
they mourned for him with loud and bitter wailing, varied with
curses against those who had caused his death.

Tepang being a chief was not buried at sea as other and poorer
people were. A chair was made, called a koromia, and on this he
was seated. He was then bathed. After this he was decorated
with necklaces, wreaths of flowers, and feathers and decked out
in full war paint. Then they put a spear in his right hand, his
club was put over his shoulder, and some ginger plants in his
mouth, the mask of a warrior and a large cooked yam were put in
his hand. They gave him his weapons that he might fight his
way against any who tried to hinder him from going to the spirit
land, matana nion, whilst the food was for him to eat on his long
journey. There was, of course, the usual jumping-off place for all
spirits, but it was often difficult for them to get there. The
friends and relatives then brought coils of money (diwara), neck-
laces, ornaments, &c., and placed them in front of the dead chief,
and before taking them aw ay they broke off small portions on the
fire which was burning there. Tepang’s spirit was supposed to
take all this property (the spirit of it) to spirit land and so enter
there asarich man. After this certain ceremonies were performed
to find out the name of the evil spirit who had caused the death,
and also to find out the man who had bewitched Tepang, and got
the evil spirit to compass his death. Tepang was then placed on
a platform, and, whilst the process of decay went on, the relatives
sat round, regardless of the stench, as they thought in so doing
they would get some of the dead chief’s courage and knowledge.
Some of them would even anoint their bodies with the dripping
from the platform for the same purpose. When the head became
detached it was carefully preserved by the nearest relative, whilst
the body was buried in a house at a very shallow depth. A fire
was made on the top of it, and the relatives slept in the house.
All the relatives blackened their faces for a long time, and after-
wards the skull was put on a platform and dances were held
round it for many nights. Up to this time Tepang’s spirit was
supposed to be somewhere about, but after this he was not to
trouble them any more. They had done all they could for him,
and as a properly-behaved spirit he should now keep to his own
place. Where that place was they did not know. ‘The spirits of
common people were supposed to stay about the caves and holes
in the rocks and to eat rubbish, but those of men like Tepang,
who had been a warrior and, above all, a generous man, went to
a good place and were well fed. The only definite punishment I
ever heard of was in the case of a niggard, and the punishment of
such a man they told me was that the spirits took him and
bumped him against the big slab rcots of the chestnut tree.

790 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F,

I have now given this short sketch of some of the incidents and
experiences in the life of my friend, but it is impossible to give
in the time allowed for this paper all the life history of a man
who lived as long as he did, and I can only hope that at some
future time I may be able to complete this very imperfect sketch.

No. 8.—_THE DISAPPEARANCE OF NATIVE RACES IN
GENERAL, AND OF THE FIJIANS IN PARTICULAR.

By H. H. Turse.
(Read Monday, January 10, 1898.)

No. 9.—NOTES OF A RECENT JOURNEY TO NEW
GUINEA AND NEW BRITAIN.

By the Rev. Gro. Brown, D.D., Sydney.
(Read Monday, January 10, 1898.)

Tue visit of which I purpose giving a short account was begun
in May last and extended to the middle of September. The
course followed was from Sydney to Port Moresby in New Guinea,
thence to Samarai, the Engineer Group, the De Boyne Group, the
d’Entrecasteaux Group, the Trobriands Group, New Britain,
Duke of York, and New Ireland. I sailed from Sydney as far as
Samarai, in New Guinea, in the ss. ‘ Titus,” and from there
voyaged either in open boats or in a small 14-ton ketch until we
reached Cooktown on the return voyage.

During the period of my journey I saw a good deal of the
natives, and had also the advantage of constant intercourse with
the missionaries, and also with the Samoan, Fijian, and Tongan
teachers who are resident amongst them. Most of my informa-
tion as regards the habits and opinions of the New Guinea peoples
was obtained from the Revs. W. E. Bromilow and 8. B. Fellows.

New Guinea and its inhabitants have been so often described
that it is not necessary to dwell at any length upon them. The
country presents the usual features of high mountainous land in
the tropics, whilst the people, who are members of the great
Papuan family, are in somewhat different stages of culture, from
the naked savages of the western portion to the more civilised
races who inhabit the south-eastern groups of islands and the ex-
treme east of the mainland.

JOURNEY TO NEW GUINEA AND NEW BRITAIN. 791

The principal products of the islands are pearl-shell, beché de
mer, copra, and rubber. Gold also is found both on the mainland
and in the islands—from which latter the principal amount has
been obtained. There is little doubt, I think, that rubber will, at
no distant date, be the principal article of export. It is obtained
from large trees by boring, and also from several species of vines
—the latter being the best in quality.

I have visited New Guinea on three different occasions, and I
noticed very great changes in the social position of the people
which had taken place since my last visit in 1891, some six years
ago. The influence exerted by the Government and by the Mis-
sionaries was very apparent in the change which has taken place
among the people. I noticed particularly that the people travel
far more now than they did, because they can go in safety ; this
is of great benefit to the natives living on many of the islands as
they can now purchase food during the months of scarcity and
so they live better than they did previously. Another benefit is
that the coast line is becoming more settled. Formerly the bush
people were afraid to live there from fear of the large tribes living
on either side of the unoccupied district, whilst the people of those
districts, and those of the neighbouring islands, were afraid to
settle on them from fear of the bushmen. Now, large portions of
these coastal districts are being settled, and villages are being
established in districts which were quite unoccupied on my pre-
vious visits.

Twas not able to make many notes in the Engineer and De
Boyne Groups, as my stay in those islands was very short. The
people in De Boyne Group (Panaieti) are great canoe builders,
and some of the finest canoes in south-eastern New Guinea are
built there. :

At Dobu (Goulvain Island) in the d’Entrecasteaux Group ,I
made a longer stay and found that great changes had taken place
there since my last visit. The skulls of enemies, who had been
killed and eaten, which used to be placed in rows over the doors
of the houses had all disappeared. The dead, who were formerly
buried in the villages close to the houses, are now all buried in a
general cemetery at some distance from the villages and the social
position of the people is much improved.

KITE FISHING.

This mode of fishing is much practised here, and I was able to
get a specimen of the entire apparatus. The kite is made of
broad leaves kept extended and flat by means of pieces of light
wood. To the tail of the kite some cocoons or spider webs are
attached. The kite is flown from a canoe and the end of the kite
tail is kept just skimming the top of the water. The gar-fish bite

792 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

at the cocoon and are then unable to let it go. The fisherman at
once backs his canoe quietly, winding up the string as he does so,
until he gets the fish on board, when the kite is flown again. I
have not seen this mode adopted in any other group.

CIRCULATING ADORNMENTS.

At Dobu I saw in the possession of the Rev. W. E. Bromilow
some large armlets and a very valuable necklace. Similar ones
are in the possession of a number of chiefs who are members of a
circle, entry into which is gained by the possession of some large
and valuable armlet or “baggi.” These adornments then become
the property of the circle and are passed on from one to another
and go the round of every individual member of it. So far as I
could learn there is no specified time in which the article remains
in the possession of a chief. The man may perhaps wish to have
a change in the coveted article of which he is the temporary
possessor, and this, of course, will necessitate a change all round.
Mr. Bromilow is, so far as I know, the only European who has
been admitted to this circle, and he may probably give us some
idea of the meaning and use of the custom which I have never
before known in any of the Polynesian Groups.

BURYING CHILDREN ALIVE.

At the Mission Station, Dobu, there may be seen several bright
and happy children who were rescued from this horrible death.
The case of the oldest may be taken as typical of them all. His
father and mother were dead, and on the mother’s death, as there
was no one who would take care of the baby boy she had left,
they were preparing to follow out their usual custom, and the
child was actually put into the grave to be buried with his dead
mother when he was rescued by Mrs. Bromilow, and has since
grown to be a bright, intelligent lad. In the case of a girl child,
some one would probably have been found to take charge of it, as
girls are a source of income when they are sought in marriage ;
but to the New Guinea mind boys are only a source of trouble,
and no profit can be gained for the trouble of rearing other
people’s children.

A MOTHER’S OPINION ABOUT THE MOON.

A Kiriwina mother always lifts up her child to the first full
moon after its birth. This is to make it grow fast, and that it
may talk soon. I could get no reason for this singular custom,
one which I have never before met with, and which is (so far as I
know) a new instance of moon worship.

fod

JOURNEY TO NEW GUINEA AND NEW BRITAIN. 793

CHILDREN’S GAMES.

One of the most interesting sights which I saw at Dobu was a
game played by a number of girls. This game must usually, I
think, occupy two or three hours ; but on the particular occasion
it was a good deal abbreviated for my sake, but even then it
occupied a long time. ‘The girls all sat ina circle and sang a few
words very sweetly. Then one, who was the leader, pretended to
strike each one with a knife in turn, and each girl said, as the
pretended stroke was given, “That knife is blunt!” Then there
- was the pretence made of sharpening the knife, accompanied with
a descriptive song. After this all the circle joined hands, finger
to finger, and a song was sung as each finger was loosened. All
this occupied a long time, as the song had to be sung over and
over again as each finger of every girl j in the circle was loosened.
Then some went out who were supposed to be witches, seeking to
kill one of the others; and there was a lot of singing, gesture
language, and appropriate action until these witches were driven
away; in fact, there was a regular scrimmage before this was
finally accomplished. After this all the girls stood closely locked
together to represent a bunch of bananas, One was snatched
away at a time by a witch. The owner of the “ bananas” walked
sey and, missing one, asked of the fool or silly person, who

fo)
yas supposed to watch, “ Who stole my banana?” The answer
was given in each case, “I don’t know.” This went on till all

the “ “bananas” (girls) were taken away. Then there was a great
disturbance. The witches were found, driven aw ay, and the “girls
rescued. Then there was a game illustrative of a wallaby hunt,
and it was very amusing to see the way some of the girls imitated
the hunted wallabies, skipping and jumping away from their
pursuers. All these were accompanied with descriptive songs,
which, unfortunately, I did not understand.

All the islands of the d’Entrecasteaux Group have abundant
evidence of volcanic action, but, as in New Britain, I found no
lava streams. All the ejected matter is pumice, of which, indeed,
most of the islands there consist. There are many boiling springs
in the group, some of which, on Dobu and on Fergusson Island,
we visited. We landed at Numanuma on the latter island, and
after an hour’s good walking in the hot sun we reached the
fumaroles. The first intimation of their proximity was a large
stream of boiling water flowing to the coast. There were many
boiling springs along its banks, some of them emitting only boiling
water and others boiling mud. ‘Then, after receiving many
cautions from our guides to follow them closely in single file and
not to step out of the track, we went on to the Geysers. There
were several of them, and the sight was very interesting. A

794 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

description of one of them may be taken as typical of all. In the
rock or pumice formation there was one or more irregularly
shaped pits, but how deep these were it was impossible to say, as
no one could approach them near enough to see. From these pits
there wag just a light steam escaping, and then in a few minutes
there was an explosion, accompanied by an eruption of boiling
water. The water was thrown to a height of about 20 or 30 feet.
After this subsided we could only hear the angry roar beneath ;
then perhaps a few small dashes of water would be ejected, and
then more roaring and trembling of the ground which was soon
followed by another violent outburst. I managed to get a few
photographs which give some faint idea of the appearance of the
place and of the Geysers in action. I noticed no sulphur deposits,
so that, in this respect, these fumaroles differ from those in
Seymour Bay, on the opposite side of the bay which I visited in
1890. The natives told us that some Normanby natives would
not believe that the water was boiling, and so went to bathe in
one of the pools and were scalded to death. J think it is more
probable that they had incautiously ventured too near one of
them and the ground had given way under them, or that they
were overwhelmed by an unexpected eruption of water. They
told us also that one of their own women who had quarrelled
with her husband once threw herself into one of the holes in her
anger and was never seen again. We experienced no earthquake
during our visit, and this, the people told us, was a very unusual
experience.

SIGNS OF MOURNING.

Tn addition to the universal sign of blacking the face or body,
I noticed several other signs which, to me, were peculiar, and one
which I had not previously met with in any Papuan race, though
it is quite common amongst eastern Polynesian peoples. This
was the custom which I saw amongst the Goodenough people at
Bwaidoga, on that island, of amputating a joint or joints from
the fingers of relatives when any of their friends were sick. Ata
village called Iakalova we saw people whose hands had been thus
mutilated—one woman having one or two joints removed from
her first, third, and fourth fingers ; many others, including mere
children, were thus disfigured. This is an interesting instance of
similarity amongst those whom some people think are essentially
different races. In the Engineer Group the women have black-
ened faces and bodies, and shoulder belts of the white Cowrie
shells. At Fergusson Island the women wear white plaited
armlets, a broad belt of the same kind round the body, just above
the breasts, and a narrow one all of the same material crossed
round the neck. On Dobu they wear a great bundle of small
cords suspended round the neck.

or

JOURNEY TO NEW GUINEA AND NEW BRITAIN, 79

YAM FEAST AND SPIRIT WORSHIP.

When we reached the Trobriands Group the yearly Yam feasts
were being held, and every village had its yam houses filled with
the new crop, and feasts and dances were being held daily. On
these occasions there is a great display of native property. The
principal chief is kept for days almost without food, or only fed
with some particular article and some betel nut. On a stated
day he comes from his retirement and after certain ceremonies he
ties a piece of prepared fibre round the posts of the yam houses.
This makes them “taboo,” and no one can touch them. Plat-
forms are then built and on these are displayed all kinds of
valuable property, such as armlets, native money, &c. Then for
many days the feasts and dances are held. When all is finished
the people assemble, shout, beat the posts of the houses, overturn
everything where a spirit may be hiding, and do all that they can
to drive them away, and then the feasts are over. The probable
explanation is that the spirits have been made wealthy for
another year. They have got the spirits of the yams, and so
have enough for their needs; they have got the spirits of the
property, and so are made wealthy ; they have heard the songs
and seen the dances, and now they are not wanted to frighten or
disturb those who are living, and so they are driven away. It is
much the same idea as that of displaying property before a dead
man and putting a yam into his hand before he is buried, which
I have noted in another place.

POWER OF CHIEFS.

Unlike those in other places in New Guinea, the chiefs in the
Trobriand Group possess great power—as great indeed as that
exercised by eastern Polynesian chiefs in old days. When
Enamakala, the great chief of Kiriwina, comes from his house no
one dare walk about the village in an upright position. Every-
one either walks in an abject, stooping position, or in some cases
actually crawls on hands and knees, and no one speaks above a
whisper when he is talking. This man has thirty-one wives, each
one of whom has, by the aid of her relatives, to keep a yam-house
filled with food for him. Five of his wives have died, four com-
mitted suicide, and one he killed.

KIRIWINA VILLAGES.

Much of the land in the* Trobriands is comparatively open
country. This is due, I think, to some extent to the bush having

796 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

been cut down for their large yam gardens. The site of a village,
or an old village site may, however, always be known by a large
clump of fine fruit-bearing trees, in the midst of which the village
is situated. This is quite a distinctive feature of the Trobriands
villages.

NEW BRITAIN.

In this group when I landed there in 1875 there was not a
single white man resident there, and where the people then were
wild, naked savages I saw great changes, but Iam not able now
to give any detailed account of them, and I must reserve this for
some other occasion. I was much impressed, however, with one
instance of the

FORMATION OF AN ISLAND.

On one of the points of Blanche Bay, three of the best-known
mountains in New Britain are situated. These are called the
“ Mother and Daughters.” The ‘ Mother” is 2,000 feet high ; the
others are a little lower, and not so regular in shape. They are
all certainly of voleanic origin, as is also the whole of the sur-
rounding district, which is composed entirely of decomposed
pumice.

In 1878, when I was resident in the group, an active volcano
broke out about halfway up the side of the Mother. It was a
grand and fearful sight. The column of fire, smoke, and ashes
was, to all appearance at least, as high again as the Mother,
thousands of tons of pumice were ejected, the sea being covered
for miles, and presenting the appearance of a great, sandy desert
with no water visible. The water in that large bay was boiling
hot, even to the very farthest point of the bay, and the whole
country was covered with ashes which killed most of the cocoanut-
trees and all the gardens of the people.

The bay is very deep, and is about 8 miles wide at the place
where the island of which I am writing was upheaved. I visited
the place a few days after the outburst, and while the volcano was
still in furious action. The natives told me that during the first
days large jets of steam had been observed ccming out of the bay
in a direct line between the volcano and a village on the main-
land called Karavia, and that a new island had been found at
some little distance from that village. With some difficulty I got
a crew to tuke me to it, and found an island nearly 3 miles in
circumference and, in some parts, about 60 feet high. The island
I found was situate on a spot which I remembered as being a

JOURNEY TO NEW GUINEA AND NEW BRITAIN. 797

comparatively shallow bank of reef in the bay, but over which I
had often sailed in my boat. It was quite hot, and as it was impos-
sible for anyone to walk on it without shoes, I had to land alone.
The steam was very dense, and I soon lost sight of the boat, as my
crew also did of me. Often I had to stop and wait for a puff of
wind before I could see whether I could step over some crevices
out of which the steam was hissing. I soon found that the centre
of the island was a crater of boiling water, near to which it was
not safe to venture. IJ managed to keep a zigzag course until my
course was stopped by a large stream of hot water running from
the crater to the bay. I often landed on the island afterwards
and noticed that the water remained hot for some years, but the
crater was gradually filled up by the subsiding pumice around it.
This island has been named Vulcan Island. I visited the same
island a few months ago, and these are some of the changes which
I noticed as having taken place during the eighteen years which
have elapsed since it was upheaved from the sea. It is now only
about 30 feet high, and that only at one end. This I attribute
to the consolidation of the ejected matter and to the wearing
away by wind and weather. ‘These influences have also affected
its circumference, as I judged that is not now more than 2 miles
in circumference. A channel which formerly existed between the
new island and a small rocky islet has been filled up with the
material washed away from the shore of the new island. The
whole island is covered with scrub, and there are Casuarina trees
on it which have attained a height of 30 or 40 feet.

This account shows that the progress of disintegration and the
growth of vegetation consequent thereon are very rapid in these
tropical countries, and it will also show, 1 think, that, whilst
voleanic areas are areas of subsidence, they are areas of upheaval
also, and that to a much greater extent than is believed by many
in the present age.

So far as my experience in New Britain is concerned, I am
quite satisfied that the peculiar feature of the coral formations in
that group can only be accounted for by upheaval, and not, so far
as I have seen, by any process of subsidence, though I believe
that this will account for many other formations in other groups
in the Pacific.

798 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F,

No. 10.—A FEMALE HERMIT OF THE SOUTH PACIFIC.

By the late Rev. W. Wyatr Git, B.A., LL.D.
(Read Monday, January 10, 1898.)

THE island Atiu, in the Hervey Group, is famous for its caverns,
the largest of which is called Anataketake. To enter this vast
temple of Nature, it is necessary to descend about 20 feet through
a chasm in the rocks, at the bottom of which are several majestic
openings. Innumerable small birds breed in this cave. With
the aid of flambeaux, it is possible to travel a mile underground
amid its almost interminable windings. Water continually drips
from the arched roof, which is from 10 to 15 feet thick, and is
supported by superb columns of stalactite. From the glittering
floor, which presents a wavy appearance, rise less attractive
stalagmites. ‘The fretwork ceiling sparkling in the light of torches
is a sight never to be forgotten. A lake abounding in eels and
shrimps occupies the centre.

The story of the discovery of the Cave Anataketake is very
romantic. A woman named Inutoto, being cruelly beaten by her
husband, wished effectually to hide herself away. In looking
about for a place of concealment she came upon this wonderful
cavern, and lived there in utter solitude for many years. She
found no difficulty in sustaining life. Her now repentant husband
sought for her in vain, and then mourned for her as dead.
Eventually a man in chase of a bird—the woodpecker—discovered
the cave, and then the hermit, who was thus restored to her
husband, Paroro. Her song, composed in the cave, has been care-

top)

fully handed down by tradition, I subjoin :—

SONG OF INUTOTO, THE HERMIT.
INTRODUCTION.

Patapu ei, patapu ei,
Akariki i te matangi,
Te naku nei i te tane!

EK utu matangi e,

E mavake te kau,

Kua akaipoi ra i te vaine
Aru marama ki te tane !
Rai oti ei,

Akariki 1 te matangi,
Akariki i te matangi,

Ki te marangai tai,

Kia ana mai ake a Paroro e,
Hi rave ake 1 tona vaine,
Te naku nei ki te tane ra.

My person is sacred, very sacred.
Awake some favouring breeze ;
I am sorrowing for my husband.

FIRST STANZA,

Oh, for asteady breeze,

Directed by the gods !

Great is the misery of her

Who counts her widowed moons !

Tn all thy might

Awake thou favouring wind ;
Yes; awake thou favouring wind ;
Some easterly breeze ;

So that Paroro may come

And be re-united to the wife

Who is sorrowing for her husband.

THE NAME OF “UNGA” FOR “SLAVE” AT RAROTONGA. 799

SECOND STANZA.

E utu matangi e, Oh, for a steady breeze,

E mavyake te kau, Directed by the gods !

Kua akaipoi ra i te vaine Great is the misery of her

Aru marama ki te tane ! Who counts her widowed moons !

Rai no te ariki, May my chief* be famous !

E ngarue te au no te ariki, May his rule be prosperous !
Ngarueteau. KE tu Aye ; may he prosper.

Ki te tai vera oki o Kaukura, Stand thou on ocean’s burning strand,
I te upoko o Inutoto, Thou lord of Inutoto,—

Te vaine pare ariki, Of her who once was crowned,

Te naku nei ki te tane! But is now sorrowing for her husband,

No. 11—CONCERNING THE NAME “UNGA” FOR
“SLAVE” AT RAROTONGA, SOUTH PACIFIC.

By the late Rev. W. Wyart Giz, B.A., LL.D.
(Read Monday, January 10, 1898.)

THE indigenous arrowroot plant [ Tacca pinnatifeda] of the south
Pacific has one or two large tuberous roots, surrounded by many
smaller ones. To the highly-imaginative nativet mind the large
tubers symbolize the chief or chiefs ; the smaller ones the landed
proprietors owning allegiance to, and by blood related to, the
chief or chiefs. But besides these, there are a great number of
tiny tubers, called “unga,” representing the serfs, or “little
people ” “tangata rikiriki,” as they are often called—z.e., people
of no account whatever !

The correctness of this interpretation is evidenced by the Raro-
tongan phrase for ‘‘dust” ‘ ungaunga—one,” literally “ grains
of earth.” Again, in the Rarotongan Bible [Matt. xv, 29, and
Mark vu. 28] for “crumbs” we have “ungaunga kai,” literally
“‘orains of food.” In these phrases the plural is made by repeat-
ing the noun “unga”—“ grain.” The underlying idea is, that
the slave “ unga” is but an insignificant grain or unit that in the
nature of things can never rise to anything great. And such is

*Her husband Paroro was a renowned chief. The crown referred to in this stanza wag
made of parrakeet feathers. Paroro is imagined to be on a visit to Mitiaro or Mauke,
lying to the east of Atiu. Strangely enough, there is no reference to the surroundings of
the hermit. It is impossible to fix a date for this song ; in my own judgment it was, as the
natives of Atiu assert, composed many generations ago.

7 This explanation was many years ago authoritatively given me by Maretu, the clever
and much-respected pastor of Ngatangiia, Rarotonga. He observed that the simile equally
applies to the ‘‘Teve” plant, Amorphophallus campanulatus, of the islands. The ‘‘chats’,
“*karoi,” of the Teve-plant represent the serfs, ‘‘unga.”

800 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F,

really the teaching and condemnation of heathenism—compelling
the many to be slaves for ever; whilst the favoured few are to
enjoy all good things. And this by a supposed Divine appoint-
ment! In India this notion has, through the astute intellect of
their sages, developed into the iron system of caste.

In the Pacific, as elsewhere, sometimes the offspring of a slave
woman married to a high chief inherits the father’s titles and
power.

The word “unga” in Rarotongan also signifies ‘ hermit-crab.”
Some of the younger natives imagine when using the word “unga”
in the sense of “slave,” that there is a sly allusion to the well-
known habits of the hermit-crab—the slave living in a home
belonging to another! But the elder natives were too accurate
observers to overlook the important circumstance that the hermit-
crab appropriates the forsaken shell of another, whereas the slave
enjoys the protection of the land-owner or chief, to whom he
owns allegiance and service. I regard this explanation as
extremely modern, although very ingenious.

No. 12.—TAHITIAN AND HAWAIIAN TATTOOING.
By Miss Treurra Henry.

(Read Monday, January 10, 1898.)

No 13.—BLACK, RED, AND WHITE, AS SYMBOLS.
By Joun Fraser, B.A., LL.D.

(Read Monday, January 10, 1898.)

a
i
a |
Se
'
:
&
i
'
t
aie
—_ _

=
Ji
7
, a
ns - -
7
7 7
i, a cI
7 ~~.
7 :
. J ~
.
7 ? =
Sunt)
Ss
7
=
: 7
‘ _
’
a =
6 f
-
D
_ 7
Ww
ina iy
ae
‘
-
7 a - a S
. a ‘ a sill
oe | sf
a a 7 7 ny
ees a
vie y i a —
i , 7.
=

>
>
7
7 ‘
7
4
7
a
: a ’ ne -
_ a
7
@
~~, _
- a)
3
a
»
9
:
oe
: 7
7 ©
7 <7," : 7 i
] _
A ao
+)
oD 7
a ae D
“an 7 ‘
ee i

Australasian Association for the Adouncement of Science.

De Q P és Pol: To Illustrate Paper by S. Percy Smith. PLATE XXXIV.
e Quatretages, tes rolvmesiens

Opa-twoe-rou, Nord

CARTE
Rep refentant
les ISLES dela MER DU SUD

Suivant les connotssances

des Habitans de
TAITI et des ISLES VOISINES ,

Dorunica stecbeoat 38

42 0-Heeva-roal\
Waitahoo or Whattarre - poms PecNateya JiPedro
o-Heeva-pollo 43 Christine QWhattarre-toah36

Formee surtout d. apres les conversations

et les Deferiptions de
TUPA YA.

dressee par Forster.

Qitdu Danger ou de S Bernard
x iy: 7H Go Otto 41 Terowha 37

Te Manno 40

{Pe PA ourod o-Rathavat 53 (Neeo-heeva35

go-Rima tavra 52 i fo Haneanea 34
oToomoo papa sé jo Adecha 49
3 Ra (JoRaro toa 54 Q Ururuta 48

YPRANLALD FPO p OL AP UPL

y (po-Ahoua-hou5o
Qo
ea: -Mateiva 23 (<br “ go Techeow 26 o-Rima-roa 32
2 “1 Hiaterland — LdeDusappotntement
saeete ts sl Q\ H touton-ai33
de Gal s o-Heeva-toutou-ai

1. du Pride Galles hone : .

LPernicurus a9 Palai 29 gee of ‘
Tubai v0 -Rairoa-2 7
Mourooa Sg

i Borg vol, itive |
Wisely 1 How id Disha

Cale
Vides Navigateurs
(\o-Weeha A] 4 Woureeo 47

-Reeya-vai 58
(j o-Reeya-vai arenes

Ol Baw Y Gy

Whennua-oora 45,

a
, o-Papatea 46
{}Tsinuna 59 o-Rotooma 61 P

Parallele de a7? latitude Sud Tatahaieta En
— Ohe Tootera

o-Raicteat7

SI
o-Poppoa 62 3
o COTAITI Henwenooes

Te -mannu1 a olte: goe
op FMwatee 2 Fdelachane , »,0.Whgod oy
_bPalmersto, Si msi |
*o Rimatema 60 ae Os
““Moenotayo 63 , Oirotah (\ithice Haye ‘Gloucester 1 Charlotte ;

: © wanted 1£Egmon? ° UWhitunday, (de la Pentecote )
Oiesvas78 LGunberland (*Egmont

o-Hitte-potlo 65 dD
(Ffavage 64 TeToopa tupa-eahou

Qo-Hitte-tou tou-atu 66

Ti e 8
Go-Hitte-toutou-nee 67 Mannua 10 a Teometva-roaro
Te-Errepoo-opo-matte-hea77
P , do.
Hitte-tamaroo-eiree 6

L. Osrabrug
Eito-nooen

0. 6
Bs niketentonerera 68 ‘eI Cree

« 0
: Wi 5 Ohite-1p912 12
Te-Oroors -Matwatea 74 ee, i

ce) o-Hitte-tatterre 69 Qe Tootoo-erre73 Tenew-hamea-tane 7 ye 3

Te-Amaroo-hittezo 6
7 een
B ZO uowhea 72 0 cstrn
QTe-Atou-hitte 7

M3.Les noms ccrits en Kalique sont des noms donne’ aux krles par les Europeens ;

Colles quisont cous lgnees 2 fois ont ele Quer par nous en 17 pS:et 1774 «

Celles quine Ze vont quune » fous ontete’ vues par dautres Navigateurs.
Sud |

Imp Hangard-Mange a Pans

Pubhe par Arthus Bertrand, Edit
- eg Copied from De Quartrefages Reproduction of Forster's Map.

GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE OF THE POLYNESIANS. 801

No. 14.—NOTES ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL KNOW-
LEDGE OF THE POLYNESIANS.

By S. Percy Smiru, F.R.G.S., Surveyor-General, Welli i
New Zealand. der Ye
(Read Monday, January 10, 1898.) Liepery

Parr II.

In a paper read before Section E of this Association in 18
endeavoured to show that before the advent of white men into~
‘the Pacific, the Polynesians were well acquainted with the
geography of the Southern Ocean. In support of this I quoted
some forty names known to the Maoris of New Zealand and
retained in their traditions and chants, most of which can be
identified with islands of Central Polynesia.

A good deal of light has been shed on this subject since the
publication of that paper, principally through contributions to
the “ Journal of the Polynesian Society,” all of which go to prove
the general accuracy of the identifications given in the paper
quoted, whilst at the same time this later information adds many
names of lands known to the inhabitants of other islands outside
New Zealand.

There is very little in the paper quoted above that required
alteration, due to the acquisition of this later knowledge ; but
one statement therein should be amended. In deducing the few
dates given in that paper, only twenty years was allowed as the
length of a generation. The consensus of opinion of several
Polynesian scholars, shows that twenty-five years is more probably
nearer the truth, and this number will be used in this paper
wherever it is necessary to compute dates.

The following notes, whilst dealing with the general geo-
graphical knowledge of the Polynesian, will take Tahiti as a
standpoint, and from the information gathered there, it will be
shown how their traditions confirm those of New Zealand, and
at the same time prove the extent of the great ocean known to
them.

It is probable that the last communication the Maoris had with
Tahiti and the Central Pacific took place at the time of the great
heke or migration to New Zealand—which we may fix, from the

35

me >

802 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

mean of a very large number of genealogies, at about the year
1350, or twenty generations back from 1850. Tradition says that
one or more canoes have left New Zealand since that time for
Hawaiki, but no certain news has ever been heard of the crews
since their departure. | Whether they reached any of the islands
or not, is uncertain ; but none ever came back. We may except
from this statement the voyage of the canoe Totara-i-keria, which
left New Zealand only a few years after the arrival of the
fleet in 1550, for she did return, and was followed back from
Hawaiki—which probably means here the Central Pacific—by
a fleet, which was wrecked on Motiti Island, Bay of Plenty,
New Zealand, during a severe storm. None of the canoes of
this fleet ever returned to Hawaiki, if we may believe Maori
traditions.

If it is true that the Maoris were formerly in the habit of
making voyages between New Zealand and the Central Pacific, it
is to be expected that some record of those voyages would be
found in the traditions of Tahiti, or some of the adjacent islands.
On this point, I have been on the look-out for many years past,
but through lack of information as to the Tahitian traditions, had
made no progress—indeed, had almost given up the hope of ever
securing any information on the subject—when accident put in
my way a very extraordinary confirmation of the Maori traditions.
It will be known to many members of this section, that one of
the early missionaries to the Society Islands was the Rev. J. M.
Orsmond, who arrived in Tahiti in 1817. Mr. Orsmond appears
to have been one of those gentlemen to whom Polynesian scholars
owe a great debt of gratitude, in that, instead of despising the
native traditions, he collected a great many, and carefully
preserved them. These are now in the possession of his grand-
daughter, Miss Teuira Henry, who is preparing them for publica-
tion. In the course of a correspondence with that lady, I asked
her if she could find amongst Mr. Orsmond’s papers, any reference
to other lands outside the Tahitian group, and mentioned the
name Aotea-roa as that of New Zealand, asking her to specially
look for this name. This brought a response which was a delight
to me, after the years I had been searching for such information ;
but it was not until further inquiry, and even after a careful
tracing taken from Mr. Orsmond’s original document had been
received, that the information was accepted as quite genuine. It
has already been stated in the former part of this paper that
Aotea-roa, is the Maori name of New Zealand; the discovery,
therefore, of this name in the following ancient Tahitian chant, is
the direct proof of the argument that the Maoris and Tahitians
were mutually acquainted with their respective homes. By Miss
Henry’s kind permission I am able to give the Tahitian chant in
the original, together with her translation.

GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE OF THE POLYNESIANS.

THE TAHITIAN

O Havaii te tumu. Mai Havaiiatu
te taata ite mau fenua atoa; ua
tae 1 na hiti e ati roa a’e.

I tae na Hitia, i te Tuamotu e i
Maareva.

I tae na To’a, na Tupua’i; na
Rurutu na Fenua-ura; na Rima-
tara ; na Rimatara e nate Aotea-
roa o te Maori.

I tae na Too’a, na Manitia; na
Raroto’a; na Atiu; na Ahuahu;
na Aitutati; na Vavau. I taena
Hamoa na Tutu-ira, Uporu, e na
Tavai'i ; i tae roa na reira.

I tae na Toerau, na Ma’atea, na
Nwuhiva-roa, ei Aihi ahuahu.

803

CIRCUIT OF NAVIGATION.

Havaii was the origin. From thence
people spread forth to all lands ;
and they arrived at the encom-
passing borders.

They went east to the Paumotu
(isles) and to Mangareva.

They went south to Tupuai; to
Fenua-ura to Rurutu; to Rima-
tara; to Rimatara and to the
Aotea-roa of the Maori.

They went to the west to Manitia,
to Rarotonga ; to Atiu; to Ahu-
ahu; to Aitutaki; to Vavau (of
the Friendly Isles); and on to
Samoa ; to Tutuila, to Upolu, and
to Savai’i; they arrived in all that
direction,

They went north to Makatea, to
distant Nw uhiva(Marquesas), and
to burning Aihi (Hawaii).

ADOPTION OF NAMES.

Te fenua e tona i’0a e rave mai; te
fenua nei e te i’oa i topa’tu.

O Tahaa ra, o Uporu ia: 0 Haapape
o Uporu i Tahiti; o Poraporara,
o Vayau ia; o Pape-noo o Vavau
i Tahiti ; o Hiva tei uta i Tahiti,
o Raiatea e tei pihai rii atu o
Hamoa.

The lands took different names
these lands adopted names:

Tahaa was called Uporu ; and Point
Venus was Uporu in Tahiti ;
Porapora was called Vavau, and
Pape-noo was Vavau in Tahiti ;
there was Hiva inland in Tahiti,
and there was Hiya in Raiatea,
and close by it is Hamoa.

With reference to the above chant, Havaii is the ancient name
of Raiatea, and as I have shown, the same as that particular,
Hawaiki whence I believe some of the Maoris came to New
Zealand. Tuamotu is the former name of the Pau-motu group.
Maareva is Mangareva or Gambier Island. Tupuai and Rurutu
are still known by those names ; they lie to the E.S.E. of Raro-
tonga, and form part of the Austral group. Fenua-ura is the
ancient name of Manuae in the Hervey Islands. Manitia is
intended for Mangaia, the other ancient name of that island
being Ahuahu. Atiu, Rarotonga, and Ai-tutaki are well-known
islands in the Cook group. In the latter name will be noticed
the Tahitian objection to the letter ‘‘k,” which they render in the
chant by “t”. Aihi is Waihi, an ancient Tahitian name for the
Sandwich Islands, as is shown in the following quotation from

804 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

another Tahitian chant published in Vol. III, p. 138, of the
“Journal of the Polynesian Society ”

Oia o Aihi, fenua o te matau nui, That is Aihi, land of the great fish

fenua e a noa mai te vera hiehie, hook, land where the raging fire
fenua hutiahia mai na te mata- ever kindles, land drawn up
poopoo o ravea mai te Tumu mai ! through the undulations of the
Oatu Oahu ia. towering waves from the founda.

tion. Beyond is Oahu.

This name Waihi, or Owaihi, is also known to the Maoris as
that of some land beyond Hawaiki, or Tawhiti-nui, which latter
is the Maori name for Tahiti. It is found in the ancient chant
used in dragging the Tainui canoe out of the forest before she
started for New Zealand with the fleet. ‘ Ai tua o Rehia, ki tua,
o Waihi” (beyond Rehia, beyond Waihi).

The most important name in the chant, however, is ‘‘ Aotea-roa
o te Maori” (“ Aotea-roa of the Maori”), where we have the name
of New Zealand coupled with that of the Maori. The fact of
this mention of the Maori was so much to the point—the expres-
sion was so pat—that it raised doubts as to whether this was not
a modern innovation. But a little reflection will show that it is
quite natural. Although now used as a racial name, the original
meaning of Maori is “native,” or the ordinary Polynesian man-
kind as distinguished from gods or white people. Miss Henry
tells me it is the ancient Tahitian word for “native,” but has long
since been replaced by “ maoht.”

I account for the introduction of Maori into the native Tahitian
chant as follows :—In ancient days, before the arrival of the fleet
in New Zealand in 1350, several voyages between there and the
Central Pacific had been made. We may imagine what would
take place on the arrival of one of these expeditions at Aotea-roa
after a long interval probably. On meeting the aboriginal in-
habitants the voyagers would ask, “ Who are you?” The arswer
would be, “ He tangata maori matou.” ‘ We are natives ”—not
strangers or gods as the voyagers would appear to the aborigines.*
Hence on the return of the voyagers, in giving an account of
their travels—which, like all Polynesians, they would do even to
the minutest particulars—they would say the people of Aotea-roa
were “ Tangata Maori” or Maoris; and hence to the Tahitians
New Zealand would come to be called ‘‘ Aotea-roa o te Maori,”
as in the chant.

This would seem to show a knowledge of New Zealand by the
-Tahitians in former days. In the following Tahitian chant, also
given me by Miss Henry, is mentioned another name—a very

* That such questions were asked by the Polynesians on their arrival at a new
country, see ‘‘ Journal, Polynesian Society,” vol. v, p. 27, describing the arrival of the
Morioris at the Chatham Islands,

GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE OF THE POLYNESIANS,. 805
ancient one—formerly applied to New Zealand, but there is some
uncertainty as to whether this particular Nuwuroa (in Maori,
Nukuroa) is intended for New Zealand. The fact of its being
the home of Tangaroa is rather against it ; for although Tangaroa
was one of the great primary gods of New Zealand, he never
occupied the supreme place of god and creator, as he did in Samoa,
Tahiti, and Hawaii. With the Maoris, Tangaroa is the god of
the sea—Neptune, in fact—presiding over all voyagers, fishing,
or matters relating to the sea. Fornander has shown that the
supremacy of Tangaroa in Hawaii is due to that god’s particular
cult having been introduced into the group during the period
between twenty-four and thirty generations ago, when Hawaii
received from Samoa and Tahiti large numbers of immigrants who
finally became predominant, and then succeeded in ousting from
the supreme position the original god Tane, who was also the
principal god of the Maoris, but who, as war became more and
more prevalent in New Zealand, was in a great measure super-
seded by Tu—“ Scarlet belted Tu”—the god of war.

In the first part of this paper, it was shown that Nukuroa,
besides being an ancient name for New Zealand, was also that of
some country known traditionally to the Maoris, probably some
land far to the west—perhaps the continent of Asia. The name
means “long land,” “ extensive land,” or “distant land.” It is
possible that the following Tahitian chant refers to this ancient
Nukuroa, and not to New Zealand, or the little island of Mitiaro
of the Cook group, the old name of which was also Nukuroa.

THE GODS AND THEIR ORIGINS.

Tupu te atua, tupu te fenua ;

E tupura ’a fenua, e fanaura ’a atua.

O Ta’aroa te atua, o Nu’uroa te
fenua,

O Tu te atua, o Tai-nuna te fenua.

O Tane te atua, o Rai-hamama te
fenua.

O Hau te atua, o Papa-tea te fenua.
O Oro te atua, o Opoa i Havaii te
fenua.

O Hiro te atua, o Uporu te fenua.

Gods grew, and lands grew ;

There was growth of lands, and
birth of gods.

Ta’aroa was the god, Nu’uroa was
the land.

Tu was the god, Tai-nuna Island
was the land.

Tane was the goed, Ra’i-hamama (or
Rairoa) was the land.

Hau was the god, Papatea (Maatea,
or Makatea) was the land.

Oro was the god, Opoa in Havaii
was the land.

Hiro was the god, Uporu was the
land.

806 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

We have in the above enumeration of gods the great quartette

who, according to Maori and other traditions, were the great gods
of Polynesians—-Tane, Tu, Tangaroa, and Rongo. Hau is probably
the Maori Haumia, the god of the fern-root—the staple article
of food of the Maori. Hiro, I think, can be proved to be a more
modern god, besides being the name of a celebrated navigator
who flourished about twenty-four generations ago, and is well
known to Maori, Tahitian, and Rarotongan traditions.* Of the
lands named as the dwelling-place of these gods (or possibly those
in which their worship predominated), Tainuna (translated by
Miss Henry as “ Mixed-up shoal’) is one of the islands formerly
existing north of the Paumotu Group ; Rai’yhamama (to be referred
to later on, and which Miss Henry translates into ‘‘ Open sky”)
is an island to the east of Tahiti, shown on Tupaea’s chart, as is
also Papatea in the same direction, and which is also mentioned
in the Samoan traditions. Uporu, the last name on the list, is the
old name of Tahaa of the Society Group.

In part No. | of this paper it was stated that Turi, the captain
of the Aotea canoe which arrived in New Zealand about 1350,
together with other canoes forming the fleet, was known by name
to the traditions of the Tahitians. J am again indebted to Miss
Henry for the following few particulars regarding him, which are
introduced here as corroborating the statement formerly made as
derived from the New Zealand traditions. ‘Turi was a hero of
former times, born of the gods in Raiatea ; and after many con-
flicts with them, finding his domestic affairs unsatisfactory, he left
Raiatea and went to Tahiti; but at last he left the Tahitian Group
altogether and was never heard of afterwards. So it came to be
believed he never died, but was a god in other lands. Turv’s first
wife was Raurea (in Maori, Raurenga), meaning ‘‘ Turmeric leaf,”
and he left her in Raiatea, but took another from Te Aharoa, in
Tahiti, away with him; she was named Te Puta-ia-fiu (in Maori,
probably, Te Puta-ia-whiu).”

Although brief, the above tradition fully confirms the Maori
traditions concerning Turi, in which it is stated that he left his
bome at Rangi-atea (which is the Maori form of Ra’iatea) in con-
sequence of troubles arising between himself and the ariki, or
great priest Uenuku, who was a very powerful chief in those
times. The name of Turi’s wife who came across the seas with
him does not agree with the Tahitian name ; with the Maoris it
is Rongorongo, and it was from her brother Toto, that the Aotea
canoe was obtained in which the migrants crossed over to New
Zealand. Rongorongo’s father was named Rua-nui-a-Pahiwa, and

* See ‘‘Journal of the Polynesian Society,” vol. 11, p. 30, et seq., vol. Iv, p. 104, et seq.,
where several of his voyages are mentioned,

GEOGRAPHICAL KNGWLELGE OF THE POLYNESIANS, 807

it is possible that the Maori name of Tahiti—Tawhiti-nui-a-Rua*—
is derived from him. In the traditions concerning Turi, as pre-
served by the Maoris, we find that his daughter Tane-roroa
married Uengapuanake, a son of Uenga-ariki, and it is just
possible that this latter individual is the Uenga whose other
name was T'angiia, and who lived at Hiva in Raiatea.t There is
a difference in the length of the genealogies as derived from the
New Zealand, Rarotongan, and Tahitian traditions of about three
generations, however; so this point must be left in abeyance
until further information is to hand. The history of Turi, as
related briefly above, seems to show the reliability of Polynesian
traditions as handed down thr ough more than twenty generations,
and proves the knowledge both peoples had of common ancestors.

In the following brief summary of some of the traditions
obtained by Mr. Elsden Best from the natives of the Bay of
Plenty, New Zealand, may be found, I think, another corrobora-
tion of the Maori knowledge of Tahiti in the fourteenth century.
Some years—how many we know not—prior to the starting of
the fleet for New Zealand, there arrived at Whakatane, in the
Bay of Plenty, a canoe from Hawaiki, which was wrecked on the
coast. At this time there resided in Kapu-te-rangi pa, just inside
the Whakatane River, some people who were descendants of Toi,
the great ancestor of the aboriginal tribes of New Zealand. The
chief of the pa at that time was Tama-ki-hikurangi, who was
seventh in descent from Toi. Early one morning Tama’s daughter
went down to the beach to bathe, where she found two men miser-
ably cold and wet, who were the only survivors of the wrecked
canoe. These men were taken up to the pa and hospitably enter-
tained by the people of the place, and in return for this kindness
they gave to the aborigines some preserved kuwmaras—kao (sweet
potatoes), which they had preserved in their belts. This new food
so pleased the aborigines that an expedition was decided on, to
proceed to Hawaiki to procure some of the seed of this valuable
root. The chief himself—Tama-ki-hikurangi—led the expedition ;
whilst Hoake, one of the shipwrecked men, went as pilot. The
canoe was named “ Te-Ara-tawhao.” They safely reached their
destination, and were welcomed by a chief of the land named Maru-
tai-rangaranga, whose song of welcome has been preserved. It
was some time after their arrival that a number of the people of

* The island of Oahu, in the Hawaiian Archipelago, has also this suffix of ‘‘ Rua,” but in
this case the Rua (or Lua), from whom the name is derived, is much more ancient, as will
‘be seen from the following quotation from ‘“‘ Na mele ai Moku,” a collection of Hawaiian
Chants, p. 123 :—‘‘ Hi mai o Papa mail oko mai o Kahiki-ku, ku inaina lilii ka punalna, hae
manawa ino i ke kane o Wakea, moe ia Lua he kane hou ia, hanau o Oahu-a-Lua.”

7 See ‘‘Journal of the Polynesian Soc‘ety,” vol. iv, p. 122, et seg. In this paper the
Rev. J. B. Stair has recorded several voyages between Samoa, Tahiti, Rarotonga, and _o
Groups, proving conclusively the extent of the geographical knowledge of the i
in the thirteentin and fourteenth centuries.

808 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

Hawaiki decided to migrate to New Zealand in consequence of
troubles that had arisen through land disputes and other causes.
Then was the fleet of canoes Siegal which, as has been shown,
arrived in New Zealand about the year 1350. One of these
canoes was the “ Mata-atua,” and, luckily, most of the sacred
karakias or prayers connected with her building and launching
have been preserved. In the ¢aw or chorus used in hauling the
canoe out from the forest occur the following lines :—

Kapua hokaia i runga o Tahiti-nui-a-Te-Taa,
Ka tatau ana ki runga o Kapu-te-rangi,
Puke i Aotea, ko Toi te tangata o te motu.

Clouds that stride above on Great Tahiti of Te Tua
Will rest on top of Kapu-te-rangi,
The hill at Aotea, where Toi is chief of the island.

The above taw names Tahiti as the land of Te Tua, evidently
some great chief, and it shows also at that time a knowledge of
Aotea or Aotea-roa, of which Toi is said to be the chief, meaning
no doubt his doscendamés. Miss Henry says that Tua is the name
of a very ancient high chieftain family in Tahiti, which seems
again to prove the Maori ‘knowledge of that island, and to show
where the Mata- atua canoe was built. The tradition goes on to
say that the people who received Tama-kihikurangi in Tahiti
were the Tini-o-Te-Cropoa, and that the Mata-atua sailed from
Paea. Both Oropoa, or Oropaa, and Paea are districts in Tahiti,
but we must be on our cuard here, for these names may have
been learnt in later days from Tahitians v isiting New Zealand in
whale ships, and moreover, I think the 'Tini-o-Te- Oropaa people
can be shown to be known to Maori tradition; but the name was
not derived from the district referred to. It would take me too
far away from the matter in hand to explain this. It is different
with names embalmed in the karakias; they may be taken as
correct, for it would have been sacrilege to have altered them.

In reference to the name Maru-tai-rangaranga mentioned above,
it is just possible that this is the same man referred to in the Rey.
J. B. Stair’s “Samoan Voyages,”* as the father of Uenga. The
genealogies preserved by both the New Zealanders and “Raroton-
gans show the age at which he flourished to be very nearly the
same—quite near encugh to allow of both the traditions referring
to the same person.

The evidence which has now been adduced shows pretty clearly
that both Maoris and Tahitians were mutually acquainted with
their respective countries in the thirteenth and fourteenth cen-
turies, if not long before, and that communication was not

* Journal of the Polynesian Society, vol. 1v, pp. 103, 130.

GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE OF THE POLYNESIANS. 809

infrequent in those days. Moreover, it also supports the theory
enunciated in the first part of this paper, to the effect that the
immediate Hawaiki from which the Maoris came to New Zealand,
was Havaii, the ancient name of Raiatea of the Society Group.

That the Tahitians had an extensive knowledge of the Central
Pacific.and far beyond it, has been demonstrated to a certain ex-
tent above ; but we now come to consider more positive evidence
as illustrated by the information given to Captain Cook and Sir
Joseph Banks, by Tupaea, who accompanied them on the latter
part of the ‘‘ Endeavour’s” voyage from Tahiti to Batavia, where
Tupaea died, 11th November, 1770. The chart drawn under the
direction of this learned Tahitian by the officers of the “‘ Endea-
vour” has been fully commented on by Forster, Hales, and De
Quatrefages ;* but many of the islands shown in this chart, and
in the list published by Forster, were not identified by any of
those authors. It is for that reason that the list is reproduced
below, with the identifications I have been able to arrive at. I feel
it the more incumbent on me to do so because Admiral Wharton,
Hydrographer Royal, the editor of ‘‘ Cook’s Journal,” has hazarded
the remark that few of these islands are capable of identification,
by which the learned Hydrographer has unintentionally cast a
slur on the bond fides of the Tahitian priest and navigator under
whose direction the chart was drawn up.

Forster says (loc. cit., p. 511) “ Tupaya (Tupaea in modern
Tahitian) the most intelligent man that ever was met by any
European navigator in these isles, had himself been ten or twelve
days’ sail to the westward of O-Raiedea (Raiatea), which, accord-
ing to Capt. Cook’s computation, would make 400 leagues, or
about 20 degrees of longitude. This man when on board the
*“ Endeavour,” gave an account of his navigations, and mentioned
the names of more than eighty isles of which he knew, together
with their size and situation, the greater part of which he had
visited; and having soon perceived the meaning and use of charts,
he gave directions for making one according to his account, and
always pointed out the part of the heavens where each isle was
situated, mentioning at the same time that it was either larger or
smaller than Taheitee (Tahiti), and likewise whether it was high
or low, whether it was peopled or not, adding now and then some
curious accounts relative to some of them. . . This chart I
have caused to be engraved as a monument to the ingenuity and
geographical knowledge of the people of the Society Isles, and of
Tupaya in particular.”

In studying this chart there are some things which must con-
stantly be borne in mind. First, that neither Cook, nor Banks,

* Forster’s ‘‘ Observations,” London, 1778. ‘‘ Ethnology and Philology of the United States
Exploring Expedition,” 1846. ‘‘Les Polynésiens,” by A. De Quaterfages, Paris, 1864.

810 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

nor any of the officers of the ‘‘ Endeavour” had good ears for
catching native sounds, a failing which seems to attach to the
English much more so than to the French. For instance, in the
New Zealand names preserved by Cook, many are very unlike the
reality, whilst those written by D’Urville are nearly all easily
recognised, and many of them are exact. Second, those who took
down the information supplied by Tupaea understood but little
of his language, and, therefore, in some cases, descriptions have
become part of the proper names on the chart. Third, the error
already pointed out by Hale and De Quatrefages, that through this
ignorance, some parts of the chart have been inverted. Where
the islands were unknown to Cook and his officers, their positions
relatively to Tahiti are generally indicated truly ; but it is toler-
ably clear, that during part ofthe operation, the chart has been
turned end for end, without the knowledge of Tupaea, or without
his understanding what was done, and consequently whole groups
of islands have been placed in the wrong quadrant of the map,
whilst retaining generally their proper mutual positions. It is
quite clear that something of this kind has occurred, and Tupaea
has probably helped to make the confusion worse by trusting to
the supposed superior knowledge of the Europeans. We find, for
instance, the words, He too te ra written on the east end of parallel
of 17° south latitude, and Yoo-te-ra also at the west end. Now
the meaning of this is ‘‘ The sun set,” or the west ; and had there
not been some shifting of the chart during the time the informa-
tion was being recorded, Tupaea would never have made such a
mistake as that. This is unfortunate, as it renders the identifica-
tion of the islands more dependent on Cook’s barbarous names
than on their positions ; and moreover, I think it is due to this
cause that the names appear to jump from one group to another
in the list below.

In the copy of the original names given below, in most cases,
the “O,” or article used before proper names has been given by
Forster as part of the name, but in the third column, where an
endeavour has been made to render the names into modern Poly-
nesian, this is omitted. I have added to the list of identifications
about thirty-four names, and shown that others are probable ;
these are in addition to those which Forster had already recog-
nised. If we were better acquainted with the native names of
the islands, others referred to on Tupaea’s chart would be recog-
nised. Some of those he has given are probably old names which
have since been changed, thus rendering their identification a
work of difficulty, and moreover, these old Tahitian voyagers pro-
bably gave names to islands which are not known to the people
of those islands ; as, for instance, in cases where the Tahitian
alphabet did not contain letters used by other branches of the
race,

ae

811

GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE OF THE POLYNESIANS.

‘oredg 10 ‘edvy jo uorytsod 943 ynoqe aq 09 41
SMOYS JAvYO OUT, 4L JO YYNOS 94 07 SPUYIST 210M a10Y4
Ul] PlOZ pel AVYYVY siy YSnoyy ‘uses pey vovdny, ast
JSOLWUULOYINOS OY} puv ‘IIYVY, Ue AIaSIV] ST ,, ‘SKUs 1998.10,7
*BSUOJOIVY JO OUUVU JUSIOUT 99 ST SIU,
*‘(NOyenIN ur se ..“B,, OF UAagjoO
sasuvyo aNIN UT ,,9,, 949) PULIST advaRg 10 ONIN 9q Avut
puv ‘aodning jo 4saa oy} 09 ‘YIYey, Wolly “Y'S's UMOYS
‘dnorp {tq oyg Jo ouo A[qissogd *M*N 0 prnoys
a10ja.10yy pu ‘Gg puv fF ‘SON SV AOAIO JUUIES OT[y 09 yoolqns
Ayqeqoad st ynq ‘1W1yUBL JO ‘W'S 944 OF Yavyo uo UMOYY
"qa “d
TOA «'S'd'£ > —"BJOINV AA SB UVS00 94 JO 4ued tes
9yg Ul pus ‘414, Jo" MN 949 07 WoYyy Aq UMOYS pue
‘suvduojoivy oy} 03 UOIpeig Aq UMOUY f uodnany
YIM payiuoept aq AvUL puRIsE siyg sousYy ,.{5U,, 949
10 ,, Y,, 249 aUNOUOId Jou Op suRIyTYyeT, OU “Wye Jo
“MN 0 plmoys At f “"S 9Y4 OF Wey yueyo ayy UO UMOYYS
« PoPGvyUl puv “YY UvYyA JoSIV[ Ospy., sAvs 194S10\7
*qno payutod
Kpvoye Jarvyo oy} Jo uoyisod ur asuvyo oy} 03 onp
DYVISIUL B “IGIYeT, UOA “G'S SV 4I SMOYS Javyo s,vavdny,
« Quetmefddng) g ‘d ‘A ‘Jo, ‘Ajaro0g uvtsaucyog ,,
(BuUINOL,, Bag ‘sUOWLOJOg ayy AvauU A[qvqoid ‘oyTOeg
“M'N 9} UL Sv paurTtdajap oq uvo uoTgIsod sqt Wwayy
WOdAJ PUB ‘SUOIFIPLAY UBSUOJOALY pUv PUL[VOZT MON UT
poplooal St ‘UMOUY You st uoTyIsOd sqrt YSnoY4 ‘purjst sy,
« POPQVYUL | IYIYVT, UY} Aesavy puvyst uY,, ‘sAvs 1o4s10,7
“SLIOv]L
ayy 07 AT[vUOKZIpery UAMOUY st oUIeU SIYy JO puUrISE uy

SP 6ST

& 81
O& 6FL

(at

€¢ LT
gs LT

es °

teers enon
OIBAOIVA-94-NUUNY, |****** + OBOAL-94-NUUIN,
9uvy-v
-vout-entn sdveyied 10
‘QUBT-C-VIWULBJ-NIN OT,

sree Te TABU-94-14TET

POOGUS Ve (Cofehqhqalyey ee Oouo: sheath Cag * todnag

vererees agogoway [orotic eqoroe Ay
Ee CEE Te
Fieeeeeeee moquayg [octets eee wage

wmgez [occ ges,

noqmoyyt
"55" OIBOI-OJOTUOOT,

9Ueq-eoUUIeYyMoU-aJ,

* 99A10-O1BULG}-0}91H-O

“+> godoino

Fereeesereees URqoITO
Fr eee+ +++ goou-Baaay-O
BOyVD
teeseeeeess gaqroyey-O

ee

Aa ~~

“Syareulayy

“M
*‘SUuO'T

‘ayeurxoiddy

‘Ss
“eT

“uvIsou sod

—UEM P8BHUEPE | qropoyy ur oneg OUT,

“QUIEN 81098107

“ON 8,109810,7

‘qavyp s.vovdny, Surkuvduoooe YsrqT 8.104810 97

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

812

eee

‘nod

op op G OFL| 4926 -eny 10 “eyn-eny °°" Snisleisiercicceemninyy guy |eeerelsiele BY MOY Og, 18
wotte Be Staee [) BaR bos abe | Re wege ove Retr “ssesss gopartaggeum | 9¢
‘sesonbavyy ay} JO 9UO | OL OFT | OF § : CNG Cabs lane ||P BOC COEIORe BATU MTN femme ean ““easoy-oooN | cg
tede Baie CPt ese Sereno éfisboc ‘++ maueauepy foots t ‘++ poueawep | Fe
ae ZOTicial PRED OR OR OORT Op ve [eeeeeeeees pengng-eateT ve noqn0o}-vavap-¢ | ee
op op zo oFL | FL gE fo t oupy frectcesteetee tes ov fot ovum-O | TE
‘dnory nyoumneg 943 JO 0uQ | ZB GFL | SLOT [ccc eavaeye VALET IO “VABICY A |°°"** sugte stale “eraIvyM-O | OF
‘snjoumeg “A'N oy} Jo ou aq 09 sty sMoUs JavYyO oy, | =” nels ope Seis eer Peso ueist isbetcaevarcialas woreunyg forte - vor-euny-Q | ze
op op OL OPE | Fa Gk lesen: eqedy eee mec eeeenneaaes reyeg jvc seer aceece 1eqtq-O 6Z
op op OF FFL | SG OL se eeee (i) MOUBUEIIilposseeses Totes ens MU huss eee “9: UBt-O 8Z
op op OF LPL | 60 GE [cit twom yoy fevcttr etc s ewor ney footer wor-rey-Q | 22
*VOYOLL Bd x09,L
op op OL SFT} 0 GE fcc t tt neyeyry jo ‘neyory, pue vig |10 ‘oayoag, pue eang | 9z ‘¢
op op OL OFT | OG BL [octet aytg [oc aye [oct ee TOUCM-Q | #2
op op OPPShn OF PL eevee MATCPET noo oea se race CALOYTY |" * VOYeT AO VATOAVIV-C | €B
‘dno nyow-nvg 9yj4 jo sug OS CFL ike LI gi nfefekeis eles ¥is:) SQ IL. sete eee Genes eu Per eee cele TUUY-O 2
“gid &q pooedaa pux ‘oqarosqo
aM0DIq SUIAVY IPYVy, Ul VIW pAOM Uy ‘TyIdNeY payiwo MON | OL ZeL | ZZ OL | eMaMePy [os CTUINGIN: Pecan a seme ae BoomMojyy | 1%
op QF IGT OUOL lseeess on redny, Peete ee eeeee . redny, thee een ween eee edooy, 02
op GF ISL (Taye |\aocseoor eilodeiog Pa eee ead vIOdRIO eee eccee eecee BlOQvlog 6L
op oz tet | ce on fc weyeg [cite eeyey fo sees euet-o | ST
op 0g Tet | 0¢ ot ttt waqerey |ortetttt wayereyy [trite vajorey-0 | LT
op G¢ tel |eeoL lc: * guryungy fet teeeeees guigengg [otcttttt auroyengy | CL
“iqryez, avon | 0G GFL | Of JT |vatoopy ao ‘oauy [ores settee oauny [ttt eesereeeOgunge | FT
‘dnory A4a100g ay} Ivou ‘purjsy Siopunrg seprvyO ug | ce ost | cg AL |***nuevur-atndey, |---* +++ + nuvw-sendey |'°*'** oouuvu-e-nqqey, | eL
nynany Jo sureu
quoroue uv ‘voqgitT oq Avi sIyy 4aeyo uo UoTzIsod mong | “*°° | cote fret ttt rrelsie \jeisisiels PESOGDGOS TONE Gyj ay | POOVCOOSCODA DR EeLh TS EQ) |! PAE
fe Bae seestoee ROCadOn ie) daltetessis: ets teeeeeesomuengny footie aoow-oqrg | IT
*po[doad aq 04
4SoT[1v9 AY} JO 9UO SB SUOTIIPLAY ULISAUATOY UL poyeaqa[oo
puvyst uv ‘dnoiy voureg oy} JO udezsva ysoul oy} Jo ouQ | OF BOL | OG FL | eMUEpL femur fo enuueyy | oor
‘ ° ri ‘
0]
“A ‘S g
A ‘SuOT Sl ‘uvtsoucd[og S
SYIVUI YY —UyIM pogyuep] | Japoy Ut ouueg OUL, QUIBNT §,194810,7 ..
‘ayeurxorddy Al

‘panuyuoo—yieyH svosdny, sutduvdumooor Qsvy 8.104s10q

813

GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE OF THE POLYNESIANS.

a

‘SpUv|s] YOIMpuRg yy pure IWR, UDEMQOq

OOYMOUIOS aq 0% uMoys SI sig ‘9eT TI “JOA “sae uy sae see Cea ry ‘eunuU-Ivy, . PROP BOOLEAN eM g ri a) VUNUITY, 6g
O19} WO BOQVIVY OF JUIOD SoTpOAeY
aUy JVY} OpvI ST quoUTOyNAS oY4Y pu ‘pULIST SIVA
IO VOL, JO 489A OU} 0} Sv JABYO OY} UO UMOYS St PUL|ST STU, Serie rer efol etele ere) e/ale re #8 acarny O16 bolntevenssoyays teteseeeesereppaoay-o | 9g
sees oy st et weee Hee we ww we ee ewe . PIII AO OTN: 10 (2F2]shaen p 19
ater Bis eawe aie Yaie)/e(s) sip\elale levels: alin\latalaiatavetetel eded-numy, ttsseseess edud-oourooy, 9g
‘dnoi3 e3uoy, CL FLT | 08 6I oe (:) NOF-nany VET [erste nmamyy foots t+ ++ nomoyy-o eg
‘dnoid YooD oy4 Jo euC | GP 6ST | 0G 1S |°°°'** wBUOg-oaeay [ores eee eee 804-018 |* “** 207-018Y-O | FG
“ “ec “e ve 0g LPL cc 2% sevens TBA-BA-TRYT ee eeveceve IVAVY-TB YY . “*TRABU-TRY-O &G
‘dnows yeagsny oy} jo 0uo | cp got | oF az [tt BAVP-CUNNY fees Baeq-CUUTY [ote sss earey-eUyy-Q | 39
‘dnois mdvqq oy ul oureu 4eyy Jo OSI au AIQIssog eee see eee eee (i) MUL ee ee POGOCEOT TGQ] ofa seieteseieieis ei bieKererBUBOKKSO 1g
«'Y,, 94} dounouold you Op sxopuv[sy YooO
SUL “Nen,y St Yor Jo omvu quolouvs oy} ‘viesueIO | 0 Sct] age |v ctttt es nen |e: “" nyenyy j*ttt*t**** noy-enoyy-9 | 0g
“SpURIST YOOH 04} JO 9uO | OL SST | 0 06 |** *°*** “nMy |] °° ORIN ee eC EO)
‘so[s] Teaasny aya Jo oug | oz Tsk | og eg foc nqnany vreeteeresesenanamay fertssseeeseees ngnamag | 95
“(ost ‘Mm “S'ae) “ytdeg st yor
JO dUvU DAIWVU 944 ‘puLisT UosneYyssuTt[ag A[qeqoid
SI sty} TANYENUIY AA 03 qoodsoa UgI uoiqisod ayy WoOAT sae tees ne oer i i a ad i ry OoINe MA LP
“SQOT}IPRAy ULOtIeS
OY} UL POUOTZUIUI SI 4] “puv[sy MOLIwANG JO pooyanog
“YS1IOU OY UL oAOYMoUTOS oq 0} gavyo oy) Woy savoddy | °°: i GAG SS Us os Pr onde al saives | sale eeevuan ater eC il Nip
‘spurvsy Ayiog ‘dnoas Ajoro0g og Jo ysoMy | OG FET | ca or |::°: BAINY-VUT AA | °°" “= BIM-CNUst AA [°° **** vloo-enuuoYy A | GF
“pueysy omopy ‘dnory Ajoro0g oy} Jo 4seA, | G FOL | Gh OT |o°°°** weyrdmepy [esses eee ‘eyldoy |**voy-ngoy 10 ‘eyoodoyy | FF
"eO-VATTT Teou Alqeqoig sone ceee se erele «ae ejaie sles seen eee w snes ojod-vatyy eee e ene 09,0d-vra0zq-O CP
«I, 04} Corp svsonbavyy oy, ‘sesonbavyx oyy Jo ouo | ce get | ep 6 D5 Gly ces CO-BAT IAs "** BOI-BATHT |" °° °° **** BOd-BA0oH-C | ZF
*svsonbaivyq aq} JO aug OP S&L 8Z OL se eeee wAIy-ngey |-** whale! esis TY rece eeeecicnee 0110-0 Ga
“‘SPUBIST YOOD
‘NIP AO} olwvU yuOTOUL oY} ‘NuvUt-eNUOYAA SI sIyy A[QISSOg re "je" Nuem-enuey my foot ess nuBypoy, foots ONE On | OF
anal zeigt ORI EOCor tar: Novator brs ee RRMA ats eaves wIOO-o1taqVeYy A | GE
*paT[vo os st dnors 4vy4
jo ouo ,, YN ,, 94} Jo asvAoA oy} ul pue ‘svsonbavyy
ayy UL aq OF 4vYyYo UO UMOYG ‘uvisoud[og ur asuvyo
Apyuvysuoo .N,, PUB ,.1,, BT, “dnorg [eaysny oy} JO | Le GPL] 2oes foo rendny, | Seinen aie TE CLR, | eso tera aie BOOM SOI Mee
SSS a ae ra er ee ie es ee |
aA ‘s ‘ I
7 “SUO'TT “ye ‘> “uvisou{[og a A
SHAVULIYT UJIM poyryuopy UOPO] UT atIeg OUT OUIVN 8,109S10,7 é a
‘ageuuxoiddy aa

‘panwyuoo—yaeyy seordny, Surkuvduooor Qsry s.coqs10 97

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

814

a

‘ayeyst Aq oureU oY} 07 poxyye pur ,,“Ivou,,
piom oy ATquqord st vey, ‘dnorg uvsuoy, ay} Jo auo
*puys] ureyQ =“dnory njgouneg ay} Jo 9ud
‘dnowy 4yaIWo0g
‘dnowy vourrg

‘dnory vous
‘dnoay vouoy,

‘dnoay vowrg
“q1eyo 9} UO UOTTISOd oY} YITA dole p[NOA puv ‘pue[sT
aSvavg 10 ‘ONIN JO} papuaqur st Sty} OS JT “AT[CULSTAIO
‘vay MOUG SBA JI 4VY) pure ‘payjedsstum you ST vaTTMonG
DUIVU OY} AYIA OF SV YqnoOp VSL aloyg, “PURIST SITCA
‘dnoasv Suravow nzv ,,dnory fq ,, 943 9q 07 savodde sty

‘dnoas iy ous

*puvsl
dUIOPT 10 vuNANY Jo suv ABYJoue aq Avut puv “vow JO
gsam-ugaou Ayqeqoad st qt yaeyo uo uortsod woay 4nq
‘eyndvyng os[v poureu ‘purjsy juourjuoddesiq 10 ‘uapnofT

‘dnoas werfig oy} JO YON
*SpuUrvys]
NeSseN pu AOSuBG AvoU pUYIST Ue JO OUIvU OY} SI VUaT,

“SyIVIUI YY

OF B41) 08 St |":
(Oy? WA | a7G ee
O FAL | Or Sls.

see see .

/ ° ‘ °
“M ‘S
“SUuOT “407
aqguurxoiddy

“> Tedeyy
eeuy
* eOIVN,
“ Weaes

“ njody
"* NBABA

Bl-nqny,

tree may

* vendng
BUN OY,

UTM payrquep]

seme ee ewww rene i rr) evddeg 8
ee ec sree rc et ccces OU DAO ODUIOOOOUD ry af eli cy si £8
eee e crete eerees ee eeeeee oo* £ae-Advy, ZB
teseeeee- + redey-e1ey, see te wees * wedvy-eyey, 18
Pete eeeeeedeeees py fortresses sess muUeMA-O | 08
veeeeeeeeeeeseporeng, ot ‘soes* wornypaz | 64
teeeeeeeeeeees ripagp [oretctees ts reavay-o | gt
agqoopecuddenon Feet eeee ees mataqqyvul
-odo-oodaaigq-ay, | 1
SOSTGOHNOOOOIO Faw iays (A) SOD OOGUOOCO “ooh Cofaa CoYoYgy 91
nich shsliefolere * NeMNEM eheieteies-elebelsescee eat) CYAAYL OVA ec)
helioseNierensiexsinie esisarte ** BIYCATYVUI-OOLOOIO-OT, | FL
teeeeeeeeees ggoenqng, |oo¢77t* adaa-00300E-0 | €L
vieeeeeeeeeee pou [or -++++eaymong | ZL
veeeeeeeeees rareengy [o - WIy-noyy-aL, I
sreeeeeee TqnateUy |o° °° '* OTgIy-oolwtUy-a7, | OL
00 ** 9109-18}-1QIAT [°° 04199-189-0991H-O | 69
trrere sm IT-ngng-4uy |’ * Blat-n0jnoq-9991H-O | 89
sereeess 19 NgNg-1I4IFZ | °° °" «99UN0jN04-9741H-O 19
soreeees nae-ngng-4tAD |" ***) ngenojnoy-99371H-O 99
teeeseee ss onod-t4fy sanoodon -+0990d-09}1-O C9
** ney-vednqyedny, |** noyvovdny-rdooy, ar | +9
ee a oA4-0U-d0]T €9
eee “+ endeg see rsieeves ss 'noddog-O z9
pecereeesece eunyoy SPE eB IrOOT OTE) 19
retetetatersteceieieTereterate Foseereeess guaq-eumry | 09
ry
‘uersoud [og ‘ A §
WIOpOP UL aueg EYL, SURE NG Ro SOU oF
ot
n

Pie eee. ee Se
ay aL Q ‘
PanrUrzuod qIeUy) s.vovdny, sutkueduroooe 4svUy 8199810 i

GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE OF THE POLYNESIANS. 815

This list of islands shows clearly the extent of the geographical
knowledge of the Tahitians prior to the advent of the white man.
From the fact stated by Forster, that Tupaea himself had visited
most of these islands, it is clear that the Tahitians retained
their powers of navigation much longer than some other branches
of the Polynesian race. The New Zealanders and Sandwich
Islanders had certainly ceased to make long voyages for some
twenty generations ; and it is probable that the Samoans had
done the same for many generations before the nineteenth
century. The Tongans, Marquesans, and some others apparently
still made extensive voyages down to the coming of the white
man,

Sir Joseph Banks says of the Tahitian canoes, which he fully
describes as he saw them in ]769: ‘In these, if one may credit
the reports of the inhabitants, they made very long voyages, often
remaining several months from home, visiting in that time many
different islands of which they reported to us the names of nearly
one hundred. They cannot remain at sea above a fortnight or
twenty days, although they live as sparingly as possible, for want
of proper provisions and places to store them in, as well as water,
of which they carry a tolerable stock in bamboos.” (Journal, p.
159.

t reference to their knowledge of astronomy, by which they
were enabled to make these long voyages, the same writer says :
“Tn their longer voyages they steer in the day by the sun, and in
the night by the stars ; of these they know a very large number
by name, and the cleverest among them will tell in what part of
the heavens they are to be seen in any month when they are
above the horizon; they know also the time of their annual
appearance and disappearance to a great nicety—far greater than
would be easily believed by an European astronomer.” (Loc. cit.,
p. 162.)

Captain Cook notes that the Tahitians gave him the names of
130 islands known to them.

In addition to the names mentioned on Tupaea’s chart, and in
the old Tahitian chants already quoted, M. De Bovis, a writer on
Tahitian subjects, gives the names of the following lands to the
west of Tahiti mentioned in their chants :—Te Miromiro, Pua-ura,
Faa-nui, and Tonga-tapu, the latter no doubt being the principal
island of the Tonga Group, and which is not alluded to in Tupaea’s
chart. Then we have the list of names embodied in ‘The Birth
of new Lands,” a chant published by Miss Henry in the ‘ Journal
of the Polynesian Society,” vol. 11, p. 136, wherein are included
the names of a number of islands situated between Tahiti and
Hawaii which no longer exist. This tradition was also given by
Fornander in his ‘‘ The Polynesians,” from the Hawaiian point of
view.

816 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

From what has now been stated, it is clear that the Tahitians,
like many others of the Polynesian race, had a very extensive
knowledge of the Pacific. It extended from Hawaii to New
Zealand—about 4,000 miles—and froin Mangareva or Gambier
Tsland to near the New Hebrides, or perhaps further north-west—
about 4,500 miles.

When we come to consider that the whole of this vast space of
ocean was in former times traversed by various branches of the
Polynesian race, and that they had no leading coast lines to
follow, but must have steered boldly out into the ocean with but
a small extent of land as an objective, after weeks of sail, we
cannot but acknowledge that, as bold navigators, the Polynesians
were far before any nation of antiquity in this art. Before such
feats as theirs, the navigation of the Pheenicians, Arabs, Chinese,
and others, sink into insignificance.*

No. 15.—THE OCEANIC FAMILY OF LANGUAGES.
By the Rev. D. Macponatp, D.D.

Read Tuesday, January 11, 1898.

PHONOLOGY, STRUCTURE, ORIGIN.

Tue Insular family of languages, or Oceanic, is spoken by thirty
or forty millions of the human race, inhabiting islands in the
Indian and Pacific Oceans and in the intermediate Malay Archi-
pelago and Peninsula. The numberless languages, or dialects, of
this family have all sprung from one inflected Oceanic mother-
tongue, now lost, or existing only in these, its analytic or broken-
down offspring. They have been divided into four groups, which
it is convenient to recognise :—(1) The Tagalan, comprising the
Tagala, Bisaya, Formosa, Marianne, Malagasy, &c.; (2) The
Malayan, comprising the Malay, Java, Battak, Dayak, Bugis,
&e.; (3) The Polynesian, comprising the Samoan, Tongan,
Hawaiian, Maori, &c.; and (4) The Melanesian, comprising the
Fiji, Aneityum, Tanna, Eromanga, Efate, Malikula, Santo,
Solomon Islands, &c. Taking a general view of all, we find that
they have a common stock of numerals, pronouns, and other
words, of formative or word-building suffixes and prefixes, and of

* Nore.—The chart that accompanies this paper is from De Quatrefage’s copy of Forster’s
chart.

THE OCEANIC FAMILY OF LANGUAGES, 817

grammatical or syntactical processes or sounds, which constitutes
them one family. In order to ascertain the origin of this family,
or its relationship to some other known family, as the Indo-
European or the Semitic, these all must be taken into account,
due regard being had to the principles of dialectic, phonetic, and
grammatical variation, such as obtains in languages in the
analytic stage, and due allowance being made for the length of
time, and the circumstances in which the analytic process has been
going on—in this case (say) four thousand years—in circumstances
very highly favourable to diversification. If it can be shown that
the common stock of numerals, pronouns, and other fundamental
words, of formative suffixes and prefixes, and of grammatical
processes and words, which constitutes the Oceanic languages a
perfectly well-defined family, is Semitic, this will establish the
relationship of these languages to the Semitic languages, and
prove that the Oceanic mother-tongue was a sister-tongue to the
Arabic, Phenician, Hebrew, Syriac, Assyrian, Himys aritic, and
Ethiopic (with aineee aiidenri dialects, as the Neo- -Syriac, Mahri,
Amharic, and Tigre), sprung, like them, from the no longer
existing Semitic mother-tongue. The object of this paper is to
show as briefly as possible that this can be done.

In treating the phonology of our subject, it is necessary to
observe that the Semitic languages have certain gutturals peculiar
to them, and that some of these occur—e.g., in the numeral words—
for 1, 4, 5, 7, 10, and 1,000. The Semitic gutturals referred
to are alif represented in what follows by a or some other vowel
in italic, and when it has hemza, which indicates that it is to be
pronounced almost like i‘ (ain), by a‘ or other vowel with ‘; ha
by 2; hha by h’; the rougher Arabic hha by h” ; ain by hé ; the
rougher Arabic ghain by h‘. As to their original pronounciation,*

@ was the lightest, softer than h which is represented by our h.

The guttural h’ is stronger than h, something like ch in Scotch
loch ; it had a softer and rougher sound, the latter being repre-
sented in Arabic by h”. The guttural 2‘ is unpronounceable by
Europeans, and peculiar to the Semitic languages, akin to and
sometimes confounded with h”. It hada softer and a rougher
sound, the latter being represented in Arabic by “‘, and described
as the sound of a g slightly rattled in the throat, and resembling
somewhat the Northumbrian r and the French r grasséyé. To
these has to be added the Semitic 7, which was sometimes pro-
nounced as a lingual, and sometimes as a guttural with a hoarse
guttural sound. For an account of these gutturals, and the
trills 7, 7, see Prof. M. Miiller’s Lectures on the Science of
Language, ii, pp. 135-138. It has to be added that the tendency

*The symbols here used are not to be regarded as at all denoting the true pronounciation ;
as to that, in the ancient and modern Semitic dialects the grammars of the various dialect
must be consulted.

3 F

818 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

of the Semitic languages is, in the course of their analytic
development, to confound these gutturals, and, finally, to soften
them all down to @, or a mere spiritus lenis. Dr. Codrington,
speaking of the guttural trill, which he calls ‘“‘ the Melanesian g,”
says :—“ It may be taken for 7, or may be missed altogether.
Tt has been written g (hard), 7, g (ngq), rg, h, rh, and k. That it
resembles 7 is shown by the spelling of visitors. . . . Bishop
Patteson was struck by its resemblance to the Arabic ghain
(.e., h“), and Professor M. Miiller’s description of the Hebrew
ain (7.€., h‘) as a vibration of the fissura laryngea, approaching
sometimes to a trill, nearly equivalent to a German g in tage,
closely suits it.” (The Melanesian Languages, pp. 204-206). In
Oceanic 7 is sometimes pronounced as a lingual, sometimes as a
guttural (Crawford, Malay Gram., p. 75; F. Miller, G.d.
Sprache, ii, il, ii, p. 92ff); hence, as we shall see, we find it
not only interchanged with ¢, 6, v, &c., but also with h, g, (4), or
spiritus lenis.

Interchanges with each other of dentals, sibilants, gutturals,
labials, or of dentals with sibilants are not to be wondeucd at. But
the more remarkable interchange in Oceanic between (1) dentals (or
sibilants) and labials, and vice versa, (2) between dentals (or sibi-
lants) and gutturals, and vice versa, and (3) between gutturals and
abials, and vice versa, are not so easily understood. In (Melan.
Hang., pp. 403-407) Rotuma folu 3, hak 4, hif 7, for the common
Oremic tolu, bat, pitu(and generally i in the Owsamie numerals every-
where, as we shall see) all these interchanges are exemplified (1) in
_folu, hif, (2) in hak, and (3) in hak, hif. In Hawaiian, dental and
guttural are confounded, and / stands for both ¢and #. In 'Tangoan
Santo, dental and labial are confounded, as ¢ and p, mand n.
(South Sea languages, p. i). The same confusion is found in
North East Malekula, where it is impossible sometimes to tell
whether the native speaker utters m or n, th or v. In these cases
one letter might represent both ¢h or v, letter ¢ or p, m or n, as
Hawaiian / stands fork or 4. In Efate kis very often pronounced
ngandtas7,orras¢. In some cases 7 and e are confused.
““Tt is a question whether the sound made in some localities is
really an aspirate which may be written h, or not rather to be
represented by f . . . ‘In the greater number of languages
which have both sibilants and aspirates, 4 and s are equivalent.”
(The Melanesian Languages, pp. 193, 216.) Now, these inter-
changes must have been going on from the earliest times, as we
find examples of them generally throughout the Oceanic dialects.
Thus, in Efatese dialects “who ?” is fez, se, and he (Tahitian var);
and bea, ‘first,’ in one dialect, is tiamia, which is certainly for
miamia or fiamia, Epi beamu, Samoan muamua. Efate finanga,
food, is in Duke of York winaga, Mota sinaga, Motlay hinag.
Star in Malay is bintang, in Javanese lintang and wintang, in

ce

THE OCEANIC FAMILY OF LANGUAGES. 819

Malagasy kintana and vasiana, in Aneityum moryeur, in Efatese
masoet and ngmahe. In Malay nipis, tipis, mipis, ‘thin,’ there is
the interchange of m and ¢, and n and m ; while in ais pukul,
‘strike,’ kilat, kilap, ‘lightning,’ is that of ¢ and p. (Marsden,
Malay Gram., p. 113.) In Malagasy, when a formative suffix is
attached to words having the formative ending -ka, -na or -tra,
the & is changed to h or f the tr tot, 7, or f, and the n often to
m. (Parker, The Malagasy Language, p. 19.) The importance
of this to the explanation of certain universal facts in Oceanic
will appear below. The interchange of labial and guttural is seen
in Malay in gawa or bawa ‘to carry, in Efatese bui and kui
‘back,’ mafis and makus ‘knife, Malay piso, Malagasy dialect
kiso ‘knife.’ Dr. Codrington has remarked that in the letter-
changes which do occur in the Melanesian it is generally impossible
to find alaw. (Work cited, p. 201.) Prof. M. Miiller, after
comparing Sanscrit gharma, ‘heat, with Greek thermos, Latin
jormus, says he is strongly inclined to ascribe the phonetic
diversity which we observe between Sanscrit, Greek, and Latin
to a previous state of language, in which, as in the Polynesian
dialects, the two or three points of consonantal contact were not
yet felt as definitely separated from each other. . . . No
letter ever becomes. People pronounce letters, and they either
pronounce them properly or improperly. (Science of Language,
ii, p. 180-1).

THE NUMERALS (PHONOLOGY, STRUCTURE, ORIGIN).

In the Semitic languages the abstract or feminine of the
numerals 3-10 was formed, as in other nouns, by the formative
suffix ¢, or th (pronounced now by some Arabs to), which often
became either a guttural f or elided. This feminine form of these
numerals was used with masculine nouns, and has become in
Modern dialects almost the sole form used and of common gender,
and it is, therefore, the form to be expected, and which is found
in Oceanic. This ending is unmistakably seen in the numerals 4
and 5, with which we begin, only premising that the nouns of the
Oceanic languages and dialects of the four groups to which the
following words belong, here omitted for the sake of brevity and
clearness, may be found given in my paper in the Journal of the
Polynesian Society, last quarter of 1896, pp. 215-222.

Four.

Arabic, wrbah‘at ; modern, arbaat ; modern Ethiopic dialects,
arut, ubah ; Oceanic, ampat, mbit, evats, ebits, efatra, efats, efutcha,
apat, hipat, vare, vas, vitu, vier, baté, vavu, fiak, opak, emin, pali,
Jal, awang, kaar, tar, tas, tiak, thaté, thack, hak, hani, the ¢ elided ;
Ja, wha, a in all the others is represented by this final consonant.
Malagasy efatra is efara in hefarana, Xe.

820 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

Seven.

Arabic, sabh‘iatu ; Assyrian, sibit ; Mahri i (Modern Himyaritic),
abet ; @eoune pitu, fito, fiz, fus, fik, sik, tik, titu, tuju, fiet, fiak,

ambitu, wontit, awith. ‘The final consonant in all is the ending f.
Sta.
Arabic, sittat ; Mahri, iteet (itit) ; Oceanic, enina, anam, anum,
amnem, wonen, (won), (kon), ( Jene), (hene), (hono), gurum ;

Malagasy, enina is envma in enimina, &e. Tn all, except those in
brackets, in which it is elided, the final consonant is the ending t.

Nine.

Arabic, tish‘at , (Modern, tist) ; Mahri, iset ; Sokotra, sa’ah) ;
Oceanic, siam, sivy, hiva, hhepi, iv f sievo, sieva, siyu, tihu, sin,
sanga, asera, salapan, sambilan, pitan. In salapan we have
labial for sibilant (as in jfene, 6; wontit, 7; puluh, 10; and
often), and sa/a—is the initial ¢ peep ered exactly, as is dala
(or bala) in Malay, dalapan (also salapan), 8; Lagala dalava, 2.
Sambihan appears by transposition for saliban rate salapan). In
all, the final consonant is the ending ¢.

Hight.
Arabic, thamaniyat ; Modern thmani; Hebrew, shemonet ;

(Sokotra, tamani).; Oceanic, lapan, dalapan (and salapan), wan,
wal, panu, valu, varu ; the ending ¢ elided in all.

Three.

Hebrew, shiloshah ; Arabic, thalathat ; Modern, thlata, or
thélata ; Modern Syriac, telaa ; Oceanic; telo, talu, tolu, rolu,
Solu, silu, teni, kar, ret, seik, tiga. Seik and tiga are for thelata
by elision of the middle 7 and g or & for the final radical ¢. In
all, the ending ¢ is elided.

Two.

Arabic, thinta (ni); Hebrew, shita ; Himyaritic, thita (for
shinta, thinta) ; Oceanic, duwa, rua, or tua (that is, rwwa or
tuwa), roa, duka, riea, ruka, dia, rowah, ua, lua, nuwa, and first
syllable reduplicated, dalava, darua. The formation ending ta
in thinta, thita, is a double ending, consisting of the Semitic
feminine ¢ and the Semitic dual ending a, and is exactly repre-
sented according to rule in Oceanic by the last syllable of rica,
ruwa (rua), dalava, duha.

One.

Arabic, m. a‘W’ad, f. wal’idat ; Syrian m. had, f. Wada, Wa ;
Hebrew m. wh’ad, f. wh’ath; Ethiopic, m. wi’adu, f. wate,
Ligri, m. ade. In ha, al’ath, al’ati the d is elided. Oceanic;
aida, aisa, ida, ita, isa, asa (and sa), tray, tas (and rats), rare,

ontietia

THE OCEANIC FAMILY OF LANGUAGES. 821

tasi, taday. mn the following the final consonant represents,
according to rule, the original ending ¢ :—Jrazka, isaka, saka, dik,
san, isara.

Fwve.

Arabic, h”amsat ; Modern, h”amsa or h”amse ; Mahri, h”omo ;
(Sokotra, h”emah) ; Oceanic, hima, himah, uma, yuma, lima, rima,
tima, kima, sima, rime, dimy. The ending ¢ and radical s elided
in all as in Mahri.

Ten.

Arabic h‘asharat, Modern h‘ashra, Ethiopic h‘ashartu, Hebrew
hiasarah, Oceanic ngahuru, gavula, ahurn, ngabulu (sa) chbulu,
nangaviri, ngatil, abur, folo, puluh, buro, furu, novulu, napulo,
mapuru, (si) nafulu, (sa) ngpweu, (sa) nghul. The peculiar
Semitic guttural h‘ is here represented in Oceanic by g (as some-
times in the Septuagint version of the Bible, 3d century B.C,), by
ng (as now is pronounced among the Jews), and by the guttural
ch, as wellas by x and m. In all, the ending ¢ is elided.

Hundred.

Arabie mia?’, with nunation miatun, Modern mayat, Ethiopic
meet, Amharic mato (the ¢ is the feminine ending ¢), Oceanic mart,
mara, bot, fok, puku, lutcho, ratu, rato, ngut, and, with nunation,
hutun, utin, natun. For similar changes of m, see below. In
all, the ending ¢ is the final consonant.

Thousand.

Arabic vlef, with nunation @lefun, Hebrew alef, Assyrian
alapu, Mahri Ehkili of, Oceanic arivo, libu, livu, ribu, sébu,
rewu, ewu, afe, and with nunation, ribun, rebun, ruwun.

The following belong to the common stock of Oceanic words,
and the letter changes they exhibit are to be compared with those
we have seen in the numerals. Compare the changes of the

initial m in the four following words with those seen in the word
for ‘‘ hundred.”

Water.

Arabic, maat, Modern and Ethiopic, maz; Oceanic, vai, fai,
war, ar, be, pei, tet, rei; Gilolo, wayr ; Malay, ayer. The last two
still retain the ancient feminine ending ¢ as r.

Banana.

Arabic, mv’2 ; Amharic muz; Oceanic, muhu, bus, butch, hutshi,
hotsy, dts or at, muku, loka.

The two following words are of grammatical importance, being
used as the analytic substitute for the ancient inflexion of gender
in nouns.

822 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

Man (vir).

Arabic, mara‘; with nunation mara‘un; Aramaic, mare, mar ;
Oceanic, mera, muera, mane, mani, mano, man, ngane GAnui, ane,
(in tangane, taane) ; (7 for m), langai, lacay, laki, lahy, and with
nunation, burani, muwani, lanan.

Woman.

Feminine of preceding word. Arabic, marat, mar-a‘t ; Oceanic,
(see for the same changes of the ending ¢ above under the numerals,
4, ke.) baluk, puran, bran, ngaruni ; and the middle 7 elided,
but, bite, matu, fid, vek, bine, fine, buan, bien, wien, pain ; ending
t elided, farri, ngarwi, urao ; both r and ¢ elided, mua, bai, bay?,
vy ; | for m, lewa, alewa, iluai, lai, lio ; re-duplicated parampuan,
parawan, pilaven, mavek, faifid, fafine, mahine, babayi, bavy,
babin, &e.

These foregoing words—hundred, water, banana, man, woman—
beginning with m, show the m changed to J, 7, n, &e. The
following word shows initial / changed to m, n, 7.

Tongue.

Arabic, /isan; Hebrew, Jishon; Matori, lesa ; Oceanic, lidah,
litah, lela, rero, lapi, lapu (of the p in Salapan, 9), leme, neme,
meme, mena.

The following words, down to that for “ears,” have as their
initial letter one of the original four peculiar Semitic gutturals
like the numerals 1, 5, and 10, and showing the same phenomena
of change to 7, /, ¢, ih ny, 1G, and m, and to a spiritus lines or
elision.

Father.

Arabic, a‘bw’ ; Hebrew, wb, av ; Aramaic, aba ; Oceanic, rama,
ray, tama, rema, kama, ab.

Mother.

Arabic, wm, and v‘mu (Malay ibw) ; Aramaic, ima ; Tigre, ena ;
Oceanic, reny, rena, tina, sina.

Time.
Arabic, a‘ny, a‘n ; Oceanic, rant, rang, lang, nang, dan.
House.
Arabic, h”aimat h’aima; Oceanic, huma, luma, suma, kom, wma,
ima, lom, om.
Testicles.
Arabic, h”isy h”usyo ; Oceanic, rass, laso, rasi, asi, luho.
Fire.

Syrian, 4’ab to burn (fire); Arabic, re-duplicated, h’ubah’ibu,
fire; Oceanic, gabu, kabu, api, afy, habu, rahi, lahi, lap, yap,
sembi.

—

a ee

THE OCEANIC FAMILY OF LANGUAGES 823

Rain.

Arabic, h“wth’, with nunation, h“a@thurs ; Oceanic, uth, arf,
como, komah, gefa, usa, bosi, medu, with nunation wan, udan,
roana,

Yam.

Arabic, h‘ayab’, roots, wurzel ; Oceanic, yubi, uwi, ubi, wey;

Malekula, rwm; Samoan, uf. With this compare—

Bury (verb)
Arabie, h“‘aba ; Malekula, rwm ; Samoan, 2/2.
} 2 ? 2 b]

Tree, stick, wood.

Hebrew, /‘ets; Arabic, h‘assa (stick); Ethiopic, pl. h‘etsw,
Whietsu ; Oceanic, hazo, kasu, kayu, kau, yesi, kaan, lakat, la‘au.

Stone.

Hebrew, eben, or even ; Ethiopic, eben, pl. we’ban ; Oceanic,
vet, fat, fatu, veru, batu, vato, kohatu, pohaku kapir, kabil.

Water (Spring. )
Arabic, h’anu ; Hebrew, h‘an (eye, fountain, spring) ; Oceanic,
rano, ran, honu, tanu, fanu, ranu, lanu (lake). The plural of
this Semitic word signifies—

The Eyes.

Arabic, a‘h‘yunat ; Ethiopic, ah‘gnt ; Hebrew, hiayanoth, henoth
(fountain) ; Oceanic, (final ¢ elided), tans, nana, tun (n to m),
hama, rama, lumo (initial guttural elided), nata, nero, mata, meta,
masu. This final ¢, the ¢ of the Semitic feminine plural, is the
same ¢ already seen as the feminine or abstract ending.

Teeth.

Arabic (Semitic broken plural, or “pluralis fractus”), a‘swn7z,
a‘sinnat, or a‘sinne ; Oceanic, kasinga, lesin, nifun, ngipin (final n
elided), ngidi, bati, ngisi, nist (s to labial), nify, ribo, livo.

Hands (the two.)

Arabic, (dual) yadan, and a‘dan ; Oceanic, tanana (for tadana),
tangan, parian, patay, pent, fahan, pan, mareh, vira, kanet, karah,
vara, aru, faru, wada.

Ear, the Ears.

Aramaic, (a’déna); Arabic, pl. a‘than’, or a‘thanu ; Oceanic,
tadiny, talinga, taringa, riringa, tiknga, karinga, karin, falian,
boronga, boro, tananu.

The Semitic guttural 7 we have already seen elided, or changed
to k, h, as in laki, luhy. See word following.

824 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F,

Head.

Hebrew, rosh; Arabic, raasu ; Oceanic, lori, loha, lova, hulu,
uru, alu, karu, paru.

Note the changes here of the s or sh to 7, /, h, and a labial, as
in the following word.

Hair.
Arabic, shah‘ru ; Oceanic, huru, hili, lulu, firi, vili, bulu, volo.
The following two words show the interchange of guttural and
labial—
Swine.

Arabic, k’abbah‘; Oceanic, babi, puaka, wak.

Bow.
_Arabic, Rasu ; Oceanic, hisu, husu, dsu, vus, pasi, pana, fana,
vine.
Moon.
Ethiopic, ware’, or varah’ ; Mahri, wurit, &e. ; Oceanic, bulan,
volana, bulak, bulet wurah, mohok, mokwa, bughan, vula.

Lightning.
Hebrew, barak ; Oceanic, bilak; Malay, kilat or kilap ; others
hilatra, bila, wila.
Liver.
Ethiopic, kabdi or kavdé ; Amharic, hode (if arut, 1); Malagasy,
Malay, Samoan, Efate, até or dty.
The following two words are examples showing little change—

Earth, ground, soil.
Arabic, tano ; Oceanic, tano, tany, tana.

Sea.

Arabic, tas’ ; Oceanic, tasi, tahi, tai.

The foregoing words, except the last two, have been given, not
because of their identity of sound, but because of the striking
phonetic changes they exhibit. These changes could never be
accounted for till the manner in which the peculiar Semitic
gutturals are represented in Oceanic was investigated. The
obvious error into which one fell was to expect to find these
gutturals as they are in the most analytic modern Semitic dialects,
—that is, as a more breathing or spiritus linis so elided ; whereas
the facts show that in the Oceanic mother-tongue these gutturals
had the same strong and varying peculiar pronunciation as in the
other ancient Semitic tongues. This comes out clearly also in
the pronouns, as we shall now see.

ee a

Sta Ce ee

THE OCEANIC FAMILY OF LANGUAGES. 825

THE INTERROGATION PRONOUN

Who? Which?

Arabic, a‘yy ; Ethiopic, a’y ; Oceanic, (7) sez, (7) za, ba, me, vai,
hai, wat, ai, hei, ter, oi, thei; Efate, he, sei, fer.

Which 2 What ?

Arabic, a‘yyuma, contracted a‘ma ; Modern, ama. This is the
preceding word joined with the Semitic interrogations ma
(Himyaritic ma, or ba, what?) ; Oceanic zooy and (ovy), sapa and
(apa), safu and (sa), naf, ava, aha, a, hava, sav, hav, thava, taha,
neva.

THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
7,

Arabic, a‘na ; Assyrian, a’naku (original form) ; Oceanic, hina,
hanu, kena, kina (for kinaku), haku, aku (and daku), aho (and
zaho), rehu, lau, laku.

Thor.

Arabic, m., a‘nta (and a‘nka, a‘ka, as in this pronoun in the
Semitic mother-tongue ¢ and & were confused as they are often by
little children) ; Oceanic, 7h, nik, hica, hanta, ang, daka, and see

the first person plural inclusive below.

You.

Arabic, m., a‘ntum (Modern also a‘ntw), and a‘nkum, a‘kum ;
Amharic, m. and f., s. and pl., atu ; Modern Syriac, m. and f.,
alton ; Oceanic, akam or akamu, kamu (used also for singular)
dakau, angkau, kangkaw, hanao, &e. Owing to this practice of
using the plural for the singular (you for thou), the Semitic
demonstrative plural ala, these or those, was joined with this
personal pronoun, and also that of the third person, to denote
exclusively the plural, as hanare (hano, thou or you, ’re these), so
in Amharic is used alané (ala these, anta thou.)

In the pronoun of the third person the ancient Oceanic plural
is used now for both singular and plural, and generally with this
plural demonstration to denote the plural exclusively.

They (and used for singular in Oceanic, and often in modern
Syriac).

Masculine, Arabic, hum ; Hebrew, hem, Assyrian, swn,; Himya-
ritic, swm, eae Abeata hinum, vnum ; Modern Syriac, ‘m
and '£., ant. In the Semitic mother-tongue the initial letter of
this word was pronounced s and h, which finally became also 7’ ;
and the final m, the plural ending as in the second person, and as
in masculine nouns, was in like manner interchanged with n.
This m or » was also apt to be, and sometimes was, elided. Thus

826 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

we have in Malay inya and iya (Samoan ia), and diya ; Tagala,
siya; Malagasy, zy (for zini, as the suftixed pronoun x? also
proves) ; Malekula hini. To denote the plural exclusively we
have by the means already explained Tagala, si/a; Malagasy,
zare-o ; Malekula, hiniri.

It should be observed that as the m in akam, kamu, ye, is the
m of the Semitic plural ending, so the n of hint, inya, is the same
ending changed to n as it was from the earliest times in the
Semitic languages, both in the pronouns and masculine plural
nouns. The Oceanic mother tongue, therefore, had this plural as
well as the feminine plural ending seen above in the word mata,
the eyes. In modern Oceanic as in the nouns, so in the pronouns
of the second and third persons, the distinction of gender has
been dropped as in the same (plural) pronouns in modern Syriac.

We.

Hebrew, a@nah’nuw, the pronoun of the first person singular re-
duplicated—hiterally, I + I = we. This is the nearest extract
form of the word to that of the Semitic mother-tongue ; and
even in Hebrew we have for it the more contracted form anu.
In the Oceanic Janguages it is the first part of the first person
plural exclusive and inclusive, the second part being the pronoun
third plural in the exclusive, and that of the second singular in
the inclusive ; thus Efate, kina-mi, or kini-mi, we + they = we
exclusive of thou, and kini-ta, or kin-ta, we + thou = we
inclusive of thou ; Malay, ka-mi, ki-ta,; Malagasy, zaha-y, and si-ka
(for zi-ka). That zaha is for zahna, the suffixed pronoun na
in na-y proves, and zahna exactly corresponds letter for letter
to the modern Arabic wh’na, we.

GRAMMAR OF THE PRONOUNS.

The abbreviated suffixed and prefixed pronouns belong to gram-
mar, and for the sake of brevity it may suffice to point out here,
as showing the grammatical correspondence, that suftixed to verbs
they express the nominative, as Ethiopic ku, Malay kw Malagasy
ho, 1; Ethiopic kemu, Malay kamu, you, suffixed to nouns they
express the genitive, as Ethiopic kemmu, Malay kamu, your, or of
you. This is really the Semitic “ construct state,” expressing the
genitive, seen not only in the suffixing of the pronoun to a noun,
but also in the placing of one noun immediately after another in
this genitive construction. It is exactly so in the Oceanic, both
with pronouns and nouns. In the Semitic languages very abbrev-
iated forms of the pronouns were used prefixed to the verb to
denote the nominative ; thus in all of them the pronoun of the first
person singular was shortened to a, which in Efate is also a, not
however prefixed to, but before, the verb, though never used
except with the verb, and therefore called the verbal pronoun.

THE OCEANIC FAMILY OF LANGUAGES. 827

THE VERB.

The Semitic finite verb was in its origin a participle (verbal
adjective) or infinitive (verbal noun of action) with the abbrev-
iated pronouns prefixed or suftixed to denote persons and number.
From the finite verb participles and infinitives were again derived.
Tn accordance with this, these derived participles and infinitives,
with the separate pronouns, abbreviates, or not abbreviates, were
often used for the finite verb, This analytic substitute for the
finite verb tended to become more commonly used as the language
became more analytic, as for instance in Aramaic and modern
Syriac. Thus the Oceanic verb, as we now find it, has originated,
being generally a derived participle or infinitive. An example
will show clearly what is meant, or the relation between the modern
Oceanic and the ancient verb. The verb “to fear” in Arabic
is tak’a, from which was divided the infinitive tai’iyat a fearing or
being feared, the Semitic infinitive having both an active and a
passive sense. The simplest form of this verb in Oceanic corres-
ponds, not to taka, but to takiyat, and is seen in Malay takut, Mala-
gasy tahotra. Tahotra is a noun, fearing or fear, and is made into
a verb by formative prefixes to be after considered—as matahotra,
to fear, Efate mataku, Samoan matwu,; but in Malay takut is
noun, verb, and adjective, fear, fearing or afraid, and to be fear-
ing or afraid. Thus akutakut, I fear, or am afraid, is literally, I
(am) fearing, or I (am) being afraid.

The formative abstract and adjective endings.

The simple or shortest form of the Oceanic verb being takut or
the like, it became necessary to form it verbal nouns (infinitive)
and verbal adjectives (participles), as takiyat (e.g., had been) formed
from taka, or by suffixed formatives. In the Semitic languages
there were two abstract and two adjective endings. The adjective
endings were an, or ana, or na and 72, and the abstract endings
were ¢ (as in takiyat), and an, dna, or On, or nd. All these forms
having 7, originally formed adjectives, and these cause to form
abstract nouns also. They were also combined 7 and ¢ forming
abstracts in 7f, ¢ and 7 adjectives in ton (e.g. Hebrew from the verb
Wakal was derived h’akalat a being crooked, crookedness ; then the
adjective h’akalton, crooked), and tanga forming nouns and adjec-
tivesin Amharic. In Oceanic these are used thus: Malay, takutan
a fearing, fear; Malagasy, atahorana verbal noun, atahorina verbal
adjective ; Samoan, mata‘utio. Here ia corresponds to Malagasy
ina, and as both 7a and ina are used alike ; thus in Samoan we
may infer that the Polynesian verbal adjective ending 7a is for ina,
by elision of the x. Compare for this elision the pronoun, Malay,
inya, or tya. This za or ira does not occur in Malay or Efate; but
ina as an adjective ending is seen in Duke of York, rwmaina—
housey or full of houses—from rwma, house; and na or ana

828 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

occurs as an adjective ending in Efate, as rana branchy, branching,
from ra a branch ; and the Efate adjective ending a, as kod rooty,
from ako root, seems to be this na or ana by the elision of the
same ». If so, the Polynesian a differs from ia only in not having
the i—that is, ia or ina is a combination of the two endings 7 (the
Semitic adjective ending 7, and this other Semitic adjective ending
ma or ana). The Polynesian a is certainly an adjective ending, as
it forms adjectives from nouns—thus Samoan, e/ee’ea dirty, from
eleelea dirt ; and the Oceanic ina is no less certainly an adjective
ending as it does the same, Malagasy ozatra a muscle, ozatina
muscular, somatra beard, somorina.

Compare Samoan mala, a calamity, ma/aia unfortunate, bearded.
Thus the “passive participles” in Malagasy in ina, and in
Polynesian in ina, ia, and a are verbal adjectives formed from the
verb by these adjective endings.

Corresponding to the verbal noun takutan, atahorana, is Efate
matakuana or matakudn (for matakutan) ; and in all. cases, in
Samoan this verbal noun formative is anga (Hawaiian ana.) It
remains now to point out the changes the ¢, seen in takiyat, has
undergone in different words or with different combinations of
letters. As it is the same ending ¢ seen above in the numerals, so
it has undergone the same changes as those we have ascertained
there. It commonly occurs in Malagasy ér (as in tahotra), k,n;
and as has already been mentioned as a commonplace of Mala-
gasy grammar, when ana, and ina are suffixed to it (as in atehorana,
atahorina), tr appears as ¢, 7, or f; n as or or m; and & as h or f.
It appears also as s, and these variations of this ending ¢ are
found generally in Oceanic, as the following comparative table will
show :—

; Polynesian ae
Malagasy. (Samoan). Malay. Efate.

Verbal noun— __—ttana tanga tan
Verbal adjective—tina tia

Ra rana langa ran

a rina lia

5 fana fanga pan

2 fina fia

% nana nan

35 nina

#5 mana maga man

= mina mia

5 hana ‘anga han

re hina

He sana sanga san

aH sina, sia

oy ana anga an an, ana.

Thus, Malagasy, taratra ; Samoan, tilo ; Maori, tivo, to spy,
look at ; we have Malagasy, tarafana, tarafina ; Maori, tirohanga ;
Samoan, tilofia. The change of this ¢ to a labial is seen also in
Malay, lakat, or lakah ; Malagasy, rehitra ; Efate, liko, or lkot,

— ee a

THE OCEANIC FAMILY OF LANGUAGES. 829

to adore ; Malagasy, minona (minomana, minomina); Samoan,
inu (inumanga, inumia); Malay, minum (minuman),; Efate,
minu, or munu (munuan for munutan), to drink. To die, death,
dead: Malagasy, maty (hafatesana); Malay, Efate, mati (matian) ;
Mangarura, mate (materanga). It is quite clear that matian is
for matitan, and that mati corresponds, not to Arabic mata,
indeed, but to its infinitive matit, a dying or being dead. One or
two more examples must now suffice. Arabic, “asha, he lived,
infinitive,—‘‘aishat, a living or being alive ; Mota, esu ; Malagasy,
velona (velomana, velomina),; Malay, idup (¢dupan),; Java, urip ;
Samoan, ola (olatanga, ola‘anga); Tanna, murif; Efate, mole
(molian for molitan, like mate for matitan, and matakuan for
matakutan, and munuan for munutan). Arabic, a’thana, wthina,
to hear, perceive, infinitive, wthanat ; Malagasy, reny (renesana,
renesint) ; Samoan, longo (longoina for longotina); Malay, dangar
(dangaran) ; Efate, rongo (rongoan for rongotan). See the word
‘Cears,” above, in which the initial guttural of this stem is
retained in Oceanic. It falls away in the verb, according to a
Semitic law, owing to the influence of the ending ¢, as does the
initial guttural of the word, Arabic, h‘alaka, to adhere ; infinitive,
h‘alakat, lakat (and lakap), rehitra, likot, or lukut (see above).

FORMS OF THE VERB. FORMATIVE PREFIXES.

These suffixes formed nouns (infinitives) and adjectives (parti-
ciples). The prefixes now to be considered formed verbs from
nouns, or derived verbs from verbs, usually called forms (or
“‘conjugations”). These were three :—

1. a—Arabic, Ethiopic, Aramaic, originally sha, sa (ta, t),
Hebrew, fz; Himyaritic, sa and ha: Causative.

2. n, in, i—Arabic, Ethiopic, Assyrian, Hebrew: Reflexive,
reflexive-passive reciprocal.

3. ta, it, th—Arabic, Assyrian, Hebrew, &c.: Reflexive.

These three were combined thus :—

4, an—KEthiopic,* Amharic, Himyaritic, han (Halevy, p. 41);
also Amharic, asan (for san): Causative-reflexive, or simply
causative, or transitive (1 and 2).

5. ata, ista (for sata), asta (for sata), satha, hatha, or hath,
Arabic x.: Causative-reflexive, simple causative, &c. Tigre,
Amharic, Ethiopic, Himyaritic (1 and 3).

6. nith, inta, tta—Assyrian, Himyaritic: Reflexive-passive, or
reciprocal-reflexive (2 and 3).

*Dillmann, Gr. Eth., §§ 73, 87. He remarks that this is in more frequent use in
Amharic, referring to Isenberg’s Amharic Grammar, pp. 54 (xxiv, should be xxiii), 56
(vii-x), 60 (vii, should be vii-x). Isenberg remarks, p. 56, that these verbs ix, x (an-, tai-)
are very numerous,

830 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

7. tan—Ethiopic, Amharic: Reflexive-passive (3 and 4. See
note on 4).

To these infinitives and participles m was prefixed, and then
this participle or infinitive came to be used, sometimes for the
finite verb. Thus we have ma, Syriac (Maphel), causative for the
common a-, asin 1. Modern Syriac, almost the sole form of the
causative. (Stoddart’s Grammar, pp. 110-111.)

8. ethma—Syriac: Reflexive-passive (3 and 1).

9. ma, m’, prefix to infinitives of ground-form, and to passive
participles of ground-form and derived-forms. Thus in Mahri
the common passive participle is expressed through m’-, which
replaces many lost inner passives. (See Von Maltzan on the
Mahri, in Z. D. M. G., vol. xxvii).

With these compare the Oceanic :—

1. Dayak, ma ; Macassar Bugis, pa ; fate, ba, fa ; Malagasy,
a, ma; Mota, va; Lifu, Mare, a: Causative.

Dayak, in ;* Tagala, 2 ; Malagasy, 7 i,mi,; Efate, bi, fi; Fiji,
ver , Samoan, fe : Reflexive. passive, reciprocal.

3. Macassar, Dayak, Fiji, Efate, &c., ta, Malay, Java, Fiji,
Efate, &c., ka ; Dayak, ha; Fiji, ra: Reflexive passive.

4, Malagasy, an, man ; Malay, Tagala, Dayak, &c., man ;
Malay (Malagasy), san. The 7 is often changed for euphony to
ng, &c. ; see the grammars : Causative, transitive.

5. Malagasy, aha, maha ; Tagala, mag, maka ; Macassar, paka ;
Efate, baka, faka; Fiji, vaka; Maori, whaka; Samoan, fa‘a ;
Malay, bdr : Causative-reflexive, causative, reflexive.

ae Malagasy, tha, miha: Reflexive.

Dyak, tan (Malay, Malagasy, tan) : Reflexive of 4. The »
eee for euphony as in 4.

8. Malagasy, tafa,; Dayak, tapa; Efate, taba ; Oba, tama ;
Mota, tava : Reflexive, or passive, of 1.

9. Efate, ma, mi, m ; Malagasy, Tagala, ma ; Solomon Islands,
&e., ma (The Melanesian Languages, Dr, Codrington, pp. 183-4) :
Passive.

To these must be added :—

10. tar, Malay: Reflexive-passive of 5, formed from (d)ar, as
tan from an, (m)an.

Other combinations in Oceanic of these three prefixes (there
are only three) need not here be noticed, as—

11. tfa (2 and 1), zfan (2 and 4), Malagasy ; Reciprocal.

* This 77 is also ‘‘infixed” between the first and second radicals of the verb in Javanese,
Malagasy (The Malagasy Language, Parker), &c. In like manner ta (3) was infixed in
Himyaritic and Assyrian, and tan (3 and 2) in Assyrian. In Arabic this 2 was infixed, but
between the second and third radicals of quadriliterals.

THE OCEANIC FAMILY OF LANGUAGES. 831

In the light of the preceding phonological facts, the letter-
changes here are not only according to rule, but, in such constantly
used inflexional particles, very slight, as ¢ to k, h, and to 7, g;
the elision of n ; and the change of m to 6, f, v, p. As to signifi-
cation, the consonance is even more remarkable, of 1 with 1, 2
with 2, 3 with 3, 4 with 4, 5 with 5, 6 with 6, 7 with 7, 8 with 8,
9 with 9. The conclusion is that they are identical ; and let it
be observed that these prefixes, together with the before dealt
with suffixes dn, ina, na, ana, ia, a, constitute virtually the whole
of the Oceanic living inflexional material, these external inflexions
having, according to the law of the analytical development of the
Semitic languages, increased in frequency of use so as to replace
the lost (as living) internal inflexions.

The object of this paper was stated as to show as briefly as
possible that the common stock of numerals, pronouns, and other
fundamental words of word building or formative prefixes and
suffixes, and of grammatical or syntactrial words and pronouns,
which constitutes the Oceanic languages one perfectly well-defined
family, is Semitic, thus establishing the relationship of the Oceanic
to the Semitic family of languages. I now submit that the
foregoing being substantially correct, allowing for any possible
errors of detail, this has been done, or at least it has been shown
conclusively that it can be done; for it has been shown that
the Oceanic mother-tongue had the peculiar phonology, the peculiar
triliteral numerals and other words with, of course, their peculiar
inflexion of internal vowel change, the peculiar nunation the
peculiar dual feminine ending, the peculiar plural masculine
ending, and singular feminine ending, the peculiar formative,
abstract, or infinitive endings and formative adjective endings,
the peculiar pronouns with their grammatical use with verbs and
nouns, and the peculiar formative or verb building prefixes of the
Semitic family of languages.

It remains to make a few concluding remarks on the foregoing.
As to the method, it will be admitted that the numerals,
pronouns, and other words, the word building or formative
particles, and the phonology, though set forth in a paper like this
necessarily in the briefest possible manner, yet even as thus set
forth, show sufficiently for the purpose in hand the individuality
of the Oceanic family of languages. Nor will it be disputed that
the method of taking account of all of these, as stated at the
outset, and not of a part only, is the right method ; for instance,
all the twelve numeral words given are certainly and purely
Oceanic. Therefore, it has to be shown, in order to establish the
relationship of the Oceanic to some known linguistic family,
that all of them belong to that family. This method, which has
been carried out in this paper, was not carried out by Max Muller,
A. H. Keane, and Bopp, in endeavouring to establish the

832 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

relationship of the Oceanic to the Siamese, Canobodian, and
Indo-European respectively; for instance, Muller and Kean
did not find -a single Oceanic numeral word in Siamese and
Cambodian, and after the most careful investigation of these
twelve Oceanic numeral words, Bopp could find only six which
he deemed identical with the corresponding Indo-European
numeral words ; of the personal pronouns, only those of the first
and second persons with the Indo-European of these persons ;
of the formative suffixes, only possibly and doubtfully one with
an Indo-European suffix, and of the formative prefixes none
he deemed identical in Indo-European. Now, not to mention
other things, these formative prefixes are a well known distinctive
feature of the grammatical structure of the Oceanic family, and so
important that any method that not only does not account for all
of them as is done above, but not even for one of them, is plainly
inadequate; also, in the method of this paper no use of or reference
to “roots” is made. All the Oceanic words are formed words, and
as such are compared both as to phonisis and meaning with the
corresponding formed Semitic words, this being deemed the right
method. Notsowith Bopp. For instance, the Oceanic word tas,
the sea, is compared with the Arabic word taé or tasu, the sea ;
but Bopp compares it with the Sanscrit root si¢ (or stk), to moisten,
whence sikta, moisten, siéaka, cloud, in which, to say nothing
more, the meaning is not the same.

Tt is worthy of special notice that the Indo-European pronouns
of the first and second persons only five of the six numeral words
compared by Bopp with the Oceanic, namely, those for 2, 3, 4, 6,
and 7, are the Indo-European pronouns and numerals, usually
compared with the corresponding Semitic as remarkably alike,
while it is admitted that such resemblances, which may be
casual, do not establish the relationship of the Indo-European to
the Semitic family. In order to that, the grammatical structure
of the two families must be taken into account; and as to
grammatical structure, proof is not found either between the
Indo-European or the Semitic, or between the Oceanic and the
Indo-European, but is found, as has been pointed out, between
the Oceanic and the Semitic. Assuming that the facts sub-
stantially are as have been set forth in this paper, then it is
absolutely certain, not only that the Oceanic words and formative
particles dealt with are purely the words and particles of the
distinctively Semitic stock, but also that the characteristic
grammatical structure as a whole of the Oceanic is that which as
a whole is distinctively and exclusively characteristic of the
Semitic family of languages. I may here add that the peculiar
gutturals, or the guttural phonology, of the Semitic family of
languages is an important part of this whole—that is, of this
distinctive or exclusively characteristic grammatical structure ;

THE OCEANIC FAMILY OF LANGUAGES. 833

and that this part also is duly represented, as has been shown
above in the Oceanic. Because of this, special prominence has
been given to these gutturals, and because otherwise the numeral
words, pronouns, and other words in which they occur could not
have been properly dealt with; see the numerals 1, 5, and 10,
and the pronouns, and the other words given, which have one of
these gutturals as their first letter. Thus we can see the reason
for, or have the key to the phonology of such forms of the first
syllable or letter in the word for 10, as we have in gavula,
chibulu, ahuru, &e. ; for 5, as in tima, rima, hima, kima, ima,
&c. ; for 1, as in taday, tasi, tai, rari, tas or rais, ray, aida, aisa,
asa, idu, isa, &e. ; for I, as in haku, laku, daku or aku, zaho or
aho, hanu, kinau, &e.; for We, as in hana aa kina (-mt),
kin (-ta), ka (-mz), ki (-ta), zaha (-y), si (ha), &e. ; for Thou, as
in hica, dake, or ang, ik, &e.; for You, as in dibin or angkaw
or kangkau, sicamo, hicamo, akam, &e.; and for who, which, as in
he, sei, fet, me, vat, ‘ba hai, ae wai, ai, her, ter, thet, za, &e.
Nothing has been said in this paper of the race varieties and
geographical distribution of the Oceanic speakers, as the linguistic
question must be considered on the principles of linguistic
science, independently of discussions on those points, important as
they are ; and the settlement of the linguistic problem will give
the greatest aid to the settlement of these, and must be settled
before the discussion as to these can attain to any certainty.

No. 16—SOME ANTHROPOGRAPHIC NOTES ON THE
TANNESE, NEW HEBRIDES.

By Rev. W. Gray.

(Read Tuesday, January 11, 1898.)

Recommended to be forwarded to the Anthrop. Inst., Lond., and
accepted by the same.

834 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F,

No. 17.—PROPOSAL FOR AN ETHNOLOGICAL BUREAU
FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF THE STUDY OF
THE ETHNOLOGY OF THE PACIFIC.

By A. Hamizron, Dunedin, New Zealand.

(Read Tuesday, January 11, 1898.)

For the more convenient and thorough study of the ethnology of
the Pacific, it is, I believe, desirable that this Association should
take into consideration the advisability of establishing a Bureau
of Ethnology for the special purpose of applying modern methods
of scientific investigation to the due record of the races of the
Pacific area. On all sides it is admitted that much has been lost
that would have been of priceless value, and that many islands
have been so affected by civilisation that it is hopeless to try to
recover the traditions or customs of the original inhabitants.
The demands of trade are, to a large extent, responsible for this
derangement of the primitive culture. Private collectors and
private enterprise in the islands are apt to do more harm than
good unless controlled by scientific direction. Specimens collected
have been largely selected for their showy or unique character,
quite regardless of their ethnologic value. Thus it is with a view
to a general control over the somewhat haphazard way in which
our knowledge is being acquired that I suggest a central bureau.
I may say at once that I do not propose to interfere with any
existing institution or society, but only to aid and organise
research on lines that will ensure the best results.

Let us first see what has been done and how to utilise what
has been done to the best advantage,

Then what should be done, and how to do it. There are a host
of observations made by voyagers from Cook downwards, by
missionaries, traders, scientific travellers, and local residents in
various parts of Polynesia. They are scattered up and down in
thousands of pages of books of all sorts and sizes, and all degrees
of dulness and dryness. To attempt to follow out a special
subject demands access to a special library and a thorough
preliminary knowledge of what to look for and where to find it.
The observations of ethnological facts are recorded—

(a) In book-form (separate publications).

(>) In the transactions of learned societies.

(c) In unpublished manuscripts in public and private col-
lections.

STUDY OF THE ETHNOLOGY OF THE PACIFIC. 835

In the books you may get perhaps half a dozen interesting
facts and 300 pages of padding—very pleasant reading perhaps,
but not satisfying.

These records require to be brought together, and the facts
contained in them extracted and arranged under various headings
for reference.

A very suitable method is to be found in the card catalogue
system so much used in libraries. Each fact should be transcribed
on a separate card, having a suitable catch-word, and the precise
reference for the extract.

These cards should be arranged under various heads or subjects,
so that the whole of the information available on any subject
could be brought together and subsequently collated and edited.

Proper provision would be required for the custody of the
original cards or slips at a central or main bureau.

Typewritten or printed copies of any card, or series of cards,
to be supplied, on payment of the cost of transcription, to all
applicants.

Published illustrations belonging to the literature of the subject
should also be collected and a separate descriptive card or slip
catalogue prepared. In many cases it would be an advantage to
reproduce good figures on a uniform scale by photographs, and to
supply them at a reasonable rate.

Language of the record. Extracts for the cards should be in
the language of the original ; but provision should be made for
the translation of any works not available in either English or
French.

To render the analysis of the material then brought together
of the highest value, copies of the slips or cards should be supplied,
under the direction of a committee, to those specially qualified to
Judge as to the accuracy of the information recorded. These
persons should write their opinions or views of the matter in
question on the card, in spaces provided for the purpose, sign it,
and either forward it to the next person on the list or return it
to the central bureau. The question of a library for the bureau,
of all works on Polynesia, is of great importance ; but for the
present I should suggest that loan of the books required for the
card abstract might be obtained from the numerous special
collections—as I am satisfied that the large sum of money that
would be required to purchase anything like a complete library
would be better expended in other directions. And this brings
me to what I may call aggressive work.

1. Circulars carefully drawn up asking for specific information
should be issued as widely as possible, carefully followed up by
correspondence, and the information contained in the circulars
returned to the bureau passed into the general card record.

836 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

2. By obtaining photographs of anthropological and ethno-
logicai subjects by purchase, by gift, or by exchange. Similar
directions to be issued as to the mode in which it is desired such
photographs should be taken. If practicable, to supply photo-
graphic prints, or copies of material thus recorded, in the same
way as copies of cards, at cost price.

3. By supplying printed directions or forms for observers in
outlying islands, and in special cases furnishing apparatus.

4, Organising or assisting explorations of areas little known or
remote from ordinary trade routes.

5. Obtaining classified lists of the ethnological specimens from
the Polynesian area now in museums, with copies of the labels.
These lists to have references to the photos when articles are
represented photographically in the general collection.

As a way of carrying out the suggestions here given, I think
that the Association should take steps to place the matter before
the learned societies of each county or colony having territorial
claims in the Pacific, and having drawn up a scheme, arranged
the details of operations, and ascertained the probable expenditure
required, representations should be made to the various Govern-
ments pointing out the necessity for immediate and concerted
action and asking for their co-operation and assistance, financial
and otherwise. The Governments might be asked to nominate
representative members of the General Committee, whose services
might be of value in defining the areas of survey and giving the
Governments a voice in the expenditure of any grant made by
them. It is essential that great care be given to the general
plan of operations so as to avoid duplication or overlapping of
work. The first steps, then, would be to get a Special Committee
of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science
appointed to draw up a report on the proposal to establish an
ethnological bureau for the advancement of the study of the
ethnology of the Pacific. The committee to consist of representa-
tive members from each of the Australasian colonies, with power
to add to their number.

Tf possible, a preliminary report should be presented before the
close of this session of the Association.
Two questions immediately arise which would have to be dealt
with by such a committee—
1st. The locality of the bureau.
2nd. The funds wherewith to carry out the works proposed.
T think the first of these should depend largely on the financial

aid given and the convenience of the locality for the work. I
have, however, no doubt that this could be arranged.

STUDY OF THE ETHNOLOGY OF THE PACIFIC. 837

The second question—funds—is more vital. I suggest the
following as sources from which funds might reasonably be
expected :—

1. Annual grants from Governments co-operating.

2. Annual grant from Australasian Association funds.

3. Votes from learned societies for special purposes.

4. Donations from individuals for general or special purposes,
This scheme does not propose to interfere with any existing

institution, but only to aid and organise research into the
ethnology of the Pacific.

No. 18.—OLD SAMOAN AMUSEMENTS.
By Rev. J. B. Stair.

(Read Tuesday, January 11, 1898.)

No. 19.—AUSTRALIAN CAVE PAINTINGS AND ROCK
CARVINGS, WITH SUPPOSED TRACES OF POLY:
NESIAN ART.

By Rev, J. B. Sram.

(Read Tuesday, January 11, 1898.)

838 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

No. 20.—ALPHABETIC OR SYLLABIC CHARACTERS
IN CAVES ON THE GLENELG RIVER, N.W. AUS-
TRALIA.

By Rev. Joon Camppett, LL.D., Professor of Church History,
Montreal.

(Read Tuesday, January 11, 1898.)

Tue characters of the brief inscription you have sent me a copy of
are easily recognisable as those of the ancient Turunian syllabary
employed by the ancestors of the Japanese and kindred peoples,
of which inscriptions are found in Siberia and Japan, and of
which the Corean alphabet is the lineal descendant. The Buddhist
syllabary of India and the south-east of Asia has the same origin,
but isof adifferent type; so that I have but little hesitation incalling
the Australian inscription ancient Japanese—as ancient, perhaps,
as the tenth or eleventh century, for in 1125 a.p., as the Khitan,
the Japanese were expelled from China, and doubtless carried
with them their modified Chinese characters now in use, which
superseded the old syllabary to such an extent that the Japanese
cannot read their old inscriptions. In the Survey of the Northern
and Western Coasts of Australia, by Captain Flinders, R.N.,
Hist. Records of N.S. Wales, p. 78, is an account of Malay visits
to its coast for the trepang fishery, but I know of no authority
for a Japanese expedition to it. In the light of many inscriptions
read by me, I transliterate as follows :—

cIl¢ ] {See

ki fa) chi oO sa chi
or or or or
gi u shi shi

Put into words these read :—

kiochi osa shi

hopeless number is
Osa governs kiocht in the genitive by position ; hence we read,
“The number of the hopeless (ones) is.” Here we have the
meaning of the dots in the right hand, which are no doubt units,
21, 24, 17, in all 62, perhaps purposely put in three unequal lines
to mark a triple distinction of rank, vessel, habitation, or sub-
ordinate local origin.

Norr.—The inscription referred to will be found on Plate IX, A.A.A.S. Reports, Vol. vi,
Brisbane Session, 1895.

ALPHABETIC OR SYLLABIC CHARACTERS IN CAVES. 839

It is plain that sixty-two Japanese were cast ashore on the west
coast, somewhere near the place in which the inscription is found ;
that their junk or junks were so totally destroyed as to render the
castaways hopeless of return; and that they must have found
suflicient means of subsistence to enable them to live some time—
long enough at least to complete this task. Their landfall can
hardly have been later than the beginning of the 12th century,
because there is every reason to believe that at that time the old
characters were superseded by the present modified Chinese.

I have no representation at hand of Japanese idols, or of
ancient conventional representation of the clothed human form,
but perhaps you can find such, and compare with the figure of
the inscription.

What became of the sixty-two castaways? Is there in Western
Australia any tradition of an ancient tribe of foreigners and of
their massacre, or is there any trace of their amalgamation. They
must have brought with them copper tools and other implements
and ornaments. Is there any trace of them beyond this carving ?
T need not say that ethnologically there is no near relationship of
the Japanese and the Melanesian, so that the native origin of the
document is out of the question.

Inscriptions in the same character and language are found in
this continent, as you will see by the accompanying paper by me.
The ancestors of those who wrote them were driven to the
American coast by the elements, having been, in all likelihood,
banished from home to the mercy of the ocean. The sixty-two of
your inscription may also have been banished political offenders,
rather than trepang fishers or traders ; but who can tell?

No. 21—SOME INDIAN WORDS OF RELATIONSHIP
USED BY THE AUSTRALIAN TRIBES.

By Joun Fraser, B.A., LL.D,

(Read Wednesday, January 12, 1898.)

840 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

No. 22.—NOTES ON THE ROCK CARVINGS OF AUS-
TRALIAN ABORIGINES IN THE WOLLOMBI DIS-
TRICT, N.S. WALES.

By W. J. Enricur.

(Read Wednesday, January 12, 1898.)

No. 23. — VOCABULARIES OF THE GEELONG AND
COLAC TRIBES, COLLECTED IN 1840.

By Joun J. Cary.

(Read Wednesday, January 12, 1898.)

Tue slight knowledge of the Australian language given to the
world has been mainly the work of Christian propagandists.
With his grammar of the Lake Macquarie dialect, published at
Sydney in 1827, L. E. Threlkeld may be said to have led the way.
Others, like Gunther, Teichelmann-Shurmann, Taplin, and Ridley,
have followed with copious vocabulary, phrase-book, or grammar;
while to-day the material for similar contributions to linguistic
science is no doubt still being gathered by zealous missionaries—
for example, the Jesuits in the Northern Territory, or the Bene-
dictines of New Norcia, near the capital of the Golden West ;
and from the manuscript of an early missionary is drawn the
interesting peculiarity now under notice.

In 1838 the Wesleyan Methodists commenced an aboriginal
mission at Port Phillip; they established the Buntingdale Station
at the source of the Barwon, and tried, unsuccessfully, to reclaim
the Wod-dow-ro, Dantgurt, and Kolijon tribes. One of the mis-
sionaries first sent from England to carry on the work was Francis
Tuckfield, a young Cornishman, brave and hopeful, who entered
on his new life with the zeal of an enthusiast. Naturally, chilling
experience somewhat lessened this ardour; but when State aid

VOCABULARIES OF THE GEELONG AND COLAC TRIBES. 841

was withdrawn, and private support grew lukewarm, and when
hope of success died within him, a strong sense of duty kept him
at his post, and not until the Government resumed possession of
the Buntingdale acres, and marked them out for public selection,
did he abandon the mission. Ten of the best years of his life
were spent trying to Christianise and civilise the above-mentioned
tribes.

Having an aptitude for language, he soon learned the native
dialects, but of his writings on the subject only a part remains.
A large vocabulary was compiled in the first years of the mission,
but it was unfortunately lost in a fire that destroyed the mission-
house. Tuckfield himself, forced to leap out of a window, narrowly
escaped with his life. His journal and copies of private letters
contain a few brief remarks on the aboriginal language ; but in his
note-book is preserved a collection of about two hundred short
sentences, some translations of Scripture, and a vocabulary of
over two hundred words. By the kindness of the Tuckfield
family, it has been my privilege to inspect their father’s journal,
letters, and note-book ; and when perusing the latter I unearthed
a grammatical form of number hitherto practically unnoticed as
a peculiarity in Australian language. That dual number is a
feature of several Australian dialects is well known; but with the
Wod-dow-ro, number as a means of precision was amplified yet
another degree. And herein lies the discovery : these natives of
the Geelong district used triple number. Although “it is not
rare to find among uncivilised peoples a linguistic faculty superior
to that of their neighbours or of their civilised kindred,” yet
it is remarkable to find among these savages such an apparent
sign of mental activity. Triple number is not found in the
language of the Dravidians, who are regarded by some writers
_as the progenitors of the Australian race. We may there-
fore conclude, admitting that we must look for “the ancestors
of the Australians in Hindostan,” that the Australian invented
triple number himself, or else he preserved a form of speech that
was lost centuries ago by his Indian congener. As to its use
in Australia, it is difficult to believe that it was spoken only
by the Wod-dow-ro, who in customs and daily life were typical
natives: death-dealiug superstition stalked among them ; poly-
gamy, infanticide, and cannibalism prevailed; tillage was un-
known ; and, furthermore, in the speech of the three tribes,
indications could be found pointing to original unity with the
dialects of remote tribesmen. Using Threlkeld’s and Teichel-
mann’s grammars, Francis Tuckfield compared the dialects spoken
in the vicinity of Buntingdale and others of Victoria with those
of New South Wales and South Australia; and this was his con-
clusion: “In construction and character they are radically and
grammatically the same.” Referring to the language of the three

842 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

tribes, Tuckfield says: ‘‘It appears to me to be copious, very
significant, combining great power with simplicity, and for the
most part its sounds are pleasing totheear. . . . Although it
has many pecularities, especially in the use and number of the
pronouns, some of these pecularities add to its precision and per-
spicuity. I will mention one or two as a specimen. ‘You go’
in English may signify one, two, three, or more. This language
furnishes a different word in the three senses without using the
numeral adjective.”

This wealth is shown by the following list, which is the best
illustration extant of tle use of triple number :—

PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

Nominative Case. Possessive Case.
Singular, Singular.

Bangik, IE Bang-ong-ik, My, mine.
Bangen, Thou. Bang-go-de-gnen, Thy, thine.
Bang-nuk, He. Bang-go-de-duk, His.

Dual. Dual.
Bangul, We. Bang-go-de-ul, Ours.
Bangbullok, You. Bang-go-de-bul-ok, Yours.
Bang-a-bul-ong, They. Bang-go-de-bul-ok,, Theirs.

Triple. Triple.
Bang-etuk-kol-lik, We. Bang-ong-etuk-kol-lik, Ours.
Bang-ud-kol-lik, You. Bang-ong-ud-kol-lik, Yours.
Bang-tan-a-kol-lik, They. Bang-a-tan-a-kol-lik, Theirs.

Plural, Plural,
Bang-wod-jok, We: Bang-a-wod-jok, Ours.
Bang-ud, You. Bang-ong-ud, Yours,
Bang-tan-ong, They. Bang-go-de-tan-ok, Theirs,

[Not strictly as classified by Tuckfield ; arranged as above for convenience. }

Not a few of these pronouns are cumbrous looking, but it seems
they were not always spoken thus. The native clipped his words,
and sentences* such as Ka-ar-dik—I talk; Willong-bw/-bon bore—
When will you cease to run about (dual) —and Winyer kod
kol-ik-ka,—W hat are you talking about (triple) !—show thatin ungis

* The sentences are from Tuckfield’s Note-book, which also gives a few more examples of
triple number: Kel-ter-a-len tanong kollik—three talking ; Pe-del-wa-wa den—Strike us
three ; Pe-del-a gnel-en-tanong—Strike us three ; Gnerd en bop mo gnul-en long gong ga
boy jo detable mur-un-nuk—The Great Spirit loves us(three) who have a crying heart.—J.J.C.

VOCABULARIES OF THE GEELONG AND COLAC TRIBES. 843

the three numbers he was able to speak with brevity as well as pre-
cision. The syllabitication of the first sentence is according to Tuck-
field’s entry ; ik is a contraction of bangik, and the presence of d in
the last syllable may be accepted as an example of the fusion of
words by the natives, comme le Francais faire la liaison.

The use of ka-ard in the first and kod in the third sentence no
doubt indicates the inflection of verbs for number. That the
above forms of number once existed in widely separated districts
of Australia seems indeed highly probable. <A strong affinity is
found in the singular dual and particular duals of eastern dialects,
and in this connection one may mention the use of pronouns in
common by such tribes: thus winyer, what, of the Geelong district,
is winyar at Lake Hindmarsh (Vic.), minya at the Brisbane River
(Queensland), and minya on the Liverpool Plains (N.S.W.) ;
bangik, I, becomes bangeek, bangak, bangak, bangak in four
dialects* of north-west Victoria, and bang in the Lake Macquarie
district (N.S.W.); but it may be safe to affirm that, like the
Geelong and Colac natives, one south-eastern tribe retained the
third number. What certainly seems to be an example—naiowing,
we three—is found in the language of the Twofold Bay faboriginies.

Was triple number once commonly spoken by the Australians ?
Ts it a relic of their ancient progenitors, or must we seek its origin
on this continent? These questions may now be left to conjecture,
and in the absence of aboriginal literature or writing, perhaps it
may not be too bold to say that it is doubtful if conclusive answers
to them will be found even in the comparative study of the
Australian family of languages—a field of research still awaiting
the scientific investigator.

My thanks are due to the Professor of Philology of the
Melbourne University for kindly considering the foregoing, and
who writes as follows :—

“T have carefully considered your paper; but as I am _ not
personally acquainted with the Australian tongues, I do not feel
any right to express an opinion upon the special functions
illustrated therein.

“The pify is that more example is not supplied, and that some
authority beyond Tuckfield’s is not forthcoming. Even if we
assume that the triple number is really expressed, there remain
the questions—(1) Whether the elements expressing that notion
are really affixed or merely juxtaposed? (2) Whether the said
elements have any independent existence as words in any sense
whatever ?

* Eyre’s Journals of Diseovery, vol. ii, p. 401.
+ Rev. W. Ridley’s Languages of the Aborigines of Australia, p.115: (Sydney, 1875.)—

5 Naiadha. - land thou, Naiawung.
Thou, Indiga, We three, Naiowing.

844 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

“Tt is noticeable, for example, that in a// the triple persons the
attached elements, Kollik, appear ; while in the singular and dual
there is no such agreement of ending. Is there any way of dis-
covering an independent ko/ (/ik) in an appreciable sense of its
own? Or is it always and only pronominal ?

“Tf in English we say ‘ We do,’ ‘ We-two-do,’ ‘ We-three-do,’ the
step to agelutination is but a small one. Did the Australian
simply do ‘the same and stop at ‘three,’ because it had no further
numerals ?

“Thus you give the dual as containing bul; but bul is the
ordinary Australian for two, or at least is contained in the word
for two.

“Similarly I find that kuliba and guliba are Australian for
three, and I should say that ko/(/ik) is an appearance of three in
your compounds.”

As regards answering Professor Tucker’s question—Whether
the elements expressing “triple number are really affixed or merely
juxtaposed ?—Tuckfield’s MS. furnishes no helpful assistance.
The answer must, therefore, be drawn from the pronouns them-
selves. But if we inspect the six examples of triple pronouns,
we will find that the said elements appear to be infixes, placed
between the two syllables of the word bangik. For example,
insert etuk-koll between the two parts of the word, and we have
bang-etuk-kol-lik—we ; prefix ong to etuk-koll, and by the same
process we get bang-ong-etuk-kollik—ours. Interposing wd koll
gives bang-ud-kollik—you ; prefixing ong to ud-koll makes bang-
ong-ud-kol-lik—yours. Incorporating tan-a-koll forms bang-tan-
a-kol-lik—they ; and prefixing a@ to tan-a-koll gives bang a tan a
kol lik—theirs.

As a similar formation also occurs in five examples of the
possessive cases, Singular and dual, and also in the plural, it seems
quite safe to conclude that in the pronouns of triple number “the
elements expressing that notion” are neither affixed nor juxta-
posed, but incorporated.*

Passing to the second question, we may reasonably confine our
attention to kol. The same combination of letters forms the first
syllable in the names of seven birds—koling-ar, parrot ; kol-ka-
wil, predatory bird, &e. ; but Tuckfield fur nishes no Wod-dow-ro,
Dantgur t, or Kolijon word showing ol used as a numeral. <As a
matter of fact, it could not occur in Wod-dow-ro, Dantgurt, or
Kolijon as the root syllable of three—none of these dialects had
such a numeral ; in each, three was expressed by two and one.

* “Words are formed by means of swufixes alone, the formative element being placed
always at the end of the word.”—Abel Hovelacque, Science of Language ; Australian
Languages, p. 68.

VOCABULARIES OF THE GEELONG AND COLAC TRIBES. 845

Thus finding triple form expressed by a word not known to the
speakers as a numeral, does not its presence indicate what may be
termed the survival of a grammatical form of precision ?

The supposition regarding triple pronouns as the conjoining of
the numerical syllable to roots expressive of pronominal relation-
ship seems to be thus fairly set aside. But turn to the dual form,
and what do we find? Here we clearly see that, in the three
dialects, bul,‘‘ is contained in the word for two.”* In Wod-
dow-ro, bulad, two, is traceable in Buk-ar-bul-ok—the residence of
the late Captain Fyans—signifying between two waters ; and in
dajorongbullok, the eldest of two sisters. This second example,
which seems quite akin to the dual pronoun bangbullok, is found
among names of family relationship, recorded by Tuckfield ; and
the following derivation of both examples is drawn by me from
his MS. :—Bukarballok-bokariu, middle; bulad, two; yaliok,
water; dajorongbullok-dajorong, implying priority of birth ; bwlad,
two ; worok, denoting female.

Now, although the termination of in the dual pronouns remains
unexplained, it must be admitted that the element bul in those
compounds, in bukarbwllok, dajorongbwlok and bulad may with
good reason be considered as the same identical root syllable.

But granting that, may we not reasonably ask what evidence
is there showing bul to be a veritable numeral? May it not first
have been applied to some right, act, or powers of two individuals,
and then by a natural transition of meaning, like our couple or
brace, have acquired an exact numerical significance ?

Benjeroo, two, is shown by Bunce to also mean couple, brace,
and two wives.

It seems, indeed, as feasible to suppose that the dual form
supplied the Wod-dow-ro with the numeral adjective, as to
suppose that they allowed the word for three to drop out of use
as a numeral, and yet retained its root syllable in pronominal
usage. If the word fell into disuse on the death of a native in
whose name it occurred, it would have wholly disappearedt ;
a personal application of such a term would be the least likely to
survive.

* Tuckfield’s MS. contains no numerals. The following are from Eyre’s ‘‘ Jowrnals of
Discovery,” vol. ii, p. 400 :—

Two and two—

W. Bul-ad-barp-bul-ad.
D. Bul-ad-da-bul-da-da.
K. Bul-ad-duk-bul-ad-duk.

+ “‘The Australians believe that a dead man’s ghost creeps into the liver of the impious
wretch who has dared to utter his name.”—Clodd’s Myths and Dreams.

846 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 7

SUMMARY OF PAPER ON WOD-DOW-RO, DANTGURT, AND
KOLIJON.

Title. Other Authorities. Prefatory Note.
Letters. Sounds. Change in Words.
Classification. The Noun.

Inflection of the Noun,

Derivation of the Noun.

Pronouns.

Interjection. Unclassified Word. Emphasis.
Example of Parsing. Examples of Syntax.

VOCABULARY.

Names of Natural Objects:—The Seasons. Parts of the Body.
Quadrupeds. Birds. Reptiles. Fish. Insects. Trees and
Shrubs.

Words b to y.

Sentences and Phrases.

Scriptural Paraphrases:—The Fall. The Commandments. The

Lord’s Prayer. Homily, A Fragment. Grace before and Grace
after Meals.

Appendix,

AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGE: WOD-DOW-RO,
DANTGURT, AND KOLIJON.

THE dialects spoken by the Aborigines of the Geelong and Colac
districts. From the MSS. of Francis Tuckfield, Collated by
John J. Cary.

Wod-dow-ro, Dangurt, and Kolijon words not included in this collection
are found in—

R. Brough Smythe’s ‘‘ Aborigines of Victoria,” vol. ii.

John Hilder Wedge’s ‘‘ Note Book” ; Bonwick’s ‘‘ Port Phillip Settle-
ment,” p. 247

G. T. Lloyd’s ‘‘ Thirty-three Years in Tasmania and Victoria,” p. 470.
E. J. Eyre’s ‘‘ Journals of Discovery,” vol. ii, p. 400-2.

The Witouro list of words found herein, and incorporated also in ‘‘ The
Aborigines of Victoria,” was very probably obtained originally by Edward
Stone Parker, Assistant Protector of Port Phillip Aborigines, who refers to
Witouro as one of eight dialects used in his district. ‘* Papers Relating to
the Aboriginies” printed by order of the House of Commons, 1844.

Samuel Mossman, whose short listof Wod-dow-ro words forms an appendix
to this paper, was an early resident of Port Phillip, coming to Geelong in
1841. He has preserved a few crumbs of information concerning these
times in a small brochure or two, besides leaving some MS. notes,

VOCABULARIES OF THE GEELONG AND COLAC TRIBES, 847

PREFATORY NOTE,

Wod-dow-ro, Dantgurt, or Kolijon denotes both the language
and the tribe.

The meaning of Wod-do has not been ascertained, but wiro (lips)
figuratively means speech or language ; and as East Australians
frequently named themselves after their language, most probably
so did the aborigines, who naturally spoke Wod-dow.

But Dantgurt-kuddet and Kolijon-gnundet seem to be the
completed forms of the second and third name, the suflixed word
in each instance signifying either tribe or language.

Wod-dow-ro is F. Tuckfield’s form of the word, as obtained from
the aborigines who once occupied the Geelong district. Watorrong,
Witowurong, Witowro, Witouro and Woddowrong are variants.

Witowro is given as the dialect of the aborigines of the Ballarat
district who roamed in the vicinity of Buninyong and Lake
Burrumbeet. Comparing it with the Wod-dow-ro now available,
shows, however, that the Geelong and Ballarat aborigines spoke
the one language, and, no doubt, they were but different sections
of the same tribe.

The Wod-dow-ro was a good type of the Australian coast
dwellers, but we can only conjecture as to whether the tribe was
numerous or not. The Geelong sections—Corio and Barabil—
are variously estimated by early settlers as consisting of 170
or 300 souls.

The hunting ground of the Wod-dow-ro was extensive, well
watered, and, from all accounts, generally furnished an abundance
of game. Broadly speaking, it included the whole of the present
county of Grant and part of Grenville on the north.

The Kolijon is spoken of as a small tribe roaming in the
vicinity of Lakes Colac and Corangamite.

The Dantgurt was only a section of a tribe named Manmait,
whose hunting ground touched the western boundary of the
Kolijon. With the advent of the whites, the sectional name
seems to have supplanted the tribal.

LETTERS.

Nineteen letters are used in writing these dialects—a, b, d, e,
g, h, i, j, k, 1, m, n, 0, p, r, t, u, w, y. The natives were unable
to pronounce f, ¢, h, s, x, and z. Many of them could not distin-
guish between the labials b and p, nor the palatals d and t.

Obs. Tuckfield uses h in the aboriginal in one or two instances
only. He says but sixteen letters were necessary to form an
aboriginal alphabet.

848 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

SOUNDS.

A set of marked vowels, by Tuckfield, shows @ with one long
and one short sound, as in fiir and fat*; e, as in mé and end; 2,
as in bit ; and 0, as in nd, not, and méve ; w, as in bill, and as in
tub; tir, gnan ; pédong, dilbel ; kar-i-gnal ; bi, kol, lok ; bi-ad,
kumbe.

The sounds of the dialects were, for the most part, pleasing to
the ear.

A nasal sound, common to the Australian, is represented by
the letters gn. It is produced by placing the organs of speech in
the position required to pronounce g hard. The sound is then
emitted through the nose, like the letter n. This sound gave the
Europeans much trouble.

Gn changes to k in neighbouring dialects, and the initial cor-
responds with & in different sections of the same tribe :—Gnenong
(Wod.), kenong (Kol.), foot ; gnurdong (Wod.), knardon (Wit.),
mother ; gnarn (Kol.), karl (Dant.), dog ; gnundet (Kol.), kuddet
(Dant.), tribe or language; gnun-ye, kuren-ye, small.

The foliowing list of words in Wod-dow-ro and Witowrof will
help to show the mutability of speech among two sections of the
same tribe, establishing at the same time their identity :—

Natural Objects.

Wod-dow-ro. Witowyro. English,
Da Dar Karth
Gnubet Moabet Water
La Lar Stone
Tot-ba-ram Toort-baram Stars
Mondar Mundar Rain
Mondar Mundar Thunder
Morgal Moorkalyn Night
Mere Mirriyu Day (or Sun ?)
Weng Wing Fire
Wor-a-wor Woorer-woorer - Sky

Animals and Birds.

Karwer Kowe Emu
Koim Goim Kangaroo
Karl Garl Dog
Wollard Wollert Opossum
Parts of the Body.
Genong-etukt Tinnan Foot
Gnern-der Nar-een-gan dan yook Beard
Karem Karreem nook Thigh

* Tuckfield’s form of the numeral two, bul-laid, shows @ as in fate.
+ Eyre’s Journals of Discovery, vol. ti, p. 401-2.
t Etuk is sutfixed to all Wod-dow-ro names of parts of the body.

Ce ae

VOCABULARIES OF THE GEELONG AND COLAC TRIBES. 849

Kaung
Liangeduck
Mirgnetuk
Morrok
Morom

Murna

Tellang
Woroo-worung

Amerjig
Bagorok
Gnurdong
Kuly
Mondegorok
Pedong-etuk
Wor-dong

Karp
Gare
Leangwell

Wongern

Borok
Dedawon*
Karung
Mognet
Mort
Nerim
Newlem
Kunubenuk
Winyar
Eramu

The words of the Wod-dow-ro, Dantgurt, and Kolijon dia
may be classed as nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adver

Karn

Leanyook
Mirrook

Moorn yook
Murrum knook
Munangin
Tallan
Wooru-tan yook

Family Relationship.

Amygeet
Bagorook
Knardon knettuk
Gole
Mondegorook
Pedouring ettuk
War noong

Weapons.
Karp
Tark
Leangil

Wangim

Common Terms.

Borack
Detarwat
Karrong
Mongak

Moert

Nerim

Noolam
Koenebanyook
Wear
Yeramun

PARTS OF SPEECH.

conjunctions, and interjections.
A few remarks of interest will here be made concerning the

noun and pronoun.

THE NOUN.

Nose

Teeth

Eyes

Head

Soul or spirit
Hand

Tongue

Lips, mouth, speech

White man
Woman (black)
Mother

Man

Old woman
Father
Brother

Spear

Spear (hunting)

Waddy with curved
end

Boomerang

No
*1 shall die, +Dead ?

House

To make
Short
Jong

Bad

Good
Where
To-morrow

The common noun is either—(1) Simple—as bon, knee; da,
earth; la, stone; (2) collective—as kin-kin-bil (Wod.), mar
(Dant.), mandel (Kol.), people ; nanok nanworen, fur tribe ; or (3)
abstract—-as deraba, shame ; konda, sorrow ; morom, a spirit.

Examples of nouns of the second and third class are few.

3

850 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F, -

GENDER,

Inflection.—As regards gender, F. Tuckfield shows that worth is
at 5 2 :

a feminine suffix: Kurenyemerworthk, “ She-with-the-small-eyes.
Worok, gorok, and goruk are variants of the word. No mention
is made of a masculine suffix ; and the feminine can be traced in
the names of persons only.

From the subjoined table it will be seen that gender in nouns
was more commonly expressed by different words :—

Wod-dow-ro.

Masculine. Feminine.

Amerjig. White man Amerjigorok. White woman

Kuly. Man. Bagoruk. Woman

Pedong. Father Gnurdong. Mother

Wordong. Brother Bermborok. Sister

Wagnakik. My younger brother Bermboragik. My younger sister

Dedeik. My youngest brother Dajerik. My eldest sister
Dajorongbullok. Eldest sister of

two
Mommomik. My son Wong-gongik. My daughter
Tanddopek. My uncle Male koragik. My aunt.
Dantgurt.

Amerdeit. White man Amerdeitair. White woman
Tamtambora. Woman

Be-bi. Father Gner-rong-gi. Mother

Wordi. Brother Ko-ker. Sister

Ko-ko-gnun. My youngerbrother Towelja. Aunt

Gnum-i. My uncle Ka-ki. My elder sister

Kolijon.

Amerdeit. White man Amerdeitgoruk. White woman

Tharong. Man Nodnoat. Woman

Ma-ma. Father Ba-ba. Mother

Derda. Brother Banget. Sister

Koromboit. My younger brother

Ka-gnet, My uncle Malankaugnek. My aunt

Dattonget. My eldest sister

It may be noted that wererwp a common term for the
“sorcerer” of a tribe, can have no feminine, women never filling
that office.

Lapmolong, widower, and pondak, widow, no doubt belong to
one of the three dialects; but Mr. Tuckfield has merely hsted
them in his general vocabulary.

NUMBER.

He gives only one example of the change of a noun singular to
plural, viz., mir, eye ; mera, eyes.’

* See example of parsing.

VOCABULARIES OF THE GEELONG AND COLAC TRIBES. 851

CASE.

The vowels a, cu, and uw, When suffixed to nouns, appear to
serve as case endings. For example, murna, hand ; murnaa, in
(the) hand; weing, fire; weingiw, to (the) fire; Sundayw, of
Sunday.*

DERIVATION OF NOUNS.

A few examples of derivative and compound nouns that have
been traced by the aid of F. Tuckfield’s vocabulary give an
interesting glimpse of aboriginal word-formation.

Derivatives appear to be formed by the aid of the suffix abil or
bil, which signifies one of, or pertaining to ; thus—

Tarekabil, signifies an erect person—one straight as a spear—tare, a spear ;
k perhaps euphonic ; and abil pertaining to. (Wod-dow-ro.)

Taregil is the Kolijon form of the word.

Yanabil, a visitor, may perhaps be closely rendered as one of the comers,
or one of the goers—yan expressing motion to a place, as in yan-
gal-e-nut, to walk ; yan-garamela, to come back ; and yanik, I go.

Nanworabil denotes a bear, opossum, or any furred animal; while
Karignalabil, Creator ; gnariwel, an adult ;
Kin-kin-bil, people ; and
Nilarngwarabil, the finny tribe, are also examples.
Abil was thus attached to a simple noun or verb, or to a compound word.
Gunong, or a contraction of it, seems to aid as a suffix in forming :—

Pedong, father Myungunong, liar
Wardong, brother Dilokongong, fighter
Gnurdong, mother Bilmgonong, thief.

Lapmolong, widower

Compound nouns consist of—(1) A noun preceded by a noun, as
Korongwrong, frog-face; Mulgamom, shield-point. (2) A noun
preceded by an adjective, as Nerimgenong, long-foot, Newlem-boit,
bad heart. (3) A noun preceded by a verb, as Ponemelang, bite-
rat—i.e., “an eater of rats.”

These and similar compounds were the nicknames of indi-
viduals, it being customary for the aborigines to name their
children after some particular circumstance occurring at the time
of birth, or after the food they eat, or a personal peculiarity.

To the names of the females the sign of the feminine gender
was also tacked on—Korinemurnongorok, korine, bitter; murnong,
an edible plant; gorok, female.

. *Sentences and Phrases—15, 18, 60-1, 94, 138, 147, 152, 172,196; Homily—6, 9, 12, 13,
14. The Fall—22, 25,

852 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

This name was given to her as she was born in a place where,
and at a season of the year when, the murnong was bitter.

In all such compounds listed, the qualifying word is invariably
placed first.

Compounds also consist of an agglomeration of several words
having syllable elided, as—

Dajorongbullok, ‘‘ the eldest of two sisters’”—dajorong, implying priority
of birth; bul, a contraction of bulad, two; and ok, a contraction of
worok, female.

Bukarbullok, is also formed of at least three abridged words, two having
the end, and one the beginning cut off; bukariu, middle; bulad, two ;
and yallok, water. Bukarbullok, ‘‘ Between two waters,” designates
a corner of Marnock Vale, Geelong,* around which the Barwon sweeps
in a horseshoe curve.

Tarigemiretuk, eyelash—spears or reeds of the eye—comes by a similar
agglutinating process—tare, spear or tark reed; 1(?); ge, of the;
mirgnetuk, eye.+

Compounds with complete words juxtaposed, as Korong-
wrong, &c., are no doubt more newly coined than those with
elisions, the latter class having their edges, so to speak, rubbed
off after long usage ; and no doubt the components of many of
these will never be traced.

PRONOUNS.

Pronouns may be classified as personal and interrogative.

‘Personal pronouns that stand alone, or that are used in answer
to an interrogative of personal agency, are different from those
that are used in connection with verbs, or in answer to a question
of the act, eg., in answer to the question of personal agency,
“Who speaks?” (Wela karing!) the answer would be, ‘“ Karing
bangik,” (Speak I.) In answer to a question of the act, ‘“ What
are you doing ?” the answer would be “ Kudgellengik,” (Eating I.)
In this sentence 7&4 seems to be a contraction of the personal
pronoun, bangik ; but in other interrogatives, we have other
pronouns depending, it would seem, on the consonant with which
the verb terminates. Hence it seems to us at present that there
is an endless variety of pronouns in the language.” {

* Similar contractions are found in the names of places in the Colac district. Lake
Corangamite—Bitter water ; korine, bitter; gnubet, water. Lake Burrumbete—Round
water; burum, round (?); gnubet, water. Wurdibulok—wurdi, large (?); bulad, two ;
yallok, water.

+ Ge in this example, in the Wod-dow-ro, Murgebulok, the brightness (?) of two waters—a
spot at the junction of the rivers Leigh and Barwon—and in Tarntarnigelok, the good
snaring water, may be a contraction of gewa, there. Some of the words given as deriva-
tives are probably compounds.

{ F. Tuckfield’s Journal. Draft of ‘‘ Report to the Rev. Secretary, Wesleyan Mission
House, Hatton Garden, London.” June 31,1840. The quotation regarding trinal number
given in my paper A Discovery in the Australian Language, is also from the above-
mentioned draft.

853

VOCABULARIES OF THE GEELONG AND COLAC TRIBES.

‘sI1dU[ TL, ‘Su0-uv4-op-05-suvg

“AOULT, ‘SU0-1ey-Suvg
NOK ‘uap-pnuy)
*SaN0 _X ‘pn Suo-surg
0X ‘pn-surg
Jal ‘nap pnus-sueq
‘SING ‘yol pom-v-surg
OM. ‘yol pom-surg
[Bani

‘omy nok JQ
‘OMY NOK
ees IO
NO"“L
‘sn JO
"OM
“OOTY O AA
OM} SQ)
“OMY SN JQ
"OM} OMA
CUTIN
I

"YStpsug

SATO], ‘YU -[O3-B-Uey-e-Suvg

‘AOU, “I -TOY-V-uvy-Sueg
‘sano XK ‘YIOY-pn-suo-suavg
OX ‘yI[-[OY-pn-Surg
‘sQ) “woT[ouy)

‘San SYI[[O-yN4d-su0-surg
"OM ‘YU-TOY-yuyo-suvg

‘oT diay,

‘SIIOYT, ‘YO-[Nq-op-08-Sueq ‘st
‘SuO-[nq-e-Suvg “OFT

“AOU,
nox ‘ue-[Ng

‘sano K ‘YOT[Nq-ep-03-Suvq ‘ourypy,
NO *yo[-[nq-surg ‘nowy,

‘Ss ‘uay-TuUr)
‘sInQ) ‘[oUS-op-o5-Suvgq ‘oury
OAL usurg :
TEug

‘OL-NOP-P0 Af

‘CUNITOUA SNOONOUd TVNOSUTd

yol ous Suo Suop puuy
y[O.1-0U5-Suop-puuryy
4I-Suop-pnury
qI-op-pnuy

yuu weus op pnuy
ynu usus op pnur)

v-[U-Suop-pnuy
v-[op-pnuy)

4I-Op-pnuyy
‘mofttoy

uap pnus Suo Zuop puuy
uop-pnus-op-pnur)

phu Suop pnuyy
yop-pnuy

udU-UeUS-Op-pnury
uou-UvUS Op pnury

n-v-un-op-pnury
[e-8-op-pnuyy

Np-putiryy
*qaInsd-1UBT

‘nar4 aaynundumoy

‘SSNOONOUd TVYNOSUAd

‘ynp-op-05-Surg = ‘uox
‘ynu-Surg ‘uwoyy

‘00

‘uo-Su0-Surgq ‘uay
‘ue-surg
YH) io “HIq ‘YT ‘oo
‘yisuosueg ‘ue
‘yisuvg ‘WON = 48d
wosdag

‘IvpUsUIg

YO] [UG op 08 Suvg
YOL-[nq-surg
ue-su0-suURg

uo-Suegq
yol-pom-e-Surg
yol-pom-surg
YI-[OY-ynI0-Sueq
ue]-[n-sued
[nUS-op-05-Surg
[u-sueg
Yl-su0-Sueg
yrsueg
‘O.1-MOP-pO AM.

—? SpoTBIp 9a1y} OY} Ur suNnoUOAd [vUOSdod sv pordos spunodutod Jo 4ST] SUTMOT[OF OY,

PAIGL

‘WON puodag

854 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

Won is also given as the pronoun I. Gnar won gneal-gnen,
“T believe your words”; Wodjol-a won, “ Anger is gone from
me.” (Gnen, (W.) nuk, (K.) won, (D.) me ?)

Two forms are given in the first person plural. Bangwodjok,
we, denotes part of a number of individuals present when that
part exceeds three ; Bangetuk, includes all present.

An, you, sing. nom. appears in the example of parsing.

Gnen, you (acc.), your, occurs in the singular.

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.

Wela, who ; weka, whose; winyar, what ; winger, what.

DERIVATION OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

The components of these compounds have yet to be clearly
traced. In composition they are perhaps akin to the nouns
formed by elision, The dual and trinal forms most probably
incorporate the numeral, bw/, in the dual, being a contraction of
bulad, two, and fol, in the trinal, a contraction of three
(kuliba, guliba).

But this opposes the statement of Francis Tuckfield, who says
the natives were able to express themselves in these forms without
using the numeral adjective. This statement, we may reasonably
suppose, rests on direct information given to him by the natives ;
but then we may infer that the blacks themselves had long for-_
gotten the original complex nature of the compounds, for there
remains this striking fact : the Geelong tribesmen, who used
trinal pronouns, were found with no numeral for three. They
expressed three by addition, budad-barp-koimozl, two and one.*

Interjection.—Wah-wah. Unclassified word.—Koon-g-a-g-e. It
is a parting word used by the natives. ‘It may be a good wish,
or an exclamation expressing regret at leaving; but what it
means,” says Tuckfield, “the blacks could not tell.” Lmphasis is
sometimes marked by reduplicating a word, or adding a syllable—
tarn-tarn, winyar-ar, kollik-ka ?

EXAMPLE OF PARSING.

Yan-gag-e an kom-ba an; barno gnen_ ko-mer-a.

Go you Sleep you; heavy your _ sleepy eyes.

Yan-gag-e, intrns. verb, future, indic., second pers., sing., to agree with its
nom. an.

* See A Discovery in the Australian Language.

VOCABULARIES OF THE GEELONG AND COLAC TRIBES. 855

An, pers. pron., sing., second, (mas. or fem.) nom. after yan-gag-e.

Kom-ba, intrns. verb, future, ind., second pers., sing., to agree with its
nom. ai.

An, pers. pron., sing., first, nom. after Lom-ba.

Bar-no, adj.

Gnen, pers. pron., second pers., sing., poss, case.

Ko-an, adj., qualifying mera.

Mer-a, a noun, plural number.

SYNTAX,

“The order of words in aboriginal sentences,” says Tuckfield,
“resembles that in the language of the ancients.”

Examples :—
1. Bullaid—bullaid) = murgal worik (Homily 9.)
Two two nights rests he
2. Wear worik wmorgalu kombik

Where stayI to-night (to) sleep I

3. Winyar’ kod _ kollik-ka
What talk you (ternal)

4, Yan-gag-e an kom-ba an barno gnen ko-mera
Go you sleep you heavy your _ sleepy eyes

5. Yan-gag-e gnubet danik? (Obs., d in danik may be intrusive;
Go water you, me an is the pronoun. )

6. Pointno mer drunmarnga
Buried sun clouds in

Names of Natural Objects.

Wod-dow-ro. Dantgurt. Kolijon. English.
1. Da 1. Mer ing 1. Ta 1. Earth
2. Do-ong-marng 2. Mur nung 2. Bul a da mer ong 2. Clouds
3. Gnubet 3. Bar et 3. Kan 3. Water
4, Ko-rok 4. Boinbullurmerng 4. Kol-lad-kol-lad 4, Sand
5. La 5. Mori 5. Tre 5. Stone
6. Mere 6. Derng 6. Na 6. Sun
7. Mondar 7. My young 7. Mur rong 7. Rain
8. Tot-ba ram 8. Born-mar-a-merng 8. Kar-at-kar-at 8. Stars
9. Yern 9. Bar-e-nan-nen 9. Bard-bard 9. Moon.

The Seasons.

Yank-yank, Spring ; Wor-o-won, Autumn ; My-an-you, Winter.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

856

qiduiae oy,

MOQTA OU,

JOpP[NOYS IPT,

yoou ot],

prvoy oy jo arey orp,

Iva OUT,

aoe} OU,

SLOYSTYM OUT,

ULYD OIL,

sdiy oy,

paraq ayy,

asou otf}

JO ODU]IJAVd SUIPIAIpP OY,
[eysou oy,

asou OU],

asou 94} JO VSplaq OT,
yoou oq} Jo yory ony,
pray 919 Jo doq 10 UM0.10 OT,

Morgado ay J,

T1eqe4o ot,

preke ou,
ysepoha oy,

ofa oy,

pvoyo1of Oly,

pvoy oy,
"UstTsug

o3 =
NAAAN

Sonn

yo uous 9 Ivy

yO uous-u0 [og

you ous UAOY Ye
YOU-WOUS-WO yy

YOU WoUS-ye-IOUL-We yy
YOu Wous-a 19 A,

you UsUS-URA 9 JOT
you wous-ueUr)

udUs You wous-d-10-]AT,
yO uous Sun-10
O1-OM-YOU-UdTS-Suog

Suoy Oo you wous-pog
Suoy 0 uous-ous-u1eUy
you usaus yuo

Suoy You uous v ynuy
you waus 0 UeN

you uous ye oul [ng

au JOUL YOu woUs Suvay,

aU JUL YOU usUs-plog
ou LAW You UIs PAO AA
al JOU YOu uous 4e-IVq,
you ueus Aly

you Sua 19u4)

you uWsus YOI LOTT

‘uo ltjoy

6

. .

. . . . .

aN dig Oo rm WD

Pee eee eeenee

eee e eee eee ee eee

eee eee ees e tenes

ee a

eee eee eee een nee

Lemar ween n eres

eee een ee renner ene

ee

eee

seen

teeeee

Cn

eee eee e ee eeeeenes

ee ry

ee ee

teenee

Tree ere re)

ee

PO ey

*‘(UdAIS JON) °G

wou vUs IT
Wall WAUS-Ud4-III
uou-ew-ag

*qIN3yUB

‘fipog ayn fo svg

eh eeee

eee

4e-ley, “PF

&

G
I

yujo-ure-1e yy
ynqo-W0-pog
ynjo-wieU)

yuyo WO yy
ynjo-10Ul-aeU ry
ynyo 19\\

ynye Suneq-disyy
yuo top wa10ur)
YNyJo Jop UloUs 9 yous)
Bun-10 AA

ynjo 01 OM 9 SuUOT

ynjo Suney-op-og
ynjo Suney of-o-og
ynye-Sune yy
ynjo Suney ev [nuy
yN-yous-a-ueN
ynyo rout Sue [ey

f yuyous Jour ou Ieyq,

1 ynjo aut OF
yNo-ILWI-9U5-yUop-YULIT
YNYO ATU Op-10 AA
yuqo-atu-of-1-18 7,
ynyous ayy
ynjo-qua-o]T
YN4d-3OI-1O J

*OI-MOP-pO pa

857

VOCABULARIES OF THE GEELONG AND COLAC TRIBES.

*(daqsur

OY} 4) OOF 9Y} JO Youq oy,
JOO} YY JO OJOS OT,
400F OULL

Joy OL,

aT UL OPT,

Ho] ayy JO F[vo OY,
UIYS OT,

doy oY],

89, OL,

ystyy OU,

Yysryy oyy Jo gurol oy,
Sql OUT,

s[aMoq OUT,

JOAVU OIL,

ATPOq OUT,

aiddiu oy y,

4svoriq OUT,

aUOg 4SvoIq OUT,
IOSUY IY} JO [leu OY T,
Jasuy patyy oy,
IOSUY o[pprut op,
JOSUYOIOF OUT,
quinuy oy y,

puey oy,

qSLIM OtLT,

WIG OUT,

“Yst[sug

“SE
CE
‘Ig
‘OS
66
‘8G
“LG
‘9G
"SG

Suo udy ous pxo AA
Suo uoy ous [ng

you uous Suo uy

you woud Ue Iv AA

you wows ung

wns un Jog uns Wo Jog
@ IVY You uous av Jax
you uss u0g

you uous & Avy

you usUs-9 1vVyT

Suoy [NU you usus 9-1v-[9 K
you uous op oud ad OY
YN W9US O IBA,

you uous yn 10 TOY,
YOU UOUS-Ue-1e WY

you usus urlaaq-Wodg
you uaus at Jog

you uous yny Any

eUl YOU WAU Ya Joy
YOp-32Y-90q

OU WIOU 4107
SuwoImey-4oq-OT,
UOp-v-[@ I],

you uous vf

YOU UIUS O VU O AVI
you uay o Udy

‘nolttoy

Cr
Leeman mene eee ene nne
rete e eee eee ee nee sees
ee
eee eenene

A wee eee eens

eee POR eee eee ee
Ferm eee ween eee nee ae
ee ee er

eee

ee eet ene ne eee eeeeees

re ee
neem eee tweet ean eeeeeeee

ee er ry

*‘qInSypUBE

ynyo Suo us op 10 AA

yujo suo ues 9 Suoy,
ynyo Suou ox

ynjo v UOy,
ynyo-ureg

ynqo-10'7

yuyo wey 9 ous)

ynjo uog

yujo-rvyy

ynjo wo av yy
yujo-Suo-yuur 9 pau)
ynqo Jo Jey 9 yauy)
JN-YOUS-0-19 AA

YN yous 10 JOT,
ynyo-su0 J,

ynjo-weg

ynyo Wos-OT,
ynyo-Woy-u0 yy

yuyo vu anurt oq 9 19q
qup plom v IVY yor

YO 10M O 105,
YI [LUT WOU 19 Ay

yujo vu anu a Saop anuy
yuqe-vu-anpy

ynjo-eu-avy,

ynjo-su0-1v J,

‘OI-MOp-POM

858

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

Natural Objects—Quadrupeds.

Korn-um, mouse.

. Morn gnar ok, a species of

hedgehog.

. To-an, flying squirrel.

. Wararm, a species of rat.
. War-en, squirrel.

. War-er,

. Woolard, opposum.

. Yourn, a wild cat.

Kolijon Guun-det,

. Gnarn-do, dog.
. Kora, kangaroo.

Nan-kel, squirrel.

. Pongo, opossum.
. Wring gel, sloth, kind of.

Wod-dow-ro.

]. Bar ok, kangaroo rat. ul.

2, Barn-ong, opossum, 12
2. Bor nong, resembles a cat.

4, Bo. 13

5. Gnarm bol mom, a sloth. 14

6. Gnur-gnur, wombat. 15

7. Karl, dog. 16

8. Ko-e-lern, } a small kind of 17

9. Ko-en, { kangaroo. 18

10, Ko-im, kangaroo.
Dantgurt kud-det.

1. Karl, dog. 1

2, Ko-rin, kangaroo. a2,

3. Non te, squirrel. 3.

4, Pi-et, opossum. 4

5. Wring-gel, sloth, kind of. 5

Birds.

Wod-dow-ro.
. Bar-it, eagle or hawk. 24

qe no

. Bar-nar, duck, not quite as large

as tolom.

. Be-u-young, eagle or hawk.
. Bit-bit-der uk, white and black

in colour, long bill, long legs ;
found on banks of rivers where
trees are.

Born-ing-om, a small bird.

. Bur-de-gnul, pelican.

Bul-ok-or.
Dar-en, black cockatoo.

. Der-be, like a quail.
. Dorng, a common singing bird,

like English gray bird.

. Dren-ar, a parrot.

. Gnar-om-gar, eagle or hawk.
. Gnart.

. Gnung-ok,

black and white
goose.

5. Gnurk-arm-gnurk-arm.

. Gnura, pigeon.

. Kan de lop, an aquatic bird.

. Kar ol, gray goose.

. Kar-wer, emu.

. Kern di, the size of a hen; black

plumage, white bill ; cannot fly,
but run swiftly.

. Kol-ing-ar, a parrot.
. Kol ka will, eagle or hawk.
. Kol-par-tar-o,

the size of a
cockatoo ; very numerous on
the salt lakes.

. Kol-war.

. Kol-wark, nankeen bird.
. Kon emue a small bird.
. Kon-o-war, swan.

28. Ko-ro-mon, a small bird.

. Kower.

. La-koit, a parrot.

. Lar bar lerp, a small bird.

. Lok-lok, eagle or hawk.

. Mor-o-bil, owl.

. Par-a-wong, magpie.

5. Por-ong-ge, quail.

. Por-onget, native companion.
. Pro-gel, a parrot.

. Tar-ar, eagle or hawk.

. Tar-i-wel, turkey.

. Timp-golp.

. To-lom, duck.

2. Tow

er tow ert, small bird,
foundon the border of the lakes.

. Wa-bet, eagle or hawk.
. Wer e grow-ert, the size and

colour of tolom ; very numerous
on the lakes.

. Wod jok, duck, kind of.
. Wong-ong-ul, owl; known as

** Morepork.”’

. Won-ok-gi, wood duck.

. Wor-ep, like parrot.

. Yar-en, like English black bird.
. Yo-kep, like parrot.

CPR ee Lab

VOCABULARIES OF THE GEELONG AND COLAC TRIBES. 859

Dantgurt. Kolijon.

1. Kert ber ap, pelican. 1, Kor-ork, native companion.
2. Kore, magpie. 2. Kor-or-o, magpie.
3. Koron, native companion. 3. Mur-won-gel, pelican.
4. Nor de gel kow-ong, goose, 4. Nor-de-gong, goose.
5. Por-em-por-em, turkey. 5. Pear-wong, duck.
6. Por-in-mul, emu. 6. Porin-mul, emu.
7. To-ro-worng, duck. 7. Wred-gel, turkey.
Reptiles.
Guar-el-a. Le-lon, lizard. Wol-gna.
Kar-duk, large snake. _Mo-rong-it. Wol-op, a species of
Koret. Mula. lizard.
Kornmil. Mern-di. U-rok,
Kau. Nob-ine.
Kul-or-nong. Warm,
Fish
Ge-ang-port, bream. Tar-wil. Weit ee
Guul-end-wil. To-la-ang. Wordel f S20
Ko-ine, eel. To-re-ung, salt-water Wer a ben, blackfish.
Kor-dir-wil. fish. Yere del.
Kore. To rok burt. Yourn-it, a very deli-
Merdon. Wear, crab. cate smelt.
Insects. é ‘
Kam-bar. To-do-it. “
Mo-ron, a March fly, exceedingly ten
numerous and truublesome. It a eee
: 2 a S.@ do
is ravenous for blood ; neither ;
man nor beast is safe from its Te [8 a6
attack. Itis black, asits name J ‘
signifies. i ie
Plants and Shrubs. Ys Case

Berng-kanng, a plant found on banks of rivers.
natives with food at all seasons of the year.

Boi-u-rok, a small shrub, yellow flowers. The leaves are eaten

Bol kom-bop-ba, a small green plant with leaf like a turnip.
it acts as an emetic.

Bo-rom-bo-rom, a small plant sometimes used by the natives for covering
their houses.

Bor-om-bor-om, yellow flowers.

Bo-young-karl, a plant that bears a purple flower ; the root, something like
a parsnip, was eaten by the natives when food was very scarce,

Bor-wor, a kind of watercress.

Gnar-a-moduk, a plant with very tough long roots, which the natives plait
into belts and wear around their heads.

Kar-on, a kind of shrub.

Kar-up-kar-up, a small purple flower of which the quail are fond.

Kor-or-word-wort, a very small plant with yellow flowers.

Kol-ler, a long grass which was plaited for belts.

Mir-ark, native geranium.

Mo-ro-yok, a bramble.

Mul-a-tar-i-wel, a plant growing about a foot high, and bearing yellow
flowers. The name literally signifies, ‘‘ the shadow of a turkey.”

by the emu.
When eaten,

Rs
The roots supplied the ©
ee

yt
os

en

Bey

860 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

Nambet,
Nar-it, a native mint.

New-lem-e-ja, a small plant with yellow flowers.

Pim-bit, daisy.

Pol-an-go, a long green plant that grows in the beds of rivers.

The stalk

is round, the leaf flat and narrow; it bears very handsome clusters of

green fruit, about 9 inches in length.

Tark, a reed.

The roots are edible.

Tar-a-ka-do, a very beautiful bushy shrub that grows near rivers, and bears

clusters of white flowers.

War-war-ok, a rush used by the natives for making baskets.

Wer-an-a.
Warg, a common salad plant.

Wong-a-lok, a shrub, growing about 3 feet high, and, like the boiurok,
found in great abundance on the banks of rivers.

VOCABULARY.

Ba-e-tar e ga, only stand up.

Bal mel ing, to milk.

Bam gnetuk, the nipple.

Banuk, the flesh of any animal.

Barar, grass.

Bar dop mo, to throw down.

Bar dop der e gnul, two wrestling :
let us two wrestle.

Bar-i-mer-e, midday.

Bar-it,

Bar-lit, hard.

Bar-na-gnen, with you.

Bar-na, a duck not quite as large as
talom.

Bar-nong, opossum.

Barn-gnetuk, the ankle.

Barn-barn, heavy

Barok, kangaroo rat.

Barp, and,

Ba-wot nen,

Baung, stinking.

Bel-er-en, to shine.

Ben-yek, a small bag.

Berd, name of a tree.

Ber ne, v.a., to bring forth.

Bert ner ing, to divide.

Berngull, a hill.

Berk-ik, only.

Ber-wo, to twist.

Beyong, a hawk.

Bi-ang-al-a, to ride.

Bil-mal-a-bil-won*-ok, stealing
woman.

Bilm-gon-ong, a thief.

Bil-po-re, or bilbore, to boil.

Bob bi, to dig.

Bob-bop, a baby.

Bob-om, a whelp ; a ‘young one.

Bog up muk, to open.

Bo-jo-wer en, weeping.

Bokariu, middle.

Bol-mo, to milk ; to wring out.

Bol-mel-a, (future tense).

Bon, knee (Mossman).

Bone, a small tree.

Bono, to bite.

Borak, no; not.

Borel-a, to rest.

Bork, to cough.

Bornak, mouth (Mossman).

Borng-al-la, (v.a.), to blow.

Bowere, (v.a.), to fall.

Bo-wer-e-wot, cease all.

Bo-i-young, a sore; ulcer; abscess,

Brin-ba-al, rainbow.

Brit ne, (v.a.), to peel ; to scrape.

Brit-nok (imperative)

Brit-nar-de, have shaved.

Brung-brung, gun.

Buk-ar-e-u, middle.

Bulad, two.

Bulad barp bulad, four.

Bul-la-won, an instrument with two
blades ; scissors, &c.

Bur-de-gnul, pelican.

Dan, hoar frost.

Da, dr dairk, earth.

Daire, the hunting spear.

Dallang, a rug.

Dam-dam, bedding of dry grass, &c. ;
bed ; mattress.

Dark-guer-er-en, red.

Darke, heavy boomerang (non re-
turning).

Darn-gar-en, white.

Dar-no-da, to scratch the earth.

* n should probably be 7, giving worok, femate. Bil-mal-a-bil-wor-ok, a thieving woman.-~
J.C.C,

ae

VOCABULARIES OF THE GEELONG AND COLAC TRIBES,

Dar-nook, wooden bowl] ; bucket.

Dedabul—detable—detarbul, great;
large.

Dedak—detarwa, dead.

Der-a-ba, shame.

Der en, or daren (?), black cockatoo,

Dere kol mom, midday.

Derm, dry.

Derk-war-a-bil, red.

Did-dul-a-a, calm.

Dil-o-kong-ong, a fighter.

Dol-bel-e-nun, hungry.

Dore-mert, torch.

Eramu, to-morrow.

Eram-bop-mer-e,

Ge-u-bon, to the right.

Ge wa, opposite ; there.

Ge-e-wod, back there.

Gnal-la-gat, not.

Gnan-bo, first.

Gnan-gnan, no.

Gnar i wel, an adult.

Gnarwa, to hear.

Gnar-war-a-bil, relating to the fur
tribe.

Gner-on-bop-mo, love.

Gno-ko-rok, to swallow ; to devour.

Gnubet, water.

Gnubet-u-ren, wet.

Gnul-gnul-la-gnen

Gnul-gnul-la-nuk

Gnul-gnul-la-a-won

Guun a burt na gnen, your husband.

Gnun-ye-ge, small.

Guur dong, mother.

Gunul lom ba don, forget.

Je be weng, sparks of fire.

Jine-e,

Jur, dew.

Ka-a-le, to rustle, the noise of rip-
pling water.

Kalif, bone awl or needle.

Kal-me-mal-me wor-en,

Kal-la-ma la kor den,

Kame, that.

Kan a kan nuk, ornamental scars
on back and chest of natives.

Kan de rang, a small hailstone.

Kan-kan-je, to trot.

Kar a ken, peak, or front of any head
dress.

Kar-a-kin, ornamental scars on the
body.

Kar am gnetuk, the armpit.

Kar e mog-en, sprinkle me.

Kare mer ing, sprinkled.

Kare muk get no we, sprinkle this
one.

reconciled to me.

every-
where.

861

Kari-gnal-a-bil, Creator.

Karn-o-gnul-len, calling to us two ;
also Kern, &e.

Karp, a spear.

Kel-ter-a-len-tan-ong, three talking,

Kim barne, here.

Kin ja gne, over there.

Kin kud don na, saved.

Konur em ur em, feasts or dances.

Knurnen, small bag.

Kog ba gne, above.

Koi moil, one.

Kok kel ik, my expectorated matter,

Kol ba nuk, to break.

Kol bo dering, to cut.

Kol-burn-kol-burn-ure, knife.

Kol-e-muk, nurse (imperative).

Kol-e-muring, nursing.

Kol-e-mo-gnet, nurse.

Kol-le-wer-ang-gno, outside.

Kom-ba-po-nuk, above, on top.

Komering, covering.

Konda, sorrowful.

Kon-ong, soft.

Kor-a-kin, stone used for axe.

Koren-war-a-bil-karp, flint or glass
tipped spear.

Koren, south.

Koren, large mussel shell used in
dressing a skin.

Korine, bitter.

Kor mo, to dig.

Kor ok, sand.

Kor-o-mel-en, dirty.

Kor-on-wor-a-bil, one of the feather
tribe. ;

Korrong, the bark used for native
houses.

Korrongiu, native house.

Kow wore, saved.

Kud der, to meet, to fall in with.

Kud gella, or kud gala, to eat.

Kul bol ing kurn der ing, hasty
noise made by two.

Kur-en-ye, small.

La, stone.

Lap mol ong, widower.

Leang e drun mean, ornament made
of teeth and worn on forehead.

Leang-well, waddy with curved
head.

Lol a boi juk, glad heart.

Lor-ger-ing, to cut (v.a.).

Lor-ko-mo gnet, to dive.

Ma da a won, happy.

Maga, here.

Main-main, peeled, without peel.

Male, awhile.

862 4 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F,

Ma-mel-a-gnet, to catch ;
hold of.

Man-der-ing, to look sad.

Ma-ren-koren, a small number,

Mar-op-mar-op-ko-ren.

Me-jol-a-bil, a person in difficulty.

Me jol en bol, two persons in diffi-
culty.

Mognet, to make.

Molga, a shield.

Mol-lal-ba, somewhere.

Mom-ba, here.

Mombam-ba, here about.

Mon-o-won-nuk, below it.

Morgala, to night, last night.

Morik, a species of grasshopper.

Mor-nin-di-u, the foot of the hill.

Mor-ok-pun yul, up hill; the top of
a hill.

Mor-ong-mor-ok, a grave.

Mo ro yok, a bramble.

Mort, short.

Mo-ta-a, soft.

Moy-u, over there.

Moy um gun ong, har.

Myone nuk, under or at bottom.

Mula, a shadow.

Mundar, rain.

Murnol, dust.

Mur-e-won, a spear-rest.

Na-i-tan, let me see.

Nam-bet.

Nan-ok, fur tribe.

Nan-wor-a-bil, one of the fur tribe.
Nan-wor-en, fur tribe.

Nar-e-bar, sacred name.

Nar-e-bert, firewood.

Nar-e-u, the top ofa hill.

Ner-em-bar, bird ; quadruped.

Ner-e-ne-e, down hill.

Nerim, long.

New-lem, bad.

New-lern new lern, a black polish.

New-lop-mer-ing, taking it out.

Niar, a crab.

Nil-arng-war-a-bil, the finny tribe.

Ning-ga, go backward.

Nor-koge warre, the ebbing of the
sea.

Numering, to tie.

Nun-ok, tie (imp).

Pel bok, to beat.

Piyar, painted marks on a shield.

Pod-jo-uk, untie.

Pol-ar-en, sleepy.

Pon-dak, a widow.

Pone, to bite.

to lay

Pon-it-bul-gan, pointed stick used
as a fork,

Por-ong-gine, short sticks beaten
together at a corroboree.

Tar-a-bar ok, old.

Ta-a-kot, cut.

Ta-a-len, to fall down through sleep ;
to nod.

Tal-lo-ra-a, brittle.

Tal-wol, wild.

Tal-lang-a-tal-loom,
used as a spoon.

Tal-an, noose at the end of a tarn.,

Tark, a reed.

Tarn, a snaring rod.

Tark-korn, string of reeds for the
neck.

Tarn-jon, old.

Tarn-gar-e-u, dry ; white.

Tarne-kuly, old man.

Tar-an-tar-an-kud ger ing da-a, poor.

Tar-pa-kot-me guk, to pin out a
skin.

Tart, any place to put a bed on;
bedstead.

Til-en-e-wer-ark, painting.

Ti-muk, the act of preparing a skin
for a bag or cloak.

To-kil-mil-ing-gnet, to expectorate.

To-kol-wot, to melt.

To-kol, soft, phable, flexible.

Tol-lom-gre-ma-gnet, to make.

Ton-gna-wort-no, to breathe heavily.

Ton-ton-nuk, brains.

Tor-ar-en, blue.

Tot-ba-ram, stars.

Tot-tol-wat-no, to dissolve.

Wad-dol-e-wod-dok.

Wagno, to work about earth.

Wa-gnul-a-bil, a working man.

Wan-ke.

Wan-ke-kot, to cook.

Wan-up-mer-ing, close.

War-an, a root.

Warm-gner-op, the flow of the sea.

Wea, wear; wela, where.

Weabul ok kot nen, to gallop.

Weing, fire.

Weka, whose.

Wer-a-a, to break ; to give way.

Wer-a-la-gnen, to warm.

Wer-nen, to roll.

Wer-ner-ing (v.a.), to show; to
point to anything.

Wer-up-mer-ing, open.

Wet-no, to dry a skin by stretching
it on the ground.

shell

mussel

Ee

UNA

VOCABULARIES OF THE GEELONG AND COLAC TRIBES,

Wet-no-kot (imperative).
Wet-ner-ing (past and
tense),
Wilong, when.
Winyar, where ; what.
Wir-a-wir, waddy.
Wol-a-ba-tok, slowly.
Wol-long-wol-long-ga, deep.
Wom-ol-u, bottom.
Won-ark, the stock of a tree.
Won-gern, light returning boome-
rang.
Wo-o-ang, liberal.
Wor-ar-en, green,
Wor-ark, a tree.
Worm-mar-a-bil,
tribe.
Wor-nin-na nuke, the foot of a hill.
Woron gnetuk, sweat.
Woron-ki, a species of grass.

present

one of the fur

863

Wot-yar-al-le-wot, to barter,

Ya-ba ya-ba, noise of much speaking,

Yal-a, a nail or peg, such as was
used to hang out a skin,

Yan-a-bil, a visitor.

Yan-gal-e-nut, to walk.

Yan gar a mel-a, to come back.

Ya-ya-do, to wander in spirit,

Ya-a-der-ing, wandering in spirit.

Ya-a-der-ing-mor-o-bik, my spirit
was wandering.

Yar-a-gar-mor ong-gnen, your spirit
was wandering.

Yelebert, liberal.

Yem-num, corner.

You-do-ro, to warm.

Youl-wer-e, to swim.

Young-al-a, to throw.

Your e mo, (v.a.), to press.

Your-em-der-e-gnet, press all of us.

SENTENCES AND PHRASES.

1. Bae yan 0 amerjig.
2. Ba me nong yan non amerjig.
2a. Bam o won mod da gne.
3. Bang moren. It is fat.
3a. Bar-na gnen. With you.
’ 4, Barng-barng kud-a gnul.
and I take one.
. Ba wot nen kok kil lok.

a stick.

. Bi-ant-ne-kon ob-bo-rik ment no kol kol ka,

log as I was running.

. Biant ne yano-Yar-ra-yaro wow nu ma tan to lon ko ra a.

Only walk about.
Give me this.

Divide them between us two : you take one

5 Spittle is issuing.
6. Bi-ant-ne-kon ob-be-rik meant no kol ka.
7
8

My forehead came against
My head came against a

Tam going

to Melbourne; I shall return soon.

9. Bi bo gnet ma la gne.
10. Bil mal-a-bil-won-ok.
11. Bo-dop-mo war-o-won me juk ?
12. Bo-ka gnen kor mo.
13. Bok-kup may nuk?
14. Bok-ko-ra le gnet wer po.
15. Bok-ro-re gnet mur-na-a.
16. Bok-ro-re-gnet nan e gno.

17. Bol-bol long bo-i jo gneding-da.

hearts.
18. Bom bop ma karl gnu-beit-a.
19. Bong bong gnel ing nur.

21. Borm-bor-a-ba, It appears.

22. Born da mo gnen wang a bod jor op mo woi woip.

You make me laugh.

Stealing woman.

Do you want the skin ?
I want to revenge.

Has he opened it?

Tired my back.

My hand is in pain.

Pain in the neck.

They are mourning with crying

Drown the dog in the water.

I am small—insignificant.

20. Bor am ure governor wor-he-ka am gne Barabel won-det.
is governor of the blacks to-day.

Boramure

The Great Spirit

is pleased with you because you pray.

23. Bor not kor denel Nat Grished,

24. Bor not kor en.
25. Bo-war e nun.
26. Brin-bo-ma not na-i tan.

Unhappy in my heart.
Turn it and let me see.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

. Brin-bop mo mere. The sun appears, or shines.
. Brin e wot kitchen 0 gee wad kut na garden u. Go through the

kitchen and round in the garden.

. Brit nar de. Have shaved.

. Bul-laid kud dering bul long. Two persons meet.

. Bulla man kop ma rot. Fold it, or make it double.

. Bung gee bok no wot-bo-rona delp ma na mo gnud den detable

Moroponuk. God is displeased with the boys for throwing the ball.

. Bung gel boy yut gnen. J am ignorant.
. Bungilinnia. I do not understand you (Wedge).

. De-da-won. I shall die.

. De-da-u tan-ong we-ka jon? Who is dead? Where?

. Der-ep-der-ep koren da. Earth is without form.

. Der ner ing ko mo u meri wer ko mer. I sawed it all in one day.
. Dil it ter kud jo. I have played.

. Din-e da we 0 God a do mod da. God can do all things.

. Gangallik melinkait. We will go back.

Gangulla. Go to your own house. \ (Wedge. )

. Ge-bok ka-ak yan ga ge gnet. Come, say your lessons and go.

. Gem-ro-re gnet-bol bo to. My elbow is painful.

. Gin-a-bon a gnul-en kud-a-won. I forgive you.

. Gnar ar an gnan-bo. Tie “eGroE

. Gnarn ka than gnan-bo. mae ae

. Gnan men no tol bop mo kin kin bil tempe wa. The dog is afraid of

the blacks.

. Gnar don tow up mala. Let me fire.

. Gnariwel. (Not translated.)

. Gner en bop gnen God-a? Love you God?

2. Gner en bop me gnen. Loves me.

. Gner en bop mer Ka-ra-ra-nuk bangik. Kararanuk loves me.

. Gner en bop mo-it. Love him.

. Gner en bop mo gnel-len long gong ga boy jo detable mur-um nuk.

The Great Spirit loves us (three) who have a crying, or heavy heart.

. Gner en bop mo won Moraduk. I love Moraduk.
. Gno tap bo re. Hold your tongue.
. Gnul a-e-ding turno detable Moroponuk, wor e ik ron deik turno gnul

lok tare mering woi woip, God is not angry with you, but with the
blacks far off.

. Gnul-a-gat de-da-a. Not die you.
. Gnul a get bung gel Sunday-u. You must not be ignorant of Sunday.
. Gnul a gned ong kar wel len bok .. 0 ra-ba gned ing weing-i-u_ Kar

wel le gned-ong kor ok ka nuk yan-gag-o-gnet wor-a-wor-iu. If we
are not washed (in the blood of Christ) we shall go to hell; if we
are, we shall go to heaven.

. Gnula gnud den kan a mo Detable Moroponuk : new lem bo ren nat

gen na at pono kud gu]. The Great Spirit does not love them: they
are not good because they kill the blacks.

. Gnul la kun de di u ing ant ne wort ne moron gut ne. Not die, but

live for ever.

. Gnul la gat bul lok-ka-al-la ma-ga-gnee. You have not read these

lessons.

. Gnul lok gnen turn-no. No, I am not angry with you.
. Gnul lok gun wer nering Mr, Tuckfield. Mr. Tuckfield is not mocking

you.

. Gnun a burt gnen gnar a a kol-o-gnet yan-e, Your husband will be

displeased if you go before him.

. Gnur dul gile ba. Let it come.

. Gungallianik ? Will you give me this?

. Gungallianik wanarung? Will you give mesome bread ?
. Jin-e-wer en Mor um etuk. God is a Spirit or Sacred Being.

. Kal ‘me mal me wor en Detable Muromnuk. The Great Spirit is

VOCABULARIES OF THE GEELONG AND COLAC TRIBES. 865

Wedge.

everywhere.

73. Kan am dering bul long kin-kin-bil Detable Moroponuk barp mom-

mom-nuk. ‘The Great Spirit and His Son loves whites and blacks.

. Kan ammo gned den Detable Moroponuk? Do you love the Great

Spirit ?

. Kan am mo kin-kin-bil Detable Muromnuk? Does the Great Spirit

love the blacks ?

. Kan am mo one Detable Muromnuk. I love the Great Spirit.
. Kan am mo wod jen Detable Muromnuk. The Great Spirit loves

them.

. Ka-ar-dik. I talk. .

. Kan koim borden. There is but one.

. Kan nok bol konte wollard. Two of you climb for an opossum.

. Karajamyuyaa tart. Stand up, or rise from there, another good

(place understood).

. Karal ar wer yut ko mernen. Go and tell the boy.

. Kar-on-dow-on. Iam full, or satisfied.

. Kel-ter-a-len tan-ong bagorok. Those women are talking.

5. Kel-ter-a-len tan-ong kol-lik. Three talking.

). Kel-ter-a-le ta-wa.

. Ket der ing bullong pa ye. Talking in good humour.

. Kob ba-gnar wo ma jan ba Pe der ing etuk. God knows all things.

. Koim ba ling. Have one occasionally.

. Koing gnumo gnen kin kin bil-a. You are great, or head of all the

blacks.

. Kol ing wod ong gnul. Let us walk together, or by the side of each

other.

. Kol len bol len tar ok ik. To loosen my arms.
. Kol o gnum de da kok bol lar mor o bik. If I die, take my soul.
. Kol port na gnuud-den wer e po Mr. Tuckfield-a. Mr. Tuckfield will

break your back.

5. Kom gale bo-le.* Two going to rest. (*Two implied.)
. Kon-te win de-de-u kel no bon? What did he die for ?
. Kon-te winyar kar 1 ner ing amerjig barp kin-kin-bil Detable

Moroponuk kog ba-gne? What did the Great Spirit above make
man for?

. Koon no mel len mo ro do.

. Kud-da-an ? Shall I take it ?

. Kud da tan ong ge la gne. Let him have it over there.

. Kul-a-war me-juk. Take the skin with you.

. Kul-a-won-mod-a-gne ?_ Must I take that there?

- Kum at gem (?) kud jo butter? Do you like butter?

. Kum wan jor en bar-ar ? Do you like grass ?

. Kun are en mul mul boy u? Are you angry with me ?

. Kun at nar-ing nerim dore?. Have you seen the cows? (No kot nar-ing

tal-e-o, kom ba uno wat nok. I saw them yesterday, over there,
on the other side of the river.)

- Kun at point na mering? Borack. Have you buried him? No.
. Kun-kun e mering Pejena tar-iwel? Has your father brought a turkey

to-day ?

. Kun pun jel wer bar? Are they gentlemen ?
. Letter bow ok bang en. You are a person of letters.
. Long-ga-la ar letter wa Bul lar den. Bullarden is crying because he

cannot say his letters.

o 1

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

2, Ma la bul long bul laid ko-roka karing. Here are two who cannot

read.

. Mal bern mep ba. Let it come.
. Male bore. Stay awhile.

. Mal it burt ne. Move over.

. Mar en kor a len gnet.

Martl y gnu den pon-o. Strike you.

. Mart-la-no yano. Soon I will go.
. Mo balan, Drink I.

Mok bo re al ber ki gnet ok ko re Pedarong gnetuk ne nen ka wod
den wer e gnum. Keep quiet and listen to the voice of God, There
is a noise coming in my ear.

. Mul-mul ba wot war-e-u. Let thy anger be removed from me.
2. Mul-mul boy yut gnen. Tam angry w vith you.
. Myone gut ne num dant ne. He is dead for some time—he is, indeed,

dead.

. Na-a-la-gnet tanong Mor-ron une. We will go to see Morronune.

). Na-i-tan. Let me see.

. Nan ne nar bul o mean nuk. He looks old in the forehead.

. Nan gort kor en Pederen etuk. How many Gods are there ?

. Nant ni it wer ka-a-ring. Enough this evening have said their

lessons.

J. Nant ne war en tur ner en by bo-re. Let thy anger or threatenings

be turned from me: cease from it.

. Nant ne wod je won. I have eaten enough.

. Naranu wear? What is this? (Wedge.)

2. Nere waaramuk. Begin again.

3. Net-ta-new rong gnen. You hide your bread.

. Neurawaynar akant? What is your name? (S. Mossman’s MS.)

5. Ning ga. Go backward.

. No kot naring tal-e-o. I saw them yesterday.

. Nomena. ‘That is right.

. Nor tha-gnet bo ron gnu-beit-a. The boys are splashing in the water.
. Not kut ne gnun kar e bo wop mo gnen. It is tiring for the legs.

. Nu-ma-tan na-a. I have just seen.

. Nu-ma tan wa dek wor et u. I am come from afar.

2. Ok-bo-ri-ge wo-it amerjig kin kin bil burp Detable Moroponuk kog

bagne. That he might live with them for ever.

. Pan o gned ing gnar mo rok kon nuk. Hiding herself behind her

hair.

. Pe-dan-o-gnet. Kill them.
. Pin e wan ob o re bo-i-uk. (Not translated.)

. Pi-yan wor-ik ma-ga nu ma-tan: yan gara mile Mo ron diu numa

tan tar ran ga juo wo wop Mr. Tuckfield-a Kok-bo-ri- ge an mo-ron-a
gnul-lok ganure gangage. Only came here short time. I will stay
here another night before (1) go to-morrow, when I will stay to pray.

. Point no Mer-drung-marng-a. The sun is buried in the clouds.

Pol ar ong new rama. I do not want it.

. Pon buk bar da eram-u pe da kat to-lom. Very early in the morning

I will go and kill a duck.

Py wod der ing. You are intruding.

Tal boaramuk. ‘Tell it over again.

Tar e mo woi woip amerjig kuly barp bagoroka. With those whites
and blacks who pray.

. Tat ta k(?)o-re-gnet. Weare tired. (?) Doubtful; may be 7.)

Tart-kop mo kom nuk no Jebarok, Jebarok is smart in the.

1540. Tart-ko-ren, Is beautiful.
154). Tert-ko yut-ne amerjig. A smart man,

VOCABULARIES OF THE GEELONG AND COLAC TRIBES 867

. Tol-bo-jo ma ba bal-a-la. You speak too softly.
. To wort no mon dar. The thunder is roaring.
. Turn no gneding Detable Moroponuk rin-rin bil gnul a ed tare eno

woi woip. God is displeased with the natives because they do not
pray

. Turn no gnen Detable Moroponuk gnul a gar wan na-wod jer mo woi-

woip. God is displeased with you because you have not prayed as
you ought.

. Turn no gnen Detable Moroponuk gnul agar tare mering woi woip.

God is displeased with me.

. Turn no ket no wor e it korn deit Detable Moroponuk gnul la ga tare

mering woi-woip. God is angry with the natives far away because
they do not pray.

. Turn no moin-ga-gne Detable Moroponuk gnul la gar tare mering

wol-woip. God is displeased with this one here for not praying.

. Turn no wor en kun. Are you angry with me,
. U-rut-kut-na-ar mer-e-o gnul-a-gat win yer up mel la kol lo gnud

dong gnar wel la Sunday gnul la-gat work-o yut ne. Pay proper
attention to the days that you may know when Sunday comes, and
not work on that day.

. Wadok bol weranggurt nen. You two are walking about too much,

. Wad pe dering. We came.

. Wa gna baa gnel. Read properly.

. War-a-won bo jo. Make glad my heart.

. Weaen ko-re? Where shall I sleep ?

. We-am bol-lo. I will go after.

. We-ar wor-ik mor-gal-u kom bik? Where shall I sleep to-night ?

. We-ar wor-en mor-gal-u? Where did you stay last night ?

. We-a wor en ya kandel-u? Te-ka-u. Where is another candle? In

the box.

. We-a wort nen ya ner-im dor-e? Where are the other cows?

. We ka geo bul-gano? Whose sheep are these ?

. Wee-oo-ranakat neuk? Whereis he? (S. Mcssman’s MS.)

. We-wor 0 yan-e? Where shall I go?

. Will-ong bul bon bo re? When will you two cease to run about?

. Wil-ong tan-ong de-da ak? When did he die?

. Winger wer gnarm ger mon? What are you thinking of?

. Win-ger ar gnar-e-mo.

. Win-yar at wer kop mel la kog ba-gne kin-kin-bil barp amerjig kog

bagne? Ting ali ja wot. What do the whites and blacks do above
in heaven? All sing.

. Win-yar jon born dop mo Detable Morropuna? With whom is God

displeased ?

. Win-yar turno bangik mon Ron ron a (? Kon son a)? Who am I dis-

pleased with ?

. Win-yar turno, Mr. Skevington, Rer tinu? Jin baaring gnar-i-wel

turn-er-ing Ror bar ar ing boron barp bagorok. Only with the men;
he is pleased with the boys and the women.

. Win-yar kod kol lik-ka ? What are you (three) talking about.
. Win-yar tan-ong kop mir ge ga bon? Who has taken him up there ?
. Win-yer at kud jering kon damper kon rice? What have you to eat—

damper or rice.

. Win yer jun torno detable Moroponuk ? Gnul la woi woip gort nen

kin kin bil. Whois God angry with? With those who do not pray.

. Win-yer bol kud jo? Kon butter barp new-rong. What have you

been eating? Bread and butter.

. Winyer jon-gnun gnen Ro-im be ra len? Which one shall I give you ?
. Winyer at ka-o? What did you say?

bo

. Winyer at kup me?

. Wob o gnu bet Bian a bul a.
. Wod jol a won.
. Wong o gnet gnul o gil dar-nuk-a.

. Yan aan non gul long ton.
. Yan e nuk gnal a gar gnur e wer burt ne-u.
fe)

. Yan ik i do an.
. Yan gag e gnu-bet-dan ik ?
. Yan gage dan bo-ra-re.
. Ya man non 0 gal e.

. Yan o gnet kol la la wa bong e gnet koim.

. Kok-bol-ing karing

. Devil :

glue.

Straight on.

the kangaroo and kill it.

to destroy all my heaviness,

. You kop mer ing gnud den.
Beat the teeth.

Peda leangnuk.
Pedelatantanong.
Pedelagnu lentanong.
Pedelawawaden
Pedel agne lentanong
Wa-a-la-bil-ar.
Waalabilud. Heis a giver.
Waallabilworok.
Werk kert gnet po-da-a.
Werkerp ma kop (¢mp.).

Strike us.

99

39

. Yan o gnet pi ar a kud ge o gnet mer ne.
5. Yar ra wo-u wa-de an e-ram-u.

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

What are you to do with that ?

. Wi po eding turno detable Moroponuk. He continues to be angry.
The horse is waiting for the water.
Anger is gone from me.

Stop the hole in the vessel with

I think I shall go,

Go to the bullocks.

IT will go with you (Wedge).

Will you go for water for me ?
Twill go; you sit down.

I think I shall go.

Let us all goand surround

All go and eat murnong.

I shall go to Melbourne to-morrow.

. Yingi-ya al yan nuk worong kudjo wad den bo.

Sing another tune

(dual).
(trinal).

You are a giver.

She is a giver.
Put wood on the fire.
Trim the fire.

SCRIPTURAL PARAPHRASES.

The Fall.

enar ing
allok Gnul a gnen karing kol
ba gne Pedering etuk Kok
baling gnar-ar-ing kep-ma-la.
Jat-ga-ge gnul-en. Kun-on gnen
karing Kok-bal-ing gnar-a-ing.

. Devil: Kud-jar-a-bol ong kin-u,

wer-ok buk-kar-a wod det. Kun
u-ben-uk moda. Kud-jol-a bol
ko-im burt kal-e-u.

. Eve: Bo rok kong mart lo gnet

de-di-je.

. Devil: Borok gnal a gal de di

je; mart-lo gnar-wel-a-wol-a
kol-ba-gne.

. Hve: Mart lo torne wa ra nuke.

Bungel-bur-en nu do,
Mart-la-ing nara la wol-low-ing
kog-ba-gnu-na-a la-i-w wor et
get-u gne yan-e-nuk,

1

to

. (Not translated.)

. Devil: Eat two of the fruit in
the midst. It is very good.
Kat one only.

. Kve: Not eat, because all will .
die.

. Devil: You shall not die, but
soon be as wise as He above.

. Ave: Tf I eat I shall be diseased
in my bowels.

Devil: Youare ignorant. Kat,
and your eyes will be opened to
see hike God—to see a long way.
Go and take it.

. God: We-bol we ar?

VOCABULARIES OF THE GEELONG

. Eve: Gun-u.
. Devil: A! A! Ko-im bop ma

lar war.

. Hve: Nan gurt nuk?
. Devil: Kun-u-ben uk-nun-ong.
. Gnan-bo kud-jer-ing Eve wan u

waa la nuk Adam.

. Adam: We-la mug-jer-ing ka-

ma-ja-gne ?

. Lve: Bang ong ik.
. Adam: Win yar-gno?
. Eve; Kol-ba-gne kud jok-ba

kam-e kun u ben-uk. Gnal a
gat-moy-u mo we ban jo mo
tong.

. Adam: We-la gnul-en mir-o?

Nud-o-na-a men ?

. Eve: Moy u mel-en kon.

. Adam: Na-ok mom ba-gne na-a

lar ok kap-me wade gnul. Ne
le gnul kore u ge go gne gnard
borok ko-rep kod bo.

We-la
bol-nel-li-jo? Kon-bol-bil mil
ik ?

. Adam: Mur ne jur ren nan.
. God: We-la gnen ka ung bar

dar ong tal-ong? Kun bol kud-
jer-ing buk-ar-a wordet? Kan
bol? Nan gnul lok-bol kud-
jol-a.

. Adam: Young gag-a-dik ge la

gne bag-orok-a, kud-jer-ing ant
nan.

. God; Win-yar-ar kud-jer-ing ?
. Hve:; Karing-ik ge la gne bojel-

gna punjel-kar-ne.

. God: Kon te win-yar-ar karing

ba-go-rok-a? Gnal-a-gat born
dop-mo ba-go-rok-a. Nar-o-der
ing bul-ong, nar-o-der-ing wol
ar ne mom-om gnen-turno ma
la gne barp bob om nuk tum
der-e-bul ong mom mom gnen.
Bob-a pont nuk bol-mo mor-o-
ko mom-om-gnen bol-mo bar
no-nuk mom-om-gnen.

ont

. Adam:

. Adam: Who sees us?

5. God:

AND COLAC TRIBES. 869
Eve : I go.

Devil: Yes! Yes! Take one of
the fruit.

. Hve: Is it good.
. Devil: It is very good.
. Eve ate first, and then gave it

to Adam.
Who has taken this
fruit ?

. Eve: Mine.
4. Adam: Where did you get it?
. Lve: Up there.

Eat it; that
is very good. I do not tell a
lie. It will not hurt your belly.

Can you
see ?

Live: Not see; or you have
told a lie.

. Adam: See up there; let us go

and hide ourselves; come, go
there.

. God: Where are two of you?

Where have you hid yourselves?
Have you stolen from me ?

. Adam: Iam naked.
. God: Who told thee that thou

hast no clothes? Have you
eaten of the fruit in the midst
of the garden? Have you, after
I told you not to eat of it?

. Adam: The woman who is there

gave it me, and I did eat.

. God: What did you eat for ?
. Eve: The old Devil told me to

eat.

What hast thou been
talking to the woman for? No
peace will again exist between
thee and the woman, but en-
mity, and between thy seed and
the seed of the woman. It shall
bruise thy head, and thou shalt
bruise his heel.

The Commandments.

Yan. 8, gar xx.

V.2. U-rid-u-ren nun kom-im-hbo-

ren nun. Grar weit-u ren nun
(kod be one) Wor-ang mor ang,
wol-e mongnud-den. Kom gar
a mon ya-a-da (or Egypt).

IT am and there is not another like

me. One over all—the Supreme,
who delivered you from bondage
in another land.

870 PROCEEDINGS

3. Ko-im bo ren gnue bo ra ka-a-
kun-til gnar it.

4, Gnul-la-get wa-gna-ba mul-a-
wik gnul a kun wa-gna-la mul-a
nuk tot bur ram. Gnul a kun
wa na ba mula nuk yeron gnula
kun wa gnala mul-a muk-mir-
e-o, gnul a kim wa gna la mul-
la-nuk ya-rit da-a gnul a kun
wa gna la mul a nuk wa re.

5. Gnul-la-gat bul-laid pun go re
kat der e gnel wor-o-wor-o-u
barp di-u my-u-gnel barp war-
e-u ket der y el det. Kao
wot-boy-dik, dil bol la ya
enen boid ge o war ware, dil
bel la ya gnud den, kod korm
ma la gnud den, gnart kar en
gage barp yar nam delp ga-g-e.

12. Gner-en-bop-mo kot pe-der-a-

gnen barp gner-den, mel bo re
kar di-u dop ba la gnen youn
ger en gnen Pedering etuk.

13. Gnul la get dil bol la kan ban-

nud.
14. Gnul la get kom-bar-don-go-ren
ul long.

15. Gnul la get bert-na gnul.

OF SECTION F.

Thou shalt have no other Gods

before me.

Thou shalt not bow thyself, norspeak -
to the heavens, nor to the earth
nor to the sea but to me; for I
vill punish the fathers and
children and children’s children.

Love thy father and mother, and
thy time shall be long upon the
Jand which the Lord hath given
thee.

Thou shalt not kill.
Thou shalt not commit adultery.

Thou shalt not steal.

The Lord’s Prayer.

(Wod-dow-ro 7)

1. Gnur-ar peder-ik kok bo re je
wor-a-wor-a. Gnurar peder-ik,

Wang-go-re nar e gnen ;

Gnar wo gnen kar-ong-a yan kag
ea kul-a (kud ki ge gnen tan
ong) ;
gnar e wel e werijeare wola
wor en wor-a-wor-a won de et.

4. Young-ga-ge a-wod-jok war e
mir-e-0,

. Wang a ge-*en boi jo wod jok
wor-a-wor-a woren nan (bo 1 jo
nik) (Gnul-a gat ure bo bt are
yant nuk kuly) wol-a wang a la
bang-wod-jok yant nook kuly.

6. Gnul a gart wod jen kop e mal-a

new-lem go ra an;

7. Bene mo wod gen tan ong wer-a-

wor-a wer ko-rik.

to

w

Cr

Our Father which art in heaven,

hallowed be thy name ;

thy kingdom come, thy will be done
on earth as it is in heaven;

Give us this day our daily bread,

and forgive us our trespasses, as we
forgive them that trespass
against us,

- Lead us not into temptation ;

deliver us from evil.

*ee?

May be gun or ¢

7 Letter illegible.

VOCABULARIES OF THE GEELONG

AND COLAC TRIBES. 871

Another Form—Incomplete.

(Kolijon 7)

1. Bort nuk mar mar kan-bon nad-
don a now wol look gne_ bort
nuk ma-moit,

2. Gnu-ra-nan-da nar-e gnen ;

3. Wad-ge-no to-wardo wad wad de
tar gnud dun yar-o-ni-ong now-
won kan bon-o-ni-e ;

4, Komo nan nen ge rang a kar

gnar-lar tar ar wart.

Our Father which art in heaven,

hallowed be thy name ;
thy kingdom come, thy will be done
on earth;

give us this day our daily bread.

Homily—A Fragment.

1. Kan am mo kin kin bil Detable
Moroponuk ?

2, Kan am der ing bul long kin-
kin-bil Detable Moroponuk
barp mom-om-ik.

3. Kan am mo wod-gen Detable
Moroponuk.

4, Wang-gore wor-en-it amerjig
barp kin-kin-bil kan o mo
wod jen.

5. Gnul-a-gnud den kan a mo De-
table Moroponuk new-lem bo-
ren nat gen-na-at pon o-kudd
jul.

far)

Winyer op mel la Jesus Christ-a
kun kar wel la mor om dik
kol-la yal look ki-u?

. Borok-ka. Wa-da-a wor-u-wor-
o wang-a la mom om nuk pe
der a gnun nuk wol a amerjig
kort-nik.

8. Det kort ner ing tan-ong ya

amerjig brin kag ik kor ak ka

nuk kar wer ing tan-ong mor-
om bul etuk.

~I

“9. Bul-laid-bul-laid mur-gal wor ik.

kar it gar a mel-e-k wor-o-
wor-l-u.

10. Kon-te-win-yar de di u Jesus
Christ ?

11. De-da-lik kor ok ka nuk kar
wel le amerjig barp kin kin bil.

12. Kon-te-win-yar kar wel le kor-
ak-ka nuk Jesus Christ-a
amerjig barp kin kin bil.

13. Gnul a gned ong kar wel len
bok po ra-ba gned ing weing-
i-u Kar wel le gned ong kor
ok ka nuk yan gag o gnet
Wor-a-Wor-i-u.

1, Does the Great Spirit love the
blacks ?

2. The Great Spirit and His Son
loves whites and blacks.

3. The Great Spirit loves them.

4. Good whites and blacks the Great
Spirit loves.

5. Not them love the Great Spirit
(t.e., The Great Spirit does
not love them) that are not
good because they kill the
blacks.

6. What does Christ do that he
may wash oursouls. Does he
take them to the water?

. No. He came down from hea-
ven and was made im the
likeness of man.

~I

nm

He was killed by white men,
when blood was shed to wash
our souls.

9. After three nights he rose from
the dead and returned to
heaven.

10. Why did Christ die ?

11. He died that whites and blacks
may be washed in his blood.

12. What for the whites and blacks
wash in the blood of Christ ?

13. If we are not washed we shall
go to hell; if we are, we shall
go to heaven.

* Bulad-barp-bulad, four, is given in Eyre’s Journals of Discovery, vol. ii, p. 400.

Bulaid repeated without the conjunction, as in 9, is perhaps merely emphatic.

the statement, should of course be two.

Three, in

ad
lp ee &

eo @ % %&
oN PA. i

iLIeR ary

‘¢

872 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F.

14. Gnul a ga youn dor alla 14. Donotsend me to hell.
weing-1-u. :

15. Wang ar lar mor-o-bik. 15. Make my soul anew, ¥
16. Mor-o-mor-c-bol pbon mok boy 16. Make my heart to feel.
jik.
17. Gnar won gneal gnen. 17. I believe your words.
18. Ka a ken enar wel lan gneal 18. Speak to me, and I shall know
gnen martlo. or believe your words. 3

Grace before Aleals.

Wang-ok man kud jol-a-bik wor-o- Sanctify this food to my use my
wor-o-won det jop pan nar Pe- heavenly Father.
dong. Amen.

Grace after Meals. =
War-ing-ar én wang-go-re war gnen; Given me good food you; take my

wa la gnen gneal- a-nik kul-lar word, orthanks, which giveyou
gneal- ik Pe-dong. in return, Father.
APPENDIX.

Wop-pow-ro words, by Samuel Mossman, from his MS. notes, now in the
possession of Mr. G. M. Hitchcock, J.P., Geelong.

Bidzerinbulong. To fight. j
Bon. Knee.

Bormak. Mouth.

Dinang. Foot. 8
Doorapneuk. Body. .
Duribizinang. Toes.

Gang. Nose.

Gouronok. Neck,
Tremourk. Hair.

Jellang. Tongue.

“Karribunnalong. Leg.

Koinyebaneuk. Very good.

Kudgulwurnay. To die.

Kurtgurtgully. Young man.

Liangeduk. Teeth.

Mirrabang. Face.

Mirrouk. LHyes.

Murrineuk. Head.

Naramana. Hyebrows.

Narimilly. Dancing.

Neulam. Not good.

Neurawaynarakant?. What is your name?
Quambie. To sleep. (Komba: Tucktield’s List.)
Warwar. Man.

Weeooranakatneuk. Where is he?
Weeringaduk. Lars.

Wooroo. Lips.

Yingally. Singing.

$$$

ae) pal, re ee ee ee ee oe ee

* Cin the MS. K substituted in the four examples.

Nie

=

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 873

SECTION G,.

ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND AGRICULTURE.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

By R. M. Jounsron, F.L.S., F.S.S., Government Statist of
Tasmania.

(Delivered Friday, January 7, 1898.)

CONSUMABLE WEALTH.

THe term “wealth” is the principal source of confusion in all
social and economic questions. The manner in which the term
should be used or interpreted depends entirely upon the nature
of the question with which the generic word “ wealth” is brought
into relationship or conjunction. Owing to the backward state
of Economic Science, as compared with the various branches of
Natural Science, the phrase “the wealth of a country ” covers
widely divergent conceptions.

Even if we exclude the free or unmonopolised gifts of Nature,
which form no element of “exchange value,” there are still at
least three different conceptions of the phrase, “the wealth of
a country,” the lack of a precise grasp of which is the rock upon
which nearly all so called socialists become wrecked in confusion
and absurdity.

(1) The Statistician’s “wealth of a country ” may mean, either
private wealth or public wealth, or both; but in any case, it
rarely embraces more than one-third of the real monetary value
of the total wealth in exchange of the economist ; and certainly
seldom more than 2 or 3 per cent. of the corresponding monetary
or exchange value of the total capital value of the true wealth in
exchange of the economist.

It altogether excludes the principal primary source of all wealth
in exchange, viz :—The existing productive personal services of
man, although the annual monetary value of the latter is fully
three times as great. For example, in Tasmania the annual value

S74 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

of wealth consumed, mainly the direct product of man’s personal
services and of his auxiliary machines, is equal to £7,274,300, and
therefore must have a bond fide capital value of say £145,486,000;
whereas, at most, the Statistician’s private capital wealth of the
Colony only amounts to £40,000,000, or merely 27-49 per cent.
of the capital value of the Colony’s real consumable wealth in
exchange.

Similarly we have for the following countries a corresponding
analysis of their wealth accordingly as we refer the term to the
two very widely differing conceptions to which the same phrase
or term is often loosely applied :—

THe Wealth of the Country.

The Product of Anterior Labour} The Product of Anterior and

Agencies (Fixed Capital). Current Labour Agencies.
Country. The Statistician’s Wealth. The Economist's Real Wealth
in Exchange.
A. B. (Ob D.
Capital Value. | Annual Value. | Capital Value. | Annual Value.
Mil. £. Mil. £: Mil. £. Milnes:
United Kingdom ...} 10,037 °00 5O1'85 25,612:00 1,280°60
New South Wales... 412:°00 20°60 1,364°58 68°23
MasmAaniane venereeeeee 40°00 | 2:00 145°49 12
CENTESIMAL, RELATIVE.
United Kingdom ... 37°43 1:96 100 5°00
New South Wales... 30°19 15i 100 5°00
MaSMANIA “soveenseeen- 27°49 1°37 100 5:00

WEALTH IN CONSUMPTION.

When the Socialist complains of the unequal distribution of
wealth, such is the confusion arising from the various applications
of the term, that he is often misled by references to facts which
have, at best, only a partial relation to the subject to which his
attention is particularly directed.

Tf he bases his conclusions on the “ Statistician’s Wealth,”
and especially so when restricted to the Statistician’s Estimates——
of the capital value of the private wealth of the country—he is
sure to be misled ; for the Statistician’s figures do not embrace
any element of wealth which, during the year, is utilised or
devoted to the immediate consumption or satisfaction of. man,
nor for the immediate consumption of man’s auxiliary aids and
instruments engaged in the work of reproduction.

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. 875

They are confined strictly to those articles of wealth which are
fixed or set apart from consumption as instruments for the pro-
duction, transfer, modification, or protection of the current year’s
consumable goods and satisfactions for man himself; and also
for the current year’s supply of consumable goods, required as
food, renewals, repairs, and shelter by man’s instruments, whether
animate—as horses, cattle, sheep—or inanimate—as in the coal,
oil, materials required for the production of energy in his engines
and machinery, engaged constantly in the production, transfer,
or modification of the essential utilities of man’s life—viz., food,
transport, shelter, warmth, clothing, comforts, luxuries, ease.

Moreover, the Statistician gives the capital value of these
instruments ; and therefore no just comparison between this per-
sonally non-consumable part of a nation’s wealth can be made,
until the several parts of the total wealth is stated in a corres-
ponding measure of monetary or exchange value.

For if we capitalise the value of fixed instruments, we should
also for comparison capitalise the annual production of wealth—
also annually :—

(1) Distributed and consumed; or (2) annually converted
into fresh fixed auxiliary producing, transporting,
modifying, or protecting instruments.

Thus, although the capital value of fixed instruments in New
South Wales, is estimated at 412 millions, it only represents 30°19
per cent. of the corresponding capital value of its annual produc-
tions of fresh wealth of consumption ; for although the annual
value of the latter only represents 68°23 millions, its capital value
represents a sum of 1,364°58 millions, or 5°31 times the value of
the Statistician’s wealth of land, houses, machines, and other
fixed forms of the mere producing agencies.

Even while it is admitted that the element of national wealth
contained in the fixed producing instruments (viz., 30 per cent.)
may be confined to the ownership—not consumption—of a com-
paratively small number of the community, this circumstance does
not afford the slightest information as to the distribution of the
fruits of the various producing agencies, among which man’s cur-
rent directing as well as current muscular services play a prominent
part ; and it must not be forgotten that the latter, together with
the “anterior labour” and skill of man now currently stored or
incorporated as detached claims in auxiliary producing instruments,
constitute the main elements which give price or monetary value
to the current wealth in exchange, produced, whether for con-
sumption or for fixed uses of future production.

From such obvious considerations we are able to detect the
common fallacy among Socialistic writers and others, who
invariably measure the distribution of the wealth created purposely

876 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

for human consumption and personal satisfaction among the
wage-earning classes by the proportions which the ownership of
fixed or monopolised capital-producing instruments, &c., show
among the people generally.

The fallacy, however, is so thoroughly interwoven in the
literature and sayings of the mass of the people that it is almost
impossible to expose its absurdity; but when we consider that
man lives by current or annual productions per se, and not upon
fixed capital or their nominal values, whether annual or capital,
and when, moreover, we discern that services currently rendered,
whether by instrument, skilled mind or hand, constitute the base
of what forms the purchasing power or claim over wealth being
produced for consumption and personal satisfaction, it is only
then we are able to perceive that the distribution of real wealth,
so far as man’s needs and satisfactions are concerned, are
determined, not as fallaciously assumed by the proportion of
ownership which each man holds of the statistician’s wealth—+z.e.,
the fixed nonpersonally-consumable instruments, and which the
owner no more consumes than the servants who control them—but
strictly by the express measure which services of various degrees
of exchange value have enabled each worker to constitute a claim
upon the aggregate of all such services whose values are contained
and incorporated in the current production of actual wealth.

It is not here contended that the time labour of each individual
labourer or instrument has the power to create equality of claim
in correspondence with time effort : that is too obviously unequal ;
but it is contended that every such effort, usefully directed,
constitutes a definite claim, and, therefore, the true distribution
of wealth in the community—wealth in consumption being the
major factor y determined by the average
annual earnings or claims upon wealth. The proportion of fixed
wealth owned by individuals affords no clue to current distribution
of total wealth. It can merely show how the 30 per cent. devoted
to fixed instruments is distributed.

If the proportion be large it insures probably a claim to the
extent of 4, 5, or 6 per cent. of his capital upon real wealth, upon
which the owner exists, and which may give a considerable
purchasing power to the individual without any current personal
exertion ; but it must not be forgotten that the fixed capital of
a manager may be almost nil, while his skilled directing services
may enable him to create a yearly claim of £1,000 value upon
wealth produced for immediate human uses, while the fixed
instrument of a helpless widow, owner (say) of £10,000 capital
value, may only afford her a claim of half the amount (or £500)
falling to the manager, whose fixed capital is reckoned ag nil in
the usual Statistician’s estimates of the capital wealth of a
country.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 877

DISTRIBUTION AND CONSUMPTION OF WEALTH,

I have elsewhere observed that there are many other fallacies
current with respect to the creation and distribution of wealth.
If all the enormous volume of wealth created year by year, viz.:—
(1) Stored fruits of anterior labour and skill (7.e. capital), of
which steam-engines alone represent approximately the work of
1,000,000,000 men, or more than double the physical energy of
the whole of the world’s breadwinners, engaged in the creation
of fresh wealth ; (2) current labour; and (3) the gratuitous gifts
of Nature. If these were directly devoted to consumption or
immediate enjoyme1.t, no doubt the proportion per head allotted
to the industrial breadwinner would be small indeed in comparison
with the rich. But the human body, whether rich or poor, can
only consume or assimilate a limited quantity of food per day.
The old, sickly, and very young cannot consume or assimilate as
much as the strong, healthy persons of youth and prime of life.
Health and hard physical labour cause the body to burn more
food ; and the greater tear and wear involves a greater consump-
tion of the products of the sheep and of the cotton plant, just for
the same reason as the requisite energy of a heavily loaded engine
climbing a steep and curving grade, involves a much greater con-
sumption of fuel and a much greater waste of parts in tear and
wear than a lightly loaded engine traversing the straight levels
of a railway.

From this reasoning it is almost conclusive that a strong, health
navvy can and does consume more weight of ‘the products of the
soil, of the flour mill, and the weaver’s loom, than the less robust
city clerk ox. the brain-worried financier or statesman ; the mere
quality or rarity of some of the materials consumed by the rich
is comparatively insignificant, and scarcely involves a greater tax
on the soil, on the capitalist’s machines, or upon the workman’s
labour.

Further, it can be demonstrated that the capitalist’s steam
engines alone perform more work than twice the number of the
whole working population of the earth ; and as these only form a
part of the capitalist’s machinery, tools, and instruments engaged
in the production of consumable wealth, and known vaguely or
concealed under nominal values as in “ Statistician’s Capital,” it
can be demonstrated satisfactorily that it would be utterly im-
possible for the rich capitalists to abstract from his profits the
same proportion of his income towards personal wants and enjoy-
ments as the poorer workman does. On the contrary, what he can
directly cousume personally of the primary satisfactions which
make up the bulk of consumable wealth, is limited by the same
natural laws as is the personal consumption of the humblest work-
man ; and the necessities of repairing the tear and wear of the

878 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

capitalist’s costly machines (fixed wealth or capital) and the passion
or necessity to continually add to the number and power of his
auxiliary machines, and to protect and keep them ever at work,
must inevitably abstract the greater portion of his increasing or
decreasing profits, and which the thou ghtless and the mere literary
emotionalist imagine are altogether “absorbed in personal con-
sumption.

What is usually termed “the enormous accumulations of wealth
in our times,” “the riches of capitalists,” do not consist of fine
houses, luxurious equipages, money, or grand parks, or, if so, it
only forms a most insignificant portion of it. The great bulk of
the nominal and real wealth of capitalists consists of land improve-
ments, mines, railways, tramways, ships, canals, stores, warehouses,
manufactories, machines, tools and instruments, &ec., themselves ;
and though rightly included in the ageregate ‘fixed wealth of a
country by Statisticians, these do not in any sense enter into the
personal consumption of the rich owner any more than they enter
into the personal consumption of the workman engaged in con-
nection with such forms of national wealth.

The mass of Socialist writers wish us to infer that the ‘‘ toil” of
the ‘‘ masses,” ‘the lower ten millions,” alone “is the active factor
that produces all wealth.” Entertaining such a view, it is not
remarkable that they should regard the riches of the “ upper ten
thousand” as a hoard mysteriously and wrongfully abstracted
from the forces actively engaged in producing wealth.

Tf by the toil of the masses they mean that all the physical
forces requisite to transport and transform natural materials to
suit the needs of man, they are manifestly wrong ; for (exclusive
of the mere gratuitous forces of Nature, such as natural chemical
changes, multiplication by the mysterious forces of life, sunlight
and heat forces, gravitation, the rain, dew, and the fertile soils,
and the animal, vegetable, and mineral products in their natural
state and position) there are the active forces set in motion, not
of the expenditure of muscular energy, but of mental and moral
force, exerted by men of forethought, of skill, of invention, and
of the provident who designedly saved from immediate personal
consumption, and devoted such savings purposely to the construc-
tion of mechanical and other aids devised or discovered by skilled
minds, whereby the forces of Nature, such as gravitation, chemistry,
steam, water, wind, electricity, leverage, lower animals are so
captured, tamed and drilled, that they now exert a physical force
in the production of man’s wealth—whether in the way of trans-
porting from place to place, or in transforming materials from the
natural raw state to the highly finished—compared with which
the brute or muscular force actually exerted by all the working
men of the globe, forms the most insignificant fraction.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 879

I have already pointed out that it is estimated that the steam
engines alone now engaged actively in the production of man’s
real and nominal wealth, represent double the potential muscular
force of all men in the world at the present time, exceeding the
muscular force of men actually engaged in the production of
man’s wealth by, perhaps, three or four times. The mere muscular
pressure of a man, which, on his part, only exhausts his muscular
energy by what would be equivalent to the movement of his body
by one step, may, and, in fact, now incessantly does liberate and
set in motion a transporting force in one machine equal to the
combined total muscular force of from 200,000 to 500,000 men.

At the present moment, on the railways of Pennsylvania, in
America, a single engine conveys a load of 1,500 tons 29,927
miles in one year. Tt would, in a primitive stage—say by the
strong African carriers of Stanley—take the mere muscular force
of 465,360 men, carrying 60 lb. weight, and travelling at the rate
of 12 miles per day, to accomplish the same work in the same
time ; and even though they only received wages at the rate of
ls. per day, it would cost £6,980,400; at 5s. per day it would
cost £34,902,000. The single Pennsylvanian engine, however,
carries the same load, viz., 1,500 tons 29,927 miles within one
year for the sum of £92,721, or $d. per ton per mile—that is, a
single modern locomotive exerts as much wealth-producing energy
as could be effected by the whole muscular force of 465,360 strong
men, and at ;1, of the nominal cost. Even if we went into
refinements, and attempted to abstract the human muscular
energy expended in the manfacture of the engine from raw
materials, and the consumption of stores and materials consumed
in the work, also partly the produce of the muscular force of man,
it would be more than covered by the subtraction of the muscular
energy of 600 men, leaving still to the credit of the single machine
a balance of natural physical wealth-producing energy—1.e., non-
muscular—equivalent to the muscular energy expended of 464,760
men during one year.

When, in addition, we think of the spinning jenny, the electric
telegraph, the sewing-machine, and the thousand complicated
forms of machinery, such as the Naismith Polka Hammer, which,
by the slight pressure upon a handle, can instantaneously pour
100-ton blows upon ductile masses of iron, we can have some
faint conception of the immense mechanical and natural forces
ever at work in civilised countries, outside of the muscular force
exerted by man, and contributing their giant share of the
physical agencies which give commercial value to man’s wealth.
It is clear, therefore, nothing can be further from the truth than
the assumption by the majority of Socialists, that the energy of
the “lower ten millions,” or “the masses,” alone represent the
active factor that produces all wealth.

880 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

The brains of man can alone be credited with invention and
discovery, not his muscular power. Ii is to the accumulations of
savings from personal consumption by the labourers and others of
former times that we are indebted for the necessary stores devoted
to the construction of the powerful and ingenious mechanical and
other labour-saving auxiliaries now engaged i in aiding the current
labour of man, oa not, as falsely assumed, to the mere muscular
energy and labour-time exerted and devoted by those who happen
to be the labourers or workmen of the present hour.

Recent estimates of the measure of energy exerted each year
in the production, distribution, and necessary modification of
consumable wealth—the’satisfactions of man, by capitalist’s steam
power machines alone—are approximately equivalent to the maxi-
mum energy of about 1,500 million persons, of whom it is
estimated that there are only 600 million breadwinners. We
may be perfectly safe in assuming that the energy exerted by all
classes of capitalists: auxiliary machines to be equal to the maxi-
mum energy of 1,200 million breadwinners, 7.e., equal to twice
the physical foree of all living breadwinners of the globe. In
Tasmania at the last census the number of breadwinners under
£150 income per year numbered 58,726 persons. These, for
purposes of illustration, may be safely taken as the wage-earner
group. The breadwinners £150 income per year and over,
numbered 5,404; and this group, for rough purposes of com-
parison, may be taken to represent the capitalist group. Now, if
the capitalists’ energy machines engaged in the production of
consumable wealth be taken to represent twice all the available
force of man, their equivalent in Tasmania would be represented
as that of 128,260 breadwinners, thus :—

Relative Value of Physical Energy exerted by the various
agencies engaged in the Production of Consumable Wealth.

per cent.
A= Breadwinners under-6l5 0 masses sseeeensesee sean 58,72 30°52
B—Capitalists and others over £150 ............... 5,404 2°81
C—Capitalists’ energy machines .. ..............6005 ieee 66°67
Total energy cmployed in the production
of consumable wealth ..... Fenntyais veblosies 192,390 100:00

From this table we perceive that if we ignore the claims of
intellect and ability, and reserve ourselves to the mere physical
forces devoted to the production of consumable and other forms
of wealth, the wage-earner’s contribution only amounts to 30°52
per cent. of the whole of the necessary energy required to produce
that volume of consumable wealth, which would yield each class
and individual that standard of living and comfort to which they
have been accustomed.

Pee 12ers i

Pe Do Be —

Me.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 881

Now if it can be shown that the wage-earner group (under
£150) receives a larger proportion of the consumable wealth in
each year than the proportion of physical energy contributed by
such in its production, it most effectually disposes of the senti-
mental complaint so frequently put forward by the Fabian school
of writers, viz., ‘the lower ten millions, whose toil is the active
factor that produces all wealth, not of the upper ten thousand,
who in some mysterious way manage to get rich upon that toil.”

This inaccurate statement can easily be refuted in a very simple
manner by ascertaining what proportion of consumable wealth,
per year, is appropriated or absorbed by the three principal
agencies engaged in its production. The best and surest means
to gauge what measure of reward comes to each separate group is
to determine what proportion of the total annual income is ap-
propriated by each group respectively.

This has been very closely determined by they writer so far as
Tasmania is concerned, and is shown in the following table relating
to distribution of national income for the year 1891 :—

Share of National Income appropriated or absorbed by the various.
agencies employed in the Production of Consumable Wealth.

Comparative value of | Approximate share of title
physical and other to consumable wealth

energy exerted in the | absorbed or appropriated
production of con- by the various agencies

ing Acencies umable wealth. engaged in its production.
roducing Agencies, sumabl Ith gaged in its product

Energy — -

Equivalent. Per cent. Amount. Per cent.

£
By breadwinners, under £150 |

PCLAW a sose ven cae stews 58,726 | 30°52 5,027,074 | 69-11
£150 and over (capitalists’ class) 5,404} 2°81 1,138,800 15°66
By capitalists’ steam and other |

APRITEN EGS) 526 ty Sqnene nee Sacer 128,260 66°67 1,108,466 15:23
ale to ae | 192,390 100 | 7,274,340 100

A careful study of this table shows that, so far from the
capitalist class being enriched at the expense of the wage-earner,
the very opposite is the truth; for instead of a reward being
allotted in proportion to his share of energy contributed, it has
been increased fully 100 per cent., energy expended being only
30°52 per cent., while his share of rewards represents 69-11 per
cent.

This improvement of his position is solely due to the fact that
the more economic physical agent engaged in production only
absorbs 15-23 per cent. of the consumable wealth, while its

3K

882 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

share of the necessary energy engaged in production amounts to
66°67. It is true the capitalist receives relatively a larger
individual share of the capitalist’s own machine production ; but it
is impossible for the capitalist to personally absorb more than
about three times the amount of the average breadwinner. The
remainder must perforce go to improve the reward and condition
of the ordinary breadwinner. The higher the percentage of
energy contributed by the capitalist’s machines involves of neces-
sity a corresponding reward to the ordinary breadwinner, while
the proportion going to the rich capitalist must by a like necessity
remain almost stationary in comparison.

It cannot be too strongly asserted, therefore, that the greater
reward of the labourer in relation to the increasing command,
which, during the last century, man has obtained over the forces
of Nature, steam, electricity, and improvements, in labour-saving
machinery, multiplying man’s muscular power in the production,
transport, and manufacture of necessaries and satisfactions, three
to four and in some cases many hundredfold. In proportion as
these auxiliaries have increased in the production of any one
necessary product, the amount of physical human labour engaged
in its production has decreased individually,* and to the liberation
of labour formerly necessary to produce the barest essentials of
life are we indebted for the vast category of new comforts and
satisfactions, the attainment of which was utterly impossible to
the mass of human beings when the production of food alone—
the great primary industry—absorbed nearly the whole force of
man’s muscular efforts and his time. This is the true reason why
there are relatively fewer labourers engaged on the land in England
at the present time than there were formerly ; for I have else-
where clearly demonstrated that 5-35 hands per 100 acres produce
more than it was possible for half as many more fifty years ago, and

more than double their number could produce a 100 years ago.

This is the reason, too, why one agricultural hand in America can
produce as much as three average hands in Europe; and this
reason also, combined with cheapened transport, accounts for the
decreasing acreage in crops in England, for the greater economy
in the production of cereals in America has gradually forced down
the price of wheat from 56s. 8d. per quarter in 1873, to 29s. 9d. in
1889, or a reduction in the price of food equal to 47°51 per cent.
in seventeen years. Therefore, the greater number of hands

placed upon the land to produce a definite and necessary quantity —

of food products, the greater is the amount of useless or wasteful

and unproductive labour. At the present moment it is the most —

uncivilised and most miserable populations which relatively employ

_ * Within the wonderful reign of our Gracious Queen Victoria the days labour-time, per se,
in England has been reduced about 25 per cent., while the wages of labour has, on the
average, increased by 50 per cent.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 883

the larger proportion of breadwinners upon the land. It is the
country which relatively places the smallest number of hands on
the land for the production of food and raw products which has
also attained the highest stage of progress, and secures for each
breadwinner the largest purchasing power, and, therefore, the
largest amount of satisfactions. I deny, therefore, most emphati-
cally that whatever distress in the United Kingdom still exists
would be lessened by any scheme which would place more hands
on the land than its economic conditions demand for the production
of food and raw products.

Tt would be an economic blunder, producing a waste of human
effort, and so increasing tenfold the miseries it proposes to remove.
If two men were set on the land to do all the work necessary
which one properly equipped labourer can accomplish, it would at
one stroke reduce the productive power over real utilities (for to
produce more than is reasonably wanted of any good thing would
not be a utility) by about 31 per cent., and a corresponding
decrease of the average purchasing power of the labourer.

Provision for the present distress of the pauper and unemployed
at most only diminishes the purchasing power of breadwinners by

24 per cent. Noble as are the ideals of the better class of
ae writers, Tam, nevertheless, convinced that the selfishness
of landlordism or capitalist is not the cause of our miseries, and
that placing more people on the land than the economic conditions
of the particular country requires would, instead of removing the
present evils, increase them tenfold. The misery caused by loss
of health, death of the breadwinner, idleness, improvidence and
vice, cannot be removed by opening the land by any increase of
facilities. The congestion of labour, so called, in crowded centres
is not due to such a cause at all. It is entirely due to the lack
of knowledge how to allocate the bread-winner each day added to
the population in accordance with the exact division of labour in
which fresh services are required.

The broad proportions which at present are required within a
complete circle of exchange of services are as follows :—A gricul-
tural and pastoral services, 52:5 per cent. ; industrial services,
30:1 per cent. ; domestic, 6°8 per cent. ; commercial services, 5°2
per cent. ; professional and undefined services, 5-4 per cent. ;
total, 100 per cent.

These proportions vary with the economic conditions of the
locality, and with every change in the modes of production caused
by improvements in machinery or the introduction of new auxiliary
forces. But whatever local proportions may be requisite, it is
true that congestion of labour and consequent distress are nearly
all due to unconscious transgression of the law which determines
divisions of labour to be in exact accord with the nature and
proportion of products or satisfactions in common demand.

884 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

It is largely due to the flooding of particular kinds of employ-
ment beyond the strict proportion which local wants demand, that
inconvenience or distress is felt in young as well as old countries ;
and, thus, applicants for a given kind of employment may often
fail, not necessarily because there is no room for more labour,
but because the direction in which the applicant has been trained,
or in which they desire so be employed, is out of harmony with
the natural or local proportions of that particular service engaged
in the production of general requirements or satisfactions. What
is needed, therefore, is something like omniscience, to continually
devise and regulate the training of breadwinners in the propor-
tions in which their services will be in demand. We must not,
therefore, despise the defective machinery—capitalists and organ-
isers of industry—which hitherto have performed roughly this
grand service for us. At least we owe them so much that we
cannot desire to see them removed until it can be clearly shown
that a better provision can take their place.

ECONOMIC SCIENCE PAPERS.

No. 1.—DEMOCRACY AND THE VOICE OF HISTORY.
By W. JetTHro Brown, M.A., LL.D.

(Read Monday, 10 January, 1898.)
[ Abstract. |

THE solution of a political problem required two qualifications : a
mind disciplined in the process of correct thinking, and a know-
ledge of the particular factors of the problem requiring solution.
The study of history went far to achieve the latter object, both
by affording the student historical parallels in the light of which
he might understand his factors, if not predict the results of their
combination, and by showing how the particular conditions and
forces of our time had acquired their present character. While
the value of an acquaintance with the processes of development
was generally admitted, there was a very common tendency to
decry the value of historical parallels on the plea of the changed
conditions of modern society. It was a special object of the
paper to discuss the precise limits within which this scepticism
was justified. Possible analogies from Grecian and Roman history
were quoted, with the object of ascertaining whether it would be

DEMOCRACY AND THE VOICE OF HISTORY. 885

possible to adduce any legitimate conclusion with regard to the
modern problems of capital and democracy. Apart from the
utility of historical study as a means of throwing light upon par-
ticular problems, there was its undoubted value as a mental and
moral training. Looked at from this point of view, history offered
a singularly powerful remedy for some of the most serious evils
of democratic government. Intellectually, it contributed a know-
ledge of social laws and a mental discipline of peculiar value to
the political student. Morally, it might go far to lessen the evils
of popular indifference, the dogmatism which resulted from a
restricted vision or a deficient political sympathy, and that unap-
preciation of the claims of superior merit, which was so largely
responsible for present standards of legislation.

No. 2.—THE PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF
ECONOMICS.

(Tllustrated by Diagrams.)

By Aurrep De Lissa.
(Read Tuesday, 11 January, 1898.)

[ Abstract, omitting Diagrams. |

Ir political economy is to be of any material service, it should,
where possible to do so, establish, as in other sciences, a theory,
or at least a working hypothesis, as the basis of deduction ; and
also of such action as can be taken to carry out the objects with
which the science is concerned. Until this is accomplished there
can be no material progress. There was none in chemistry until
the discovery by Dalton of the atomic theory, deduced from the
observation of chemical combination in multiple proportions ; nor
in astronomy, until the discovery of Newton’s theory of gravita-
tion, the basis of the science.

In my paper on the Organisation of Industry, read at the
Hobart meeting of this Association in the year 1892, published
in extenso in the volume of proceedings for that year, I presented
the indication of a law, ascertained for the English speaking
countries, for which statistics were available, and its further
consideration has led me to some very definite results.

I stated that law, as it then occurred to me to formulate it, to
be, that the expenditure in any one of those countries of the

886 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

proceeds of its production give to the classes in the community
whose employments consist in services, incomes equivalent to the
wages and profits of those engaged in the work of production.

Professor Sidgwick has emphasised the consideration which is
to be given to the work of services not engaged in the work of
production, in an inquiry respecting production, distribution, and
wealth.

No theory has so far, however, been enunciated which would
establish definite data as to the measure of wealth generally of a
specific production, or of production under different conditions, or
which could be designated as a law of distribution.

The question is solved by ascertaining in any country the ratio
of expenditure out of aggregate earnings for material products at
their original value, at the point of production. Anything paid
in excess for the product represents services such as those of
transportation or distribution. In the paper referred to, I pointed
out that the money proceeds of production expended in the
country, which necessarily represent the product, give incomes or
earnings, in circulation through different hands, without the
consumption of the amount of product the currency represents ;
and according to a hypothesis I then presented, that the aggregate
of the secondary incomes received was governed by the law of a
geometrical progression. The operation can be stated as one
which must have universal application, according to the ratio
which is ascertained. My deduction from the statistical informa-
tion then available, was that the ratio of such expenditure in the
aggregate, was one-half-—that is to say, that taking all classes in
the community, those in receipt of the highest and the lowest
incomes, there would be thac definite ratio.

But the establishment of the theory or working hypothesis I
have in mind, would not depend upon the question whether the
statistical data or my deduction of the ratio were correct ; because
if it should appear that for any particular country the ratio were
not 50 per cent., or a sufficiently ¢lose approximation thereto, to
be so stated, the ratio of expenditure, whatever it might be, would
nevertheless be attended with results of a corresponding character.
I am indebted to Professor Gurney of the Sydney University for
the form of the calculation which would give the result of any
progression based upon my hypothesis, from which I have been
able to frame the following formula which such calculation
indicates.

V (value of production) ;
R (ratio of expenditure) ~~ I (total incomes).

To show the operation of the law, I give results varying from
the ratio of one half, thus—

The total production being 100.

ie

‘oor,

THE PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF ECONOMICS. 887

Tf the ratio of expenditure should be one half, as I have found it
to be, then

as = 200 total incomes = incomes of 100 for services.
If the ae of expenditure should be 2, then
a = 250 total incomes = incomes of 150 for services.
Tf the Genie of expenditure should be }, then
a = 400 total incomes = 300 incomes for services. ud d
If the BAe of expenditure should be 4, then a 7 si
an = 800 total incomes = 700 incomes for servicés.. , , 2a aT

8
If the ratio of expenditure shold be 2, then

100

= 166-6 total incomes = 66°6 for services. pean ee a yf

I have been led to express the hypothesis of the operation of ~~~
expenditure somewhat differently to that stated in my previous
paper, tending to show that the increase of the incomes must
take place in a geometrical progression according to the ratio.
Referring to the diagrams of that paper, I considered the result
of the total expenditure of the primary workers in the aggregate.
Although the total expenditure served the purpose of illustration,
it need not be taken. When it is considered that any amount
expended by the primary workers in the aggregate, and therefore
entering into general circulation, will be received by large
numbers of all conditions amongst the diffcrent groups of workers,
it appears manifest that expenditure in the aggregate of the
amount received at any time according to the same ratio will
give the like result.

I have also found that it is immaterial, as regards the result of
expenditure, whether the proceeds of production expended by
those of production in the land, or of that from a foreign source
entering the country as income or capital.

Tt must, I contend, be admitted as a theory or working hypo-
thesis of the science, as regards distribution, that the total
incomes of all classes in a country derived from the expenditure
of the proceeds of its production, will depend upon the ratio
of expenditure in the aggregate for material products, as indicated
by the formula stated.

V (value of product)

=I (total incomes).
R (ratio of expenditure) =

And as a corollary: That the incomes of secondary workers, or
those not engaged in the primary work of production, will depend

888 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

upontheexpenditure in thecountry of the proceeds of its production,
or the expenditure otherwise than in the work of production, of
incomes from abroad, as indicated by the formula stated.

The following will be corollaries as regards production :—

(1.) That where the ratio of expenditure for services is one-
half, the production stimulated by any new or additional
industry in a country will be a corresponding additional
production.

(2.) That where the ratio of expenditure for services is more
than one-half, the production so stimulated will be
diminished in the like ratio.

(3.) And where the ratio of expenditure for services is less
than one-half, the production so stimulated will increase
in the like ratio.

(4.) That of the lesser ratio, or a greater expenditure for
services, represents a higher civilisation, increasing in
geometrical progression with the ratio.

(5.) That of the greater ratio, or a lower expenditure for
services, represents a lower civilisation, decreasing in
geometrical progression with the ratio.

100

Thus—production 100 and ratio (less than }) 2 gives —-, 250

5
total incomes = 150 for services, and the additional production
stimulated or required to feed workers will be 66:6.

100

If the ratio be (more than }) 2, production 100 gives —- =

5
166-6 total incomes = 66:6 for services, and the additional pro-
duction required to feed workers will be 150.

I referred in my paper, read at the Hobart meeting of the
Association, to Quesnay’s “Tableau Economique” having been con-
sidered as lost, or, at all events, that one or two copies only existed
in some European libraries; and to the statement in Mr.
M‘Gullock’s introduction to Adam Smith’s ‘“ Wealth of Nations ”
that the “Tableau Economique” was a formula constructed by
Quesnay to exhibit the various phenomena attendant upon the
production of wealth and its distribution. The formula of the
table did not, so far as I have been able to ascertain, find its way
into the works of any of the known English economists. In the
month of December, 1894, a,fac simile of the first edition of the
“Tableau” was published by the British Economic Association, the
same having been discovered by Dr. Bauer among the papers of
the elder Mirabeau ; and the journal of the Association for March,
1895, contains an article by Dr. Bauer dealing with the table. It
is of service in connection with the subject of present inquiry.

THE PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF ECONOMICS. 889

Upon a first glance at the “Tableau” it appeared to me that it had
anticipated the dediction of a law such as that I have stated, and
that the formula which I have presented in Diagram 2 reproduces
the table inanotherform. This is not, however, the case, although
the appearance is very deceptive. The “Tableau” does not show
any increase of incomes in the so-called non-productive class (3),
the duplication of such portion of their incomes which is shown
being only incident to the exchange with the primary workers,
which would result in the 15 shown in my original diagram—
that is to say, the circulation of the currency for services yielding
income among the secondary workers themselves has not, and
necessarily could not, have been considered. It will be seen that
the series of incomes shown in the first perpendicular column on
the right in Class 3 of the “Tableau” are received from different
sources of production or new producers. Each of such incomes
have expended one-half for product, retaining one-half of the
currency received, which the text states is expended in the class
itself in which all manufactures are included, the latter statement
as to the expenditure being also made as to the currency of 300
remaining in Class 1.

The value to a country of the different kinds of production may
be stated as follows, commencing with those of lowest value, and,
assuming the proportion of raw material to be 50 per cent.,—

(1.) New production in manufacturing industry, previously the
subject of international interchange, in which the raw material is
not produced in the country nor any additional production in
exchange for it. For every £100 worth of manufactures so pro-
duced there will, according to the ratio which I have indicated, be
increased earnings at least to the amount of £50 by primary
workers, and £50 by secondary workers.

(2.) A new production in manufacturing industry, previously
the subject of international interchange, in which the raw material
or a new production of raw material to be given in exchange for
it is produced in the country. In this case, for every £100 of
manufactures so produced, there will be increased earnings at least
to the amount of £100 by primary workers and £100 by secondary
workers.

(3.) The production of a new raw material for which there is a
constant market in other countries.

This will be a greater source of wealth.

Australia is said to be particularly adapted for sericulture. ‘The
grain or worm has been found to be entirely free from the disease
which exists in other countries, and at one time threatened the
extinction of the industry. In this case, if the industry were
established, for every £100 worth of the product, minus the raw
material used in its production, which should be but fractional,

890 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

there would be increased earnings to the amount of £400, £100
in the production and £100 in an additional production with the
corresponding secondary incomes of the like amounts.

(4.) The new production in a country of some article of inven-
tion or utility not in use before.

The result in the production and distribution of wealth may
then be considered still greater, for there is in such a case a new
source of wealth, in addition to all other available resources which
it may be possible to utilise.

Take for instance the manufacture or production of bicycles in
a manufacturing country like the United States, where the whole
of the raw material, or the whole with but a fractional portion
will be manufactured, as well as the article itself. There is an
addition to the wealth of the country, primarily, of the whole value
of the production, except so far as some other industry is not
displaced by the new utility, and the large expenditure in the
country for the purchase of bicycles will not diminish the funds
previously available for other expenditure. The new industry
will promote an additional production of general products to the
like amount, and the circulation of the wages and profits will give
four incomes, each the value of the production ; in addition, in
the first instance, to the expenditure of capital for the construc-
tion of plant, which is generally one million for each million of
annual production, and also the additional production which it
will stimulate, and the secondary incomes, incident to both of
such latter productions. There might also be an expenditure of
capital for the erection of factories,in a new manufacturing
industry, of three-fourths of a million, the general estimate for
each million of production ; with the like results as to an addi-
tional production and secondary incomes. In the case of the
individual, it may be that some other expenditure will be curtailed ;
but, taking the community in the aggregate, the funds for expendi-
ture will be increased. It is otherwise in Australia where the
bicycle is not manufactured ; the funds available in the aggregate
for expenditure will be lessened by the amount paid for purchases.
There will be some decreased earnings by those employed in other
means of locomotion for the conveyance of passengers, or engaged
in the breeding or care of horses, in the cultivation of pasturage
and the procurement of fodder for the lesser number of horses
employed ; but this will be very fractional in a manufacturing
country which derives increased wealth, not only from the internal
trade, but also from the supply of foreign markets. This increase
of wealth in a country like the United States or England must
be very great. Iam not aware if figures are available in respect
to this particular industry. I find a statement in the Sczentific
American for 1896 that over sixty million dollars (£12,000,000)

nei: ig hy See

THE PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF ECONOMICS. 891

are invested in plant in the United States, and that the industry
gives employment to an army of industrial workers no less than

b]

A similar result must attend the construction and maintenance
of the telephone.

It may be stated, as an economic axiom, that the progress of
invention furnishing a new utility for which there will be a
demand, increases the wealth of the community to the value of
the earnings derived from the production of that utility (except
so far as other industries may be displaced), without any decreased
expenditure in the aggregate by the purchases made for the new
utility in the country in which the same is produced.

It will be noted that, for the operations incident to a new pro-
duction of 100, a circulating capital of 100 is required. The
aggregate amount which has represented circulating capital
throughout the year, in the illustration given by one of the
diagrams, is 600, and the total production in connection with the
industry is 1,200. A circulating capital of 100, therefore, suftices
for the two productions—the original one and the additional pro-
duction stimulated. This circulation enables us to ascertain
precisely the circulating capital which is in existence in the
country, or which must be available in case of a new industry.
The amount which represents the total of the circulating capital
in use throughout the year must be the sum to represent one half
of the balance of all production, after deducting the increased
value—that is to say, the profits, less an amount representing the
approximate expenditure of the employers.

The whole amount of circulating capital required may not of
course be in existence at the same time, its production and repro-
duction is constantly going on.

Total production in New South Wales for the year 1892 was
ascertained at £35,289,000. The table of private wealth for the
year shows the value of merchandise at £15,585,000. Quoting
from Coghlan, ‘this represents the value of the goods and stocks
of all kinds, whether in store or shops, or at the place of pro-
duction, and averages in value half the imports and exports taken
together.” The value of stock for the year slaughtered was
£4,450,000, a total of £20,035,000. Allowing for savings as
stated for other years approximately £3,000,000, a little more or
less, the balance approximating £17,000,000 would represent the
amount of circulating capital which would be employed through-
out the year. Commencing any of the diagrams presented show-
ing production, with capital £17,500,000, the same would result
in a total production of £35,000,000.

When works of construction have taken place in a country by
means of borrowed capital, upon which interest has to be paid,
preducts being sent away annually in payment of the interest ; if

892 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

such works of construction are not reproductive, or when money
is borrowed to meet a deficiency in public revenue, the actual
payment by the country, having regard to its true wealth, is not
represented by the current rate of interest paid on the loan.

If the work of construction is not reproductive, every £100 of
product sent away for interest, which would have been otherwise
employed, represents two incomes of the like amount, which
would have been the result of the employment. The cost to the
real wealth of the country is double the rate of interest paid.
Where the work is reproductive, yielding interest at the same rate
as that which is paid, such interest represents the circulating
capital employed in the procurement each year of the product
which is sent away.

Tt cannot be doubted that the more a country is self-contained,
and the larger the number of industries which can be carried on,
without detriment to others by the means employed, the wider
the markets, the larger in number the avenues of employment,
and the greater must be the wealth in the aggregate earnings
which constitute prosperity. The culture of its people will also
be greater in the variety of occupation, adapted to the ability
and intelligence of all capacities, and stimulating the exercise of
inventive faculties and artistic skill. The real wealth of a country
is not indicated by the value of its production, if the whole pro-
ceeds are not retained ; and, in considering its wealth, the figures
of foreign indebtedness must always be set against the figures of
production. Neither is the wealth of a country indicated by the
value of imports and exports representing its external trade.

If my deductions are correct, except as to the share to be
received by wage earners in particular industries, there is in a
country which is self-contained a natural distribution of the
proceeds of production against all classes. They are diffused
equally among those engaged in the work of primary industry,
and among all other groups of workers, each class, and the indi-
viduals in each class, receiving portion of the proceeds according
to the demands for their employment. The interest of any one
producing class is the interest of all. The strike which paralyses
industry for a time, and impairs a market, is the concern of all.
As I contended in my previous paper, agencies must ultimately be
evolved, by which the shares of the product received by the
employer, and the mechanic or labourer, engaged in the work of
production, the subject of frequent contests now, may be satis-
factorily adjusted, and the evils of monopolies or trusts prevented.
These are the vital objects to which the thoughts of those con-
cerned in promoting progress should be especially directed. The
importance of the aid which the organisation of government can

5

give in promoting the development of industry and the increase

of production in new lands, whose resources are greatly unde-

THE ADVANTAGES OF A FEDERAL UNION. 893

veloped, must be manifest from the foregoing considerations ; and
the principle must be recognised that the sources of production
should not be held profitless. Much may be done by the Statistical
Department in every country to ascertain requirements, and to
control by the intelligence which it can exercise. It will yet be
admitted that political economy is a science, able, like other
sciences, to trace the operation of law amid agencies apparently
fortuitous, and to serve as a guide to action which may achieve
the highest and best results.

No. 3.—_THE ADVANTAGES OF A FEDERAL UNION.
By W. Jetruro Brown, M.A., LL.D.
(Read Tuesday, 11 January, 1898.)

THE object of this paper was to show the precise advantages
which might be expected to follow the federation of the Aus-
tralian Colonies. Union must tend to insure our peace, promote
our prosperity, and advance our honor. It ensured peace in the
internal affairs of the separate colonies, since the difficulties of
insurrection were increased when it was necessary to arouse the
citizens of a Commonwealth ; it ensured peace between colony
and colony, by submitting all disputes to the peaceful arbitration
of a common authority ; it ensured peace in our foreign relations
by increasing the respect of foreign States, and by securing a
more wise and consistent foreign policy. So, too, federation
must tend to promote our prosperity. It was clearly desirable,
in the management of State affairs, that no more force should be
applied to desired ends than was absolutely necessary ; that yet
sufficient force must be applied, and that the force must be care-
fully exerted in the right direction. Each of these principles was
violated in our present state of disunion. The most forcible
illustrations of this fact could be found in the spheres of produc-
tion and exchange. Finally, federation must tend to advance
our honor. No student of Australian politics could fail to
observe the commonness of tone in political life, and the exces-
sively provincial character of our political ideas. Such defects
were proving a serious menace to our future, and it was not
perhaps too much to hope that they might be overcome under the
inspiring influence of a new national ideal. With respect to the
Commonwealth Bill, there were necessarily many questions for

894 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

discussion, and it was incredible that the settlement of each and
every one of these questions should be effected in such a way
sa to satisfy the ideal of any one man. Probably, in view of
the fallibility of the individual, a persuasion of the perfection of
the Bill might arouse the suspicion of the impartial. If, there-
fore, any individual would delay federation until he could
approve of the Bill in every particular, his position must be des-
cribed as one of uncompromising hostility. The true federalist
would recognise the absurdity of insisting upon a condition so
unwise, and praise or condemn by reference to a broad and
impartial view of the Bill as a whole. There were many, and
these perhaps not the least wise, who would prefer the judgment
of the present Convention to their own, and therefore undertake
to vote for sucha Bill as might have received its final sanction.
The advantages of federal union were obvious ; the constitutional
questions involved in the Commonwealth Bill were complicated
and difficult, and required for their discussion and settlement the
experience, the skill, and the wisdom of a select assembly. It
would seem, therefore, not unwise in a citizen assured of the
advantages of federation to entrust the solution of constitutional
difficulties to the capacity of the Federal Convention. Never
in the history of these colonies was there so apt an occasion for
the display of a generous confidence. If we failed in that confi-
dence we condemned our own selection, and asserted the ineapa-
city of future generations to remedy the particular evils which
subsequent experiences might reveal.

No. 4.—FEDERATION AND RESPONSIBLE
GOVERNMENT.

By A. B. Prppineton, B.A., M.L.A.

(Read Tuesday, 11 January, 1898. )

No. 5.—_SOME THOUGHTS ON SOCIAL EVOLUTION.
By Rev. Canon Cortertrs, D.D.

(Read Wednesday, 12 January, 1898. )

_ CRIMINAL RESPONSIBILITY. 895

No. 6.—CRIMINAL RESPONSIBILITY: A CHAPTER
FROM A CRIMINAL CODE.

By Sir Samuet W. Grirriru, G.C.M.G., M.A.,
Chief Justice of Queensland.

(Read Wednesday, 12 January, 1898.)

THERE are, no doubt, reasons for the apparent reluctance of Great
Britain and the Australian Colonies to attempt to formulate their
laws in a scientific form—reasons, however, which, good or bad,
do not seem to operate in the minds of the people of other civil-
ised States. Probably, one main reason is a conservative instinct,
which seems to dread a formal change even more than a radical
alteration in the law, and which is, perhaps, most frequently
observed in members of the legal profession, without whose assist-
ance a scientific formulation of the law is usually impracticable.
Possibly, also, a want of confidence on the part of the lawyers,
either in themselves or in one another, operates in the same
direction. There is also the real or supposed difficulty of inducing
a Legislature to accept a complicated law dealing with subjects
with which the legislators are unfamiliar. This last difficulty is,
however, often greater in anticipation than in reality.

Three branches of the law have lately been reduced to the
form of a code in Great Britain—the law of Bills of Exchange,
the law of Partnership, and the law relating to the Sale of Goods ;
and the English codes on these subjects have been adopted by
most, if not all, of the Australian Colonies. The law of Defama-
tion has been codified in Queensland, and the code has been
adopted by Tasmania ; but the branch of the law which is of
most general application, and most nearly affects the largest
number of people, still remains uncodified.

In 1880 a Bill was introduced in the House of Commons, based
upon a Draft Code of Criminal Law prepared by Lord Blackburn,
Mr. Justice Barry, of Ireland, Mr. Justice Lush, and Sir James
Fitzjames Stephen, but it was not proceeded with; and since then
nothing seems to have been done in England for the codification
of the Criminal Law. The Parliament of New Zealand, however,
in 1893 adopted the English Bill of 1880 with unimportant
modifications. That Bill was open to serious criticism, and it is,
perhaps, not to be regretted that it did not become law in
England.

There seems to be much misunderstanding as to the nature and
effect of codification. Chief Justice Cockburn described the work
of codifying the Criminal Law in the following terms :—‘“ So

896 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

great and difficult a work as that of stating the Criminal Law in
all its voluminous details, with a due regard to arrangement and
classification, in language carefully selected, avoiding, on the one
hand, the cumbrous, prolix, inartificial, and bewildering phrase-
ology of our Statutes; and, on the other, taking care that the
terms used shall be sufficiently comprehensive to embrace every
case which is intended to come within it.”—(Letter to Attorney-
General, 12th June, 1879.) This may be accepted as a sufficiently
exacting definition of a perfect code. The most common objection
to the codification of the criminal law is that such a task cannot
be perfectly performed ; that there will certainly be omissions ;
that under the present system the Judges can from time to time
“declare” the common law in such a way as to cover new develop-
‘ments of lawlessness; and that, as by codification these powers
are taken away, there would be a loss of the “elasticity” of the
common law. The practical difference between such a power ot
“declaring” the law and a power of legislation is very little.
But this power is in practice very rarely, if ever, exercised ; and
an even tolerably well-drawn code would not fail to include all
the principles and rules on which the supposed new declarations
or adaptations are founded ; and, if any were omitted, they could
be added by the Legislature with all the more ease and certainty
if they had an otherwise complete statement of the law before
them.

It should be remarked that codification is a very different thing
from consolidation. The latter is a comparatively easy though
laborious work, consisting merely in the collection and orderly
arrangement of existing statutory provisions. Codification in-
cludes all this, but includes also a complete statement of all the
principles and rules of law applicable to the subject matter. As
an illustration of this part of the work of codification, it is pro-
posed to refer to the chapter on Criminal Responsibility contained
in the Draft Code lately prepared by the writer for the Govern-
ment of Queensland. This branch of the criminal law is substan-
tially common to all civilised systems, and is of general application
with regard to all acts alleged to be criminal.

The chapter (a) begins with the rule sometimes expressed in
the maxim, ‘“ Ignorantia juris neminem excusat,” which is thus
formulated :—

“IGNORANCE OF LAW.

“© 24. Ignorance of the law does not afford any excuse for an
act or omission which would otherwise constitute an offence,
untess knowledge of the law by the offender is expressly declared
to be an element of the offence.”

(a) Chapter v.

CRIMINAL RESPONSIBILITY. 897

The qualification (which is not usually expressed) is or may be
necessary. For instance, the misapplication of funds by members
of local authorities is in Queensland an offence only when the
misapplication is known by the offender to be contrary to law.

The next rule is that intended to be expressed by the maxim,
“ Actus non facit reum nisi mens sit rea.”

“INTENTION: MOTIVE: BONA FIDE CLAIM OF RIGHT.

“© 25, Subject to the express provisions of this code relating to
negligent acts and omissions, a person is not criminally respon-
sible for an act or omission which occurs independently of the
exercise of his will, or for an event which occurs by accident.

“The result intended to be caused by an act or omission is
immaterial, unless the intention to cause a particular result is
expressly declared to be an eleinent of the offence constituted, in
whole or part, by the act or omission.

“Unless otherwise expressly declared, the motive by which a
person is induced to do or omit to do an act, or to form an inten-
tion, is immaterial so far as regards criminal] responsibility.

“A person is not criminally responsible, as for as an offence
relating to property, for an act done or omitted to be done by
him with respect to any property in the exercise of an honest
claim of right and without intention to defraud.”

The first branch of the section corresponds to Article 45 of the
Italian Penal Code of 1888 (the latest and best of penal codes),
which provides that a man cannot be punished for an offence
(delitto): Se non abbia voluto il fatto che lo costituisce. I do
not know of any English word in common use corresponding to
the sense in which the word voluto is here used; but the
paraphrase, ‘occurs independently of the exercise of his will,”
expresses precisely the same idea.

Much confusion has arisen in law from the inaccurate use os
the words “intention ” and “ motive,” which are often treated a
synonymous, ‘The true rule is, it is apprehended, as stated in oie
text. The motive by which a man is induced to form the
intention to kill another may be very material as a guide to a
jury in a case of circumstantial evidence ; but it is quite a different
thing from the “intention ” with which the fatal blow is struck.

The rule as to mistake of fact is thus expressed :—

“ MISTAKE OF FACT.

“26. A person who does or omits to do an act under an honest
and reasonable, but mistaken, belief in the existence of any state
of things is not criminally responsible for the act or omission to
any greater extent than if the real state of things had been such
as he believed to exist.

oon

898 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

“The operation of this rule may be excluded by the €Xpress or
implied provisions of the law relating to the subject.”

As to this, there is probably no room for doubt.
The next rule (which, it is believed, is not to be found in any
of the books) deals with extraordinary emergencies :—

“ BXTRAORDINARY EMERGENCIES.

‘27. Subject to the express provisions of this code relating to
acts done upon compulsion or provocation. or in self-defence, a
person is not criminally responsible for an act or omission done or
made under such circumstances of sudden or extraordinary
emergency that an ordinary person possessing ordinary power of
self-control could not reasonably be expected to act otherwise.”

On this section it may be remarked that it gives effect to the
principle that no man is expected (for the purposes of Criminal
Law, at all events) to be wiser or better than all mankind. It is
conceived that this is a rule of the Common Law, as it undoubtedly
is a rule upon which any jury would desire to act. It may,
perhaps, be said that it sums up nearly all the Common Law rules
as to excuses for an act which is primd facie criminal.

The exceptions as to compulsion, provocation, and self-defence
are necessary, because there are positive and definite rules dealing
with these cases, which may be regarded as requiring exceptional
treatment.

Then follow the rules as to insanity and intoxication :—

“PRESUMPTION OF SANITY.

“© 28, Every person is presumed to be of sound mind, and to
have been of sound mind at any time which comes in question,
until the contrary is proved.

* INSANITY.

“99, A person is not criminally responsible for an act or
omission if at the time of doing the act or making the omission
he is in such a state of mental disease or natural mental infirmity
as to deprive him of capacity to understand what he is doing, or
of capacity to control his actions, or of capacity to know that he
ought not to do the act or make the omission.

ca person whose mind, at the time of his doing or omitting to
do an act, is affected by the delusions on some specific matter or
matters, but who is not otherwise entitled to the benefit of the
foregoing provisions of this section, is criminally responsible for
the act or omission to the same extent as if the real state of
things had been such as he was induced by the delusions to
believe to exist.

CRIMINAL RESPONSIBILITY. 899

“ INTOXICATION.

“30. The provisions of the last preceding section apply to the
ease of a person whose mind is disordered by unintentional intoxi-
cation or stupefaction caused by drugs or intoxicating liquor or
any other cause.

“They do not apply to the case of a person who has intention-
ally caused himself to become intoxicated or stupefied in order to
the commission of an offence, whether the offence with which he
is charged or not, or in order to afford excuse for the commission
of an offence.

“When an intention to cause a specific result is an element of
an offence, intoxication, whether complete or partial, and whether
intentional or unintentional, may be regarded for the purpose of
ascertaining whether such an intention in fact existed.”

There is, perhaps, no branch of the criminal law which has
given rise to more discussion and difference of opinion than the
relation of mental infirmity to criminal responsibility. The rule
of the Common Law is generally thus stated : ‘‘ Every man is pre-
sumed to be sane until the contrary is proved: To establish a
defence on the ground of insanity it must be clearly proved that
at the time of committing the act the accused was labouring under
such a defect of reason, from disease of the mind, as not to know
the nature and quality of the act he was doing, or, if he did know
it, that he did not know he was doing what was wrong.”

These are the terms in which the rule is expressed in the
answers given by the Judges to the House of Lords in McNagh-
ten’s case (10 Cl. and F. 200). In that case, however, the real
question was as to the proper rule for judging of the criminal
responsibility of a man labouring under specific delusions, but
otherwise of sound mind, and the learned Judges prefaced their
answers by pointing out that they assumed that the questions put
to them by the House of Lords were confined to such persons.

The language of the learned Judges has been much criticised.
Lord Chief Justice Cockburn said: “ What is*meant by the nature
and quality of the act I really do not know. Does it simply
mean that the person committing the act knew what he was
doing, or that he knew that the act was legally wrong or was
morally wrong? What is meant by the alternative ‘or that the
act was wrong? Is this phrase meant to be synonymous with
the ‘quality’ of the act as just before mentioned? If not, what
is the difference between the two forms of expression ?’—(Letter
to Attorney-General, 12th June, 1879, p 15.) In practice every
Judge amplifies the rule by telling the jury what in his opinion is
meant by the ‘nature and quality’ of the act.

900 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

The subject has been much considered by the Continental
nations of Europe. Before referring to the particular provisions
of their codes it may be desirable to offer a few observations on
the general principles applicable to the matter. An act to involve
criminal responsibility must be voluntary, as distinguished from
involuntary (s. 25)—that is to say, it must be accompanied by
volition. In order that an action may be accompanied by volition
there must be in the first place perception, more or less accurate,
of the facts, then a determination or choice of the action to be
taken upon those facts, and finally the action. If the person in
question is incapable, from mental disorder, of rightly perceiving
the facts, he should be treated on the same footing as a man who
in good faith misapprehends the facts (s. 26). If he is for the
same cause incapable of exercising the power of determination or
choice, he should be treated on the same footing as a man who
does an act independently of the exercise of his will (s. 25). So
far there is little reason for controversy. But it is conceived that
our law assumes the notion of duty. No one supposes that every-
one or anyone knows all the provisions of the criminal law. Yet
no one above the age of discretion (s. 31) is excused by ignorance
of law (s. 24). Why is the distinction drawn at a particular
age? Not, surely, because at that age knowledge of the law
comes to a child, but because he is then supposed “to be capable
of knowing that some things ought not to be done—z.e., of appre-
hending the idea of duty. If this is so, there is a third element
of criminal responsibility corresponding to the capacity of a child
who has reached the age of discretion ; and a person who, by
reason of mental disorder, is in the condition of a child as to
capacity of apprehending the notion of duty, ought to be equally
free from criminal responsibility. This last element seems to be
wanting in the definition of insanity given in the Continental
codes, but it is, probably, part of the Jaw of England.

The following statements of the definition of insanity given
in the various Continental codes and draft codes are taken from the
Ministerial explanation made by Signor Zanardelli in introducing
the Italian Penal Code to the Legislature in 1888. (The defini-
tion in the Draft Code as introduced was as follows :—“ A person
is not punishable who, at the moment when he committed the act,
was in such a state of defect or morbid affection (alterazione) of
the mind as to deprive him of consciousness of his acts or of the
possibility of acting otherwise.’’)

Dutch Code: ‘Incomplete development or morbid disturbance
of the intelligence.’

xerman Code: ‘Deprivation of understanding or condition of
morbid affection of the mental faculties.’

Hungarian Code: ‘State of unconsciousness or disturbance
of the intellectual faculties.’

CRIMINAL RESPONSIBILITY. 901

Code of Zurich: ‘If the faculties of the mind of the accused
were overturned in such a manner as not to possess the attitude
of free determination or the discernment necessary to understand
the criminal nature of the act.’

Austrian Draft of 1881: ‘State of want of understanding or of
deficient development or disturbance of the intellectual faculties.’

Russian Draft of 1881: ‘Insufficiency of the intellectual
faculties, or morbid disturbance of the activity of the mind
(spirito), or state of unconsciousness.’

The definition actually adopted in the Italian Code may be
thus translated: ‘Such a state of infirmity of mind (mente) as to
deprive him of consciousness of his act or of freedom of action.’
(s. 46).

The definition given in section 29, above, is substantially the
same as this, with the addition of the element of moral capacity.

The New York Code, as amended in 1882, adopts the words
of the Judges in McNaghten’ S case.

The Code Napoleon, which was enacted before the subject
had been so fully considered as it has been of late years, puts
insanity and compulsion together. ‘It is neither crime nor mis-
demeanour (délit) when the accused person was in a state of
insanity (démence) at the time of the act, or if he was constrained
by a force which he could not resist.’ (Code Pénal, Art. 64.)

Any direction to a jury which omitted a reference to any one
of the three elements—capacity of perception, capacity of choice,
and moral capacity—in a case in which such an element was
material would, probably, be contrary to Common Law. As to
the reasonableness of the rule, as stated in section 29, there is little
room for doubt. A moment’s consideration will suggest cases in
which any two of the three elements may be present, while the
third is absent, and in which it would be absurd to hold the actor
criminally responsible. It is important to remember, however,
that the absence of either capacity is immaterial, unless it arises
from mental disorder or infirmity.

It will be observed that the rule stated in section 29, con-
sidered from the points of view to which attention has been
invited, is merely a particular instance of the application of the
general rules determining the question of criminal responsibility
stated in ss. 25, 26, and 31.

The second paragraph of the section embodies the opinion of
the Judges on the question actually submitted to them in
McNaghten’s case.

Othe provisions of the chapter are as follows :—

‘IMMATURE AGE

“31. A person under the age of 7 years is not criminally
responsible for any act or omission.

902 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

“ A person under the age of 14 years is not criminally respon-
sible for an act or omission, unless it is proved that at the time
of doing the act or making the omission he had capacity to know
that he ought not to do the act or make the omission.”

‘ JUDICIAL OFFICERS.

“© 32. Except as expressly provided by this code, a judicial
officer is not criminally responsible for anything done or omitted
to be done by him in the exercise of his judicial functions,
although the act done is in excess of his judicial authority, or
although he is bound to do the act omitted to be done.

‘6 JUSTIFICATION AND EXCUSE: COMPULSION.

“ 33. A person is not criminally responsible for an act or
omission, if he does or omits to do the act under any of the fol-
lowing circumstances, that is to say—

(1) In execution of the law ;

*©(2) In obedience to the order of a competent authority which
P y :
he is bound by law to obey, unless the order is mani-

festly unlawful ;

‘“©(3) When the act is reasonably necessary in order to resist
actual and unlawful violence threatened to him, or in
his presence to another person who is under his imme-
diate care, or to whom he stands in a conjugal,
parental, filial, or fraternal relation, or in the relation
of master or servant ;

(4) When he does or omits to do the act in order to save
himself from immediate death or grievous bodily
harm threatened to be inflicted upon him by some
person actually present and in a position to execute
the threats, and believing himself to be unable other-
wise to escape the carrying of the threats into execu-
tion :

But this protection does not extend to an act or
omission which would constitute an offence punish-
able with death, or an offence of which actual danger
to the life or grievous bodily harm to the person of
another, or an intention to cause such danger or
harm, is an element, nor to a person who has by
entering into an unlawfnl association or conspiracy
rendered himself liable to have such threats made to
him.

‘Whether an order is or is not manifestly unlawful is a question
of law,

CRIMINAL RESPONSIBILITY. 903

“COMPULSION OF HUSBAND

“34, A married woman is not free from criminal responsibility
for doing or omitting to do an act merely because the act or
omission takes place in the presence of her husband.

“But a married woman is not criminally responsible for doing
or omitting to do an act which she is actually compelled by her
husband to do or omit to do, and which is done or omitted to be
done in his presence, except in the case of an act or omission
which would constitute an offence punishable with death, or an
offence of which actual danger to the life or grievous bodily harm
to the person of another, or an intention to cause such danger or
harm, is an element, in which case. the presence of her husband
is immaterial.”

“LIABILITY OF HUSBAND AND WIFE FOR OFFENCES COMMITTED BY
EITHER WITH RESPECT TO THE OTHER'S PROPERTY.

“ 37. When a husband and wife are living together neither of
them incurs any criminal responsibility for doing or omitting to
do any act with respect to the property of the other, except in : the
case of an act or omission of which an intention to injure or
defraud some other person is an element, and except in the case
of an acl done by either of them when leaving or deserting, or
when about to leave or desert, the other.

“Subject to the foregoing provisions a husband and wife are,
each of them, criminally responsible for any act done by him or
her with respect to the property of the other, which would be an
offence if they were not husband and wife, and to the same extent
as if they were not husband and wife.

* But neither of them can institute criminal proceedings against
the other while they are living together.”

The provisions of sections 33 and 34 are probably not quite in
accord with the existing law, which is, however, obscure. Section
34, it will be noticed, treats the case of a wife as an instance of
the general law as to compulsion.

Section 37 expresses the existing law of Queensland and
England so far as regards the husband. It is not easy to see why
the same rules should not apply to the wife.

This branch of the criminal law has been taken as an illustra-
tion of the nature of the work of codification, because, as already
suggested, it is of the widest application, and embodies rules
which, for the most part, are not peculiar to any locality or any
special system of jurisprudence ; because the question whether
these rules are good or bad depends upon general principles of
which laymen and lawyers are equally competent judges ; and,
finally, because those rules afford an excellent illustration of the old
saying that the common law is the embodiment of common sense.

904 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

No. 7.—AN INTRODUCTION TO POLITICAL ECONOMY.

By Sir R. C. Baker, K.C.M.G., President, Legislative
Council, South Australia.

(Read Wednesday, 12 January, 1898.)

No. 8.—THE FEDERATION OF BRITISH AUSTRAL-
ASIA: A SKETCH FROM A POLITICAL AND AN
ECONOMIC POINT OF VIEW.

By J. T. Waker, Fellow of the Institute of Bankers (London).
(Read Wednesday, 12 January, 1898.)
[ Abstract. |

Sucu was the title of a paper by Mr. J. T. Walker, which, in his
unavoidable absence, was read on his behalf by Mr. R. Teece,
F.I.A., before the Economic Section of the Australasian Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science on the above date.

A distinction having been drawn between Australasia and
British Australasia, it was taken for granted that sooner or later
a federation of the British territories in Australasia will become
an accomplished fact, and aspirations in that direction, therefore,
surely deserve encouragement. The Dominion of Canada was
instanced as exemplifying the greater influence exercised by
federated colonies over that which belonged to the same colonies
prior to federation, and it was predicted that a similar experience
awaited British Australasia. Federation was politically con-
sidered from three points of view—the Australasian or Colonial,
the British or Imperial, and the Foreign. Each was enlarged on :
thus, from the Colonial, federation should abolish artificial border-
lines as regards duties, extend commercial intercourse between
the colonies, institute a uniform Customs tariff, amalgamate the
defence forces, the Postal and Telegraphic Departments, intro-
duce a uniform system of quarantine, and attract emigration from
Europe, besides superseding provincialism by a growing sentiment
of nationhood. From the Imperial point of view, Federation
symbolised the unity of the empire, and lessened the danger of
friction between the Home and the Colonial Governments, as
official communications, other than through the Governor-General,
would go through one channel, the High Commissioner, in place

THE FEDERATION OF BRITISH AUSTRALASIA. 905

of through several Agents-General. A mother state naturally
looks to her colonies for an outlet for her surplus population, and
expects that, so far from entailing financial loss to her, those who
depart will, by emigrating, increase her trade and her national
importance, at the same time giving more elbow room to those at
home who might otherwise be overcrowded. Colonies will
naturally be more self-reliant federated than unfederated, and
therefore should be a source of greater strength to the Empire in
times of difficulty or danger. From the Foreign point of view,
federation would emphasise the fact of the wonderful adaptability
of the British race to altered and altering environment, and
would presage a confederation of English-speaking communities
able and willing not merely to defend themselves in time of
need, but to assist the parent State should she unfortunately be
attacked. Such a Commonwealth as that of Australasia, judging
by the precedent of the United States of America, would attract
a large share of continental emigration, and ultimately increase,
commercially and otherwise, the power of the British Empire
possibly, at the expense of her European rivals. Federation might
also impress upon European nations the wisdom and feasibility of
exchanging territories, so as to minimise the danger of political
complications through undue proximity. Historic precedents are
not wanting, as witness Louisiana, Alaska, and Heligoland.

In considering the question from an economic point of view,
attention was directed to the fact that there is a border line in
which it is not easy to differentiate the political from the
economic—the two are at times interlaced, as for instance in the
question of intercolonial freetrade. Confining oneself to the
economic aspect of federation, the examples of Germany and
Canada prove that the abolition of border customs enormously
increased internal trade, and the establishment of local manufac-
tories. Federation should, in time, promote greater economy in
cost of government. Amalgamation of various governmental
departments, such as Customs, Postal, Telegraphic, &c., must mean
the lessening of expense. The various ‘Agents-General should
merge into one High Commissioner; one Postmaster-General
ought to suffice ; and the reduction in number and in emoluments
of provincial legislators all point in the same direction. It should
only be a matter of time to have a unification of the railway
gauges, the expense being borne by the Federal Government ; and
the conversion and consolidation of the public debts, awhen
accomplished, should result in a greater saving in annual charge for
interest than all the other savings combined. The establishment
of a Federal High Court should provide an alternative final
Appeal Court to that of the Privy Council, and should tend in
many cases to greater simplicity, quickness, ‘and economy in legal
procedure, —itself a valuable economic gain. It is believed | it

906 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. _

will greatly advantage the State to have a Federal Government
Legal Tender Note Issue on a convertible gold basis, available as
currency throughout the length and breadth of the Federation,
and under the management and control of non-political Com-
missioners.

In general remarks on the whole subject, allusion is made to
the first tariff likely to be established under the Federal Govern-
ment. It is believed a compromise between freetraders and
protectionists will take the form of a revenue tariff with a pro-
tectionist incidence of a moderate complexion—possibly supple-
mented, in the case of some infant industries, by what is designated
‘‘oraduated vanishing bonuses.” Attention is drawn to the fact
that freetraders indulge the hope that, as the advantages of inter-
colonial freetrade are experienced, so will the desire grow for the
extension of the principle. It is believed moderate and “ dis-
criminating ” protectionists will see the necessity of coalescing in
time with the freetraders, although, just at present, the colonies
favouring protectionist tariffs are apparently in the majority.
The regulation of coloured labour will be a difficult problem to
solve; but it is hoped 26° south latitude will be accepted as a
“colour line,” north of which, for tropical agriculture, a limited
continuance of well-regulated island and other labour may be
permitted, subject to the labourers being returned to their homes
at the expense of their employers at the termination of engage-
ments. The question of a Federal Civil Service is referred to,
and a means is suggested by which it will be kept free from
political patronage, and promotion shall depend on merit alone.
In the Appendix are several tables which supplement the infor-
mation in the paper, and in them will be found interesting
reference to the United States, to Canada, to Switzerland, and to
Germany—all bearing more or less on the question of federation,
with statistics, which are self-explanatory. There is a curious
and interesting extract from the defunct Colonial Magazine, of
March, 1840, which conclusively shows that at that time—fifty-
seven years ago—there were writers who held what are even now
the prevalent views respecting the great advantage to Great
Britain of having colonies for her surplus population, so that her
emigrants might not go to strengthen her rivals, but rather to
strengthen herself:—‘The migration of individuals from one part
of a kingdom or empire, to another part of the same kingdom or
empire, is decidedly beneficial ; existing deficiencies are supplied,
the condition of the migrators improved (or else they would not
have migrated), and knowledge is extended and increased by
promoting facility of intercourse between distant communities, for
an incalculable benefit is derived from the interchange of mind,
as well as from the transfer of merchandise. ~It is those generally
who are strong of heart, and in full bodily health, who migrate ;

THE FEDERATION OF BRITISH AUSTRALASIA. 907

and if the migrators do not quit the island, kingdom, or empire,
the general weal is not diminished, as the improvement of the
condition of the migrators benefits the whole community ; but if
they quit their native country to reside in a foreign land, the
strength of those who remain is diminished, while the young and
the aged, the feeble and the indigent, are thrown for support on
the reduced resources and increasing care of those who have not
migrated. Moreover, it can never be the true policy of a nation
to strengthen a neighbouring or rival state by the addition of
skilful artisans, while the nation is becoming daily weaker from
the additions thus made to the power of its neighbour.”

Towards its conclusion the paper refers, by analogy, to geology
and astronomy, and does not see why the horizon of political
economists should not also be extended backwards or forwards a
few hundred years if need be, to see the working of the political
economic principles—and, remembering that principles are eternal,
contrast what has happened with what may be expected to come
to pass. Compare the United States of 1776 with 1897, whose
population has increased from three millions to seventy-two
millions in 121 years—and contrast Great Britain, a.p. 1066,
with the British Empire, a.p. 1897. . What may therefore not be
expected of a federation of British Australasia as years go by 4

Ny 9.—STATE AID TO AGRICULTURE AND
INDUSTRY.

By H. L. E. Rurunise.

(Read Wednesday, 12 January, 1898.)

No. 10.—NOTES ON A STATISTICAL COMPARISON
OF THE AUSTRALIAN RAILWAYS WITH THE
CANADIAN RAILWAYS.

By W. WALKER.

(Read Wednesday, 12 January, 1898.)

908 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

AGRICULTURE PAPERS.

No. 1.—THE MAKING AND IMPROVEMENT OF
WHEATS FOR AUSTRALIAN CONDITIONS.

By W. Farrer, B.A.
(Read Monday, 10 January, 1898,)
Published in full, Agric. Gaz. of N.S.W., vol. IX., Parts 2 and 3.
| Abstract. |

Tue author gives an account of the origin of the work and the
principles on which it has been conducted. The work of carrying
out systematic experiments in the selection and cross-breeding of
wheats was commenced by the author in 1886. The qualities whose
improvement was specially aimed at at first were—(1) increased
rust-resistance, and (2) increased gluten content of grain.

The author then discusses the relative merits of the two
methods of improving the wheat plant—First, by selection alone;
secondly, by ecross-breeding, combined with selection ; summing
up in favour of the second method.

He next describes the details of the work, including his method
of selecting, crossing, harvesting, making, &c. of the wheats ; and
points out the advantage, in the case of the wheat plant, of cas-
trating before pollinating.

Detailed information is next given regarding the history of
some wheats he obtained, whose behaviour was of special interest.

An experiment is next described showing that when the
authors are from any cause unable to effect self-pollination, ferti-
lization takes place from outside.

The author has found (1) that the male-element occasionally
affects the appearance of the seeds which result from artificial
pollination, (2) excessive drought has the effect of diminishing the
potency of the pollen on its own stigma.

The history and behaviour of a number of hybrids is next dealt
with. ;

The author then proceeds to discuss (1) the origin of our bread-
wheat plants, and suggests a method by which the original
ancestor or ancestors may be ultimately discovered. He thinks
an indication as to the possible ancestry of our cultivated bread-
wheats is afforded by certain “ grass clump” plants, which he has
observed to appear occasionally when certain widely-distinct types
of bread-wheats are crossed, and which appear to be of the nature
of reversions to the original type ; (2) the duration in the wheat-
plant of the increased vigour which results from a cross ; (3) the
process of acclimatisation, the conditions which render it possible,
and the manner in which the process may be expedited in the
case of plants propagated from seed.

WHEATS FOR AUSTRALIAN CONDITIONS. 909

The author proceeds to the discussion of the qualities of a
wheat which are specially demanded by our climatic conditions.
These are :—

1. Ability to thrive in dry soils.
2. Habit of stooling sparingly.
3. Earliness in ripening.

Dealing next with the question of rust, the author points out
the present position of the rust problem, and expresses the
opinion that the practical solution of the problem is easy of
accomplishment, and has possibly even been already accomplished
as far as the interior of Australia is concerned.

He next points out the qualities in the grain which determine
its excellence for milling and bread-making, and particularly its
food value.

Finally, the author points out the improvements in the grain
which will be necessitated by the impending deficiency of bread-
stuffs owing to the increase of population and the impossibility
of materially increasing the wheat-growing area.

At the close of the above paper, Mr. Farrer read a short com-
munication prepared by Professor Eriksson, Stockholm, Sweden,
containing the main results of an investigation into rusts which
affect cereal crops in Sweden.

No. 2.—BACTERIOLOGY, IN RELATION TO
AUSTRALIAN DAIRYING.
By M. A. O’Cattacuan, Dairy Expert to the Department of
Agriculture, N.S. Wales.
(Read Monday, 10 January, 1897.)
Published in Agricultural Gazette of N.S.W., Vol. TX, Part 2.

No. 3.—THE PROPAGATION OF FRUIT TREES.
By A. H. Benson, M.R.A.C., Agricultural Department,
Queensland.

(Read Monday, 10 January, 1898.)

No. 4.—GRAMINE4 OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA.
By. B. alurNer,- EL»... F.R.H.S.
(Read Monday, 10 January, 1898.)
No. 5._SALSOLACEA OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA
By F. Turner, F.LS., F.R.H.S.
(Read Monday, 10 January, 1898.)

910 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

No. 6—THE SUPPOSED POISONOUS PLANTS OF
WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

By Frep. Turner, F.L.S., F.R.H.S., &e.

(Read Monday, 10 January, 1898.)

In no part of Australia has the subject of supposed poisonous
plants received more attention from explorers, botanists, plant-
collectors, pastoralists, and farmers, than in the western portion
of the continent. Almost ever since domestic animals were
introduced into Western Australia certain plants have been
suspected of having poisonous properties, and it appears that
some of these are suspected not without sufficient reason. As far
back as the year 1840, Mr. James Drummond, who was an
excellent botanist, and an- indefatigable collector of West
Australian plants, wrote to Sir William Hooker, Director of the
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, London, about a certain species of
Gastrolobiwm which was regarded as poisonous to stock. Sub-
sequent to that date Drummond wrote many interesting papers
on West Australian plants, including those that were suspected
of having poisonous properties, which were published in Hooker’s
‘London Journal of Botany.” In the year 1841, Dr. Joseph
Harris, Colonial Surgeon of Western Australia, Drummond, and
several other gentlemen experimented with certain leguminous
plants belonging, or closely allied, to the genus Dillwynia by
feeding them to stock, and the animals are reported to have died
shortly afterwards. This was considered conclusive proof that
the plants contained toxic properties; but at that time no analyses
appear to have been made to determine the poisonous principle,
if any, in these plants. During recent years many references,
notably by the late Mr. G. Bentham in the Flora Austrahensis,
and by the late Baron Yon Mueller in some of his publications,
have been made with regard to the supposed poisonous properties
of certain plants, but nearly the whole subject is ruled by
empiricism. A few systematic attempts have been made to
analyse certain suspected poisonous plants and to place the results
on record ; but as I pointed out many years ago, there are few
subjects in the domain of science where more original and valu-
able work could be accomplished. In order to obtain results which
would be of the greatest possible benefit to stock-owners, the plants
should be thoroughly investigated, both from a chemical and
physiological point of view. Some years ago the New South
Wales Government, at my suggestion, began to analyse the sup-
posed poisonous plants of the parent Colony. [See Fred. Turner’s

zi

SUPPOSED POISONOUS PLANTS—WESTERN AUSTRALIA. 911

and F. B. Guthrie’s description and analysis of the “ Darling
Pea,” “Indigo,” “Cranky Pea,” &e. (Seeainsona galegifolia, R. Br.),
Agricultural Gazette, 1V, 84 (1893)]. This paper also contains
notes of the experiences of a number of New South Wales and
Queensland graziers in regard to the plant. Quite recently, the
West Australian Government has been investigating some sup-
posed poisonous plants. [See the fourth Annual Report of the
Bureau of Agriculture of Western Australia (1897)].

In many parts of Western Australia the pastures are com-
posed of a great variety of plants which, in many respects, are
dissimilar to those found in other countries. Amongst such a
diversity of herbage it can easily be supposed that when any
horses, cattle, or sheep have died in a somewhat mysterious way,
different kinds of this vegetation have at one time or another been
suspected of having poisonous properties. During very dry
seasons, when the more tender grasses and herbage are dried up,
the green leaves of many trees and shrubs offer a tempting bait
to pasture animals, and are greedily eaten by stock, though there
is still much to be cleared up with respect to the actual value of
certain of them. Even in the same district, some persons will
assert that a particular species of plant is poisonous, while others,
whose testimony is equally reliable, will assert that it makes
capital feed. There are, perhaps, no more conflicting statements
made than with regard to certain species of the genus Hremophila
and the allied one Myoporum. Whilst I must admit that very
little is known of the physiological properties of the order Myo-
porinee, still I cannot close my eyes to the fact that both sheep
and cattle kept in country where these plants are plentiful eat
them with avidity, and seem to thrive on them without any ill
effects. Some persons assert that these Myoporinous plants
develop their poisonous properties when in fruit; but whoever has
studied the habits of the birds of the interior will assure you that
certain of these greatly depend upon the fruits of these plants for
their sustenance, which, in fact, are in some seasons, their prin-
cipal food supply. Moreover, the aborigines, before they tasted
the sweets of civilisation, used to eat the fruits of several MMyo-
porinous plants.

There is no doubt that when cattle and sheep are taken from
one district to another, where the natural herbage is somewhat
dissimilar, it must have, for a time at least, some effect upon their
systems, especially when they are taken from rolling downs of
grass to country where shrubs and herbs predominate ; and this
brings to mind a question which, I think, has not received that
attention from stock-owners that its importance justifies. It is
the mechanical action which hard-foliaged shrubs have upon the
larynx of both cattle and sheep that are not used to eating them.
This irritation of the larynx not only brings on laryngitis, but

912 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G,

sometimes tends to bring on inflammation of the intestines.
Further, when hungry sheep and cattle have partaken too freely
of certain leguminous plants, especially when in flower or seed,
they have died. But this is caused during the process of diges-
tion, when great quantities of gases are made, which cause an
abnormal distention of the stomach, thus preventing the lungs
working freely, and, of course, strangling the animals; this is
technically known as tympanitis, or hoven. On this account many
leguminous plants are sometimes classed as poisonous, which are
not really so. As has already been remarked, there is much
diversity of opinion amongst pastoralists and farmers with regard
to certain shrubs, and, although I append a list, with common
descriptions, of those plants which I have received from the West
Australian Government and from a large number of stock owners
for identification as being suspected of poisoning or causing injury
to cattle, horses, and sheep, there must be future careful investi-
gation on the lines already indicated before anything very definite
can be stated.
RANUNCULACEZ.

Ranunculus lappaceus, Sm.— Buttercup.”

This perennial plant is common in certain shady and moist
situations in the coastal districts, and on alluvial lands bordering
some rivers and creeks. The leaves, which are chiefly radical and
arranged on long stalks, are usually deeply divided into three or
five deep lobes or segments. Flowers large, of a rich yellow
colour.

PAPAVERACEX.

* Argemone mexicana, Linn.—“ Devil’s Fig,” ‘Prickly Poppy,” &e.

This spiny-leaved, thistle-like Mexican plant has established
itself in a few places, but principally near settlement. For further
information as to its properties, &c., see my figure and description
of the plant in the Agricultural Gazette, New South Wales,
Vol. II, page 175, 1891; also in the publications of the West
Australian Agricultural Department, 1897.

ZYGOPHYLLE&.
Zygophyllum idocarpum, F.v.M.—“ Bean Caper.”
Although this small, many-branched annual has been suspected
of poisoning or causing injury to stock, some allied species are
well known vermifuges. Several have been figured and described
by me in the Zown and Country Journal.

LEGUMINOS.E.
Brachysema undulatum, Ker.—“ Poison Bush.”

An erect shrub, with weak or pendulous branches, which are
silky-pubescent when young. The leaves are very variable, and

SUPPOSED POISONOUS PLANTS—WESTERN AUSTRALIA. 913

range from broadly ovate or almost orbicular to narrow oblong or
almost linear. Flowers yellowish-green, or almost black, rarely

red, axillary. Pod ovoid and very hairy.

Oxylobium retusum, R. Br.—*< Bloom Poison Plant.”

A many-branched, rigid shrub, the young branches of which
are angular and sometimes hairy. The leaves are mostly opposite,
stalked, ovate or oblong, obtuse, truncate or notched at the end,
usually 1 inch to 2 inches long, leathery, net-veined above and
silky hairy underneath. Flowers reddish-yellow in dense, almost
stalkless, terminal clusters, or rarely also in the upper leaf axils.
Pod ovoid, about one-third of an inch long, and very hairy.

Oxylobium parviflorum, Benth.—‘ Box Poison.”

A tall, spreading shrub, with alternate, opposite, or in threes,
narrow-oblong, slightly cuneate or linear leaves. The flowers are
small, orange-yellow and purple, in slender racemes, terminal, or
in the upper axils, often 2 to 3 inches long. Pod from a quarter
to half an inch Jong. This is said to be one of the worst poison
plants in the Colony.

Tsotropis juncea, Turez.— Rush Poison.”

This plant produces numerous, slender, wiry, slightly angular
or compressed stems from a perennial stock. The leaves are
very few, chiefly in the lower part of the stem. Flowers yellow _
with purple streaks, arranged in loose, terminal racemes. Pods
long, containing about thirty seeds.

Gompholobium tomentosum, Labill.— Poison Bush.”

An erect shrub of about 3 feet high; the young branches
villous. Leaves usually consisting of five to seven, but varying
from three to eleven, narrow-linear leaflets. Flowers yellow, few,
and terminal. Pod scarcely half-an-inch long, containing numerous
seeds.

Gastrolobium obovatum, Benth.— Poison Bush.”

The branches of this shrub are rather slender and tomentose.
The leaves are mostly obovate, under 1 inch long, coriaceous and
reticulate. Flowers small, in axillary, rather loose clusters.

Gastrolobium trilobum, Benth.—‘ Poison Bush.”

This is a many-branched, slender-growing shrub. The leaves
are usually three lobed, about 1 inch long, and tapering into a
pungent point. Flowers few, in loose, axillary racemes, not
usually exceeding the leaves.

3M

914 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

Gastrolobium ovalifolium, Henfr.—“ Bloom Poison Bush.”

This is a low-growing shrub with mostly opposite, ovate, or
broadly oblong leaves rarely more than 1 inch long. Flowers
nearly sessile on slender racemes 1 inch to 3 inches long. Pod
about a quarter of an inch long.

Gastrolobium spinosum, Benth.—“ Spiny-leaved Poison Bush.”

A shrub attaining sometimes a height of 4 or more feet, with
opposite, broadly ovate leaves, which end in a pungent point, and
are bordered by sharp-pointed teeth. The flowers are rather large
and arranged in loose racemes about 2 inches long. Pod curved,
scarcely half an inch long.

Gastrolobium oxylobioides, Benth.—‘ Poison Bush.”

An erect shrub, rarely growing more than 2 feet high, with
broad or narrow leaves either opposite or in threes, and scarcely 2
inches long. The flowers are arranged in short, terminal racemes.
Pod about a quarter of an inch long.

Gastrolobium calycinum, Benth.—“ York-Road Poison Bush.”

A glabrous, erect-growing shrub, with oblong or lanceolate
leaves, opposite or in threes, 1 inch to 2 inches long. The few
large flowers are arranged in terminal or axillary racemes.

Gastrolobium callistachys, Meissn.—‘t Rock Poison Bush.”

An erect-growing shrub attaining sometimes a height of 3 or
more feet, with slender, twiggy, silky-pubescent branches. The
leaves are alternate, cr irregularly verticillate, very narrow, and
from 1 inch to 2 inches long. The flowers are rather large, and
arranged in terminal racemes about 4 inches long. Pod about

one-third of an inch long.

Gastrolobium parvifolium, Benth.—* Berry Poison Plant.”

A rigid, spreading, heath-like plant, with crowded, narrow
‘oblong leaves under half an inch long. The small flowers are
borne in rather dense, terminal racemes, rarely exceeding 1 inch
long when in bloom, often 2 inches when in fruit. The glabrous
pod is nearly globular.

Gastrolobium bilobum, R. Br.—“ Heart-leaf Poison Bush.”

A tall-growing shrub, with angular branches, which are usually
silky-pubescent. The leaves are arranged in whorls of three or
four together, variable in shape, but generally two-lobed, and
about 14 inch long. The numerous flowers are arranged in very
short, terminal racemes, rarely exceeding the leaves. Pod ovoid

or oblong, about a quarter of an inch long.

SUPPOSED POISONOUS PLANTS—WESTERN AUSTRALIA. 915

The prevailing colour of the flowers in the above species of
Gastrolobium is yellow, but the keel (lower petals) and base of
the standard (upper petal) are often purplish-red.

Templetonia retusa, R. Br.— Poison Bush.”

A tall, glabrous, glaucous shrub, with angular, furrowed
branches. Leaves variable, thick, and leathery, and about | inch
long. The flowers, arranged in the leaf axils, are usually red,
but sometimes white. The oblique pod is about 2 inches long,
and about half an inch wide.

Goodia lotifolia, Salisb.—* Yellow Pea,” or “ Yellow Indigo.”

This a rather tall-growing straggling shrub, with pinnately
three-foliate leaves, and many-flower red racemes of yellow flowers.
The pods are nearly an inch long, and about one-quarter of an
inch broad.

Crotalaria cunninghamii, R. Br.— Poison Plant.”

A shrub, growing about 3 feet high, and covered all over with
a dense, soft tomentum. The leaves are usually broadly ovate,
and from 14 to 3 inches long. The very large flowers are of a
yellowish-green colour, more or less streaked with dark lines.
They are arranged in terminal racemes. The tomentose, leathery
pods are about 13 inch long.

Lotus australis, Andr.—“ Poison Trefoil.”

A perennial plant of rather variable habit. Sometimes it forms
a dense little bush of about 2 feet high, while in other situations
it has weak, straggling growths. The leaves are composed of five
leaflets, three at end of the stalk and two close to the stem.
Flowers usually pink and fragrant, but varying much in colour
from white to purplish, with a leaf close under each umbel of
flowers. Pod cylindrical, about 14 inch long.

Indigofera australis, Willd.—* Wild Indigo.”

This is an erect branching shrub of from 2 to 4 or more feet
high, with leaves composed of numerous, small leaflets—usually
nine to seventeen—and pink or purple ftowers arranged on
axillary racemes. The pods are about 14 inch long, terete, and
nearly straight.

DROSERACES.
Drosera gigantea, Lind].—‘ Sun Dew.”

This plant has tall, branching, leafy stems, with variable leaves,
the lower ones reduced to lanceolate scales, but the upper ones
are generally broadly crescent-shaped. The small white flowers
are borne on large, loose, branched, terminal panicles.

916 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G

UMBELLIFER.

Trachymene australis, Benth.—‘‘ Wild Parsnip.”

A rather coarse plant, with leaves either radical or at the base
of the stem, and hispid, with long hairs. Flower stalks long and
distant, each bearing an umbel of numerous, small flowers. Stalks
on the main stem, sometimes several together, so as to form a
large, irregular, compound umbel. The whole plant is acrid.

COMPOSITAE.

Myriogyne minuta, Less.—“ Snuff Weed.”

A prostrate, branching plant, with slender stems, more or less
clothed with short, woolly hairs. The oblong, toothed leaves
rarely exceed half an inch in length, and are often much shorter.
Flower heads very small, solitary, and mostly leaf-opposed. The
whole plant has a slight pungent scent when bruised.

GOODENOVIER.
Velleia macrophylla, Benth.—* Yellow Poison Plant.”

A glabrous, erect, leafy, branching plant, attaining sometimes
a height of 4 feet. Stem leaves from 2 to 6 inches long, toothed,
and narrowed into a long stalk. Flowers rather large, borne in
axillary panicles. There are one or two forms of this fine plant.

CAMPANULACE.

Lobelia heterophylla, Labill.—* Blue Poison Plant.”

An erect growing, annual plant, with very variable leaves, the
lower ones sometimes pinnatifid with a few, narrow, linear lobes,
or obovate and deepiy cut; the upper ones small, linear, and
entire. Some forms, however, have oblong-linear, obtuse, almost
entire leaves. Flowers rather large, in a loose, one-sided raceme.
The oblique capsule is full of small, winged seeds. Some
forms of this species having entire leaves resemble Jsotoma
brown, G. Don., Syn. Lobelia hypocrateriformis, R. Br. ; but
besides other minor differences the anthers of ZL. heterophylla are
all tipped with a dense tuft of short bristles, while the anthers
of J. brownii are always glabrous.

Isotoma brownii, G. Don.—“ Poison Plant.”

A glabrous, erect, simple or slightly-branched annual, rarely
exceeding 1 foot in height; with narrow leaves, usually from
half to one inch long. Flowers often numerous, in a loose, one-
ided raceme. The oblique seed-vessel is from a quarter to half
an inch long.

Vy at

SUPPOSED POISONOUS PLANTS—WESTERN AUSTRALIA. 917

SOLANE.
Solanum nigrum, Linn.,—“ Nightshade.”

An erect annual or biennial plant, with spreading branches and
ovate leaves, often with coarse irregular annular teeth, 1 inch to
3 inches long. Flowers small and white, arranged in little cymes.
These are succeeded by small, globular berries, usually nearly
black, but sometimes greenish-yellow or dingy red. The forms
that bear the two last coloured fruits are considered the most
dangerous. The black-coloured berries are freely eaten by
children.

* Datura stramonium, Linn.—‘‘ Thorn Apple,” “ Devil’s
Trumpet,” “Stink Weed.”

This poisonous weed has established itself in a few places, but
principally near settlement. For further information as to its
properties, &c., see my figure and description of the plant in the
Agricultural Gazette, New South Wales, Vol. II, page 311, 1891.
Also in the publications of the West Australian Agricultural
Department, 1897.

Nicotiana suaveolens, Lehm.—‘ Native Tobacco.”

An erect-growing, annual or biennial plant, attaining sometimes
a height of 4 feet or more. The lower leaves are ovate, and often
more than | foot long; the upper ones smaller and narrower.
Flowers white and fragrant, but variable as regards size and form.

Seeds numerous.
SCROPHULARINES.
Anthocercis viscosa, R.Br.—“ Poison Bush.”

An erect-growing shrub, attaining sometimes a height of 20
feet, and more or less viscid. The leaves are broadly ovate, and
from 14 to 23 inches long. Flowers beautifully white, and some-
times nearly 2 inches in diameter. Capsule about three-quarters
of an inch long and pointed. For further information see my
figure and description of the plant in the Zown and Country
Journal, 1895.

Anthocercis littorea, Labill.—“ Poison Bush.”

An erect-growing shrub of from 2 to 8 feet, the whole plant
slightly viscid. The rather thick leaves vary from oblong wedge-
shaped to inversely egg-shaped, and are generally ? to 14 inch
long. The numerous small yellow flowers are produced on
slender, short stalks, forming at the ends of the branches leafy
racemes or leafless panicles of 1 foot long or more; capsule

narrow, often half an inch long and pointed.

* Those plants that are marked with an asterisk are introduced.

918 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

Morgania floribunda, Benth.—“ Poison Herb.”
g ’

A perennial plant, usually attaining a height of 14 foot, glab-
rous or nearly so, and more or iess glaucous. Leaves linear or
narrow lanceolate, and about 1 inch long. Flowers about half
an inch long, bluish, and often clustered with small leaves in the
axils of the branchlets. Capsule shortly poimted, and containing
numerous small seeds.

Gratiola peruviana, Linn.—“ Poison Herb.”

The succulent stems of this plant grow from 6 inches to | foot
high, and are more or less viscid—pubescent. The leaves are
opposite, stem clasping, and from ovate to lanceolate, usually three-
nerved when broad, and 4 | to 1 inch long. Flowers sessile or
nearly so in the upper axils, “and about half an inch long. Capsule
avoid-globular, containing small seeds.

LABIATAE,
*Stachys arvensis, Linn.—‘ Hedge Nettle,” “Stagger Weed,” dc.

This common weed of cultivation has established itself in a few
places, but principally in cultivated fields. For further informa-
tion as to its properties, &c., see my figure and description of the
plant in the Agricultur al Gazette, N.S. W., Vol. I, page 307, 1890.
Also in the publications of the West ‘Australian ‘Agricultural
Department, 1897.

PHYTOLACCACEX

Gyrostemon ramulosus, Desf.—‘‘ Camel Poison.”

An erect, many-branched shrub, attaining sometimes a height
of 8 or more feet, and often of somewhat fleshy habit. Leaves
linear-terete, thick or slender, 1 inch to 3 inches long. The male
and female flowers, which are borne on separate plants, are
arranged on short, axillary, reflexed stalks. Fruit more or less
pear-shaped, and composed of a number of carpels (fruitlets).

EUPHORBIACE®.

Euphorbia drummondii, Boiss. —“ Caustic Plant.”

A prostrate or diffuse, many-branched plant, the stems and
leaves of which abound in a milky juice. The leaves are opposite,
nearly round or oblong, and about a quarter of an inch long.
Some plants are of a light grey colour, but others have reddish
stems and leaves. The flowers and fruits are very small, and
arranged in the upper leaf axils.

* Those plants that are marked with an asterisk are introduced.

SUPPOSED POISONOUS PLANTS—WESTERN AUSTRALIA. 919

Euphorbia eremophila, A. Cunn.—‘ Poison Plant.”

An erect, rigid-growing plant, rarely attaining more than 1
foot in height, and often only 6 inches. The whole plant abounds
in a milky juice. The linear or oblong leaves are about 1 inch
long. The flowers and fruits, which are very small, are arranged
singly in the leaf axils.

Beyeria viscosa, Miq.— Poison Bush.”

A. tall shrub or small tree, the flowering and fruiting branches
usually viscid. The leaves are exceedingly variable in length and
breadth, and in the whiteness of the under surface. Flowers
arranged on axillary recurved stalks, about half an inch long, the
females singly and the males often two or three together. Fruit
ovoid, about one-third of an inch long, hard and glutinous.

CYCADEX.

Macrozamia spp.—* Burrawang,” ‘Wild Pine Apple,” “ Zamia
Palm.”

See my description of Macrozamia miqueli, F.v.M., and its
relation to the disease known as rickets in cattle (Agricultural
Gazette, New South Wales, Vol. IV, page 158, 1893). See also
my figure and description of the plant (Zown and Country
Journal, 1892).

LILIACE®.
Bulbine semibarbata, Haw.—‘ Native Leek.”

A fibrous rooted plant with usually narrow-linear, radical
leaves, from a fewinches to about a foot long. The small, yellow
flowers are arranged on stalks, about a foot long. The small
fruits usually contain three or four black, angular seeds when
ripe. This plant is usually found on wet, sandy land.

Stypandra glauca, R.Br.—‘‘ Blind Poison Herb.”

A perennial plant, with leafy stems, attaining sometimes a
height of 3 feet and branched at the base. Generally, however,
the plant is much lower. The leaves are linear or lanceolate,
usually 3 or 4 inches long, but sometimes twice that length.
The beautiful, rather large, blue flowers are borne in terminal
cymes. The fruit is about a quarter of an inch long, containing
several flat, smooth seeds.

920 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

No. 7.—APPLIED ENTOMOLOGY IN WESTERN
AUSTRALIA.

By Cuaupe Fouuter, Assistant Entomologist to the Government
of Cape Colony (Late of the Bureau of Agriculture, Perth).

(Acad Tuesday, 11 January, 1898.)

THe author defines briefly the ends and aims of economic |
entomology, and refers to the rapid strides which this science has
made of recent years in Australia, alluding more particularly to
legislation for the purpose of eradicating insect-pests. In this
work West Australia is the most advanced of the colonies, and
the author traces the inception of the Acts relating to the
exclusion of imported pests and the suppression of those already
in existence. The Act dealing with imported pests arose from
the fact that the codlin moth did not occur in the orchards of
West Australia, and the effective administration of the Act has
prevented its introduction up to the present. The author regards
the indirect benefits as being very important, since consignors of
fruit are careful only to send clean fruit, knowing that it will be
condemned if the slightest trace of disease appears.

As showing the effective working of the Act dealing with
diseased orchards, the author points to the eradication of the San
José scale. This Act is also indirectly beneficial, as the orchardists
and farmers are induced to learn something about these pests, and
in most cases to purchase a spraying outfit.

The author then describes a few of the commoner pests in
West Australia, and the orchard pests. The most abundant are the
scale insects and aphides, the number of scale insects which are
destructive being very small in W.A., although other scales are ~
abundant. A large number of destructive species have been
stopped at the ports, and their introduction has to be guarded
against.

The absence of the codlin moth is a fact on which the colony
prides itself, but the fruit-fly is very prevalent. The author
points out that the W.A. fruit-fly differs from the two species
found in N.S.W., and there is some difficulty in locating its
original home. Mr. Fuller inclines to the belief that it has come
to W A. from the Mediterranean. He then gives a few observa-
tions concerning this pest and its distribution in W.A., and
describes some experiments he has made in order to combat it.
These included spraying with a mixture containing kerosene soap
and tar-oil, and placing commercial sticky fly-papers on and about

—"

APPLIED ENTOMOLOGY IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA. 921

the infested trees. Neither treatment yielded satisfactory results.

The action of gas-lime was also tried by placing the maggots in
mixtures of gas-lime and soil in different proportions. The gas-
lime was apparently without effect upon them.

In an orchard where there was a flow of artesian water it was
found possible to drown 6ut the maggots by making a circular
dam round the trees and keeping them flooded for a few days.

Another plan was to pick the fruit unripe, and allow it to
ripen under shelter.

Of vineyard pests the most destructive in W.A. are the cut-
worms, which are in nearly every vineyard, the most effective
remedy being a poisonous bait of bran and Paris Green. The
common vine-moth does not occur; neither does Phylloxera
Vastatrix. Nearly all the pests common to vegetable gardens in
the eastern colonies have found their way into W.A.

No. 8.—ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY,

By W. W. Frocearr, Entomologist to the Department of
Agriculture, N.S.W.

(Read Tuesday, 11 January, 1898. )

Published in Agricultural Gazette of N.S.W., vol. ix, Part 3.

No. 9.—ON THE PINE TREES OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

By R. T. Baker, F.L.S., Curator, Technological Museum,
Sydney.

(Read Tuesday, 11 January, 1898.)

No. 10.—MILK ANALYSIS IN ITS RELATION TO THE
BUTTER AND CHEESE INDUSTRIES.

By £. W. Ports, F.C-8.
(Read Tuesday, 11 January, 1898.)

922 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

No. 11.—WINE CULTURE IN N. S. WALES:
By F. B. Kynepon, M.R.A.C.
(Read Tuesday, 11 January, 1898.)

HISTORICAL SKETCH.

Wines of excellent quality have been produced in N. 8. Wales
from an early date. The first grape vine in Australia is ae to
have been planted at Castle Hill in November, 1791, by Colonel
de la Campe, a French emigré. Mr. George Suttor planted his
first grape vine near Parramatta in 1801. Mr. John Macarthur,
doubtless, had noticed how well grape vines grew, for as soon as
Europe was opened to travellers after the peace of 1815, accom-
panied by his two sons, James and William, he visited the leading
vineyards of Franceand Spain, chiefly on foot, and collected cuttings
of about thirty of the most renowned varieties of vines and en-
trusted them with a London nurseryman for forwarding to
Sydney. On the return voyage, the ship stopped at Madeira and
the vineyard proprietors promised to forward in due time cuttings
of their seven choice varieties. This spirited effort to place wine
culture on a sure foundation by introducing the best varieties in
the world was doomed to failure. When the cuttings arrived,
they were planted at Camden Park, and in course of time bore
grapes that were strangely inferior to those they were supposed
to represent, and their wines were equally so. Not till many
years afterwards were suspicions rendered certainties. In 1825
the Australian Agricultural Company sent out from Chiswick
cuttings of the true Madeira and Muscat varieties, which, when
they fruited, proved the Macarthur collection to have been
tampered with. The London nurseryman had evidently substi-
tuted a common grape, and the Madeira vineyard proprietors had
sent worthless sorts. Not only did Mr. Macarthur recognise the
need of the best grape vines, but the introduction of skilled vine-
dressers to tend them. Application was made to the British
Government to introduce foreigners under the existing bounty
system, but it was needlessly refused, and it was not until 1844
that such men arrived in the colony. The early cultivators of
the vine learnt much from repeated failures, and persevered under
every disadvantage. One and all were pursuaded of the fitness
of soil and climate for vine culture, and Mr. William Macarthur
[afterwards Sir William] was particularly enamoured with the
suitability of the eastern counties of N.S. Wales. = true Ver-
deilho grape was imported by the A.A. Co. in 1825, and the
Macarthurs obtained some cuttings, as well as of two sorts of
Muscat, and from them small quantities of wine were made, and
these proved that the earlier failures were due to inferior varieties
and not to the soil. There are few records extant of Australian

WINE CULTURE IN N. S. WALES. 923

viticulture during the ’twenties. Sir Daniel Cooper stated before
the Society of Arts, London |1873], that he recollected grapes
being sold in Sydney in 1826. Prior to 1830, Mr. Sadleir pro-
duced good wine at the Orphan School vineyard on the Nepean.
Mr. Gregory Blaxland cultivated in his original vineyard at Brush
Farm the small black cluster Burgundy Pineau and Miller’s
Burgundy. This was in 1817. He visited London in 1822,
taking with him some wine of his own making, for which he was
awarded the silver medal of the Society of Arts. Again he visited
London in 1828, submitting further samples of his own wine, for
which he received the Ceres gold medal of the Society of Arts.
Contemporary with the Macarthurs as a pioneer of the wine in-
dustry was Mr. James Busby. In 1822 he visited the wine
districts of Europe. Again in 1831 he left Sydney, on a more
extended tour. Prior to embarking, he distributed 20,000 wine
cuttings amongst upwards of fifty settlers, and thereby widely
extended wine culture. He took with him 10 gallons of Orphan
School wine, vintage 1829, which he bottled in London and dis-
tributed among persons interested in the colony. It was at the
instance of the Macarthurs that this trip was taken, under
instructions to ascertain to what peculiarities of climate,
soil, or culture the most celebrated wine provinces of Europe
are indebted for the excellence of their respective products,
and to make a collection of the varieties of vines cultivated
in each. The narrative of his travels was published in Sydney in
1833 and a third edition in London in 1840, under the title of
a “Journal of a Tour through some of the Vineyards of Spain
and France.” It forms interesting reading to-day, and throws an
instructive light upon the European wine methods of sixty-six
years ago. Mr. Busby secured cuttings from all the celebrated
vineyards, forming his own collection. When at Montpelier he
was fortunate in meeting Professor De Lisle, chief cf the famous
botanic gardens of that town, and Mr. Busby was allowed to
himself take cuttings of 437 named varieties of grape wines, and
what were wanting to make the collection complete were made
up from the Royal Nursery of the Luxemburg. He moreover
obtained permission from Lord Goderich, Secretary for the Colo-
nies, that this extensive collection should be planted on vacant
ground adjoining the Sydney Botanic Gardens. It arrived by
the “ Lady Harewood” on 12th August, 1832, and the vines were
duly planted. Unfortunately, Mr. Busby had left for New
Zealand, and without his supervision during the succeeding years
the requisite care was not continually exercised, and in course of
time all was confusion. Practically speaking, Mr. Busby had
collected all the best varieties from the vineyards he visited, and
the destruction of the Montpelier collection was no loss since the
majority of the varieties were more curiosities than commercial

924 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

successes. The Macarthurs selected altogether forty of the
choicest varieties for culture at Camden Park, and of these twenty
were finally retained as good for wine-making. The expansion of
wine culture dates from 1831, when Mr. James Busby distributed
cuttings and so interested many settlers in the vine. The vine-
yard planted on Mr. Busby’s Kirkton Estate is now the property
of Mr. James Kelman. In 1832 Mr. James King established a
vineyard at Irrawang, where the Williams joins the Hunter
River. In 1837 Mons. D. J. Joubert established a vineyard,
having brought from France a valuable collection of the best sort
of the vines of Medoc, celebrated for clarets. In 1840 Mr.
William Macarthur imported vine cuttings from the famous vine-
yards of the Rhine, and planted them at Camden Park. In 1844
some German vine-dressers came to the Colony, via New Zealand,
and added a much-needed element of technical skill. In 1843
the late Dr. H. J. Lindeman planted a vineyard on the Cawarra
Estate, Paterson River. In 1846 the late Mr. John Wyndham
established the Dalwood vineyard on the Upper Hunter. During
the same year Mr. William Wyndham planted vines at Bukkulla,
on the M‘Intyre River, near Inverell of to-day. In 1849 Messrs.
G. T and J. B. Carmichael planted a vineyard at Porphory, near
Seaham, on the Williams River. During the forties vine culture
extended in the south-west of the Colony. The late Hon. E. D.
Ogilvie planted the Merton Vineyard, on the Murray, in 1840,
The late Mr. John Smith, of Kyandra, obtained vine cuttings,
and having proved the suitability of his soil, sent to Germany in
1844 for vines and vine-dressers, and the journey of the latter
overland from Sydney was no smal] undertaking. On expiry of
their engagement with Mr. Smith, Messrs. Schuback, Fraunfelder,
and Ran rented 10 acres from Messes. Crisp, on the Murray, near
Albury, on an improving lease, and the breaking out of the gold
boom of the “fifties gave them an exceptional profit for their
wines, enabling them to purchase land at Albury and plant vine-
yards, and their suecess led to many other Germans coming out.
The late Mr. J. M. Sangar planted a vineyard at Corowa, on the
Murray, 40 miles from Albury, which was eventually purchased
by Messrs. H. J. Lindeman & Co., who also acquired the adjoining
vineyard founded by the late Mrs. Bladen Neill. So suitable
was the soil and climate of the Murray deemed for wine culture
that a large vineyard was established near Albury in 1861 by the
Murray Vineyard Company, and in time was purchased by the
late Mr. J. T. Fallon, and is now carried on by his brother.
Mention must be made of Ettamogah, near Albury, where the ex-
Surveyor-General, Mr. P. F. Adams, planted a vineyard that has
attained the highest reputation. In 1875, when Mr. Adams ceased
to reside at Albury, it passed into the hands of Messrs. Harbottle,
Alsop, & Co., and under the management of Captain Lankester.

———

WINE CULTUR# IN N. 8S. WALES. 925

In this rapid sketch of the extension of wine culture it has
not been possible to introduce the names of more than a few
of those who haye built up the wine industry of to-day, the
object having been to trace the establishment of wine-making in
the two chief centres devoted to it in the Colony. Although
there are very large areas of land in New South Wales pre-
eminently suited for the growth of the grape-vine, the wine
industry has established itself on the Murray and the Hunter,
whilst it has nearly died out in its earliest home—the valley of
the Nepean. The climatic conditions of the Murray are such as
to facilitate the production of rich, luscious wines, not necessarily
highly alcoiolic but frequently so, whereas the Hunter wines are
moderately alcoholic and of a Burgundy type for reds, and
the whites are allied to choice growths of the Rhine. Two
climatic factors determine the character of wine, apart from
those communicated by varieties of vine, culture, soil, and
manufacture. Sunshine to thoroughly ripen the grapes pro-
ducing sugar and rain affecting the density of the must. Vine-
yards in the interior of the Colony are sure of glorious sunshine
during the ripening period, whereas those near the coast enjoy
more rainfall at the season when most needed for producing
lighter qualities. The sunshine concentrates the juices and brings
out the natural flavours of the grape-skin that are so highly prized
by connoisseurs. It is the certainty of this brilliant sunshine over
the whole of the wine districts that constitutes the most valuable
feature in our wine prospects, in that wines over large areas will,
each year, be endowed with those choice qualities that are only
acquired during exceptional years in the European wine countries.
In the sale of wine it is quality that tells, and with such favour-
able climatic conditions the future ef the industry is assured.
The following dates refer to the year of the introduction of
various grapes, and the names in brackets of the importers :—

Year.
Small Black Cluster or Bur gundy ue: te. VS
Miller’s Burgundy ; bar ve 1BI4
Muscat Noir--—Black Frontignac uke ities Wet! Eff
Gouais uF d ee a: er ot OTF
Tinta [ A. * Co.) re ae ua wt 3825
Verdeilho of Madeira... wie PSOE
Muscat Rouge—Red Frontignac [A. ms Co.] wn PUS25
Shepherd’s Reisling (raised prior to)... 0) ds2
Malbec [D. N. Joubert] .. Ah POF
Cabernet Sauvignon [D. N. Ji oubert] att Va RST
Verdot [D. N. Joubert] .. aah oe BOOST
Sauvignon Blanc . i ia = pate ROOT

Reisling [Macarthur] =a ae ee ic 18388

926 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

STATISTICS.

The earliest records of the area under grape vines for wine-
making in New South Wales are for 1843, when 508 acres were
returned. In 1850 there were 1,069 acres ; in 1860, 1,583 acres ;
and in 1866, when Coghlan’s Statistics commence, 1,248 acres ;
in 1875, 3,077 acres; in 1885, 2,405 acres; and in 1895, 4,475
acres. ‘The figures for 1896 are as follows :—Total area under
grapes, 7,519 acres; for wine-making, 4,390 acres ; yielding
885,673 gallons of wine.

If we compare these figures with the world’s production of
wine in 1895 of probably 2,600 millions of gallons, the quantity
is not worth talking about. France alone produced 1,000 millions
gallons in 1896, the greater part of which (90 per cent.) was
consumed by her own (36,000,000) people. In 1895 the United
Kingdom imported of the world’s wines 15,8, millions of gallons,
of which Australia supplied ,°, millions gallons, New South Wales
figuring only to the extent of 6,249 gallons. Our total export
trade for 1895 was merely 21,557 gallons, so that when the export
of our wines is under discussion we may be said to have no export
trade, and are scarcely likely to when it is considered that we do
not supply sufficient good wines for the local demand which is
expanding rapidly. It will be seen further on how certain legis-
lative restrictions hamper the extension of the area under grape
vines.

THE PRESENT PUBLIC TASTE.

In the present wine-distributing trade there are various types
of customers to be catered for. The public-house interest calls
for a full-bodied, deep-coloured, alcoholic red wine, approaching
Burgundy in type ; also a fortified luscious red to serve as port,
and be appreciated by old ladies of the lower classes. The prices
are cut too fine for matured wines to be supplied, so that the reds
are a blend of coastal with Murray or Inverell wines pushed into
consumption at the earliest possible date. The ports are made by
arresting fermentation by adding alcohol distilled at the vineyard.
The public-house custom for the Burgundy type is limited to the
comparative few who call for wine, more as a mark of social
superiority than for any real appreciation of it as a beverage, and
perhaps for this reason the licensed victualler has been quick to
discern that local wines, provided the label is right, may be sold
as European. Where Australian wines are stocked by the better
class of hotels, the prices they are made generally to bear serve
to check consumption. They ave, as a rule, of good quality, and
more trade might be done but for the restrictive prices, especially
when the privileges granted by the State in the license are con-
sidered. Fortunately publicans do not hold an entire monopoly

WINE CULTURE IN N. 8S. WALES. 927

for the retail of alcoholic liquors, else the wine industry would fare
badly. The Colonial wine licence costs £5 annually, and carries
with it no provision for the accommodation of travellers, as is
the case with an hotel license. Of late years these wine licences
have increased much in numbers, and include the well-furnished
city restaurant, the Bodega or better class wine bar, the mere
wine shop, and the disreputable wine shanty where coarse strong
wines vie with the sale of illicit spirits. The foreign element from
Southern Europe patronises extensively wine shops, and consumes
large quantities of fair wines. The city luncheon bars and
restaurants have of late given a great impetus to wine consump-
tion by supplying good wines at moderate prices, chiefly by the
introduction of the Adelaide “baby” bottle which, to the wine
merchant, is a nuisance through the trouble entailed for the least
margin of profit. It has, however, served to popularise wine as
a beverage, and has led indirectly to an increased family trade.
Within the past few years many vineyards of repute have opened
depots in Sydney, but the Metropolitan trade is, after all, not so
very elastic, although offering the best market. The expense of
conducting so many distributing agencies competing with each
other must fall heavily on some pockets, and the burden entailed
may open the way to some co-operative effort.

MARKETING THE WINES.

In every locality in New South Wales where wine is made,
excellent examples of various distinctive types are produced, so
that a single cellar contains several varieties, for each of which
a separate market has to be found. The vineyard proprietors
try to establish a connection among families far and near, and of
late many have opened agencies in the metropolis. Hotels and
wine shops are also supplied, both in town and country. Repre-
sentatives of the wine-distributing houses, chiefly in Sydney,
visit the vineyards, sample the wines, and offer prices, reasonable
but low when compared with the sums charged the private trade.
The first to inspect the new wines are the largest wine firms,
who mature their purchases in their own cellars, and the practice
is extending with these firms to arrange with selected vineyards
to supervise the vintage, and buy the whole make at an agreed-
upon price. In common with many of lesser extent the larger
vineyards buy grapes from the surrounding district at a price per

ton depending on the density of the must. The smaller wine-
distributing houses send representatives to bespeak certain casks,
and take delivery as their trade requires, so that the wines are
matured in the cellars of the makers. Many of the smaller wine
houses, and wine doctors (to use an expressive term for those

who soften down acid wines with carbonate of potash, add

928 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

preservatives, and bring into a sort of drinkable condition wines in
various stages of decay) search the cellars just prior to vintage,
when the owners are at their wits’ end for cask and cellar accom-
modation, and buy at ridiculously low rates. Buyers for export
compete with the large wine- distributing houses for good wine,
but as the demand within the Colony exceeds the supply of good
wines, wine merchants offer better prices than an export firm can
afford. The Corowa district has, of late, benefited in particular
from the increased demand for wines, so valuable for blending,
and old stocks have been entirely cleared.

EDUCATING THE PUBLIC TASTE.

The use of the wines of the Colony as a beverage has increased
of late years, chiefly by the leading houses supplying reliable
qualities. The ‘“ baby” bottle and the city restaurant. have
educated a taste for the consumption of wines of the claret type
at meals, and the palate has learnt to appreciate the natural and
indispensible acidity which not only promotes digestion but slakes .
the thirst. A habit once formed continues, and he who takes
wine at lunch in the city introduces it into his home in the
suburbs, and thus it comes to pass that a sure but steady growth
characterises the local distributing trade. The conversion of the
whole of our population into wine drinkers is, however, a problem
not likely to be realised. Colonial beer has too strong a hold
amongst the lower sections of society to be ousted by wine,
although there can be no comparison between wine in which fer-
mentation has run its course and an unstable beer which too
frequently is in a rapid state of decay. <A beer retailed at 2s.
per gallon (3d. per pint), and containing 8 per cent. of proof
spirit, compares with a light wine of 16 per cent. proof sold at
6d. per pint, but the Saxon has an inherited taste for beer, just
as the Latin has for wine. The entry of Sydney-made lager bier
will, doubtless, chiefly affect the imported beers, and possibly
check the rapid increase of the consumption of Australian wines
at restaurants, but it is not likely to seriously interfere with the
established wine-drinkers. If anything, the competition of
Sydney lager bier will serve to keep up the qualities of the wines
placed on the local market. The taste for the wines of the
Colony has grown in spite of the doctored rubbish and cheap stuff
that has all along been forced down the throats of the public.
Tt is the merits of good wines that have extended the local trade,
and were it possible to impress upon the palate of the public a
standard for quality, the appreciation of the good wines of N.
S. Wales would still further increase. The Great Exhibition
in London of 1851 established the reputation of Burton bitter
beer, hitherto scarcely known, as the standard beverage of the

WINE CULTURE IN N. 8S. WALES. 929

British middle classes, because the refreshment catering was
monopolised by Bass. Millions then first tasted Bass’ ale, and
liked it ever after. In like manner the N. 8. Wales public
need to have their own good wines introduced. For instance, the
Metropolitan Show of the Royal Agricultural Society offers an
opportunity of once a year setting before the public the merits of
the wines of the Colony. During the last two exhibitions
encouraging efforts were made, but much more remains to be
done. The formation of the Central Wine Growers’ Association
places the interest of the industry in representative hands, but to
ensure success at Moore Park money will have to be expended.
Might I suggest a strong united effort being made to place hefore
the public at the Royal Show an exhibition of the wines of the
Colony, and all the appliances of manufacture and cultivation
connected with the industry, together with facilities for tasting
wines of superior quality only, utilising the Continental Cafe
system, where visitors sit around little tables out of doors if the
weather be fine, and sip their glasses at, leisure.

THE EXPORT TRADE.

A. first consignment of Australian wine—e.g., N.S. Wales—
reached London in 1851, amounting to 255 dozen, say, 510 gallons.
In 1895, 6,249 gallons were sent. The extension of wine culture
in N. 8. Wales involves in the near future an export trade which
at present is infinitesimal, chiefly because the good wines are all
snapped up for the local trade. There are, however, in a large
number of cellars, bulks of wine which owners desire to turn into
money, but buyers for export reject ; and some wine-makers have
essayed export on their own account with more or less unsatisfac-
tory results.

The British market for Australian wines is developing on dis-
tinct lines. The stronger wines of South Australia and Victoria
have been chiefly drawn upon by London houses, who have spent
large sums in advertising and building up a connection. The
Semen has, therefore, developed on inne of body, strength, and
cheapness, chiefly represented by full-bodied, dry reds, of deep
colour, and about 22 degrees proof spirit, approximating to Bur-
oundy i in type. Export buyers offer vineyardists of the Hunter
2s. 6d. per gallon for one-year wines fit to ship, and would take
all they could get, the destiny of the Hunter reds being to blend
with stronger Australian reds to supply that standard of quality
custom has now fixed fur the British market.

The problem before the wine-makers of New South Wales,
seeing that no export trade exists, is to map out a definite scheme
of wine export, and to work steadily for success. Quality and
uniformity are essential factors, whilst economy of production

3.N

930 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

in these days of world-wide competition is of primary impor-
tance. If the existing “ happy-go-lucky” methods of wine
production are to be relied on, then a_ successful export
trade les beyond our reach. The producers on the Murray
should strive to arrive at a standard wine for blending with
the lighter vintages of the Hunter, and the two should be
matured and married prior to shipment. The economical future
is towards co-operation in crushing, cellar work, and blending,
leaving the shipment and the English distribution to independent
traders, who would buy at the N. 8. W. export store. The bar
to the realisation of this ideal is undoubtedly financial, for if the
industry cannot furnish the requisite capital wherewith to buy
grapes, establish wine-crushing cellars, and the export blending
cellars, outside capitalists will necessarily expect to reap all the
profits they can. Some years ago a proposition based on co-operative
lines was placed before the wine-growers of N. 8. Wales ; but
when the financial problem had to be faced nothing was acceptable,
hence the scheme lapsed. If the wine industry were to do
nothing else, it would make a giant preliminary step towards
the success of an export trade were a large proportion of the
existing wines in the cellars sent to the still and very many of
the casks burnt. In Victoria the State, having stimulated wine
farming—e.g., the cultivation of grape vines—by a bonus, is now
being compelled either to abandon or complete the “forcing” of a
new industry by the dilemma in which the wine-farmers are at
present placed, who, being quite unable to find a market for their
produce—chiefly represented by badly-made wines—must plough
up their vineyards. At the present time the Victorian Govern-
ment finds itself in a tight place, being confronted with a
necessity to either find the finances to market the wines or leave
the wine-farmers to a hard fate. If New South Wales has been
too slow and Victoria too fast in developing the wine industry,
South Australia has worked on other lines not altogether satis-
‘factory. Private enterprise has led to the planting of large areas
under grape-vines, oftentimes of an unsuitable type, and a great
bulk of wine has been produced, but of a character that was
foreign to the British palate. Private enterprise did its utmost
to develop distribution both locally, intercolonially, and in the
United Kingdom; but without costly advertising the British
consumer is beyond reach, for the vested interests of wine
merchants are hostile to the entry of new wines. The South
Australian wine-makers therefore applied to the State for assist-
ance, under the hope that the British wine trade would be
attracted by a State guarantee of quality. Wine-makers in the
colony were invited to send forward any and every class of wine,
provided it passed inspection at Adelaide, for transmission to the
London Wine Depét, where Mr. Burney Young prepared the

——_—

WINE CULTURE IN N. S. WALES. 931

arrivals for sale. The trade was duly invited to sample and
select ; wines were sold in the auction mart, and went at
ridiculous prices ; but the trade was not to be won by a Govern-
ment guarantee, and the manager finally made arrangements with
the old-established wine house of Blandy & Co. to push South
Australian wines under the “Orion” brand. The first questions
asked by a British wine merchant is whether repeat orders can be
filled, and what quantities can be relied on for the future.
Because of doubt on these two points very few, if any, British
firms have as yet cordially welcomed Australian wines. More-
over, much depends on the British palate, which is governed by
prejudice. A Sydney house recently established an office in
London, under a manager educated in their Sydney business, and
supplied with their very best wines, the quality of which received
the highest praise from a noted London expert. The diffi-
culty of inducing British wine merchants and wine-distributing
agencies to introduce a new wine of distinguished merits to their
customers could not be overcome. So great is the society prejudice
in favour of certain continental wines, that when the Australian
wines were placed on a dinner-table under their own labels the
critics condemned, but when the European labels were put on the
Australian bottles the critics were enraptured. Messrs. Burgoyne
and others havé, however, captured, at no small cost, a market for
Australian wines amongst’a strata of society in the United
Kingdom entirely new to wine drinking, and the greatest hope
of an export trade for N. S. Wales lies in working up to the re-
quirements of this and other enterprising firms. The South
Australian London wine depét has its own lesson to impart, in
that there should be one—and one only—dep5t in London to
which the winegrowers of Australia could consign their wines,
where they would be nurtured into proper sale condition, and to
which the wine merchants of Britain would look for their pur-
chases. Jt would in fact become the Australian wine depét, and
if the prospects of the expenses being met by commissions on sales
are small for many years to come, a federation of Government
assistance in support of this depét would prove in the long run of
no small advantage to the colonies interested. I take it that this
is the utmost limits to which a Government could be expected to
go in marketing wines, and the less the State interferes with the
private enterprise of distribution the sounder will be the ultimate
trade. It is possible that France might purchase Australian
wines for blending, seeing how largely raisins and sugar are used
to make cheap wines. The Freuch buyers may be relied on to do
a large trade provided price and quality meet their views—and
quality comes first. The Eastern trade in wines also lies at the
door of Australia, more especially now that freights are moderate ;
but the European official element is wedded to European wines,

932 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

and the native demand has yet to be exploited, besides which
California meets Australia in the East just as it does in Britain,
and in California economy of production, combined with quality,
is studied to perfection.

THE DRAWBACKS UNDER WHICH THE WINE INDUSTRY LABOURS.

The existing Excise, Distillery, and Vine Diseases Acts may
be regarded as dead weights upon the wine industry of N.S.
Wales. The wine maker is allowed to sell wines in quantities
exceeding 2 2 gallons, and, under restrictions covered by a license,
is permitted to use a still not exceeding 50 gallons in capacity,
the alcohol produced being available for fortifying purposes only.
The antiquated Distillery Act prohibits the use of an economical-
sized still at the vineyard, and prevents the establishment of
central distilleries on a moderate scale, whilst at the present time
there is not a distillery in the colony. The Vine Diseases Act
gives power to the State to destroy a vineyard infected with
phylloxera without providing a scale of compensation, although
the Minister has hitherto exercised an option, and awarded sums
quite inadequate. The past has shown that phylloxera may reveal
itself in the most unexpected spots ; and, as the infected vineyard
is destroyed for the benefit of the industry as a whole, the sim-
plest justice is for the Treasury to find funds for a fair compensa-
tion. There might be a technical objection taken to the burden
being equitably distributed over the population of the colony, in
that under the present theoretical scheme of raising revenue nine-
tenths of the people, by reason of exemptions, escape what is
called taxation. The Excise Act bears with some injustice on
wine makers, in that for every office or agency they open off their
vineyard an annual license fee of £20 is imposed. If it were not
for this, agencies would be found in every town of standing for
taking orders and supplying quantities of over 2 gallons; but as
it now is, what with the indifference of the publican, the too
frequent hostility of the brewer, who controls the publican, and
the excessive license fee for agencies and order offices, the wine-
growers of N. 8. Wales are decidedly handicapped. The produc-
tion of colonial-made brandy is also to be desired. It is estimated
7,149 gallons of wine alcohol—not brandy—were distilled in the
colony, and wholly used for fortifying wines ; but owing to there
being no proper distilleries in the colony, the cellars of many wine-
makers are crowded with wines which should be put through the
still. Although a vineyard is permitted a still up to 50 gallons
capacity, this is of no avail, seeing that the alcohol cannot be
sold. These inferior and decaying wines do but deteriorate cask-
stock, and keep the wine doctor fully supplied with material for
his injurious trade. The sale of a wine only slightly inferior

WINE CULTURE IN N. S. WALES. 933

injures the public taste ; and as a wine on the down grade rapidly
grows worse, the wine industry suffers to a very mate1ial extent
from the rubbish held for sale and put into consumption through
the absence of a modern Distillery Act. Bad wine is good wine
spoilt, and entails a loss upon its unfortunate producer, all the
greater the longer it is kept. Here again, when the Act permits
it, there will be a field for co-operation by the establishment of
local distilleries to separate the alcohol, and of a central distillery
to rectify and make the brandy. Furthermore, were the Distil-
lery Act altered, and a suggestion recently put forth carried into
effect, that there should be a remission of excise duty on brandy
made from grapes only within the Colony of 5s. per gallon, the
expansion of wine farming would take place immediately by the
planting of large vineyar ‘ds of the true br andy grape, the La

Folle.
DEFECTS OF WINE MAKING.

The difficulties of making wines in small cellars are so great
that a co-operative effort to establish central wine cellars should
commend itself to all who are outside the range of existing large
cellars that purchase grapes. The first process of manufacture is,
in the generality of the N. 8. Wales cellars, performed with
all due care as to cleanliness, but the ensuing cellar management
is where too frequently carelessness comes in. The time to rack,
regularity in filling up, the use of suitable wine for filling, and
the thousand details of skilled management are all liable to un-
conscious neglect. The small maker has so many calls upon his
time that he forgets and the mischief is done. The cask stock is
liable to special neglect until the musty, mousey flavour of
decaying wood pervades all the wines of the cellar, and too
frequently, strange to say, the proprietor is entirely unconscious
of it. The “sour sweet” of careless fermentation is also
frequently met with, and is due to the want of means of checking
the rapid rise of temperature in the fermenting must. In the
brewing industry this control is regarded as a cardinal point of
success, and special appliances have long been in use. In the
English system of brewing cold water is circulated through pipes
immersed in the wort, and under the German plan the whole
fermenting chamber is kept at a low temperature by refrigerating
machinery. The advanced wine-making establishments of America
and some in Europe are introducing artificial cold, but so costly
an installation can only come within the range of large and central
cellars. Some little stir has been made in the use of pure cultures
of wine ferments, also a step in the wake of the brewers, and as
in the experience of the latter, the theoretical advantages are not
always reaped in practice. The preferable method is probably to
carefully pick berries of even ripeness, to cull out decayed and

934 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

damaged berries, and to trust to a sound fermentation arising from
the natural ferments. The mind of the wine-maker is also exercised
as to the choice of woods for the making of casks, but in these
days of cheap freights the use of suitable oak, and oak is of
various qualities—is placed within reach of all. In South Aus-
tralia sunken tanks of cement are used, and in Algeria upstanding
round vats of cement, spread over iron-wire net, are in favour.
The evaporation through porous wood is said to enhance the value
of the wines; but the loss is excessive, and adds to the sale price
of matured wines. It is worthy of consideration whether the use
of an impervious material and the introduction of purified air
might not accomplish all the good that is associated with the use
of wood.

These, and numberless other questions, come within the
province of a college of viticulture, where the wine expert should
have at command all the appliances for Ginological research. The
time has certainly arrived when the establishment of such an
institution should be taken in hand. Its educational value is at
the present time essential to the improvement of our wine industry,
and its facilities for research are equally needed. Were it situated
on a Government reserve, having large areas of land well suited
for wine farming, and provided for its own use with only a small
vineyard, the State might so arrange as to gather around it
numerous private vineyards, whereby it would become a centre of
the wine industry, by giving the assurance of success to many who
otherwise might not be induced to enter upon wine culture.

PROSPECTS OF THE FUTURE.

The wine industry of New South Wales is capable of indefinite
expansion, provided the proper efforts are made to obtain success.
At present insufficient good wine is produced for the trade within
the Colony, which would quickly respond to the entire production
of the 4,390 acres now under wine-bearing grapes, were the wines
uniformly good. The public taste, hitherto, has not been fairly
dealt with by reason of the inferior qualities forced into consump-
tion, but the appreciation of good wines is now rapidly on the
increase. Medical opinion points out clearly the advantage of
wine as a beverage in a warm climate like that of New South
Wales ; but having now to compete with Sydney lager bier, the
wines for popular consumption will have to possess not only
quality and a moderate proportion of alcohol, but be sold at a
price that will compare with the higher class of malt liquors.
This attainment of quality as a first consideration is well within
reach of our wine-makers, more especially in these days of
increased knowledge and improved appliances. Whenever the
wines of New South Wales have appeared at International Exhi-
bitions, and have been submitted to the judgment of experts, their

WINE CULTURE IN N. S. WALES. 935

merits have won, in many cases, the highest acknowledgment.
Why should not all our wines be made of high quality? Dr.
Méran, of Bordeaux, and a recognised French authority, in
criticising the wines ae at Bordestet in 1882, said that ‘the
Australian white wines are generally successfully made, with a
good colour, delicacy, resembling often the best dry wines of
the Gironde (old Barsae, for instance).” In reference to Dalwood
reds he said :—‘“ It is amongst these that there is found the most
of the wines resembling the Verdot, which appears to be most
likely to blend with our French wines. I prefer, however, the
Pineaux, more coloured, more generous, somewhat sweet, making
one think, according to the year, of our Burgundy, St. Emilion,
or Rousillion. Dalwood seems to have succeeded the best in
giving young wines, being very like some very good wines from
the Bordelais. If we judge according to his wines in bottles, he
(Mr. Wyndham) has also been very successful in producing wines
similar to those of the Graves, or rather the Libournais; but
they are often too dry, too much discoloured (¢.9., reduced in
colour), even when retaining some sweetness, and very likely they
had to suffer from bad conditions of temperature, want of rackings,
&e.” This testimony is valuable, because it represents the opinion
of the highest wine centre of France. Furthermore, Dr. Méran
Says: “ It is most inter esting to state that your Australian
wines, whilst wanting the qualities expected from the best wines
of France, are by far superior to the common wines of the whole
of Europe, and they may rest assured of a great future, if the
intelligent owners of your principal vineyards obtain experienced
workmen, skilled wine-coopers, cellar managers, and men qualified
to taste wines, ascertain their defects, and develop their qualities.”
To obtain wines for exportation to France “ you should choose,”

he furthermore says “rich and well-watered grounds, vine-species
of an extreme abundance, such as the Aramon, and then preduce
wines similar to those of La anguedoe, Provence, and the north of
Spain.” With regard to choice wines—viis ‘same authority
observes : “For these the selection of vine-species is very important,
and I fear you have not been very lucky by giving too great a
share to the Rhenish species, nor by cultivating separately e each
vine to obtain as many qualities of wine as of varieties of grapes,
such as the Pineau, Cabernet, Malbec, Reisling, Verdot, Hermit-
age, Pedro-Ximenes, Shiraz. Such a method is not enough to
create Rhenish wines—neither Burgundy nor Medoc. It is of
absolute necessity to associate a small number of vine-species,
springing, blooming, and ripening together, whose different
qualities combine and harmonise to give a wine full-bodied, rich
with savewr, delicacy, and bowguet all at once.” The best species
cultivated for the vins jins of France are ‘“ Cabernet, Pineau of
Burgundy, Verdot, Malbec (often combined together, according to

936 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

the soil, as follows: one-third of Cabernet-Sauvignon, one-third
of Malbec, one-third of Merlot). It is also most important, both
with red and white grapes “never to omit the adoption of a species
which will give to the wine finesse and delicatesse.”

I have quoted these opinions, published 1 in M. Bonnard’s able
report on the Bordeaux Exhibition of 1882, because they entirely
apply to the situation of to-day, and I commend for particular
attention the export data in the report. Recently the Depart-
ment of Agriculture analysed the wines of a leading Sydney
wine-house, and a comparison was drawn with Thudichum’s
table of leading continental wines. As to acidity, the wines of
New South Wales were, if anything, less pronounced, and there
was noticeable throughout a close similarity. Chemical analysis
is, however, not everything, and cannot approach the delicacy of
discrimination exercised by an educated palate. Australian wines
possess, however, a flavour of their own, and, if made to perfec-

tion, will undoubtedly win favour by reason of their inherent:

merits. In 1895 there were imported into New South Wales
1,017,749 gallons of various spirits, whilst with regard to brandy
production it is an anomaly that a single gallon of wine alcohol
should be introduced into a country so pre- eminently favoured by
Nature for the home of the grape ; but an antiquated Distillery
Act blocks the way. The suggestion put forth by Mr. C. F.
Lindeman, representing the wine industry on the Board of
Exports, that absolutely pure brandy distilled within New South
Wales should bear a differential excise duty of 9s. per gallon
instead of 14s., the present rate, would undoubtedly result in
large areas being immediately planted with the brandy grape.
The dark cloud of possible devastation by phylloxera is at present
met by an Act which offers inadequate compensation, whilst the
replacement of the entire vineyard area of the Colony by phyl-
loxera proof stocks only awaits the issue of the stocks now in
preparation at the Government nursery vineyard at Wagga Wagga.
In California, when every winemaker was working on a lone hand,
the industry was in a sorry plight ; yet within six months of
introducing ‘the co- operative marketing of wines, chaos was reduced
to order and a market value was fixed for all wines. The hotel
and saloon interest throughout the United States used to ignore
Californian wines ; but when the wine-growers found money to
start a continental wine café in the important towns, the public
tasted, appreciated, and compelled the local hotel and saloon
keepers to stock the wines. At the present time the Californian
wine industry is making a strong effort to obtain a market in the
United Kingdom by lavish ady ertising and moderate prices. In
these respects the wines of Australia, with which Californian
wines compete, have the priority ; and eabalee the vast population
of North America lies at the doors of California, and may shortly

COLOUR OF FLOWERS—ITS INFLUENCE ON BEE-LIFE. 936

take all the wines that favoured State can produce, the possibly
still more naturally endowed wine areas of Australia will have to
look to English and European markets, which, and more especially
the latter, may be relied on to take very large quantities of wines,
provided they are prepared with scrupulous care and foresight.
The requirements of both these markets are fixed, so that all that
is necessary is to work up to them. In particular, the Bordeaux
market desires a superior type of wine to blend with the inferior
wines of Europe, and in the production of this type New South
Wales possesses every natural advantage, whilst science, improved
appliances, cheap land, and cheap freights lend their assistance to
neutralise the disadvantages of a long voyage and more expensive
abour.

No. 12.—THE COLOUR OF FLOWERS AND ITS
INFLUENCE ON BEE-LIFE.

By ALBERT GALE.

(Read, Tuesday, 11 January, 1898.)

Tue subject that I have chosen for this paper may not at first sight
appear to be one so fraught with interest as those you have alre ady
listened to. That it is in any way directly associated with agri-
culture may appear somewhat doubtful. ‘Indeed, the title itself
is not a very happy one. The matter that I intend to weave into
it, both in warp and woof, may not produce a fabric wholly con-
sistent with the colow? of flowers and its influence on bee-life.

I am dealing somewhat with the essential organs of certain
plants, and the agents employed in their reproduction ; and I think
as I proceed I shall be able to show that bee-life and blossoms are
so closely associated the one with the other that to injuriously
interfere with either will at the same time militate against both.
Animal life—our lives—cannot exist without the vegetable king-
dom, but some members of the latter can live and propagate
themselves without the former; whilst there are other forms of
vegetable life which would cease to exist if all animal organisms
were excluded from them—indeed, some forms of insect life are
an absolute necessity in the reproduction of plants. I know that
amongst phanerogamic plants there are those that are anemophilous
and others that are entomophalous. The former can continue to
multiply without insect aid, but with the latter insects are an
imperative necessity. Nearly all insects more or less aid in the

938 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

fertilising of the vegetable kingdom, but the ravages with the
foliage caused by some classes of insects far more than counter-
balance the good that they may do.

Pollen is the fertilising and vitalising agent in reproducing and
perpetuating all classes of vegetables. It is produced in abun-
dance by all flowering plants, both by those of conspicuous and
also those of inconspicuous flowers or blossoms. As a rule incon-
spicuous flowers are anemophilous, and those of more gaudy tints
are sought after by insects. It may not be universally understood
that there are male and female elements in the vegetable organ-
isms just as in the animal organism. We know that if the sexes
in the latter are always excluded, the one from the other, repro-
duction is an utter impossibility.

We have control over the sexual intercourse of the domesticated
animals. Cattle breeders, sheep farmers, agriculturists, orchardists,
horticulturists, and indeed everyone, whether engaged in the
culture of the soil or not, thoroughly understand this ; but we
do not find the same knowledge of the methods of reproduction
in vegetable life amongst farmers and others. But agriculturists
and those engaged in vegetable culture do not as a rule know
that plants are repreduced on precisely similar lines as animals.

Schools of Science are established to unravel the secrets of
Nature in the mineral kingdom ; anatomical classes are open to
students who intend to make a living by operating on other than
their own frames, and Veterinary Schools do the same for those
who desire to so work on the lower animals. All engaged in the
breeding of animals know exactly how to mate so as to produce
certain results. Sires are carefully bred, more carefully selected,
and most carefully reared. All know, if they take the haphazard
chances of permitting animals to breed according to their own
will, weedy and valueless ones of no market wor th are the result.
In cattle they know how to cross-breed their animals so as to
obtain the best results for the butcher or the dairyman ; or, if it
be sheep, they know how to breed for wool or for meat ; or if it
be horses, they breed for strength or for speed. And all this is
done from the knowledge possessed of the procreative powers in
both sire and dam. Why i is not a similar knowledge applied to
fruit or any other crop ? Because not one out of a “thousand has
suflicient knowledge of their occupation to understand that there
is a sexuality in plants and that fertilisation is as necessary in
plants as in animals.

I said iust now that pollen is the fertiliser, and that this
substance i is possessed by all flowering plants. The one great aim
of all vegetable and animal life is to reproduce itself or to
perpetuate its species.

Both sexes in all the higher orders of animals possess locomotive
powers that enable them ‘to come together at cer tain seasons for

_—w

ee

—s

es ee ee ees,

hie

eal

COLOUR OF FLOWERS—ITS INFLUENCE ON BEE-LIFE. 939

procreative purposes. At other seasons the sexes studiously avoid
each other, and in some gregarious animals they separate and
form independent flocks, as amongst yellow hammers, chaftinches,
wild American turkeys, and deer.

Locomotive powers in plant life are very rare, and where they
possess these powers it is more for the distribution of fertilised
seeds than for the purpose of fertilisation. There are exceptions,
I know—the Vallisneria spiralis, for instance.

The higher order of animals are unisexual ; occasionally there
ave malformations termed hermaphrodites ; but in the plant world
the higher orders are unisexual, bisexual, or hermaphrodites—
sea eae! when the male and ne female Bins or organs are on
separate plants ; bisexual when the male and female organs are
in separate flowers but on the same plant, hermaphrodite when
the procreative organs are both in the same bloom (Laurels, Ist ;
pumpkins, corn, &c., 2nd ; apples, pears, &e., 3rd). Yet, never-
theless, no true flower is hermaphrodite—z.e., not hermaphrodite
as the term is applied to the animal kingdom. The staminal and
pistiline organs are not abnormal malformations, but both organs
are perfect and independent of each other, and as a rule in
hermaphrodite plants the anthers become distributive before the
stigma becomes receptive, or vice versa; or, to make it clearer,
the receptive and distributive organs do not mature at one and
the same time in the same flower.

From this it will be seen how utterly impossible it is, in the
great majority of cases, for the anther, when distributive, to come
into juxtaposition with the receptive stigma to effect the necessary
discharge of pollen to ensure fructification. I am speaking now
only of entomophalous plants.

Oftimes in unisexuals that are entomophilous the staminate
plant when in bloom is at a considerable distance from the pisti-
line ; and in bisexuals both genders of flowers mature at the same
time but on different parts of the same plants, while in herma-
phrodites the sexes may be in close proximity ; nevertheless the
male and female organs do not mature at one and the same time,
then how can these inert beings become impregnated but by an
agent other than itself—a foreign agent? In nearly every case the
pollen of entomophalous plants is not dry and powdery as in the
case with anemophilous blooms, but heavy and highly adhesive.
It is this property of the pollen gathered by bees that enables
them to stow it away so neatly in their pollen baskets. Its
adhesive nature prevents its being blown about by winds, and
causes an outside agent necessary to transmit it from the male to
the female organs.

Now comes the question, why are bees attracted to blossoms ?
I mention bees because they are the only insects that gather and
store both pollen and honey. Other insects feed on one or the

940 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

other or both, but with these it is consumed where gathered —
that is, it is consumed on the premises.

I am not ignorant of the fact that the perceptive organs in
insects are extremely acute, especially in social bees, and that
they can both recognise colour and form. All beekeepers know
that when young bees take their first flights how cautiously they
survey the landmarks surrounding their habitations, and where
large numbers of colonies are kept, and where every hive is the
same pattern and colour, how necessary it is, when the virgin
queens are taking their nuptial flights, to place distinguishing
marks here and there to ensure the safe return of the young
queen to her own home. But that bees are led to flowers by the
colour they possess, and that certain bright colours—red, blue,
purple, &c.—are more attractive to them than paler tints, such as
white, yellow, &c., my experience most certainly contradicts. I
know that the hichest authorities on the subject have written
and stated that it is so, and it may appear something like gross
presumption on my part to attempt to refute their statements.
No doubt some of them have given the experience of observation,
but by far too many have been satisfied by stating I was informed
by Mr. So-and-So of certain movements in regard to bees and
flowers.

Sir John Lubbock, in his work on “ Bees, Ants, and Wasps,”
says: ‘“ Most botanists are now agreed that insects, and especially
bees, have played a very important part in the development of
flowers.” . . “In cases of brightly coloured flowers the
pollen is carried by the agency of insects.” “I thought,” he
writes, “it would be desirable to prove this, if possible, by actual
fact. I brought 2 bee to some honey which I placed on blue
paper, and about 3 feet off I placed a similar quantity of honey
on orange paper.” Why he need to place a similar quantity I
cannot tell, and why he should have browght instead of allowing
a bee to find it is a problem I cannot solve. Now comes the
question—-was the bee attracted by the blue paper or the honey
food? I have placed honey in a blue campanula, and many other
flowers of both conspicuous and unconspicuous colours. When
food is scarce bees will visit any colour; but when it is very
plentiful they object to take honey already gathered. Last
summer, in my garden, I had a scarlet dahlia in bloom. When
it first flowered there was nota stamen present. No bees ever
visited it. The plant was afterwards neglected by me, and this
neglect caused the stamens to appear and the anthers to develop
and the pollen to mature. With this bee-improvement in the
flower it soon became a foraging ground for them. Why did
they not visit the early blooms? Because there was no bee-food
present. And why did they so visit it when the stamens
appeared? The flowers were not nearly so conspicuous as the

COLOUR OF FLOWERS—ITS INFLUENCE ON BEE-LIFE. 94]

earlier blooms. But in passing over they saw there was a reward
for their labour. Double flowers—I mean flowers in which the
whole of the stamens have become petals—are far more showy
and conspicuous than single ones, both being of the same variety
and the same colour. Bees abhor double flowers, no matter of
what colour, but single ones they love ; but it is cupboard love,
and cupboard love only.

Last September I wrote the following, and it appeared in the
October Agricultural Gazette :—“ Early last spring the white
Arum lily (Arum africanus) was in bloom, and its white pollen
was eagerly sought for by bees. At the same time the broad-
beans were in full flower. These, too, were an attractive foraging-
ground for the same insects. A little later the peach-trees burst
into flower, with the result that the firstmamed was entirely
forsaken, and the latter receiving only an occasional visit. Did
the bees go to the peach-tree on account of their attractive
colours? Not a bit of it. While the peaches were in flower
so were the willows (Salix babylonica) just throwing out their
catkins. When these two trees, peaches and willows, were in
bloom my bees were bringing in pollen of two colours, one creamy-
white and the other somewhat of an orange tint. At the same
time, in the district where I live there were roses, marigolds,
arum lilies, and other attractive flowers in full bloom, but few
bees were visiting them. The pollen was coming in from the
willows and peach-trees; there was also honey coming in from
the latter. The flowers (catkins) on the willows are so incon-
spicuous that a large number of people are ignorant of the fact
that they are phanerogamic; yet they were as attractive to the
bees as the gaudy peach-trees. During the same spring, and at
about the same time, I visited the Botanical Gardens, and the
most attractive beds of flowers then in bloom were the English
daisies, pansies, anemones, and the turban ranunculus. Nothing
in the Gardens were more showy than the two latter, yet no bee
visited them. Near these was a shrub (Luxus sempervirens) in
which there was a constant hum from the bees. What was the
cause? Hidden among the dark green foliage there were hundreds
of small greenish flowers, supplying abundance of food. If colour
had been the attractive agent, bees would never have discovered
their food in the shrub, and they would have sought the showy
beds of anemones, &c., in vain; they were double, and therefore
there was no pollen food. But who will dare to say the attractive
colour was absent? A short time afterwards I saw the bogan-
villias aglow with their showy bracts ; they could be seen hundreds
of yards away. At the same time the pittosporums were in
flower. These latter were so inconspicuous that before they
could be detected you need stand directly under them. I visited
both—the boganyillias and the pittosporum ; in the former there

949 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

was not a bee to be seen, notwithstanding their fiery glow, whilst
in the latter there was a sound as if a swarm of bees had taken
possession of it.”

Mr. Baker, of the Technological Museum, informed me that
he observed a specimen of Panax sambucifolius swarming with
bees, although it bears a small, very inconspicuous flower. A.
fence divided it from an enclosure of brightly-coloured garden
flowers, yet these were passed over unheeded. Why did the bees
neglect the garden flowers? Because the yield of food was not
equal to that in the Panax sambucifolius. In none of the cases
T have named were the bees attracted by the colours, but by what
they could get in the form of food.

Many years ago, when in Cooma, I had a bed of turnips in
flower that from daylight to dark were besieged by bees. Sud-
denly the bees forsook them. I found the cause to be that a
small paddock of lucerne near by had been permitted to flower,
and the bees had gone thither. Were they attracted by the
purple flowers? Not a bit of it. Lucerne, like other trefoils,
produce an abundance of bee food, far more than any of the
cruciforms, and the bees had gone where they could get the
greatest quantity in the shortest space of time. In about twenty-
four hours afterwards the lucerne was cut, and the bees returned
to the turnips.

Darwin says: “It would appear that either the taste or the
odour of the nectary of certain flowers are unattractive to hive-
bees or to humble-bees or to both, for there seems no reason why
certain open flowers which secrete nectar are not visited by both.
The small quantity of nectar secreted by some of these flowers
can hardly be the cause of their neglect, as hive-bees search
eagerly for the. minute drops on the glands of the leaves of the
Prunus lawrocerasus.” The small quantity was the cause, as was
the reason my bees left the turnips for the lucerne.

Early one spring I saw bees eagerly working the flower-heads
of couch-grass. We all know that the flower of the couch has
not an attractive colour. The endemic or native flowers inter-
mixed here and there with them were far more showy. Looking
into my bees I found young larvee were plentiful ; pollen for bee-
bread was needed. The endemic flowers were producing little or
none, but on the couch-grass there was a fairly good supply, and
this supply was the cause of their neglecting the brighter coloured
blooms for the greenish-yellow flowers of the couch-grass.

Watch a large bed of poppies of mixed colours. No one colour
is neglected by the bees. They are as eager to forage in the
white as in the red. Poppies are great pollen-producers.

Again Darwin says: “ Bees repeatedly passed in a direct line
from one variety to another of the same species, although they
bore very differently-coloured flowers. I observed bees also flying

——_ a

COLOUR OF FLOWERS—ITS INFLUENCE ON BEE-LIFE. 943

in a straight line from one clump of yellow-flowered Wnthera to
every clump of the same plant in the garden without turning an
inch from their course to plants of Lscholotzia and others with
yellow flowers, which lay a foot or two on either side.” “In
these cases,” he continues, “the bees knew the position of each
plant in the garden, so that they were guided by experience and
memory.” Their experience was that the @nthera contained more
food, and Nature had taught them that it would be impossible to
fertilise the ovaries of @inthera with the pollen from Lscholotzia.

Darwin on “Self-fertilisation of Plants” says :—‘‘ Not only do
the bright colours of flowers serve to attract insects, but dark-
coloured streaks and marks are often present, which Sprengel
long ago maintained served as guides to the nectary.” If such be
the case, how the poor bees must be troubled to find the nectary
in self-coloured flowers. I think we have more unicolour flowers
than striped ones. If Sprengel maintained it was so long ago,
then it may have been so; but I maintain, that now in these
latter days it is not so.

Grant Allen, in “The Story of the Plant,” has written some
fanciful pictures on the influence of the markings and colours of
flowers and their attraction for bees. I know the work is not a
text book. He says :—‘“ The lines or spots so often found on the
petals of highly-developed flowers act as honey guides to lead
the bee or other fertilising insect direct to the nectar.” He
then goes on to describe the “so-called nasturtium.” ‘The
upper pair (of petals) are broad and deep-lined with dark veins
which all converge about the mouth of the spur, and so show the
inquiring insect exactly where to go in search of honey. The
lower three on the other hand, have no lines or markings, but
possess a curious sort of fence running right across the face,
intended to prevent other flying insects from alighting and rifling
the flower without fertilising it.” Now, if any insect, flying,
creeping, or crawling, were to enter the nasturtium and rifle the
flower of its pollen and carry it to one where the stigma was
receptive, and the part of the insect’s body with pollen on it
came in contact with the stigma, fertilisation would be the result.
But why do the markings that converge about the throat of any
act as guide-posts to them, while we have so many unicolour
flowers that are destitute of such markings—to wit, the whole of
the pumpkin family and hundreds of others. Pumpkins, &e.,
cannot be fertilised other than by insects, and the blooms have
no finger-post erected saying, ‘‘Here you can get good honey and
pollen !”

Yesterday I was watching the bees working the pumpkin
flowers, and none of them were at a loss to find the pollen or the
nectary. There was no hesitancy. The only finger-post for bees
in flowers is the food they contain.

944 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

Darwin himself says he is not quite sure that in every case the
colour and markings of flowers are for the sole purpose of attract-
ing insects.

T have seen questions something like the following put in agricul-
tural examination papers: ‘What is the use of colour and
perfume in blooms?’ Such questions should never be put, when
we consider that a large majority of the blooms in agricultural
crops are anemophilous, and many an observant student can
dispute the fact that colour is the attraction.

What is the experience of bee-keepers this side of the equator
as it regards the colour of flowers that are chiefly visited by bees !
There is no denying that some of our endemic or native flowers are
as brightly coloured as the exotics or introduced ones. Before
the introduction of our fruit-trees and highly-coloured garden
flowers, the chief honey-gathering social insect was the little
native bee (Trigona carbonaria), and, therefore, it was the chief
fertiliser in Australia.

Darwin tells us that it took ages on the other side of the world
for the flowers to develop into what they now are in both colour
and form, and the bees centuries of training to adapt themselves
to the flowers as they developed.

Space will not let me give Darwin’s quotations, but all en-
tomologists and botanists are acquainted with the facts.

The chief honey-yielding plants of this continent are the
eucalyptus, pittosporum, and tea-tree families, and all these bear
whitish flowers. Our introduced fruit-trees and ornamental
flowering plants bear brightly-coloured blooms. In spring time
our introduced fruit-trees are conspicuous by the multiplicity of
their flowers, and our little native bee as readily finds the nectar
in them as our introduced bee, and they cannot have had the ages
of experience to guide them.

And does it not seem very strange that our hive bee, upon its
introduction here and before it had been sutticiently colonised,
should have forsaken the bright-coloured flowers -of the Old Land
that were introduced here at the same time they were? Our
exotics and our hive bee, as far as Australia is concerned, are
coeval. Untold generations of bees had been trained to work blos-
soms in the land of our fathers, and their experience had most, if
not all, we are told, to do with the development of species and the
production of the showy flowers we now see around us. But when
the hive bee crossed the Atlantic and the Pacific and came here
and found they were among their old friends of the gardens, they
forsook them and bestowed their attention upcn the simple whitish
honey-bearing flowers of the Colony—a colour that the writers on
the subject say they studiously avoid for the more gorgeously-
coloured ones their progenitors had been at such pains to produce

EXPERIMENTS WITH FODDER PLANTS, 945

by erecting showy flags and sign-boards for the benefit of the bees
of to-day, for the purpose of saving them both time and labour.
The hive bee on its arrival here, after having been educated to
the high standard it is said to have attained in the old world,
works upon, not our introduced flowers of “red, blue, and purple”
so much as upon our simple white and yellow ones—so unlike
what they ought to have done, according to the education they
had received ‘at our antipodes. Is it not queer that our bees
should have gone back in their tastes for colours when they
crossed over the equatorial line and came this side of the world ?

No. 13.—EXPERIMENTS WITH FODDER PLANTS —
NATIVE AND FOREIGN

By D. McA ping, Pathologist, Department of Agriculture,
Victoria.

(Read Tuesday, 11 January, 1898.)

[ Abstract. |

THE seeds of about 120 varieties of grasses and fodder-plants
were received from the United States Department of Agriculture,
for trial in Victoria, and the seeds of various native grasses from
South Australia, so that 140 different plots were sown for experi-
mental purposes. The object of the experiment was to test their
growth under different conditions of soil and climate, heat and
moisture, but mainly to prove their drought-resisting properties.
Only eighty of the varieties germinated, and none of these were
native grasses. Twenty-one species supplied from America resisted
the drought, and of these seven were conspicuous for their fresh
green growth. Out of sixteen fodder-plants not belonging to the
grasses, two were found to be suitable and drought-resisting, viz.,
Hairy Vetch and Much-branched Polygonum. Seven of the
grasses were found to be affected with rust, and, curiously enough,
none of these resisted the drought.

bo
°o

946 _ PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

No. 14.—THE MESQUIT-TREE (PROSOPIS DULCIS,
Bentu.) AND ITS SWEET PODS.

By Tuos. Srezz, F.L.S., F.C.S.

(Read Tuesday, 11 January, 1898.)

THe Mesquit-tree is an important leguminous tree, a native of
certain parts of North and South America. Its value lies in its
capacity for flourishing in arid and stony regions, in affording a
grateful shade for stock, and in providing a “fair crop of sweet,
nourishing pods, which are much relished by horses and cattle.
It appears to have been experimented with in different parts of
Australia, notably in Western Australia.*

The economic value of this plant has been fully dealt with by
the late Baron von Mueller,t by L. A. Bernays,{ and other
writers, and the object of the present paper is to oie the results
of a chemical examination of the sweet pods, the nature of which
proved to be interesting and somewhat unexpected.

Mueller states, on the authority of Sievert, that Argentine-
grown pods of this tree contain 25 to 28 per cent. of grape sugar,
and 11 to 27 per cent. of starch. An analysis of a sample of the
air-dried ripe pods, brought from Honolulu, where the tree is
extensively grown, and is known as “ Aljeroba,” and given to me
by Dr. J. H. Reed, has proved the presence of nearly 29 per cent.
of cane sugar—not grape sugar—together with over 5 per cent.
of fruit sugar, while starch is practically absent. This result was
subsequently confirmed by an examination of another sample of
the pods sent to me from Honolulu by Mr. Ralph Pearson,

For purposes of comparison, the results of a similar analysis of
the ripe pods of Gleditschia triacanthos, Linné, are placed alongside
those of the Mesquit-tree. The Gleditschia pods are locally
popularly known as “ Honey Locusts,” and closely resemble those
of the Mesquit in composition. The present sample is from a tree
growing at Sydney.

* Journal Bureau of Agriculture, Perth, Western Australia, iv, 1119.
} Select Extra-Tropical Plants, 8th Ed., 382.
t Cultural Industries for Queensland, 1883, 127,

SOIL AND ITS PRODUCTIVENESS. 947

Gleditschia

Prosopis triaeanthos
Pode Pods

(seeds removed),

(Cane sugar ... “at Aint wwe» 208 21:0
Soluble | Fruit sugar .., ae 56
in 4 Other organic bodies. (pectin, &e. ee 11°9 16:0
Water. | Free acid, as malic acid O-4 05
| Ash 1:0 31
Insoluble ) Fibre, &e 33:1 35:2
Wiatier Ash . 2:2 trace
Moisture ‘ 174 18°6
100-0 100°0
Nitrogen fan nee ove vow | DB 1:08
Equal to protein... a art EOS 6°75

In both cases the fruit sugar consists of about equal proportions
of dextrose and levulose. yi fairly large sample of the Prosopis
pods being available, the chemical identification of the cane sugar
was further confirmed by separating and crystallising it, the sugar
so prepared being now exhibited.

My thanks are due to Mr. R. T. Baker, F.L.S., for working
out the identity of the Mesquit pods; to Dr. J. H. Reed and Mr.
Ralph Pearson for samples of the pods; and to Mr. C. B. Brownrigg
for the Gleditschia pods.

No. 15.—NOTE ON THE CORRESPONDENCE BETWEEN
THE RESULTS OF THE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
OF A SOIL AND ITS PRODUCTIVENESS.

By A. N. Pearson, Chemist to the Department of
Agriculture, Victoria.

(Read Tuesday, 11 January, 1898.)

ELABORATE descriptions of methods of soil analysis may be met
with in various works on agricultural analysis ; but those essential
facts which bear upon the subject of the correspondence between
the results of analysis and of practical cultivation are very rarely
published.

When I commenced agricultural work in this country, it was
my intention to carry out an extensive series of experiments with
a view of gaining some definite facts on this subject, and a series

948 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

of experiments was planned and commenced, but owing to various
causes had to be abandoned, and no opportunity has since occurred
for recommencing them.

In the meantime I need not apologise for offering for publica-
tion a short series of facts bearing on this practically important
matter. The series of facts is a mere fragment, but is interesting.

In the year 1894 a series of sixteen plots, variously treated,
were laid out by Mr. John Goldie, of Port Fairy, and sown with
sugar-beet. Plots 3, 7, 11, and 14 were without manure, and
received no special treatment of any kind. ‘The yields from these
plots were at the rate of 12°86, 12:37, 12-23, and 11:07 tons per
acre respectively. After harvest, samples of soil were taken from
these four plots, and on analysis of these samples the following
results were obtained :—

Nitrogen. Phosphoric Potash. Lime. Chlorine.
rie Parts in 100,000.
Tavern Bb Mori Mobate, bar 525 11s} 120 14,030 18
Subsoil, 1-2 ft.. Ply 63 243 15,185 29
Plot 77 Soil; 0-1 ft. ... 463 101 225 15,850 50
Subsoil, 1-2 ft.. 271 91 125 19,920 20
PlotAWe Sow Ol eta ee 357 TW 128 25,445 23
Subsoil, 1-2 ft.. 270 78 WAL 28,420 30
Plot 14. Soil, Q-1 ft. ... 315 124 156 20,920 4
Subsoil, 1-2 ft.. 207 40 226 5,550 19

The most striking of the above figures are the nitrogens of the
surface soils. It will be seen that there was most nitrogen in the
most productive of the plots, namely, No. 3; and there was least
nitrogen in the least productive plot, namely, No. 14.

Tt may be assumed, not unreasonably, that a greater proportion
of the surface-soil nitrogen was used by the crop than of the
subsoil nitrogen, for the beet-roots would extend through the
whole layer of soil, but not necessarily through the whole 12
inches thickness which was taken as subsoil. The main part of
the root goes down only 18 inches from the surface ; moreover,
the roots grow for a longer time in the soil than in the subsoil.
They start their growth in the soil, and take time to grow down
into the subsoil; and moreover, the plant foods in the soil are
held in looser combination, and are more readily available than in
the subsoil. It is not, therefore, unreasonable to assume that, for
instance, in Plot 3 the proportion of the 217 of subsoil nitrogen
used by the crop may have been only half the proportion of the
525 of the soil nitrogen used by it ; thus, supposing ;,5)th of the
525 soil nitrogen were used, we may suppose that only ,,,th of
the 217 subsoil nitrogen was used.

SOIL AND ITS PRODUCTIVENESS. 949

We will therefore assign half the value to the subsoil plant
foods that we do to the soil plant foods, and regard the nitrogen
used, or which might have been used, as in the following pro-
portions :—

Plot 3. Plot7. Plot il. Plot 14.
DOs easvdacaesenesneroees 525 463 307 315

Sulbsoileeeenmcenceeeeeee 108 135 135 103

633 598 492 418

In the same way we may regard the phosphoric acid available
as being in the following proportions :—

Plot 3. Plot 7. Plot 11. Plot 14.
113 101 111 124
31 45 39 20
144 146 150 144

The phosphoric acid at the command of the plants was, it will
be seen, practically the same in all the plots.

The results of a number of manure experiments in the soils on
Mr. Goldie’s farm have shown that the manuring which has the
most marked effect on these soils is phosphoric acid manuring,
and next to that comes nitrogen manuring. Potash manuring
has little or no effect, so far, at least, as the quantity of the crop
is concerned. These facts correspond with the results of analysis.
Of these three main plant foods the analysis shows the phosphoric
acid to be present in least quantity, and in conformity with
Liebig’s law of minimum—which, though it is not strictly is yet
in the main true—we should expect to find this soil respond most
markedly to phosphoric acid manuring. As regards the potash,
one might, on first glancing at the results of analysis, be inclined
to suppose that potash manuring would have more effect than
nitrogen manuring ; but it is to be considered, firstly, that most
plants make a greater demand on the nitrogen of the soil than on_
the potash, and secondly, that the potash was in this soil more
readily available than the nitrogen, for the nitrogen was present
to a great extent in the form of peaty matter, the soil being a
peaty, marly, clay loam, whereas the potash was present to a
considerable extent in the form of soluble salts. We must there-
fore consider that the variations in the productiveness of this soil
were dependent mainly on the phosphoric acid, and after that on
the nitrogen, and that the other constituents were responsible for
these variations in a very minor degree.

950 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

Let us assume that the phosphoric acid had three times the
influence that the nitrogen had; then the total influence would
be represented as follows :—

Plot 8 Plot 7. Plotil. Plotz14.

Influence of nitrogen in the proportions of 633 598 492 418

Influence of phosphoric acid (3 times the
soil phosphoric acid + 14 time the :
subsoil phosphoric acid) ............0600+ 432 438 450 j; 4382

Motaline pieces ee ete. 1,065 1,036 942 850

The figures of these totals are curved in the following diagram,
upper curve, continuous lines. The lowest curve—dot and dash
lines—represents the production of beet-root in tons per acre.
There is a general parallelism between the two lines; but the

parallelism does not continue into detail, for we see that Plot 11
yielded somewhat better than we should have anticipated from
considerations of the nitrogen and phosphoric acid only. It will
be observed that this plot contained much more lime than the
others, and this lime had no doubt a favourable influence on the
texture of the soil. If, as in the case of the other constituents,
we assign half the value to the subsoil lime that we do to the soil
lime, then we get the following figures as representing the total
soil and subsoil lime values for the four plots respectively :—

21 622 25,810 39,655 23,695

SOIL AND ITS PRODUCTIVENESS. 951

Now let us assume some arbitrary fraction of these figures, say,
for instance, =1,th, as representing the favourable influence of the
lime on the productiveness of the soil. The above figures divided
by 500 are, respectively :—

43 51 79 49

Let these be added to the figures representing the effect of the
nitrogen and phosphoric acid ; we thus arrive at the following :—
Supposed effect of nitrogen and phos- Plot3. Plot 7. — Plot 11. Plot 14.

GMTC HACE pieces. otacins rosette owxeristensoiae 1,065 1,036 942 850
Supposed effect of lime...............s00eeees 43 51 19 49

Supposed effect of nitrogen, phosphoric
PGC TOL RENIN MLNS serge ecg wiovstantacloainlalavelese cher tetels 10S 087) sagO2a 899

This lowest line of figures is represented in the second curve of
the diagram—dotted lines. It will be seen that the irregularity
which occurred in our first curve in regard to Plot 11 is now
corrected ; but there is an irregularity apparent in Plot 7, which,
as seen by the lowest curve, yielded less than would have been
anticipated from the influence of the nitrogen, phosphoric acid,
and lime, as disclosed by the analysis. I have little doubt that
this deficiency was caused by an excess of soluble salts in the soil.
That this plot contained more soluble salts than the other plots
did is shown by two facts of the analysis: first, it contained the
largest amount of chlorine, which was, moreover, mainly in the
surface layer ; and secondly, the potash was mainly in the surface
layer.

Tf we assume that any potash in this soil above 129 parts per
100,000 is indicative of soluble salts, we may subtract 120 from
the figures showing the amount of potash in the different plots,
and we thus get the following :—

Potash, indicative of Soluble Salts in the Soils.

Plot 3. Plot 7. Plot 11. Plot 14.
Saileerrcocttenanceeecticcs 0 105 8 36
Sab Swill Yesdcpaceacevettneete 123 5 1 106

Assigning, as before, only half value to the subsoil figures, we
get the following :—
Plot 3. Plot 7. Plot 11. Plot 14.

SO erence cuassccecc 0) 105 8 36
Sulbsoiletecnccsieccntees 61 2 0 53
Mo tality ssccahok 61 107 8 89

We take an arbitrary fraction of these figures—say, for instance,
1th—and obtain the following—12, 21, 2, 18, which we may
arbitrarily assume as indicating the deterrent or negative effect
of the excess of soluble salts, as indicated by the potash figures.

952 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

But, in addition to these salts, special consideration must also
be given to the chlorides, which have not only the deterrent
effect common to all salts—which, in dry seasons, form concen-
trated solutions in the soil, and thus interfere with osmotic action
of the root hairs,—but have also a specially poisonous action, to
which many plants are very sensitive. Let us assume that any
chloride above 30 may, in a dry season, be accounted injurious.
As the surface soil of plot 7 contained 50 of chlorine, there was
on this basis an excess of 20. Let this 20 be added to the 21
representing the soluble salts, as indicated by the excess of
potash ; we then get the figures 12, 41, 2, 18 as representing the
deterrent effect of the soluble salts in the four plots respectively.
Subtract these from the figures already obtained for the effect
of the nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and lime, and we get the

following :—
1,096 1,046 1On9 881

as representing the total effect of the constituents disclosed by
the analysis. These are represented in the diagram by the bottom
curve but one—the dash lines. It will be seen now that even in
detail the curve closely agrees with the curve representing the
actual productiveness.

Briefly stated, it appears, from a consideration of these facts,
that in considering the agricultural value of these soils, as disclosed
in the results of a chemical analysis, that the chief weight is to
be assigned to the phosphoric acid, in accordance with Liebig’s
law of minimum, that the nitrogen must receive the next con-
sideration. Minor consideration must then be given to the
favourable mechanical effect of the lime in the soil, and to the
injurious effect of excess of soluble salts, notably of chlorides.

In conclusion, I wish to point out that this short paper is
submitted merely as suggestive. The short series of facts on
which it is based are not a sufficient foundation for any general
conclusions ; nor, indeed, are they in themselves of sufficient
importance to justify the rather elaborate treatment to which
they have been subjected. The elaboration has been undertaken
merely to indicate what, in my opinion, is in general the proper
attitude of mind to assume when considering the results of the
chemical analysis of soils.

THE ECONOMIC FEEDING OF WORKING HORSES. 953

No. 16.—THE ECONOMIC FEEDING OF WORKING
HORSES.

By T. U. Waxroy, B.Sc, F.C.S., F.LC.

(Read Wednesday, 12 January, 1898.)

Iz is a generally accepted principle that, in order to keep a
working horse in good condition, a food rich in nitrogenous
material must be used, or, as it is sometimes expressed, the
“albumenoid ratio” must be bigh. This ratio is defined as the
numerical relation of the digestible nitrogenous matter in the
food to the digestible carbo hydrates (including any small quantity
of fat, calculated into its equivalent of carbo hydrate, but not
including any digestible fibre). ~ Thus a ratio such as 1:5 is said
to be high, while a ratio of 1: 12 is regarded as low.

For farm horses, Wolff, the recognised German authority,
recommends a daily diet, containing the following quantities of
nutriment per 1,000 Ib. live weight :—

1:56 lb. digestible albumenoids.
11:19 lb. digestible carbohydates (including 0:5 Ib. fat).
Albumenoid ratio, 1 :7.

When horses are very hard worked, he recommends an increased
diet, still richer in nitrogen :—
2-5 lb. digestible albumenoids.
13°8 lb. digestible carbohydrates.
Albumenoid ratio, 1 : 54.

\—

b

The object of the present paper is to give a short account of
some feeding trials conducted on a very large scale, which prove
that at least, under certain conditions, a high diet is not essential
to the performance of hard work or the maintenance of good
condition, provided sufficient nutritive food be given.

In Fiji, the Colonial Sugar Refining Company have about 1,000
head of farm horses, which until a few years ago were fed chiefly
on oats and maize, with some green cane tops in addition. But
this did not prove satisfactory in the trying tropical climate.
Sickness was frequent, and the death-rate high, while the charge
for fodder was very heavy. As large quantities of waste molasses
were available, it was thought well to investigate whether the
sugar in this material might not be advantageously used as a
substitute for some of the starch in the ordinary food.

954 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

The ration finally adopted was 15 lb. of molasses, 3 Ib. of
bran, and 4 lb. of maize per day, with as much green cane tops
as the animals can eat, the molasses being mixed with the bran
and chopped cane tops, and this has now been given daily to the
whole stock of over 409 horses at Rarawai plantation for nearly
two years. The result is entirely satisfactory. There has been
no undue fattening nor injury to the wind, and no tendency to
excessive perspiration or softness.

Sickness, which formerly was frequent, is now uncommon, and
the horses are capable of performing harder and more continuous
work. The improvement in this respect is so great that while the
area of cultivation has been largely increased, it has not been
necessary to make any addition to the working stock.

Another important consideration is the financial result. In
1893, with oats as the staple food, it cost £13 3s. per head per
annum to feed the stock; in 1897 this has been reduced to
£4 2s, 2d., being a saving of over £9 per head per annum. Such
a saving, however, has only been possible by reason of large
quantities of waste molasses and valueless cane tops being avail-
able on the spot. Cane tops cannot in ordinary circumstances be
procured for horse-feed by the farmer, though lucerne or any
fresh grass is even more suitable. Then, for molasses, which at
a sugar-mill has little or no value, a price has elsewhere to be
paid to cover the cost of carriage and handling.

According to Wolff, the whole of the albumenoids and carbo-
hydrates in molasses are digestible. Taking Wolff's analyses of
bran and maize in the diet that has been described above, but
neglecting the cane-tops, would give the following digestible con-
stituents :—

1-02 1b. albumenoids, 12°53 1b. carbohydrates, and 0:19 Ib.
fat.

Taking 1 of fat = 24 carbohydrates, and reckoning the average
weight of the stock at 1,270 Ib., the constituents per 1,000 Ib.
live weight are—

0:80 lb. digestible albumenoids.
10-24 lb. digestible carbohydrates (including 0°15 Ib. fat).
Albumenoid ratio, 1 : 12:8.

The weight of green cane-tops is not exactly determined, but this
is about 30 lb. per 1,000 live weight, or 38 lb. per horse. At the
same time, the nutriment in this fodder is low, and its albumenoid
ratio is only 1:9; so that any variation in the quantity used has
but a trifling influence on the whole diet. Taking the quantity
as 30 lb. per 1,000 Ib. live weight, this would add to the diet
0:33 lb. digestible albumenoids and 3:07 Ib. digestible carbo-
hydrates (including 0-09 Ib. fat).

THE ECONOMIC FEEDING OF WORKING HORSES. 955

The whole daily ration is then per 1,000 lb. live weight :—

1:13 Ib. digestible albumenoids.
13:31 lb. digestible carbohydrates (including 0:24 lb. fat).
Albumenoid ratio, 1: 11°8; also 1:80 lb. salts.

Tt is thus seen that the full proportion of carbohydrates const-
dered necessary by Wolff for a hard-working horse has been
experimentally arrived at in these trials, but that only half the
orthodox proportion of albumenoids has been found necessary,
and only half the fat. Probably the warmth of the tropical
climate renders the smaller proportion of fat sufficient, but the
satisfactory results obtained with the reduced proportion of albu-
menoids prove that the current theory on the matter is erroneous.

The conclusions that can fairly be drawn from the trials that
have been made are :—

1. That for working horses the sugar in cane molasses is a
satisfactory substitute for starchy food, being readily digested and
transformed into work.

2. That 15 lb. of the molasses can be given per day to a 1,270
Ib. working horse, with advantage to the health of the animal
and to the efficiency of its work.

3. That it produces no undue fattening, softness, nor injury to
the wind.

4. That the high proportion of salts in it has no injurious
effect.

5. That an albumenoid ratio as low as 1:11-'8 has proved
highly suitable for heavy continuous work when a sutticient
quantity of digestible carbohydrates is given.

No. 17.—THE QUEENSLAND TICK: HOW ITS PRO-
GRESS SOUTHWARDS MIGHT BE PREVENTED.

By J. P. Dow.ine.

(Read Wednesday, 12 January, 1898.) ~

956 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

No. 18.—“THE FARMERS’ WEIGHTS AND
MEASURES.”

By Henry Lorp, G.T.C.A.C., Lecturer in Agriculture, Sydney
Technical College.

(Read Wednesday, 12 January, 1898.)

[ Abstract. |

Tuer farmers’ weights and measures (British) are terribly com-
plicated. If a farmer wants to know the price of wheat, he is
probably told that wheat is worth so much per guarter in London ;
yet a wheat-buyer comes round and offers him so much per sack
for his wheat which yielded so many bushels per acre, when the
seed wheat per acre was only so many pecks or perhaps only so
many pounds. The farmer has so many miles of fencing on his
farm, most of it put up by contract at so much per rod or pole,
although so many chains of fencing he put up himself. The Jast
rainfall gave so many points of rain. The farmer’s fish-pond
(that -is, when the farmer has a fish-pond) is so many fathoms
deep, so many feet wide, and so many yards long.

The farmer goes on using a large number of units of measure
or weight, as shown in the four following lists (marked A, B, C, D,)
of weights and measures.

(A.) MEASURES OF LENGTH.

Metric System. British System.
Myriametre ............ 10000:000 Mule mreeeemce tener 1760-00000000
iKailometre sass. sce 1000-000 IDWS NE Soncossos0c 220:
Hectometre ........... 100-000 (harness DD:
Decametremrereeeeees 10-000 Pole, or Rod ...... 5S)

Metre (unit) ..... ...... 1-030 Hathomie nese seeee: 2:
Decimetre sa. ceeeeee ees 0:100 Wards (amis) saseeeeee Te
Centimetre............... 0:010 Foot 5 :
Millimette va 0-001 Tink STITT -B2000000
Tet =. 1:093633056 ya d. Hand SpucoOoO cAcone 011111111
Mee pe Waals teas 0-06250000
Tan chveas-c eae 0°02777777
Barleycorn ......... 000925925
Ditie ve aueeen 0:00231481

Pont eee ee 0:00027777

THE FARMERS’ WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 957

(B.) SQUARE MEASURES,

Metric System. British Sy yster:

Square kilometre... 10000: Square mile...... anets 640.
ETE CUATC ac was. cee ees os 100° Acre (unit) ......... \ 1

Square hectometre. Square !a? x x? ;
PATE) (UG) anise kena oe \ 1: Rood, — acre:..... ee 4
Square decametre.. IB Or Gh ys ACL nas eit = 160
Centiare ....... aerate 0-01 Squarenyardircss wets + 4840
Square metre ...... Square foot ............ + 43560
Square decimetre... = 0:0001 Square mich’... 20.0... + 6272640

Square centimetre. 0:000001
Square millimetre.. 000000001

Square metre = : eae
(c.) MEASURES OF CAPACITY, 7.e., volume).

Metric System. British System.

Cubic metre, or kilolitre 1000: hast (Comm) Vraeececsseeee 640°
HT CCHOMLTER aa. o2.scccuer ane 100° Wey (corn) es. so. sms. 320°
DWecalutrers. ss asevec ce. seeacl 10° Chaldron (Imperial)... 288°
Miitrer(unit)) Fs.c.cosseces ‘¢ Muriy (wane). ssaseaccsnece 252%
Cubic decimetre ... .. \ Butt (wine).............. 126°
Weeltinecsns.cessecs ceresete 01 Butbi(beer)kere-ccrsen sa. 108°
WentiliGre se Sees oct ccs v0.5 0-01 Puncheon (wine) ...... 84°
IMillintetre® sce. cccce+s-6 0-001 Puncheon (beer) ...... Wi.
Cubic centimetre ...... \ Quarter’(corn) ......... 64°
Hogshead (wine) ...... 63°

Litre = 0°22009668 gallon. Hogshead (beer) ...... 54°
Barrel (DECI) Ie scacte ee 36°

Wack (COMM) esacd cess oe. BPE

Sack (Imperial) ......... 24

Kilderkin (beer) ...... 18°

Rinkin’ (beer) se..sc.cee~ 9°

Bushel (corn) ............ 8

Recks (Corn) et scccsense «0c 23

Gallony(anit)).2.-..-..... i:

Onartiecesenmeseeans : Loe, 4°

ING. aso soeasestece senceos: + 8

Naggin, or sal Sees + 32

Ounce (uid) ee... sn-2 5 + 160°

Drachm (fluid) ......... + 1280.

IM DIDI Vie sano nedonenenanoned + 76800.

(D.) WEIGHTS.

Metric System. British System.
MONMCtsacnccnkunetecsos 1069900" DOME rne sorties ecto ssic se 2240°
(OyaviiataUl Se adehapenensec 109990" Hundredweight ...... 112°
Myriagramme ...... 10099: @iranteriad ric scsns.: ae 22°
Kilogramme’......... 100): SHO} 0@) scaroneHunobe aaeaeee 14°
Hectogramme ...... 100° ()Ponnd:(upit)-°......... Is
Decagramme ......... 10° { (avoirdupois)ingrains 7000°
Gramme (unit) ...... li: Pound (troy) ......... 5760°
Decigramme ......... Ol @unceN(troy) ie... 25.55. 480°
Centigramme ...... : 0°01 Ounce (avoirdupois).. 437°5
Milligramme .. ...... 0-091 Dram (apothecaries’). 60°

Dram (avoirdupois).... 27°34375
Tonne = 2201°62 tb. Pennyweight (troy).. 24°
Gramme = 15°432349 grains. Scruple(apothecaries) 20°

Grains: eee eshaha sats Is

958 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

Having shown, simply from a farmer’s point of view, the absurd
complexity of ow system of weights and measures, or rather want
of system in our weights and measures, the questions now arise:
What is to be done to simplify them? What do I propose as a
remedy? My answer is, simply adopt the Metric System,

No. 19.—FORESTRY IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

By W.S8. Campset, F.L.8., Chief Inspector, Department of
Agriculture, New South Wales.

(Read Wednesday, 12 Junuary, 1898.)

I am pleased to have the present opportunity of inviting attention
to the very important matter of forestry in this Colony, for up to
the present time, the subject seems generally to have been treated
with the utmost indifference, and want of thought by the public.

Strictly speaking, my subject should, perhaps, have been entitled
‘Forests in New South Wales,” for the term forestry, in its
general acceptation, may, I think, be taken to indicate the care and
preservation of forests ; but, as our forests have received but little
care or preservation, the term forestry can hardly be said to be
applicable to this Colony ; at any rate not in the same sense in which
it is applied to the scientific forestry which obtains on the continent
of Europe (?)—in France, Germany, Russia—and also in India.

Probably but few persons have enjoyed better opportunities of
forming an opinion of the condition of our forests, or of our
indigenous vegetation, than myself, in the course of my varied
duties in the country, and I shall not hesitate in speaking plainly
about a few matters bearing on my subject.

In this Colony the settlers, as a rule, appear to have one great
object in view, namely, to wage a war of extermination against
all trees, in a most thoughtless manner, utterly oblivious to the
possibility that their actions may eventuate in disaster. It is
unnecessary for me to make more than a passing allusion to
similar rash and ill-advised work carried on some years ago in
continental countries, which necessitated the expenditure of vast
sums of money to remedy the mischief effected, by replanting
denuded areas, and the introduction of stringent laws, which are
strictly enforced, to protect all forests, and even private forests,
over which the owners have but little, if any, control.

In America, thoughtful persons are becoming quite alarmed
about the denudation of the country. In a copy of the Indian
Forester, received by me to day, I find the following quotation
from the Yew York Tribune :—“ To be able to say that exports

FORESTRY IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 959

of some leading commodity are now 25 per cent. greater than a
year ago, and 100 per cent. greater than ten years ago, is highly
gratifying. Yet exceptions to the rule are quite conceivable. If
it should appear that the growth of trade in any important pro-
duct was tending to exhaustion of native resources, and consequent
domestic embarassment and disaster, the circumstance would give
rise to apprehension, rather than pleasure, and economical wisdom
would suggest the direction of efforts toward the restriction of
that industry, or toward such modification of it as would avoid the
evil results threatened. That is at present the case with the
lumber trade. It is a legitimate and important industry, and one
which should be so cherished as to insure its profitable permanency.
But it is now growing at a rate which threatens in the near
future its own self-exhaustion, and the reduction of this country
to the deplorable and ruinous state of treelessness. The facts
cannot be concealed, and should not be ignored. Throughout alk
the older States of the Union, forests have long since practically
disappeared. Only a few straggling and stunted remnants remain
of the superb sylvan growth which once clothed every hillside.
The effect is apparent : Streams that once flowed constantly the
year round are now overflowing torrents for a few weeks, and dry
for months ; springs have dried up; soil has become arid and
sterile ; droughts are more frequent ; agriculture is less profitable.
The evils that afflict the treeless countries of the old world are
beginning to be felt; nor are the new States of the far West
exempt. Their abundant forests are disappearing like snow in
Spring-time, and in their place are coming changes of climate,
distur ances to the water supply, and the w hole train of evils that
forest destruction inevitably entails.”

Compared with the American forests ours in New South Wales
are but a fleabite, and if our export trade of hardwood develops
as is desired by some, and when the excellent qualities of our
timbers become recognised in other countries, it will take but few
years to sweep our forests clean away. The general idea which
prevails, that our forests are inexhaustible, is most erroneous.
The quantity of really good sound available timber is, in fact, very
limited, and it is chiefly confined to the coastal districts, with some
few exceptions. The waste by timber-cutters is enormous. If a
30-foot girder should be required, down goes a convenient tree,
from which a 40 or 50 foot girder could be cut, and soon. Whilst
speaking of timber-cutting, I may mention the great amount of
destruction which is caused, very often by the huge dead branches
of felled trees. These branches and logs lie against good sound
trees perhaps for years until a bush fire sets them alight, when
great scars are burnt into the buts of the sound trees, and such a
burn will very frequently completely spoil a tree. The scar may
be in course of time, and often is, covered over by the bark, but

960 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

the injury remains. Bush fires cause an immense amount of
damage to forest trees—far more than is generally supposed—
notwithstanding their wonderful recuperative powers.

Fortunately for us, the predominating timber trees—the
eucalypts—will very speedily reafforest a denuded area, if per-
mitted. The growth of most of them is rapid—some remarkably
rapid—and the timber of even the saplings is strong and sound.
I have seen eucalypts in the course of fifteen years attain a
diameter of 18 inches, and a height of 80 to 100 feet. One of our
best timber trees, the blackbutt (Hucalyptus pilularis), is remark-
able both for quickly re-establishing itself on cleared land if not
interfered with, and for itsrapid growth. At the same time there
are enemies which must be considered when the time comes for
steps to be taken to properly conserve our forest areas. One serious
enemy is stock. <A nibble or two will most certainly affect the
growth of a young tree, and cause defects from which it may never
recover. To enter fully into these matters would necessitate an
altogether too lengthy paper, but I merely mention them to show
that to gain a good and perfect ‘“‘ gum-tree ” some care and protec-
tion may be necessary.

One of the most serious matters to deal with is that of ring-
barking. There is nothing to my mind more miserable or more
sickening than travelling for miles and miles through dead ring-
barked timber. Very often there is not a single living tree
permitted to remain as shade or shelter for stock. Tn such country
oftentimes circular tracks may be seen round the butts of the dead
trees, made by the wretched beasts following the scanty shade
from the broiling rays of the sun. During a severe drought I
have seen hundreds of sheep dying in the blazing sun, without a
single shady spot which might ease to some extent their agony.
Tt seems to me absolutely wicked for men to ruthlessly destroy
every living tree for the sake of a little grass. A certain propor-
tion of forest to area held should be preserved, and this should be
enforced by law, as is the case, for instance, in Russia where, I
think, the proportion is about 5 per cent.

The necessity for preserving large areas of the existing forest in
our dry western districts seems to me to be a matter of the very
greatest concern, not only to the western country but also to the
whole of the colony. I cannot but think that in the event of the
destruction of the forests there our climate may be affected to a
considerable extent, and our hot blasting winds will become more
severe and more injurious. On the open treeless plains I have
observed the destructive effects of wind on the soil. Small cyclones
may frequently be seen whirling and sweeping along, tearing up
the surface soil to a depth of some 3 or 4, and even sometimes 6,
inches, carrying it along in thin high columns, called ‘ booroo-
muggas” by the blacks. When these winds sweep and dance about,

FORESTRY IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 961

unchecked by any timber whatever, goodness knows what the
results will be. A short time ago I noticed in Riverina a remark-
able example of the effects of wind on an extensive open plain.
Near one extremity of the plain a wire-netting rabbit-proof fence
had been erected five years ago. The fence was not visible when
I was there, for it had been covered over by a triangular mound
of soil, and was consequently absolutely useless for the purpose
intended. Five years prior to its erection in its present position
it had been put up a short distance away, with the same result
that had again come about. It will not be shifted again, but the
soil will be dug or ploughed away. The wire netting had caught
dead grass and rubbish, and this prevented the soil from blowing
through the meshes. I observed another curious effect in conse-
quence of the accumulation of soil, and this was the formation of
a swamp on land that used to be perfectly dry.

In the same district I noticed the remarkable beneficial effects
of a piantation—a belt—of shelter trees, chiefly pepper-trees
(Schinus molle). These trees were about from 15 to 20 feet in
height only, but they effectually sheltered an extensive area from
a strong wind which was biowing at the time of my visit. The
sudden change in driving from almost a tempest to a dead calm
was very marked.

In the most beautiful timbered districts in this colony—about
the Richmond and Tweed Rivers—the settlers are carrying on the
most reckless destruction of the splendid timbers which thrive to
perfection there. Millions of feet of such timbers as the Blackbean
(Castanospernum australi), the Rosewood (Dysoxylon Lraser-
ianum), native-beech (Gmelina Leichhardtt), silky oak (Grevillea
robusta), and others, are burnt to ashes and utterly wasted, and
magnificent trees are being swept away. It will be difficult to
preserve any of this timber, or retain reservations, owing to the
remarkable fertile soil and its value for agricultural purposes,
and the great demand for land for settlement. However, the
value of the timber, and the value of the trees for shelter purposes,
may possibly become recognised before they all disappear. For
instance, a short time ago an intelligent farmer there informed me
that he had purchased a block of timber land near his farm for
the sole object of preserving the trees. When he told me this I
asked him to shake hands, for I honour that man more than I
can say.

It would not be difficult to give numerous instances of the evil
effects of thoughtless clearing or ringbarking. All those persons
“gia settle on the land should think well before they meddle with

a single living tree; but I fear it is of little use preaching this
Saki Such is my experience, and not until the mischief has
been completed will the effects of injudicious destruction be
realised.

3P

962 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

20.—FARMERS’ INSTITUTES.

By Water S. Camppett, F.L.8., Chief Inspector, Department
of Agriculture, N.S.W.

(Read Wednesday, 12 January, 1898.)
| Abstract. |

Mr. CAMPBELL is greatly in favour of Farmers’ Institutes, and
graphicly described ‘the benefits of the bringing together of the
farmers and the talking over of their various practical experiences,
which must be highly beneficial to all concerned. He pointed
out that it must be patent that the advances made in the science
and practice of agricultural and horticultural pursuits have been
most remarkable during the last few years. Old practices that
have obtained from time immemorial are giving place to new and
improved methods, for the farmer and horticulturist is enabled
to base his work on sound principles and act accordingly. Mr.

Campbell urged that the necessity for improvement is thoroughly
recognised by the governments of all civilised nations, for it is
bey ond question that the welfare of the people depends to a vast
extent on skill and industry, and that the very best use shall be
made of the land through the liberal diffusion of knowledge. The
paper concluded by asking all to render what assistance they
could in the formation of Farmers’ Institutes.

No. 21.—NOTES ON #MEX AUSTRALIS.

By R. Hexms, Biologist to the Bureau of Agriculture, Western
Australia,

(Read Wednesday, 12 January, 1898.)

Aurnoucu the flora of South Africa and Australia has many
genera in common, and even a number of identical species occur in
both countries, still from the outset it was doubted whether Hmex
australis?was an indigenous plant of Western Australia, whence
first it was recorded from our southern continent. The foremost
Australian botanists, Bentham and Baron v. Mueller, were un-
certain on this point ; and whilst including the plant in their works
on our flora, they considered it a probable immigrant.

NOTES ON EMEX AUSTRALIS. 963

Bentham remarks about the plant: “ Besides the Australian
species, which is identical with a South African one, and probably
introduced from thence, there is one other closely allied to it from
the Mediterranean region of the northern hemisphere.” And
regardingitsdistribution he notes it as follows:—‘‘South Australia,
near Adelaide, and Holdfast Bay: F. Mueller ; Western Australia,
Drummond 2d coll., n. 290. Preiss., n. 1895.”

Baron y. Mueller in his “Second Systematic Census,” published
in 1889, quotes the species from Western Australia and South
Australia but adds “ perhaps immigrated.”

The aim of these notes is to prove the correctness of the opinion
instinctively held by these scientists, which aim, it is hoped, may
serve as a sufficient excuse for their production.

The genus mex, was established by Necker from the
Mediterranean species, H. spinosa in 1790, at that time probably
the only species known. Our £. australis, it seems, was not
determined as being specifically different till 1839, when Steinheil
described it in the Ann. des Sc. Nat. It would appear from this
late record that, through the similarity of the two plants, their
differences have escaped observation for a long time, for it is
unlikely that the common South African plant should not have
been brought to Europe previous to 1859, Almost at this date,
or soon after, the plant must have been sent by Drummond from
Western Australia, as will be shown presently.

The fifth volume of Bentham’s ‘Flora <Australiensis” was
published as late as 1870; but the occurrence of /. australis in
Australia must have been known to many European botanists
previous to this date, as Baron vy. Mueller found it shortly after
arriving in South Australia, where he landed in 1847. Bentham
quotes several authorities, who undoubtedly described the species
from Australian examples :—Mig. in Pl. Preiss, 1,625; Meissn.
in Linnaea, xxv1, 363; 2. centropodium, Meissn. in Linnaea,
xty, 490, in Pl. Preiss. 11, 273, and in D.C. Prod., x1v, 40.

Regarding the date at which the plant was sent by Drummond
to Europe some uncertainty exists, but it must have been during
the early forties, as is shown by the following abstract from the
first vol. of ‘ Hooker’s Journal of Botany,” published 1849 :—

SWAN RIVER BOTANY.

[it is long since we have given any account of Mr. James
Drummond’s excursions in Western Australia. We shall here,
and in our future numbers, give extracts from his many letters
now before us, written during the year 1844, and since, from the
Swan River colony.—Ep. |

964 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

Hathornden Farm, Swan River,

February 21st, 1844.
‘7 HAVE just returned, after a three months’ expedition, in which
I have examined part of the country about the Beaufort and
Gordon Rivers and the district south and east of King George’s
Sound, as far as the Prorongarup range of hills and Mount Mary
Peak. On my return I received your letter by the “Ganges,”
and I beg to offer my best thanks for your remarks upon my
collections of dried plants. I am sensible that they are not so
well preserved as I could wish ; but the fact is, that I have been
cultivator for many years ere i gave my attention to the process
of preparing specimens for an herbarium ; and had it not been
for the encouragement you obligingly held out I should never
have made the attempt, &c.”

The introductory remarks of the editor show that some letters
of Drummond had been published prior to 1849, and as this note
appears in the first vol. of the Journal of Botany the same editor
must have supervised a publication preceding it, of which that
publication is a sequence; and from the correspondent’s words it
may be gathered that he had sent some collections of dried plants
before 1844. Consequently the second collection referred to by
Bentham as containing /. australis was probably sent a long time
previous to the date of the letter quoted from, because in those
days the sailing vessels often spent six months and more on the
voyage between Europe and Western Australia, and a longer time
still on their homeward passage, as this was never direct. More-
over, but few vessels were then engaged in the Western Australian
trade. Atallevents it is safe to surmise that his second collection
was despatched by Drummond before 1842.

Mr. James Drummond arrived in Western Australia on the
6th June, 1829, by the “ Parmelia,” the first vessel despatched
from England with emigrants to form the new settlement at the
Swan River. In the official list he is quoted as “agriculturist,”
and under Captain Stirling, the Lieutenant-Governor, who arrived
in the same ship, he laid out the gardens about Government
House. How long he remained in the position of head gardener
Ihave not been able to ascertain, but probably not more than six
or seven years, when he settled on some land, as is shown by the
address of his letter.

Drummond, without doubt, possessed a good knowledge of
plants, and that he largely contributed towards the elucidation
of the Western Australian flora is proved by a glance through
Bentham’s work. When referring in his letters to indigenous
plants, he frequently discusses their peculiarities, and their toxic
or other qualities, and proves himself a keen observer; and it
is strange, therefore, that he should have omitted to mention

NOTES ON EMEX AUSTRALIS. 965

the introduction of Hmex australis into Western Australia, the
knowledge of which could scarcely have escaped him.

It may, however, be possible that he did not know of its
introduction, or that his remarks on this subject were lost ; yet
it remains a fact that the plant was deliberately introduced into
Western Australia from the Cape of Good Hope as a culinary
vegetable when Drummond was head gardener with the Governor,
and that its uselessness as a food plant, as well as its objectionable
nature, became rapidly known throughout the small settlement at
that time.

The information on this point is gathered from the lips of Mr.
D. Wonsborough, who is one of the very few remaining survivors
of the earliest settlers at the Swan River. As his story is,
besides, an interesting reminiscence of the infant days of this

rast territory which, dacine the past few years, has attracted the
attention of thousands and increased its population lately as
rapidly as formerly the influx was slow, I will give it in full and
in his own words :

“The offer to make land grants at the rate of 40 acres for every

£5 capital invested in the settlement of the country (stock, imple-
ments, tools, goods of every description, cash, &c., purchased the
land at that rate) induced Mr. Wm. Tanner to Guaster a vessel
and load it for the new settlement. JI was newly married and
engaged myself, like several other families, to come out with Mr.
Tanner, and signed contract to serve him for five years at culti-
vating the land in the new countr y. We left Bristol in June,
1830, in the well-fitted barque ‘Margaret,’ but through bad
weather encountered in the Bay of Biscay a considerable portion
of the stock was lost, and after a protracted voyage reached the
Cape of Good Hope early i in October. Hearing at this place very
discouraging news about the newly formed Swan River settle-
ment, Mr. Tanner resolved to abandon his plan of proceeding
there and sold the remainder of his stock, together with agricul-
ture implements, of which he had brought a splendid assortment,
and vehicles, as well as nearly the whole cargo. The greater part
of the goods, &c., were sold by auction at a considerable loss on
the first purchase money, and the ‘Margaret’ proceeded to
Mauritius to load sugar.

“We stayed about seven weeks at the Cape, during which time
the Scotch barque ‘Drummore,’ bound for Freemantle and
Tasmania, put in for water and provisions. In consequence of
this event, Mr. Tanner resolved to take passage to Tasmania,
with the view of settling there, and offered to take those along
with him who liked to come, or had not found work at the Cape.
The most of us acquiesced in this new arrangement. Mr. Tanner
then reserved of his goods that had not been sold, and purchased
other things back before we embarked. After leaving the Cape

966 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.

we calied at Mauritius for water, and sailed thence on Christmas
Day for Freemantle, which was reached on the 2nd February,
1831. On arriving here, Capt. Stirling, the Lieutenant-Governor,
managed to persuade Mr. Tanner to stay in Western Australia,
and by this means we after all remained at our original destination.

“In the course of time Mr. Tanner found that things did not
prosper quite as well as he bad been persuaded to anticipate, and
consequently I found no difficulty in having my agreement with
him cancelled. After working for some time under Mr. Drummond,
at the Governor's garden, and for different other people, I entered
the services of Mr. J. Phillips as gardener, and lived with him for
several years at his place on the Canning River, which is a tribu-
tary of the Swan. Whilst in this occupation, I sowed, in the
spring of 1833, a bed with ‘Cape Spinach,’ the seed of which
had been obtained from Mr. Tanner, and brought by him from
the Cape. This Cape spinach was no other than the plant now
well known as ‘ Doublegee,’ or, as we in the early days of the
settlement called it, ‘Tanner’s Curse.’ It was given this name
by the settlers on account of the annoyance the spinous seeds
caused to the labourers. The weed spread very rapidly, and at
every turn interfered with our work. The seeds even fastened to
the staves of casks that had to be rolled up the banks of the river,
no wharfs or similar accommodation being known then, and
pricked the hands and arms of the workmen ; to bales and other
goods it stuck still worse, and in the field it was a constant
nuisance.

“The spinach did not prove very palatable, and was never sown
by me again, but others may probably have done so before its
uselessness became generally known and the plant acknowledged
a thorough nuisance. Its offensiveness is not so apparent now-
adays as in the early times, when everything had to be done by
hand, and without the appliances now in use. In those days it
became generally known in the small settlement that Mr. Tanner
had brought the seed from the Cape as that of a reputed culinary

vegetable ; and although he made this mistake unwittingly, his
name remained attached to the weed among the old settlers.”

The foregoing conclusively proves that Emex australis is not
indigenous to Australia.

SOME RECENT ENGINEERING EXPERIENCES. 967

SECTION H.

ARCHITECTURE AND ENGINEERING.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

oy A. B. Moncrierr, M. Inst. C.E., M. Am. Soc. C.E., Engineer-
in-Chief, Railways and Public Works, South Australia.

(Delivered Friday, 7 January, 1898.)

NOTES ON SOME RECENT ENGINEERING
EXPERIENCES.

HaAvinG this year been elected to the Presidency of the Engineering
and Architectural section of the Association, I desire to express
to this meeting my high appreciation of the honor so conferred.
Privileges carry with them responsibilities, and the presidency of
Section H is no exception to the rule.

The onerous duties of directing the affairs of a large department,
especially during the closing weeks of a session of Parliament and
in the middle of an Australian summer, leave little time for the
preparation of an address worthy of the occasion which has
brought us together. To deal exhaustively with any special
subject is, therefore, out of the question ; that must be left to
those whose leisure yields them the opportunity which some so
ably use to the advantage of the profession. To attempt a general
description of engineering progress would be but to furbish up
gleanings from the scientific press, which of recent years has kept
all reading men so well informed in regard thereto. Therefore,
the only course open to me is to lay before you notes on some
recent departmental engineering experiences in which I have been
personally interested, the records of which have not appeared in
the public prints, and which—but for this opportunity—would
in all probability remain concealed in the archives of the depart-
ment. It is with the hope that details of some difticulties,
successes, and failures which have proved of importance in South
Australia may prove of value as helps or warnings to my pro-
fessional friends elsewhere that I venture on this short address.

968 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H,

During recent years, there has been a very decided change in
South Australia in the methods of carrying out our public works;
the alteration has now developed beyond the experimental stage
and become, apparently, a permanent arrangement. Formerly,
we made our designs, drawings, and specifications, and called for
tenders from responsible contractors for carrying out the work in
accordance therewith, the superintendence alone devolving on the
department, and the commercial profit or loss falling to the share
of the contractor. _Recently—for political, social, and commercial
reasons into which I cannot now enter—the large contractor has
been practically eliminated, and the duties which devolved on
him have now to be undertaken by the engineering officers in
addition to those of designing and inspecting. This does not
refer to so-called “relief works,” which must always stand alone,
and of which we have, fortunately, but little experience ; nor
does it refer to maintenance of existing appliances, but to the
larger engineering works necessary for national development.

The Government engineer is thus placed in an entirely new
position. Upon him devolves the choice of workmen and the
deciding of their rates of wages, consideration of the commercial
questions involved in the purchase of materials, shipment and
storekeeping, the carrying out of a complicated series of piece-work
and petty contract arrangements, the whole being subject to
criticism on the public press which was unheard of when the
contractor dealt with these matters. He is also hampered by a
series of regulations, which seem to him as if constructed for the
purpose of hindering his work.

Ultimately, most things resolve themselves nowadays into a
question of cost, and the new development of Departmental versus
Contract work must be prepared to stand or fall on application
of the commercial test. How, then, do we stand in this relation?

Generally, we proceed as follows :—A large work having been
decided on and the money provided under Parliamentary vote, the
working designs are prepared and a brief specification free from
legal technicalities is drafted. This latter is really only a deserip-
tion of the work, the printed volume of Standard Specifications
being referred to by numbered paragraphs only. Materials which
have to be imported are either indented for or procured through
local merchants subject to inspection abroad, and no rejection is
possible in the Province if the articles inspected have been sub-
sequently identified at port of shipment unless there has been
fraud. Workmen are engaged at wages which range from 5s. to
7s. per diem, varying with the locality and the character of the
work. Simple work is occasionally done by the piece, the men
taking their own time and coming and going as they please. The
better class of work is done by petty contract, when one man or
a number of men together take up the work in definite quantities

>

SOME RECENT ENGINEERING EXPERIENCES, 969

to be completed in definite time, but without money deposit, sub-
ject however to retention by the department of 10 per cent. of
wages earned as security, payments being made fortnightly. The
pay of superintending officers varies from £300 to £400 a year
for Engineers, from 14s. to 16s. per day for Inspectors, and from
8s, to 12s. per day for Foremen. The Permanent Staff receive the
usual Government holidays, but the Temporary men do not.
These methods have been applied in numerous instances and to a
large variety of works, including Railways, Waterworks, and
Manufacturing.

About 350 miles of railway have been constructed during
recent years departmentally, the latest instance being the Blyth
and Gladstone Lines, about 56 miles long, the per manent way and
plant and tools being bought by the Department, the live stock,
labour, and vehicles, such as drays, being supplied by the local
farmers, the enone masonry, provision of ballast, sleepers,
bridge-work, fencing, and construction generally being carried out
on one or other of the methods described, with the following
result :—

The estimate prepared for the coustruction of the line without
rolling stock was £246,000. The actual cost of the completed job
was £210,000. The detailed items can be given on schedule, and
is ayailable for those who are interested in such matters.

This line is one of our best, and has given no trouble since con-
struction.

There is at present on hand a large reservoir for the supply of
water to the Port August District, and the whole work is being
done departmentally, the estimated cost being £65,000.

But the large works estimated to cost ” £509,000, and for
increasing the ‘supply of water to the city of Adelaide, is an
example of the use of the two methods of construction in their
transition state. The two long tunnels, one about 3) miles, and
the manufacture of the leading mains were let in contracts, and
the remaining work, embankments—one 80 feet high and $ mile
in length—draing, intakes, road, forming, fencing, = were done
departmentally. | No doubt the whole work, if carried out some
years ago, would have been let to one large contractor. The com-
bination of the two methods in this instance is but an indication
of the tendency referred to above.

The total cost has been £492,000, and a complete schedule of
the cost in detail is available for any who may feel interested in
long lists of prices.

The full development of the departmental method is however
most marked in our manufactures. We are now making all the
cast-iron pipes and practically all the cast-iron and brass work
required by the Government. Here a commercial valuation of
the change is more clearly possible than in any other branch.

970 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H.

I note for comparison the rates paid under contract for cast-
iron pipes from 2 inch to 12 inch in diameter. These varied
from £8 15s. ld. to £10 4s. per ton; whereas the cost of pipes
of the same sizes which have been turned out at the Government
workshop for the year ending 30th June, 1897, has varied from
£5 14s. 3d. to £7 4s. 3d. I find that during this period the
average cost of pig-iron was £3 2s. 3d. per ton, and that for every
5s, per ton rise in price in the cost of iron it makes a difference
in cost of 5s. 3d. per ton in the cost of tie finished article. The
lowest price at which I have been able to obtain coke has been
35s. per ton, and every 5s. rise in price of that material makes Is.
_ difference per ton in the cost of the finished pipes.

To enable comparison to be made with the cost of similar work
elsewhere, I may state that moulders receive 8s. and 9s. per day ;
fettlers, 8s; testers. 7s. ; and labourers, 6s.; and working out the
proportions of the cost of various materials in 1 ton of pipes at
average prices, I find that the cost of iron is £3 4s. 9d.; coke,
6s. 10d. ; labour, £1 16s, 10d. ; sundries, 4s. 3d.; shop charges,
11s. 1d., making a total of £6 3s. 9d., which is the average cost
of the pipes recently turned out.

It may further be interesting to note that at present prices
steel pipes 3-16 in. in thickness are cheaper than cast- ee for all
sizes above 15 inches in diameter, whereas if the steel is } in. thick
it is cheaper to use that material in all sizes of pipe anes 17
inches in diameter.

This comparison holds good in the neighbourhood of the sea-
board, but would be modified a little when carriage charges have
to be added for up-country districts. For instance, I estimate
that in laying a 20-in. main there would be a saving of £500 in
using } in. steel in the neighbourhood of the city, but that there
would be a saving of about £700 in using the same material in
preference to cast-iron subject to 150 miles of rail-carriage
added.

The departmental method has its advantages and its disadvan-
tages. Where there is so much work in the hands of the Govern-
ment, the labour question, rates of wages, and Parliamentary
“niece Panes may become serious ditheulties, The method is, in
my opinion, better for the workmen; but so-called red-tape is a
positive hindrance, and always with us. The possibilities of
modifying the work to suit developments and change designs as
circumstances may demand, without having to consult a con-
tractor’s convenience and dread unconscionable claims, is a series
of invaluable advantages. Largely increased responsibility is
placed on the engineers when they are called upon to carry out
what used to be looked upon as contractors’ work as well as their
own; but, on the whole, I claim that the experiment in South

SOME RECENT ENGINEERING EXPERIENCES. 971

Australia has, from a social and commercial point of view, been a
success. Our work has been more economically done, and J chal-
lenge criticism as to its quality.

One of the most important engineering questions which my
department has had to deal with in recent years has been the
attempt to carry out the very wise and liberal policy of the
Government, and answer the demand for “cheap water” for
domestic purposes and stock over large areas of dry country. In
one district alone nearly 1,000,000 acres have been closely reticu-
lated with cast-iron pipes varying from 2,/inches to 12 inches
diameter. Into a history of our progress in water conservation
it isnot my purpose to enter, but to relate some of our experiences
in the use of the cheaper descriptions of reticulation pipes. The
instance which I choose as an illustration is a steel main 70
miles in length, 16 inches and 17 inches diameter, formed of
riveted plates, and varying in thickness from 1-16 in. to 5-16 in.,
working under pressures varying from 0 to 300 lb. per square
inch. Long lengths of this main are of plates 12 and 14 LS.G.,
and the use of such thin plates is, I believe, unique in permanent
works. They were manufactured under contract, and have been
in use for over three years, and the results are noteworthy.

The coating was of the usual asphalt composition, ‘Tn long
lengths the pipes are as good as when laid, but in some places
they have failed, having been pitted from the outside and rusted
into holes ; in a few instances, even the heads of the rivets having
disappeared. This unsatisfactory result has occurred where the
main was laid in damp clay formation. The clay has been found
to have an affinity for the asphalt coating, with which it seems
to amalgamate, and then by contracting draw it away from the
plates, leaving them quite clean and exposed to the destructive
action of whatever salts may be in the soil. When these cheap
pipes were laid it was recognised that the coating was all
important, and to find it thus removed from the steel is disap-
pointing. The pipes laid in limestone or gravelly country are
intact, the tenacious clay referred to being the cause of the local
failure. There is naturally a popular re-action against the steel
pipe as a whole, but to an engineer this is unreasonable. A cement
coating has been tried with success on some of these damaged
pipes, but is costly in application, and there is no adhesiveness
between it and the steel. The cure seems to be the laying of the
main coated with asphalt, on a gravel bed, and surrounded with
limestone rubble or some other similar material so as to prevent
the clay when filled into the trenches from touching the coating.
Whether this will lengthen the life of the very, thin ] pipes so as to
justify their continued use in new work remains to be seen, and
the experiment will doubtless be watched with interest. In the
meantime, I am laying no new steel pipe less than 3-16 inch in

972 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I.

thickness. It is worthy of note that the clay referred to has a
deteriorating effect on cast-iron pipes also, some of which having
been in service for 20 years have been found so changed in
character as to be incapable of withstanding even moderate
pressures, the material being like plumbago instead of cast-iron,
and as easily cut with a pen-knife as the black lead of a pencil.
Its action on the coating of the steel pipes seems to be mechanical,
but on the cast-iron chemical. In this connection I may say that
we are now using galvanised-iron service piping everywhere with
satisfactory results as to durability and economy.

Recent experience in deep well boring operations is of special
interest in relation to the question of the extent of the Central
Australasian artesian basin. The rig known as the drop drill is
that almost exclusively in use. The old cable drill was largely
superseded some time ago by 2} inch steel-wire rope, and then
the Canadian pole-drill was introduced and used very successfully
in some classes of country (the diamond-drill being reserved for
boring for minerals). I have found it most advantageous in the
new rigs recently constructed to combine the pole and the steel
rope so that either can be used as found desirable, and constructed
so as to be capable of boring to 5,000 feet ; the result, undoubtedly,
is the expediting and cheapening of the work.

Tn this class of work the department provides the outfit and the
casing, carries out all the carting, and lets contracts for labour
only. There is no class of work in which we are engaged into
which the element of chance seems to enter so largely—‘“ Bore
out of perpendicular,” or ‘ Casing-shoe lost,” or “String of tools
stuck at 2,000 feet,” are examples of the short but comprehensive
telegrams often received following a carefully detailed report that
all was going well, and the result of the work almost an assured
success. All our casing is } inch thick, of BBB Staffordshire iron,
with what is known as “swelled joint,” and varying in diameter
from 12 inch to 5 inch, the largest size being always used to start
with.

Upon no subject have more erroneous notions been promulgated
than in connection with deep well boring. The popular idea
seems to be that a successful result in the obtaining of an artesian
supply can be assured anywhere if only the bore is put down deep
enough.

That money has been wasted, through pressure brought to bear,
in carrying out this idea is undoubted. In many instances we
can only cover up the failure by saying that the bore was put
down for experimental purposes, whereas if the voice of scientific
reason had been listened to the money would have been saved,
and the discredit avoided. It is still popular to reply, “ You did
not go deep enough,” even to such a statement as this, and although
the work may have ended in many feet of solid granite.

SOME RECENT ENGINEERING EXPERIENCES. 973

The artesian basin, which occupies such a large portion of the
provinces of Queensland and New South Wales, extends also into
the north-eastern corner of the province of South Australia and
the south-eastern corner of the Northern Territory. On the map
the provincial boundaries appear to divide it into four portions of
approximately 374,000 square miles in Queensland, 60,000 square
miles in New South Wales, 110,000 square miles in South Aus-
tralia, and 42,000 square miles in the northern territory.
Geologically I believe it stands as a whole, and constitutes one of
the largest and most remarkable artesian basins known.

Scientists, of course, desire to study this basin in its geological
aspect, and a brief reference to the borings by which our portion
is being exploited by my department will supply the South
Australian contribution to the mass of interesting facts which are
being gathered concerning this wonderful natural storage of
water.

There is abundant evidence which may be cited in proof of the
contention that the marine shale beds under which the water is
found in South Australia correlate with those of the portions of
the basin within Queensland and New South Wales. Many of
the fossils have been determined as identical, and further proof is
coming to light almost every day. From a boring in progress at
Dulkanninna, in South Australia, and from a depth of 1,166 feet,
an interesting fragment of a large ammonite has just been found,
which is no doubt identical with ammonites daintreei of the
Hughenden beds, Queensland, and which has been figured by Mr.
Jack, the Government Geologist, Queensland, and R. Etheridge,
Curator of the Australian Museum, Sydney, and determined as
of lower cretaceous age ; therefore, without doubt, to this age may
be referred the whole of the shale beds in South Australia and
the northern territory, under which is found such a remarkable
and splendid supply of artesian water under hydrostatic pressure
sufficient to bring it over the surface. So far as these strata have
been proven, their thickness ranges from a few feet on the edge
of the basin to 3,000 feet at about 100 miles northwards towards
Queensland. There is every reason to suppose that about the
boundary line between Queensland and South Australia, in the
neighbourhood of Birdsville, the thickness of these strata will
prove to be nearly if not quite 4,000 feet.

In South Australia seventeen Government borings have been
put down within the area of this secondary basin. Towards the
edge of the basin the depths range from 228 to 365 feet, and from
some of these comparatively shallow borings the daily flow
reaches a maximum of 14 million gallons of water at a tempera-
ture of about 96 degrees Fah.

The shale-beds thicken rapidly as the shore line of this old
cretaceous sea is left, and at 30 or 40 miles the borings have

974 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H.

penetrated to depths ranging from 1,360 feet at Lake Harry,
where the water has a temperature of 116 degrees Fah., to 1,571 feet
at Oodnadatta, where the water has a temperature of 113 degrees
Fah. The supply from such borings reaches 100,000 to 270,000
gallons per diem, and the quality thereof is distinctly better than
that from the borings nearer the edge of the basin. One of the
last borings completed is that at Kopperamanna, about 100 miles
from the edge of the basin. This is the deepest boring in South
Australia, and the artesian water was reached at 2,874 feet, and
the supply quickly increased until at a depth of 5,000 feet the
flow over the surface reached 800,000 gallons of excellent water
per diem, at a temperature of 176 degrees Fah. The pressure at
the surface is about 100 lb. per square inch.

Tt will thus be seen that within the limits peculiar to this
formation successful artesian wells can be confidently predicted,
and that as a general principle the depth will depend upon the
distance from the edge of the basin.

The height to which the water will rise under its natural
pressure—presuming that a tube were carried up above the surface
as far as the water will reach—is not one uniform elevation above
sea-level. There is a clearly determinable hydraulic grade line
with a fall from the direction of the source of about 9 inches per
mile. Speaking generally, the chief source of the water is the
coast range in Queensland and New South Wales.

The theory has been repeatedly advanced that there is a deep-
seated flow of this underground water in the bed of the sea
towards the Great Australian Bight in South Australia. The
information so far obtained, however, in South Australia, from
numerous borings, is strong presumptive evidence to the contrary,
and geologically the Nullarbor Plains formation near the head of
the Bight does not correlate with the cretaceous beds, and the
specific evidence of several borings within 80 miles west of Lake
Eyre goes to show that the edge of the basin may be drawn
within this limit, and that beyond it, for a considerable distance,
the water is as salt as the sea. So far then, speaking from a de-
partmental standpoint, no connection has been traced, either
geologically between the formations, or between the waters of this
artesian basin and the waters towards the Great Australian Bight.

Numerous Government borings have been put down in South
Australia to depths reaching to 2,000 feet outside the secondary
basin referred to, but with only moderate success. In only three
instances in such bores has artesian water flowing over the surface
been discovered ; in some others sub-artesian water has been
found, but in many only very salt water has been tapped. Almost
invariably granite bed-rock or other equally unfavourable con-
ditions have been reached before abandoning an unsuccessful
bore.

SOME RECENT ENGINEERING EXPERIENCES. 975

One of the difficulties which we have lately solved is the ren-
dering of the Port Adelaide River safer for navigation by ocean
steamers both by day and night. The distance of Port Adelaide
from the sea is about 9 miles, the depth of water being 23 feet
at low-water, the width of the dredging 250 feet. The old marks
were a series of buoys showing the channel by day and kerosene
oil lamps at long intervals for use at night. Recent experience
showed that this system of marking was unsatisfactory. All the
buoys have been removed and a series of straight lines have been
charted, in continuation of each of which is a triangular leading
beacon, and at some distance off on the same line is an advance
beacon, an inverted triangle; when the two are seen in line the
vessel is on the right course. For use at night, each leading
beacon is electrically illuminated with a white light, while the
advance beacons are similarly lighted in red. So far as Iam
informed such a series of electrically-lighted beacons for navi-
gation purposes in an important water-way is new in Australian
waters ; therefore, I have thought that a short description thereof
would not be uninteresting.

Highteen lamps in all had to be lit, the one at the extreme end
of the circuit being 8? miles away from the source of current
supply. The first portion of the circuit consists of an overhead
wire with short leads of submarine cable connecting it with the
beacons in the river en route. Owing to the contour of the fore-
shore, the latter portion of the circuit consists of a submarine
cable only, carried direct from beacon to beacon. As power is
only available in the day time, it was necessary to make use
of a storage battery for lighting at night, the switching “on”
and “off” of the lights being “performed by the night watch-
man.

The generating plant consists of a nominal 8 horse-power ver-
tical engine running at 180 revolutions per minute, belted to a
shunt-wound dynamo running at 800 revolutions and having an
output of 130 amperes at 60 volts ; and as 96 accumulators are
used in series for lighting, it was necessary to divide the storage
plant into four sets of 24 cells each, to be charged in parallel.
This is done by a special commutator on the switch-board, a single
movement of which places the cells either in parallel for charging
purposes or in series for lighting the lamps. For charging pur-
poses each set of cells is provided with a separate ammeter together
with a set of carbon resistances so that the charging rate may be
kept uniform in each set. It is, however, rarely necessary to use
these regulating resistances, as the cells vary but little in their
charging rate. A single voltmeter is used which is connected
to any set by switches as desired. <A polarised cell-coupler is
used with magnetic cut-outs on each main from the charging
machines. Charging is carried out on every morning except

976 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H.

Sundays, but the capacity of the cells is sufficient in case of need
to light the beacons for three nights in succession without re-
charging.

For the beacon lighting, incandescent lamps of 16-candle
power are employed, the voltage of the lamps ranging from 170
to 100 volts with the distance of the beacons from the generating
station. The lamps are not allowed to burn for more than 500 _
hours, being changed when that length of time is reached.

To provide against the extinction of the light in any of the
beacons through the failure of an incandescent lamp, a differential
relay is placed in each of the lanterns, which automatically brings
a spare lamp into circuit immediately the first lamp burns out.
As in the leading lights used in the longer reaches of the river
the power of the lamps is raised to about 70 candles by means
of reflectors and lenses, it was necessary that the broken lamp
should be thrown out of position, and the spare lamp brought
exactly into the focal point. This is effected by mounting the
two lamp-holders on a spindle at an angle of 90 degrees to one
another. The extinction of the first lamp releases a trigger,
freeing the spindle, which is revolved by means of a counterpoise
weight, bringing the spare lamp into position, the cireuit for which
1s completed by the fall of the trigger. A small oil dash-pot con-
nected to the spindle gives it a slow motion, and prevents any
jarring of the filament.

For the purpose of checking the working of the lights a record-
ing ammeter is placed in the main circuit, and from the resulting
diagram it is possible to ascertain if any lamps have failed during
the night, if the second lamp has been switched in, and, approxi-
mately, from the deflection of the line, the position of the beacon
in which this has taken place. The failures have been very few.

A mercurial contact is attached to this ammeter, which rings
an alarm-bell if the current falls below its proper point during the
time the lights are burning.

Tn conclusion, I crave pardon for the desultory character of the
notes which I have submitted, but they will serve to show in
some measure the trend of our departmental engineering in South
Australia, and the details given may be useful for the sake of
comparison with those of similar work elsewhere. That the
possibility of such comparison may be more assured in the future,
T beg to enter a plea for the unification of the methods of pre-
paring estimates for engineering works and keeping the records
thereof, especially in regard to the items of cost in the various
parts of Australasia.

In preparing estimates, or recording expenditure, I include all
charges for carriage, interest on loan during construction, and
reimbursements to other Departments, as well as the actual
expenditure in money on material and labour. I have found that

SOME RECENT ENGINEERING EXPERIENCES. 977

some of these items are not included in the records of expenditure
in other colonies, and it is therefore most difficult to make com-
parisons of the cost at which similar work in the various parts of
Australasia is being carried out. This is, I admit, a decided
disadvantage, and often leads to unjust criticism. Further, my
experience points to the fact that the accurate recording of every
item, and the careful comparison of the prices of similar works
carried out by various engineers, induces a healthy rivalry, which
tends to cheapen similar work in the future. Hence my very
urgent pleading for an intercolonial method of preparing estimates
and keeping records which will be accurate, comprehensive, and
uniform, as under such conditions alone can fair and useful com-
parisons be made.

No. I—NOTES ON THE PRINCIPLES ADOPTED IN
CONSTRUCTING UNBALLASTED LINES OF RAIL-
WAY IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

By H. Deans, M.A., M. Inst. C.E., Engineer-in-Chief for Railway
Construction, Public Works Department, Sydney.

(Read, Saturday, 8 January, 1898. )

So much misconception exists as to the practicability of cheapening
railway construction by leaving out ballast, that the author con-
sidered the present occasion, when engineers from the different
colonies are meeting together, would be a suitable one for giving
some information on the subject.

It is clear that cheap rail way construction can only be carried out
in country the features of which permit of the ruling grade and
sharpest admissible curvature being so applied that a minimum
of earthworks may result. In the case of the New South Wales
Railways, which are all built to the standard gauge, and on
which rolling stock of the ordinary English type is used, curves
of less than 10 or 12 chains are not desirable, and, in order that
paying loads may be hauled, easy grades are necessary. It is
evident, therefore, that it is only possible to make a really cheap
line in country which is tolerably level, or where the features
are so large that, with the permissible grades and curves, the
surface can be followed. Did the design of the rolling stock
permit of sharper curves being used, the principle of light con-
struction could be carried into country of much rougher descrip-
tion, as the formation could still be kept near the surface.

3 Q

978 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H.

In 1894, the author visited America, where he saw the principle
on which lines were made without ballast, and convinced himself
of the practicability of carrying it into effect in this country ;
he is of opinion that in no other way is success possible, and that
it is to the neglect of one or two most important points that
previous failures to construct unballasted lines in Australia are
due.

The author wishes it to be distinctly understood that he is not
advocating the general use of unballasted lines in preference, but
he is merely demonstrating the practicability of constructing them
where desired economically and with a minimum of maintenance
afterwards. There are districts where ballast is not obtainable
except from very long distances, and where, at the time of con-
struction, baliast would cost from ten to twelve shillings per cubic
yard, and where, therefore, the use of it would, if the lower value
is taken and the quantity used is 15 cubic yards only per chain—
equal to 1,200 cubic yards per mile—involve an expenditure of
£600 per mile for ballast. What an advantage to be gained,
therefore, by leaving out the ballast in this case! After all “the
proof of the pudding is in the eating,” and the test of economica
construction is the cost of maintenance, and as some of the un-
ballasted lines cnly cost about £30 per mile per annum to main-
tain, it may be conceded that further argument against the
principle is useless.

The diagram shows a cross-section of the permanent way and
embankment. The following points are attended to :—

(a) The formation is kept as low as possible consistent with
the rounding required. ‘This reduces unequal subsidence of the
embankment to a minimum.

(b) The formation is well drained by carrying out the proper
rounding and excavating the side cuttings from which the
embankment is made in a regular manner so that water may be
speedily got rid of. Where possible the formation should be
above the surface, and cuttings avoided.

(c) Plenty of sleepers should be used so that the rolling load
may be distributed as much as possible over the earth formation.
The author’s usual practice has been to put fourteen sleepers to
the 30-foot rail length, or 2,464 per mile ; but on the Nevertire-
Warren Line, as the country is particularly lable to flooding,
there are sixteen sleepers to the rail length, or 2,816 per mile.

(d) The ends of the sleepers are kept free so that pits may not
form in which water will lodge. To ensure the possibility of this
condition being kept up, plenty of rounding to the surface is —
required, or rather plenty of slope towards the edges of the
embankment, so that as the sleepers tend to sink the ends may
still be easily freed by clearing away the earth with a shovel.

i

AUSTRALASIAN Assoc. Abv. Sc.

Vol, Vl, 1898.

4

UNBALLASTED LINES

Cross Section of Embankment and Permanent Way
Showing Use of Earth in lieu of Ballast.

ee _

Unballasted Railways in N. 8. Wales.

By HENRY DEANE, M.A., M. Inst. C.E.

PLATE XXXV.

-

UNBALLASTED LINES OF RAILWAY IN N.S.W. 979

(e) The earth ballast is filled in between the sleepers and
between the rails, with a slope towards the side so as to throw off
the rain-water which may fall on it. Care is taken that the
earth ballast under the rail shall not reach up to the flange, so
that water may run off freely.

The author is of opinion that if the above points are carefully
attended to the principle is one that may be safely adopted in the
drier climate of the interior and on lines where the amount of
traffic is small. In the coast districts, where the annual rainfall
is nearly everywhere heavy, and on lines with considerable traftic
ballast should be used. When traffic greatly increases on new
lines it would be wise to strengthen them by ballasting, and the
additional sleepers which have been placed in the road will be
found to make the line easier to maintain, as they give better
support to the rails and add weight to the permanent way, making
it less liable to lateral shifting.

It has been stated that unballasted lines are a makeshift, and
that it is only a question of time when ballast must be laid down,
. that in America where lines are made without ballast in the first
instance, ballasting is undertaken at as early a date as possible
afterwards. This is not strictly true—there are lines in America
which may never be ballasted because they do not require it.
Frequently, however, the ballasting is left out in the first instance
because it is cheaper to do it after the line is finished and when
it can be ran forward by the trains. The question as to whether
ballast should be left out or not must be determined after con-
sidering the climate, traffic, and cost of the material. There are
some places where it would be folly to leave it out, and others
where, in the author’s opinion, it would be useless extravagance
to put it down.

No. 2.—THE COMMERCIAL CONDITIONS GOVERNING
RAILWAY EXTENSION IN AUSTRALIA.

By C. O. Burcz, M. Inst. C.E.
(Read Saturday, 8 January, 1898.)
[ Abstract. |

THis paper begins by pointing out the distinction between the
conditions governing railway extension where, as in Europe and
America, private enterprise prevails, and those involved by owner-
ship of the railways by the whole people, as generally obtaining
in Australia and other southern colonies. In the former case,
the equilibrium between the receipts of any proposed railway,

980 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H.

from the users in rates and fares, on the one hand, and the
working expenses and interest on the capital, on the other, is the
only financial question, whereas in the other case, the owners—
that is to say, the people of the colony—are at once the share-
holders, the general public to be served, the landowners, to some
extent, whose property is improved, and the taxpayers who are
interested in the increase of population induced by railway exten-
sion, such increase always reducing the cost per head of governing
them.

The proper way, therefore, to ascertain the commercial value of
a proposed railway to be constructed by the Government for the
benefit of its people, is first to estimate its cost, including that of
equipment, and the value of the land occupied, both public and
private, and to put the annual interest on this amount, and the
estimated working expenses, on the debit side.

Then on the credit side, should be placed :—

(1.) The present cost of carriage by road of goods and pas-
sengers over the length of the proposed line, which
expenditure will cease on its completion. This is a
credit, for the wealth of a country is the value of its
products, less the cost of production, and one of the
costs of production is that of transport ; therefore, if
the transport be cheapened the wealth is increased by
the amount of that cheapening. In this credit also
should be included the money value of the saving in
time of conveyance of goods and passengers.

(2.) The gain to the country, generally, by an additional area
being brought within the influence of the railways,
leading to increased production, under the economical
advantages provided by the connection with the main
railway system.

.) The increased value to the Crown lands within such '
influence, or to the natural products thereof, such as
timber, &e., &e. ; and

(4.) The saving in net cost of Government by the increased
density ou population induced by the better communi-

cation.

Oo

(<

It may be said that credit also should be taken for the cost:
saved of maintenance of roads superseded by the railway, but it
has been found in practice, owing to new country being developed
with the new roads of access required, that more rather than less
expenditure is incurred as a rule for roads, through railway
extension.

The same considerations apply to the road transport by horses
and waggons, the operations of which do not cease when a railway
is made, but are merely transferred laterally and further afield.

RAILWAY EXTENSION IN AUSTRALIA. 981

It is these credits, and not the estimated receipts from goods
and passenger rates which should be used as criteria of prosperity ;
the rates charged ‘have nothing whatever to do with the subject,
and are really, inter alia, merely a machinery for dividing the
expenditure equitably between the actual immediate users and
the whole people. So that when the time arrives that the
Australian Colonies are so intersected by a net-work of lines so
that every inhabitant is equally served, free railways would be
financially justifiable, and the working expenses and _ interest
might be charged wholly to the general taxation revenue.

Mr. W. M. Acworth, who is one of the greatest living
authorities on railway matters, adverts to the possibility of such
an arrangement, when the Government owns the lines, in a valu-
able paper on “ The State in relation to Railways.”

We may illustrate this by the parallel instance of the public
roads and road bridges. These are made and maintained in
Australia by the Government, or other public bodies, but there is
no direct revenue therefrom, from the actual users, which of
course might be obtained by the establishment of turnpikes ;
hence if the same method of estimating whether they were paying
public works or not were used, as is usually done in the case of
the other means of communication—railways, there would be
nothing on the credit side, and the whole interest on the outlay
and the cost of the maintenance should be put down as a dead
loss to the country, which, of course, it is very well known, they
are not.

Tf it be said that the credit due to saving in transport goes
chiefly to the locality immediately served, while the debits are
paid by the whole community, it may be answered that this is
only partly and temporarily the case. The cost of local pro-
duction exported is cheapened by the saving in transport,
while the imports balancing them hold the same value as
before ; hence the local producers would appear to be, at the
first glance, those only who benefit. But in the first place, the
locality pays so much of the expenses as is represented by
the rates and fares, and secondly, the cheapening gradually
affects the whole market, for the enrichment of the locality leads
to its extra trade with outside, and it diffuses itself in different
directions. Again, even if local advantage were to some extent
derived at the general expense, the whole contention of this paper
presupposes an ultimate, and as far as practicable, fair distribution
of expenditure by the Government on communications, whether
by railways, rivers, harbours or roads, throughout the State,
according to its needs.

This more enlarged view of the benefit of improved communi-
cation is not, of course, new to economists, but it seems to be
necessary to bring it more distinctly before the general public

982 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H.

than has hitherto been the case, judging from the way the matter
is generally discussed in Parliament, and in the Press. What
are called the indirect advantages, which, as regards saving in
transport, are always calculable, are not indeed absolutely ignored,
but they are merely alluded to as indeterminate general collateral

advantages, instead of their being the only ones.

Tf all these matters were considered, instead of the mere depart-
mental or shareholders’ profit and loss view, which is alone
regarded in the published figures, and hence in the popular
estimate, the complaints, which we hear so often, of the existence
of a number of, so called, non-paying branches, would cease, as
many of them would, on the contrary, be found to be returning a
substantial dividend.

An example is then given, applying these principles to 422 miles
of light railways, authorised within the last few years, and partly
constructed, in New South Wales and Victoria, and more
particularly the 230 miles, comprising five lines, in the former
colony, more figures heme in this case aailole: It is shown
from official published figures, which are given in detail in the
paper, that the working expenses of these five lines, with interest
on cost of construction, will be about £200 per mile per annum.
Taking the average cost of conveyance of passengers by road at
6d. per mile, and of goods at 10d. per ton per mile, and assuming
the quantity of these to be as estimated officially, the gross saving
in transport, that is to say the amount hitherto spent in road
carriage will amount to £570 per mile per annum, giving a net
return, on this method of calculation, after both working expenses
and interest have been paid, of nearly 11 per cent. on the estimated
capital. This, moreover, does not include the saving in cost of
conveyance of live stock, nor the credits, Nos. 2, 3, and 4, men-
tioned above, all of which are difficult to estimate, but which must
necessarily amount to a large figure.

The official estimate of receipts, by rates and fares, on these
five lines, shows, as compared with the working expenses and
interest, a small loss ; but these lines were apparently sanctioned,
not because these receipts were disregarded altogether, as they
should have been, and the proper credits, as shown above, substi-
tuted, but because it was thought that by the hastening of the
development of the country, through the making of the lines, this
imaginary loss would soon be converted into an equally illusory
gain. That this popular impression is illusory, and that decisions
are frequently better than the reasons given for them, is confirmed
by the fact, that nearly half the total railway mileage of New
South Wales, at the present time, is working at a nominal loss
of £284 per mile per annum, most of it being working for many
years without reaching the desired turning point, nor is it likely

RAILWAY EXTENSION IN AUSTRALIA. 983

to do so; yet no one seriously proposes to close half the railways
on this account.

The conclusion, drawn, therefore, is, that generally, in easy
country, the working expenses for a light traftic, with interest on
capital, need not exceed about £4 per mile per week, and
taking passengers and tons of goods as units, and including
traffic in both directions, it would only require the saving in
transport of less than 6,000 of these units, annually, to repay
expenses and interest. All traffic above that, besides what may be
called the direct credits, before enumerated, would be to the good.

This figure, 6,000, is not much more than a third of that ofti-
cially estimated as supplying, on an average, the traffic on each of
the five lines referred to.

Notwithstanding this encouraging way of estimating the value
of future railway extension by the colonies, a word of warning is
uttered against costly extension into poor districts, and also short
branches, which are specially expensive to work ; and the paper
concludes by pointing out that the treatment of the subject is
limited, in it, to the usual case of railway superseding road
carriage. Sea, river, or rival railway competition, give rise to
different figures and to the conclusions based upon them, though,
of course, the principle is the same.

No. 3.—ON THE RAPID ERECTION OF A STEEL VIA-
DUCT TO REPLACE A TIMBER STRUCTURE ON
THE NEW SOUTH WALES RAILWAYS.

By Watrer SHettsHearR, M.1.C.E.
(Read Saturday, 8 January, 1898.)
[ Abstract.]

THE paper describes the work of renewing Nos. 3 and 4 of the
series of timber viaducts across the Muriumbidgee River flats
flanking the fine iron bridge over the river.

On the north side of the river, the viaducts consisted of No. 1
(112 spans), No. 2, (65 spans), No. 3, (4 spans), No. 4 (71 spans),
and on the south side, No. 5 (57 spans), and No. 6 (4 spans) the
span in each case being 29 feet 6 inches, the total length being
9,263 feet of timber work.

984 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H.

The Railway Commissioners decided, in consequence of the
condition of the timber structures, to replace them with per-
manent steel and concrete viaducts, the work to extend over four
years, and the first portion of the work having recently been
completed, the author explains the method adopted for construc-
tion and maintenance of traffic.

The new viaducts are of steel in 29 feet 6 inches spans sup-
ported on steel trestles, (every tenth pier being carried up solid
in concrete to counteract brake thrust) and were designed by
Mr. Firth, Engineer for Existing Lines, the erection being
entrusted to the author.

The centre line and level of the new work are the same as the
old, and in addition to the maintenance of traftic, the prevention
of damage by possible flood had to be provided for.

The foundations were formed of concrete, and were put in at a
distance of 10 feet from the old foundations, for the dual purpose
of getting into undisturbed ground and not interfering with the
existing structure.

Each trestle was supported on two blocks of concrete 6 feet
3 inches x 4 feet below ground, with a moulded circular top above
ground 4 feet in diameter. The solid piers were moulded in
framing in the usual way, and were supported on rectangular
blocks of concrete, varying in size according to the height of
piers. The depth of foundations varied from 5 feet to 15 feet,
according to the nature of the ground and the liability to scour
in flood-time.

To facilitate the handling of material a temporary siding was
laid parallel to the viaduct, and about 30 feet from it.

The concrete for the piers was deposited through holes in the
deck of the old viaduct, the material being raised in barrows by a
whip. Each pier was completed in a day, so that there was no
joint, and the holding-down bolts for bed-plates and trestles were
built in.

The weather being most favourab'e, the excavations, with one
or two exceptions, required no timbering; and as the concrete
went in at once, they were subjected to as little exposure to
weather as possible.

The concrete for No. 3 viaduct was commenced on February
19th, 1897, and the whole of the concrete for Nos. 3 and 4
viaducts was completed on June 18th, 1897.

In erecting the superstructure and removing the old timber-
work the considerations were—lst, to reduce all temporary work
to a minimum ; 2nd, to reduce the risk of damage by flood to a
minimum ; 3rd, to so arrange that sections of old timber-work
could be removed and new structure erected between the times of
ordinary trains, and to avoid Sunday working as much as possible.

STEEL VIADUCT REPLACING A TIMBER STRUCTURE. 985

The girders were unloaded from trucks to cradles prepared for
them, and each pair then connected with the cross and wind-
bracing, and the sleepers fitted and bolted, each span then being
ready for its place.

The trestles were unloaded opposite their sites and slid over
into place, and carefully levelled and lined up, bedded on the
circular foundation blocks, usually four or five days before the
girders were fixed, to give plenty of time for setting.

Two travelling cranes were used on the siding for handling
these.

When the steel trestles were in place, and the new spans ready
for erection, the old superstructure was removed, being first lifted
with hydraulic ship-jacks and sliding rails lubricated with soft
soap, and 1 + inch a shding-plates inserted, this being expedi-
tiously done, as it took only a few minutes to lft with the 100
ton ship-jack.

iverything being ready to remove a section as soon as the last
train had passed, the rails were removed and run back, the old
girders having been sawn through with a diagonal cut, and the
overhanging end supported by temporary props; and when the
trap-bolts were removed, the jacks were manned, and the old
superstructure slid over the ends of the headstocks and down
sliding rails where the height was small, or arranged to turn over
as it slid from the headstocks where the depth was sufficient, this
operation taking from five to ten minutes. Meanwhile the engine
attached to the crane had slung and brought over the new span,
ready to lower into position ; and as soon as the first span was in
position and bolted down, the rails were laid on it, and the opera-
tion repeated until the gap was filled up.

A tabulated account of each day’s work showed that No. 3
viaduct of 4 spans (a total length of 118 feet) was erected on
Sunday, July 4th, in about 5} hours; that 3 spans of No. 4
viaduct (88 feet 6 inches) were erected on July 16th in 2? hours ;
that on July 30th, 5 spans (147 feet 6 inches) were erected in
2 hours 13 minutes; on August 13th, 5 spans in 2 hours 22
minutes ; on August 20th, 5 spans in 2 hours 21 minutes; on
August 27th, 6 spans (177 feet) in 3 hours 5 minutes; on
September 4th, 5 spans in 2 hours 8 minutes; on September
10th, 6 spans in 2 hours 37 minutes ; on September 17th, 6
spans in 2 hours 35 minutes ; on September 24th, 6 spans in 2
hours 37 minutes ; on October 8th, 6 spans in 3 hours 8 minutes ;
on October 22nd, 6 spans in 3 hours; on October 29th, 6 spans
in 3 hours; on November 26th, 5 spans in 3 hours; and on
November 28th (Sunday), the closing span and fitting.

The whole of the work was carried out without any delay to
the traffic, and with no accident other than a few pinched fingers

986 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H.

and a sprained leg. Preservation from liability to flood was
studied, and Sunday work was limited to two Sundays only.

The number of men employed never exceeded 1 foreman, 5 car-
penters, and 30 labourers.

The weight of each span of the new structure, with sleepers
fixed, was about 64 tons.

The weight of the longest section of the old timber superstruc-
ture, with ballast, &c., slid off at one time, was between 120 and
140 tons.

The paper was illustrated by several photographs and diagrams.

No. 4—_NARROW-GAUGE RAILWAYS—THE 2-FEET
GAUGE LINES IN TASMANTA.

By Frep Bacu, A.1.C.E., F.S.8., &c., General Manager

Tasmanian Government Railways.
(Read Monday, 10 January, 1898.)
[ Abstract. ]

ArtTerR introductory remarks, the author said :—First, there is
nothing novel in the construction of 2-feet gauge lines. As far
back as 1832 the Festiniog Railway Company was incorporated,
its gauge being 1 ft. 11} in. In 1869 it was re-incorporated and
practically reconstructed at a cost of £10,727 per mile, the ruling
gradients being | in 80.

The 2 feet gauge lines are in operation in almost every country
in Europe, and largely in India.

What is comparatively new in the working of 2-feet gauge
lines is the recent increase in the weight of the locomotives.

In Tasmania, the largest locomotive on this gauge weighs 20
tons, and is capable of hauling 50 tons up a grade of | in 25 with
curves of 14 chain radius.

T think that in the near future we shall have 40 ton locomotives
in use on this 2-feet gauge.

The reasons for departing in this instance from the standard
gauge in Tasmania was due to the intention originally of running
a light tramway into this mineral part. of the country north- east
of Zeehan ; but the developments in mining and the prospects of

Nore—The paper was illustrated by lime-light views, showing the character of the line
and the nature of the country.

NARROW-GAUGE RAILWAYS. 987

traftic increased so rapidly that it was thought prudent to strengthen
the proposed light tramway, and make it a strong 2-feet gauge
railway.

The country traversed by this line is mountainous and exceed-
ingly broken.

The north-east Dundas line, after 4 miles of comparatively easy
country, commences to ascend, and at 105 miles, after much
twisting and turning, reaches an altitude of 1,015 feet above
Zeehan.

The steepest grade is 1 in 25, in combination with 1} chain
curves.

The rolling stock in use on this line has been constructed in
the colony, excepting the locomotives. The standard locomotive
used weighs 193 tons, and takes a 50-ton load up a grade of
1 in 25.

The goods trucks carry a net load of 10 tons, the weight of
truck being 2 tons 14 cwt. ; thus we can negotiate grades of 1 in

25, in combination with 14 chain curves, with a paying load of
40 tons per train, which, with four daily trains in each direction,
would make the carrying capacity of the line 100,000 tons per
annum.

Briefly, the specialities of this class of railway are: Gauge, 2
feet; maximum gradient, 1 in 25; minimum radius of curves,
99 feet; width cleared, 30 feet, to be increased where necessary ;
cuttings 10 feet wide at base, and embankments 10 feet wide at
top ; bridges all timber (stringybark and blue gum) ; log culverts
and timber boxes; ballast, 800 cubic yards per mile, being 4
inches deep under sleepers ; the sleepers 5 ft. x 8 in. x 4in,
stringybark and blue-gum ; rails, steel, 46 1b. and 40 lb. to the
yard.

The cost of the line, including surveys, construction, and equip-
ment is approximately £2,000 per mile ; and in justification of its
adoption I may say that we are constructing and equiping nearly
20 miles of it at a cost of about £40,000, whereas our ordinary
3-feet gauge line, through the same country, would probably cost
£10,000 per mile, or (say) £200,000.

The interest, at 3 per cent., on these respective amounts shows
a saving in favour of the 2-feet gauge line of £5,600 per annum,
which, at compound interest, would, in less than seven years, be
more than the total cost of the 2-feet gauge railway.

988 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H.

No. 5.—NOTES ON THE ACTION OF CERTAIN
EXPLOSIVES.

By F. Marcuant, M.I.C.E. (Timaru, New Zealand).
(Read Monday, 10 January, 1898.)
| Abstract. |

In the use of explosives in subaqueous work, the following notes
on the burning of blasting gelatine and the sympathetic explosion
of dynamite may be of interest to engineers :—

1. For the purpose of loosening a harbour bottom before
sinking some large mooring screws, a 3-inch pipe was
lowered as a drill quide from a staging that had been
erected, and was sunk through a3 3-foot loose gravel upper
stratum to a hard sand surface, into which a 2h-inch
hole was bored to a depth of 20 feet.

When it came to loading the blasting charge holders, which
were two galvanized-iron tubes, each 7 feet long and 2 inches in
diameter, there was not sufficient dynamite, and the deficiency
was made up with blasting gelatine, the proportions being about
five-eighths dynamite and three-eighths gelatine.

Although there was full knowledge of the high initial detona-
tion required to explode the gelatine, it was naturally thought
that when the dynamite exploded the gelatine intermixed with it
would also explode.

The result, on firing by an electric battery from the staging the
charges in the tubes, which filled 14 feet of the bore- hole, was an
uprush from the guide- pipe of a roaring blast of violet- coloured
smoke shooting up 20 feet into the still air and forming a mush-
room shaped cloud which quickly fell on the staging, which the
men had already, without mishap, quitted by a boat.

In previously sinking six screw moorings in the same harbour
with precisely similar operations, but with dynamite alone as the
explosive, no such smoke occurred.

The conclusion therefore deduced is, that the dynamite in
exploding does not give a sufficiently quick series of vibrations to
effect the detonation of the gelatine, and that the latter simply
burnt furiously without having any explosive effect.

On the Sympathetic Explosion of Dynamite.

In breaking up portions of a wreck in about 21 feet of water,
charges of dynamite, each about 7 lb., in galvanized-iron canisters,
were attached by a diver, and a line attached, its upper end being
fastened to a float.

HOSPITAL CONSTRUCTION AND LAY MANAGEMENT, 989

The usual firing battery having been damaged, the charges
were exploded by sympathy, as follows, viz. :—A heavily-weighted
canister, containing 3 lb. of dynamite, with two lengths of water-
proof fuse, each about 3 feet long, was employed, the fuses lit in
a boat, and the charge run down the guideline among those pre-
viously set by the diver. All charges exploded simultaneously,
with no misfire.

This sympathetic action of higher explosives, though well known
and often taken advantage of in military torpedo practice, would
seem to be less widely known and made use of by civil engineers
than it ought to be.

In the case in question no charge was more than 6 feet distant
from the next, but much longer ranges would be effective.

No. 6.—SOME REMARKS ON DETAILS OF HOSPITAL
CONSTRUCTION AND LAY MANAGEMENT.

By C. E. Owen Smuyru, Superintendent of Public Buildings,
Adelaide.

(Read Monday, 10 January, 1898.)
| Abstract. |

Tue author, after a reference to a paper on “ Hospital Construe-
tion” read by him at the Adelaide meeting in 1893, and to his
being the Officer-in-charge of Hospital Construction in South
Australia, dealt first with the questions of drainage and sewerage.

He emphasised the necessity for the absolute separation by
trapping and ventilation from the main sewer, and in larger
hospitals of the separation of each section of the drainage system
from its neighbour.

Failing a good water pressure, however, he would never allow
in a modern hospital a drain-pipe to be used, but treat everything
on the surface, and apply daily cleansing.

He stated that there was a vast difference between sewer gas
and sewer air—a fact not generally recognised.

Treating next upon the use of disinfectants, he referred to the
frequent want of knowledge as to their proper application, and the
necessity for intelligent direction in this matter to young nurses
and hospital attendants.

He spoke upon pedestal closet pans, baths, lavatories and sinks,
which in addition to having every part as far as possible visible
to the eye, and unencumbered by casings, should receive much
greater attention in regard to cleansing than he feared was
generally paid to them.

990 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H.

For provision against accumulations of dust, he recommended
that any presses should have sloping tops of galvanized iron
clearly visible ; that mouldings and projections should be as few as
possible ; and that the meeting rails of windows and the tcps of
doors and screens, &c., should receive special attention.

He considered steam power an essential now-a-days in every
hospital, not only for cooking and hot-water supply, but also to
save laundry labour and to provide immediate means of disinfec-
tion.

Upon the subject of the most suitable disinfecting apparatus,
he alluded to the claims of the Washington Lyon Super-heated
Steam Disinfector ; to the Equifex Steam Disinfector (Geneste-
Herscher patent), made by Defries and Sons, of London ; and to
Dr. Treschs’ machine—and would be glad of opinions from those
who have had experience of any of the above. The consensus of
English M.0.H.’s opinions seemed at present-to be in favour of
the Equifex.

Since reading his paper at the 1893 meeting, he had arrived at
an improvement in the heating of operating tables, by introducing
heat in the centre of the table under the loins and back of the
patient.

The subject of operating theatres was too large for this paper,
but he would recommend a paper by Dr. Smyly, of Dublin, in
the British Medical Journal, of July 10th, 1897. Hospital con- '
struction must, under this head, keep pace with the surgeons, who
were moving very rapidly.

With a view to rendering wards as far as possible fly-proof,
doors, windows, fireplaces, and other vents should be provided
with brass or galvanized wire fly-proof mesh screens, the cost of
which would be well repaid by the result, and these should be kept
scrupulously clean and brushed over with turpentine periodically.
All post-mortem houses especially should be fly-proof.

The subject of isolation hospitals was.one that should not
longer be delayed in Australasia, and he considered that officers
responsible for hospital construction in the various colonies
should make a point of pressing this subject upon the various
Governments.

For small, detached isolation wards, where economy had to be
studied, galvanized-iron, sun-proofed on both sides with a lime-
wash mixed with boiling water and fastened with sugar, salt, and
raw linseed oil, would be found an excellent sheathing, and by
lining the interior and ceilings with small fluted 28-gauge iron,
coated similarly on the outer side and painted with zine on inside
and varnished, one would have a very cheap, serviceable, and
sanitary structure. Fly-proof screens to openings would be an
essential, and also broad verandahs.

ARCHITECTURE IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 991

No. 7.—ARCHITECTURE AND THE ALLIED ARTS IN
NEW SOUTH WALES.

By J. B. Barrow, President of the Institute of Architects of
New South Wales.

(Read Monday, 10 January, 1898.)
[ Abstract. ]

Iv has been said that the more abstract and ideal an art is, the
more it reveals to us the temper of its age. ‘If we wish to
understand a nation by means of its art, let us look at its archi-
tecture or its music.” This is true as far as architecture is con-
cerned, though it would seem that as a living art it flourishes only
among a young and vigorous people ; and that painting, sculpture,
and music, at their highest, are the arts of a nation’s decadence.
We have the evidence of history, in every country, that archi-
tecture has invariably began to decline before men turn their
attention to literature and the fine arts. England may be taken
as one example of this. Within the two hundred years imme-
diately succeeding the Conquest, twenty-three cathedrals, besides
numberless great abbeys, keeps, and convents were erected.
During this golden period of English architecture nothing at all
was done in the sister arts of painting, sculpture, and music ; nor
was there any literature worthy of the name: but in the middle
of the 14th century, when architecture begins to lose its force,
we find that the art of illumination is cultivated, and Chaucer’s
pilgrims ride to Canterbury. And as literature grew, and waxed
strong, the “seven lamps’ which had burned so_ brilliantly
during the dark ages, grew gradually dimmer as the years went
by. The lamp of beauty brightened once again, certainly, in the
Chapel of Henry VII, but it was only with the momentary bright-
ness of an expiring flame, for immediately afterwards it went out
utterly. English architecture was then delivered into the hands
of Italian and German Philistines, who built palatial houses for
the nobility, where, in most instances, there was a lavish display
of wealth, combined with a plentiful lack of taste. Then came
Inigo Jones and Wren, with their adaptations of the style of the
Italian revival ; but even their genius was powerless to make
those dead bones live. The impetus of their influence soon died
away, and in the 18th century, the Augustan age of English

992 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H.

literature and of English painting, architecture had ceased to be
an art, and had become archeological.

What I wish to show is, that all art moves in cycles ; that the
architectural cycle is first, and sculpture and music are the last in
the scale; that these cycles have occurred in precisely the same
order in the life of every nation, and it is reasonable, therefore, to
assume that they will occur in the same way here; and, further, that
it is only during the continuance of its own particular cycle that
any of the arts can be said to be really vital, and capable of its
loftiest expression. Let me cite the latest instance in support of
this argument. It can scarcely be said that the United States
has a national literature ; and, though there are many clever
American painters and sculptors, it certainly has no national
school of painting or sculpture. But that a national architecture
is gradually but surely being evolved there, must be evident to
everyone who has given the matter a moment’s attention. Does
not the phrase “an American house” convey a distinct and very
definite idea to the mind of every architect 4

The United States is now in its architectural age ; and if there
is anything in my contention with regard to the periodicity of art,
then we in Australia will shortly be entering upon a similar cycle.
A distinct national character in architecture is a natural growth.
We cannot create or control it, but it will be gradually evolved.
Tt will be probably nothing very novel, but whatever it is, it will
reflect the temper of the age as no other art can. We cannot hasten
its coming, but we can at least do something in making straight the
way. If my theory be a correct one—if history in this instance
is to repeat itself{—then the birthplace of the new architecture
must be looked for in Africa or Australia. America may yet do
much, but we must not forget that architecture progresses rapidly
to maturity ; and that after a comparatively brief period of full-
blooded existence it becomes corrupt, and sinks into an apparently
premature decay. And the American cycle, as we have seen,
precedes ours ; so that we will profit by their experience, as we
profit by the experience of every other nation. We are the
legatees of time in this respect, and, if we make the best use of
our opportunities, the world may, in its old age, look to Australia
for the ultimate expression of whatever is great and noble in
architecture.

Art in Australia still awaits its evangelist, but, in the mean-
while let us do what we can to set our house in order, so that
when he comes he may feel that at least he is not an unexpected
cuest.*

* We might, for instance, strive to prevent the purchase of any more alleged Largains
in the shape of statuary. We have already more than our share of bronze and marble
imbecilities in our public parks and gardens ; and it would be a distinct gain to Australian
art generally if all of them, with perhaps two or three exceptions, were consigned to the
lime-kiln or the melting-pot.

ARCHITECTURE IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 993

Sydney, by reason of its site, and the accident of its irregular
and careless growth, is even now the most picturesque of Austra-
lian cities, and its narrow crooked streets are full of pleasing
possibilities in the way of unexpected architectural effects. The
grouping of the dome and cupolas of the new markets, when
looked at from George-street, north of the Post Office, is a recent
and pleasing instance of this. It does not need the gift of
prophecy to foresee that during the next century Sydney will be
practically re-built ; but sufficient has already been done, however,
to prevent much alteration with regard to the width and the
shape of the principal streets. But in order that the work of
those who come after us may not be impeded, we require some
safeguard against departmental blundering. ‘This end, I think,
would be achieved by the appointment of a permanent board of
experts, whose duty it would be to confer with and advise the
Government on all matters connected with the improvement of
the city.

The formation of a Board, such as is here suggested, is not a
new idea; for nearly three centuries Paris has had her Council-
General of Public Buildings; and it is not too much to assert
that the Paris of to-day is incomparably the finest city in the
world. This result is due, mainly, to the work of the Council-
General.

Such a Council would undertake in part the duties now per-
formed by the Public Works Committee, the City Building Sur-
veyor, and the work formerly done by the City of Sydney
Improvement Board; but above and beyond all this it would
protect the public interests from an esthetic standpoint. Such a
Board would have prevented much unnecessary expenditure in
Martin-place. It would build up, but it would also pull down.
For instance, [ do not think it would tolerate the existence of
the inhumorous grotesques which fill the Post Office spandrels, or
of those other graven images which fail to fill the niches of the
Lands Office. ‘This Board would also include in its functions the
management of the Art Gallery Trust.

It may be asked why is it necessary to take all this trouble on
behalf of a public which cares nothing about these things—a
public which looks with complacency on the stained glass of the
Town Hall staircases, and which possibly mistakes the Centennial
Park statues for works of art! It is because of this, and in order
that they may be prepared for the artistic destiny which undoubt-
edly awaits them, that this paper has been written and these
suggestions made,

994 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H.

No. 8.—THE ORNAMENTAL TREATMENT OF TRON
AND STEEL IN BUILDING WORK.

By James NANGLE.
(Read Monday, 10 January, 1898.)
[ Abstract. |

(REFERENCE to the remarkable development during the present
century in connection with the use of iron and steel in ordinary
building construction.)

Their use in building works of a purely architectural character
can, however, only be regarded as successful as far as construction
is concerned, their treatment esthetically being disapproved by
lovers of truthfulness in art.

The large metal structures of the engineer have been more
successful, these being at least honestly expressive of the materials
in most instances, and therefore truthful, and often possessing
an inherent beauty of their own.

(Reference to the Brooklyn Suspension Bridge, also to the
Forth Bridge, and to a still more recent progressive example of a
bridge on the cantilever principle proposed to be erected over the
Hudson, as examples of truthful construction ; and reference to
the recent Tower Bridge over the Thames as an example of
untruthful construction, the steel towers in this case having been
clothed with an external veneer of masonry designed by an
architect, the masonry being hung to the steel skeleton, and the
effect being dissatisfying, as the towers, while appearing to be
stone, are subjected to stresses which they could not endure if
they really were what they appear.)

The tall steel buildings of the United States covered with
veneers of stone or terra cotta with details of historic styles dis-
torted in proportions, are similarly architectural frauds of the
worst kind ; but they are, after all, only the consistent result on
a large scale of what is practised on a small scale in modern
architectural work.

That a style peculiar to metallic construction and yet both
truthful and beautiful, has not been rapidly evolved, is not a
matter for surprise, when it is remembered how slow was the
development through the trabeated styles of the Greeks,—derived
from the post and lintel timber structures of early times,—to the
true or genuine use of stone under compression rather than trans-
verse strain, as in the arched and buttressed architecture of the
middle ages.

THE RECENT FIRE AT MELBOURNE. 995

As it took all those centuries to arrive at the most logical use
of stone, it can hardly be expected that an immediate solution be
reached for the successful treatment, zesthetically, of materials
which, if truthfully used, would -upset all the traditional and
much reverenced laws of proportion and beauty of detail.

Mr. Ruskin, in treating upon the question, says “ that if iron
and steel are to be used largely in building work, it means that
new laws of proportion and detail must be invented to meet the
case.”

It may be predicted that a true metal treatment in architec-
ture will be characterised by lightness and expression of sinewy
strength, in place of the mass and repose of the styles of the past.

The unsatisfactoriness of the present methods of treatment
results from the concealment of the construction, producing an
effect of lightness without strength.

While for many reasons, including risk from fire, some cover-
ing of the essential construction is unavoidable, this does not
necessitate that such covering should be a fraudulent imitation of
other material.

(Reference to cases where metallic construction may be exposed
and treated ornamentally in accordance with their character, and
reference to iron roofs.)

In the subordinate use of iron and steel construction in sub-
sidiary portions of a building, such as staircases, lift framing,
shutter frames, &c., where covering is non-essential, the problem
is simpler, and there are already illustrations of its solution, as
in the Equitable Insurance Building in Sydney, where artistic
treatment is combined with truthfulness.

In conclusion, it is safe to predict that iron and steel will be
used more and more in the future, and architects must face the
question of a treatment that shall be truthful and artistic as
well as constructional.

No. 9.—NOTES ON THE RECENT FIRE AT
MELBOURNE.

By Joun Sutmay, F.R.I.B.A.
(Read Tuesday, 11 January, 1898 )

Passive through Melbourne a few days after the occurrence of the
recent fire, I took the opportunity of carefully examining the
ruins and gaining further information by seeing some of those
interested in the properties. Soon afterwards my partner, Mr.
Power, was in Melbourne, and he also made a careful inspection
and in addition interviewed Mr. Stein the Chief Officer of the

996 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H.

Metropolitan Fire Brigade. At the first meeting of this Associa-
tion in this building, just ten years since, I had the pleasure of
reading a paper on “The Fireproofing of City Buildings,” and it
therefore occurred to me that a few further notes on the same
subject, especially in the view of the lessons taught by the
Melbourne fire, might be of interest at the present time. The
block which has been almost entirely destroyed measures approx-
imately 660 feet from EH. to W., and 313 from N. to S., and is
bounded by Elizabeth-street on the west, by Flinders-street on
the south, by Swanston-street on the east (all three 99 feet in
width), and by Flinders-lane, 33 feet in width on the north.

It was occupied mostly by warehouses, some of them seven and
eight storeys in height, and intersected by a few narrow lanes and
rights-of-way, making altogether what the Insurance Offices would
call a hazardous risk.

With the exception of the Mutual Store, all the buildings were
of the ordinary construction—z.e., brick walls, timber floors, in
many cases ceiled with match-boarding, wooden roofs covered
with corrugated iron, and hence very inflammable. Some had iron
shutters to their windows, fire-mains, and other precautions, but
these proved useless in consequence of the faulty construction of
the buildings from a fire-resisting point of view.

The progress of the fire may be best gathered from the report
of Mr. Stein, and summarised is as follows :—It commenced in
the seven-storey warehouse of Messrs. Craig, Williamson, and
Thomas, facing Elizabeth-street, which, when the firemen arrived,
was fully alight, flames coming out of the windows up to the
fourth floor, and hence impossible to save. A heavy westerly
wind was blowing, and the firemen’s attention was mainly directed
to saving the adjoining buildings but without avail. In ten
minutes time the upper part of Fink’s eight-storey building was
alight. The doors were burst open and a rush made by the firemen
to use the fire-hose with which the building was fitted, but the
roof fell in and drove the firemen out. At thismoment news came
that the wooden structures on the flat asphalte roof of the Mutual
Store were ablaze, but thanks to the character of the roof this
was got under; meanwhile the fire, under pressure of the heavy
wind, had got through to Flinders-lane. A few seconds after this,
Mr. Stein noticed that Crawford, King, & Co.’s, warehouse was
burning, and very shortly after that Sargood, Butler, Ewen, and
Nichol’s large softgoods warehouse adjoining had caught on the roof.
In a quarter of an hour it was gutted. During this time the fire
had attacked the Mutual Store at various points, but the firemen
were able to keep it under. Going round to Flinders-lane, Mr.
Stein found that the fire had got through in Sargood’s rear
warehouse, but that the warehouses on each side were as yet
untouched. The flames had also penetrated to the lane through

THE RECENT FIRE AT MELBOURNE. 997

the vacant warehouse behind Craig, Williamson, and Thomas’s.
The two warehouses to the east of Sargood’s in Flinders-lane
were the next to go, but by constant hard work Monahan’s eight-
storey building, at the corner of Swanston-street and Flinders-
lane was saved, as were the whole of the other premises facing
Swanston-street. “ Up till now the six-storey building behind the
Mutual Store and Stevenson and Son’s four-storey warehouse had
been preserved ; but the lanes and rights-of-way having become
blocked by falling walls, the firemen could no longer get to the
rear, and they, too, fell a prey. By this time the fire was under
control and was gradually conquered, but not until it had made
a clean sweep of the whole block except the Gresham Buildings,
the Mutual store, and the buildings facing Swanston-street. The
first-named was saved largely owing to the wind driving the fire
eastwards, while the latter were saved by the exertions of the
fire brigade—by that time in great force. The Mutual Store was
known to be specially constructed to resist fire and was also
almost isolated from adjoining buildings, thus giving the firemen
confidence, and justifying the paramount efforts made to save it.
With its construction I will deal later on.

The scene of the fire itself, when I saw it, presented several
items worthy of consideration. The most striking was the great
destruction of apparently substantial brick walls. For instance,
between Crawford’s and Sargood’s there were two external walls
built against one another, and aggregating fully 4 feet in thickness.
These were down almost to the ground level. Was this owing to
the heat of the fire buckling the brickwork? I think not; because
other walls, as at Fink’s, where the fire was equally fierce, are
standing. My solution is this: The walls are of great length and
unsupported by cross walls, hence weak to resist side thrust or
pull. The girders in Sargood’s were of iron and I believe con-
tinuous, and the ends were also probably built tight or fixed in
the walls. The first action of the heat would be to expand the
metal and force the walls out; then, as the heat increased, and the
metal began to soften and sag, the girders pulled the walls down.
This theory is confirmed by the hollow space of 4 or 5 inches now
existing between the remains of the two walls referred to, for a
greater part of the length, but not near the front and rear, where
they have the support of the front and rear walls. Further, a
large part of the east wall of Sargood’s fell over into Lincoln,
Stuart, and Co.’s premises, thus evidencing the pushing power of
the girders, possibly aided by the greater expansion of the bricks
of the interior of the wall over those of the exterior.

It may be objected that clay in burning shrinks, but this is
only when it is damp. When burnt, I believe it swells with
further heat. In support of this I would point to the immense
crack running almost from top to bottom of the east wall in

998 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H.

Fink’s Buildings. At the bottom the walls are thick, gradually
reducing upwards, so that the upper portions would be more
quickly heated through, and in expanding would force out the
return walls at each end. On cooling, the brickwork not having
sufficient cohesive power to pull the walls back again, must crack,
and did so, the crack being widest at the top and dying off to
nothing at the bottom. An eye-witness states that the crack
increased in size as the building cooled. Fink’s Buildings, though
excessively tall, is a testimony to the value of return walls at
reasonable distances apart. Comparing this with Crawford’s and
Sargood’s, allowance must, however, be made for the fact that
Fink’s Buildings was mainly occupied as offices, whereas the two
latter were warehouses, stacked with inflammable goods, and hence
the intensity of the fire was much greater. A marked example of
the bulging of a wall may also be seen in Mr. Wise’s premises,
where that adjoining Fink’s Buildings is bent like a bow, but
had not fallen.

The extraordinary shapes that wrought-iron takes when subject
to heat is exemplified in many of the destroyed buildings, but it
is too well known to need description. I must, however, call
attention to the defective system of construction adopted in many
of the buildings, in connecting columns and girders. — Instead of
the cast-iron columns seating on one another from top to bottom
of the buildings, and allowing the girders to pass through boxes,
or be supported on brackets, the girders are simply stiffened at the
bearing point and the columns seated thereon storey by storey.
It is bad for ordinary weight-bearing, but worse when attacked by
fire; for the girders, being continuous, have much greater
thrusting and pulling power on the walls, and directly one girder
goes a heavy additional strain is put on all above it. By seating
column on column this would be largely avoided; and had it been
adopted much of the great destruction of the walling and spread
of the fire would, I believe, have been obviated. A remarkable
escape of a whole front (that of Crawford and Company’s) with
extremely slender cast-iron columns must also be referred to ;
while in an adjoining building the cast-iron of some of the
‘olumns is partially melted, showing the intensity of the heat. In
the former case the wind, however, blew the fire away from, while in
the latter it blew it.on to, thecolumns. It is well known that fire-
men are very distrustful of ironwork in buildings, and with reason,
and also that they advocate wooden. girders and posts in leu
thereof. In the small stores adjoining Fink’s Buildings to the
east, timber was used for this purpose. The charred remains of
the girders are still in position, but were so badly burnt as to be
useless. In Crawford & Co’s. three-storey building the timber
girders have, however, suffered even more, being totally destroyed,
and only a black line of charred material shows on the debris

THE RECENT FIRE AT MELBOURNE. 999

where the girders fell and were consumed. In both cases the
timber used was Oregon; but the same result ensued in Messrs.
Edgerton and Moore’s premises in the lane, where hardwood had
been employed. It is usually contended that, when charred to a
depth of an inch or so, timber girders will then stand fire for a
considerable time. They have not done so in this fire; and in
addition the walls (in ene case, viz., Crawford’s) have suffered just
as badly as in the adjoining building where the girders were of
ron.

From the roof of the Mutual Store, whence the best general
view of the ruins was obtainable, the rows of iron shutters
guarding the rear of Stevenson and Son’s warehouse were a
noticeable feature. Several were bulged and twisted, but many
were intact. This, however, was not the case inside the buildings,
where they had failed—not so much the doors themselves, as the
tracks and runners, which could not withstand the fierce heat and
thus let the doors down.

It is now time to consider the Mutual Store, the only building
in the midst of the fire which survived it, to ascertain, if possible,
how much this was due to special construction, and how much to
favouring circumstances. The latter were marked. For instance,
on the west it abuts mainly on an open yard space, low two,
storey buildings occupying the frontage, and on this side the store
has but few windows. On the north is a right-of-way, on the
east Degraves-street, and the front faces Flinders-street. It was
early occupied by the fireman, who hoped to make use of it asa
break to stop the fire, and so were able to immediately repel every
attack. Its chief feature is a flat uninflammable asphalte roof,
and to this, next to the fireman’s efforts, I attribute its safety
under the special circumstances of the case, viz., high adjoining
buildings and a heavy wind. It is on record that burning ashes
and flaming debris fell on it in showers, but failed to set it on
fire, and it also afforded the firemen an excellent coign of vantage
for fighting the flames. Its weak feature is the building on the
roof of inflammable material.

The next point to consider is its internal planning and con-
struction. It is divided into two blocks, front and rear, separated
by thick walls and with the staircase and lifts between. The
openings in the walls are protected by iron doors. The staircase
has a brick wall between the flights instead of an open newel,
thus preventing up-draught, and the steps are solid blocks of
hardwood. ‘The lifts are at one end of this section, and form a
flue from top to bottom. If the outer wall of the lift shaft had
been omitted the arrangement would, however, have been perfect.
The floors throughout the front and rear blocks are of iron. girders
and terra cotta lumber, the best fire-resisting system at present
known; and this no doubt materially aided the firemen by giving

1000 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H.

them time to subdue the successive inroads made by the fire in
one part or other of the building. | Much emphasis has also been
laid on the protection afforded by the wire gauze covering the
windows, because on the north side, facing Brooks and McGlashan’s
warehouse, and only separated by a narrow right-of-way, many
of the window-frames remain intact; but at the northern end of
the east side, facing Crawford’s, with a street of double the width
between, the gauze coverings failed completely and a couple of
rooms were burnt out. The explanation is that on the north side
the wind drove the flames away and thus did not test the gauze
severely, while on the east, Crawford’s being a lower building, an
eddy was formed which drove the flames on to the windows. It
is therefore clear the gauze is a failure, and I would much prefer
iron shutters, when the precaution is taken to have the runners
securely fixed. Grinnell’s Sprinklers are fitted throughout the
building, but they only came into play in a few places.

The Mutual Store is claimed in Melbourne to be the first
building of its kind in Australia; but I think it only right to put
on record that the Head Office building of the Mutual Life Associa-
tion of Australasia, in Sydney, which I designed, is constructed
on the same lines, and was completed before the Melbourne
example was commenced.

Every great fire, if its conditions and spread are carefully
observed and analysed, teaches some new lessons and confirms and
enforces old ones. I will now endeavour to state these as they
have occurred to me. The first and most important is the
absolute necessity of the earliest possible information of an out-
break being conveyed to the fire stations, so that a fire may be
checked at its commencement. In the present case the first call
was received at 2:20 a.m. on Sunday, and afew minutes after,
when the men arrived, flames were breaking out of the windows
of the four lower storeys of Craig, Williamson, and Thomas’s
warehouse, thus showing the place must have been burning a long
time—in Mr. Stein’s opinion since ] p.m. on Saturday, when the
employees left. The possibility of such a thing happening in one
of the busiest blocks of a great city without discovery is a grave
impeachment of present methods. The solution of the problem
is, however, more a question of administration than of building
construction, and as such the Fire Brigades Board, the Insurance
Offices, and the owners of premises, are the most competent to
deal with it. The question seems to resolve itself into the
respective advantages or disadvantages of human or mechanical
methods. If decided in favour of the latter, architects, and
engineers may have something to say, but otherwise had better
leave the matter to those specially concerned.

The next lesson is one that other cities have learnt, but which,
till lately, we have ignored: I mean the rigid limitation of the

THE RECENT FIRE AT MELBOURNE. 1001

size of an undivided building in hazardous or valuable city blocks.
For London the limit has been fixed at 216,000 cubic feet, equiva-
lent to a cube of 60 feet, and this seems to be quite as large as
safety permits. Of course, it means inconvenience and extra
expense to those businesses which require larger accommodation ;
but they would, in my opinion, be well incurred to minimise the
risk of such calamities. Limitation in height is also as essential
as limitation of cubical contents, and on this point fire authorities
seem to be agreed that 60 feet is the utmost that, with a good
supply of water, can be effectively grappled with. In the centre
of our larger cities, where land is so valuable, and concentration
of trade is essential, this height would, however, seriously curtail
business enterprise. I would therefore suggest that an extension
to 90 feet should be permitted, provided the construction is of a
fire-resisting character, and that the roof especially be incombus-
tible. In such buildings, rising above the height to which hose-
jets can reach, it would also be desirable for each to have its own
special water-tanks on the roof, containing at least 1 gallon to
every 50 cubic feet of building, and its own fire-main and fire-hose
to every floor. Fink’s Buildings possessed the tanks and the hose,
but they could not be used as the roof and upper storeys, being
combustible, caught too rapidly, and thus became a distributing
centre that, with Craig Williamson’s, set fire to the rest of the
block.

The next point is one that is constantly being urged by fire-
brigade officials, viz., the necessity of fire-breaks in all large,
congested, or valuable blocks. The best form is a strong wall,
solid from bottom to top, and with a flat incombustible roof behind
it. This is difficult to obtain, owing to the pressing demand for
light within the buildings, and to the erratic subdivision of
property. It would only be generally feasible if the sites were
in one ownership, private or municipal, and leased on specific terms.
To continue the subject further would, however, lead us into an
abstract discussion of political or social economics, and would be
foreign to the objects of this paper.

Another form of fire-break is a sufficiently wide lane, or open
space ; and if a block does not possess such, it should be within the
power of municipalities to enforce its construction, the cost thereof
being borne by themunicipality, as representing the general public,
and the owners of the sites comprising the blocks.

The disastrous fire under notice teaches its newest lesson in
connection with roofs, showing up the danger of those of ordinary
construction, and the comparative safety of a flat incombustible
one. There is no question the fire spread principally through the
roofs and upper storeys catching first, and that the Mutual Store
owed its preservation in a large measure to its flat asphalte roof.
Contrary to a general impression, asphalte is incombustible as laid

1002 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H.

for paving, and as it will expand with heat and contract with
cold without cracking, is very suitable for a position in which it
is subjected to great variations of temperature. But even the best
varieties, viz., those quarried as a mineral in the Vosges and Jura
Mountains of France, soften so much with great heat as to easily
dent with heavy pressure, while the inferior kinds would be quite
unreliable in such a position. Cement is free from this objection,
but cracks instead of expanding and contracting with heat and
cold, and so would let wetin. ‘Tiles are much used in Southern
Europe for the same purpose, but the vaulting thereunder is thick,
and they are constantly being kept pointed to prevent leakage.
In India chunam roofs are common and watertight ; but the ereat
amount of labour required in their construction would, IT fear,
render them too costly in these colonies. An absolutely unbroken
roof is, of course, the best ; but any means of access thereto should
be of incombustible material, and skylights, if absolutely essential,
should be protected by strong wire guards, kept far enough away
from the wood and glass to prevent ignition or breakage. If,
however, an ordinary : sloping wooden roof isfor any reason essential,
then the regulation compulsory in Sweden for even two-storey
buildings should be enfor ced, viz., a fireproof ceiling under it.
I referred to this more fully in my paper on “The Fire-proofing
of City Buildings.”

Of equal importance with roofs are the walls and their construe-
tion, and the chief lesson the Melbourne fire teaches us is the
danger of long high walls unsupported by cross walls. The Sydney
Building Act wisely provides that unsupported walls more than a
certain length shall be greater in thickness than where cross walls
occur. But ina great fire this is not enough, and I think it would
be a wise thing to provide that instead of thickening the walls the
brickwork so used should be employed in the form of cross walls
or buttresses at specified intervals. No more space would be
occupied, but the increase in strength would be great. If the
limit of 216,000 cubic feet were adhered to, many businesses would
require several warehouses to be used in connection, and hence
openings in the walls would be necessary. These should not
exceed (say) 6 feet in width and be protected by fire-resisting
doors on each side of the wall, thus leaving an air-space between.
Much attention and discussion has been devoted to the best kind
of door—some advocating iron, others one of solid wood planks
covered with sheet-iron, or even faced with tile or terra cotta
slabs or asbestos fibre. But the lesson the Melbourne fire teaches
us is, that the hangings and bearings of the door are the weak
spots, as if they give the door falls and protection is gone ; hence
the necessity of two doors to each opening, one on each side of the
wall, or else the casing or effective protection of the hangings and
bearings. Such doors being heavy are most safely hung on rollers,

THE RECENT FIRE AT MELBOURNE. 1003

and the bars and tracks are especially liable to destruction by fire,
even when supported by solid brickwork, as they always should be.

The protection of windows is of vital importance, especially in
narrow lanes, and should be made compulsory where they are
less than 33 ft. in width. The experience of the Mutual Store
shows conclusively that wire gauze is ineffective, and, so far, I
know of nothing better than iron shutters.

Turning now to the question of floors and columns, we come to
a subject which has received more attention than any other in
connection with fire-proofing, as it is apparent that if a fire can
be only localised, even for a short time until aid is obtained, most
of the serious fires would be nipped in the bud. As, however, I
dealt very fully with this part of the subject in my previous paper,
T will not now go into the matter again. I may, however, remark
that ten years ago the system I advocated as the best, viz., the
use of hollow terra cotta blocks in conjunction with iron girders,
at that time quite unused in Australia, has since been much
adopted in good buildings, and, amongst others, in the Mutual
Store. There is no doubt that, owing to this sy stem the firemen
were able to check each outbreak as it occurred and so helped to
save the building. JI cannot, however, leave this portion of
the subject without referring to the very general but erroneous
impression that zinc is non-imflammable, and hence good material
for ceilings, a mistake into which a recent insurance authority fell
in writing an article on fire prevention in the Sydney Daily
Telegraph. As a matter of fact, zinc melts at 736°, ignites at a
slightly higher temperature, and in most large fires this point is
reached at “quite an early stage of the conflagration. From every
point of view plaster is more fire resisting, and even thin sheet iron
is much better than zine. The recently introduced asbetic plaster
promises well, and it is claimed to be fire proof.

But no precaution with floors and columns prevails much if stair-
cases are open and unprotected, and lift-shafts are cut through the
floors from bottom to top. Where the site has a side frontage the
plan of subdivision adopted in the M.L.A., Sydney, and Mutual
Store in Melbourne is the best ; but the majority of sites have access
and light only at front and rear. It is, however, quite possible to
plan the staircase and lifts so that they shall not add to the danger
of a fire spreading, but afford a safe means of exit to employees
and access to the whole building to the fireman on whatever floor
the fire may have started. The sketch plans show two arrange-
ments. The one marked ‘‘ A” assumes the need of a passenger as
well asa goods lift ; and “B” that of a goods lift only. With iron
doors to the staircase and goods lift, and a fire resisting floor and
ceiling, a fire might smoulder for a considerable time before it
would break through the windows or work through to the floors
above or below. Plan ‘“B” is more economical and even safer,

1004 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H,

consisting as it does of an external iron balcony to every floor and
external iron stairs. It is based on what I saw in Chicago a few
years ago and would be especially applicable to warehouses con-
taining the more dangerous kinds of goods. In the latter case the
important point is to avoid putting the lift in an enclosed shaft.

It may be urged that if the foregoing proposals were generally
carried out, the cost of building would be unduly increased ; but I
have no intention of suggesting that they should be made universal.
I do think, however, that it would be for the individual as well as
the general good, if each city was divided into districts, and some
such rules applied to the most valuable, the most congested, and
from a fire point of view the most dangerous. For others near the
centre, but not quite so important, less stringent rules would serve,
while in outlying suburbs each man might well be allowed to do
what seems good in his own eyes, provided he was sufficiently
separated from his neighbours and thus would not cause them
serious risk.

In concluding this paper, may I be pardoned for quoting an
extract from the one I read ten years ago in this place, descriptive
of the buildings of that period. It is as follows :—

Our present mode of building is to run up brick or stone walls as thin as
the Building Act will permit, fill the openings with wooden frames, form
the floors of inflammable Oregon joists, cover them with boards, ceil with
thin wooden linings, cut them through from top to bottom for lifts cased in
with wood if cased at all, divide the rooms with wooden partitions, erect a
wooden staircase, and finally cover all in with a woodon roof: what is this
but a magnified match box? Should a fire get a start at the bottom of a
lofty building so constructed, nothing could save the occupants of the upper
storeys, the danger of spreading would be increased ten-fold, and the risk of
a general conflagration greatly angmented.

Since that paragraph was written two great fires have occurred—
the one in Sydney, and the other in Melbourne—and both owing
to the buildings being of the character described. My criticisms
have been more than justified, for several of the Melbourne buildings
caught fire at the top instead of at the bottom, and yet their
destruction was just as complete. Some progress has been made
for which we should all be thankful ;_ but this dangerous class of
building is still being erected in the heart of our cities, and my
aim is to show that, from every point of view—-municipal, general,
and individual—buildings of this class should be subject to regula-
tion, and that it would pay everyone better to adopt those
improvements in construction which experience has proved to be
effective.

AUSTRALASIAN Assoc. Apy. Sc. VoL. VII, 1898. PLATE XXXVI.

| 6 ie) EBS ee

DIACRAMS ILLUST™TINS Elijaba: Meet:

2ocee

PAPER

by Jonny DUGMAN FRIDA R

Le
is & be f
as PA 2 R 6
tr eS) -)
z OS
In Gal Gach ia 8 We ae |
UL Eon 4
g :
~
y O
| 4
ls 2
2 a) |
= S
é =
g y
a Z
Aree é
a\ a
and Ewen. =
opis 1g00d DaSler“ Nichol
ar Stas O28 sigs “ee Ye 3
5 3 S
S
a
it
big
Z
é|2
a. ey
Al: olde & |
= RS 4 =: 9
3 hte Pc & 4 :
ic) e ARy a 3 2
uccesTeD Pran o WarkHouse o/s By ay
3 A o §
TO MINIMISE FIRE RISK. i 5 | A 4
pie Na ear OI 5

)wa nor =) Weer,

Notes on the Recent Fire at Melbourne.

By JOHN SULMAN, F.R./.B.A. = JY Pauls (aibedral

:

AW eg
Ley om te irons

Sel
x is
. ng hI
4 ; r ?
54 oie
c 5 '
/ - oe
i 5 si
a |
a 1 1
ai ae
‘ |

BUILDING REQUIREMENTS OF SYDNEY. 1005

No. 10.—A REVIEW OF SOME OF THE CONDITIONS
OF BUILDING CONSTRUCTION AND REQUIRE-
MENTS OF SYDNEY—PAST AND PRESENT.

By G. Atien MANSFIELD.
(Read Tuesday, 11 January, 1898.)

[ Abstract].

To one who has watched the growth of building enterprise in
Sydney from comparatively early days to the present time, it is
interesting to note the gradual development, both of the con-
structive art, and of the demands made upon upon it by the
manners and customs of the people of the period.

It may fairly be questioned whether this subject is strictly
appropriate to a scientific gathering, such as we have here to-day ;
but it has been thought by some whose opinions are entitled to
respect, that a record of such growth and development during a
period of nearly half a century of Australian progress would not
be without a certain value.

Those who are now beginning the study and practice of the
building art, can hardly realise the difficulties that beset the
pioneers of Architecture at the date of the half century.

The student who at that day set himself to work to study the
theory and practice of Architecture laboured under many and
great disadvantages.

The education of the eye plays a most important part wherever
in a course of training “ Art” is a prominent feature of the study.
A proper appreciation of its principles, and a familiarity with its
application to practical work, can best be gained by observation
and study of executed work. No amount of theory, or reading
of books, can supply the knowledge which comes from an intelli-
gent study of good examples. Opportunities for such study
were, in the early days, conspicuous by their absence. The
number of properly trained and educated architects was very
limited, and their works were of no great importance ; so that
the student had for the most part to fall back upon the informa-
tion supplied by books and illustrations, supplemented by such
teaching as his master thought fit to give him—generally not
over much,

1006 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H.

The architect of to-day has before him a wide field of choice
in the selection of materials for every part ef his building, and
has the command of the markets of the world for the supply of
all that cannot be produced locally.

The electric cable, and the swift steam-ship place within his
reach, at short notice, all the resources of EKurope and America.
[The author here refers in detail to the materials available for
building purposes in earlier days, and the methods of using them,
and contrasts them with the wide range of choice available to
the Architects of the present time, and with the modern improve-
ments in the construction and decorative arts. |

Last, but not least, must we acknowledge with thankfulness
those items in our dwellings which so much tend to the preserva-
tion of health, and the prolongation of life. As the outcome of
much laborious thought, much patience in experiment, and much
devoted enthusiasm in the cause, ‘Sanitary Science” has in the
last two decades made giant strides, and conferred untold benefits
upon the human race. In the matter of drainage and ventila-
tion, in the construction and fitting of closets, baths, sinks,
lavatories, and all necessities for the health, cleanliness, and
comfort of our lives, it is almost impossible to overrate the
importance of the improvements that have been made during the
last generation.

Much of this we owe to wise legislation. In Sydney, as in
many other places, the Government has taken upon itself, through
properly constituted representatives of its authority, the charge of
providing the inhabitants of city and suburbs with a pure and
abundant supply of water; a system of sewerage, constructed
upon the most approved methods of modern science, and which in
its full development will challenge comparison as a triumph of
engineering skill with that of any city in the world. Under the
same administration is placed the control of the entire sanitary
arrangements of every household, and a watchful and rigid super-
vision is exercised over them down to the minutest detail. Under
this beneficent guidance, the dread rule of “the pestilence that
walketh in darkness,” and of “the destruction that wasteth in
noon-day ” has been in a great measure arrested, and a marked
improvement effected in the death-rate and health returns of the
metropolis.

Within the limits of the city proper, the Legislature has provided
for a control, vested in the Municipal authorities, of the buildings
erected in it. The City of Sydney Improvement Act, which came
into force in 1876, regulates the construction of Luildings in a
fairly effective manner ; but outside the city boundaries there is,
as far as the writer is aware, no control whatever over the
construction of the buildings — every manis left to his own devices—

BUILDING REQUIREMENTS OF SYDNEY. 1007

and the suburbs abound with illustrations of the necessity for super-
vision of some kind.

Happily the sanitation of suburban buildings is better provided
for.

The Water and Sewerage Board has under its control, no less
than fifty suburban boroughs, and in all these the same attention
is paid to the efficiency of every detail of household fittings as in
the city itself.

Tt is not contended that for all these boroughs there is required
a Building Act of the same stringent and comprehensive character
as is applicable to a great city ; butit will hardly be disputed that
the time has arrived when a modified and reasonable control should
be vested in the Borough Councils, enabling them to regulate, at
least the thickness of the walls, the construction of foundations,
the cubic air-space of sleeping rooms, and some of the simpler
provisions for preventing the spread of fire.

In the more thickly populated boroughs the necessity for such
an Act is very urgent. In those more recently brought into
existence it would not, howeyer, be expedient to place too much
restriction upon the pioneers of the locality, or to hinder the growth
of small enterprises. Hence a Suburban Building Act should be
so framed as to come into operation in any particular borough only
by proclamation of the Governor in Council.

Much has been written and been said about the necessity for a
new Building Act for the city, and it must be admitted that there
is great room for improvement.

The lapse of thirty years since the passing of the existing Act
should furnish us with a stock of experience as to the additions
and amendments required to bring our laws more into harmony
with present conditions.

Amongst the questions of primary importance to be considered
in the framing of a new Act is that of fire-proof construction
more or less complete, closely connected with which is the limita-
tion of the height of buildings, and the number of their storeys.

In legislating on these points, however, much judgment is
required, and a calm and dispassionate study of the somewhat
conflicting interests which have to be reconciled is indispensable.
The view of the expert firemen is, very naturally, a somewhat
partial one. He looks at the subject from one point of view only,
and his theories, if carried into practice to their full extent, would
hamper very seriously the operations of the architect, and place
grievous obstacles in the working of the businesses of the
merchant and shop-keeper. The costliness of buildings would be
greatly increased, and, generally speaking, it is doubtful whether
the advantages sought to be obtained w ‘ould not be too dearly
purchased.

1008 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H.

It must not be forgotten that high authorities are by no means
at one as to the effectiveness of the so-called fire-proof construction
of to-day. In the minds and in the writings of those who have
given the most earnest consideration to the subject, there is
evidently grave doubt as to the possibility of constructing a really
fire-proof building. Examples have been frequent of late which
prove that buildings which in their construction contain no particle
of inflammable matter, and where iron and steel have been pro-
tected from the direct action of fire and water, the whole structure
has crumbled into dust under the fierce heat generated by the com-
bustion of its contents.

All this leads us to the conclusion that legislators must keep
prominently in view the balance which it is imperative to main-
tain between over much fire-proofing, and our commercial and
domestic necessities.

If, within the scope of a Building Act, it were possible to make
a settlement once and for ever of the vexed question of ‘ Ancient
Lights,” what a happy consummation would it be.

The laws affecting “‘ Ancient Lights” in England have their
origin in remote periods, and in old customs and rights which have
no parallel in this young country. How far those laws apply to
the Colony is a problem upon which no two lawyers seem able to
agree, and property owners and their architects are embarrassed
by the uncertainty which prevails, and which is so eminently
desirable to put an end to.

This is not the place to discuss the ethics of the question ; but
to the writer it has always appeared most inequitable that because
a neighbour of mine has enjoyed a privilege for a certain number
of years—a privilege that it was in my power to deprive him of at
any moment—that he should acquire a right to go on enjoying it for
ever to the grievous detriment of my property.

From a citizen’s point of view, it certainly appears a thousand
pities that in a young country like this, we should be hampered
in the building of our cities by laws, which, however they may
have come into existence in the old country, have here, at least, no
foundation to rest upon which is based upon justice, on expediency,
or on common sense.

THE GROTESQUE IN THE MODERN PICTURESQUE. 1009

No. 11.—THE GROTESQUE IN MODERN DEVELOP-
MENTS OF THE PICTURESQUE.

.

By Howarp JoOSELAND.
(Read Wednesday, 12 January, 1898.)
[ Abstract. |

Tne subject of my paper I have gladly taken up, for the reason
that I foresaw, at the commencement of what may be called a
new era of Australian Domestic Architecture, that there would
be a tendency to run riot in this fresh development.

I have said Domestic Architecture, because, firstly, it is in
this branch of our profession that there has been the most marked
change ; and, secondly, because time would not allow of my
touching the more important works ; and the principle underlying
my argument applies really to all architecture.

The grotesque has at all periods been more or less associated
with our art.

The attempts of the earliest builders were rude or grotesque
in conception in comparison to those of later times. Then came
the grotesque of the early civilised times, brought about partly
by the religious beliefs and superstitions of the nations. Next,
from the dawn of the Renaissance, can we trace a grotesque of
another kind—a grotesque of “ unrest’ and confusion of styles ;
and narrowing down the subject to our present day architecture
of Australasia, in addition to “unrest,” a grotesque brought
about by a misconception of, or want of adherence to, the first
principal principles of design. Now, if we apply the only true
theory—that the highest architecture inv oly es an honest expres-
sion of the requirements in each individual building,—then at
once we have a standard by which to try the merits of our work.

To define more clearly what is meant by “ grotesque” in
modern picturesque, one must first of all have an understanding
what constitutes picturesque in Architecture. I take it to be a
quality ranking a little below that of the majestic, relating to
something which pleases the eye in its general composition,
without necessarily inspiring us with admiration on account of
imposing grandeur.

To attain this effect, the chief points to be studied are a
skilful grouping of the various parts, and the suitability of the
building for the purpose for which it is built ;--and it is in
unsuccessful attempts to effect this that the most grotesque results
are produced.

3s

1010 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H.

The ease with which the more ornamental features of a building
may be multiplied leads us into this danger. Picturesque effects
almost invariably have to be accomplished by a process of
elimination rather than elaboration, the essence of picturesque
being simplicity of form and truth of expression.

To trace further the base of a good design, we find that much
depends upon the planning, not only as to internal use, but also
in disposition as regards the feature of the site. These should
have the first consideration.

The plan having been determined upon, we should erect thereon
the superstructure, paying special attention to the outline, and
working necessary features, such as doors, windows, chimneys, &c.,
into the most suitable positions for the convenience of the inside,
and using such natural features only as give a meaning and
expression to the whole building.

Thus, the design will be satisfactory, because it is a legitimate
development of the plan.

Unfortunately there is another method of architectural design
abroad which is absolutely wrong.

The proper order of design is reversed. It would seem as
though an untrained imagination collected a variety of features,
it may be good or bad, in themselves, until there was a chance of
fitting a plan to them; or perhaps worked in some pet bit of
design without the slightest reason for its existence.

The convenience of the building is often, indeed, sacrificed to
such fancies ; and no matter whether these are beautiful or bad in
themselves, the result will be nothing less than grotesque.

If we come to analyse what is at the root of grotesque in pictur-
esque, therefore, we find not only a good deal that is absolutely
false in conception, but much that is bad in construction ; and in
nearly all cases where we feel that a design offends us, whether
the reason be at once obvious or not, the real cause lies in the fact
that it is forced, and does not honestly and naturally express its
purpose.

In order to illustrate my meaning, I have imagined a building
composed of a number of such features as anyone may see In many
of our suburbs ; and I regret to say our new suburbs are by no
means an exception.

[Reference to, and sketches of, many instances of false design
and construction in recent work. |

Now, not only is the whole design full of grotesque features,
but the selection and disposition of materials is worse than
grotesque.

The front is of the best quality brick, but the sides and back
are the commonest. The roof is of the most expensive slates on
three sides, the back and inside slopes are iron.

j
|

THE GROTESQUE IN THE MODERN PICTURESQUE. 1011

If the proprietor could not afford to use the best materials
throughout, it was the duty of the architect to advise him to
adopt less expensive, though, for all practical purposes, equally
durable, materials all round.

The examples I have here portrayed are commonplace, I know,
but I trust I have said enough to impress upon you the argument
which is my excuse for the production of this paper, namely,
that grotesque in modern picturesque arises from a misunder-
standing of the first principles of architectural design.

I hope, also, I have not wearied you with this nightmare of a
vision (as portrayed in the sketches). It would be all beneath
notice were it not for the fact that all the eccentricities I have
put before you are actually being daily perpetrated by many
practising as architects who at the present time have the confidence
of the public.

In a young and comparatively-poor country like this, our
architecture should be more simple. I would go so far as to say
that it is absolutely dishonourable to squander our clients’ money
in what is not durable, or to introduce needless fads of our own
for the sake of seeing them realised.

In conclusion, I would briefly state that it appears to me what
greatly contributes to the cause of so much grotesque arthitecture
here, may be accounted for by two causes. One is, that our
students of architecture labour under the disadvantage of having
no opportunity of studying here the wealth of “picturesque
examples of actual old work to be found in older countries
secondly, that many of the practising members of our profession
have launched forth on their career with less than half the
experience and training that is deemed necessary to properly
qualify an architect in England.

Our profession is, unfortunately (or fortunately), an open one,
for it has been contended by some of our best men that years of
the training necessary for examination work would tend to check
the artistic sense in architecture. Any way, any sort of recognised
test of ability seems as far off as ever.

It remains, therefore, for those who have the best interest of
our profession at heart, to persevere, in spite of much that is
discouraging, and by the examples of our actual work, rather than
anything we can write or say, to show that architecture is some-
thing more than an indiscriminate piling up of features, but that
it should be a natural expression, not only in general conception,
but in detail, of the requirements of the times in which we live.

1012 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H.

No. 12.—COAL-MINING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

By J H. Rona.pson.
(Read Wednesday, 12 January, 1898. )
[ Abstract. |

In the year 1797 coal was first discovered in New South Wales
at or near Coalchff, 35 miles south of Sydney, and a similar
discovery was made a month later at Newcastle, where the coal
was worked by the Government till 1829. Convict labour was
employed during that period, and the total quantity of coal raised
was 50,780 tons.

From 1830 till 1847, the Australian Agricultural Company
held the monopoly of working coal under Government land,
although coal was to a very limited extent worked by others at
the time from alienated land.

The progress made in coal-production throughout the Colony
may be gathered from the following figures, which include the
outputs from the collieries of the Northern, Southern, and
Western districts :—

Year. Output in Tons. Year. Output in Tons.
1831 4,000 1871 898,784
1841 34,841 1881 1,769,597
1851 67,610 1891 4,037,929
1861 342,067 1896 3,909,517

These figures indicate retrogression during the last few years
rather than progress, and unfortunately outside competition has
also forced down the selling price. From 1875 to 1885, the value
per ton of coal exported dropped 24 per cent., and from 1885 to
1895 33 per cent., or, in other words, the price obtained in 1895
was less than half that obtained in 1875 dD.

The causes conducing to this state of affairs show how ill-advised
the efforts of labour leaders have proved in seeking to regulate
the workmen’s earnings without due regard to the potentialities
of outside competition.

To the output of 1896, the Northern, the Southern, and the
Western contributed respectively 67 per cent., 26 per cent., and
7 per cent.

THE NEWCASTLE COAL-FIELD.

The Measures of this field dip generally towards the south, and,
omitting the unproved strata of the Stroud district, are divided
stratigraphically into the Greta, the Rathluba, and the Newcastle
groups, occurring in ascending order as named,

COAL-MINING IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 1013

The Greta or lowest group laps around an anticlinal dome of
intrusive rock that occurs 27 miles north by west of Newcastle,
and on its western side the Greta seam has been worked for many
years. ‘This seam at its best has been found 18 feet thick, and
yields a clean, hard, flaming, non-caking coal, unsurpassed for
household use and somewhat singular in its characteristics. In
one small part of Greta colliery this seam contained a shale parti-
cularly rich in hydrocarbons. To the south and east of the anti-
cline this seam has been opened up and, in places, found of great
thickness and of excellent quality. Northwards its extension is
unknown.

The Rathluba series, separated from the Greta group by some
800 to 1,000 feet of strata, and itself from 700 to 1,000 feet thick,
contains various thin seains of coal which, although of a quality
inferior to the Greta and the ‘ Borehole” seam of Newcastle, are
worked toa limited extent in the neighbourhood of East Maitland.

The Newcastle series overlies the Rathluba, with 1,000 feet of
intervening strata, and is found cropping up in a line running
north-west from the town of Newcastle for a distance of 16 miles,
while to the south beyond the limits of the existing collieries its
extension is ill-defined.

Tn this series are found some eight or nine seams of coal, some
of little present or prospective value, while others not now worked
will become valuable in time to come.

The lowest workable seam is the well-known “ Borehole” seam,
which for purity and general usefulness occupies the premier
position among Australian seams. The coal is strong, bright, and
bituminous, excellent for household and gas-making purposes, and
of good quality for steam-raising. Jt contains 36 per cent. of
fixed carbon, 57 per cent. of volatile hydrocarbons, and 43 per
cent. of fixed ash. In and around Newcastle this seam occurs
under most favourable conditions for working, is from 5 to 15 feet
thick, has a good roof and floor, and is free from explosive gas.

To the south of Newcastle, on the shores of Lake Macquarie,
the Pacific Colliery is working one of the upper seams, which, being
‘thick and easily won, is able to compete at a lower price with the
“Borehole” seam. Further south, and 16 miles from Newcastle,
at Catherine Hill Bay, the Wallarah Company is working one of
the thick upper coals whose identity is scarcely determined.

THE SOUTHERN COALFIELD.

Many years subsequent to the establishment of the Northern
coal industry, the “ Bulli” seam was opened out at Mount Keira,
on the side of the mountain range overlooking Wollongong, and
at later periods one colliery after another was established in the
district till now ten fully equipped collieries are in more or less
active operation.

1014 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H.

The seams of this coal-field crop out on the ranges facing the
Pacific Ocean and are thus exposed from Jamberoo to Coal-cliff,
where they disappear beneath the ocean level. Seven miles further
north, the “ Bulli” seam is found at a depth of 641 feet below
sea-level, and extensively worked by the Metropolitan Coal Com-
pany from a shaft 1,098 feet deep. At Mount Westmacott, 34
miles to the north, and at Holt-Sutherland, 163 miles from Sydney,
this seam is found at depths of 1,518 and 2,231 feet respectively.

Recent boring operations at Cremorne, on the northern shores
of Sydney Harbour, proved this seam at a depth of 2,900 feet,
the core in the first bore showing a 9-feet seam of wholly burnt
or cindered coal, and in the second bore an apparently clean and
unburnt coal. Tempted by the geographical position, a company
is, on the strength of these two bores, sinking two large shafts,
24 miles west of the bores with the object of working coal under
the waters of Sydney Harbour.

The “Top” or “ Bull” seam is practically the only one of this
field hitherto worked, the remaining six or seven underlying

eams being either commercially useless, or at best distinetly
inferior. Mount Kembla Colliery marks the southern limits at
which this seam is of commercial value. Found there as thin as
2 feet 9 inches, it rapidly thickens to the north, and throughout
the greater portion of that property it exists 5, 6, and 7 wer
thick ; northward to Bulli it exists 6, 7, and 8 feet thick; a

North Bulli it thins to 4 feet, and again gradually ae
northward till at Helensburgh it attains a thickness of 10 feet.

This seam is sem1- fearon and unrivalled in the Colm as
a steam-coal. It contains 66 per cent. of fixed carbon, 22 -
cent. of volatile hydro-carbons, and 9 per cent. of fixed ash ; it
yields an excellent hard-bodied coke, now largely used in metallur-
gical works in Australasia.

THE WESTERN COAL-FIELD.

This field is readily correlated with the Southern field. Its coal
and kerosene shale-beds arefound in the elevated plateau of the Blue
Mountains, their continuity with the Southern (or Eastern) coals
having been abr uptly broken by a large dislocation in the strata,
caused by a sinking of the land to the east of these mountains.
The coal is cheaply won andcheaplysold. Although containing more
ash than the Newcastle or even the Southern coal, and distinctly
less valuable than the latter for steam-raising, it gives fair results,
and has of late been largely patronised by the Government railways.

It is in isolated and circumscribed areas of this field that the
famous ‘“‘ Kerosene” or “ Boghead” shale occurs, its finer quality
being exported for gas- enriching. The second quality, hitherto
used for oil: making, is now, on account of the free importation of
American oils, thrown aside or left unworked.

COAL-MINING IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 1015

To summarise, we can trace the seams of the Southern coal-field
along the South ‘Coast Ranges from Jamberoo, 70 miles south of
Sydney, to Coalcliff, within 35 miles of Sydney ; ; northwards by
means of the Metropolitan Colliery, the bores at Mount
Westmacott, the Holt-Sutherland Estate, Liverpool, and finally
at Sydney.

From Sydney northwards a hiatus in our knowledge exists,
and we must travel on past the bores at Wyong to Catherine Hill
Bay to reach known ground. In this long gap of 70 odd miles,
changes in the character of the coul-seams and the enclosing
rocks are inevitable, and render the relation of the Northern to
the Southern coals a matter of speculation.

METHODS OF WORKING.

Of the two systems of coal-working—pillar and stall, and
longwall—the former has been with a few exceptions exclusively
employed in the Colony, and it is to be regretted in many cases
with little regard to fundamental principles. Impatient owners
and anxious managers have too frequently, with short-sighted
economy, left pillars of too small size, resulting in irretrievable
loss of coal and in danger to human life.

In some of the shallow mines of Newcastle the unaltered
methods of half a century or more have held their sway, and
bords of 8 yards and pillars of 4 yards width have been the rule.
A somewhat similar state of affairs has obtained in some of the
Southern collieries, where perhaps some justification may be
admitted on account of pecuiiar parallel “rolls ” of stone on the
floor between which, for economy, the bords or stal's are driven.
In other Southern collieries, pillars 12, 16, and 20 yards wide are
being left in the first working , and in one notable instance—the
Metropolitan Colliery—pillars 250 yards long and 50, and ai times
100, yards wide are left where, on account of peculiar conditions
not altogether dependent on depth, smaller sized pillars are
objectionable. In some of the newer collieries of the North, 8 yards
pillars are the rule.

Longwall, with its many advantages under certain conditions, has
only been adopted i in a few instances.

It cannot but ke matter for surprise that in a country like
Australia, where miners’ wages rule high, and where in its oldest
and chief coal-tield the hewing rate constituted by far the highest
item in the winning cost, little or no effort has been made to
introduce coal- cutting machinery ; and it is the writer’s belief that,
paradoxical as it may appear, the miner’s best hope of maintaining
a high level of wages lies in the adoption of labour-saving appli-
ances that may enable the colliery companies to compete with
outside rivals.

1016 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H.

VENTILATION.

Coal-mining has progressed in no direction more rapidly during
the last half century than in the methods and thoroughness of
ventilation. Instead of the 10,000 and 15,000 cubic feet of air
per minute considered ample to ventilate a colliery in the earlier
years of the century, it is not unusual for one fan to circulate
400,000 cubic feet of air per minute through the airways of a
colliery. The splendid fan of the Metropolitan Colliery in this
country readily circulates a current of 300,000 cubic feet of air
per minute through the workings.

Although the above quantities are exceptional, it is to the mag-
nificent achievements in colliery ventilation of recent years that
must be attributed the well-established fact of a collier’s occupation
being now one of the healthiest in the long list of industrial
pursuits.

Ten years ago nearly every colliery in New South Wales was
dependent on underground furnace for ventilation ; to-day there
are some ten fans in the Northern and three in the Southern
district.

Fortunately the collieries of New South Wales have hitherto
been exceptionally free from explosive gas, and in only one colliery,
the Metropolitan, where a highly explosive gas of a peculiar
character is met with, has it been found necessary to use safety
lamps continuously. No doubt when the dry and gassy coal under
Sydney Harbour is reached, much gas will be given off, and great
care will be necessary in its ventilation.

The investigations carried on of late years have demonstrated
the danger that exists, even in the absence of explosive gas, from
the presence of dry dust, due to the attrition of coal and certain
kinds of rock, and deposited on the floor and timbers of roadways
when ordinary powder and many other explosives are made use of
for blasting. That many otherwise inexplicable explosions have
occurred from this cause is now univ ersally conceded, and the
remedy lies, where blasting is necessary, in the use of the safest
explosives, removal of the neighbouring dust, and _ liberal
watering.

Ten years ago the disastrous Bulli explosion occurred, and there
are now few intelligent men versed in this subject who doubt that,
‘however begun, its propagation throughout the roadways of the
mine was due to the presence of dust.

Inthis réswmdé of the writer’s original paper, it has been necessary,
not only to condense, but to excise many portions, leaving only
sufficient to indicate very briefly some of the chief features of the
subject.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 1017

SEcTION I.

SANITARY SCIENCE AND HYGIENE.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

By the Hon. Attan Camrsett, M.L.C., L.R.C.P., L.F.P.S.
(Delivered Saturday, 8 January, 1898.)

ASPECTS OF PUBLIC HEALTH LEGISLATION IN
AUSTRALIA.

I apprectate the honour extended to me by the Council of the
Association, and deem myself fortunate in having an opportunity
of addressing the members of the Association and the public in
this important section of its work. Let me, however, at once say
that I am no specialist in hygiene or sanitation. My interest in
them comes to me as side questions, more in the part I play as a
representative of the people in Parliament than as a medical man,
or as a sanitary expert. This will account to some extent for the
turn the discussion will be found-to take in my address. I am
conscious of a total lack of experience in any of the duties per-
taining to an officer of health, and were a President’s address
limited to a technical review of the important questions with
which Section I deals, I should feel bound to give place to someone
with a larger experience, and more opportunity of concentrated
study than has fallen to my lot.

The discursive character, I apprehend, of a Presidential Address,
renders it capable of popular treatment. It is not supposed to
necessarily limit itself to matters exclusively within the province
of the specialist, or to be addressed to experts only. <A fair
measure of license is given to range over the wide field of topics
which the section embraces. Under these circumstances facts
and theories will be referred to familiar to professional men.
When, however, it is remembered that in this Section, more
especially the questions we deal with, have large public aspects

1018 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I.

we must not hesitate, even at the expense of repetition, to restate
the principles of our science. We all know that there is little
danger of repeating them any too often in the hearing of the
public. Those, therefore, of my audience, who are more intimately
acquainted with hygiene and sanitation than I am, will bear in
charity and patience the scientific shortcomings of my address.

The task I have set myself is practically an appeal to my fellow
legislators of these colonies, and however Utopian the effort may
seem to some, this can be said for it, that it is neither illegitimate
nor out of season. I propose to limit myself to the consideration
of the three following general propositions :—

1. How far public hygiene claims attention from our
legislators.

to

. What Australia has on general lines accomplished in the
direction of public hygiene and sanitation.

What remains to be done, and the lines on which immediate
legislation should run.

ae)

SECTION I.

The recent. unique historical event, a Diamond Jubilee of the
reigning Sovereign of the British Empire, has thrown many
scientists and philanthr opists into a somewhat retrospective mood,
and we have been favoured with excellent and highly- interesting
monographs, detailing the progress of science and art, and the
development of social movements duri ing the last sixty years.
None of these have been more inter esting, and none have shown
greater advances to have taken place than those relating to public
hygiene.- Its triumphs have been more than ordinarily manifest,
and these have only been made visible as the theoretical conclu-
sions on which it is based have become more completely embodied
in legislation. Public hygiene really can have no _ practical
existence without enactment. It may seem to minds trained to
methodical reasoning an easy process to utilise the conclusions of
a branch of science so experimental as that upon which public
hygiene rests, and to secure their materialisation, so to speak, in
law. But when it is remembered that these conclusions of science
must filter through minds, whose strong point is not the calm
exercise of the reasoning faculty, the barrier to secur ing an Act
of Parliament is sulbstanional and the labour involved in overcoming
it hard, and oftentimes disappointing.

But legislation has to be obtained. It is said, public opinion
must be followed, but it is equally true that it must be created.
It is the work of lesen ledge to create, and that is the aim of this
Association to-day. In seeking legislation, the main factor after

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. 1019

all is, not so much public opinion, but the intelligence of the
average representative of the people. He has been a study to me
for many years. He is a compound of many influences, and the
subject of the most diverse motives. Nevertheless he makes
our laws, and determines the legislative limits of our aspirations
for the public good. He must be approached with consideration.
The clearest demonstrations of science will not compel his assent.
We must exercise discretion, and clothe our advances in accordance
with his habits of thought as a politician, and not as a savant or a
philanthropist, although none knows better than I do, that there
is much in his labours that exhibits both practical wisdom and
philanthropy.

Possibly his attitude of semi-indifference towards public
hygiene may be from several points of view excusable. In its
scientific aspect it is itself largely only of yesterday, while the -
organisation of its principles under legislation involves con-
siderable public expenditure, and at the same time impinges
upon individual liberty, of which he is very suspicious. Yet
Australian legislation generally suggests the reflection that we
in the Southern Hemisphere are again bent upon proving how
far compulsory or mandatory hee can be instituted among a
free people. We can see this in various directions. While,,
however, admitting that public health legislation must to a
large extent be compulsory, it is needful that I should point out
that compulsory legislation for this purpose has features which
distinguish it from compulsory legislation for purely economic
objects, and unless the difference between them is recognised,
the objection to compulsion must lie against the one as well as
the other. How far law may trench upon the liberties of a free
people, it is not possible to put in a general proposition. Every
encroachment must rest upon its own basis ; but so long as that
basis is broad enough, no apprehension of its effect need be
seriously entertained. At the present moment throughout some
of the Australian Colonies, legislation is being passed interfering
considerably with industrial freedom. It is not my purpose to
inquire what may be the issue of this; I desire merely to take
note of the tendency ; and while drawing attention to this spirit
of the time, I wish to make it apparent that compulsory legisla-
tion for public health purposes is not outside but rather very
much within the range of this prevalent idea.

After all it is only in so far as any system of compulsion
among a free people can be rationally defended that it has any
right to exist. Public Health laws have the broadest possible
basis ; they touch every member of the community. Public
health is equivalent to national well-being, and national well-
being is certainly the welfare of the whole and not of a few.
Its legislation prejudices no one in the end; and with whatever

1020 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I.

irksomeness its mandatory provisions may be received by some,
no class and no individual of any class goes under in consequence.
I claim on behalf of public health laws, that although they come
within range of the spirit of a time which hankers after com-
pulsory legislation for economic purposes, they are the one
phase of that legislation which can call to its defence sound
reason, and a guarantee of fair play to all. Compulsion at any
time can only be deprived of its apparent tyranny by its
inherent reasonableness, and applied to the legislation I should
like to see established, it simply means the parting with a partial

to)
and oftentimes injurious freedom for a fuller and a higher form

of liberty.

Surely, therefore, I may approach my brother representatives
of the people, and claim an attentive hearing on behalf of more
complete public health enactments than now exist. It is no
doubtful claim that such enactments are but part of the modern
movement which is lifting the masses and ameliorating the
struggle for existence. Philosophers have called it the altruistic
movement, but the spirit of it is the lessening of human misery,
and the enlargement of the possibilities of a better life to all.
There cannot be any question of the supreme importance to
everyone of the possession of health ; but much more important
is its continuity to that large class of men and women, whose
chances of securing the necessaries of life are so limited as to
leave, when health is gone, but a small reserve between
independence and poverty. Under conditions of poverty the
struggle is neither fair nor equal. Writers on social evolution,
and “political leaders of all creeds, never fail, now-a-days, to
remind us that the whole trend of our social advancement fore-
shadows a larger and more righteous equality of opportunity for
all. If this be so, then the question of public health legislation
is lifted into a position of supreme importance. Such an equality
is but a dream to the masses without securing to them the possi-
bilities of health.

But we may also look at Public Health legislation from the
economic as well as the altruistic standpoint. Some of its problems
can be set out in figures as clearly as the balance-sheet of a business
concern. National Wealth and National Husbandry, if not
absolutely convertible terms are nearly so. Adam Smith tells
us industry i is the true source of wealth ; but steady toil lies at
the basis of industry and health at the basis of toil. A healthy
nation also industrious is on the high road to wealth. It is this
condition that alone makes for a high standard of comfort, and as
the social writer phrases it, makes possible the maintenance of a
life worth living.

We have not the data at our command in the statistical records
of Australia to set out fully the gains which an intelligent system

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 1021

of Public Health administration may secure. The fact is we have
had no experience of such a system. We must turn for data to
older communities which are in advance of us, and no country has
led the van more than England. Ata meeting in June last in
the Guildhall, London, (Dr.) Sir Richard Thorne, summarised the
position in a very able and remarkable address. Referring to the
danger of unduly exalting the achievements of Public Hygiene,
in which he himself had had a leading hand, he said “ What do
others say of us? A few years ago a disting uished Frenchman,
M. Henri Monod, Director of Public Health in the Ministry of
the Interior in ene impressed by the waste of life in his own
country, set himself to study the results of English Sanitary
Administration, and he showed that if during the ten years 1880—
1889 our death-rate had remained the same as it stood before that
date, we should have lost over 800,000 lives during those ten
years. For the purposes of this eventful gathering, I have
brought these French studies up to current date, and I find that
if they are carried to the end of 1895, the saving of human life
since 1880 amounts to close upon 1,500,000. That, I venture to
maintain, is a grand achievement, and it was as such that it was
submitted to a body of French experts for imitation.” He con-
tinues ‘Is this all? Both preventible disease and death are very
pitiless in their incidence ; they select the young and the bread-
winners, and they wreck homes and families that were full of hope.
Sir John Simon, once calculated there were 125,000 more deaths
in England and Wales every year than there should be. Allow
only ten cases of non-fatal disease for one that terminates in death,
and we have an annual total of one and a quarter million cases of
sickness, often involving misery, penury, and even pauperism.
The saving of life, calculated on the basis of my French friend
and colleague in the fifteen years ending 1895, means a saving
during that period of 15,000,000 attacks of sickness.” He con-
cluded by these words, suggesting the economic aspect of the
question, ‘Surely the financial aspect of this great operation can
be appreciated in this, the financial centre of the world.” The
saving here referred to by Dr. Thorne has been calculated by
others, to amount to a saving of no less a sum to England than
£15,000,000 per annum.

In an industrial nation every human life is an integral part of
the nation’s wealth, and every death from preventible causes is a
Joss in money value. The cost of the ravages of preventible
diseases can therefore be calculated. Every colony can sum up
its own balance-sheet. In South Australia, during 1896, there
were 93 deaths from typhoid fever alone, in a population of
300,000, and taking the ordinary basis of calculation for non-fatal
cases, and even leaving out the deaths and cases of sickness of the
non-working ages below fifteen and over fifty-five, and the typhoid

1022 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I.

bill of South Australia was nothing short of £50,000 ; but there
were deaths from other preventible diseases than typhoid fever,
amounting in all to 649, and, looked at from this point of view,

the loss inflicted during that year upon South Australia, could not
be less than £200,000.

These figures, although presented with great brevity, must
emphasise to our representatives the fact that public hygiene is
not merely a financial question in virtue of public expenditure, but
more because of the national loss its absence entails. If the
standard of public health is a high one, the nation’s gains are great,
if the reverse, its losses are enormous. Lord Playfair was amply
justified in saying, at the meeting in the Guildhall to which I
have already referred, “ That no community could make a more
advantageous investment, than to spend annually in proportion to
its population, a few thousands, or hundreds of thousands in
securing the best standard of public health.”

But I may be permitted to offer our legislators another considera-
tion. It is frankly admitted that not many years ago, great diversity
of opinion existed among those who were credited with knowing
the origin and nature of preventible diseases, with the usual
result that the public were left in uncertainty and the victims of
superstition. It may be remembered as an historical fact by some
here, that not later than 1832 a Bill was introduced into the British
House of Commons with the preamble ‘‘ Whereas it has pleased
Almighty God to visit the United Kingdom with the disease called
Cholera, &e,” and although science disclaim any such theory as to
the origin of clisease, for. many years even after 1832, it spoke of
hidden cosmic and telluric influences as the agents at work in the
production of those desolating epidemic visitations.

All this is now changed, hypothesis has given place to fact, and
uncertainty to knowledge. The secret has been discovered, and
new light has at last been shed on a hitherto dark and mysterious
page of nature. To the germ theory of disease belongs the credit
of this transformation. Butit is no longera theory, it has become
a science. During the last twenty years bacteriology has laid
bare the minute and living organisms, to whose activity so many
of the ills of our race are due, and it has become the repository of
the facts and generalisations that constitute the basis of the present
day pr inciples. and practice of Public Hygiene. These living
organisms, it is true, are subtle and minute, but no mystery
attaches now to the conditions of their life or their management.
They are ponderable bodies, subject to physical law, and there is
no uncertainty as to the course they will, in any circumstances of
important practical moment, pursue. If they are present in a
iquid medium they will precipitate or remain afloat according to
their specific gravities. If they lie upon a moist surface, they will

_
:

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 1023

not rise with the evaporating moisture. If they become dry, they
will be disseminated only by such air currents as are of sufficient
force to lift them into the atmosphere. This material property of
gerins then is a fundamental conception, and forms the basis of
the chief practices of Hygiene in connection with communicable
diseases. It is a conception too that divests these germs of all
mystery; it is easily grasped by the public mind, while it is more
than sufficient to satisty the public judgment on the reasonableness
of the means prescribed by Public Health legislation for their
control and destruction.

The power of these minute bodies or microbes to produce disease
is beyond dispute. Their vitality is very real, in fact in some of
them, it is positively tenacious. They attach themselves to
different structures in the body, find for themselves a suitable soil,
and multiply with amazing rapidity. The process is not identical
in each kind, neither are the conditions on which their develop-
ments is dependent the same in all, but the fact that they are
living, ponderable bodies, with a life history singularly distinct, is
applicable to all. It is not assumed that nothing now remains to
be known regarding them, for that would not be true, but so far
as public health is concerned, every practical point is covered by
the knowledge now acquired.

Tt only remains for me in this first section of my task to say,
that these germs or microbes are the efficient causes of those wide-
spread and well known diseases as Typhoid Fever, Diphtheria,
Tuberculosis, Influenza, and many others, which every year in
this bright land of Australia destroy so many lives. These
microbes are known to be specific, they never lose their identity,
or produce a disease other than the one from which they have been
derived. They are as separate in their natural history as species
of animalsand plants are. Their qualities of ponderosity, vitality,
and specificity render them readily conveyable from one human
being or animal to another. These attributes also form the basis
of their infectious or communicable activity, while at the same
time, having due regard to classification, they guide the selection
of the means necessary to combat their virulence and stamp out
the diseases they produce.

Such knowledge has been gained only by patient and self-
sacrificing labour, and it is this knowledge which alone can safely
guide legislation. It can no longer be left out in Public Health
Administration. Our representatives cannot, therefore, remain
indifferent to the claims of modern Hygienic Science on behalf of
the people, neither can they remain any longer unconscious of the
power they possess to pass intelligent and efficient laws against
public enemies so subtle, so active, and so mighty.

1024 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I.

SECTION II.

I have now to refer to what Australia has to say on the progress
of sanitary work among her numerous communities. I am
persuaded she can say more to-day than she could have ventured
upon saying even when this Association was founded ten years
ago. We are certainly unable to boast of achievements such as
characterise the movement in England and several leading Conti-
nental nations, or in some of the United States of America; but
we may, nevertheless, take heart, and rely in good faith upon the
assumption that at least our steps are towards the rising sun. It
is true we have all the scientific knowledge at our command which
is in the possession of these older countries,and with this knowledge
we have evidence in the many reports issued by State Health
Boards of the presence of men amongst us who are not only
conversant with every modern phase of scientific hygiene, but
also keenly alive to the necessity of progress. But here, as in
many other State affairs, sanitarians must wait upon the people’s
representatives to afford them, by legislation, a plan of action.

Every man who may in some degree be acquainted with the
outlines of the history of Australia will be ready to admit that
there is something to be said in extenuation of our backward
position. The early days of colonisation were times of struggle :
sustenance for daily consumption was the immediate and most
pressing necessity. So soon as settlement extended, the question
of communication and interchange came next, while the organ-
isation of social order and defence from internal enemies followed.
The city in which we are now met may be taken as typical of the
early days of settlement. The first settlers on these shores landed
upon virgin soil. They entered into the enjoyment of a delicious
atmosphere, a mild winter, a delightful spring, and a fairly
moderate summer. All their surroundings were undefiled, fresh
from Nature’s hand. For fifty years they paid little or no heed
to hygiene or sanitation. They brought with them from the old
country certain ideas and habits, and however much England of
a century ago began to leave these old ideas behind, the settlers
here knew nothing better. Their descendants perpetuated the
habits of the dark ages of hygiene. The increase of rural settle-
ment, however, the growth of city life, the exhaustion and
defilement of the water supplies, the pollution of the soil and the
air, and the accumulations of filth and refuse, made deep and
serious inroads upon the heaith and mortality of the people. They
were compelled to pay some attention to the question of better
sanitary surroundings. Sydney was founded in 1788, yet the
sanitary arrangements sixty years afterwards were of the most
primitive character. Up to 1850 the water supplies of a large
and ever augmenting population were obtained from wells, or some

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 1025

domestic catchment. The old cess-pit existed unchallenged during
that long period, and for some years afterwards in many places,
while scavenging was practically unknown. The atmosphere was
polluted by the presence of noxious trades in the very heart of the
city. The creation and securing of wealth shut out every other
consideration of a less material nature, and the people did not
awake from their lethargy, until death had found them “ten
thousand several doors for men to make their exits.” The new
Corporation of Sydney, under the Act of 1857, it is said, worked
wonders for its welfare, although at the same time, history admits,
it was only about ten years ago that an ample supply of wholesome
water was found for all its citizens. However, if the leading
requirements of every large community are enumerated, it will be
found that she is well abreast of any city anywhere.

The capital city of Victoria followed much on the same lines,
with the exception that in its water supply it anticipated this city
by many years, while in its drainage system it has been as many
years behind. Within the last three years, as we are all aware,
a drainage system on the most modern lines has been inaugurated,
and when completed will place Melbourne in the front tank of
well-sewered cities. For many years Adelaide has had both water
and sewerage in excellent condition, and has been acknowledged
by visitors generally to be the cleanest city in Australia.

We cannot, therefore, be said to have remained inactive in
securing improved sanitary conditions for our largest populations.
If we take into consideration the large expenditure involved in
carrying out the engineering works necessary to meet their require-
ments in respect to water and sewerage, it will readily be conceded
that advances have been made towards better sanitary conditions
than was to have been anticipated even a few years ago. There
are good grounds for some degree of satisfaction, when it is recol-
lected that Sydney has expended £4,154,000 upon its water
supply, and £1,892 000 upon its sewerage arrangements ; that
Melbourne has spent £2,400,000 on its water supply, and on its
drainage system, when completed, upwards of £5,000,000 ; and
that Adelaide, small as it is, has on each of these works, spent
respectively the sums of £1,491,000 and £516,000.

It may be said, that a water supply and system of drainage are
necessities of city life, and, apart from the question of health,
would come into existence on grounds of convenience or from,
business motives ; still without them, city life would be intoler-
able inthelongran. Water supply and sewerage are fundamental
requirements, and must exist if sanitary conditions are to be main-
tained. Whatever may be the details of an organised system of
public hygiene, these must exist as a basis. In the present
condition of these cities, there is certainly some grounds for con-
gratulation, and future hope of still better things.

37

1026 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I.

I cannot speak so favourably of the condition of rural Australia.
Some writers, I find, say there are elements of encouragement in
the existing state of things, and that it is not a vain hope to
believe that broader hygienic ideals will yet take hold of the local
governing authorities, and lift the sanitary position of the country
districts to a higher level. Meanwhile, it is to be feared, the fact
is only too patent, that in the larger number of rural communities,
very primitive and insanitary ‘conditions prevail. In many
instances the functions of these Local Health Authorities seem to
be exhausted in the abatement of glaring and offensive nuisances.
Municipal communities have been moving forward, but rural
districts have been stationary. The hope of reaching these

a itho-cities hes in better and wiser legislation than we have yet
had.

There are many agencies at work in this country, pressing
towards a higher sanitary ideal. The mingling of health topics
in our various systems of public education, the existence of centres
of imstruction, established by the St. John’s Ambulance movement,
all over the colonies, the labours of scientific associations and
popular health societies, the dissemination of useful information
by the Press, the organisation of several forms of charities,
especially hospitals and trained nursing institutions, all conspire
to create and extend a mass of simple knowledge among the
“people that must inevitably bear practical fruit ; and let us also
hope, that by the same means, the attention of our legislators will
be arrested, and the necessity for the embodiment of a higher
legislative ideal will speedily become apparent to them also.

The influence of our hospitals should be powerful in the direction
indicated. These institutions should certainly be able to lift the
public mind from the rudimentary notion that the administration
of the public health consists in something more than the removal
of a disagreeable odour ora heap of rubbish. hey should be
competent to teach the fact that isolation, ventilation, disinfection,
drainage, and pure water are, anywhere and everywhere, the con-
ditions neces:ary to secure safety from some of the most fatal
diseases that afflict our race. The construction and practical
working of our hospitals should illustrate every advance in
modern. hygiene, and, doubtless, many of them do. They crystallise
to the public the best scientific ideals, and are true object lessons
to those whom it is our earnest desire to enlighten,

It is not necessary for me to detail the admirable illustrations
in this city and elsewhere in Australia of hospital architecture,
construction, organisation and management. No doubt when the
new Fever Hospital takes shape in Melbourne, it will be an
exposition of the best hygienic views of the day, and Australians
generally will be proud to model smaller structures with further

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 1027

advances upon it. I may be pardoned for drawing attention toa
modest institution in Adelaide, known as the Children’s Hospital,
It has always had an ideal, and it has always maintained it.
While treating disease, it has never lost sight of its duty to educate
the public. It has been a training institution for nurses since its
origin, and yearly distributes, by courses of popular lectures,
important information on health topics. During the past year it
has spent £8,000 on buildings and land, in the erection of a
handsome bacteriological Jaboratory and a series of isolation
wards. The laboratory was established in a small way two
years ago, but the work it has done has given it a leading position
in the organisation of the hospital. Similar laboratories have been,
or are about to be, established in this city and in Melbourne.
This cannot fail to exert a powerful influence upon the public, and
promote the perception that infectious diseases must be controlled
and their destructiveness opposed by weapons such as modern
science dictates. The tangible and demonstrably advantageous
results of the combination of isolation wards and bacteriological
investigations must before long direct the public mind, and, let
us fur ther hope, mould into an intelligent and more modern for m
the hygienic conceptions of our legislators.

There is a kindred agency to that of the hospital which I should
like to refer to. It may seem a trifle in an address before a
scientific audience, but it appears to me to be an agency full of
promise, and one calculated to carry into effect the details of
public hygiene in a manner impossible to be provided for by law.
I refer to the use of trained nurses among the sick poor in their
own homes. The law may command, but men and women how-
ever poor are free agents, and if cleanliness in all their surroundings
as well as the early recognition of communicable diseases is to
become a part of the daily experience of the poor then the intelli-
gent and the trained must bring it home to them. Trained
nurses are exactly the agents required for this service. An
amendment made last year in the Public Health Act of England
provides for the employment by corporations and local councils
of trained nurses as public health officers on the same footing
as inspectors. ‘Their constant contact in a friendly way, with
the great body of the people, and more especially those who
interest themselves least in hygiene, enables them to exercise
not merely a beneficent but likewise an educative influence on
the poor, and at the same time, by the timely recognition and
separation of infectious cases of disease, they confer a precious
boon upon the rest of the community generally. We are not
behind in Australia in charitable institutions carrying on the
same good work, but we have not yet risen to the full perception
of the large advantageous possibilities to public health that lie in
this new province of woman’s work.

1028

o2

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I.

T have now set out the general character of my second question
—What Australia has done on broad lines in public hygiene and
sanitation. The indications of a preparedness to advance are
evident in numerous directions: The natural basis is ready, and
everything seems hopeful for the more scientific forward move-
ment, for which modern bacteriology has so nobly paved the way.

SECTION III.

Legislators of some experience must have found in every general
Public Health Bill brought before Parliament, that defining the
powers and responsibilities of the State or Central authority on
the one hand, and those of the local authority on the other,
constituted the crucial point in the Bill, and more particularly in
so far as the relative powers of each bore upon the control and
administration of infectious or communicable diseases. Clearly a
large amount of sanitary work exists in a community indepen-
dently of this, the apportionment of which raises little or no
difficulty. Whether the central authority or the local authority
shall be entrusted with the administration of the public aspect
of these diseases is the problem on which turns the immediate
future of Public Health legislation. It is fortunate for its
solution that it is upon this very class of diseases that the achieve-
ments of science have shed the greatest light, and upon which
bacteriology is prepared to give the most practical advice.

Communicable or infectious diseases are recognised as pre-
ventible, and it is because they are preventible the responsibility
is laid upon those who are entrusted by the law to conserve the
public health to give special attention to their management.
These diseases are preventible in the sense that they cannot come
into existence without the agency of certain germs, which
bacteriology affirms are capable of control and extinction. In
other words imperfect health may exist, and diseases of a serious
nature may affect the human body, but such conditions of health
will not bring about any communicable or infectious disease
unless microbic life be present. To handle intelligently, for the
public safety, this prolitic source of disease, means the application
of the principles of modern hygiene on a large and effective
scale. It is therefore of the utmost moment to decide in whose
hands this function should rest. To assist in the solution of the
problem, the following a prior? considerations are submitted :—

1. The natural history of microbic life suggests the recognition
of two points, their origin or natural history, that is, their
mode of existence outside the human body, and their pathogenetic
history, that is, their existence in the body as the immediate
cause of disease. It is well known that certain insanitary con-
ditions favour the growth of microbic life, and even lend special

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 1029

virulence to its action. Jnsanitary conditions also preduce
depressing effects upon the human body and lower its powers of
resistance. Germ-life possessed of this special virulence may
attack the healthy, or the individual may fall a victim more by
reason of loss of resistence than by the special activity of the
microbe. These insanitary conditions then are essentially local,
and although they exercise a considerable influence in the pro-
duction of infectious diseases, it must be the duty of the local
authority to deal with them.

2. The sources of communicable diseases are in numerous
instances not local but general, that is, they are not limited to the
jurisdiction of one local authority but have relations to many.
Water supplies are frequently in this sense general, food supplies
are almost always so, and where infection extends from one person
to another there is a general character in this source also, from
the fact that facilities for travel and intercommunication are so
easy and so numerous that diffusion rapidly takes place from
one locality to another. In this respect communicable diseases
must fail to be controlled by local authorities. Their manage-
ment to be effective is clearly a function of a central power.

3. The extreme readiness with which many infectious diseases
may be diffused suggests at once the necessity of prompt action.
But promptitude is not usually a characteristic of minor and
isolated bodies in authority. Too frequently local considerations
based on personal relations to the individuals affected paralyse
action, and all the more certainly if several authorities are bound
to co-operate. But delays are cruelly dangerous. The area of
infection speedily enlarges and irretrievable mischief arises to the
public health. It is evident if a combination of circumstances so
directly tending to inaction are to be effectively controlled, then
the authority must be central and not local.

4. This efficient control likewise requires not only prompt
administration but the collateral aid of a well equipped bacterio-
logical laboratory. The work of this new department has become
the basis of public hygiene, and at the same time a principal
agency in the defence of the public health. Whatever researches
of a theoretical nature bacteriologists may pursue, their labours
in connection with the public health are essentially practical. A
mere enumeration of these labours is at once sufticient to indicate
their supreme importance in directing the practice of public
hygiene, as well as to show the indispensible position to which
they have attained in the management and control of infectious
diseases. They may be set out somewhat as follows :—

(a) The examination of ordinary products, such as food, water
supplies, air, and soil.

(6) The examination of the normal tissues, secretions, and
excretions of the human body.

1030 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I.

(c) The examination of the tissues, secretions, and excretions
in diseases such as diphtheria, typhoid fever, tuberculosis
and many others for etiological purposes.

(d) Examinations for the purposes of determining the cessation
of the disease.

(e) Examinations for the purpose of determining the best
means of counteracting the effects of the discaee on the
body, and of employing disinfectants for the destruction
of microbic life ames the body.

The value of work of this character lies in its accuracy. To be
able to exclude every source of error in its results, ample appliances
of the best construction, with personal skill and extended experience
in their use, are indispensable. The strictly scientific nature of the
work done, the ramifications of the investigations made, and their
broad relations to the whole community, point without doubt to
the central or State authority as the one solely fitted to establish
and maintain so prime an auxiliary to public health administration.

5. A few words more on this point. It is always, at least it
ought always to be, a consideration with legislators how far the laws
they wish to frame will meet with an intelligent response in those
to whom the State proposes to entrust its powers. As a matter
of fact, the amplest powers may be vested in a local authority,
but unless there is a rational congruity between the function
demanded by law and the intelligence that is to exercise the
powers under it, a hiatus will arise, and the law will be found
to be practically a dead letter. Whether this intelligent sympathy
with the scientific services which modern hygiene is prepared to
render exists sufficiently strong among local authorities to induce
legislators to place the whole matter of public health in the hands
of sub-divided authorities will best be decided by inquiry. But
this may safely be predicted of the position, that where the action
of local authorities shows that no such sympathy exists, and by
persistent evidence is not likely to exist, then the authority by
whom these investigations should be conducted, and with whom
their practical application should rest, will not be difficult to
determine.

These are a few of the reasons arising out of the nature of
communicable diseases which indicate the lines on which future
legislature should run. It will now be of advantage to learn how
far existing legislation in Australia, in its methods and practical
results, contributes to prove similar conclusions. Acts of Parlia-
ment, not being automatic, must be given effect to by some
authority in whom the State vests powers for that purpose. The
attitude of that authority towards the exercise of these powers
will necessarily indicate its capacity and fitness for the function
entrusted to it. If the administration is lax, indifferent, or

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. 1031

altogether deficient with the appearance of protection, the public
health becomes the sport of every infectious disease that comes
along.

The most typical illustration I can adduce of the position of
public health legislation, extending over a number of years, is to
be found in the last report of the Central Board of Health for the
colony of Victoria. The Health Act in Victoria has been in opera-
tion since 1890. Itis admirably drawn up, and makes provision for
the notification of infectious diseases, and their subsequent manage-
ment; for the inspection of food and other supplies for human
consumption ; and is altogether a model Act. The feature, how-
ever, that demands our attention at this moment is, that all duties
and powers are lodged in local health authorities, with a central
authority for supervising purposes. If legislation on these lines
were capable of being made effective, then, to my mind, Victoria, by
virtue of its compr ehensive and intelligent Health Act, and also the
acknowledged public-spiritedness of its community, would make it
so; but the words of the report I have alge d to do not support
any such expectation. Its words are: ‘‘ Protection against com-
municable diseases is still of a most imperfect sort. As yet, but
scant means have been provided for the isolation of persons
suffering from infectious diseases ; indeed, in the metropolis, as
already stated, no person, no matter how indigent, can claim a bed
when suffering from such disease for isolation purposes, or, to tell
the whole tale, even for the purpese of receiving medical relief.
There is but one Municipal Council-—that of the city of Mel-
bourne—that is possessed of a disinfecting oven. There is, too, but
one ambulance in the Colony for the conveying of an infectious
person from one place to another. Even the discharges of typhoid
patients are, in not a few districts, still undealt w ith, or in-
adequately dealt with ; but we understand that this, as far as the
metropolis is concerned, is now rectified. Speaking generally, the
preparations for dealing with communicable diseases are very
defective, and those for properly dealing with infectious diseases
are for most parts of the Colony practically non-existent.”

The state of matters here described is, I regret to say, not one
of which the colony of Victoria has a monopoly. Her case is the
more striking, seeing she has had fairly advanced legislation for at
least five years when the report was written. Several of the
colonies have not reached her standpoint in legislation, or, if so,
then only of late. Surely, if practical experience in the working of
an Act is any guarantee of its real efficiency, these words are simply
condemnatory. They at once suggest the question,—Should local
authorities be entrusted with the administration of a branch ot the
Public Health Act they so signally fail to put into effect? It would
seem that the law may he as perfect as the Mosaic economy, but
it is no warranty of its success. There is such a thing evidently

1032 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I.

as failure, not because the tenor or aim of the law is defective,
but because the State looks for intelligence, sympathy, and action
in those to whom it has committed certain powers and duties,
while neither of them is forthcoming, nor, if experience is any
assurance on the point, likely to be. It may not, after all, be
reasonable to charge the defect solely to the local authorities.
Too much may be expected of them. The Act may ask for more
than the human nature of local authorit’es possesses, and the
result may consequently be due to a lack of a wise discrimination
in the construction of the Act, more than to any other cause. It
is in fact a political blunder which sacrifices efficiency to a
political theory of local self-government—a theory applicable to
many public functions, but strikingly inapplicable, from the very
nature of the case, to this portion of the Public Health Adminis-
tration.

The conviction forces itself upon my intelligence that a more
reasonable division of public health work must be drawn between
the central and the local authorities in the immediate future of
health legislation. | No doubt this would be more easily achieved
were not the question of public expenditure so prominent a
feature in such a re-arrangement ; but the State has already
found its way to defray from the Public Treasury the expenses
of public departments, such as education, because efficiency is
reckoned of more account than local self-government. Other
departments might be instanced on the same grounds ; but none
of them, not even education, occupy the same important rank
in the general weal as the conservation of the public health. If
the sentiment, “ Sius populi suprema lex,” is to be more than a
pretty euphony, then expenditure must be encountered in the
exposition of health laws. The ills that infectious or communic-
able diseases inflict upon our Australian communities are too.
numerous and too far-reaching to allow for ever the cost of their
suppression to be a barrier to entering upon the crusade to which
scientific hygiene now invites us.

The administration of infectious diseases comprises notification,
isolation, disinfection, inspection, the establishment of baekerie=
logical laboratories, and the control of vaccination and quarantine.
Compulsory notification is already incorporated in the majority of
our Public Health Acts. It has not been carried out. It is
the starting point of a system, and where succeeding parts of the
system are “studiously left alone it is seen that little good can
arise from its its enforcement. This is only partially true.
Whichever authority, however, holds in its hands the control of
infectious disease, the same authority should carry notification
into effect.

Tsolation and disinfection must be regarded as the main working
parts of the system. Isolation is adopted with the object of

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. 1033

preventing every case from becoming a new and active centre for
the diffusion of the disease, and disinfection, in seeking to destroy
the microbic life in the patient’s discharges, ‘clothes, and premises
occupied by him, affords in the same way a barrier to the spread
of infection. It is quite true that all cases of an infectious or
communicable nature need not be made subject to isolation ; the
natural history of the microbe will determine this point. The
real issue is that isolation and disinfection, when required, should
be efficient ; but this efficiency can only be secured by the
adoption of arrangements for the reception of infectious cases as
such, and by the organisation of a corps of men, practised in the
work of disinfection, and ready at all times to carry out promptly
the duties of their office. It is self-evident that few local
authorities can or would respond to this demand, and, consequently,
we find, as a matter of fact, that neither isolation nor disinfection
on a public scale has been attempted.

I have already commented upon the important position
bacteriological laboratories sustain in any system of public hygiene.
From their achievements has come all the knowledge that is now
seeking to bring about a more intelligent and effective management
of infectious diseases ; and it is most encouraging to find that
the Governments of New South Wales and Victoria have each
recently either organised a laboratory or aftiliated an existing one.
The Children’s Hospital in South Australia has for at least two
and a half years, under the spirited direction of an honorary
officer, Dr. Borthwick, maintained its own laboratory, and has
already done excellent work for the medical profession and the
public. Only the poverty of the Public Treasury, so it is said,
prevents the Government of South Australia from assisting in the
maintenance of this well- -equipped laboratory. In each case the
several Governments recognise their own ‘responsibility i in pro-
viding this important adjunct to the Department of Public
Health.

The inspection of food supplies for human consumption has
been legislated for in each of the colonies of New South Wales,
Victoria, and South Australia. The most lamentable ineffective-
ness, however, characterises the work of inspection, and every
other aspect of the public administration of communicable
diseases. It is said that even England is twenty years behind
several continental countries in this respect; but, if so,
Australia is twenty years behind that again. So feebly is the
law carried into effect that Central or State Boards of Health, as
well as Parliamentary Select Committees, have declared that this
important duty should be performed by the State. After five
years’ experience (1890-1895) of their otherwise admirable Act,
the Victorian Board expresses its views in these terms:—‘ Dangers
also of a most serious nature are incurred as a result of want of

1034 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I.

veterinary inspection of animals supplying the milk, and of the
general want of medical and veterinary inspection of carcases for
food. So unsatisfactory indeed is the condition of the milk
supply, and so small the part taken by many Councils —that is,
local authorities—in supervising it, that we feel the question
to be one demanding careful consideration whether we should not
ourselves do the work in districts where Councils hold aloof ;
and as concerns the meat supply, we would invite your attention
to the view we have several times expressed, viz., that for all
communities of (say) 3,000 persons or more, the sale of meat for
human consumption which has not undergone medical or veteri-
nary inspection should be prohibited.”

A Select Parliamentary Committee sat in New South Wales
somewhere about twelve months ago, and elicited a considerable
amount of important evidence on the matter of inspection in
connection with abattoirs. This Committee reported that ‘“ the
present system is far from satisfactory,” “that expert inspectors
should be appointed,” and “ that the Government might even
work abattoirs in the public interest.” The Committee justified
this suggestion by eo ing: “This suggestion embodies an innova-
tion ; but the importance of the matter to the general public would
more than justify such a departure from the or dinary functions
of Government,”

The suggestion of this Select Committee goes beyond the
advocacy of inspection merely. It all the more emphasises the
necessity for efficient inspection at the hands of a State authority.
If nothing short of working the abattoirs by the Goverament
would meet the case, it the more strikingly demonstrates the
present deplorable condition of things. So far as the other
colonies are concerned, I have yet to learn that anything better
can be reported. Even the supervision of milk supplies, simple
as it may seem, is not attempted with anv more efficiency than the
inspection of meat ; yet for years past Central Boards of Health,
and professional and lay sanitarians, have times out of number
made earnest appeals to the public, setting out the urgency of
effective inspection on all food supplies. But they have in most
of the colonies cried in vain, arousing no response but the sound
of their own voices.

New South Waies has had a Dairies’ Supervision Act upon its
Statute Book for sixteen years, and yet the report of the State
Board of Health is—‘ That a large number of prosecutions have
been instituted by the Sydney Council against dairymen selling
adulterated milk. The police also in a few districts have taken
proceedings against persons who were not registered.” ‘There
are, however,” 1t continues, ‘‘numerous cases where premises are in
an insanitary condition, or where other breaches of the Act are
committed, and offenders are not punished, as they should be, by

a

~*»

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 1035

having their registration cancelled, or by other proceedings being
instituted.” The Report further states that “it is certain that
the proportion of dairy stock suffering from this disease (viz.,
tuberculosis) is much smaller than in European countries. There
are yet the strongest reasons for stamping out the cases that are
discovered, not only to arrest the spread of the disease among the
cattle, but also because of the serious risk of the tuberculous
matter contained in the milk causing consumption of the lungs in
the human beings who use it.”

The secret of failure is pre-eminently apparent. Only a few
weeks ago, and since writing the foregoing, Dr. Gresswell, the
eminent Chairman of the Victorian State Health Board, publicly
stated that reforms were seriously demanded. They must neces-
sarily be slow, he said, more especially where administration was
local and not central. ‘“ Legislation,” he further said, “‘ was being
prepared in Victoria which ‘he ho yped would go far towards reme-
dying most of the evils which so tenaciously clung to our meat
and milk supplies.” This expression of views comes as a hopeful
forecast ; but unless the lines of the legislation suggested are dif-
ferent from the legislation of to day, the same disappointing tale
of failure will have again to be told. I can add no word to what
has been repeatedly urged upon the public with the object of
arresting their attention to the scourge of consumption. I will
not indulge i in dragging before you a series of figures to show that
in every colony it stands first upon the list of fatal diseases, The
time was when the medical art stood hopelessly by, and, in com-
mon with mankind generally, deplored its ravages ; but the time
is changed, and encouragement comes from many quarters that
the time is not far off when its power will be broken, and its
course rendered as amenable to control as the course of typhus
fever or small-pox has now become. (Dr.) Sir Thorne Thorne’s
words at the Guildhall banquet in June last are worthy of repeti-
tion :—‘* When the Queen ascended the throne, cousumption was
a terrible disease in this land ; the deaths from consumption were
one-quarter of the whole mortality of the country. Every year
the Queen lost 50,000 of her subjects by deaths ‘from consump-
tion, and for a long time we did not know it was a preventable
diseas eventable as typhus or any other disease which
arises from fever ; and, now that we know that, we are beginning
to get control over it, and the reduction is going on, I am glad to
say, very rapidly. When the Queen came to the throne, from
400 to 500 persons died out of every 100,000 of the population
from consumption. Well, we have reduced it now to 140 per
100,000. That is a great deal too much still, but it is a very
great reduction. It is a very satisfactory reduction, but the
death-rate is still far too high; and, now that we know the con-
dition in which consumption, like typhus, is a preventable disease

1036 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I.

and have ceased to believe that hereditary weakness is the cause
of it, it will very rapidly go down ; and we may—not perhaps in
my old age, but in the old age of a great many of the persons I
have the pleasure to see before me—I say that we may find that
consumption will be as rare a disease in this country as typhus
has become at the present time.”

These are words of great encouragement. If, however, a con-
summation so desirable is to be achieved, intelligent and ceaseless
efforts must be directed by improved legislation. The tubercle
bacillus is highly infectious, and the avenues by which it can
reach the human subject are more numerous than in any other
communicable disease. A person suffering from it may infect
other persons ; animals supplying milk, or whose carcases are
utilised as human food, are sources of infection; and a whole
series of domestic animals with which men and women are con-
stantly in contact, although differing in degree, are mediums of
its conveyance to man. The horse, the cow, cattle generally,
sheep, swine, dogs, cats, and birds, die of tuberculosis. Surely,
therefore, the: keenest vigilance is wanted, backed by the most
advanced form of public health administr ation, to oppose a disease
at once so subtle and so destructive.

I foresee that my remarks here will at once be discounted by
the statement that Australia is freer from tuberculosis than old
European countries. This notion, I admit, is countenanced by
health reports occasionally saying that “the proportion of dairy
stock suffering from tuberculosis is much smaller than in European
countries.” In the face of a system of inspection so utterly
ineffective as the present is admitted to be, this assertion cannot
be relied upon. A few years ago the same misconception was
held respecting the condition of things in England, but it does
not exist to-day. Recent experience ‘has dispelled the illusion,
and has shown that as inspection became more efficient so the
proportion of diseased cattle was found to increase. One authority
asserts that “ the proportion of infected cattle has been found to
rise much higher, one-half—even three-fourths—of the cows being
affected.” W hile, as regards the carcases for human food, he
says: “ Where inspection is efficient, the existence of tuberculosis
is revealed in from one to three out of every ten head of cattle
slaughtered in the abattoir.” What efficient inspection has done
for England it would do for us. For an Australian veterinary
surgeon, Mr. 8. 8. Cameron, of Melbourne, tells us—in an in-
teresting communication read before this Association a few years
ago—speaking of tuberculosis: “I have, however, no hesitation
in saying that it is as common in these colonies as in any part of
the world,” He proceeds to defend his position by arguments
and illustrations which it would take too much time to detail. I
am disposed, however, from the nature of the disease and the

a eee

.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 1037

arguments with which he supports his opinion, to accept his
conclusion. If his view approaches the truth, then we must be
living in a Fool’s Paradise, and falling very far short of the pro-
tection which ought to be afforded to the public against so
dreadful a disease. Germany, Belgium, Sweden, and some of the
States in North America, are said to be twenty years ahead of
England in respect of the inspection of meat ; so when our legis-
lators once more turn their attention to this question, ample and
practical experience is available for guidance in these countries.

My remarks would be incomplete without some reference to
small-pox, one of the most infectious of all communicable diseases.
Nothing seems to me to indicate more strikingly that we lag, in
public heaith matters, behind the age than the attitude which
several colonies maintain towards compulsory vaccination. The
fact that the large populations of New South Wales and Queens-
land are practically unvaccinated communities is a matter for
surprise and misgiving. The protective power of vaccination is
now as well-established as any fact in any of the most rigid of
the inductive sciences. Barring the dread that disease may be
conveyed by the use of humanised vaccine lymph, and as the
ground for such fear is now extinguished by the substitution of
sterilised calf lymph, no objection remains to the compulsory
enforcement of vaccination. Speaking as one who has seen the
ravages of small-pox among the unvaccinated, no man—legislator
or private citizen—if he has ever witnessed the terrible spectacle
which so many of these persons under small-pox present, can be
anything but a supporter of compulsory vaccination. Having
suffered an attack of small-pox at the age of 20, I took special
advantage of my immunity, as a student, to see all that could be
seen and learned respecting this disease in a large city hospital,
from which it was then never absent. No ordinary disease presents
such shocking features ; and, certainly, legislators do not realise
their weighty responsibilities to the people when they continue in-
different to the disastrous contingency of an invasion of this very
horrible disease. Quarantine is, and has been, serviceable ; but
it is no unusual thing to hear the remark made, even by chairmen
of Public Health Boards, that we are bound, some day, to witness
its appearance in Australia. When it does come, and gets beyond
quarantine control, then pity will be felt for the unvaccinated.

A parade of statistics seems to me to be unnecessary in pressing
the urgency for effective vaccination. I may be allowed to
summarise the position which it holds to-day in the following
manner :—-

(a.) Indisputable evidence is in hand to show that the mor-
tality from small-pox, where vaccination has been
practised, has been reduced 72 per cent.

1038 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I.

(b.) In no other disease has an abatement of the death-rate
from any cause, sanitary or otherwise, taken place to
anything like the same extent.

(c.) Its mode of action is no longer mysterious or supposed
to be contrary to Nature, but is shown by the light
which bacteriology and experiment has thrown upon it
to be one of several illustrations of a principle in Nature
by which immunity from certain diseases is secured.

(d.) Prior to the introduction of vaccination, small-pox was
the scourge of infant and adolescent life ; in vaccinated
communities to-day it is the adults who chiefly suffer
from it.

(ec) It has been clearly proved by experiment that revaccina-
tion at a given age of 1) or 16 years, restores the
protection to adults.

(/) Even when adults who have been vaccinated in infancy,
and who have not been re-vaccinated, are attacked by
small pox, the disease runs a highly modified course.
(This was my own experience at the age of 20.)

(y) The consensus of opinion with respect to the use of
humanised or calf lymph, is, that humanised lymph
should be abandoned in favour of calf lymph.

This, then, is the position of the vaccination question. For the
security of the colonies, the law throughout Australia should be
assimilated on a compulsory basis. For this, I presume, we must
wait the awakening of the legislatures that still lag behind.

I will not essay to weary you further. The contention is sus-
tained that the essential weakness in Australian public health
administration is the control of communicable diseases. Our
death-rate in some of these diseases is even higher (see diagrams)
than the death-rate of England, notwithstanding the favourable
character of many of our conditions and surroundings. For
instance, we are young communities, with preponderating propor-
tions of youthful population. We inhabit a new soil, with spaces
for air and settlement unknown in the old countries of Europe,
while our climate must be said to be conducive to longevity.
There is great need for amendment in the control of these active
diseases. We undoubtedly make the mistake of following England
in her efforts to establish a complete system of local self-govern-
ment. I am not opposed to local self-government as a working
principle, but I none the less regard the inclusion of the adminis-
tration of infectious diseases, as outside its sphere. The light
which science has thrown upon public hygiene is comparatively
recent ; the principle of local self-government in England is very

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 1039

old. Yet in England, recently, departures have had to be made
from the principle, especially in matters of public health. Local
self-government covers many things in the management of the
common affairs of a community ; but it has been clearly shown
that it utterly fails to bring about, in local authorities in Australia,
an appreciation of the objects legislation seeks to secure in the
control of communicable disease.

The State must assume this responsibility. It alone possesses
the means of organising the necessary skill, experience, and
aptitude required to meet all the contingencies arising in the
course of an outbreak of infectious diseases among the pubtic, and
further, of enforcing the law. The sooner the position is taken,
so much the sooner will the public see and appreciate the creat
work that is being done for them; so soon, too, will the Tocal
health authorities realise that they are not called upon to under-
take responsibilities which many of them have declared to be
outside their functions. They will come to feel, under such new
conditions, that the branches of the public health administration
are equitably divided between the State and themselves, and in
this conviction will the more heartily fulfil the duties appointed
to them. In mutual co-operation the two authorities will work
together, and will doubtless succeed in bringing about a condition
of the public health, of which every sanitarian will be proud.

For the starting point of all this, we must rely upon the intelli-
gence, the patriotism, and earnestness of our legislators. I appeal
for a comprehensive consideration of this question, realising that
if they once see its urgency, and become roused to the sense of
deep responsibility that lies with them, to introduce better and
more effective legislation, it will speedily come about ; and once
accomplished, no service to their country will bring them greater
satisfaction, and no labour they could give will, reap for the
community a handsomer or more permanent reward.

One word further. Shortly after this address was written, my
attention was directed to an address delivered at the British
Medical Congress in Montreal, by Dr. Hermann Biggs, of New
York. Iwas delighted beyond measure to find that the views
expressed in the address now delivered to you had found practical
and striking embodiment in the hygienic and sanitary management
of that great city of two-and-half million inhabitants. Dr. Biggs’
address is an able defence of the position.

1040 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I.

No. 1.—ON THE HISTORY AND PREVALENCE OF
LEPRA IN AUSTRALIA.

By J. Asupurton THompson, M.D., D.P.H., Chief Medical Officer
of the Government, and President of the Board of Health, of
New South Wales ; Examiner in Hygiene at the University
of Sydney ; Fellow of the Royal Institute of Public Health.
Honorary Fellow of the Incorporated Society of Medical Officers
of Health.

(Read Friday, January 7, 1898.)

[Tue following paper contains a summary of the more important
parts of “A Contribution to the History of Leprosy in Australia.”
which was written in 1894, and published by the National Leprosy
Fund in the middle of 1897 ; to which reference must be made
for the detailed evidence on which the statements recapitulated
in it rest. |

Australia had been often sighted by navigators before Captain
Cook landed and took possession on behalf of the English Govern-
ment in 1770 ; but the first foreign settlement in the country was
effected by an expedition which numbered about 1,030 souls, at
Botany Bay, near Sydney, in 1788. The whole continent had, it is
believed, been free from intrusion in every part down to that date,
with the following possible exceptions: In 1837-9 Sir George
Grey, Governor of South Australia, discovered some rock-drawings
which were judged to be of other than aboriginal execution, at a
point near the north-western coast line ; and on the north coast,
Flinders, issuing from the Gulf of Carpentaria, encountered a fleet
of Malay prahus engaged in tripang fishing, and was told by its
leader that he was the tirst Malay to reach that coast about twenty
years before, or about 1783--4. For many years, at all events, the
aboriginals at this part remained at enmity with their Malay
visitors, who returned year by year, and, according to the
available accounts, did not penetrate further than the beaches,
where they usually had to fight for the wood and water they went
to secure.

At discovery by the whites the country was found parcelled
out among many different small tribes, and it is considered that the
state of the people must have been what it was found to be in 1788
for several hundred years before. No information as to absolute

numbers of the nomad autochthonous population at any part of the |

country is available for older years, and no trustworthy information
is available for later times.

~~ .ee. = S e e ee

LEPRA IN AUSTRALIA. 1041

Sydney was the original seat of Government for the continent,
and for many years was consequently the repository for all archives
touching Australia and Tasmania—Tasmania being usually
reckoned a part of Australia, from which it begun to be: separated
by the rather narrow Bass Strait only during Tertiary times. The
collection of books touching this country in the Public Library at
Sydney numbers about 5,000. Gentlemen officially concerned in
tabulating and preparing the old official archives for the Press are
of opinion that there is no mention of leprosy down to the year
1836 at all events, nor of any disease under which lepra might be
supposed to lie hile on the other hand, information as 6 all
diseases down to that date, and for long afterwards, is extremely
meagre. The works of several explorers of note which deal with
widetracts of country on different parts of the continent, and which
were written from about 1830 onwards, contain no reference to
anything resembling lepra among the autochthons, with a single
exception ; and in that case there 1s nothing to show that the word
“leprosy” was not used in its banal sense, the writer, who was not
a medical man, probably intending merely to emphasise the
disgusting character of some skin disease. Several explorers of
note have informed me that they have never met with any disease
among the aboriginals which they suppose might be leprosy ; nor,
after looking at many photographs of lepers, did they hesitate to
adhere to that statement. Among these gentlemen was the late
Baron Sir Ferdinand von Mueller, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S., &c.,
&e., who spoke chiefly of the south- western part of the continent
about the year 1847, and of a part of the Northern Territory about
1855. It may be taken, in my opinion, that there is no record
of lepra among the primeval ‘autochthons in any part of the
continent.

Comprehension of the progress of white settlement will be
facilitated if it be remembered that Australia has an area of just
3,000,000 square miles; that the earliest Government at Sydney
was the Government of Australia; that distant parts were settled
by sea as became possible, and were gradually erected into separate
Crown colonies; and that all these Crown colonies (always
including Tasmania) were at different dates granted the right of
self-government, and thereby became autonomous States. The
net result has been that Australia is divided into the following
territories, which became self-governing at the dates mentioned :
Tasmania, 1854; Western Australia, 1890 ; South Austra!ia, (with
which is ihe Northern Territory), 1856: ; Victoria, 1851; New South
Wales, 1851 ; Queensland, 1859. For the first sixty or sixty-five
years the population was practically entirely English. In 1851
the discovery of gold led to the immediate influx of large numbers
of people who came from almost every country, and from almost
every recognised leprosy area in the world to New South Wales

OCU

1042 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I.

and Victoria. These natives of recognised leprosy-areas were in
small proportion to the rest of the population, if the Chinese (of
whom further mention will be made below) be excepted, and no
occurrence of lepra among them has been recorded. The total
population of Australia at the date at which the various territories
were granted responsible government was not so much as 500,000;
at the present day it is about 4,000,000.

The conditions of life in this country are extremely favourable
to health. The earliest settlers no doubt endured similar hard-
ships to those necessarily suffered by explorers in later years,
for they were themselves in the position of explorers ; but, with-
out going into detail, it is indisputable that the conditions of the
population as a whole, and in every territory, has been and still
is one of ease. Food, which continued to be of precisely the
same kinds as they had been accustomed to in England, was
always wholesome and sufficient, even when it was not plentiful.
There is no malaria in any of those parts of Australia, which,
thus far, have become populous, the exception being the very
sparsely inhabited north. Lastly, the climate, speaking generally,
is as good as can be imagined; and while the temperature
necessarily varies greatly between parallels of south latitude so
widely separated as are the 44th and the 11th, it is in every
inhabited part such as encourages outdoor habits of life. Nothing
at all is traceable in the circumstances of life in Australia such
as possibly might have importance in relation to occurrences of
lepra.

In 1851, this healthy, small, and widely scattered population
was composed i in the main of Europeans, and chiefly of English.
The aboriginals retired before them, and died apparently almost
in proportion to the degree in which they were forced into close
contact with the whites; they never were either of importance
as enemies, or of use as servants. Besides the aboriginals there
was of course among the whites, even at that date, quite a small
proportion of persons belonging to the miscellaneous nationalities
of which representatives are ‘to be found in ev ery port. There
is some statistical evidence that they were, at some points,
numerous enough to be separately counted at the censuses, and yet
they were in quite inappreciable proportion to the total popula-
tion; but in the year named the discovery of gold caused an
influx of large numbers of Chinese. Towards the end of that
decade there were no less than 42,000 of them in Victoria, and
in 1861 there were 12,000 in New South Wales. In 1881 the
numbers in both of these, the richest and most populous terri-
tories of Australia, became about equal, and were about 10,000.
Chinese appeared also, though in far less numbers, in all the other
territories ; but it is not possible to ascertain when they first
appeared, and at what rate they increased (at least during earlier

ra Pith Salggeeg- sok a

LEPRA IN AUSTRALIA. 1043

years), for they were seldom distinguished in the census abstracts.
Thus, in 1863, both they and members of other coloured races
were scarcely known in Tasmania. They were present in noticeable
number in 1875. They were first distinguished at the census of
1881, and then numbered 844; and in 1891 had increased to
943. In Western Australia -they were first distinguished in
1881 (145), and there were 917 in 1891; but there is no doubt
they were present before the first-mentioned date. In South
Australia, Chinese were a curiosity in 1860. They were distin-
guished at the two latest censuses, and then numbered 321 and
288. In Queensland there were some Chinese as early as 1853.
“‘ Natives of China and Japan” were enumerated (538) in 1861,
increased to 10,000 in 1876 (but they were nearly all Chinese),
were separately enumerated in 1881 (11,000), and numbered
8,522 in 1891. Chinese appeared in the Northern Territory in
or shortly after 1872. There were 2,722 in 1881, and 3,447 in
1891. Now, in all those territories the danger from imported
lepra to the white inhabitants lay with the Chinese, and, with
exception of Queensland, with Chinese alone. In Queensland,
which is a sugar-growing country, large numbers of kanakas have
been introduced from various lepra-infested groups of islands in
the South Seas: to work on the plantations. They began to arrive
in 1863. They increased from 1,543, in 1868, to more than 11,000,
in 1881, thereafter decreasing to between 8,000 and 9,000 in 1891.
There have never been other than casual, almost it may be said
individual, kanakas either in New South Wales or Victoria, and
none at all elsewhere. As regards possible importation of lepra,
then, it is quite certain that the people of Queensland ran risks
both from kanakas and Chinese ; but those of New South Wales
and Victoria (and the remaining territories) from Chinese alone.
The occupations followed by the Chinese always included
cooking, market-gardening, peddling, &c., as well as mining. In
earliest years they were almost always employed in the first-
mentioned businesses, and in stores. During the middle period
the largest proportion of the total were occupied in placer gold-
digging. Inlater years the proportion of miners among them
fell, and probably the larger portion present followed one or other
of the trades. They have always been perfectly free within the
country, and lived and travelled where they liked. They live
largely by themselves, at gardens, and in particular quarters of
towns and cities, but they mix freely with the whites. The cooks
alone, as a rule, are employed in the houses of the whites, and
then at hotels and boarding-houses, The relations of the
kanakas to the whites are slightly different (in Queensland): they
were imported under a contract to work for so many years, at the
end of which they were to be returned to their islands, if they
chose ; but if they preferred to remain they could either re-engage

1044 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I.

themselves to work as ‘free boys” at the plantations, or else
could set up in some semi-labouring business. Whichever they
did, the free boys were at liberty to travel about the country,
and were not infrequently employed as house-servants. In all
the territories the Chinese, and in Queensland the kanakas as
well, were pretty equally diffused among the whites all over each
territory, and were in free occasional or business contact with
them.

From this review of the general conditions of life, it is necessary
to turn to the recorded occurrences of lepra. Before doing this
it should be noticed that an epidemiological study of the present
kind can be made only if two conditions are first fulfilled : one is,
that the information at command shall be complete enough to
furnish a true outline (at least) of the course followed by the
disease among the people which is the subject of study ; the other,
that there shall be reasonably good evidence that the patients
reported to have suffered in former years from the disease under
examination really presented cases of that disease. In the present
instance it is my opinion that the first condition has been fulfilled ;
the second has probably been sufficiently well fulfilled, but with
this exception: that while it is plain enough (from published
accounts, photographs, and in one case proficiency in the observer,
within my own knowledge of him, &c.) that the cases of lepra
alleged to have occurred were cases of lepra in reality, it is, on
the other hand, almost certain that many additional cases have
either escaped recognition altogether, or else were never put on
record. Here, also, it seems proper to point out that while the
diagnosis of lepra only occasionally presents difficulties which
cannot be resolved by an attentive student who has enjoyed
sufficient opportunities of making himself familiar with the varied
clinical aspects under which the disease shows itself, yet it is
notorious that persons who in other respects are highly competent,
but who have not had the opportunities referred to, very often
indeed overlook or misapprehend examples of the disease whose
identification presents in reality no difficulty at all, and even deny
or dispute that they are cases of lepra when that explanation of
them is suggested. It is most important to remember this, and it
should be specially borne in mind when the negative statements
of travellers, both medical and lay, are under consideration. The
assertion of a known proficient that he met with no cases during
his exploratory travels is good, as far as it goes at all events; a
similar statement from one of whose proficiency there is no
evidence is worth nothing at all.

As regards lepra among the Australians, it is necessary to divide
them into primeval autochthons unaffected by immigration, and
those affected by immigration, who may be called aboriginals for
the sake of distinction. Concerning the primeval autochthons

LEPRA IN AUSTRALIA. 1045

there is nothing but negative evidence ; lepra has never been
observed among ‘them. Never theless, the “Australian is su sceptible
of lepra, and it has been seen among aboriginals. In 1892 an
aboriginal full-blood male, was recor ded at M aryborough, Queens-
land (S. Tat., 25° E. ; Long., 154°). He roamed over the country,
in the neighbourhood of the town named, with the remnants of
his tribe. There are sugar plantations ther e, and for many years
there have been kanakas at work upon them. No other aboriginal
leper was discovered there. There is positive information that
one kanaka leper (only) has been seen there. It must be said
here that the information available regarding every part of
Queensland is extremely meagre. The nature of the illness suffered
by the kanaka was not recognised by the gentleman who reported
it, but was easily identified by the photographs he appended to
fe account of the case ; and it is quite certain (from the number
of kanakas who have been employed there during a long term of
years) that many cases must have occurred which have remained
unrecognised. In 1894 an aboriginal suffering from leprosy was
received at the lazaret at Port Darwin (about 8. Lat. 13°, E. Long.
132°), his disease being then first diagnosed. I discovered, after
some search, that he was known (by a layman) to have been ill
since 1879. After further inquiry I satisfied myself that the
Government Resident on the MacArthur River, N. T. (about
S. Lat. 16°, E. Long. 137°), which debouches on the west
side of the Gulf of Carpentaria, had observed cases of leprosy
among aboriginals in that neighbourhood during years imme-
diately following 1888. Two cases were mentioned—those of
aman and a woman (the latter being the only case of a female
aboriginal thus far brought to light), but it was not stated that
those were all which had been seen. From the letters of still other
lay correspondents it became apparent that lepra had been observed
among aboriginals inhabiting the country watered by the Alligator
Rivers, N.T. (about 8. Lat. 13° to 15° and E. Long. 132° to 134°) ;
probably their number was considerable. Early in 1895, a male
aboriginal was taken into Port Darwin from the Alligator country,
and his case was identified by the Government Medical Officer in
charge there as being one of LZ. nervorwm; thus the lay accounts—
in themselves scarcely mistakable—were to some extent corrobo-
rated hy medical opinion. Noteworthy points in this connection
are the very late date at which the first case of lepra in an
aboriginal was noted—namely, in 1892; and while it seems likely
that lepra must have existed among the aboriginals at several
- points of the Northern Territory (which, by the way, has an area
of nearly half a million square miles) for a good many years, yet
it would be presuming a little too far to take it that it occurred
among them while one or other tribe of them might be regarded
as in their primeval state. On the other hand, if imported to

1046 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I.

them, it must have been by one of two races: either by the
Malays—a contingency which, under all the known circumstances,
seems to me at least remote—or by the Chinese at some date later
than 1872. Here the vast extent of the area over which the
infected tribes extend must be remembered, and that while these
tribes were not in contact with any town, the Chinese, on the
other hand, spread only over those comparatively small areas on
which employment or gold could be found in conditions (of neigh-
bourhood to whites) which would make their prolonged stay
profitable. Were it granted that they might have been infected
by the Chinese, still it is difficult to see how the opportunity for
communication came about. Lastly, there is nothing of an
evidential nature to warrant connection of their infection rather
with the Chinese in recent years than with the Malays in older
times, or vice versa.

The question whether lepra was indigenous to any part of
Australia is so important that it has seemed necessary to go into
some detail in speaking of occurrences of the disease among the
aboriginals ; but it remains unanswered for the present, in my
opinion ; yet, as the foregoing information is at this date entirely
new, it is possible that more light may be thrown upon it as time
goes on and attention is more steadily directed toit. This branch
of the subject, then, must now be left aside, and the incidence of
lepra on the whites and on foreign immigrants must be examined.

I go on to speak of other parts of Australia, and of leprosy
among native-born whites, immigrant whites, and coloured aliens.
No cases have ever been observed in Tasmania or in South
Australia. Only two, both in Chinese, have been observed in
Western Australia. There have been many recorded cases both in
whites and coloured aliens (Chinese and Kanakas) in Queensland ;
but the list is, beyond doubt, remarkably short of the fact as
regards the latter. It is probably deficient there as regards the
whites, too—to what extent cannot be guessed; and that it is
deficient is but an inference from the known facts, though a very
strong one, Remain, therefore, New South Wales and Victoria,
for which territories the information, though doubtless incomplete,
is yet in all probability sufficiently full for practical purposes.
The epidemiology of lepra in these two territories presents a problem
of great interest.*

* Although I shall probably not have occasion in this account to refer again to Queensland,
it is nevertheless sufticiently interesting to be noted that the first case of leprosy in Australia
of which there is evidence was encountered there, the late Dr. Bancroft having discovered
the history of the illness of an aged Chinese in old case-books of Brisbane Hospital. Though
the nature of the case was not recognised at the time (1855), the description was to his mind
(and after reading the original M.S. is to my own) sufficiently clear. The first case of lepra
in a white native of which there is record was observed and identified by myself, the patient
still surviving (see Annual Report on Leprosy, Board of Health, New South Wales, 1895,
Case L), and presenting an example of healed L. nzrvoruin with consecutive neurotrophic
changes. The date of attack was 1856.

LEPRA IN AUSTRALIA. 1047

The epidemiology of the disease in New South Wales may be sum-
marised as follows :—Between 1856, when the first case in a white
occurred, and 1882, no less than 15 cases in whites are known to have
been nee with, the dates of attack being ascribed to eleven of the
year's in that series of twenty-seven years; and during thatterm only
one West Indian, who was observed (under confinement in a lunatic
asylum) suffering from L. nervorum, and one Chinese, a patient in
a general hospital, also affected with Z. nervorum, were noted, in
1859 and 1861 respectively, among immigrants from leprosy-areas.
During the years from 1882 to the present date many cases in
coloured immigrants and in whites were recorded, as shown in the
Table; so that during those twenty seven years a good many cases
were observed in whites, and in coloured immigrants only two cases.

In Victoria, the course of events was exactly contrary. From
1858 (and apparently from two or three years earlier) the presence
of Chinese lepers was known and officially recorded. Their number
nevertheless, remains doubtful. It is certain there were several
in 1858 ; thirteen were recorded at a date subsequent to 1863 ;
thirty-one were enumerated in 1866 ; and, from the records, it is
apparent that there were always several Chinese lepers scattered
over the territory down to 1889. Between 1863 and 1867 a white
leper was noted ; but he had lived ten years in India, and it was
clearly stated he had acquired his disease there. No other white
case was observed until 1884 (attacked in 1879), and this patient
was a native of New South Wales who had lived in Sydney,
where he was born, from 1859 to 1867, and then in New Zealand
(an old leprosy-ar ea) until 1874, when he arrived in Victoria. A
third case was observed in a white in 1891. He had been born in
India, and until his arrival in Victoria in 1885 had been a sailor
trading in the East. He was attacked in 1889. So that while many
cases In Chinese have been observed and recorded in Victoria
between 1858 and the present date, there never has been noted
any case in a native Victorian, nor any in whites but such as
were (as to two of them), or may have been (as to the third),
imported after acquiring the disease.

Secondly, it is to be observed that during nearly all the years
dealt with, lepers were in both these territories entirely free and
unrestrained, whether they were white or coloured. In New
South Wales some provision was made for isolation of a few
coloured lepers who had become helpless and destitute, and who
were therefore isolated voluntarily in a sense, in 1883. During
the following years one or two others were isolated under indirect
pressure, as well as some more who came in as being helpless ; but
it was not until 1890 that by Act of Parliament the forcible
detention of those already in captivity was made legal, and the
reporting and detention of all cases which might be detected for
the future was made compulsory both on medical men and on the

1048 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I.

laity ; and in this respect of isolation the course taken was almost
the same in Victoria. Somewhat before 1888 there were two or
three helpless lepers isolated voluntarily, and in that year it was
made legal to remove to a Jazaret and to detain there any newly-
discovered leper ; but this could be done only if two medical men
certified and reported—that is, if two physiciaus chose to take
that course, then the central authority might (again if they chose)
forcibly remove the leper so reported; but no compulsion to
report, or to isolate, lepers was laid on anyone. It was not until
1893 that notification and isolation of all cases of lepra was made
compulsory in Victoria.

I repeat, then, that it is clear beyond all doubt that there were
many foreign lepers in Victoria, from 1858 onwards, and that
they were entirely uncontrolled ; but no native white leper was
ever recorded or detected according to the result of very exten-
sive inquiries made, not only in official quarters, but of individual
medical men still surviving and practising from the earliest date
mentioned, On the other hand, it is equally clear that from
about the same time there were a good many white lepers in
New South Wales, long before any important number of cases
among Chinese or other immigrants had been observed ; and
more than this, the disease died down—almost died out—in
Victoria before notification became compulsory. So that, on
the whole, it may well be said that if lepra can be diffused by
lepers, then it seems as though there were something about
Victoria which prevented the imported infection from “ taking”
there. Thus the most that can be suggested by way of adverse
comment on these statements is, that cases probably did occur
among Chinese, &ec., in New South Wales during the long series
of years before 1883, although they were not observed, recog-
nised, or noted, the fact appearing in any case to be that the
infection did take in New South Wales, but refused to take in
Victoria, on the white inhabitants.

There are a few other points which must be noted here. They
are, first, that there has never been any such prevalence of
leprosy among the Chinese in either territory as might fairly be
expected of a communicable disease occurring among a people
who habitually live at extremely close quarters with each other
(and who, according to my observation, show no particular fear
of that disease) ; secondly, that most of the native-born white
lepers in New South Wales have not merely never associated with
coloured people of any race, but have certainly never been in
conscious contact with any leper. The number of Chinese in
Victoria was vastly in excess of the number in New South Wales
down to 1881. The total population of the two territories, which
march together, was at every date practically equal; but the
area of Victoria being 88,000 square miles, and that of New

LEPRA IN AUSTRALIA. 1049

South Wales being above 310,000, conditions attaching to density
would seem to be in favour of spread in Victoria; there is a
difference of 5 degrees in the mean annual temperature ; and
lastly, there are no other differences (political or social) between
the two.

I point out that the remarkable features of the case thus briefly
described exist only inasfar as the evidence from which they
have been drawn is adequate to establish them as facts ; and that
for that evidence, which is necessarily lengthy, reference must be
made to the writing which was mentioned at first, and which
concludes with the two following statements of opinion :—

*‘T. Although lepers were imported to Victoria steadily during
a long term of years, and in considerable number, and although
they always remained entirely unrestricted in their movements
among the whites, no Victorian native white who had never left
the Colony has ever been attacked. Moreover the disease died
away in Victoria quite dependently of restrictive measures
against the liberty of lepers, which in fact were first taken only
in March, 1893.

“TT. Although coloured alicns of many different races, all of
which have furnished cases of leprosy in Australia, have been
imported during many years, and in large numbers, to all the
better populated parts of the country, which extend along the
coast-line from about the 146th degree of east longitude, easterly
and then northerly towards Cape York (V ictoria, Now South
Wales, Queensland) ; and although native whites who have never
left their colony have been attacked at various places in New
South Wales and Queensland ; there is no evidence, and no good
reason for surmising, that any such native white has been
attacked who lived south of the 35th parallel of south latitude
(part of New South Wales and Victoria).”

[See table on next page. }

PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I.

1050

“asouryy

Re

er ee er)

ec rr)
'

i

etme eee meme ee eens

re ee

eee vee enews e eee

Ce ed

Seen eee wes eenee nee

Beene eee ewww ee nee nne

ere

ee eo

ee ee

Ce

ee

eee eee wenn eeene

‘(68ST pur oyep
SIT] WeeMyeq podtoA0d
-SIp o10M JO) osouryy F
libversenene QSoUttT T
*(aqep
Sty}? ynoqr) soqiyM §

esiseeiueeiengo Sour ga) if
vasiead asbnaniePle> GROUT) |

Re

Lene r ee newneerereseee

(‘seyvury
Auvut ‘sparauo oyep
Sty} Wor) ‘oyIyM T

ey

Ce ec rT
Been ne wre eweeenreere
Pe ee

evneesereeeeeeeeees QATUEM T

Syl see ceaee COS OUITU A) |

“ses 9s0ull
: ry me

ae} balicleete Heese SO TTAN
aibjere bietaievaiesteveteletelnys. SOUITM G

Weeigegetunegen se SO aNT AN Ig

(GEST poAtosqo) o714 Ad T

peewee eee

Hreeres BATTEN T

eee er ee oqTyM 1
we leer wen e renee ene SOPIYM ZG
SOFIA G
weeeee OI T
eee ee ad ogy a I

eee eevee eee

rarmaneuatiesene sole ATV AN

Pe

sreterereeeers gouty) T
UVIPUT 489A Pomnoyoo

Pe ee
en ee

(GG8T peadesqo) oy M T

beeen ewww enannee

were er we a

Ce

Siteneeeerneeeeneeees OUTTA T

“qeavyped 4@
ua asoulyy 6

“poyerour
-nuo e1aM esaTIyd GT:

Bonen eens

ee

Ore melee een ee enenee

CO

“poze rout

“nue oataM esoulyg EI
‘(erpuy Wo.az

[IE poqtodut) og1yM T

sweeten eeee osoulyyy) aulog

Renee wee ener eee eres

“AIOYWIIAT, ULIYAON

‘uoryraiedo o7ut owas saodary Jo Ay.toqTT oy} YSUIVSe WOTYRISLOOTT YIP
SEIMOTOD OAY UL poadosqo oaom saodory yorya ur savok oY} SUrMoYs ofqey,

pure ‘ooeyy atoyy

‘eIeagsny Jo

*puvysusent)

"SOTVAA UQNOG MONT

“BILOJOLA

Dee eee eee nee

Cane eee ee eee

Ce

Breese esereenee

eee beter eenee

wseee

Seen e ee eweeenee

ees

rd

re)

re

eee eee eens

eee eee een r eee

eee ener eeeen

Se

Stee vere enree

“el[eAySNy U1O4SO MA

UL pus £ Toquin yy

1051

AUSTRALIA.

LEPRA IN

*[RUISLIOG® T

*[RUISTLOGe T ‘osoulyy T

Dee e eee wee eee

en

eee ee ry

“(PSST
jO pud 90UIS poaAdos

-qo ‘noqe) asouly) OL

“Oqrys T

Peete w were meee eeee

Aaostndutoo
APVUI Sasvo pestusodar
jo yroday—wornpsrhay

“SOTA. OATYVU UL
99.1} 1009 SUIPNpOUL
ys] 0} otl0d dAvY
SOSLO [LIOAOS *FGS | 9OUIG

‘seyeury ¢
‘gsapenuly) [ “soqlyM %

*STRULSLIOG(e
oUlOS ‘VyeUey T ‘OVI T
‘S[RULSLIOG® Z

| ‘svyeuey p Saeqe[ ey [

‘gsopvauly [ ‘asouryy T

*“Arospnduroo
apeut sosvo poqood
-sns 10 pastusooa.t

fo qaodaxy —uounpsrhary
“ 9gaUlyO [ SOQlyAr [

RYVURY
[ ‘asourgg [ ‘ory T

*aSoTRSULY) T
‘eyeuey [ ‘aseullya

See eer eeneeee orang) P

Cerda rere eee ewe eee

coreeeeeerss OOM |
Hyaseeeseeerres QSOTIT) &

Hereeeeeenees SoATIEM @
‘iqnelung [ ‘ueiuop

-O[RDQ MON T ‘soz €

‘QOSSVIPLL
[ ‘osouryy % ‘SovIyM F

* QSOULYO § ‘SOM A\ F

"RYLUVy

I ‘asouryy ¢ ‘sozIyM G
*Arospadu09
APLUTSesvd postUsOd.aT

fo yaodayy — wWo2pmpsibary

SOP G

“ 9soUy [ SOP T
“= 9saulyg & ‘OplyAr T
Ree etter eens esoulyy 1
“asouvarp [ ‘osoulyy %

‘URIPUTIS9 AA POANOTOo

deeuvecveccesoneve esoulyyy) T

Ce ee

‘Arospnuduroo
APRIL Sasvo postusooaL
jo yaodoyy —wornpsihaT
eereees eters SOUT &

ere eee ee rr)

eee

eee ee

“O11 M [ Sosouly ¢
“UOIYRISISOT OATSSTUIO
‘([eUolyIppe) eseutyD T
(, JeUOTJIppe) oseuryH T

Pee en cn

SRONOPOOPED OMAN SB YaHUGY TAs es CLMUIO) If elke Le ee PERSIE

———orrreeee =—4-. eo.) ‘=

Ce

tree ee eee eee

etree eens

neta seen eereee

eee a lene nernee

een eee ee eens

eee ew eneneeene

ȣaospud
-W09 epeuUr seseo
postusooad fo yaod
ay — wounpsbayT
Hecreeeernes QgQUTyD

seers oROUTYD) T

etree ener trees

LOST
968T

C68T
F6SL

T681

06ST

68ST.

88st
L88T
98ST

Csst

———

1052 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I.

No. 2.—SHORT DESCRIPTION OF A NEW METHOD OF
PREPARING AND PRESERVING ANATOMICAL
AND PATHOLOGICAL TISSUES, WITH SPECIAL
REFERENCE TO THEIR COLOU R-PRESERVATION.

By Sypney Jamieson, M.B., Edin., M.R.C.S., Eng.
(Read Friday, January, 7, 1898.)
[ Abstract. |

NotuineG can possibly add more to the utility of museum prepara-
tions, especially for purposes of teaching, than a method of pre-
serving the natural colour of organs and tissues permanently.

Hitherto it has been the custom to remove, as far as possible,
the blood from the parts while fresh, and straightway preserve
them in various strengths of alcohol.

For some tissues this is all that is required, as the distinguishing
features may thus be retained sufficiently well for purposes of
demonstration.

For instance, a valvular lesion of the heart, or a congenital
malformation of an organ may, by this means, be preserved indefi-
nitely, and still retain its distinctive freshness more or less
unimpaired.

Far otherwise, however, is it with the majority of pathological
conditions.

In many cases, within a comparatively short period of time, the
appearance of the parts becomes so much altered that it ceases
in any way to convey to the eye those characters by which the
diseased process may be recognised,

So much so is this the case, that until quite recently one would
search in vain the shelves of a path ological museum for an adequate
representation of so common and characteristic a condition as
chronie venous congestion of the liver.

By the use of a formula, the details of which T will now describe,
it has now become possible to preserve such specimens in a condition
almost identical with that which they had when first removed
from the body.

Organs, however, preserved in this way, still require a certain
amount of care, in order that their natural colouring may be
entirely retained.

Exposure to direct sunlight for a lengthened period will in many

cases remove, to some extent, the colour.

ANATOMICAL AND PATHOLOGICAL TISSUES. 1053

It therefore becomes necessary to keep such preparations in a
semi-dark atmosphere, except when being used for purposes of
demonstration.

The following is briefly the method of procedure :—

Before subjecting the tissues to the preserving fluid, it is
necessary to avoid, as far as possible, any contact with water; and
so, instead of washing them in water as was done formerly, they
are merely wiped dry with a piece of cloth.

They should then be placed immediately in a solution con-
sisting of —

Commercial Formalin, parts 5-10 (40 per cent. Formic alde-
hyd.) ; Chloride of Soda, part 1; Sulphate of Soda and
Sulphate of Mag. in equal proportions, parts 2.

made up with water to 100 parts.

The length of time during which they should be subjected to
this fluid varies with the size, thickness, and consistence of the
tissue.

Objects of the size of spleen and kidneys (normal) require about
two days, and the fluid should be changed twice during that time.

Large objects require a longer subjection to the fluid, the time
varying directly with the size and thickness of the organ.

The fluid, during the process, becomes of a dirty brownish-red
colour ; when this is seen fresh fluid is required.

It is particularly necessary that all parts of the tissue should
be brought into contact with the fluid, and that the object should
be given the shape and position which it is desired that it should
retain permanently.

While in the solution the organs change colour, and assume a
dirty bluish-grey appearance.

This colour is, however, discharged on placing them in 95 per
cent. alcohol, and the normal colour returns.

Before placing them into alcohol they should be washed
thoroughly in alcohol until the latter no longer becomes cloudy.

Tt must on no account come into contact with water.

Tt should be left in alcohol for a period sufiiciently long for the
normal colour to return, and no longer.

Tf left too long in this fluid the colour is removed.

As soon as the colour has completely returned, it is placed in
the permanent mounting fluid, and for this purpose we find that
the best solution consists of equal parts of glycerine and water.

Tn this fluid the material at first floats, but as soon as it becomes
thoroughly impregnated it wiil sink to the bottom.

After a short time the mounting fluid begins to assume a
yellowish colour. It should then be canged and fresh fluid sub-
stituted.

1054 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I.

It is now permanently prepared and ready for exhibition ; but
it must be remembered that as far as possible it should not be
exposed for a lengthened period to direct sunlight.

We find, so far as we have gone—for the method is still in the
experimental stage—that by this method all formsof blood pigment
may be fixed in this way.

It is, we find, of no service whatever in preserving the colour
produced by the staining of the tissues with bile.

The process is a somewhat long and tedious one, and requires a
considerable amount of careful supervision ; but I think you will
agree with me in pronouncing it a wonderful improvement upon
the old style.

No. 3.—TUBERCULOSIS AND THE PUBLIC HEALTH.

By Grorce Lane Muuiins, M.A., M.D., F.S.S., F.R.M.S.
(Read Friday, January 7, 1898.)
[ Abstract. |

Durine the past forty years (1857-96) there have been nearly
34,000 deaths from tuberculosis in the Colony of New South
Wales.

During the years 1885-96, there were 17,114 deaths from
tubercular diseases in the Colony, while there were 12,884 from
the six chief zymotic diseases—viz., smallpox, measles, scarlet
fever, whooping cough, diphtheria, and typhoid fever.

Within the metropolitan area (Sydney and suburbs) there were
4,726 deaths from tuberculosis, and 2,925 from these zymotic
diseases, during 1890-96. Immense sums of money are spent
every year in the prevention of infectious fevers, yet the most
deadly disease in the world is neglected. Fevers usually attack
children, run a short course, protect from subsequent occurrence,
and leave their subjects able to work. Tuberculosis, on the other
hand, strikes down those in the prime of life, runs a chronic
course, and causes permanent incapacity for occupation. Tuber-
culosis is a communicable disease. Experiments have demonstrated
this clearly. This communicability being granted, it is our duty
to protect the healthy members of the community against the
ravages of the disease.

Tuberculosis is caused by the tubercle bacillus of Koch, which
gains an entrance to the body from without. It affects man and
many of the domestic animals, such as cattle, horses, and pigs,
Heredity plays a very unimportant part in the production of the

TUBERCULOSIS AND THE PUBLIC HEALTH. 1055

disease, and this mode of infection must be extremely rare. It
is the predisposition which is so often confounded with the trans-
mission of the disease. The chief modes of communication are
inhalation and ingestion; but the disease may be inoculated,
The bacilli may be received from the air by inhalation, and from
tuberculous food, such as milk or meat, by ingestion. Probably,
in adults at any rate, inhalation is the chief mode, and next to
that ingestion.

There ave some who doubt the identity of human and bovine
tuberculosis; but there are on record numerous instances of
infection from human beings to lower animals, from one animal
to another, and from the lower animals to man. Where cattle
are few or absent, consumption exists in man to a such smaller
extent. Where cattle are numerous, or are kept in the houses,
tubercular diseases are frequent both in man and the lower
animals. Dr. Creighton believes that the peculiar errors of
nutrition in the domesticated bovine species all over the world
are the real fountain and source of human tubercle.

That tuberculous milk may, and frequently does, cause tuber-
culosis in human beings is beyond all doubt. The milk con-
taining the tubercle bacilli enters the mouth and passes on to the
throat. During the time of its passage the bacilli may be
deposited in the mouth, tonsils, pharynx, or adjacent structures,
More bacilli are added every two, three, or four hours, according
to the frequency of feeding. These bacilli may be washed further
down and into the stomach, or may cause infection in the mouth,
&e., or may be inhaled into the lungs. The milk that passes
into the stomach may deposit more bacilli, or may continue on its
journey into the intestines. Strauss and Wiirtz have shown that
the bactericidal quality of the gastric secretions is insufficient to
destroy the bacillus tuberculosis. Infection may thus arise in the
mouth, tonsils, throat, lungs, or intestinal canal from tuberculous
milk. The lung infection may be primary from direct inhalation
of the bacilli lodged in the mouth, or may be secondary to infev-
tion of other parts.

Woodhead reports that in 127 cases of tuberculosis in children
that he examined, tubercular ulceration of the intestine was found
in 43 ; whilst in 100 cases, or nearly 79 per cent. of the whole,
the glands connected with the intestinal tract were in some stage
or other of tubercular degeneration. He argues that tuberculosis
connected with the intestine is of frequent occurrence in children,
and that the infection frequently takes place by the alimentary
canal. The age at which these tubercular glands were found is
very significant. During the first year of life there were 4 cases ;
from 1 to 24 years, 33; from 3 to 54 years, 29; from 6 to ng
years, 12 ; from 8 to 10 years, 13; and from 11 to 15 years, 9
cases. In 14 cases these glands only were affected.

1056 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I.

Thorough cleanliness of dairy premises, workers, cows, and
vessels should be rigidly enforced. All cattle should be tested
with tuberculin, and strict isolation of those reacting to the test
should be enforced. The public should demand from dairymen a
certificate from an expert that the dairy contains no tuberculous
animals. No cattle should be admitted to a dairy until they
have passed the test. Tuberculosis in man should be declared an
infectious disease under section 12 of the Dairies Supervision Act
of 1886. No consumptive should be allowed access to dairies or
to take part in milk-selling. All milk should be sterilised by
boiling, or it should be Pasteurised. No cattle should be allowed
to enter the Colony until they have passed the tuberculin test.

The danger from tuberculous meat is not so great as that from
the milk of infected cows. Meat being cooked before it is eaten
is more likely to have the bacilli it contains destroyed, except in
the case of large joints, or when imperfectly cooked. It has been
shown that no matter how high the temperature may be raised
near the surface of a joint, the heat rarely exceeds 140 degrees
Fahrenheit in the centre, except when the joint is under 6 Ib. in
weight. Ordinary cooking may destroy any tubercle bacilli on
the sur face, but 1t cannot be relied upon in the slightest degree to
destroy those in the centre. The least reliable method of cooking
for this purpose is roasting before the fire, next comes roasting in
an oven, and then boiling. In the present state of our knowledge
regarding tuberculous meat it is advisable to condemn the w hole
carcase of any animal slaughtered for food in which even localised
tubercular lesions are found. This is now the practice in Sydney,
and there appears to be no reason for alteving it.

On the general subject of prevention of the disease, the followi ing
rules may “be laid down :—

Overcrowding should be prevented. This overcrowding may be
of two kinds. "A district may consist of a large number “of small
houses, built back to back, and without yard space. The streets
may be narrow, or may end in blind alleys; or, in the poorer
quarters of towns, a large number of persons may live in small
FR onihGe = son einies even whole families, consisting of perhaps
seven or eight persons, may inhabit one or two rooms.

Sunlight and fresh air should be allowed free access to all
habitations. Sunlight alone is a valuable germicide. The houses
should be well ventilated. A broken pane of glass in a badly-
ventilated house often does more good than harm. The subsoil
should be well drained.

All rooms should be well swept while the windows are open.
The old-fashioned plan of sprinkling tea-leaves on the floor is to
be recommended, as it serves to prevent the dust from rising and
afterwards settling down in the room. All houses intended for
habitation should ‘be inspected by public officers before they are

TUBERCULOSIS AND THE PUBLIC HEALTH. 1057

used for residence. Dirty trades should be regulated, and all
buildings subjected to periodical sanitary inspection.

Consumptives should be isolated as far as possible. They
should spit into small pieces of rag or paper, which can be
burned, or into a small spitting-cup containing an antiseptic
solution, such as carbolic acid or corrosive sublimate. They
should sleep in well-aired rooms by themselves, and should not
have more communication with the other members of the house.
hold than is absolutely necessary. They should not marry.

Consumptive children should not be admitted to boarding-schools
unless they can have separate rooms for sleeping in, and provision
can be made for the destruction of the expectoration.

Consumptive mothers should not nurse their children, nor
should phthisical wet-nurses be employed.

We cannot allow phthisical patients to enter the wards of our
general hospitals for treatment, for we are unable to prevent
communication between the consumptive and other patients in
these institutions. Experiment has shown that the air which a
consumptive breathes becomes charged with the bacilli of tuber-
culosis ; the expectoration, which is usually copious, dries up and
leaves the bacilli to mingle with the dust in the room, and cause
infection among others. If then, consumptive patients occupied
the same wards with others in the hospitals, they might communi-
cate the malady to those who are debilitated by disease or acci-
dent. The power of resisting disease is at a minimum among
hospital patients, and thus they are peculiarly susceptible to the
bacilli, to which they fall an easy prey. In time, then, every
ward would become a permanent centre of contagion.

There are many objections to a large consumptive hospital
within our city boundaries. While the segregation of consump-
tives might be beneficial to the community at large, their isolation
in the bacilli-laden atmosphere of the town must prove injurious
to the patients themselves ; but the plan of erecting a home for
those who are in too advanced a stage to travel to the country
districts and benefit by the climatic treatment is an excellent
one. A small building containing a few beds would be ample for
such cases. To this institution an outdoor department should be
attached where patients who are unable to leave the city might
be treated in the early stages. Such a hospital, together with
the existing Hospice for the Dying in Darlinghurst, would be as
much as it would be wise to establish. Ifa patient be found to
be suffering from phthisis, and removal from the impure air of
the city be impracticable, he might be treated as an out-patient,
but such cases should not be treated within the walls of a city
building. A small hospital should be established in Sydney,
together with three or four homes in the country districts, which
might be used by those who are in the curative stage, or in the

ae &

1058 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I.

progressive stage before all hope is abandoned. A large con-
sumptive hospital in the city is very objectionable.

At the Brisbane meeting of this Association, the writer con-
tributed a paper showing the death rate from phthisis in every
district in New South Wales. These figures showed that in
Sydney the rate was 1:96 ; suburbs, 1:16 ; country, 0°66; or the
ratio for city, suburbs, and country, of 3, 2,,1. Probably the
most suitable locations for country sanatoria would be on the
western slope of the Blue Mountains, the Riverina, New England,
the Queensland border, on those extensive open plains between
the Macintyre and Gwydir Rivers. A coastal station might be
established in the Ilarwarra or Shoalhaven districts. In Europe
and in America the climatic treatment of phthisis has met with
gratifying results. There are in Australia many and varied
climates which, so far, no serious attempt has been made to take
advantage of.

What is required most is the sanitary education of the masses,
and the co-operation of individual members of the community.
The public must be made to understand that consumption is a
preventable disease ; that their lives depend, to a great extent,
upon the actions of one another ; and that the causes of prevent-
able diseases are local conditions of filth and nuisance polluting
air and water, and the reckless dissemination of contagion.

No. 4.—A BRIEF SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF SMALL-
POX AND VACCINATION IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

By Frank Tipswett, M.B., Ch.M. (Syd.), D.P.H. (Camb.) ;
Principal Assistant Medical Officer to the Government of
New South Wales ; Microbiologist to the Board of Health.

(Read Friday, January 7, 1898.)
[ Abstract. ]

I. SMALL-POX.

THE exact time of the first appearance of small-pox in Australia
has generally been referred to too late a date, mainly on the
authority of Hirsch. In his “Geographical and Historical
Pathology,” New Syd. Soc. Trans., London, 1885, vol. i, page 133,
this writer states that small-pox did not appear in Australia till
the year 1838, that its occurrence then was of brief duration, and
that no further outbreak occurred until 1868.

SMALL-POX AND VACCINATION IN N.S.W. 1059

Davidson (“‘ Geographical Pathology”) considers that Hirsch’s
statement can only have reference to the European population,
since small-pox was prevalent amongst the native blacks in 1789,
shortly after the first settlement of the English in Australia.

As will be seen from the following summary of the official
records relating to the matter, the early history of Australia
furnishes somewhat abundant evidence in support of Davidson’s
contention.

The colonisation of New South Wales was instituted at Sydney,
Port Jackson, on January 26th, 1788, by the arrival of what is
known as the “ First Fleet,” consisting of eleven vessels, carrying
about 1,000 persons. No addition was made to the English inha-
bitants of the English settlement till the arrival of the ‘Second
Fleet” in 1790.

In the meantime, in April, 1789, the native blacks in the neigh-
bourhood of Sydney were found to be dying in large numbers ;
their bodies were discovered on the rocks and beaches of the har-
bour and elsewhere. The cause of this great mortality remained
unknown until a sick family was brought into the settlement,
when the disorder was pronounced to be small-pox. Two elderly
men, a boy, and a girl, comprised the family brought in. They
were al! affected with the disease. The two men died, the children
recovered. A young male native, previously captured, caught the
disease from his countrymen, and died from it. One other person,
a sailor (negro or North American Indian), also succumbed to the
disease. None of the whites became infected, although there were
many unvaccinated persons amongst them.

The blacks fled from the vicinity of Sydney, but apparently
carried the disease with them. At later dates exploring parties
from the settlement found groups of skeletons in various direc-
tions.. Many writers have testified that the blacks met with by
them in various parts of the continent were pitted with small-pox.
Such pock-marked blacks were observed at Perth, at the time of
the first settlement there (1829), and later at other places on the
western and northern coasts; in the south at Port Phillip, on the
Lower Murray at Swan Hill (1838), on the Goulburn River (1841),
in the north at Raflles Bay (1828), &c.

In his “ History of Leprosy in Australia,” recently published
by the National Leprosy Fund Committee, Dr. J. Ashburton
Thompson refers to an observation made in 1828. Quoting from
“A Narrative of a Voyage Round the World,” by T. B. Wilson,
M.D., London, 1829, who was wrecked at Cape York in 1828,
and reached Raffles Bay soon after, Dr. Thompson writes as
follows :—‘ The only sentence in which diseases of the aboriginals
were mentioned by Dr. Wilson spoke of a party who were all
suffering from bronchitis, of ophthalmia, and of ‘deep, circular
impressions, especially on the face,’ as though they had had

1060 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I.

small-pox, which, after some inquiry, he concluded was the disease to
which they were due, and the more that one native had lost an
eye during the illness which had caused them,” In this we have
a particularly independent observation of the early occurrence of
small-pox amongst the blacks.

At the first census of the blacks of Victoria in 1877, five old
persons were found pitted with small-pox. One of these furnished
the information that the disease first came to his tribe down the
Murray (2.e., from the direction of Sydney), many years before
they had seen or heard of the whites. Actual cases of the
disease amongst the blacks were reported at Bathurs.t, New South
Wales, in 1830-1831 (where three white children Lecame infected,
and one died) ; inthe neighbourhood of Adelaide, South Australia,
at about the same time; and at Echuca, Victoria, between 1841
and 1845.

The inference which has been drawn from this réswmé of the
early records is that an epidemic starting from Sydney in 1789,
spread during the succeeding years over the whole of the con-
tinent ; that it was maintained till 1845, shortly after which it
appears to have died out. There is abundant evidence that
during its prevalence it produced an enormous mortality amongst
the blacks, about one-half of the native inhabitants of the
southern part of Australia having been killed by it. Notwith-
standing this great loss of life amongst the blacks, the whites
escaped. From first to last, probably not more than half-a-dozen
white persons acquired the disease.

This fact has led to some doubt as to the disease having been
small-pox, but it does not seem to merit such import being attached
to it. A similar almost exclusive incidence on a native race has
been observed in other countries, and with other diseases. It is
not difficult to suppose that the whites took the utmost care to
avoid infection from a disease the contagiousness of which they
were well aware of. It is probable that the “race tolerance” of
the whites against small-pox played its part in protecting them,
and, as will be seen later, vaccination began to be practised early
in 1804. Every medical man who saw the disease, or the scars
left by it, pronounced it to be smallpox. No disease peculiar to
the blacks has been discovered which could produce such effects,
and vaccination was said to be specific against it. In view of all
these circumstances there does not appear to be any satisfactory
foundation for the doubts which have been expressed ; but, on the
contrary, all available evidence tends to prove that the disease was
really variola.

There is no evidence of any previous existence of the small-pox
in Australia. The account of the epidemic given above indicates
that it started from Sydney in 1789. The records referring to it
state that there had never been small-pox in the English settlement.

SMALL-POX AND VACCINATION IN N.S.W. 1061

Efforts to discover its source, made at the time of its first
appearance, failed to determine whether the blacks had had any
previous knowledge of it ; it was found that they had a name
for the disease (gal-gal-la), and this was supposed to indicate a
pre-acquaintance with it ; but exactly what gal-gal-la means is
uncertain. It is only a local name, since in other parts of the
continent the blacks referred to small-pox as owie or bove, purrer
purrer, meen waranna, &c. The absence of a root-relation between
such terms indicates that at least the disease appeared amongst
them at a comparatively late period—tlong after the separation of
the various tribes. There is thus evidence that the disease was
imported by some other race. The initial incidence on the southern
part of the continent negatives the idea of importation by Malays
or Chinese such as, it is believed, occurred in a subsequent epidemic.
The earlier Spanish, Dutch, and English navigators who touched
the coast of Australia, were probably not in such communication
with the blacks as would have sufficed to introduce the disease.
The earliest accounts we have of the blacks are those of Dampier
(1699), and Captain Cook (1770). Dampier makes no mention
of any disease resembling small-pox amongst the blacks, although
those he saw were in a neighbourhood (Sharks Bay, Western
Australia) in which small-pox was afterwardscommon. In Cook’s
account of the blacks at Botany Bay and the Endeavour River,
it is noted that there was no skin disease amongst them. Mr,
Curr remarks that several independent traditions of the blacks,
«‘ which there can be no doubt are genuine,” refer to the original
source of the disease to the direction of Sydney. The devastation
which the epidemic of 1789 produced indicates that it was
incident on a virgin population, and one to whom it was an
entirely new experience. These considerations seem sufficient to
warrant the assumption that the epidemic above described marked
the introduction of small-pox into Australia.

The exact source of the epidemic is involved in obscurity. It
has already been mentioned that there had been no small-pox in
the English settlement before the blacks became affected. An
opinion very generally expressed at the time was that the disease
was derived from two French ships under the command of Comte
de la Perouse, which remained for about two months at Botany
Bay at the time of the foundation of the colony—January to
March, 1788 ; but there is no reason to believe that small-pox
existed amongst the crews of these vessels ; moreover, the epidemic
did not appear till fifteen months after they had sailed away. There
are certain circumstances connected with the medical history of
the “First Fleet,” which arouse suspicion that responsibility of tae
introduction attaches to it. It was said that, before leaving
Plymouth, the ship’s company of the “ Alexandria” transpoit
had “got a malignant disease amongst them of a most dangerous

1062 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I.

kind.” Dr. John White, the surgeon-general of the First Fleet, did
not agree with this opinion. The name of the “ malignant
disease ” was not stated, nor were the deaths that occurred during
the voyage particularised. Captain Trench, referring to the
voyage of the First Fleet, says: ‘“ No person amongst us had been
affected with the disorder (small-pox) since leaving the Cape of
Good Hope,” a statement which induces the inference that there
was small-pox on board before that time. It is possible, therefore,
that the ‘“ Alexandria,” or some other vessel of the First Fleet,
carried the infection to Sydney, and from the settlement there it
was subsequently conveyed to the blacks, perhaps by means of
infected clothing or some other article, as in the case of the North
American Indians. However, it must be admitted that there is
little more than surmise to go upon, and that the precise way in
which small-pox was introduced into Australia remains undeter-
mined.

Such, in brief, is the history of what appears to be the first
appearance of small-pox in Australia. The disease was mainly
incident on that part of the continent south of the tropic of
Capricorn. There seems to have been a second epidemic amongst
the blacks in 1860-61, this time apparently limited to Northern
Australia. The blacks suffered severely, but the whites escaped
as before. On this occasion the disease is believed to have been
introduced by Malays or Chinese fishermen.

About this time the colonies of Victoria and Queensland were
separated off from what is now New South Wales. As regards
this latter province, the importation of small-pox has threatened
or actually occurred on several occasions, and formed the subject
of Board of Health reports in 1881-1882, 1883-1884, 1886
(s.s. ‘*Oceanien”), 1887 (s.s. ‘“ Preussen”), and 1892 (R.M.S8.
“Oroya”). The most important of these invasions was the
epidemic of 1881-1882, which lasted from May, 1881, to
February, 1882, during which time 154 persons were attacked,
and forty died. One result of this epidemic was the passing of the
“Infectious Disease Supervision Act of 1881,” which requires
immediate notification of “any case of small-pox or any eruptive
fever which may reasonably be supposed to be small-pox.” A
Board of Health was constituted by the Act, and directed to
carry out its provisions, as well as those of the Quarantine Act
of 1832. Both of the Acts, amended in certain particulars, are
still in force, and the Board continues to discharge its duties under
them.

The system of maritime quarantine practised in this country is
generally well-known. ‘The exact details of the procedure will be
found in the Report of the Australian Sanitary Conference of
1884, and in the Board of Health’s reports concerning the
quarantine of particular vessels.

SMALL-POX AND VACCINATION IN N.S.W. 1063

II, VACCINATION,

It is a deplorable fact that this system of quarantine has led to
neglect of vaccination.

The surgeons of the “ First Fleet” are said to have brought
out “variolous matter’ with them. Exactly what is meant by
“variolous matter” is not clear, but in any case there is no
record of their ever having made use of it.

On the 4th of May, 1803, Captain Phillip Gidley King, R.N.,
the Governor of New South Wales, addressed a letter to Lord
Hobart, Secretary of State, suggesting that ‘“ vaccine matter”
should be sent to the Colony. In this letter he states that
‘‘every search has been made on the teats of our cows (for
cow-pox) but nothing of the kind can be found.” In response to
the Governor’s letter a supply of vaccine lympth, obtained from
the Royal Jennerian Society, was despatched in the ‘‘Coromandell”
transport, which arrived in Sydney, on May 7th 1804. By the
same vessel there also arrived a second packet of lymph forwarded
to Assistant Surgeon Savage, by Mr. John Ring, Member of the
Medical Council, which was “ put upin a different way from that
sent by the Royal Jennerian Society.”

On receipt of the lymph, the principal surgeon (Dr Thomas
Jamieson), immediately vaccinated three children at the Orphan
Asylum ; several of the soldiers’ children were vaccinated by
Mr. John Harris, surgeon to the New South Wales Corps ; and
some other persons by Mr. Savage.

Their efforts were successful, for a notice which appeared on
June 3rd, 1804, stated that “ the cow-pox is now fully established
in the Colony,” and invited parents to have their children
vaccinated. This invitation appears to have been generally
accepted, since Governor King, on sending some ‘‘ vaccine
matter” to Norfolk Island, in July, 1804, wrote—(vaccination)
“succeeded so well here that most part of the children in the
Colony have received the inoculation.”

After this, vaccine lymph appears to have died out and been
reintroduced at intervals, the supplies coming from England,
and in one instance, at least, from Norfolk Island.

More recently the Colony has had a constant though small
supply, derived from England until 1881, and since that time
from Victoria and New Zealand, both of which colonies have
established vaccine stations. No lymph is cultivated in New
South Wales, though the necessity for it has been frequently
urged, and the disastrous effects of such unpreparedness, which
may be expected should an epidemic occur, have been pointed
out time after time.

1064 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I.

New South Wales also occupies the unenviable position of
being the only province of the Australian group in which an
enactment for compulsory vaccination does not exist, although
strong representations in favour of such legislation have not been
wanting. The Colony thus constitutes a danger and a menace to
the other colonies, of which the latter have just cause to
complain.

The subjoined table shows the number of persons vaccinated
by the Government Medical Officers since 1861, together with
the number of births, and the proportion of vaccinations to
births. It does not include vaccinations performed by private
medical practitioners, of which no record is kept ; but these are
believed to be too few to materially influence the percentages
given in the table :—

Return showing the number of Births during the past thirty-six
years, and the number of Vaccinations performed by Govern-
ment Vaccinators during the same period.

ww 1 ae D :
an S862 n oes a
e om Sp a 2 bp
3 Bann 9 EG pe
4 SG) ah ee “4 oS,
= EO. = BEonm.
. a Horas 4 & Horas
bee 4 oouPo ° D 5= Cro pagan)
x 4s cS) Disses x S 3) rene} Paes! on
ze} 3 EISiOnA a Ss Ss) of ore
o om 3 gees o & 3 or she
al fQ e oy val 4 > ou

1861 | 14,681 2,349 16°00 1880 | 28,162 5,029 17°85
1862 | 15,454 3,155 20°44 1881 | 28,993 61,239 2112)

1863 | 15,679 12,970 82°72 1882 | 29,702 2,188 7°36
1864 | 16,881 10,696 63°36 1883 | 31,281 §82 2°81
1865 | 17,283 8,567 48°41 1884 | 33,946 7,055 20°78
1866 | 16,950 7,606 44°87 1885 | 35,043 2,230 6°36
1867 | 18,317 6,931 37°83 1886 | 36,254 1,763 4°85
1868 | 18,485 115237 60°79 1887 | 37,236 3,250 8°67
1869 | 19,243 21,507 LAG 1888 | 38,525 2,186 5'67
1870 | 19,648 7,084 36°54 1889 | 37,295 2,404 6°45
1871 | 20,143 6,482 32°16 1890 | 38,960 LOT 5°64
1872 | 20,250 17,565 86°74 1891 | 39,458 1,567 3°97
1873 | 21,444 3, 152 14°69 1892 | 40,041 4,014 10°02
1874 | 22,178 4,832 21°78 1893 | 40,342 2,547 631
1875 | 22,528 3,111 13°80 1894 | 38,952 1,957 5:02
1876 | 23,298 4,361 18°71 1895 | 38,715 2,437 6:29
1877 | 23,851 16,881 70°77 1896 | 36,613 945 2°59

1878 | 25,328 3,512 13°86 — 2 ee
1879 | 26,933 5,569 20°67 || Total | 988,102 | 258,821 26°19

SMALL-POX AND VACCINATION IN N.S W. 1065

This table tells a dismal story of constantly increasing apathy
towards vaccination. In succeeding years the proportion of
vaceinations to births has become less and less, until at the
present time we are practically an unvaccinated community.
Here and there sudden temporary increases in the proportion
show when the importation of the disease threatened, as at such
times the number of persons submitting themselves for vaccina-
tion largely increased.

This singular apathy is to be attributed to three chief causes:
First, there is the suspicion which still remains that vaccination
is accompanied by the inoculation of various diseases (syphilis,
leprosy, and the like)—a suspicion which no amount of proof to
the contrary seems able to remove from ignorant minds. Secondly,
there is the fact that on the one or two occasions when small-pox
actually gained an entrance it failed to spread to any extent, in
spite of the number of unvaccinated persons. The limitation of
the disease in these cases was due partly, no doubt, to the ener-
getic measures which were taken to check its extension, but it is
believed that it was not entirely due to these. There was some
other fortunate, but unknown, condition which opposed a barrier
to the progress of the epidemic. However this be, these circum-
stances afford no guarantee against future invasion. The history
of the epidemic amongst the blacks shows that there is no climatic
influence operating in our favour, and in view of what has
happened amongst civilised nations we cannot rely on our social
conditions alone to protect us. Thirdly, and most important of
the three, there is the misguided reliance which is placed on our
system of maritime quarantine. Although it is admitted that
this system has many obvious advantages fav ouring its practice in
this country, the folly of depending on “it for more protection than
it can possibly afford has been remarked upon by successive chiefs
of the Health Department. Moreover, its advantages are consi-
derably diminished by the lack of uniformity in the quarantine
measures of the different colonies. A system of Federal Quarantine
has been suggested, but has not found any practical application.
That small-pox will some day or other effect an entry in spite of
the utmost watchfulness is the firm belief of all those who have
interested themselves in the subject.

The above sketch will show the position of New South Wales
as regards vaccination. Too far removed from the countries of the
Old World to be impressed by their experiences of small-pox, and
lacking the salutary effect (as regards vaccination) of previous
serious contact with the disease, the people of this colony remain
to-day unwise as to their own interests, and indifferent towards
those of their neighbours.

1066 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I.

BIBLIOGRAPHY,

It only remains to be mentioned that the principal works (other
than those mentioned in the text), which have been consulted in
the compilation of the account here given, were as follows :—
The Historical Records of New South Wales, Sydney, 1892.

The Sydney Gazette. Issues relating to the period dealt with.

An Account of the English Colony of New South Wales, 1804.
By David Collins, Judge-Advocate, accompanying the First
Fleet.

The Wealth and Progress of New South Wales, 1894. Coghlan.

Geographical and Historical Pathology. Hirsch. N.S.8. Trans.,
1881.

Geographical Pathology. Davidson, 1892,

Aborigines of Australia. E. M. Curr, Melbourne,
Historical Account of the Transactions at Port Jackson, Hunter.

Statistical, and Political Description of the Colony of New South
Wales. Wentworth.

Journal of a Voyage to New South Wales. John White, Surgeon-
General of the First Fleet.

A Complete Account of the Settlement at Port Jackson. Trench.
Reports of the New South Wales Board of Health.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 1067

SECTION J.

MENTAL SCIENCE AND EDUCATION.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

By Joun Suirtey, B.Sc., District Inspector of Schools,
Queensland.

(Delivered Friday, January 7, 1898. )

THE INFLUENCE OF ENGLISH HISTORY ON
ENGLISH LITERATURE.

Tue history of England might be represented graphically by an
irregular wavy line, whose crests would depict years of victory,
prosperity, and expansion, and whose furrows would show periods
of loss, of civil conflict, and of depression. If, now, we insert
dates on these historical summits, it will be found that periods of
great national success are synchronous with times of great literary
activity ; and that when the heart of the nation is stirred to its
depths by threatened peril, only to be successfully avoided by
mighty effort and sacrifice, a few master-minds of the age,
unconsciously, and almost Divinely inspired, give tongue, in prose
or verse, to the joy, or thankfulness, or exaltation, felt by the
mass of their fellow-countrymen, though inarticulate in all but
the selected few. Occasionally, the genius is born after the
national uplifting has ceased, or, still worse, before the nation is
in excelsis ; but, like the Hebrew prophets of old, when once the
message has been given, it is delivered, whether in season or out
of season, whether the outcome be acclamation or persecution.
Not rarely, in times of misery, the groans of the oppressed are
voiced in the lamentations of a Piers Plowman, or by the Vow
Clamantis of a Gower; but the agony, however sincerely expressed,
is seldom accompanied by talents above mediocrity. Again, both
in history and literature, there are periods of dull contentment,
or of national high living, when wit and patriotism are obscured,
and the Philistine is abroad in the land.

1068 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J.

A wholly false idea has possessed many writers with regard to
that portion of English literature which was produced prior to
the Norman Conquest, and its connection with the main stream
of English thought. Even such a critic as Professor Craik has
permitted himself to write: ‘Of English literature, and the
English language commonly so called, the language and literature
of the Angles and Saxons before the twelfth century make no
proper part. ” Much has been done by recent writers, like Morley
and Stopford Brooke, to clear away the dense mists of ignorance
concerning this matter. There was first an era of English, or,
shall we say, Anglo-Saxon poetry, beginning in the older England
east of the North Sea, and ending with the accession of Alfred ;
and an era of early English prose, cmomencing in Wessex with
the firm establishment of Alfred’s power, and continuing in a
broken stream to the fusion of two languages and two nations in
the English of the twelfth century. The first of these eras marks
the overlordship of Northumbria ; the second, that of Wessex.
The kingdom of Northumbria received its Christianity from
Celtic missionaries ; its borders marched with those of the Britons
of Strathclyde, the Scots of Argyle, and the Picts beyond the
Forth ; and there is evidence of a certain amount of fusion
between the two races. This blending of Celt and Saxon has
most powerfully affected English literature in all its stages. It
has been compared to the addition of leaven to the other bread-
forming materials ; and its effect in the endowment of talent has
been most potent and palpable.

Of the Germanic tribes which achieved the conquest of Southern
Britain, the Angles, in their ancient seats north of the Elbe, were
most removed from the civilization of the age ; yet, in this race of
savage warriors, the germs of poetry and of ietters were first
exhibited.

Of the Northumbrian poetry, the Rev. Stopford Brooke says
“ With the exception of per ‘haps a few Welsh and Trish poems,
it is the only vernacular poetry in Europe, outside of the classic
tongues, which belongs to as early a time as the seventh or eighth
centuries. The Welsh and Irish poems are few and problematical,
and their range is limited ; but the English poems are numerous,
well authenticated, and of a wide and varied range. In these
two centuries our forefathers produced examples, and good
examples for the time, of religious, narrative, elegiac, descriptive,
and even, in some sort, of epic poetry.

«“ And the ideal and sentimental elements of the earliest poetry
have continued with natural changes to the present day.

“ Here too, we can best discern, and here isolate most easily,
those elements in English character, which, existing before the
race was mixed, have been, not the cause of our poetry, but the
cause why the poetry has been of so high an excellence,—that

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 1069

steady consistency of natural character—that clinging through all
difficulty to the aim in view—that unrelenting curiosity—that
desire to better what has been done * * * which * * *
powers enable art to strive, to seek, and at last to reach its goal.

“Moreover no national art is good which is not plainly that
nation’s own. In this Anglo-Saxon poetry * * * we grasp
most closely the dominant English essence. The poetry of England
has owed much to the different races which mingled with the
original English race ; it has owed much to the different types
of poetry it absorbed—-Greek, Latin, Welsh, French, Italian,
Spanish ; but, below all these admixtures, the English nature
wrought its steady will. It seized, it transmuted, it modified, it
mastered these admixtures both of race and song.”

To a nation which recalls with pride its long roll of heroic
seamen, it is a source of the keenest pleasure to find that the
early Northumbrian poetry has for its constant theme the ocean.
The sea in all its moods—its joys, its perils, its heroes,—is the
stage upon which the characters of early English poets play their
parts. The winds, the billows, the rocks, the ocean caves, the
monsters of the deep, are all familar subjects.

Of Beowulf, the earliest specimen of English poetry, it has
been said :

“The background of all the action is the great deep—the
chorus, as it were, of this story of the fates of men. Thus,
the ocean life, the ocean mystery, the battle with the ocean, and
on the ocean, began the English poetry ; and they are as vivid in
it now as they were in the youth of our people. Zhe Battle of
the Baltic, The Fight of the Revenge, The Sailor Boy, Hervé Riel,
Swinburne’s Sea-songs, a hundred ballads, taste of the same brine
and foam which the winds drove in the faces of the men who
wrote Beowulf, The Seafarer, and The Riddles which concern the
sea. Nay, more, the very temper of mind which pervades modern
poetry of the sea—a mingling of melancholy and exaltation—is
to be found in English poetry before the Conquest ; and strange
to say it is not found again, except in scattered ballads, till we
reach our own century.

“There is in Beowulf no trace of any dread of the sea, even in
its worst moods, nor do the men complain of the labours of the
ocean, or of its icy weathers.”

As Sidonius says of the pirate Saxons :--“ They know the
dangers of the ocean as men who are every day in touch with them.
In the midst of tempests, and skirting the sea-beaten rocks, they
risk their attack with joy, hoping to make profit out of the very
storm.”

Although usually regarded as a simple matter, it is, in fact, a
most difficult task to determine when the English language, in its
modern form, really commenced. The language of the Anglo-

1070 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J.

Saxons lost many of its inflections before the Conquest, and the
succession of verbal changes was so gradual and constant that at
no period can anything except an arbitrary line be drawn. Hallam,
in his review of the literature of Europe, says :—‘“ When we
compare the earliest English of the thirteenth century with the
Anglo-Saxon of the twelfth, it seems hard to pronounce why it
should pass for a separate language, rather than a modification or
simplification of the former.”

These changes were hastened by the Norman Conquest, and
proceeded at an accelerated rate throuth the eleventh and twelfth
centuries ; but they were brought to a climax in John’s reign.
The loss of Normandy, and the adjacent northern provinces of
France, put an end to the intimate connection between England
and the Continent, deprived the Norman nobles of their fiefs
across the Channel, and prevented them from making those
frequent visits to Normandy which had been common under the
sovereigns from William to Richard.

In this period of rapid change the borderland of Celt and Saxon
is again the home of the greatest literary activity. Geoffrey of
Monmouth, Gerald de Barri, and Walter Map, were Welsh on
one or both sides ; Orderic hailed from Shrewsbury, and Layamon
lived at Ernley, to the west of the Severn. These writers dealt
mainly with history or historical legends ; and to four of them we
owe the rescue from oblivion of the Arthurian stories, which, having
been told in Latin and French, were first given in English of the
transition period by Layamon.

Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table have proved a
perfect mine of wealth to the poets of the last ten centuries in all
European nations ; and Tennyson has shown in our own times
that the store is not yet exhausted.

The paucity of English writers in the two centuries before the
appearance of Chaucer is no matter for surprise. The language of
a country during a period of rapid change is neither exact enough,
nor polished sufficiently, to act as a channel of communication
between the master minds of the age and their many silent con-
temporaries. In his philological and grammatical observations, M.
Reynouard embodies this principle in the following dictum:
“There has never been composed any considerable work in any
language till it has acquired determinate forms of expressing the
modifications of ideas according to time, number, and person,” or,
in other words, the fixed elements of grammar.

Until the middle of the fourteenth century the literary require-
ments of the English court, and of the English nobility, were
mainly supplied by French writers. The first literature in any
native language derived from the Latin was that of the Provencal
Troubadours, mainly in praise of love, which soon extended to the
northern provinces speaking the Langue d’oéil, or old French.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 1071

These northern writers, however, soon adopted as their own a
different poetical field—that of the metrical romance. In the
thirteenth century, French was the language of the courts of
England, France, Italy, and Germany.

Chaucer, as a page, soldier, court official, and ambassador,
would be well acquainted with the poetry of the Troubadours,
and his first attempts were translations of French lays, like the
Roman de la Rose. Of this poem it has been aptly remarked :
“Over a large part of Europe it supplied poets, for a century and
more, with their chief model for the shaping of an allegory”
This ‘‘poem which closed in France the literature of the Middle
Ages, maintained its supremacy until the invention of printing,
and many editions of it were published in the fifteenth century,”

The literature of Southern Europe could have been no sealed
book to Chaucer, whose wife, after the death of Queen Philippa,
in 1369, was in the service of Constance of Castile, second wife
of John of Gaunt—Chaucer’s patron. In 1372, and again in
1378, Chaucer was sent on political missions to Italy. On his first
journey he visited Genoa and Florence, and on the second visit
he was accredited to Bernardo Visconti, Lord of Milan, and Sir
John Hawkwood, the celebrated English captain of free-lances.

Italy was the last of the Latinised countries to produce an
independent language and literature. No industry will reveal
even so much as a few lines of real Italian until the end of the
twelfth century. In the fourteenth century appeared Dante,
Petrarch, and Boccacio. To the second of these we owe the
popularity of the sonnet, and the third is the father of all prose
fiction.

Under the influence of the Troubadours Chaucer became a
poet; under the influence of Dante and his Italian contemp-
oraries Chaucer became a genius. Of this writer Tyrwhitt
remarks: “Chaucer is the Homer of his country, not only as
having been the earliest of her poets, but also as being still one of
her greatest. The names of Spenser, of Shakespeare, and of
Milton, are the only other names that can be placed on the same
line with his.” This statement is only in part correct, and a better
appreciation of Chaucer’s position is thus stated by John Morley :
“The genius of Geoffrey Chaucer is not to be likened to a lone
star glittering down on us through a rift in surrounding darkness,
or to a spring day in the midst of winter, leaving us to wait long
for its next fellow. He had in his own time for brother writers,
Wyclif, Langland, Gower—some of the worthiest men of our race
—and the light of the English mind was not quenched when he
died.”

After the times of Chaucer, and of his contemporaries— Barbour,
Lydgate, and Gower,—came the long period of unrest following
the usurpation of Henry IV, and culminating in thirty years of

1072 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J.

civil warfare, which stamped out, by constant slaughter, the
effects of Chaucer’s genius and example. The one gleam- of
light during the Wars of the Roses was the institution of printing
by movable type, which commenced at Haarlem, was perfected
at Mayence, and rapidly introduced into France, Italy, and
England. After the death of Lydgate no English poet arose
worthy of mention until we meet with Hawesin the early part of
the sixteenth century. His Pastime of Pleasure, or the Historie
of Graunde Anour, and La Bel Pucel, was printed in 1817.

There is a most peculiar parallel between Hawes and Bunyan.
Hallam remarks : ‘Their inventions are of the same class, various
and novel, though with no remarkable persistence to the leading
subject, or naturally consecutive order ; their characters, though
abstract in name, have a personal truth about them, * * *
They render the general allegory subservient to inculeating a
system—the one of philosophy, the other of religion.”

The peaceful and comparatively prosperous reign of Henry VIIT
gave England once more a place among nations, and her alliance
was alternately solicited by France and Spain. Under Wolsey’s
rule the nation prospered, and intercourse with foreign countries,
particularly with Spain, was largely extended. Throughout the
Tudor period Spain was the most powerful country in Europe, and
the marriages of members of the English and Spanish royal
families made Spanish the court language of the period. Speaking
of the Spanish writer, Guevara, author of J/arco Aurelio, or the
Golden Book, Hallam says: “ This sententious and antithetical
style of the Spanish writers is worthy of our attention, for it was
imitated by their English admirers, and formed a style much in
vogue in the reigns of Elizabethand James.” At this era Spain
was the principal power in the Italian States, and the Italian
poetry was well known in Spain, and greatly admired, Dante,
Petrarch, and Boccacio, so familiar to Chaucer, had been forgotten
daring the long period of civil strife. “In the latter end of
King Henry VIII's reign,” says Puttenham in his Art of Poesie
“sprang up a new company of courtly makers, of whom Sir Thomas
Wyatt the elder, and Henry, Earl of Surrey, were the two chief-
tains, who, having travelled into Italy, and there tasted the sweet
and stately measures and style of the Italian poesie, as novices
newly crept out of the schools of Dante, Ariosto, and Petrarch,
they greatly polished our rude and vulgar manner of homely
poesie, from that it had been before, and for that cause may justly
be sayd the first reformers of our English meeter and stile. In
the same time, or not long after, was the Lord Nicholas Vaux, a
man of much facilitie in vulgar makings.”

In this age chivalry was not yet dead, and the era of exploration
and adventure had begun. Thirty years of civil strife had made

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 1073

Englishmen a nation of soldiers, and the English character was
hardened and tempered by rigid parental authority at home, and
the inflexible, not to say brutal discipline of the schools.

Of English thought in the sixteenth century, Wyatt and Surrey
were the early exponents.

‘““They were men whose minds may be said to have been cast in
the same mould, for they differ only in those minute shades of
character which always must exist in human nature; shades of
difference so infinitely varied that there never were and never will
be two persons in all respects alike.”

They were typical samples of the northern races of Europe ;
each was imbued with a love of virtue for its own sake, and each
had an instinctive repugnance for vice and mental cowardice.
They were prompt in action and keen for adventure, as befitted
men who saw the exploitation of a new world ; they were constant
in friendship ; they loved like men, and not like angels; they
were unselfish, and careless of praise, yet unstinting in their
recognition of merit in others.

Wyatt was the better judge of character, and his irony is
searching and pungent, and by making vice ridiculous tends to
reformation. Surrey was a keen observer of Nature, and delighted
in that communion with her in all her moods, which has such a
charm for English hearts.

Surrey’s taste and literary judgment were alike excellent. His
translations from Petrarch do no injustice to his Italian master ;
and, by his introduction of blank verse into English poetry, he
prepared the way for his great successors, Shakespeare and Milton.
Surrey employed this form of poetry in the translation of the
second book of the Aineid, which may be regarded as one of his
most successful compositions.

Tn his choice of words Surrey avoids the ponderous terms filched
from the Latin, so loved of Hoccleve, Lydgate, Dunbar, Douglas,
and other of his predecessors—both Scots and English. His terms,
too, are applied with a clearly-defined meaning, wholly unlike the
wide range of application given by Chaucer’s disciples to their
selected Latin epithets.

According to Nott, Surrey deserves the still more conspicuous
praise of having brought about a great revolution in our poetical
numbers. Much archaic English seems to have been preserved
in the poetry of the age preceding Wyatt and Surrey. These
writers brought English verbal quantities into line with the
accepted pronunciation of the day ; they rarely lay an unnatural
stress on final syllables, and they ceased to give value to mute
vowels long silent in colloquial English.

If we compare the poetry of Wyatt and Surrey with that of
men like Barclay and Skelton, who preceded them by some thirty
or forty years, the contrast is striking, so much more do the first-

3Y

1074 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J.

named writers approach in their composition the English of to-day ;
and this change cannot be accounted for merely by asserting that
Wyatt and Surrey were courtiers and aristocrats, and had travelled
in France and Spain.

The sixteenth century was also the era of the Protestant Reform-
ation ; and, with the interminable controversies on the subject of
religion, came also a quickening of the national intelligence, and
an extension of the benefits of education.

New aims, new desires, new aspirations, needed once more the
inspired voice to give them utterance; and under the Tudor
sovereigns came the dawn of that glorious age, which, reaching
its apogee under the last of that race, has been called the Eliza-
bethan Period. To this era may be ascribed the birth of the true
drama, the offspring of the Moral Plays, and a descendant of the
much older Miracle Plays, the last-named dating back to the
twelfth century. All through the long reign of Elizabeth the
nation was in constant peril from plots at home, and the
enmity of Spain abroad, when Spain was to the Englishman
of the sixteenth century what Russia is to the Briton of to-day.
Gradually England felt its rising strength, and the exploits of
the buccaneers on the Spanish Main, the gallant struggle for
liberty in the Netherlands, and, above all, the crowning victory
over the Armada in the Chena. stirred the soul of the nation
to its core, and proved fertile sources of inspiration to the poet,
the dramatist, and the prose-writer. To this age belong Marlowe,
Shakespeare, Sydney, Spenser, and Bacon,—the mere mention of
whose names to the student of English literature is sufficient to
mark the influence that this heroic epoch had in the birth and
development of genius. Marlow was the dramatist of the period,
Spenser the poet, and Bacon the philosopher ; but Shakespeare
was all these in one, and more.

Of Shakespeare we may say in the words of Hallam: “The
name of Shakespeare is the greatest in our literature—it is the
greatest in all literature. No man ever came near him in the
creative powers of the mind; no man ever had such strength at
once, and such variety of imagination.”

Like Spenser and Chaucer, Shakespeare’s birth and early history
are ugaes in obscurity ; like Chaucer he towers aloft above
his fellows ; yet he, too, had his forerunners, and in each of the
arts in which he excelled he had his rivals among contemporaries.
This was not the age of the courtly gallant ; but out of the solid
Saxon basis on which the nation was founded sprang the “ Poor
Scholars” such as Nash, Peile, Greene, and Marlowe. Well
educated, and with expensive tastes, which they were debarred
from exercising by their poverty, they placed no limit on their
satires, having nothing to lose but their lives. Their time was
spent in rioting, drunkenness, and debauchery ; but, strange to

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 1075

say, their poems were often as pure as their lives were worthless.
Greene’s last words were :

Time, loosely spent, will not again be won !
My time is loosely spent—and I undone.

Marlowe's life has been said to consist of ‘a few daring jests, a
brawl, and a fatal stab” ; but his Jew of Malta was the predecessor
of Shylock; his ‘Edward II” stood as the commencement of
that grand series in which are “ King John,” “ Henry VI,” and
“ Richard III.” The appearance of Marlowe’s ‘“ Tamburlaine” on
the English stage drove from the boards at once and for ever the
boorish farces and colourless imitations of Italian comedy which
had preceded it.

Like Chaucer, Shakespeare possessed that joze de vivre which
seems to be steadily disappearing under the pressure of the
mental and bodily dyspepsia of the nineteenth century. Leaving
his native city, endowed with a keen wit, a charming facility of
expression, and a thorough delight in inspecting as by a search-
light the actions and characters of men, he commenced with
a light heart his gigantic task.

The ‘ Faerie Queene” had been before an English public for
three years, when Shakespeare launched what he calls “ the first-
fruit of my invention,” “Venus and Adonis.” The stage had
been cleared for him about the same time by the death of his
rivals, Greene and Marlowe. From this time onwards his literary
activity was incessant. Of the order of his plays we know
nothing definite. His earlier works are separated from those of
later date through the list published by Francis Meres, in 1598.
In all these works breathe the spirit of youth, of success, and of
happiness. Shakespeare now enjoyed the patronage of Essex and
Pembroke, and the friendship of Southampton. With the death
of Essex, and the imprisonment or dispersal of his friends, the
spirit of his work changes. Joy and delight in life disappear
from ‘Julius Cesar, “ Hamlet,” “Othello,” and “ Lear.” In his
prosperous days of ease and affluence, when living a life of calm
content at Stratford, he regains his belief in the triumph of good
over evil ; and, separated from the turmoils of the great world,
he revels in pure poetic fancy in “The Tempest” and in a
Wanter's Pale.”

The rapid creation of the Elizabethan dramatic stage is one of
the most astonishing of the literary phenomena of the time ; and
when Shakespeare died he left behind him a line of worthy suc-
cessors in Jonson, Webster, Ford, Massinger, Beaumont, and
Fletcher; but while Shakespeare was the exponent of his age
these became more and more the voices of a party, cut off from
the mass of the nation by that cleavage which led to the war of
1642-9.

1076 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J.

Discontent came in with the Stuarts, and the volcanie
upheavals of civil war choked the stream of genius, which had
flowed so freely in the sixteenth century, and overflowed into the
seventeenth century. With Cromwell there was a short period of
peace and prosperity, during which England made herself respected
abroad ; and from the ranks of the Puritans came two of
England’s greatest worthies, Milton and Bunyan ; the former was
the great exponent of English epic poetry; while the latter,
being born out of due season, wrote his masterpiece of English
religious prose in the licentious times of a Stuart tyrant, within
the walls of a prison. Milton was educated at Cambridge,
where he received the highest education that England could
afford. This he perfected by travel ; and, like Chaucer and Surrey,
found in Italian poetry that delight and attraction which led
him, English-like, to try to excel it in his native tongue.
It had always been his ambition to accomplish some great
and lasting work. In his treatise on Church Government
he says: “By labour and intense study, which I take to be
my portion in this life, joimed with the strong propensity of
nature, | hope to leave something so written to aftertimes as
they should not willingly let it die.” In the days of his youth
and strength, Milton impresses us more as the political and
religious controversialist than as the poet of his age ; but when
tried and purified by a long succession of misfortunes, including
blindness, political persecution, and filial neglect, he produced his
masterpiece ‘‘ Paradise Lost.” In the folio edition of Paradise
Lost, published by subscription in 1680, under Milton’s portrait
appeared the the famous lines of Dryden :—

Three poets, in three distant ages born,
Greece, Italy, and England did adorn.

The first in loftiness of thought surpassed ;
The next in majesty ; in both the last,

The force of Nature could no further go—
To make a third she joined the former two.

It is a fact worth recording that Milton had access to a copy
of Caedmon’s Poems, treating on the Fall of the Rebel Angels,
and that many similar passages may be recognised in the two
works.

Of this epoch we may say with Macaulay: “‘ Though there were
many clever men in England in the latter half of the seventeenth
century, there were only two minds which possessed the imagi-
native faculty in a very eminent degree. One of these minds
produced ‘ Paradise Lost,’ the other the ‘Pilgrim’s Progress.’”
Like John Bright, in our own times, Bunyan used the simplest
words to express the loftiest thoughts ; his meaning was as plain
to the rustic as to the student, all long-syllabled technical terms

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 1077

were avoided, and he proved that in this simple form the English
tongue was a perfect vehicle for the highest flights of the imagi-
nation. Macaulay, no mean critic, has justly said: ‘ For
magnificence, for pathos, for vehement exhortation, for subtle
disquisition, for every purpose of the poet, the orator, and the
divine, this homely dialect, the dialect of plain working men, was
perfectly sufficient.”

The accession of William ITT commenced the long struggle with
France, which, after William’s death, by the skill and courage of
Marlborough, crushed the power of Louis the Fourteenth, and
made England the arbiter of Europe. This was “the Augustan
Age of French literature, made memorable by the sermons of
Bossuet, the devotional works of Fénélon, the cynical maxims of
La Rochefoucauld, the tragedies of Racine and Corneille, and the
comedies of Moliére.” This period of victory and exaltation was
as fertile in the production of genius as the Elizabethan age ; and
the times of Queen Anne can boast of Swift, Pope, Addison, and
Steele, writers whose models were evidently from the French
school. Under the last of the Stuart sovereigns the newspaper
began to assume its modern form, mainly through the influence of
Defoe. To this period may also be referred many of the stages in
the development of the modern novel, afterwards further elabo-
rated by Richardson, Fielding, Smollett, Sterne, and Goldsmith,

The age of Addison was the era of the clubs and _ coffee-houses.
In Pepys’ Diary, that series of literary photographs, we read of
discussions at coffee-houses on music with Purcell the celebrated
composer ; on a former land connection between England and
France with James Moore the mathematician ; on the “ Religio
Medici” of Sir Thomas Brown, Butler’s ‘ Hudibras,” and
Osborne’s ‘ Advice to a Son,” with Sir George Ascue and others ;
and on English poetry with Cocker the well-known arithmetician.
Pepys is a member of the club to which Lilly the astrologer and
Ashmole the antiquary belong ; and at the “ Crown Tavern” he
hobnobs with members of the Royal Society.

In the year 1705 Swift and Addison became intimate friends. In
a copy of his ‘“ Travels to Italy,” Addison wrote: “To Jonathan
Swift, the most agreeable companion, the truest friend, and the
greatest genius of his age, this work is presented by his most humble
servant, the author.” This friendship must have required much
forbearance on the part of Addison, for Swift’s imperiousness, and
audacious satire, are well known. Addison’s conversation was
most charming when confined to a small party, and we can imagine
the brilliant flow of wit when this party consisted of Swift, Steele,
and Addison—the “triumvirate,” as the former termed it.

Of Addison, Swift has said: “That man has virtue enough to
give reputation to an age.” He was one of the first Englishmen,
not a churchman, to rise from the ranks to a first-class pclitical

1078 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J.

position, solely by his talents. In an age of political corruption,
which tainted men like Marlborough, he maintained his truth, his
integrity, his constancy in friendship ; and his whole bearing was
marked by a decorum which prevented him from overstepping the
bounds that hedge round the gentleman and Christian. With a
mind so chastened and regulated, Addison became the most perfect
master of English prose, and his conversation is said to have been
more brilliant and charming than his writings. ‘“ Addison almost
created, and wholly perfected, English prose as an instrument for
the expression of social thought.” Chaucer, in his age, and
Shakespeare in Elizabethan times, had represented the genius and
character of the English nation in poetry ; but Addison was the
first to speak for al] that was English in prose. His object in
writing is given in the following words :—“ It was said of Socrates
that he brought down philosophy from heaven to inhabit among
men ; and I shall be ambitious to have it said of me that I have
brought philosophy out of closets and libraries, schools and colleges,
to dwell at clubs and assemblies, at tea-tables, and in coffee-
houses.” Johnson declares that ‘whoever wishes to obtain an
English style, familiar but not coarse, and elegant but not osten-
tatious, must give his days and nights to the volumes of Addison.”
Macaulay terms him ‘the unsullied statesman, the accomplished
scholar, the master of pure English eloquence, the consummate
painter of life and manners, the great satirist who alone knew how
to use ridicule without abusing it, and who reconciled wit and
virtue after a long and disastrous separation, during which wit
had been led astray by profligacy, and virtue by fanaticism.”

During the Seven Years’ War with France and Spain, Johnson
and Goldsmith were the pillars of English literature. From this
struggle Britain issued with honour, having gained much addi-
tional territory and a considerable quantity of treasure. or this
period we have Boswell’s inimitable “ Life of Johnson” to draw
upon.

Johnson was an exaggerated type of the Englishman of his day:
stout in build, rugged in appearance, blunt in speech, and tempes-
tuous in manner; beneath all these he concealed a kindly and
sensitive heart. Not averse to quarrel, he was readily disarmed by
kindness ; and with all the insular prejudices of his age, he was
ever on the side of truth, right, and justice.

Among the struggling authors of the day Johnson had always
one or more under his wing. In Grub-street he was the friend of
Richard Savage, that wayward genius to whom gifts seem to have
been given for no other pupose than that they might blast his own
life. At a later date he was the friend, adviser, and protector of
Goldsmith.

After the appearance of his dictionary, Johnson became the
great champion of literature, the ruler of the English literary

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 1079

world, a meet successor to Ben Jonson, Dryden, and Pope, and
the last in England to hold this sceptre unchallenged. Johnson’s
Court was held at the ‘‘Turk’s Head,” Gerard-street, Soho, where
met the celebrated club, of which Reynolds, Burke, Nugent,
Beauclerk, Langton, Goldsmith, Chaimier, and Hawkins were the
original members. Johnson trained himself for these meetings as an
athelete trains his physical frame for the coming struggle. Against
each member of the club he pitted himself in turn; and such was
his torrent of language, his fertility of resource, his keenness ta
detect a flaw in argument, and his merciless repartee, that he seldom
issued from the conflict with colours lowered.

In contrast with Johnson, Goldsmith was small, mean-looking,
pitted with the smail-pox, and endowed with a keen sensibility
which made his life a constant torment. He was the butt of men
wholly his inferiors in genius, by whom he was regarded as an
inspired madman ; and who repaid his nervous attempts at con-
versational wit with shrieks of laughter and cruel practical jokes ;
but, pen in hand, he was the master of them all, Johnson
included.

Of the treatment accorded to this man of genius, who was poet,
dramatist, and novelist at the same time, ‘Thackeray writes: ‘“ The
insults to which he had to submit are shocking to read of—slander,
contumely, vulgar satire, brutal malignity, perverting his com-
monest motives and actions ; he had his share of these, and one’s
anger is roused at reading of them as it is at seeing a woman
insulted, or a child assaulted—at the notion that a creature so very
gentle and weak, and full of love, should have had to suffer so.”

During the reigns of the Georges, with much that was sordid
and venal, there were many national rejoicings over sach events
as the total surrender of France in America and India, the noble
deeds of Nelson and his brother seamen, and the crowning victory
of Wellington at Waterloo. The prideand fervour and exaltation
engendered by these successful enterprises again proved fertile
sources of genius, and the nineteenth century ushered in the rich
literary harvest of the Georgian era. The poets of the so-called
Lake School broke through the artificial trammels that beset
English poetry, and, under the influence of German writers, proved
that familiar and lowly subjects are fit themes for the greatest
talents. Another poet and novelist, whose inspiration came with
this heroic age, was also under the influence of the German school,
but never as a mere imitator or copyist. Scott’s poems are lays
and romances of chivalry—a national edition with jewelled setting
of the ballad poetry of his country. His prose works have done
more than those of any other writer to unite, under the influence
of a common patriotism, the Celt, Saxon, and Norse elements of
Scotland. Other poets of the Georgian era are Byron, Shelley,
and Keats, all of whom died young. Byron and Shelley by

1080 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J.

their long residence on the Continent, were much influenced
by the literature of the Latin nations; and Byron is probably
better appreciated in France and Italy than in England. All
these writers were under the spell of the French Revolution, and
the fire and fervour which glow in their stories of battle and
passion were but reflections from the volcanic outburst across the
Channel.

The main feature of the Victorian era is the absence of any one
predominating style either in prose or poetry ; on the contrary,
many styles may be selected, each strongly marked in its charac-
teristics, and excellent of its kind, yet differing from all others in
a striking degree. Few of the Victorian writers speak for the
nation as a whole. ‘Tennyson is the poet of the well-educated
classes, and Thackeray is their novel writer; Dickens is the
exponent of city life, speaking for the millions of London ; Char-
lotte Bronté gives her impressions of Northumbrian life, true from
the Peak to the Tweed ; Carlyle stands solitary and aloof, an old
Norse rock not yet buried under the softer strata of Celt and
Saxon ; Charles Kingsley represents south-western England, the
birth-place of Elizabethan seamen, the home of the gentlemen
adventurers, and the cradle of the Glorious Revolution of 1689.
Trollope, like Thackeray, restricts himself mainly to people who
sit above the salt ; George Eliot had an artistic soul and a critical
mastery over the English language, but her productions, especially
the latter ones, are forced and laboured, and have nothing repre-
senting the smooth unconscious flow of the selected one who speaks
with the voice of national inspiration.

Carlyle, by choosing to convey his thoughts to the world in what
can only be regarded as a dialect, cut himself off from all but a
chosen and cultured section of his fellow-countrymen. Among
Victorian writers Macaulay most sharply contrasts with Carlyle.
He is the man of the world—the great optimist, the champion of
things as they are. His lays, essays, and history are known
throughout the English-speaking world; and, though the critics
have denounced them, and find them full of literary faults, they
have never been able to shake the national love for his works, or
the delight of the millions in their perusal. It has been said by
Mr. Chamberlain that, though his countrymen may be mistaken
in matters of political detail, they are invariably correct in their
judgment of the main issues; and I believe this is as true of
literature as it is of politics.

Disraeli has shown us what a powerful weapon may be made of
the novel in politics. With his three novels, Coningsby, Sybil,
and Tancred, he crushed the Whig party, rehabilitated the Tories
on their present basis, and rallied the forces of the English Church
and of British Imperialism, to the assistance of modern Conserva-
tism. Disraeli’s works are the only instances in English literature

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 1081

of a statesman of the first rank disburdening himself to his fellow-
countrymen by means of fiction—of satirical fiction.

In Thackeray we have one of the finest masters of English prose
since the days of Addison ; and his English is equally perfect in
all his works, from the earliest production to the last volume. In
parody of all kinds he excelled, and his ‘‘ Novels by Eminent
Hands,” are of real service to the literary critic, but are apt to
lead the novice to over-estimate the faults parodied. Another of
his gifts was the power of imitation, wonderfully exhibited in the
letters attributed to his characters. Usually we feel inclined to
skip the letters in a novel, but letters penned by Thackeray for
his characters are always read with pleasure. With all his geniality
in private life, Thackeray’s writings would make one regard him
as an embittered cynic, gloating over the falseness and ‘snobbery
and hypocrisy of the world.

It has been said of him by a living critic: “If we run over the
characters of Shakespeare, or of Scott, we have to reflect before we
find the villains. If we run over fie characters in Thackeray, it
is an effort of memory to recall the generous and the fine
natures.”

The great humorist of the Victorian age is Charles Dickens ; but
his humour, like Cruickshank’s sketches, depends mainly on
caricature; and like Punch with his nose and his hump, each of
Dickens’s characters has his sign or shibboleth by which he is
recognised. Artificial as this may seem, we know that he studied
his characters with the most minute care ; and, by skilful touches
here and there, threw their peculiarities into more striking relief.
Like Chaucer and Shakespeare he had a most wonderful fund of

gaiety and vitality ; his energy was immense, and hilarity and
drollery run like twin veins of gold through all his works.

In his mastery over English prose, and in his wit and character-
building, Trollope is much inferior to Thackeray ; yet a certain
comparison is possible. There is the same undeviating standard of
merit through all his composition—the same smooth easy flow of
language, and the same exactitude of expression. There is a
plentiful supply of natural conversation, and an utter absence of
all that is obscure, oracular, or enigmatic.

Harrison states respecting Trollope, that : ‘From the first line
to the last there is never a sentence or a passage which strikes a
discordant note ; we are never worried by aspasmodic phrase, nor
bored by fine writing that fails to come off.” It is a curious fact
that Trollope had little opportunity in early life for the study of
the clerical and aristocratic characters that fill his pages, and whom
he depicts with such a master hand.

George Eliot, like our own Rolfe Boldrewood, was a writer of
slow development, publishing her first tale when nearly 40 years
of age. She was a woman of the highest culture, richly stored

1082 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J.

with knowledge, and with a most artistic nature ; but not a born
novelist. She elaborated with painful slowness, and never possessed
that self-confidence which marks writers like Trollopeand Thackeray.
For these reasons she failed most completely as a poet. The English
of her poems is faultless ; her lines are chiselled and polished, and
the phrases are perfect ; but the soul itself is wanting. The most
ennobling feature in her work is the spirit of responsibility in which
she wrote, recognising that a writer of eminence holds a position
of authority in trust for the nation.

Another peculiar feature of the era is the widening of the literary
field, Rider Haggard has done more to make South Africa known
than all the geographers of the age ; Gilbert Parker is performing
a similar work for Canada, writing as the friend and admirer of
both English and French-Canadians ; Kipling has taken India as
his province, and has lately so extended his range as to be hailed
as the Poet Laureate of the Empire.

There seem to be two forces at work in the present day, both
tending to check the production of literary genius. One lies in the
wonderful progress of science, and the rewards it offers to its
votaries; the other arises from the universal education now
dispensed throughout the English-speaking nations. We have it
from Darwin himself, that a life spent in the pursuit of science
deadens artistic aspirations, and tends to make invention and
research the only pleasures.

In the time of Addison the writer had to face the critics of the
Clubs and Coffee-houses ; in Byron’s day his fame must withstand
the onslaught of the writers of the critical reviews ; but in the
present age the whole nation criticises, and literary factions belaud
or berate each literary aspirant. A man of Goldsmith’s exquisite
sensibility, who talked ridiculously under fear of his comrades’
coarse satire, yet wrote divinely when free and untrammelled in his
own chamber, would probably have allowed his genius to die
fruitless, rather than face the criticisms of an educated nation.
No one now dare lay bare the heart as Charlotte Bronté did in
“ Jane Eyre,” or paint his friends with all their blemishes as did
Boswell in his “Life of Johnson.” Such writers would now be covered
with ridicule.

Under the twin influences of compulsory education and
scientific invention, the Britain of to-day is no longer the field of
romance it was to Defoe, Fielding, and Goldsmith. The bicycle,
the railway-car, the newspaper, the telegraph, the better level of
comfort, have banished romance to India, to the wilds of Africa,
to the snows of Canada, to the shores of the Pacific.

With the education of the labourer and artisan came a clearer
conception of their position of inferiority in the world, and the
many disadvantages inherent to that position. A period of
social unrest set in, carrying with it a vague feeling of alarm to

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 1083

some, a premonition of coming change to others. With its strikes
and combinations, its fierce party quarrels, its desire for change,
it recalled in a mild way the state of France before the Revolution,

This great socialistic movement has curiously affected all recent
literature. Whoever has a mission now, makes use of fiction to
preach his creed, to advance his party, to defeat his opponents.
It seems as if the pulpit has lost its power, and literature has
usurped its place. Novels like “Tom Jones” and ‘ The Vicar
of Wakefield” are now unknown. ‘This is the age of subjective
novels, of novels political, novels religious, novels scientific,—all
novels with a purpose—disguised and lengthened sermons.

Literature is seldom now a profession in itself. It is looked
upon as a means to an end—a weapon to be employed in various
forms of propaganda—religious, social, political, There is now
no living English poet or English novelist of the first class—each .
speaks for a purpose, a party, a fraction of a party, a narrow
field ; no one is commissioned from the nation at large.

Tf there has been a time during the last thirty years when the
minds of Englishmen were in accord, and when their voices
expressed the greatest unanimity, it was during the late period
of storm and stress, when Germany, a supposed friend and blood
relation, took advantage of our difficulties to do us an unfriendly
act; yet the situation evoked nothing better than Austin’s
pitiful poem—a possible sign that the inspiration which was
created by the victorious issue of the long continued struggle
with Napoleon has spent itself, and literary decadence has set in.

No. 1.—THE RELATION OF ETHICS TO POLITICAL
ECONOMY.
By the Rev. Tos. Rosrsy, M.A., LL.D., F.R.A.S.
(Read Friday, January 7, 1898.)

No. 2.—THE ETHICAL ELEMENT IN EDUCATION.

By the Rev. Gro. LirTLeMore.
(Read Friday, January 7, 1898.)

No. 3.—ENGLISH THEORIES OF INDIVIDUAL
FREEDOM.
By the Rev. Jas. Hitt, M.A.
(Read Saturday, January 8, 1898.)

No. 4.—IDEALISM IN ETHICS AND RELIGION.

By the Rev. A. J. Grirritn, M.A.
(Read Saturday, January 8, 1898.)

1084 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J.

Now 5:— THE. PSYCHOLOGY: OF ATEN TION:
By the Rev. N. J. Cocks, M.A.
(Read Monday, January 10, 1898.)

TneErE are at the present day an old anda new Psychology existing
side by side. ,

Once there were an old and a new Astronomy, but the new took
up the old and both became one—a Science in which the ancient
observation of Fact is combined with the modern conception of
Law.

The time has not yet arrived for a similar development in the
science of Mind.

The methods of experience and analysis will continue for a
while to appear antagonistic to each other.

The biologist who comes with experiment and searching inquiry
will still believe he is on a different quest from the philosopher
who arranges old facts and uses an antique phraseology ; but the
two will mcet some day, and will find they have really been bent
towards the same point, though from opposite directions.

Without any claim to special insight, it may be predicted that
the field of their common observation will lead to this ultimate
unity. There is always that in the world we look out upon which
draws the mind irresistibly to surpass its own earlier attainment.

Since, then, Psychology is in this stage, the value of the present
inquiry will be obvious. The great need for those who follow
either the old or the new method is to ascertain clearly and fully
the nature and scope of their subject matter ; for the activity of
Thought is itself the inspiration of renewed research, and in the
multitude of phenomena is hidden their final Law.

Our attempt will be, therefore, to survey and arrange the facts
of this subject of Attention.

What Attention is most people pretty well understand, and to
define the familiar is often to veil the known with the obscure—to
clothe Apollo.

Still the limits of the subject must be stated, and some picture
or illustration of it may not be out of place.

By Attention, then, will be meant,—sustained perception, leading
to the grasp of new relations in the object under view.

An example that brings out this meaning may be found in the
way a chemist deals with an apparently new specimen. First, he

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ATTENTION. 1085

examines it very carefully to determine whether it is new to him
or not. Amongst the ordered system of his own chemical expe-
rience he seeks a place which it may fill and to which it may thus
belong.

Then, when he has realised its strangeness, he brings the agents
of analysis which reduce the specimen to elements easy to recognise.

All the time his mind has been intent on the one end—to bring
this new object inte true relation with the rest of his knowledge ;
and generally this attempt may be taken as atype of Attention.

It cannot, of course, be expected that all the examples which
enter into this survey will show their true character as plainly as
does this typical instance.

To get a complete view of any subject one must begin with
forms that are elementary, and trace the line of development.
So here a commencement must be made with the unconscious
perception of childhood, and several cases must be dealt with that
seem somewhat unimportant.

It will be found, however, that the order of growth affords a
capital means of classification. Corresponding to the three stages
of childhood, youth, and maturity, there are three classes of
Attention, caused in turn by the Attraction of the Object, by

Control imposed from without, and by Will exercised from within.
~ Still, even with such a scheme of the subject it is impossibie to
embrace every variety, and there are certain forms which com-
monly occur that may be noticed apart.

There is a class of experiences in which is exhibited the most
intent application, that are brought about by feeling, and which
lead to very little intellectual result.

Hunger makes a cat watch for a mouse; fear causes a man who
has lost his way to look anxiously for the road ; yet the real atten-
tion in such instances is wholly subordinated to desire. The
knowledge of new relations gained in such mental activity is very
little. The effort made by the mind seems rather an attempt to
grasp a laggard experience than to perceive fact or truth.

There is another similar class of phenomena, of a more striking
character, which falls under the same judgment. Sometimes when
one 1s under the influence of strong and deep emotion, the features
of a scene become impressed upon ‘his mind with an extraordinar 4
vividness. He can “see” the locality years afterwards, whenever
circumstances may awaken the memory of his joy or sorrow.

Yet the perception which brings about such a remarkable result
holds but a secondary place to the emotion. It may be called an
harmonic in the experience, hardly recognised at first as a distinct
tone, but gradually gaining in clearness and independent value.
Therefore, although its effect may be so striking, such semi-
unconscious and subordinate attention in itself, possesses no
qualities specially calling for notice.

1086 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J.

There is, perhaps, one other set of facts akin to the subject
that should be recognised before the field itself is entered.
The concentration of mind which induces the hypnotic state is
sometimes taken for true Attention. That such an estimate is an
error becomes at once apparent when the difference of result is
noted. In this experience the object contemplated becomes less—
not greater or richer—in relatedness. The mind does not grow into
knowledge ; it becomes reduced to unconsciousness. The continued
perception is of a bare act only, not of an activity.

No more conspicuous example of failure in what is most essential
to Attention could be found than this seemingly perfect mental
concentration.

There will be no need to look further into border regions of the
subject. Additional instances of its occurrence in extraordinary
conditions may be found outside the limit of each division ; but
the continent itself has now to be explored.

The beginning of true Attention is to be found in a stage of
mental life that lies below self-consciousness. The prolonged
gaze of an infant at any bright object, the interest displayed
by a young child in the very movement of Nature around,
indicate the rising up of intelligence to the comprehension of the
visible world.

The value of these acts of perception, other than the purity
and beauty which belong inseparably to young life of a noble
order, is merely prophetic. The gain they bring of knowledge,
which is itself the entering in of the world of reality, so soon is
lost like a bud in the blossom ; but they do indicate in a very
striking fashion the nature and the history of Attention.

The sustained activity of Mind is caused at first by the attrac-
tion of Nature. The world which to vision is all of light, appeals
primarily by its brightest objects. Im a new country one
invariably lifts up his eyes to the hills; then a continuance of
changes like the rhythmic rising and falling of music, wins and
holds the mind, until gradually it is found the relations of fact
have become established as thought.

This first stage of Attention is not confined however to the
time of infancy; neither is its perception limited to natural
objects. All learning that is said to be by intuition, or that
comes from the observation of example, is also of this order,
though it be continued far on into life. There are those who
pick up some knowledge of Art, Business, Science, as a little
child learns colour.

Such perception by special inherited faculty, won and held by
the attraction of the object, is called often “ the insight of genius.”
Or it is said to be, in more extraordinary cases, as of the caleu-
lating boy, Inandi, the exercise of a mysterious gift.

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ATTENTION. 1087

Yet it is to be noted the gift or faculty is only half the secret
of the phenomenon. There is in the object or truth contem-
plated a fascination like that which is exerted by light upon
the power of vision. These also are instances of the Attention of
Attraction.

Here then, may the subject be seen at its purest, and in many
respects in its most attractive form.

Into the activity other mental elements, as yet, do not enter.
There is no necessity for Will; there is no inclination to look for
reward. Certainly there is pleasure, and, in the highest cases,
joy ; but these are not separable from the energy with which they
are associated. The consciousness of mental activity invariably
has pleasure for its beginning. The Attention that is won by
Attraction is the direct unhesitating response of Mind to Nature
to Truth ; and as it is at the beginning of life, so does it continue
to be the human condition of entering into a living universe, that
does not grow bare before knowiedge, but ever expands into
newer and higher relations.

The second phase of the subject presents in many ways a
complete contrast to this simple natural activity. The mind has
now to be directed towards objects of little or no primary
interest ; its energy has to be maintained and controlled by
external influence.

The most perfect examples of this period, through which every
intelligence must pass, are to be found in the experience of
children or youths who are under the guidance of a teacher.
The subjects of their study are provided, the methods to be
followed are laid down, the inducements to progress are set forth,
by those who have the care of their education.

At first sight it might seem as though there were so many
outside influences at work that the attention gained was really
subordinate,—like that, in fact, employed by desire or fear ; but
it will easily be seen that all the teacher’s aim is accessory to the
Attention—the sustained mental effort’ of the scholar is the true
end of education.

Moreover, a little examination shows that the relation of
teacher to scholar is not accidental or formal, but essential, and of
the highest importance ; for it is the work of the teacher that
supplies elements which make attention possible: he must
invest the subject with a charm it does not at first possess ; he
must strengthen the incipient purpose of the learner.

Thus it may be seen how this division of Attention stands
midway betweenthe other two, and is connected with them. Here
by human means, objects are made to copy Nature in grace and
interest, and young minds are led to effort that is the imitation
of high pure purpose.

1088 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J.

These two sides of the function of education may be taken as
the chief conditions of this stage of the subject, and as such cannot
be too clearly stated.

It is the movement of Nature, as well as her eternal persistence,
that wins a child’s early regard; it is her endless variety that draws
the mind forth in spontaneous, delighted perception.

The first task of the teacher is, then, to show the material he
presents is not dull and dead. When the matter of a subject is
proved to be itself motion, then the activity of the mind arises in
unison with it.

Examples of failure in study, arising from the inertness of the
subject as it is presented, are common-place incidents of every
experience. The writer was acquainted with a young business
man who was seized with a strong desire to read Theology. The
books obtained for the purpose were old-fashioned in expression,
and altogether dull. The consequence was, that after a very few
minutes reading he invariably went to sleep. In spite of a strong
exercise of will, and a specially contrived uncomfortable chair, the
same result continued to be manifested, until at last he gave up,
believing he was without capacity.

The truth of the matter was, however, the material of the book
was so dead to him, his mental gaze could perceive no movement ;
and like a man looking intently at a button, he fell almost into a
mesmeric condition.

The absolute necessity for art in presenting a subject with a life
and grace of its own can want no stronger proof than the dulness
and poverty of mind brought on by inadequate teaching. Loss, and
even suffering, must result if the attraction of Nature be followed
in a child’s experience by dull inept instruction.

The second condition for the exercise of this attention—that the
energy of the scholar shall be maintained by the teacher—is just as
important, practically and theoretically.

Sometimes purpose can be aroused by the fear of punishment or
the prospect of a reward. A dull but ambitious boy can, by the
promise of a prize, be excited to continuous and successful effort ;
indeed the progress of most of our primary and secondary schools
depends largely on such an appeal to the love of distinction, Our
Universities are not without it, and it enters into the highest fields
of private duty and public service.

There is, however, a method, if such it can be called, which leads
to the result aimed at in a far nobler way. A companionship in
study or research between teacher and scholar is the highest and
most unfailing inspiration to purpose. When attention is developed
by external device or hope of reward, it is apt to fail as soon as the
restraint is removed or the prize attained ; but when personal
comradeship in effort has afforded the stimulus to industry, an
ideal is gained that may retain its power through a life-time.

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ATTENTION. 1089

An example of teaching, in which both of these conditions are
fulfilled, simply, may be found in those modern schools for very
young children called kindergarten. There truth is made to wear
any fantastic dress that can make it attractive ; while the teacher
becomes as much one with the juveniles as possible. The whole
aim is to copy Nature in matter, and the home in manner of
teaching.

With more encouragement of the necessary exercise of will for
those of rather older growth, this system may be taken to exemplify
the second stage of attention, in which the mental activity is aroused
and controlled by external intellectual agency.

Before passing to the third division of the subject, there is an
interesting fact which may be noticed as showing a transition
towards this independent voluntary exercise of the mind.

At those schools in England where boys attend for half-time
and spend the rest of the day at work, it is found that on the
whole the half-time boys do as well as those who spend the full
day at school. The powers of will and concentration learned
under the discipline of the factory, as well as the conception of
the value of education gained from outside, render the attention of
these lads more strong ‘and consistent than it would be otherwise.

This fact provides a ready introduction to the special character-
istic of this third kind of Attention—that is, the purpose which
enables a man, independent of other considerations, to devote his
mind to the pursuit of knowledge.

Concerning this exercise of will, which maintains perception as
a force from within, it may be noticed, i in comparison with the other
determining influences, it is peculiarly a function of mind in its
maturity. The Attention which at first is called by Nature, then
guided to fact, is, if it attains its full strength, at last self-directed
towards Truth.

Still, while these differences are marked, it must not be over-
looked that this highest stage, as in all developments, contains the
others. The object contemplated possesses a fascination for
thought; self-restraint or quickening must frequently be exercised ;
childhood and youth are merged, not lost in manhood.

The introduction of Will tends also to make the attention more
of a unity than before ; and although it is necessary to divide
the full mental energy into sections for the sake of observation,
one part cannot take the pre-eminence as attraction and education
have done earlier. Alongside of the controlling force must be
seen the scope of perception, and the necessary accompaniments
of attention in the mind. In this free, high, intellectual activity
no one side can be taken as characteristic ; it shows itself only
when viewed as awhole. It will be necessary, therefore, to survey
the three sections just mentioned of Will, Object, and Harmonic,
in order.

3 Zi

1090 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J.

The function of Will, in relation to attention, is commonly
known as abstraction. In the countless calls that come for interest
and inquiry, selection must first be made ; then, after the choice
has been taken, serious interference with the mind’s occupation
has to be guarded against. The service thus rendered by abstraction
seems to be of a preventive or negative character ; but it is mani-
festly unfair to regard it apart from the positive vision with which
it is associated, and to stigmatise it as bare and unfruitful.
Sometimes choice may be made of an unworthy object ; then the
abstraction of purpose is judged speedily, and condemned as being
exclusive of good, and leading to a vain result. At another time,
however, when a great theme occupies the mind, the negative
abstraction is lost sight of in the splendid thought it serves to
protect.

It may be said that Will, to a great extent, takes the place of
the teacher noticed above ; and, of course, if the object regarded
voluntarily be like the dry subject of insufficient interest or value,
the result also will be like that described.

There is a graphic account given by a champion cyclist of his
experiences while following pace, that illustrates abstraction.
‘“‘ After riding a little time,” he says, “the people around the
course eradually became indistinct, and their applause sounded far
away ; ‘then the colour of the track and the grass was lost, and
the rush of the air became less perceptible, until at last, in the
intensity of his effort to pick up the pacing machines, the daylight
almost entirely faded away from him, and all the varied sounds
of the course sank into a confused roar.”

The chronicling of this experience produced in the minds of
many who read it a feeling almost of horror at the effect narrated.
The end sought is so palpably inadequate to the loss of sight and
sound it involves.

Should anyone, however, who is accustomed to close mental
application, compare what is here set down with what he himself
has felt in the course of his work, he will recognise, by the stmilarity
-of the result, an abstraction identical in itself with hisown. For
him, in his writing or experiment, the world gradually becomes
far away, and indistinct ; he is not conscious of sunshine or shade ;
the voices of friends are mere sounds, indefinite and unheeded.

The abstraction involved in attention then beyond its power of
persistence, takes all its quality, its value, from the object of
scrutiny. It may be bare and conspicuous ; it may be hidden in
a rich world of idea. Everything as to its character depends on
that to which the mind is Gircercal The example of Newton will,
perhaps, serve to show to how noble a height this controlling
purpose may attain.

In describing the method he adopts to reach his discoveries, he

5
said he kept the subject always before him, sometimes for long

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ATTENTION. 1091

periods, until at last the light shining forth made dawn in his
own mind.

When it is remembered that dawn in the mind of a Newton
means the beginning of a new day of knowledge for mankind, the
ultimate value of his abstraction becomes still more clearly
manifest.

From what has been observed already concerning the field or
scope of attention, it is easy to pass to its consideration. The
mind may be directed to any object of any interest, if this can
but furnish a new relation for perception. The three co-existent
worlds of Nature, Humanity, Mind, each infinite in extent or
complexity, offer subjects, it would seem, to suffice eternity.

As, therefore, it is not possible to indicate in more than this
general way the full scope of knowledge, it would be useless to
catalogue its material in detail. A word may not be out of place,
however, as to its limits, for there are bounds set beyond which it
may not pass.

On the one side, an object must be capable of opening out
before thought if it is to be regarded with attention ; on the other,
for the Mind to attain to a vision of Truth uncomprehended before,
there must be steps by which it may climb—a highway prepared
in the desert.

Sufficient, perhaps, has been said with regard to any attempt to
transgress the lower of these limits, the effort at Attention simply
becomes nullitied ; but with regard to the higher, a glance at its
meaning is needed.

There is really no region of human experience that can be con-
sidered necessarily closed to the view of Attention. Prejudice
and timidity combine often to prevent this steady, earnest, appli-
cation to subjects of paramount interest and importance. The
whole fields of the mental, moral, and spiritual have hardly yet
been opened to the vision which alone finds enduring ordered
knowledge.

Tt cannot, however, be supposed that such alien motives will
always maintain their influence. The time must come when
Attention, step by step, will penetrate to the very centre of these
lands now so strange and so fascinating in their mystery.

The scope of Attention is therefore far wider than is popularly
supposed ; its function to deal with matters quite beyond the
passing fashion of interest.

Still the practical attainment of this activity depends absolutely
on the condition just recognised. Knowledge of relations is only
to be gained step by step. Upon the achievment of the past the
seer must stand who would look into the future. Copernicus,
Galileo, Kepler, Newton, follow in an order invariable as necessity.

It must be, then, that for a long time in every department of
experience, Attention must follow feeling and belief slowly, and

1092 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J.

sometimes at a great distance ; but she passes from fact to fact
that have been established for ever, until at last she comes to the
ultimate law or spirit which has inspired the earlier faith and
emotion.

The whole task of Attention, may be likened to that of the
Astronomer who attempts to sound the star depths. In method
and field her undertaking is strikingly similar ; her success must
be as tentative and as gradually achieved.

The Harmonics of Attention, with a reference to which this
sketch is to close, are naturally as wide and varied as experience.

The mental effort required to maintain the perception itself
induces subordinate feelings of anxiety, hope, pleasure. The
object upon which the mind is concentrated awakens memories by
association that may be almost as full and fresh as new enjoyment.

It will be necessary, therefore, again to denote the richness of
this part of the subject rather by *boundary lines than by its sub-
stance or colour.

A remarkable instance is given in the life of Tennyson lately
published of a high mental experience accompanying a certain
act of Attention.

The Poet was able, it is said, by concentrating his thought
entirely on his own name to rise intoastate of exaltation in which
all his noblest nature seemed to be alive and active.

It is evident that such a result could not be attained by direct
effort. The mind was turned to the ideal of self, denoted by the
name, and the whole being awoke in unison with the activity of
Attention.

It might be shown that important results occur in the develop-
ment of character, as secondary effects of devoting thought to
worthy objects. The quality of the emotion or subordinate purpose
very largely depends on the question occupying Attention.

Again, as a matter practically involved in teaching, it might be
pointed out that some of the phenomena which appear to denote
inattention are often the necessary accompaniments of the mind’s
action.

A boy has come under the writer’s notice who seems incapable
of receiving the instruction imparted unless he can keep his hands
employed in some trivial occupation. If he looks intently at the
teacher he apparently hears little or nothing that is said; but if
he is allowed to play as he likes in a quiet way he is the smartest
boy in the school.

These incidents may, perhaps, serve to mark off this division of
the subject, though, of course, they can but suggest in a bare fashion
the wealth of its detail ; and as leading out away from Attention
proper to that which is always involved in its activity, they may
also serve as a limit for the present survey.

FACT AND IDEA. 1093

No. 6—THE PLACE OF MUSEUMS IN UNIVERSITY
EDUCATION.

By Miss L. Macponaup, M.A.
(Read Monday, January 10, 1898.)

No. 7—THE PERMANENT PLACE OF LITERATURE
IN EDUCATION.

By Rev. C. J. Prescorr, M.A.
(Read Monday, January 10, 1898).

No. 8—THE FUNCTION OF CLASSICAL STUDY IN
EDUCATION.

By FP: V. Pratt; M.A.
(Read Monday, January 10, 1898.)

No. 9.—FACT AND IDEA.
By C. J. Brennan, M.A.
(Read Tuesday, Janwary 11, 1898.)

§ CociTaTtuR is the most comprehensive statement of the
Universe.

The ordinary view of the world, which every man daily makes
use of andassumes, may beshortly expressed thus : space-occupying
bodies whereof oneis mine, on theonehand ; on theother, awareness
of these bodies and various feelings in relation to them, this
awareness and these feelings forming a unity of consciousness,
mine. The last concept of this phase of consciousness, the final
statement of this view, is the separation of the whole into two
divisibilia, two disparates—Matter and Mind ; whereupon, the old
metaphysical scruple—How came this world here ?—insinuates
itself under this form: How then can one disparate know the
other ?

From the point of view just analysed, no answer can be given ;
the question can merely be stated. Deeper analysis removes the
scruple altogether, seeing that the view of the world from which

1094 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J.

it arises is not final, secondly that it is a division; for not
merely does it make a crude distinction between phenomena
merely according to the category of spacc, but it sets asunder
what it found united. How shall they be again united, unless
we first abandon our arbitrary division? For a knowing subject,
the final view of things must be based on knowledge. However
true it may be that, taking space as basis of our analysis, knower
is here and known is there, distinct and divisible ; from the stand-
point of knowledge, knower and known are united, distinct but
indivisible, mutually necessary and inseparable. Everything
objective has its subjective aspect ; every thing is also a feeling ;
otherwise, for knowledge, it would not exist. And it is for
knowledge, for consciousness, that we analyse.

The phase of consciousness which yields us subject and object
as inseparable aspects of the one phenomenon is technically known
as Reflection. Cogitatur—it is knawn, it thinks—we have no
impersonal verb of the kind—is its expression ; and observe,
nothing more is necessary, For cogito, I think, merely expresses
the unity and continuity in time of the subjective aspect, which,
along with its objective aspect, becomes object in Reflection, and,
at the same time, its separation from the object. This mode of
consciousness—direct, as it is called—must justify itself by reflec-
tive. In reflectionthere isnoself-consciousness; but reflectionis the
hasis of self-consciousness. Preceding reflection there is a mode
of consciousness—primary, as we e observe it in the child-—-wherein
the subjective aspect has not yet become object ; but reflection
has not to justify itself by this mode, seeing that it alone makes
explicit what was implicit in the latter---makes real its poten-
tiality ; whereas the division and separation performed by direct
consciousness presupposes and assumes the distinction performed
by reflection.

Reflection is the decisive mode of all consciousness.

§ The world in primary consciousness is one, and everything
given therein is real. Reflection shows the ground of this reality,
in that the real is given, but given in consciousness.

There is, however nother kind of question as to reality, which
arises in direct consciousness—another form of the old metaphy-
sical scruple, Cartesian doubt. It begins and ends in direct
consciousness: its last word is cogito, Las object to myself cannot
be other than real ; but these other things. . .?

But these other things ave given in consciousness! Even a
sense-hallucination is a reality, as such ; reflection cannot shake
it. Its rejection is the result of a judgment, delivered according
to the evidence of full consciousness directed by attention ; its
persistence or non-persistence for full consciousness determines its
secondary reality or unreality.

FACT AND IDEA. 1095

Here we reach the question—How certain things can be more
real to consciousness, apart from their reality to mere awareness, or
reflection, in answer to what demands they are more real? Simply,
the human procedure with regard to reality. Why do we choose
and reject—on what authority !

Ts it not plain that the authority must lie in consciousness, be
other than mere awareness (Wahrnehmung) ?

Consider a moment our judgment with regard to error—hallu-
cination. Reality—on what else does it depend except on our
awareness, on itS presence in our consciousness? Not on its
duration in our consciousness ; for how many fleeting things do we
hold for real? and how indeed can five minutes more or less
affect reality where duration is infinite? We simply reverse the
verdict of plain consciousness.

Have we not here an indication that man shapes his reality for
himself out of some inditferent brutum? Do we not find reason
to suspect that he is led thereto by his longing for stability ?

The existence of error in the world is indeed a suggestive
question. Why error? Is it that reality depends on man and
his search for it? Or is it that the unreal, the misleading, the
erroneous, which we gradually set aside, are the only actual
world ; that man never comes into touch with the true reality ;
that he must seek another real——or another error—which will
better suit him—his interests ?

§ Yes, the human procedure is a modification of reality—say,
rather, a substitution of humanity for reality.

The Fact is not the object alone—to make the mere object the
fact is already a human feeling
as awareness, but feeling as emotion; for an emotion is the
subjective aspect of the object, and there is no object in the
universe which does not excite, invariably, some emotion. The
fact is one: we break it up.

The first action of direct consciousness is to separate conscious-
ness, and more particularly emotion, from its object; and our every-
day habit is to look upon this latter residue as the fact, whilst
ignoring the subjective side, and, above all, never dreaming that
the emotions form an indispensable aspect of the phenomenon.
Perhaps, in this, we are belying the motive which led to the
separation of Mind and Matter as empirical objects: which separa-
tion, following the discovery of Feeling in reflection, was surely
nohomage to the solidity of the outer world—rather, say, the pulling
of itself together by consciousness in face of the object: whereupon
follows the ordinary world-view, since consciousness finds itself
united to a body which is to it a matter of great interest.

1096 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J.

Otherwise, why this division of the world into Matter and Mind ?
Was there not many another possible line of sectivn ?

Or otherwise : since all things are in the primary sense real, and
since consciousness is the test of this reality, why, in establishing
this secondary distinction of real and unreal, of which conscious-
ness is the sole arbiter, ignore a certain part of consciousness,
because of its apparent disconnection with the material objects
which occupy space? Are we not, in making this conception our
basis of reality, granting everything to a set of interests, pressing,
in regard to this body which belongs to us? Logical reason for
such standpoint there is none: interest is the key of the
situation.

Standpoints—from many such do we deal with the world after
our separation of its subjective and objective aspects. Each point
of view is arbitrary: it is the strategic position of a certain
interest—is not Occam’s famous razor merely the expression of a
mental need for clearness !—directing the attention towards its
object. Attention directed by interest—that is, the force which
sets in motion the whole machinery of human thought and
endeavour.

As has been said, we break up the fact. We abstract the
subjective aspect; the objective remains poorer. We further break
up our abstracta, according to each mene, interest. Do we not
thereby limit the range of our possible conclusions? Whereupon
Task: Is this not merely the necessary zpodpopos to some further
reunion, determined by the unity of interests? Is it not the search
after another, fuller Fact? That we must so preceed with the
world as we do, shows—that it does not recognise our interests :
the objective world is fixed and firm; they not. Are we not aiming
at a transformation of it, wherein their importance shall be as
absolute a fact as the existence of this sheet of paper ?

The question brings to light a certain human doubt,— Am J... ?

We shall recur to it later on.

§ The procedure of the abstract intellect, by its very simplicity,
is a good example of the way in which man remoulds reality in
answer to his interests.

The starting-point of the intellect is the concept. The form of
the intellect is the same as that of perception: the concept is
formed out of reality, but rejects all phases of the latter which
are not required for the satisfaction of the interest in question.
Thus, for several phases of reality, meeting in various ways in
different objects, we have a set of concepts, formed by the atten-
tion singling out each phase from all the objects in which it occurs.
The unity of the object, already detached from the unity of Fact,
is broken up according to the variety cf interests, whose unity is

FACT AND IDEA. 1097

that of consciousness. And it is this unity of consciousness, whose
form is infinite duration, that gives the final unity and justification
to all our voluntary modification of the world—intellectual, moral,
zesthetic.

The modification is equivalent to a recreation.

One procedure—that of the intellect with regard to spatial
perception, otherwise material bodies—demands, at the present
moment, attention.

The bodies are regarded as apart from all human feeling ; and
their properties are measured by certain standards of space and
time—-standards absolute only in so far as they are purely
arbitrary.

They being converted into concepts, the concepts of their inter-
action (otherwise laws) are sought, with this aim—to reduce them
to a unity : an ideal, is it not ?

Observing certain interactions of complete empirical bodies,
the intellect extends these laws into the infinite, transforming,
ideally, those aspects of bodies which are the objects of the visual,
auditory, olfactory, caloric senses into results of the object of our
crudest sense—that which contains for us the most interest from
the point of view of ourselves as space-occupying bodies—Touch.

Time was, when this transformation was attempted from another
standpoint ; but the strongest interest in this domain of space-
occupying bodies has, as was only right, gained the day.

What stronger proof, from another side, of the intellectual
need to obtain a conceptual unity in this matter selected and re-
arranged according to a physical need, than the reduction of the
object of Touch, Resistance, to a minimum, an Atom, colourless,
odourless, tasteless, without light, and without heat, perfectly hard
and perfectly elastic, unfelt, unloved, unhated, not regarded as a
reality, yet used as a concept explanatory of all this full and rich
world of colour, sound, taste and odour, light and heat, which we
love and hate, fear and live in, with whose skies and tempers our
feelings seem inwoven ;—what other is it than the Ideal, set in the
void and formless infinite, to represent an Idea—that of material
nature reduced to concept, and spied out by thought in all her
forms? If we endowed an atom with all attributes, still it would
in the last resort only satisfy the intellect, conceiving even this
possible, being used as an intellectual explanation of these attri-
butes existing phenomenally. Further, it would frustrate the
spirit of ideal progress, which here would be barred by a rigid
absolute, devoid of mystery and wonder.

One thing is plain—that this reduction of sensory phenomena
to the effects of various interactions, measured by arbitrary stan-
dards, of arbitrary minima of resistance-offering matter, is per-
formed by the intellect (since this cannot choose its points of

1098 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J.

view) in response to two interests: one, the instinct of physical
self-preservation, here voicing its crude concept of all action as
absolute spatial contact ; the other, a need of intellectual unity in
the world—its conformance to our thought.

Truth itself, so much worshipped by this century—what is it but
an Ideal? For it is not the declaration of such and such a phase
of reality, but the perfect accord of our concepts, that constitutes
it ; and just the nature of the universe, the nature of the subject,
that their form is infinite duration, makes it an ideal. While the
test of primary Reality is the one moment of consciousness, with-
out appeal, that of all secondary Reality, consequently of Truth,
is for ever eluding us. The congruity of our concepts is at every
fresh moment a matter for re-examination, since the perceptual
order continually offers fresh matter for fresh phases of thought.
Thus it is that the first concept is the beginning of a journey 7”
infinitum.

Here we might cast a short glance at the fundamental canon of
this procedure, that of causation: in which, setting aside the
notion of Force—a notion, it may be remarked, rather derived
from the fictive power of the mind, thus a metaphor for all our
treatment of reality, than from our sense of muscular exertion—
setting this aside, we find two necessary notions, Necessity and
Uniformity.

Necessity arises from our consciousness of the formal element,
Time : every phenomenon must have an antecedent.

Uniformity—absolutely necessary for science, thus showing
that this latter aims at being something more than mere registra-
tion of objective sequences—must, as a concept, be justified by the
material element. Flame and water do not mingle—NVatura non
facit saltum. Yes; but who will guarantee the non faciet ?

The only answer that one can give is that the concepts of
established sequence—flame and heat—are mutually inclusive ; or,
of the opposite—flame and water—mutually exclusive. But

The concepts have been drawn from experience !

Or, I may be told that all phenomena are manifestations of one
law, one reality—phases of atomic grouping ; but the atom does
not explain its particular appearances ; even if it be endowed
with all the qualities manifested therein, it does not explain (ah!
note what we require) why this rather than that—is, in fact,
only a mark of your and my need for an Absolute.

And finally, that our assumptions work well, are justified by
practice ; to conclude therefrom as to their truth, what is it but
a fur ther assumption as to a harmony existing between our ae
practice and the nature of Truth (eternal, as we must think her) ?
—the last ineradicable assumption, presumption, or delusion of
humanity.

Weare all following the Chimera.

FACT AND IDEA. 1099

§ Here we might arbitrarily end our survey of the human
procedure ; the moral and esthetic processes testify more clearly
as to its nature. We have seen man everywhere at work
modifying—what? we cannot say—since the human procedure
reaches down into perception and sensation. It would be too
much presumption even to say that he works on an indifferent.
Something is given, something is brute fact ; but does not that
very word “brute” denote its distance from us? (Is not brute
fact, perhaps, another of our myths!) Fact first exists for us
when our interests lead us to set a value on something ; and when
does this valuation first begin? None can say ; it is involved in
the simplest act of consciousness.

What, then, does it signify to be true to fact? To be true to
one’s own most lasting interests. The man who is at all costs
true to brute hard fact, as he says, what else is he doing than
allowing his rigid honesty to dominate all other instincts ?

We have further seen—important fact—how consciousness has
broken up its own unity, that it might become more fully aware
of its different interests, each by each, and use them in turn as
means to remodel the world. We have seen also how unsatis-
factory were the results of each isolated process ; and, in truth,
were it not futile to remain in this divided state ?

Surely, all has been just so much preparation to some greater
synthesis—the complete humanisatior of the Universe, when man
shall have attained complete knowledge of himself—how many
assumptions are here involved ? (is man, then, something stable ?)

§ Man’s task is to spiritualise, idealise, humanise—the terms
are all equivalent : is not human pride here evident /—to humanise
the world ; and the challenge proceeds from the Infinite.

Our negative consciousness of the infinite, the void, imane
profundum has for emotional aspect the aspiration, or more than
aspiration ; 7, the Human, ought to be there—to fill that void ;
or, since in the Infinite we can only live Here and Now, to feel
that we stand in some satisfactory natural relation with Eternity,
our most certain environment ; to feel that we are indeed here
and now in the place where we should be : and as reverse side of
this—for all aspiration has its reverse side—the old doubt, Ought I ?
am I fit ?

This existent objective universe in all its solidity—and yet this
solidity is, perhaps, to a great extent our work—infinite by one
at least of the cognitive forms, belongs to us—or rather we belong
to it by a certain side of our nature ; by another we seek to
establish ourselves above it, as we, by the other and more abstract
cognitive form, belong to infinity.

What is the emptiness that terrifies us in the infinite? We
cannot be more swallowed up, more lost in boundless Time and

1100 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J.

Space, than we are this very Here and Now. What we fear
is that the Idea of the Infinite may be found incompatible with
the Idea of the Human.

Yet we aspire.

Tt is the moment of thought that redresses the wavering balance.

To see ourselves swh specie acternitatis, all human interests
being united and the whole Human set over against the world,
to take the last values and decide what it is that accords with
Eternity—whatitis that deserves to last ; such is the reconciliation,
such is our deliverance ; the moment of Thought, no trimming of
fear-bred tales.

We cannot always content ourselves with fragments. When
we broke up the old unity and framed the first concept, we began
that journey towards the last Unity of World and Human, the
great Fact and Idea in one, made up of all those countless rapports
between ourselves and Nature, which we now separately follow out.
Such separate maimed human processes are only justifiable as
Vorstufen to this synthesis.

Whatever image we make to ourselves of this Idea is called by
a name soiled by all ignoble usage—the Ideal. Every human
attempt at humanisation of the Universe has hitherto shaped its
Ideal, and by the satisfaction which this afforded—not necessarily
to the mass—has justified itself ; but all have hitherto been found
imperfect, sometimes perverse. To offer me the atom as a satis-
factory ideal, as the trophy of a real human victory—how perverse!
For what trouble does it cost to find the link between us and outer
things, the interest we feel towards them, by refining on which
this spectre is conjured up ?

Tf not time and space, at least power is lacking to adumbrate-
that Idea. Yet we are not left without some indication of that
state in which it would be given in direct intuition, where thought
would be like quivering flame, inseparable from sense, emotion, and
imagination. Of such perfect Life all beautiful things by their
perfection—limited, “tis true—are the fitting symbols, and the
creators of Beauty in all its shapes the fitting prophets. The Eden-
thought, the dream of a Golden Age, strangely offered to an
unimaginative century in the shape of a philosophy which denied
reason, civilisation, progress, is never absent.

To say, with that prophet and others, that our present imperfect
life is a disease, were, perhaps, too glaring a substitution of Idea
for Fact, an exaggeration, a reductio ad absurdum of the Human
Procedure—the Human Fallacy, as we might cheerfully agree to
call it.

No. 10.—SOCIALISM IN EDUCATION.
By P. F. Rowranps, B.A.
(Read Tuesduy, January 11, 1898.)

FINANCIAL ASPECTS OF SECONDARY EDUCATION, 1101

No. 11.—FINANCIAL ASPECTS OF SECONDARY
EDUCATION.

By P. Ansett Rogriy, M.A.

(Read Tuesday, January 11, 1898.)

THE problems of secondary education are many and _ various,
but they are in the main either dependent upon or closely connected
with questions of finance. Both in establishing and in main-
taining schools, in securing efficient masters, in fixing the scope
and nature of the education supplied, in adopting methods of school
management, the chief determining factor is the amount of avail-
able revenue. It is money that makes the school to go. Without
an ample revenue, schools are undermanned, teachers are under-
paid, the tenure of the ablest men in the profession is precarious,
and the educational interests of pupils are necessarily sacrificed.
Thus it is impossible to exaggerate the importance of the financial
question. It is this that determines the relation of the head
master or mistress to the governing body, the number, qualifi-
cations and tenure of the assistants, and to some extent the
methods of school management. It is the monetary difficulty
that blocks the way towards the most necessary reforms, that
checks the ambitions and lowers the ideals of even the most
enthusiastic and self-sacrificing schoolmasters.

Let us first take a cursory glance over the field of secondary
education in Australia, and observe the different types of schools
that furnish teaching higher than elementary. (1) The earhest
type toemerge was that of the Denominational School, such as
the King’s School, the Melbourne Church of England Grammar
School, Newington College, and St. Ignatius’. Long before the
State took any active part in providing secondary teaching, the
religious bodies, by voluntary effort, established schools of a high
type, which have continued ever since to render valuable service,
and in some colonies haye borne the entire burden of secondary
education. In some instances the State so far encouraged these
efforts at the outset as to assign valuable grants of land for school
purposes ; but these institutions have always been self-supporting,
receiving no State subsidy, except (in some few unimportant
cases) the right to receive the holders of State bursaries. (2)
Another type of school is exemplified in the Queensland Grammar
Schools and the Sydney Grammar School. The schools have been
established by local subscription, supplemented by Government
aid, and assisted in their maintenance by a moderate State
subsidy. Their existence is thus based upon legislative enactment,

1102 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J.

and the Government has certain rights of inspection, which
in practice are delegated to the governing body. (3) In New
South Wales the State has established High Schools for boys and
girls respectively, under the entire control of the Education
Department. At present the number is limited; but the system
admits of development with the increase of population in provin-
cial towns. South Australia has provided a High School for
girls, but has refrained from competing with the Denominational
Secondary Schools for boys’ education. (4) A different method
of State activity is shown in the Superior Public Schools of New
South Wales, and in the upper departments of State Schools in
other colonies, where the primary education provided for the
people is supplemented by instruction in subjects usually included
among those of secondary teaching. In Victoria, State school
teachers are allowed to instruct in these secondary subjects,
charging a very small fee determined by the Department. (5)
While the Denominational Schools represent one species of
Proprietary Schools, another type has recently come into being
in the Armidale Grammar School, which belongs to a
company, its objects being commercial as well as cducational.
To this type, though with little of the commercial element, will
belong the Melbourne Church of England Grammar School, if a
projected scheme of reorganisation is successfully carried out.
The scheme provides for 300 governors who subscribe £100 each,
and the school thus endowed will be transferred to them as a legal
corporation. (6) The next type, which is most numerous, but
least influential, is that of private schools, whose policy and
continuance depend entirely upon the pleasure or ability of indi-
viduals. Private secondary schools are relatively important only
in Victoria, where for many reasons the large Denominational
Schools do not command the situation, and the local worship of the
Matriculation Examination has made education in the minds of
most Victorians synonymous with “coaching.” (7) For the sake
of completeness we must not omit to mention the Technical
Colleges, Schools of Mines and Art, Agricultural Colleges, and
Working Men’s Colleges, if we follow the British Royal Com-
mission on Secondary Education (1895) in including Technical as
a branch of Secondary instruction. With the magnificent
exception of the Ormond Working Men’s College in Melbourne,
founded by private benefaction, these technical schools were
originated by the State, and all, without exception, are dependent
on State subsidy. Finally, it is necessary to remember that, apart
from all these schools, a large amount of secondary instruction is
given by private tutors and governesses, the proportion being,
perhaps, greater in Melbourne than in any other Australian centre.

We may now inquire into the sources of revenue for secondary
education. And first, how far has the principle of State aid been

FINANCIAL ASPECTS OF SECONDARY EDUCATION. 1103

extended in this direction? In earlier days grants of land were
made to various religious denominations for school purposes, but
now that secondary schools are plentiful, this method of State
assistance is, perhaps, obsolete, at any rate in the large centres of
population. Direct money grants are bestowed upon “Queensland”
Grammar Schools, the least ‘of them obtaining £1,000 per annum
from Government, while the State safeguards its own interests by
nominating about half of the governing Trustees. A more direct

control is assumed by Government in the case of the State High
Schools, which, however, charge fees covering a large proportion
of the necessary expenditure. Each colony, again, has a system
of State scholarships, whereby the ablest children in the State
primary schools areenabled to continue their education in secondary
schools. In Queensland these scholars naturally proceed to the
Grammar Schools ; in New South Wales they may enter the State
High Schools, or Sydney Grammar School, which has hitherto
received an annual Government grant (unfortunately diminishing).
In Victoria the poverty of the Treasury has driven the Government
to certain astute expedients which relieve the State of all burden,
and yet secure to it the credit of providing the much-vaunted
‘educational ladder” to the University. By the new system the
State nominally offers scholarships tenable at the large Denomi-
national Schools, open amongst others to State scholars, the
scholarships being at the expense of the schools concerned. The one
advantage thus obtained by the schools is that these State scholars,
at the end of their school course, are eligible for State bursariest
tenable at the University, such bursaries, by another stroke of
official cunning, being given at the expense of the University, by
being deducted from the annual Government subsidy.

Next, how far have secondary schools been assisted by private
beneficence? Speaking generally, it may be said that the Denomi-
national Schools have heen founded by private subscription, but
that in most cases a large debt still remains upon the buildings,
the interest being, of course, a first charge upon ordinary revenue.
One school has a debt of £25,000, another of £12,000, two more
of £10,000 each ; and probably a long and depressing list might
easily be made if information were collected. Endowments are
very rare, and coniparatively trifling. Most large schools have a
system of valuable scholarships, entirely due to private generosity ;
but while these are a valuable incentive to pupils, they in no way
lighten the burden of finance, or help to increase educational
efficiency . Thus the only source of ordinary school revenue is the
fees of pupils, and it is obvious that all influences that tend to
lower the scale of fees, or diminish the number of pupils, are so
far hostile to educational efficiency. The demand for secondary
education, of course, fluctuates with the general prosperity of the
community, and a time of commercial depression, such as that of

1104 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J.

the past five or six years throughout Australia, is inevitably
marked by the withdrawal of pupils at an earlier age, and also by
a considerable lowering of the scale of fees. This is a cause that
is inherent in our present system of civilisation, and is incapable
‘of removal by any conceivable reform. But even in prosperous
times similar results are brought about by excessive competition.
Private schools spring up like mushrooms, without restriction, and
without any guarantee of efficiency. Any individual with sufficient
enterprise or lmpudence may open a school; and it too often
happens that pupils are attracted by low fees or blatant self-
advertisement, or convenience of situation, without any inquiry
into the competence or character of the teacher. But there is also
the competition of Government schools, which presses heavily upon
those Denominational and private institutions which are undeniably
efficient. Where the Government was first in the field, as in
Queensland, there is no room for complaint, and there are probably
many persons who regard the Queensland system as almost an
ideal one ; but in New South Wales, where the churches, with
great self-sacrifice, covered the ground which the State declined
to occupy, the subsequent creation of Government High Schools,
with a relatively low scale of fees was, and is, felt to be very
unfair competition. There may possibly be room for both types
of schools ; but if so, the only equitable policy would be for the
State to exact as high fees for secondary teaching as the self-
supporting Denominational Schools are forced by their necessities
to maintain.

The present financial position of secondary schools may be
briefly indicated, before suggestions are offered towards reform.
(1) First, the only possibility of profit, either for individuals or
school-councils, is from boarding-schools ; and even here there isa
limit of numbers and of fees, below which even a boarding school
cannot be remunerative. (2) In the second place, most. efficient
schools are kept efficient only by rigid economy. In almost every
case the staff of assistants is maintained at the lowest possible
salary consistent with efficiency. Governing bodies are at times
found to adopt expedients which are unworthy of men controlling
education. For instance, on the occurrence of a vacancy in the
headmastership, the appointment has been sometimes bestowed
upon a private schoolmaster of little reputation and mediocre
attainments, for the sole reason that he already had a number of
boarders whom he undertook to bring with him to the new school.
Tn another school, a Denominational one of good standing, the
council, in a time of depression, passed a resolution to dismiss the
married men and substitute single men at lower salaries. This
heartless plan was not actually carried out, partly through circum-
stances, partly through a somewhat tardy feeling of compunction ;

but the policy deliberately sanctioned illustrates the expedients to

FINANCIAL ASPECTS OF SECONDARY EDUCATION. 1105

which an impecunious committee feels itself at liberty to resort.
Consequently, even in really good schools, assistant masters feel
that there is no career open to talent, and, worse still, that through
the fluctuations of finance they have no security of tenure. (3) A
large proportion of schools are inefficient, because they cannot
afford to engage highly-qualified assistants. There is a limit to
the lowering of salaries, and as so many school authorities have
set themselves to discover that limit, the natural result is that
the supply of well-qualified men and women is growing less and
less. It is not uncommon in private schools to find a graduate
of considerable ability preparing pupils for University Public
Examinations, at a salary of ten shillings a week and residence.
Even in some of the largest Denominational Schools, the junior
masters sometimes receive as little as £40 with residence. Is it
any wonder that able men are diverted to other professions, and
that those assistants who have adopted the teaching profession
“ for better, for worse,” sometimes hear insulting innuendoes about
*‘ cheap” masters !

Is there any practicable method for securing reform? It is of
no possible use to propound an ideal system of education which
the founders of a new Utopia might with advantage establish.
We have to reckon with existing conditions, with the inertia of
schools, and with the extraordinary ignorance and apathy of the
general public in all educational questions. The isolation of the
various colonies in educational matters makes it necessary to
convince separately those who control the respective systems, and
the federation of the colonies is not in the least likely to make
any alteration in this respect. The relation of Government
towards secondary education needs adjusting, and probably no
scheme of reform is practicable without the intelligent and discreet
intervention of the State. Not that large grants of public money
are required ; such a contention, in the present condition of
Colonial finance, would be fatal even to the discussion of the
question; but the State must intervene in some way as the
organiser and the patron of secondary education, so that schools
may find it worth their while to reform themselves by receiving
encouragement for good work, and suffering some disabilities for
inefficiency. The problem here is that Governments should
discharge their obligation to supervise, and yet refrain from undue
interference, or any attempt to produce uniformity. These are
but generalities ; but State interference is so much of a bugbear
to many, that its limitations must be insisted on at the outset.

I venture to propose a connected scheme which seems to contain
some promise of practicability and effectiveness. The two main
lines of necessary reform are—first, to ascertain which schools are
efficient, and to give these official recognition and encouragement ;
and, secondly, as far as possible to ensure that secondary teachers

44

1106 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J.

are properly qualified for their work. (I.) Suppose an Educational
Council were appointed for any particular colony, such Council
consisting mainly of educational experts, one half of its members
nominated by the Governor-in-Council, and the rest in some way
representative of the University and the body of secondary
teachers. This Council would not interfere with any school that
preferred to remain a law unto itself, except, perhaps, to ensure
compliance with sanitary regulations, but would have some
measure of jurisdiction over all schools that desired official recog-
nition, and the advantages which that would bring. Such schools
would have to satisfy the Council of their efficiency, by submitting
to such inspection as the Council might prescribe or approve.
The official publication of a list of such approved schools would be
an immense advantage which would make recognition eagerly
sought by many struggling schools. If, further, each school thus
stamped with approval were given the right to receive the holders
of State scholarships (at the State expense, of course), a definite,
though limited, financial advantage would.be added. (II.) The
other important function of the Educational Council would be to
create a register of qualified teachers, the qualifications to be
determined by the Council. In order to make this register of
practical value in raising the standard of secondary education,
the Council might decree that, after a certain reasonable period
of time, any school already “ recognised,” or desiring ‘‘ recognition,”
must be staffed either entirely or in a certain proportion with
registered teachers. On these main lines a scheme might be
worked out which would revolutionise secondary education. Of
course, there are many engineering difficulties ; but these can be
surmounted in detail after the route has been definitely mapped
out. How, then, would these suggested methods work in practice ?
It seems reasonable to believe that the official recognition of
efficient schools by a competent and impartial authority would be
welcomed by the general public, that support would be more and
more accorded to these schools and withdrawn from the inefficient
and unworthy, that the improvement in the financial position of
efficient schools would be suflicient to ensure adequate remunera-
tion for all qualified assistants, and that the standard of education
would gradually rise as teachers became more generally qualified
for their profession.

No. 12—-THE STATE AND SECONDARY EDUCATION.
By ‘W..L.:Arkins, (B.A.
(Read Tuesday, January 11, 1898.)

A NEW EDUCATIONAL EXPERIMENT, 1107

No. 13.—SCIENTIFIC METHODS AS APPLIED TO
MODERN EDUCATION.

By Miss E. A. BapHam.

(Read Tuesday, January 11, 1898.)

No. 14.—IS THERE A SCIENCE OF EDUCATION ?
By Mrs. W. L. Arxins, B.A.
(Read Wednesday, January 12, 1898.)

No. 15.—A NEW EDUCATIONAL EXPERIMENT;
“SPECIAL SCHOOLS,” IN ENGLAND AND GERMANY.

By Miss M. Hoper.
(Read Wednesday, January 12, 1898.)

FIVE years ago, inspired by Matthew Arnold with an intense
admiration for the German educational system, I spent six months
in visiting the schools in the Rhine district, in Hanover, Prussia,
and Saxony. Although I found, for the most part, that the
teachers and educational authorities were as fully convinced of
the superiority of their schools over those of the other nations of
Europe as Matthew Arnold appears to have been, I found myself
at the close of my visit by no means confirmed in my faith.
Arnold’s report, however, appeared more than twenty-eight years
ago, and England has, doubtless, made more rapid progress than
Germany in the last quarter ofa century ; so that his comparison,
greatly to the detriment of England, however true it may have been
then, must be accepted with reservation now.

It is easy to understand why he was impressed by the German
system. Education in England was in a chaotic condition ; in Ger-
many it was orderly and State regulated ; but there were, and are
still, more fundamental differences between the English and German
systems. In Germany the appreciation of education is much more
general. This may be, and probably is, due to the fact that systems
of national education have been much longer established there.
(Saxony had a system of national education in 1580 ; Prussia in
1725.) The Germans as.a nation have apparently long realised

1108 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J.

that education is the best investment they can make for their
children. This is proved by a study of the School Registers, in
which there is no method of marking a late attendance, and which
are only occasionally opened to mark the absence of a pupil, such
absence never being due to a trivial cause.

If the universal appreciation of the value of education is a
striking characteristic, so is the deeper meaning given to the words.
“Nicht fiir die Schule, sondern fiir das Leben,” is the motto of the
educational code, and the opportunities afforded by the municipal
councils and the Government for self improvement and culture
are not confined to the term of school-life nor limited within the
school’s walls.

Every small town has its theatre, which is made at once a
means of literary and moral training, as Lessing pleaded a century
ago that it might be. Good music is accessible to all, and admirable
museums and libraries.

In the method of teaching, the Germans differ from us funda-
mentally. All formal instruction is based upon a sound knowledge
of theory ; none but trained teachers are admitted to teach in either
the public or private schools. Such teachers naturally realise that
their duty is rather to help on the dull and backward children than
to spur on the sharp and clever ones, following the precept of
Mulcaster (1531-1611.):—‘“ Wherefore I would wish the wittier
child less upon the spur, and either the longer kept from learning
for fear of turning his edge as a too sharp knife, or the slenderer
kept at it for fear of surfeit in one hungering to have it.”

The teachers are aided in their efforts to educate rather than
merely to impart information by the enlightened system of inspec-
tion which exists in Northern Germany. The Inspectors have all
been teachers, and judge of the pupils and the school, not by an
annual examination, “for the sake of which three hundred and
sixty-four days of the year are sacrificed to one,” according to an
English elementary school-master, but by a series of visits and
lessons given to the children throughout the year.

I must apologise for the somewhat lengthy introduction, but the
“Special Schools ” owe their origin and development to the great
care that is taken of the individual child, and the careful watch
that is kept upon his intellectual progress—not by testing the
amount of information he has acquired, but by ascertaining how
far he has assimilated what he has been taught, whether it be
more or less than the prescribed amount being a matter of minor
importance.

These special schools of Germany —Hilfs-schulen astheyare called
there—were founded for the reception of those children who were
intellectually incapable of doing the ordinary school work, and to
whom competition with normally gifted children instead of proving
a spur, became a deadening and paralysing influence.

A NEW EDUCATIONAL EXPERIMENT. 1109

This incapacity is due—either to some defect inherent in the
child at birth—a defect inherited from drunken or idiotic parents
—or to some illness or neglected accident which arrested develop-
ment during childhood up to the seventh year. Dr. Francis
Warner has estimated that one in every thousand of the London
population suffers from such an incapacity ; and a recent examina-
tion of the pupils in the London School Board has shown that
1 per cent. of these children are really intellectually incapable of
doing the ordinary work of the school.

Although these special schools are a distinctive feature of the
German educational system, they owe their foundation to a young
Swiss doctor of the name of Guggenbihl. By his observations
of the Crétins, who he found could commit to memory long
prayers and psalms, he conceived the idea that further training
would be possible for them. He entered at once into communica-
tion with the leading Swiss teachers, some of whom were pupils
of Pestalozzi, and with them he consecrated his life to the training
of defective children. The first school was opened by him at
Interlaken in 1839 ; and a school on the same plan was opened at
Hubertsburg, in Saxony, that kingdom being always, since the
time of Luther, to the forefront in matters educational. There
are now about sixty of these schools in Germany, and their numbers
are increasing through the general appreciation of their work.
In Berlin, alone, there is no such school, as the Inspector of
Schools in that town denies the necessity for its existence, asserting
that the idiot asylums and the elementary and secondary schools
supply the needs of the population.

The first institution for the education of defective children in
Germany was a Government venture, and since that time the new
institutions are supported either by the Government or the
municipality.

The test for admission to these schools is this: If a child remain
for two years in one class in any school without showing sufficient
intellectual capacity to pass into the higher class, he is examined
first by the director of the school and then by a medical man ;
neither examination alone is suflicient: the director is apt to
mistake laziness for incapacity, and the doctor is inclined to think
physical health implies mental capacity.

Tf the child prove to be really deficient, the parents are advised—
although, of course, they cannot be compelled—to send him to a
Hilfs-schule, as moral as well as intellectual deterioration will be
the inevitable result of his continuing in the ordinary school, where
he daily learns to realise more and more vividly the helplessness
of the competition with his schoolmates, and depths of his own
inferiority. At first the parents protested loudly against the
assertion that their children were intellectually incapable, and

1110 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J.

declared that their apparent inability to do the work of the school
proceeded rather from laziness than from mental deficiency,
preferring to charge them with moral rather than with intellectual
defects. Some of the wealthier parents withdrew their children
from the ordinary schools and gave them private instruction at
home. Such instruction, even under a skilled master, always
proved unsuccessful, as both teacher and pupil became more and
more conscious of the difficulty of bridging over the great gulf
that separated them intellectually one from another ; and the
pupil had not the stimulus of competition, nor the sympathy
with fellow-workers—two powerful spurs to work in the school
life. Experience has taught the parents wisdom, and in 1892,
when the Town Council of Hanover decided to open one of these
schools, Dr. Wehrhahu, the head inspector, received sixty-three
applications for admission. From a desire to economise, and as
these schools are for the most part free, or charge very low fees,
each town is limited to one such institution. The schools, there-
fore, have to be mixed schools, as intellectual incapacity is not
limited to one sex. Throughout Germany there is a holy horror
of allowing boys and girls to be educated together—a horror so
deep-seated that only the consideration of economy can dispel
it. The girls never attain to as great proficiency as the boys,
but the latter always form by far the larger proportion of
the school. From motives of economy, also, one school serves
for all ranks of society, and a boy from the Gy mnasium works side
by side with boys from the Volk-schule, reminding us forcibly
of the medizval system in the monastic schools.

Eight years are spent in the school—from 8 to 16—and
during these years the moral, physical, and intellectual improve-
ment of the scholars is very marked. Children, who come at 8
years of age, looking upon their teachers as tyrants, and their
schoolmates as teasing tormenters, leave with reluctance at 16
having learned to be obedient and self respecting. The “hope of
opening out the mysterious infinite has dawned upon them with
this wakening of love for working.” ‘The effectiveness of the
work of these schools is best ascertained by an inspection of the
children in the lowest, and a comparison with those in the highest
class. In the lowest class the children are often ragged and dirty
(they have not yet learned to be self-respecting), dogged, obstinate,
and defiant ; some of them wear a hang-dog look, due to the
blame or ridicule to which they have been exposed in the public
schools ; but even at this stage their faces readily brighten in
response to kindness or praise. The curious rhythmic fidgeting,
very different from the restlessness due to the suppressed spon-
taneity of a healthy child, and the vacant stare observable in the
lowest class, are replaced in the highest by briskness, hopefulness,

energy, and self-confidence. Had these children remained in the

A NEW EDUCATIONAL EXPERIMENT. 1111

ordinary school they would have grown up useless burdens on
society ; had they been put into an idiot asylum, they would
rapidly have degenerated and become idiotic.

The teaching staff in these schools is entirely composed of men,
in Germany ; but in England women teach throughout the school,
as the infinite care and patience that are necessary are supposed
to be rather feminine than masculine qualities. The number of
the staff is large in proportion to the number of the pupils, the
classes never numbering more than thirty, as a great deal of
individual attention is necessary.

Curriculum.—For eight years the pupils do as much work as
is done in the ordinary schools in two years. The hours of
instruction are twenty-six and twenty-two ones eekly ; but the
individual lessons are much shorter and much more varied than in
the ordinary schools. The length of the ordinary ‘ Stunde” is from
forty-five to fifty-one minutes, but in the special schools few lessons
are longer than twenty minutes.

Physical training is very carefully supervised in the big

gymnasium (Turnhalle) as many of the children have never learnt
to contro] their muscular movements. Manual training has much
time devoted to it, and the children delight in carpentering and
bookbinding, when they can see actual visible results of their
work ; indeed, so great is the children’s delight in learning “to do”
that t!.e manual work of the afternoon is made conditional upon
the conscientious performance of the mental work in the morning.

An esthetic training is given the children by decorating the
schoolroom with bright attractive pictures, although the English
schools are far inferior to the German in this respect. The delight
of the children in anything in the form of a picture shows how
necessary such decorations are for the schoolroom. Music and
singing are largely used to enliven the lessons, and the children
are most enthusiastically delighted to sing loyal and patriotic
songs. Luther said, “ Ein schulmeister musz singen kénnen, sonst
seh ich ihn nicht an”; and although we may not consider that to
be able to sing is obligatory on all teachers, it should certainly
be made an essential qualification for a teacher in these schools.

Object lessons, orlessons in observation (Anschauungs-unterricht)
as the Germans more correctly call them, play a large part in the
school curriculum ; and in the lower forms it is often pathetic to
hear the children attempting to describe what they see ; in fact,
as Dr. Shuttleworth truly observed, the method pursued with
these children may be described as a continuation of the Kinder-
garten. The great object of the teacher should be to keep always
in close touch with the concrete. Arithmetic is the great
difficulty, these children finding problems, even the simplest,
quite beyond them at first, though before they leave school they
can understand and work easy problems in fractions.

Iba PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J.

No history is taught except Scripture history, in which a great
many lessons are given to prepare boys and girls for confirmation.
The subject, however, is too remote from their experience for the
children really to understand it. I witnessed one whole lesson, in
which the teacher devoted much time and energy to endeavouring
to clear up the confusion in his pupils’ minds between the heathen
and the Christian significance of the Christinas festival—between
Weihnachtsmenn and Christ.

Special lessons are given on the business of life, and the teacher's
desk contains a miscellaneous collection of stamps, railway tickets,
and small change.

T have already touched upon the moral effect of these schools,
It is at once touching and delightful to see the glow of pride as
the children show, with eagerness, the results of their work ; and
it is vastly important to the community at large to know that out
of thirty-five children turned out after eight years’ course at the
Brunswick school, twenty-nine are at present earning their liveli-
hood.

“Was Kostet mehr die Idioten erzichen oder vernaschlassigen 2”
asks the head of one of these institutions.

The School Board for London has now instituted, since 1893,
twenty-five special schools in London. These do not seem to be
attended with quite as much success as the German Schools, but
it is as yet too soon to judge ; and even after many years of such
work the teachers must be prepared for discouragement

When I gave evidence before the Committee of the London
School Board, the Chief Inspector of Schools, Mr. Sharpe, was
anxious to discover in what respect our schools differed from the
German Schoo!s. I think the difference lies in this: The Germans
realise, “it is not important what we learn, but what we become
through education” ; so they lay far less stress on the attainment
of knowledge and avoid the danger of cram.

I would urge, then, the adoption of these schools, not only for
the happiness of the children—

‘*The mind is its own place, and, in itself,

Can make a Heaven of Hell, a Hell of Heaven.”
but for the good of the community, for it does not need a Herbart
to remind us of the close connection between mental deficiency
and moral depravity.

Let us try and find for these poor children “ the right path of
a virtuous and noble education, laborious indeed at the first ascent,
but else so smooth and green, so full of goodly prospects and
melodious sounds on every side that the harp of Orpheus was not
more charming.”

Let us build schools that we may demolish prisons ; for it is
from this class—the intellectually defective—that our criminal
class is largely recruited. Launched into the world with no sense

A NEW EDUCATIONAL EXPERIMENT. Lents

of moral responsibility, and utterly deficient in self-respect, they
rejoice in using the poor powers with which they are endowed by
Nature to endeavour to cheat and outwit a world from which they
have experienced nothing but harshness and contempt.

The mocking laugh, the coarse jest with which the streets of
our large towns too often resound—unlovely and mirthless sounds—
are all signs of the vacant mind. It is for us, as educators, to
find food capable of assimilation by such minds—to open out to
them the wonderful storehouse of knowledge, to substitute for
the pleasures of the sense the higher pleasures of the intellect ; to
render unhappy, helpless burdens upon society cheerful and useful
members of it.

Since writing this paper in 1897, the writer has heard of two institutions
foe Par the ort e

for the training of mentally deficient children, in the Southern Hemisphere—

one at Kew, Victoria, and one at Adelaide. |

No. 16.—TEACHING VERSUS EDUCATION.
By Miss H. Newcoms.

(Read Wednesday, January 12, 1898.)

No. 17.—THE RATIONALE OF MIRACULOUS CURES
IN MODERN DAYS.

By Dr. 8. T. Knaaes.

(Read Wednesday, January 12, 1898.)

No. 18.—EVOLUTION AND SOCIOLOGY.
By Dr. T. F. Macponap.

(Read Wednesday, January 12, 1898.)

1114 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J.

No. 19.—STATE TECHNICAL EDUCATION BY A
SYSTEM OF PAYMENTS BY RESULTS.

By Professor D. C. SELMAy.
(Read Thursday, January 13, 1898.)

No. 20.—FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE.
By C. J. Brennan, M.A.

(Read Thursday, January 13, 1898.)

ARS \L Aas
INDEX TO AUTHORS. +. ~e¢e 1115
a [> 4a? a
S. & a D
B@Pas
% aa
INDEX TO AUTHORS ag s
> ¥
PAGE “PAGE
Allen, J. Bernard, B.Sce....... 245 Farr, C. Coleridge, B.Se. ... 175
Andrews, At Ge, 1B: Abn... ccns 402 Hanrer}, W mis, BeAte. onc see 908
Atkins, W. ibpS BAG ~~) OG Flashman, J., M.D., Ch.M. 663
Atkins, Mrs. W. Tes, BA. . 4107 Fowler, T. W., M.C.EL ...... 687, 702
Fraser, John, B.A., LL.D.. 800, 839
Back; F., A.f.C.E., F:S:S:... 986 Broggatt,, Wi, Wess. ccsserere 575, 921
Badham, Miss E. A. ......... 1107 Piller (Os Wa an certee eee 663, 920
Bailey, BH. Me, .B:.S3........0 423 Furber, Ty, eR eAS St lass 176
Bae pa He sacisecevoncesienerse 448
Baker, Sir R. C., K.C.M.G. 904 Galey Alberth.c-ncssscceseaeete A 937
Bakemeripl., Helse v.ceccm, O64, 921. |/ Gills Revi. Dre W.-W... ones: 798, 799
Baracchi, Pietro, F.R.A.S. 157,259,265 | Gray, Geo., F.C.8. ..........65 87
(Bapnltavmnep et scocostacce cakes 991 Guay, Rev. Who Weeacs sere snare 833
Benson, A. H., M.R.A.C. ... 909 Griffith, Hon. Sir Samuel, $95
Best PASGON) .....c0scc0.vre0eeree 768 G.C.M.G., M.A.
Biggs, Pemeg baat scp riciewcinn lee nae Babe 57 Griffith, Rev. A. J., M.A. ... 1083
Blakemore; G: He .cc.ecccves 275 Grimshaw, J. W., M.I.C.E. 377
SLUTAMOM eye aGeearesisscwae veneer 272 Guanneye. bi He, BiCisreeccc an. 273
Bremran; ©: Ji, M.A%........- 1093; 1174:| Guthrie, F. B:, F:CuS occ... 339
Bripplepanks © ©. oi. cinscewes 361
Brown; Rev. Dr: Geo... ...... 778; 790 | Hall, Edgar, F-C:S.........cve. 307
iBrowiie Vie Jethro, ist,); .,. 884; 893: | Hall). ToS. 5 Miss. ccncccsmeene 401
Burge, C. O., M. Inst., C.E. 979 Hamilton, A Ge sceseceasoeies 557
Efamiillitons) Aes. cocsceseeneceneeee 834
Campbell, Hon. A., M.L.C. 1017 Hamlet, W. M., F.I.C. 273
Campbell, A. J., F.L.S.. 128, 578 | Hector, Sir James, K.C.M. & 57, 665
Campbell, Rev. John, iD: 838 M. De F.R.S.
Campbell, W. S., F. ine 958, 962 | Helms, Biv ace eee 962.
Cara NG AMIDE sae eis ose seca ne 840 Henry, Miss Teuira............ 800
Chapman, R. W., M.A., 241 inl Reva, Sassi Ate crite 1083
B.C.E. Hod ge; MisgiME, 5 ...0esocneees 1107
Cocks; Rev. N. J., M.A. ... 1084 Hogben; Geos, MAR ceeccsses 57
Corlette, Rev. J. C., D.D.... 894 | Hoga; E.G; Me At ns cases 109, 114, 356
Curran, Rev. J. M., F.G.S.. 366, 377 | Holtze, IN) dates oatee eee ener 566
a Howchin, Wis Be Gi Sesame caee 109, 114
David, Prof., B.A.,F.G.S. 109, 114, 361 | Howitt, A. W., Ei GSta asses 375, sil7es
DrAltony St: Hloy? .....:....0: 455 723
Deane, H., M.A., M. Inst., 977 Hutton, .. W., ERS... LOS M4 S40
C.E.
DeMissake AMi rn seectoanaceee tues. 885 Inglis, Captain Ate ns. .cecrose 241
Dev Wass. C. WERE AR sco. 128
Doherty, W. M. 5 dig OSS paone Ey a nae Jack, R. ti, BiGES:...20.5 109; Was soG
Dowling Is, Paacucs sense sese Jamieson, Sydney, M.B., 1052
PICT Vee aaaieae se onee aussie A M.R.C.S.
Dann yb).e diay BaGrSeciench snses 109, 114 | Johnston, R. M., F.L.S.. 109, 114, 873
Joseland, Howard ............ 1009
BllawAReva: Ss.cena-tn: caasusweceee 7i7
Bilerys Ry. Je, ChMiGs, KaddleseHaG2, Wake Mesh sce: 258
RUSH ERAT SS canthees 57 Kang, Hon. P; G.,, ME: 709
Jornistedstiis) Nae Sceadepsanpeanecoeos _840 Kortsome Ave Bi, He Grae sncenten 367

1116

Ika IDES ko socosonc wes
Kenibbs,G. Hs, ERAS. ...
Kyngdon, tb. Mon A. Gc.

Legge, Colonel W. V..........
Littlemore, Rev. Geo..........
Liversidge, Prof. A., F.R.S.
Wordserentys (Gea Oh eee
ovewebr Hei dmspNlaA. neers
Lucas, A. H. S., M.A., B.Sc.
Luehmann, J. G., F.L.S. ...

INlevoleims di, TEI 1WSIWE Sb onscod
Miler eral. IDs Wis, WES caacne
Mansfield, G. Allan............
Marceron, Monsieur D. .. ...
Marchant, F., M. Inst. C.E.
Martin, C. J., "D. Sc., M.B..

Martin, Miss | O aRenanticeka este
Mathews, R. H., L. Ss. Poe

Mingaye, J. C. H. 7 dGaskeag 3

Moncrieff, A. By. M. Inst.
C.E., M. Am. Soc. C.E.
Montgomery, A., M.A. ......
Mullins, Geo. Lane, M.D. ...
IMAI pines Daas sccessecieircnt
McClymont, J. R., M.A. ...
Macdonald, A. C., Rese
MacDonald, Rev. 1D ye, 1D),
Macdonald, Miss L., M.A.
MacDonald, T. F., M.B.

INFyavedley, UeENNES soponsocecon0e: ae
Newcomb, Miss H.C. ......

Oi Callaghan wViseACr narspcesitk
Ogilby, J. Douglas ............

IB EALSOM sp - Ace Nemtasccsmteenencces
Piddington, A. B., M.L.A..
Pittman, Hi FP.) ALR-S.M....

Ieee daly \/or JWACAIS cascoscee
Teta, JOS Worx IMIGJNS: Gdaconsonone
Prescott, Rev. C. J., M.A....

IRewolYonia, We ds oo soccosonosnd
Robins PaeAmse liebe Annee.
Rod Way. Que), scenes senses siscels\stovie

INDEX TO

109, 114
1054
482, 945
712
672, 682

. 759, 816

1093

oe Geile WS

994
1113

339, 947
594
109, 114
365
921
1093
1093

AUTHORS,

PAGE,
iRonaldsons Jonas aeeeseeteee 1012
Roseby, Rev, sav Ae LL.D. — 1083
Ross, W. J. Clunies, BSc. ., odo oor
Rowland, 12, 185. B.A., ee 1100, 467
Russell; H. €:, C.M.G., “57,268
TBS latnino tal e/ALSy

Riithning, Howl.) Be... cae 907
Schaw, Major-General, C.B. 244
Selman rots DC aeeeeeeeee 1114
Shellshear, W., M. Inst. C.H. 983
Shinleya Johny busCs eseseeee 569, 1067
Simpson, E. 8., B.E. ... .... 307
Skertchly, 8.B.J., B.Se....... 365
Siwy \iian, Boss Banacoadeon sete: 87
Smith, S. Percy, F.R.G.S.... 801
Smyth, ©. Hy Owenl--... ssc 989
SOUUAKEES AAMT ganasonoaonsnn ode 572
otienbes deteAe, da 1B Gen oonncnoabose 837
Swandemn, IB dls oageocccons codec 366
Steel, T., F.C.8., F.L.S. ... 334, 664,
946
Stirling Jens. coceacos sree 109, 114

Stirling, E. C., C.M.G., 128
F.R.S.

Stokes. EEG. \..cceeveeeceeree 401
Sulman, John, F.R.1.B.A.. 995
Sweet, cl yf EG Sco asm 109, 114, 361
Tate, Prof. Ralph, F.G.S. ... 109, 114,
544, 553
Thiele, Fs, ELS Aecesoeenc ee 790
AUmvoyrasorn, (Gis Wl scocreanons6ac 576

Thompson, J. Ashburton, 1040
M.D.

Phorm aWiscsscneaec eee 367
Threlfall, Prof. R., M.A. ... 176, 245
Tidswell, Frank, M.B. ...... 1058
atietikenss Wee Elegeea sees saat 682
(Me CruIIE Vals WN IRSIUESS canccosee 493

Todd, Sir Chas., K.C.M.G., 57
F.R.S., M.A.
Turner, F., F.L.S., F.R.H.S. 909, 910

Walker, a i APR me aractionaac 904
W aller. OW «5 s.ctuaccorserenteneee 907

ae 953
W ilson, Gregg, M.A., D.Sce.. 664

fotoy)

INDEX TO SUBJECTS.

INDEX TO.SUBJECTS

Aborigines, Pictorial Art of the Australian ... wen set
Aborigines of Tasmania and Australia, Origin of the

Acetylene, as an illuminant : 5

Address by the President

,, President—Section A ...
3° bb ] 9 C ae
be) be) 9 D os
33 9? be] K =e
” ” ” F oo
be] bP) 3) G oe
”> ” 99 H Wh
i - - 1 eee Ea"

Agricultural Chemistry, Advances in ..
Agriculture and aearate State aid to
Algae of Victoria . . -
Aluminum ...
American Association Advancement of Science
Amusements, Old Samoan % o0
Analyses of some New South W ales Phosphatic Minerals ...
Analysis (Chemical) of Soil and its Productiveness .
;, of Milk, in Butter and Cheese Industries ...
Anatomical and Pathological Tissues, a New Pr eservative..
Ancients, Chemistry of the es Nee nab sin oot
Andreé’s Aerial V oyage to the North Pole
Antarctic and Southern Exploration ...
Anthopographic Notes on the Tannese
Araneidz, Range of Vision in some wae age
Architecture and the Allied Arts in New South Wales
Argon,
Artesian Water- bearing Beds of New South Wales .
Artificial Diamonds and Gems ...
3 Indigo ... ;
Asia, Pleistocene History of Northern
Asterium on
Astronomy and Terrestrial Physics
Australasian Association..
Australia, Scientific Expedition to Central... ae
a Nests and Eggs of the oes -eaters or r Meliphagous

Birds of

ae Remarks on Central.

Australian Benefactions to Science
7 Birds, Vernacular Names of ;
ae Cave Paintings, Rock Carvings, &e. :
os Fishes, Notes explanatory of an Exhibit of some
5 », Sight and Smell-feeding in “
a Fungi, a Statistical Account of

ts Initiation Ceremonies wire ace Boe wes

1117

128

".. 837, 838, 840
663

664
482
777

1118 INDEX TO SUBJECTS.

Australian Loranthacee, Host plants of some

a Oceanography, a Contribution to ...
aa Plants, Fertilization of some

3 Plants, Models of some ...

ig Railways, Compared with Canadian
an Teniopteridez, Notes on the

ne Tribes, Indian words used by

Bacteria, Chemical effects of, in Agriculture ..

Bacteriology i in Relation to Australian Dairying :

Barometric Methods, the Determination of Heights by

Bathurst, Flora of.. oe a sis

Bdellium of Scripture, The =

Bee-Life, Influenced by Colour of Flowers

Benefactions to Science, Australian

Bibliography of Fulzurites :

Biological Station and Fish Hatchery, ‘Dunedin

Birds of Australia, Nests and Eggs of the Honey-eaters
,, Wernacular Names of Australian

Brains of Marsupials and the Physiology of the Brain

British Association, Objects and Organisation

Broken Hill, Metallurgical Methods at

Buildings, Ornamental Treatment of Iron and Steel in

3 Construction, Past and Present, in ev eney
Bureau of Ethnology in ‘Australasia, Proposal for a..

Catalogue of Scientific Literature, Delegates...
rp International
Resolutions

3)

Cave Paintings, Australian:
Central Australia, Scientific Expedition to
53 Glacial Boulders in. ‘

Ceremonies, Australian (Aboriginal) Initiation
Cereplastes Rubens, Colouring Matter of
Chemistry, Agricultural...

- of the Ancients

The Teaching of

Chemical Elements, Some New..

PA 56 Abe ansparency under xX Rays

5 Society .. ‘
Chemical Analysis ‘of Soil, ‘and its Productiveness ...
Chloridising and Lixiviation at Broken Hill .
Chloridising Roast, in Russell Process
Classical Study in Education, The Function of
Cloud Observations in Victoria..
Coal-mining in New South Wales :
Coccids, Points of Interest in the Structure of certain
Colour of Flowers, Its Influence on Bee-Life ..
Colour Photogr: aphy sc
Colouring Matters in Wines ..
Comparison of Australian with Canadian Railw ays ..
Concentration of Ores at Broken Hill .
Consumable Wealth
Criminal Responsibility ...

Dairying, Bacteriology in Relation to ...
B Analysis of Milk j :

52

. 837, 838, 840
1D) 109
109
777
273

INDEX.TO SUBJECTS.

Democracy and the Voice of History a:
Dialectical Changes of the Indv- Polynesians ..
Diamonds and Gems, Artificial .. ; eae
Diffusion of Metals

Dust, ‘‘ Red-Rain”

Earthquakes, Tables of Intercolonial .

Economic Entomology

Economics, The Practical Application of '
Education, The place of Museums in University
The Permanent Place of Literature in

Bh The Function of Classical Study in

33 Socialism in ...

ng The Financial Aspects of Secondary

A The State and Secondary ... 0
os Scientific Methods as Ne to Modern
Pe Is there a Science of

3 Teaching versus

State Technical, by a ‘Sy stem of Payment ae Results...

Educational Experiment, A New

Kfatese, The Mythology of the..

Eggs and Nests of the Honey-eaters

Hlectrical Properties of Puritied Sulphur
Electrolyte, Molecular Mechanism of an

Elder, Sir Thomas, Benefactions to Science ...
Emex Australis, Note on

Engineering Experiences (Railway) :

Entomology i in Western Australia, Applied ..

Ethics to Political Economy, The Relation of :
Ethnology, in Australasia, Proposal for a Bureau of
Hriococcus Coriaceus, Colouring matter of
Eucalyptus, Characters of : os

Hucalyptus Pulverulenta in Victoria

Kvolution and Sociology...

Explosives, Notes on the Action of certain

Fact and Idea
Farmers’ Institutes J a: “iis

93 Weights and Measures" oe ce Ate wie
Federal Union, The Advantages ofa. ...
Federation and Responsible Government

5 of British Australasia, The

Feeding, in Australian Fishes by Sight and Smell .

ae of Working Horses, The Economic .
Felspar from Mt. Anakies (Vic.), Oligoclase ...
Fijians, The Disappearance of . 500 a
Fire, Notes on the recent Melbourne sie
Fish Hatchery and Biological Station, Dunedin
Fishes, Notes Explanatory of, an Exhibit of some Australian

» sight and Smell- feeding i in Australian
Flora of the Islands of Torres Strait

», Of Bathurst..

Flowers, Influence of Colour of, ‘on Bees in side
Fodder Plants, Native and Imported, Experiments with ...
Forestry in New South Wales ...
Freedom, English Theories of Individual
Fruit- trees, The Propagation of..

273

... 523, 587, 544
iy 517

1113
988

1093
962
956
893
894
904
664
953
379
790
995
576
663
664
423
467
937
945
958

1083
909

1120 INDEX TO SUBJECTS.

Fulgurites in Sand Hills at Kensington and Bondi, N.S. W.

Fungi, Australian and Tasmanian, Underground

Galls, The Growth of Vegetal ...
Gases, Liquefaction of —
Gems, Artificial ... tes Nee ae oe
Geodetic Purposes, Steel and Iron Standards for
Geographical Discovery, 1837 to 1897...
ne Knowledge of the Polynesians...
Geography, Submarine ... sis ie
Geology of Portions of Western Australia
a Mount Kosciusko, Contributions to the
5 the Cow Flat District
Glacial Action in Central Australia
is Victoria :
i South Australia
Government Assistance to A.A.A.S.
Graminez of Western Australia :
Grotesque in the Modern Picturesque ...

Hamilton, Sir Robert George Cruickshank, Obituary Note

Harmonics, Four Theorems in Spherical sae ;
Health Legislation in Australia ..

5, (Public) and Tuberculosis Rs ee a
Heights, Barometric, Methods for the Determination of
Helium 6 is wa 2G pac ae 66
History upon English Literature, Influence of English
Honey-eaters, Nests and Eggs of the Australian
Horn, W., Scientific Expedition to Central Australia
Horses, The Economic Feeding of Working ... ec
Hospital Construction and Lay Management...

Host Plants of Some Australian Loranthacez
Hydro-carbons, Origin of ;
Hysteresis, Magnetic

Idealism in Ethics and Religion
Idea and Fact... ie aa:
Imperial Institute, Progress of the
Invitation by Mayor of San Francisco nas
International Catalogue of Scientific Literature
9 95 A Delegates
» ” % Resolutions
Indigo, Artificial ... ic ae te cto
Indigenous Plants, N.W. portion of Victoria
Indo-Polynesians, Dialectical Changes of the
Indian Words used by Australian Tribes
Industry, State Aid to Agriculture and
Institutes, Farmers’ ~ ERs es nas
Iron, Ornamental Treatment of, in Buildings

Jenolan Caves, Phosphatic Deposits in the

Laboratory (Chemical) Contrivances, Some Simple ...
Laryngeal Nerve, Transplantation of the Recurrent
Languages, The Oceanic Family of _...

Legislation in Australia, Public Health

Lepra in Australia, History and Prevalence of

482, 488
575

INDEX TO SUBJECTS...

Liquefaction of Gases...
Literature, International Catalogue of Scientific
Lixiviation and Chloridising at Broken Hill
- of Silver by the Russell Process
Life on the Earth, Early... :
Loranthacee, Host plants of some Australian.
Lizards in the Pacifie, Distribution of..
Literature, Influence of English History upon ‘English
A on Education, the Permanent Place of .

Magnetic Force and Hysteresis.

Manganese Nodules, Onybyg eeabalt

Maori, Some Customs and Superstitions of the

Metals, Diffusion of ; Fs

Metallurgical Methods, at Broken Hill

Mesquit Tree and its Sweet Pods

Measures and Weights, The Farmers .

Minerals, Canadian and Cape: ... ie ne ath Ro

Mineral Waters of Australasia, Report of Research Committee on
thes), 0 Soe

Mineral Deposits, W.A..

Milk Analysis in relation to Butter and Cheese

Mining in New South Wales, Coal _..

Miraculous Cures in Modern Days, The Rationale of

Molecular Mechanism of an Electrolyte

Morphology and Physiology during the last itty years, Relations
between

Mt. Kosciusko, Geological Reconnaissance on

Museums in University Education, The Place of

Mythology of the Efatese, The... :

Native Races The Disappearance of
New Zealand, Scientific Societies

AF Earthquakes in ...
New Hebrides, Anthropographic Notes on the Tannese
New Hebr ides, Earthquakes in.
New South Wales, Tr izonometrical Surv ey of

Fulgurites ...

Nests and Eggs of the (A ustralian) Honey- eaters
Nerve, Transplantation of the Recurrent Laryngeal
New Guinea and New Britain ... :

‘3 The Discovery of, by D "Abreu ...
Nitrogen, in Crystalline and Sedimentary Rocks ae
Nietzsche, Friedrich—Principles of ... chk Ba a a
North Pole, Andrée’s Aerial Voyage to the ... Noe sks ae

Oatmeal, Estimation of Wheatmeal in, by a Gravimetric Process
Oceanography, a Contribution to Australian
Oceanic Family of Languages, The _...
Oligoclase Felspar from Mount Anakies (Vie)
Onybygambah, Manganese Nodules found at..
Origin of Hydrocarbons .. c
,, the Aborigines of Tasmania and Australia

Ore Treatment at Broken Hill .

;, Deposits of the Silver Spur
Ornithology, Economic ...
Ornamental Treatment of Iron and Steel

4B

1095

1122 INDEX TO SUBJECTS.

Pacific, Distribution of Lizards in the...
Parker, Prof. T. Jeffrey, the Work of...
Peripatus and Land Planarians, Notes on
Phosphatic Deposits
Minerals
Photography, Colour
Physics, Terrestrial :
Physiography of the parish of St. George, New South Wales
Physiology, ‘The Relations between Mor phology and
s. of the Brain, Remarks on the
Picturesque, the Grotesque i in the Modern
Pine-trees of New South Wales
Plants, Models of some ...
,, Experiments with Fodder
;, of the Rabbit-infested Country, Queensland
», indigenous to the N.W. of Victoria ..
», of some Australian Lorarthacee, Host
» Fertilization of some Australian
ms North 44
the Temperature of 7
Pleistocene History of Northern Asia .
Podocarpus, Notes on the Histology of
Political Economy, An introduction to :
Pe the Relation of Ethics to.
Poly: nesians- -Indo, Dialectical Changes of the..
Geographical knowledge of the ...
President’s Address one
Section A ‘157, C 340, D 403, E 665, F 12a; G
873, H 967, OMe le OGie
Professors, Proportion of, to number of Students
Proteacex, Peculiarities of the Flowers of the Order
Provincial Scientific Societies and Institutions
Psychology of Attention, the

Queensland, Plants of the Rabbit-infested Country...
a Tick, Suggested Preventives ae

Rabbit-infested Country, Queensland, Plants of the
Railways, A Comparison of Australian with Canadian

4 Construction of Unballasted Lines..

30 Engineering Experiences...

ae Extension in Australia (commercially considered)
an Narrow Gauge : as a
9 Steel Viaduct to replace Timber

Rain-gauges, Results from Various-sized =
Rarotonga, concerning ‘‘Unga” as a term for Slave in
“Red Rain” Dust :

Religion and Ethics, Idealism in

Reflecting Surfaces, The Testing of

Research, Courses of, in Universities ...

Research Committee, Report of Seismological

90 55 os Thermo- dynamics of Voltaic Cell.

OF a es Mineral Waters of Australasia

39 nA a8 Occurrence of Glacial Boulders,
Central Australia ie

y a A Glacial Action in, South Australia

56 ne 45 Vernacular Names of Australian

Birds

INDEX TO SUBJECTS.

Rocks, from Mount Koscuisko, Notes on

;, Notes on some New South Wales

», Nitrogen in ‘
Rock Carvings, Australian :
Rontgen Rays, Transparency of Minerals to .
Russell Process of Silver-lixiviation ...
Russell, P. N., Gift to Engineering School

Samoan Amusements, Old A

Sandstone, Notes on Prismatic ...

Savage, The Life History of a ...

Science, Australian Benefactions to
Scientific Societies (Australasian), Provincial.,

53 Literature, International Catalogue of
” » 36 Delegates Lon
aS Resolutions

Sedimentar vy Rocks, Nitrogen in

Seismological Research Committee, Report of

Sight- and Smell- feeding in Australian Fishes

Silver Lixiviation by the Russell Process ‘ ae

Slave in Rarotonga, Concerning ‘‘ Unga” as a term for
Small-pox and Vaccination in New South Wales, History of
Socialism in Education ide « foe
Sociology and Evolution .. ee

Soil, Chemical Analysis of and its Productiveness ..,

Solenoids, Magnetic Force in Interior of :

South Australia, Earthquakes in, 67; Glacial Action it in, 114; - Tides of
South Pacific, A Female Hermit of the (and her Song)
State Aid to Agriculture and Industry P

Steel, Ornamental Treatment of in Buildings.

Submarine Geography...

Sulphur, Electrical Properties of Purified

Superstitions and Customs of the Maori, Some

Sydney, Periodic Waves at

Teniopteridexe, Notes on the Australian wa se
Tannese, Anthopographic Notes on the
Tasmanian Graptolite Record, An Examination of the
Tasmania, Earthquakes in ‘ ws

3 Origin of the Aborigines of.

HA Under ground Fungi of
Tattooing, Tahitian and Hawaiian
Teaching of Chemistr y
Temperature of Plants
Terrestrial Physics
Thermo-Dynamics of the Voltaic Cell ..
Theories of Individual Freedom, English
Ticks (Queensland), Suggested Preventives sae
Tides of South Australia ..
Tide-predicting Machine, A
Tin, Early History of ...
Tissues, Anatomical and Pathological, “New Preservative
Torres Straits, Flora of the Islands of :
Transparency of the Chemical Elements to X Rays...
Trees, The Propagation of Fruit ":
Tribes, Vocabularies of the Geelong and Colac
Trigonometrical Survey of New South Wales

1123

1124 INDEX TO SUBJECTS.

Tuberculosis and the Public Health
Tubes, Expression for the Flow in

“* Unga ” as a term for Slave in Rarotonga
University Education, The Place of Museums in

Vaccination in New South Wales, History of Small-pox and
Vegetal Galls, The Growth of we :
Vertical motions of the Air
Victoria, Algze of . ;

» Cloud Observations in

>, Harthquakes in fe

> Mucalyptus Pulver ulenta i Tiny Gar

», Oligoclase Felspar in ...

» Plants indigenous to the N. W. portion of.
Vision in some Araneide, Range of
Vocabularies of the Geelong and Colac Tribes.
Voltaic Cell, Thermo-Dynamics of the ee
Von Mueller, Baron Ferdinand. His Work...

Water-bearing Beds of New South ge Artesian
», of the Water-Vine 7
Waves, Source of Periodic
Wealth, Consumable ;
Weights and Measures, The Farmers’. st
Western Australia, Applied Entomology ime
- 5 The Graminee of .. ie
me ts; 3 The Salsolacee of..
The supposed Poisonous Plants of
Western Australia, Geology and Mineral Deposits ...

Wheatmeal in Oatmeal, Estimation of, by a Gravimetric Process...

Wheats, The Making and Improvment of Australian
Wind-vane, showing vertical motions of Air...
Wine Culture in New South Wales
Wines, Australian as sien
5, Colouring matters of

Zinc Recovery at Broken Hill ...

LIST OF MEMBERS. 125

LIST OF MEMBERS.

SYDNEY, 1898 SESSION.

An asterisk is placed against the names of Original Members (1888, Sydney
Session),

*Abbott, W. E.—Wingen, New South Wales.

Adams, J. H. M.—Athenzeum Club, Sydney.

Adams, P. F.—‘‘ Casula,” Liverpool, New South Wales.
*Adams, W. J.—163 Clarence-street, Sydney.

*Agnew, Sir J. W., M.D., M.L.C., K.C.M.G.—Hobart, Tasmania.
Alexander, Miss L, H.—467 Chapel-street, S. Yarra, Melbourne.
*Allen, James—‘‘ Arana,” Clyde-street, Dunedin, New Zealand.

Allen, J. Bernard, B.Sc.—The University, Adelaide.

“eee J. Witter, L.S.—Acting Chief Surveyor, Lands Department,

sydney.

Anderson, Dr. C. M.—Christchurch, New Zealand.

Anderson, Gilbert—Christchurch, New Zealand.

Anderson, H. C. L., M.A.—161 Macquarie-street.

*Anderson, Prof. F., M.A.—The University, Sydney.

Andrews, E. C., B.A.—Rocky Point Road, Rockdale, Sydney.
*Angas, Hon. J. N., M.L.C., Collingrove, South Australia.

Ashworth, Dora A.—c/o Mrs. Roseby, Longueville, Lane Cove River,

Sydney.

Ashcroft, Mrs. Edgar—Newcastle, New South Wales.

Ashcroft, Edgar—Newcastle, New South Wales.

Atkins, Mrs. W. L., B.A., ‘‘ Moira,” Belmore-street, Burwood, N.S. W.
*Atkinson, A. S.—Nelson, New Zealand.

Backhouse, His Honor Judge—‘‘ Melita,” Elizabeth Bay, Sydney.
Bailey, F. M., F.L.S.—Government Botanist, Brisbane, Q.
Bailey, J. F.—Assistant Government Botanist, Brisbane, Q.
Baines, A. H.-—Christchurch, New Zealand.
Baker, Richard T., F.L.S.—Technological Museum, Sydney.
Banerlen, Wm.—Technological Museum, Sydney.
*Baracchi, Pietro, F.R.A.S.—Government Astronomer, Melbourne, Victoria.
*Barft, H. E., M.A.—The University, Sydney.
Barlow, J. B., Lyndhurst Chambers, 84 Elizabeth-street, Sydney.
Barnes, C. H., care of F. Doswell, Adelaide, S.A.
Barraclough, Henry 8.— ‘‘ Lansdowne,” Bayswater Road, Darlinghurst,
Sydney.
Beech Wm. F.—George-street, Bathurst, New South Wales.
Bavin, T. R., B.A., LL.B.—Wigram Chambers, Phillip-street, Sydney.
Beale, C. G.—109 Pitt-street, Sydney.
Beetham, George—Wellington, New Zealand.
*Belfield, A. H.—Dumaresque, New South Wales.
Bellemey, Rich. Thos., M.P.S.—151 King-street, Sydney.
Benson, A. H.—Department of Agriculture, Brisbane, Q.

1126 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Bergmack, A.—Auburn-street, Goulburn, New South Wales.
Bernstein, Ludivic, M.D., F.R.S.E., F.C.S.—Lismore, Richmond River,
New South Wales.
Bick, Wm. Chas.—Toowoomba, Queensland.
*Black, J. G., M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Chemistry, Otago University,
Dunedin, N.Z.
Blackburn, Rey. Thos., M.A., ‘‘ Woodville,” Adelaide, S.A.
Blackburn, Mrs., ‘‘ Woodville,” Adelaide, S.A.
Blake, Charles—Secretary Pharmacy College, Brisbane.
*Blakemore, G. H.—96 Glenmore Road, Paddington, Sydney.
*Blashki, Aaron—169 Clarence-street, Sydney.
Blunno, M.—Department of Agriculture, Sydney.
Borthwick, Alexander, junr., Botany Road, Alexandria, N.S.W.
Bothwick, Dr. T., Kensington, Adelaide, S.A.
Boyd, R, J. (Sec.), Sydney University Engineering Society, The Univer-
sity, Sydney.
Brereton, V. Le Gay, Tattersall’s Chambers, Hunter-street, Sydney.
Bridges, Major W. T., Victoria Barracks, Paddington, Sydney.
Brittlebank, C. C., ‘‘ Dunbar,” Myrniong, Victoria.
*Brown, H. Y. L., F.G.S.—Government Geologist, Adelaide.
Brown, Prof. W. Jethro, M.A., LL. D.—Law School, University Chambers,
Phillip-street, Sydney.
*Brage, Prof. W. H., M.A.—The University, Adelaide.
Brennan, Miss 8S. O.—448 Pitt-street, Sydney.
Brennand, H. J., B.A.—Bank of N.S.W., Haymarket, Sydney.
Brothwood, H. 8., J.P.—291 Parramatta Road, Leichhardt, Sydney.
*Brown, Hy. J.—Solicitor, Newcastle, N. S. Wales.
Brown, Rev. Geo., D.D.—Gordon Road, Gordon, N.S.W.
“Burge, C. O., M. Inst. C.E.—‘‘ Fitzjohns,” Alfred-street, N. Sydney.
Burkitt, W. A. H., M.B., B.A.—Goulburn, N. S. Wales.
~ Burkitt, Mrs. Kate H.—Claremont House, Goulburn, N. S. Wales.
Burne, Alfd., D.D.S.—1 Lyons Terrace, Liverpool-street, Sydney.
Burnell, 8. C.—Department of Mines, Sydney, N.S.W.
“Burns, Jas.—10 Bridge-street, Sydney.

“Calvert, J. J.—Clerk of Parliaments, Sydney.

Cameron, Donald—Grammar School, Ipswich, Queensland.

Cameron, W. E., Geological Survey Office, Queen-street, Brisbane.
*Campbell, A. J., F.L.S.—Elm Grove, Armadale, Victoria.
*Campbell, J. H.—Royal Mint, Sydney.

*Campbell, Hon. Allan, M.D., M.L.C., Adelaide, S.A.

Cape, A. J., M.A.—Edgecliffe Road, Woollahra, Sydney.

Card, G. W.—Mines Department, Sydney.

Carey, G. A. D., State School, Crescent Lagoon, Queensland.

Carleton, Henry Richard, ‘‘ Tarcoola,” Nelson-street, Woollahra, Sydney.
Carment, David.—A. M. P. Society, 87 Pitt-street, Sydney.

Caro, Miss Hilda, B.A.—‘‘ Melrose,” Queen-street, Woollahra, Sydney.
Carson, The Rev. James.—Presbyterian Church, Junee, N. 8S. Wales.
Carter, H. J.—Sydney Grammar School, Sydney.

Carter, H., ‘‘ Nyrangie,” Gladesville, Sydney.
*Castner, J. L.—Box 195, G.P.O., Sydney.

Caterer, T. A., St. Peter’s College, Adelaide, S.A.

Caterer, Mrs., St. Peter’s College, Adelaide, S.A.

*Catlett, W. H., F.L.S., F.R.G.S.—Burwood-street, Burwood, N. S. Wales.
Chalmers, 8. D.—18 Albert Parade, Ashfield, Sydney.

Chalmers, N., Railways Construction Branch, Sydney.

*Chambers, John—‘‘ Mopopeka,” Hastings, Hawkes Bay, N.Z.
Cheeseman, T, J.—Auckland, New Zealand.

LIST OF MEMBERS. WD

*Chilton, C., M.A., D.Sc, F.LS.—-17 Melville Terrace, Edinburgh,
Scotland.
*Chisholm, Ed., M.R.C.S.—82 Darlinghurst Road, Sydney.
“Chisholm, W., M.D.—139 Macquarie-street North, Sydney.
Christie, Geo., F.S.A.A.—-Messrs. George Christie & Co., 133 Pitt-street,
Sydney.
Clark, C. A. Dagnall, M.B, L.R.C.P., Walker-street, North Sydney.
Clark, M. Symonds, Knightsbridge, Adelaide, S.A.
Clarke, W. H. (Editor), Agricultural Gazette, ’ Department of Agriculture,
Sydney.
Clarke, Miss Marion—Abbotsleigh, Parramatta, N. 8S. Wales.
Cobb, N. A., Pymble, North Shore, Sydney.
Cocks, The Rev. N. J., M.A., Kogarah, Sydney.
Cocks, Arthur N.
*Colenso, Rev. W.—Napier, New Zealand.
*Colley, D. J. K.—Royal Mint, Sydney.
“Collins, A. S.—Christchurch, New Zealand.
Collison, Miss Edith, ) ,- as aa ny,
@bilicons Miss ey 171 Jeffcott-street, North Adelaide.
Collison, C.M., Adelaide, S.A.
Combs, Miss Alice H. —Glanmire Hall, Glanmire, N.S. W.
Comrie, Jas.—Kurrajong Heights, N. S.W.
Cook, W. E., M.E.—District Engineer, Metropolitan Board of Water
Supply and Sewerage, Sydney.
Cook, Miss, Advanced School for Girls, Adelaide, S.A.
Cooke, C. J.—Napier, New Zealand.
Cooper, Dr. Lilian V., L.R.C.P., L.R.C.8., L.F.P.S.—George-street,
Brisbane.
Corlette, Rev. J. C., D.D.—Ashfield, Sydney.
Cormack, Donald, care of James Sandy & Co., 330 George-street.
*Coutie, W. H., M.B.—‘‘ Warminster,” New Canterbury Road, Petersham, -
Sydney.
Coutts, Mrs. Janet, ‘‘ Crotona,’” Queen-street, Woollahra, Sydney.
Cox, Henry—29 Parkes-street, Camperdow1 , Sydney.
*Crago, W. H., M.R.C.S.—34 College-street, Sydney.
Craig, A. W., "M. A.—77 Peel-street, North ‘Melboumne:
Cran, John, Yengarie, Queensland.
*Crane, AG W. 375 Pitt- street, Sydney.
Cribbs BS MELA. Ipswich, (Queensland,
“Cruikshank, Wm. D.—Marine Boar d, Customs House, Sydney.
* Crummer, H. 8. W.—51 Upper William-street South, Sydney.
Cudmore, Mrs., Glen Osmond, Adelaide, S.A.
Curran, Rey. J. Milne, F.G.8. "557 Elizabeth- street, Sydney.

*Dallen, Robt. A.—The University, Sydney.
Dalmas, Miss L., Church-street, Parramatta, N.S.W.
Dalton, W. E., Cavendish Chambers, Grenfell-street, Adelaide, S.A,
Danks, John—‘‘ Vermont,”’ South Melbourne, Victoria.
Darley, C. W.—M. Inst.C.E., J.P.—Australian Club, Sydney.
Darling, Miss, Surrey College, Surrey Hills, Melbourne.
Darling, Rev. F. A. , Surrey College, Surrey Hills, Melbourne.
_ Davenport, Sir Samuel, K.C.M.G., Beaumont, Adelaide, S.A.
eWavids Prot. le Wr i.,, BoA, a G.S.—The University, Sydney.
Davidson, We H.—Existing Lines Department, Sydney.
*Davis, Miss—‘‘ Yaxley,” Harrington-street, Marrickville, Sydney.
*Davis, Miss A. M. H., 26 Chandos-street, Ashfield, Sydney.
Davis, R. N.—207 Glebe Road, Sydney.
Day, Mark Cooper—9 Hunter-street, Sydney.

1128 LIST OF MEMBERS.

*Deane, H., M.A., M.Inst.C. E.—Railways Department, Sydney.
Deane, Mrs. H.—Wybalena Road, Hunter’s Hill, Sydney.
Deck, John Field, M.D., Ashfield, Sydney.
De Lissa, Alfred—Denman Chambers, Phillip-street, Sydney.
*Dendy, Prof. A., F.L.8.—Christchurch, New Zealand.
Denniston, His Honor Justice—Christchurch, New Zealand.
Department of Mines and Agriculture—Sydney.
Devenish, A. S., The University, Adelaide, S.A.
Dey, Rev. Robert—Editor The Christian World, 301 Pitt-street, Sydney.
Dick, Jas. A., M.D.—‘‘ Catfoss,” Belmore Road, Randwick, Syduey.
Dick, Robt., M.B., Ch.M., D.P.H.—‘“‘ Catfoss,” Belmore Road, Randwick,
Sydney.
*Dixon, 8., The Royal Exchange, Adelaide, 8.A.
“Dixon, W. A., F.C.S.—Technological College, Sydney.
Dixson, Hugh—‘‘ Abergeldie,” Old Canterbury Road, Summer Hill,
Sydney.
Dixson, Thos., M.B.—283 Elizabeth, Hyde Park, Sydney
Dobbie, A. H. —Gawler Place, Adelaide, S.A.
*Dobbie, A. W.—Gawler Place, Adelaide, S.A.
Dobson, Ed., C.E.—Christchurch, New Zealand.
“Docker, His Honor Judge, E.B., M.A.—‘‘Carhallen,” Granville, Sydney.
Doherty, W. M., F.C.S., Government Laboratory, Sydney.
Downe, Geo.—Locomotive Superintendent of Tramways, Randwick,
Sydney.
Downer, Miss, Kilkenny, near Adelaide, S.A.
Downs, Miss Helen E.—Girls’ Grammar School, Rockhampton, Queensland.
Duckworth, Arthur—A.M.P. Society, Pitt-street, Sydney.
Dudley, Uriah, F.G.S.—The White Rock Silver Mine, Ltd., Drake,
N.S. W
Dun, W. S. —Geological Survey Office, Department of Mines, Sydney.
Dunstan, Alfred J.—‘‘ Erdington,” Cr oydon, Sydney.
“Dunstan, Benj., F:G.8. —Geographical Survey Office, Brisbane.
Durack, J.—St. John’s College, Camperdown, Sydney.

*Edwards, Jas. R.—S Norwich Chambers, Hunter-street, Sydney.
Edwards, Mary i ‘actory Girls’ Club, Bathurst-street,
Sydney.
Edwards, T. Elford—Burke-road, Balwyn, Victoria.
Elkington, J.—84a Pitt-street, Sydney.
Ella, Rev. S.—‘‘ Rathmore,” Petersham, Sydney.
“Bllery, R. L. J., C.M.G., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.—The Observatory, Melbourne,
Victoria.
Hotta la: D., Elliott-street, Balmain.
*Eilis, John, gy. E., F. RulpBaAs —Kensing ton Chambers, 108 Pitt-street,
Sydney.
Elmes, A. E., State School, Rocklea, Queensland.
Elw ell, iP: B.. 51 Phillip-street, Sydney.
Engelhardt, Bruno G.—Public ‘School, Germanton, N.S. W.
Enys, J. D., F.G.8.—Enys Castle, Penryn, Cornw all, England (Life
Member).
“Etheridge, Robert—Curator, Australian Museum, Sydney.
*Kvans, Geo.—28 Castlereagh- street, Sydney.
Evans, Thos., M.R.C.S. —911 Macquarie- -street, Sydney.
*Evans, W.—Dunedin, New Zealand.

Fairfax, J. R.—S.M. Herald, Sydney.
*“Faithfal, Dr. R. L.—5 Lyons Terrace, Hyde Park, Sydney.
Harr} (C: "Coleridge, B.Sce,—Christchurech, New Zealand.

LIS? OF MEMBERS. 1129

Farrer, Wm., M.A.—‘‘ Lambrigg,” Tharwa, Queanbeyan, N.S. W.
Fealy, David, 49 Hunter-street, Sydney.
Fell, Miss—‘‘ Tallangetta,’’ Pymble, North Shore Line, Sydney.
Fell, Miss C. J.—‘‘ Tallangetta,” Pymble, North Shore Line, Sydney.
Fell, Mrs. Helen W.—‘‘ Tallangetta,” Pymble, North Shore Line, Sydney.
Ferguson, Jas.—Messrs. Watson and Ferguson, Queen-street, Brisbane.
Fewings, Miss E. A.—Grammar School, Brisbane.
Fiaschi, Thos., M.D.—149 Macquarie-street, Sydney.
*Fischer, Gustave, C.E.—Public Works Department, Sydney.
Fison, The Rev. Dr. Lorimer—‘‘ Nai-Kele-Kele,”’ Essendon, Melbourne.
Flashman, Dr. J. F., Parramatta, N.S. W.
Flavelle, A. E.—‘‘ Wellbank,” Concord, Sydney.
Flavelle, Miss Evie—‘‘ Wellbank,”’ Concord, Sydney.
Flavelle, Miss Katie—‘‘ Wellbank,”’ Concord, Sydney.
Fleming, D., 24 Buxton-street North, Adelaide, S.A.
*Fletcher, J. J.. M.A., B.Sc.—The Linnean Society, Elizabeth Bay,
Sydney.
Flower, Rev. Willoughby—St. Mark’s Rectory, Darling Point, Sydney.
Flower, Mrs. Willoughby—St. Mark’s Rectory, Darling Point, Sydney.
*Foreman, Jos., M.R.C.S.—141 Macquarie-street, Sydney.
Forsyth, William—Overseer, Centennial Park, Sydney.
Fowler, Thos. Walker, M.C.E.-—The University, Melbourne.
*Fraser, John, B.A., LL.D.—Birrell-street, Waverley, Sydney.
Freeman, \VWm.—Tamworth, N.S. W.
French, J. Russell—Manager, Bank of N.S. Wales, Sydney.
*Froggatt, Walter W.—Department of Agriculture, Sydney.
Furber, T. F., F.R.A.S., L.S.—Department of Lands, Sydney.

Gale, Albert—‘‘ Tredegar,” Sebastopol-street, Marrickville, Sydney.
Gardiner, Martin, M. Inst. C.E.—Hay and Barclay Streets, Perth, W.A.
Garland, Chas. L.—154 Phillip-street, Sydney.
*Garran, Hon. A., LL.D., M.L.C.—‘‘ Roanoke,” Roslyn Avenue, Darling-
hurst, Sydney.
Garran, R. R., B.A.—167 Phillip-street, Sydney.
George, Miss, Advanced School for Girls, Adelaide, S.A.
George, Miss M., Advanced School for Girls, Adelaide, 8.A,
Giles, Arthur, B.A.—Sydney Grammar School, Sydney.
*Goodlet, J. H., J.P.—Ashfield, N. S. Wales.
Gowing, Miss—‘‘ Yaxley,” Harrington-street, Marrickville, Sydney.
Grant, Robert—Medical School, University, Sydney.
*Gray, Geo., F.C.S.—Christchurch, New Zealand.
Greenelsh, J.—State School, Winton, Queensland.
Gregory, Hon. A. C., C.M.G., M.L.C.—Brisbane, Queensland.
Griffith, Rev. A. J,, M.A.—‘‘ Edderthorpe,” Birrell-street, Waverley,
Sydney.
*Griffith, Sir S. W., G.C.M.G., C.J.—Supreme Court, Brisbane.
Grimshaw, J. W., M. Inst. C.E., M.I. Mech. E.—Harbours and Rivers
Branch, Public Works Department, Sydney.
Gritton, H. B.—‘‘ The Cottage,” Balmain, Sydney.
*Gullett, Henry—S. MW. Herald Office, Sydney.
Gurney, E. H., F.C.S.—Department of Agriculture, Sydney.
Guthrie, F. B., F.C.S.—Department of Agriculture, Sydney.

Hall, T. S., M.A.—The University, Melbourne, Victoria.

Hall, W. R.—‘‘ Wildfell,” 10, Wylde-street, Potts’ Point, Sydney.
Hall, Sir John, K.C.M G., Hourata, Christchurch, N.Z.

Halligan, Gerald H.—Public Works Department, Sydney.

1130 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Hamilton, Alex. G.—Mt. Kembla, N. 8. Wales.
“Hamlet, Wm. M., F.I.C., F.C.S.—Government Analyst, George-street
N., Sydney.
Hardie, David, M.B.—Wickham Terrace, Brisbane, Queensland.
“Hargrave, Laurence—Stanwell Park, Clifton, N.S. Wales.
Hargrave, Miss—Stanwell Park, Clifton, N.S. Wales.
Hargrave, Mrs.—Stanwell Park, Clifton, N.S. Wales.
Harper, W. R.—‘‘ Burradoo,” Ashfield, Sydney.
Harpur, E. C., Brisbane House, Glebe Point, Sydney.
“Harris, Alderman John—‘“ Bulwara,” Ultimo, Sydney.
*Harrison, G. R.—Beecroft, N.S. Wales.
Harvey, J. H.—134 Powlett-street, E. Melbourne, Victoria.
* Haswell, Prof. W. A., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.—The University, Sydney.
Hawkins, W. E., Solicitor, 88 Pitt-street, Sydney.
* Hay, John, J.P., Crow’s Nest, North Sydney.
*Haycroft, J. T., C.E., M.E.—Ocean-street, Woollahra, Sydney.
Heath, Walter, M.A.—Taringa, near Brisbane, Queensland.
*Hector, Sir Jas., K.C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S., Wellington, N.Z.
Heden, Ernest E., ‘‘ Coromandel,” Hargrave-street, Paddington.
*Hedley, Chas., F.L.S.—Australian Museum, Sydney.
“Henderson, James—City Bank, George-street, Sydney.
Hickson, R. P., J.P., M. Inst. C.E.—Under Secretary for Public Works,
Sydney.
Higgin, A. J., School of Mines, Adelaide, S.A.
Hill, the Rev. Jas., M.A., Bourke-street, Surry Hills, Sydney.
*Hocken, Thos. M., M.R.C.S., F.L.S.,—Moray Place, Dunedin, N.Z.
Hockings, P. J., The Oaks, Montague Road, Brisbane.
Hodge, Miss Margaret—44, Craigend-street, Darlinghurst, Sydney.
Hodges, Charles H., M.A.—Headmaster, Townsville Grammar School,
Townsville, Q.
Hogben, Geo., M.A., Rector of High School, Timaru, N.Z.
Hogg, E. G., M.A.—Trinity College, Parkville, Victoria.
*Hogs, H. R., M.A.—16 Market Buildings, Flinders Lane, Melbourne,
Holding, Edwin—184 Darling-street, Balmain, Sydney.
*Holt, F. S. E., J.P.—Wyalong-street, Burwood, N.S. Wales.
Holtze, M. O., F.L.S., Comptroller, Botanic Gardens, Adelaide.
Houghton, T. H., 12 Spring-street, Sydney.
Howchin, Miss Stella, Stonycroft, Goodwood, S.A.
Howchin, Mrs. W., Stonycroft, Goodwood, $. A.
Howchin, W., F.G.S., Stonycroft, Goodwood E., Adelaide, S.A.
Howell, John—Managing Director, The Smelting Company of Australia,
Ltd., Sydney.
*Howitt, A. W., F.G.S.—Finch-street, East Malvern, Melbourne.
“Hume, J. K.—‘‘ Beulah,” Campbelltown, N.S. Wales.
*Hunt, Miss F., B.Sc. —Grammar School, Ipswich, Queensland.
Hunt, Henry A., Observatory, Sydney.
*Hutton, Captain F. W., F.R.S., F.G.S8.—Christchurch, N.Z.
Hyam, The Hon. S. H., M.L.C., J.P.—‘‘ Mascotte,” 6 Queen-street,
Woollahra, Sydney.

Illidge, Rowland, Crown Insurance Office, Brisbane.

Ingham, Miss E., Adelaide, 8.A.

Inglis, Capt., Custom House, Port Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia,
Inglis, Mrs. Alexander, Custom House, Port Adelaide, Adelaide, S.A.
*Ingram, Alex.—-Licensed Surveyor, Hamilton, Victoria.

Ingram, Edward—Book-Book, Wagga, N.S. Wales.

Irving, Jas., M.R.C.V.S8., Turbot-street, Brisbane.

*Jack, Mrs. R. L.—Imperial Hotel, Queen-street, Brisbane,

LIST OF MEMBERS. ¢ WSU

sade Ee L., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Government Geologist, Brisbane, Queens-

and.

Jack, Robert Lockhart —St. Andrew’s College, Camperdown, Sydney.

*Jacob, A. F.—Prospect Reservoir, Prospect, Sydney.

* Jaffray, J. W.—Engineer, Hay-street, Sydney.

James, Dr. Thos.—Moonta, South Australia.

*James, Miss H. 8.—C/o Col. Roberts, ‘‘ Trahlee,” Bellevue Hill, Sydney.

Jamieson, Sydney, B.A., M.B., Ch.M., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.—157 Liver-
pool-street, Syduey.

*Johnston, R. M., F.L.S., F.S.S.—Hobart, Tasmania.

*Jones, P. Sydney, M.D., F.R.C.S.—Hyde Park, Sydney.

Jones, J. E., State Schoul, Leichhardt-street, Brisbane.

Joseland, Howard —Billyard-street, Wahroonga, Sydney.

“Josephson, J. Percy, C.E.—Fitzevan Chambers, 28 Castlereagh-street,
Sydney.

“Kater, Hon. H. E., M.L.C.—‘ Cheverells,” Elizabeth Bay Road, Sydney.
Kayser, J., Mount Bischoff, Tasmania.
“Keep, John—‘‘ Broughton Hall,” Leichhardt, Sydney.
*Kelly, T. H.—18 O’Connell-street, Sydney.
Kelsey, Mrs., ‘‘ Dryburgh House,” Palm-place, Hackney, Adelaide, S.A.
Kelsey, Miss, ‘‘ Dryburgh House,”’ Palm-place, Hackney, Adelaide, S.A.
Kemp, Wm. Edward—Norwich Chambers, Hunter-street, Sydney.
Kennedy, J. E. H.—Survey Department, Bridge-street, Sydney.
Kennedy, T., L.S., M.Inst.C.E., Railways Construction Branch, Sydney.
Kenny, A. L., M.B., Ch. B.—87 Collins-street, Melbourne.
*Kent, H. C., M.A.—Bell’s Chambers, Pitt-street, Sydney.
*Kernot, Prof. W. C., M.A., C.H.—The University, Melbourne.
Kernot, W. N.—‘‘ Firenze,” Sydney Road, Royal Park, Melbourne.
Kerr, J. S.. Central State School, Brisbane.
Keys, James, Bundaberg, Queensland.
Kiddle, H. C., F.R.M.S.—Publie School, Seven Oaks, Smithtown,
Macleay River, N.S. Wales.
Killen, W. W.—Bull Plain, Corowa, N.S. Wales.
King, E. L., 126 Victoria-street N., Darlinghurst, Sydney.
King, E. M.—‘‘ Leura,” Launceston, Tasmania.
*King, Miss Georgina —‘‘ Montesca,” Beresford Road, Homebush, N.S.
Wales.
King, The Hon. P. G., M.L.C.—“ Banksia,” Double Bay, Sydney.
*King, W. S.—84a Pitt-street, Sydney.
Kitson, A. E.—Department of Mines, Melbourne, Vic.
Knaggs, Miss—5 Lyons Terrace, Hyde Park, Sydney.
Knaggs, Miss A.—5 Lyons Terrace, Hyde Park, Sydney.
Knaggs, Mrs. S. T.—5 Lyons Terrace, Hyde Park, Sydney. ~
*Knaggs, 8. T., M.D.—5 Lyons Terrace, Hyde Park, Sydney.
*Knibbs, G. H., F.R.A.S., L.S.—Hon. Sec. Royal Society of N.S.W., 5
Elizabeth-street, Sydney.
Knight, Rupert—Karoninia, Rewa, Fiji.
Knight, P., Medical School, University, Sydney.
*Knox, E. W., J.P.—5 O’Connell-street, Sydney.
*Knox, H. E.—‘‘ Fiona,” New South Head Rd., Woollahra, Sydney.
*Kyngdon, F, B., M.R.A.C.—Deanery Cottage, Bowral, N.S. Wales.

Laing, Geo., C.E.—Donald, Victoria.
Laing, R. M.—Christchurch, New Zealand.
*Lamont, Rev. James—The Manse, Kogarah, N.S. Wales.
Langmuir, J.—David-street, Caversham, Dunedin, New Zealand.
Latta, Miss F. M.—‘‘ Mountsea,” Burlington Road, Homebush, N.S.
Wales.

1as2 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Lawford, L. E.—Inspector of Schools, Wagga, N.S. Wales.
Lawrence, Chas. A.—Mutual Life Buildings, George and Wynyard streets,
Sydney.
Legge, Colonel W. V., R.A., Cullenswood, Tasmania.
*Lenehan, H. A.—The Observatory, Sydney.
Lennhoff, G., M.D.—120 Glebe Road, Sydney.
Levy, Juliuns—Angel Place, Pitt-street, Sydney.
Lewers, R. W.—The London Bank, 198 Sussex-street, Sydney.
Lidgey, E.—Cffice of Mines, Melbourne.
*Lingen, J. '[., M.A.—167 Phillip-street, Sydney.
Littlejohn, E. Sydney, B.A., M.D., C.M.—94 Darlinghurst Road, Sydney,
Littlemore, Rev. Geo.—Strathfield, Sydney.
*Liversidge, A., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.—The University, Sydney.
Lord, Henry, G.T.C.A.C.—Technical College, Sydney.
*Love, E. F. J.. M.A., F.R.A.S:—University, Melbourne.
*Lucas, A. H. 8., M.A.—Newington College, Stanmore, Sydney.
Ludovici, E.—Longueville, Lane Cove, Sydney.
Luehmann, J. G., F.L.S., National Herbarium, Melbourne.
Lyle, Prof. T. R., M.A.—University, Melbourne.
*Lyne, Charles E., Parliamentary Standing Committee, Public Works
Department, Sydney.

MacClymont, Professor Jas. R., M.A.—201 Macquarie-street, Hobart.
#*Macdonald, A. C., F.R.G.S.—31 Queen-street, Melbourne.
Macdonald, The Rev. D:, D.D.—280 William-street, Melbourne, Victoria.
Macdonald, Miss L., M.A.— Principal The Women’s College, Sydney.
Macdonald, Dr. T. F., F.R.G.S.—Geraldton, Queensland.
Macdonald, Miss A., Women’s College, Newtown, Sydney.
“MacDonald, Eben.—‘‘ Kamilaroi,” Darling Point, Sydney.
*MacLaurin, Hon. H. N., M.L.C., M.D., LL.D.—125 Macquarie-street,
Sydney.
Maclay, Lady M. De Miklonho, ‘‘ Argoo,” Waverley, Sydney.
Maddrell, Robt.—‘‘ Bedervale,” Braidwood, N.S. Wales.
*Madsen, H. F.—‘“‘ Hesselind House,’ Queen-street, Newtown, Sydney.
Magarey, W. A., ‘“‘ Eagle Chambers, King William Street, Adelaide, 8.A.
*Maiden, J. H., F.L.S.—Director Botanic Gardens, Sydney.
Maitland, A. G., F.G.S.—Government Geologist, W.A.
*Maitland, D.M., L.S.—District Surveyor, Armidale, N.S. Wales.
Maitland, Claud, Box 110, Kalgoorlie, W.A.
*Mann, John—Hon. Sec. The Royal Geographical Society of Australasia,
Sydney.
Mane ime ete M.—‘‘ Eurabah,” Ocean-street, Woollahra, Sydney.
Mansfield, G. Allan, F.R.I.B.A., ‘‘ Rothsay,” 39 Elizabeth Bay Road,
Sydney.
Mantell, eee W. W., A.C. P.—“ Bedford Grammar School,” Waverley,
Sydney.
Marchant, F. M., M.Inst.C.E.—Timaru, New Zealand.
Marden John, M.A., LL.D., Presbyterian Ladies’ College, Sydney.
*Marks, Percy J.— 80 Victoria-street, Darlinghurst, Sydney.
Martin, C. J., M.D., D.Sc.—University, Melbourne.
Martin, Geo., P.M.—Court House, Wagga, N.S. W.
Martin, Miss Florence—72a Phillip-street, Sydney.
Martin, Mrs. F. M., ‘‘ Weebar,” Drouin, South Gippsland, Victoria.
Mathews, R. H., L.S.—Licensed Surveyor, Parramatta, N.S. Wales.
Maughan, Miss, Advanced School for Girls, Adelaide, 8.A.
Maxwell, J. P., C.E.—Wellington, New Zealand.
Maxwell, Alfred Ernest, Nerigundah, N.S. W.
McAlpine, D.—‘‘ Ardeer House,” Armadale-street, Armadale, Victoria.

LIST OF MEMBERS. plays:

McAulay, Mrs.—‘‘ Bellerive,” Hobart, Tasmania.
McAulay, Prof. Alex.—‘“‘ Bellerive,” Hobart, Tasmania.
McCarthy, M. a Beckett, L.R.C.P., L.R.C.S.E., L.F.P.S.G., 0.M.,
F.R.M.S.—Summer Hill, Sydney.
McCoy, Sir F.—The University, Melbourne.
McCutcheon, J. W.—Royal Mint, Sydney.
McDouall, H. C., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.—Hospital for the Insane, Glades
ville, Sydney.
Mellwraith, Wm., Fhe Rockhampton Bulletin, Rockhampton, Q.
*McKellar, Hon. Chas. K., M.L.C., M.B.—‘‘ Dunara,” Wolseley Road,
Voollahra, Sydney,
*McKenny, H. G.—Athenzeum Club, Sydney.
McLachlan, John C.—Mutual Life Buildings, George and Wynyard Streets,
Sydney.
MeMillan, Wm., M.L.A., ‘‘St. Kilda,” Allison Road, Randwick, Sydney.
*Meares, Miss Matilda—‘‘ Riviere College,” Nelson-street, Woollahra,
Sydney.
Merfield, C. J.—Railways Construction Branch, Public Works, Sydney.
Merifield, Mrs. 8.—4 Nelson-street, Woollahra, Sydney.
*Miller, Robt.—72 Clarence-street, Sydney.
*Milson, Jas.—‘‘ Elamang,” Milson’s Point, Sydney.
*Mingaye, J. C. H., F.C.S.—Mines Department, Sydney.
Moncrieff, A. B., M.Inst.C. E., M.Am.Soc.C.E., Engineer-in-Chief, Govern-
ment Railways, 8. A.
*Montefiore, Miss C. L.—‘‘ Oak Lodge,” Trelawney-street, Woollahra.
Montefiore, Miss H.—‘‘Oak Lodge,” Trelawney-street, Woollahra, Sydney.
*Moore, Fred. H.—7 Gresham-street, Sydney.
*Moran, His Eminence Cardinal—St.. Mary’s Cathedral, Sydney.
*Morris, Wm., F.F.P.S.Glas., F.R.M.S.Lond.—5 Bligh-street, Sydney.
Morton, C. E.—Denham-street, Rockhampton, Q.
Morton, Alex., F.L.S., Curator, The Museum, Hobart.
*Mullens, Jos., F.R.G.S.—Shaftesbury Road, Burwood, N. S. Wales.
Mullins, Geo. Lane, M.D.—Hvde Park, Sydney.
*Munday, John, Kangaroo Point, Brisbane.
Munday, Mrs. J., Brisbane.
Murnin, Miss Elizabeth—‘‘ Hotel Metropole,” Sydney.
Murphy, M. V., L.S.—Survey Department, Bridge-street, Sydney.
Murray, David, Gawler Place, Adelaide, S.A.
Murray, C. E. R.—Nelson Bay Road, Waverley, Sydney.
Murray, Lee—65 Pitt-street, Sydney.
*Myles, Chas. H., J.P.—‘‘ Dingada,” Burwood, N. 8. Wales.

Nangle, James —S84 Elizabeth-street, Sydney.
Nardin, E. W., B.E., Mount Morgan Gold Mining, Co. (Ltd.), Mount
Morgan, Queensland.
Neischke, Dr. F. W., Franklin-street, Adelaide, S.A.
Newcomb, Miss Harriett C.—‘‘ Alton,” Bayswater Road, Darlinghurst,
Sydney.
Newman, Thos. H.—Peel-street, Tamworth, N. 8. Wales.
Nolan, J. H.—112 Walker-street, North Sydney.
Norris, Thos. H.—Ashley-street, Chatswood, N.S.W.
*Norton, Hon. A., M.L.C.—Milton, Queensland.
*Norton, Hon. Jas., LL.D., M.L.C.—2 O’Connell-street, Sydney.

O'Callaghan, M.A.—Department of Agriculture, Sydney.
O’Grady, T. A.—Grafton, N. 8. Wales.
O’Neill, Gregory L., M.B.—291 Elizabeth-street, Hyde Park, Sydney.

1134 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Ogilby, J. Douglas—Livingstone Road, Petersham, Sydney.
Owen, E. T., F.S.S., Registrar of Friendly Societies—Perth, W.A.

Parfitt, P. J.—Manager, Bank of New Zealand, Sydney.
*Parker (the late), Prof. T. J., D.Sc., F.R.S.—Dunedin, N.Z.
foes T. A., Traffic Audit Department, Victoria-square, Adelaide,
S.A.
Paterson, Hugh—197 Liverpool-street, Hyde Park, Sydney (Life Member).
Peden, J. B., B.A.—Vice-Warden, St. Paul’s College, Sydney.
Petrie, James M., 557 Elizabeth-street, Sydney.
Pharazyn, C.—Wellington, New Zealand.
*Phillips, Albert E.—Sandringham, Victoria.
*Phillips, Coleman—Wellington, New Zealand.
Phillips, H. W., Glenelg, Adelaide, S.A.
Piddington, A. B., M.L.A., 167 Phillip-street, Sydney.
*Piguenit, W. C.—‘‘ Saintonge,” Hunter’s Hill, Sydney.
Piper, W. G.—Editor, The Chemist and Druggist, 231 Elizabeth-street,
Melbourne.
*Pittman, Ed. F., A.R.S.M.—Government Geologist, Mines Department,
Sydney.
Platt, Jas..—Senior Inspector of Schools, Water-street, Brisbane.
*Plummer, John—Box 413, G.P.O., Sydney.
*Pockley, F. Antill, M.B., M.R.C.S.-—227 Macquarie-street, Sydney.
*Pollock, J. A., B.Sc.—The University, Sydney.
*Pollock, Hugh, B.A., LL.B., ‘‘ Redbank,” Darling Point, Sydney.
Poole, William, jun., A.M.I.C.E.—87 Pitt-street, Redfern, Sydney.
Pope, Roland J., M.D.—2385 Macquarie-street, Sydney.
Potts, H. W., F.C.S.—Euroa, Victoria.
Pound, C. J., M.R.M.S.—Government Bacteriologist, Brisbane.
“Prankerd, P. D., care of Italian Consul, Adelaide, 8. A.
Pratt, Fred. V., M.A.—The Manse, Katoomba, N.S. W.
Prescott, Rev. C. J., M.A.—Principal, Burwood Ladies’ College, Burwood,
Sydney.
Petetand: ©: B., M.A.—22 Mantell-street, Moonee Ponds, Victoria.
Pritchard, Mrs. G. B., 22 Mantell-street, Moonee Ponds, Melbourne.
Puckle, H. E. L.—N.S.W. Club, Bligh-street, Sydney.

*Quaife, F. H., M.A., M.D.—19 Queen-street, Woollahra, Sydney.

Rainbow, W. J.—Australian Museum, Sydney.

*Rands, W. H., F.G.S.—Assistant Government Geologist, Brisbane.
Rason, Commander Ernest, H.M.S. Royalist, Sydney.
*Rattray, Jas.—‘‘ Craighall,” Dunedin, New Zealand.
Rawlings, W. H., Grey-street, South Brisbane.

Read, John D.—‘‘ Bedooba,” Nymagee, N. 8. Wales.

Read, Miss Elizabeth J.—Exeter House, Moore Park, Sydney.
Reid, N.—‘‘ Yeolands,” Ben Boyd Road, Neutral Bay, Sydney.
Relton, R. H., care of Messrs. Perkins & Co., Brisbane, Q.
*Rennie, Professor KE. H., M.A., D.Sc., Adelaide, S.A.

Rennie, Geo., M.D.—16 College-street, Hyde Park, Sydney.
Richards, G. A., Rockhampton, Q.
“Richardson, R. P.—‘‘ The Lodge, Moss Vale, N. 8. Wales.
*Robertson, Geo.—83 Castlereagh-street, Sydney.
*Roberts, Sir Alfred, M.R.C.S.—147 Macquarie-street, Sydney.
Roberts, W. 8. de L.—‘‘ Kenilworth,” Penshurst, Sydney.
*Rochfort, James, C.E., Napier, N.Z.

Rodway, L.—Macquarie-street, Hobart, Tasmania,

LIST OF MEMBERS. 1135

*Roe, R. H., M.A.—Grammar School, Brisbane.
Roe, Mrs. Annie M.—Grammar School, Brisbane.
Ronaldson, J. H., 76 Pitt-street, Sydney.
Rosales, Henry—Grandview Grove, Armadale, Vic.
Roseby, Miss Minnie—Longueville, Lane Cove River, N.S. W.
Roseby, The Rev. Thos., M.A., LL. D., F.R.A.S.—The Parsonage, Marrick-
ville, N.S. W.
Rossbach, Wm., A.M.I.C.E.—Harbours and Rivers Branch, Public Works
Department, Sydney.
Ross, Colin J., B.E., B.Sc., A.M.I.C.E.—Town Hall, North Sydney.
Ross, Herbert E., B.Sc. —121 Pitt- street, Sydney.
“Ross, Wines Clunies, B.Sc.—Technical College, Bathurst, N.S. Wales.
Roth, Dr. Reuter H.-—40 College-street, Sydney.
Rougier, Dr. Emile— Rose Bay Lodge, Sydney.
*Rowe, tT, F.R.I.B.A.—Vickery’s Buildings, Pitt-street, Sydney.
*Rowsell, Ww. H.—8 O’Connell-street, Sydney.
*Rundle, Geo. E., F.R.C.S.—Rooty Hill, N.S. W.
*Russell, H. A., B.A.—379B George- street, Sydney.
“Russell, Has, B.A. SC 3MGss El R.A. SS: 5b. R.8.—The Observatory, Sydney.
“Russell, Mrs. H. C.—The Observatory, Sydney.
*Russell, Miss J. F., M.A.—The Observatory, Sydney.
*Russell, Miss E. L.—The Observatory, Sydney.
Riithning, H. L. E.—Queen-street, Brisbane, Q.

Sach, A. J., F.C.S.—Technical College, Goulburn, N.S. W.
Sach, Mrs. ‘A. J.—-Copford Farm, Kenmore, Goulburn, N.S. Wales.
Sallman, Wm. H.—327 Pitt- street, Sydney.
*Salomons, The Hon. Sir Julian, Q.C.—‘‘ Sherbourne,’
Woollahra, Sydney.
Sandes, F. P.—The University, Sydney.
Satchell, E. K., M.O.C.S.—261 Elizabeth-street, Hyde Park, Sydrey,
Saunders, J. H., M.R.C.S., M.B.—Box 92, P.O. Perth, W.A.
Saunders, Miss A.—Robervale, Auburn, Sydney.
Saunders, Eva F., ‘‘ Robervale,”” Auburn, Sydney.
Scarvell, Miss, 219 Roslyn Gardens, Sydney.
Schaw, Major-Gen , C.B.—Aurora Terrace, Wellington, N.Z.
Schofield, J. A., A.R.S.M., F.C.S.—The University, Sydney.
*Scott, Henry—Eagle Chambers, Adelaide.
Scott, Miss Rose—242 Point Piper Road, Paddington, Sydney.
*Scott, Prof. J. H., M.D:; M.R.C:S. —Dunedin, New Sealand,
*Scott, Prof. Walter, M.A.—The University, Sydney.
Selman, Prof. D. C.—Chureh of England Grammar School, North Sydney,
Selway, W. H., jun., Treasury, Adelaide, 8.A.
Shadler, A. C.—73 Hunter-street, Sydney.
*Shand, Prof. John, M.A.—Dunedin, New Zealand.
Sharkey, N. J.—Architect and Surveyor, Esperance, W.A.
*Shaw, Percy W., A.M.I.C.E.—‘ Leswell,” Torrington Road, Strathfield,
N.S. Wales.
Shea, Daniel— State School, Waterford, Q.
Shea, Michael L..—State School, Bundamba, Q.
Shea, Patrick J.—State School, Waterford, Q.
Shea, Thomas—State School, Waterford, Q.
*Sheldon, Wm., M.D.—-West-street, North Sydney.
*Shellshear, W., A.M.1.C.E.—Goulburn, N.S. W.
Shelton, E. M., M.Sc.—Gatton College, Gatton, Queensland.
Shephard, John—135 City Road, 8. Melbourne.
*Shirley, John, B.Sc.-—District Inspector of Schools, Brisbane.
Shirley, Mrs. Emily—‘‘ Ranelagh,” Cordelia-street, South Brisbane.

?

Nelson-street,

1136 LIST OF MEMBERS.

*Shorter, J., Box 469, G.P.O., Sydney.

Simpson, B.C., M.1I.C.E.—113 Phillip-street, Sydney.
Simpson, EH. 8. —Government Survey Office, W.A.

*Simpson, Hon. A. M., M.L.C.—Parliament House, Adelaide S.A. (Life

Member).

Simson, Aug.—Launceston, Tasmania.

Simson, Mrs. John—‘‘ Trawalla,” Toorak, Melbourne, Vic.
Simson, Miss—‘‘ Trawalla,” Toorak, Melbourne, Vic.
*Sinclair, 8., Australian Museum, Sydney.

Skertchly, 8. B. J., Indooroopilly, Brisbane.

Skertchly, Mrs. 8. B. J., Indooroopilly, Brisbane.

Slater, M.—Hotel Métropole, Sydney.

Slatyer, Chas. H.—P.O. Chambers, 1144 Pitt-street, Sydney.
Smeaton, I. D., Littlehampton, 8.A.

Smeaton, S., Adelaide, S.A.

Smith, 8. Hague, New Zealand Insurance, Pitt-street, Sydney.
Smith, Colonel, 5. C.—Victoria Barracks, Sydney.

Smith, E. M.—The Avenue, Menindie, S.A.
*Smith, J. McG.—Denison-street, Woollahra, Sydney.

Smith, Miss J. Knox—Ballarat, Victoria.

Smith, Prof. A., Mica—School of Mines, Ballarat, Victoria.

*Smith, 8. Percy, F.R.G.S.—Surveyor-General, Wellington, New Zealand.
Smyth, C. E. Owen, Superintendent Public Buildings, Adelaide, 8.A,
Snow, F. H., Grenfell-street, Adelaide, S.A.

*Spencer, Prof. W. Baldwin, M.A.—The University, Melbourne, Victoria,
Springthorpe, J. W., M.D., M.A.—Collins-street, Hast Melbourne.
Statham, K. J.—‘‘ Fenella,” Frederick-street, Rockdale.

*Steane, S. A.—Government Surveyor, Hay, N.S.W.

Steel, Thos., F.C.S., F.L.S.—Colonial Sugar Co., O’Connel!-street, Sydney.

*Stephen, His Honor Judge W. H.—Supreme Court, Sydney.

Stewart, H. R.—‘‘ Leura’’ Launceston, Tasmania,
Stiles, Rev. G. E. C.—‘‘ Normanhurst,” Ashfield, Sydney.
Stiles, Mrs. G. E. C.—‘‘ Normanhurst,” Ashfield, Sydney.

*Stirling, E. C., C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S., The University, Adelaide, S.A.

Stokes, H. G., F.G.S., Manager, Silver Spur Mines, Texas, via Stan-
thorpe, Queensland.
Stonier, Miss Agnes M.—Wellesley College, Newtown, Sydney.

*Stuart, Prof. Anderson, M.D.—The University, Sydney.
Stuckey, J. J., M.A., A.I.A., Wakefield-street, Adelaide, S.A.
Stuckey, F. 8., Wakefield-street, Adelaide, S.A.

*Sulman, John, F.R.I.B.A.—Wynyard-street, Sydney.

Suter, Miss Emily—Ann-street, Brisbane.

Sutton, J. W.—27 Eagle-street, Brisbane, Q.

Sutton, J. W., Mrs.—27 Eagle-street, Brisbane, Q.
*Sweet, G., F.G.S.—‘ The Close,” Brunswick, Victoria.
Sweet, Miss, B.Sc., ‘‘ The Close,” Brunswick, Victoria.

Tanner, J. R.—166 John-street, Pyrmont, Sydney.
*Tate, Prof. Ralph, F.G.S., F.L.S., North Adelaide, S.A.
Taylor, Jas., B.Sc., F.C.S., A.R.S.M.—Government Metallurgist, ‘‘ Blaen
Crai,”’ Dundas, N.S.W. (Life Member).
Taylor, The Hon. W. F., M.D., M.L.C., Edward-street, Brisbane.
*Teece, Richard, F.I.A., F.F.A., F.S.S.—87 Pitt-street, Sydney.
Teece, Mrs. Richard.—‘‘ Tauranga,” Wolseley Road, Woollahra, Sydney.
Tepper, J. G. O., the Museum, Adelaide, S.A.
Thiele, H. H.—Nansori, Fiji.
Thomas, Dr. W.—Christchurch, New Zealand.
*Thomas, W. M.—District Survey Office, Dubbo, N.S. W.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 1 3if/

Thomas, Henry, Croydon, Queensland.
Thompson, Edith E.-—Albermarle-street, North Kingston, Sydney.
*hompson, J. Ashburton, M. D.—32 Craigend-street, Darlinghurst, Sydney.
Thompson, J. H.—80 Queen-street, Brisbane.
*Thomson, Dugald, M.L. A.—Box 116, G.P.O., Sydney.
Thomson, Jas., M.A.—Grammar School, Maryborough, Q.
*Thomson, G.M., F.L.S.—Dunedin, New Zealand.
Thornber, C. M., Unley Park, Adelaide, S.A.
Thornber, Miss Daisy, Unley Park, Adelaide, S.A.
Thornber, Ellen, Unley Park, Adelaide, S.A.
Thornber, Rachael, Unley Park, Adelaide, S.A.
*Thow, Wm.—‘‘ Ascot,” Dutruc-street, Randwick, Sydney.
*Threlfall, Prof. R., M.A. —The University, Sydney.
Thring, Ed. T., M.R.C.S., L.R.C. P.—225 Macquarie-street, Sydney.
Tidswell, F., M.B., Ch.M., D.P.H.—The University, Sydney.
Tilley, Miss M.—‘‘ Kalube,” Green-street, Kogarah, Sydney.
Tisdall, H. T.—7 Washington-street, Toorak, Vic.
*Todd, Sir Chas., K.C.M.G., M.A., F.R.S.—The Observatory, Adelaide.
Todd, Robert H., Denham Chambers, Phillip-street, Sydney.
Tomkys, Henry—Central State School, Rockhampton, Q.
*Touch, J. E., care of Geo. A. Touch, & Co., Bartholomew House, Bartho-
lomew-lane, London, E.C.
Traquair, Geo. Ed.—Quabochoo, Quambone, N.S. W.
Tullock, Lindsay—Glencarron, Launceston, Tas.
Tunnicliffe, J. A.—‘‘ Shallum,” Windsor Road, Lewisham, N.S. Wales.
Turnbull, Thos. —Wellington, New Zealand.
Turner, Fred., F.L.8., F. R.H.S.—‘‘ Town and Country Journal,” Sydney.
*Twynam, Ed.—‘‘ Como,” Potts’ Point, Sydney.

Uffindell, H. W., Moonta, S.A.
*Uhr, Chas. I. K., 11 Barristers’ Court, Sydney.

Vercoe, Dr. J. C., North Terrace, Adelaide, S.A.
Verge, Austral—Hast Kempsey, N.S. Wales.
Verge, Miss Ida—Care of Miss Marion Clarke, ‘* Abbotsleigh,” Parramatta,
N.S. Wales.
Vernon, W. L., F.R.I.B.A., Government Architect, Sydney.
*Vicars, Jas., M.Inst.C. E.—City Engineer, Adelaide, 8.A.
*Vickery, Hon. E., M.L.C.—‘‘ Edina,” Cowper-street, Waverley, Sydney.
Voss, Dr. F. H, Vivian, Rockhampton, Queensland.

Waite, E. R., F.L.S.—The Australian Museum, Sydney.

*Walker, J. T.—Waltham Buildings, Bond-street, Sydney (Life Member).
Walker, W.—Railway Offices, Spencer-street, Melbourne.
Walker, J. B., F.R.G.S., Hobart, Tasmania.
Walker, Miss Ellen, College-street, Port Adelaide, S.A.
Walker, Miss M., College-street, Port Adelaide, S.A.

*Walker-Smith, J., L.R.C.P.—88 Glebe Road, Glebe, Sydney.

*Walsh, Fredk., J.P.—Glen View, Leichhardt, Sydney.

*Walton, I’. U., B.Sc., F.I.C., F.C.S.—Colonial Sugar Co., Sydney.
Ward, J. W.—1 Union Lane, off George-street, Sydney.

*Wark, W.—The Ridge, Kurrajong Heights, New South Wales.
Warren, John—Block 10, Broken Hill, New South Wales.

*Warren, Prof. W. H., M. Inst. C.E., Wh. Sc.—University, Sydney.
Waterhouse, G. A.—Mining School, University, Sydney.

Waterhouse, Gustavus John—88 Pitt-street, Sydney.

*Waterhouse, John, M.A.—‘ Cairnleith,” Archer-street, Chatswood,

N.S. W.

4¢

1138 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Watkins, George—Queen-street, Brisbane.

Watson, J.—‘‘ Malvern House,” Brunswick, Victoria.

Watson, Mrs. J.—‘‘ Malvern House,” Brunswick, Victoria.

Watson, Miss—‘‘ Malvern House,” Brunswick, Victoria.
*Watson, Hon. J., M.L.C.—‘‘ Glanworth,” Darling Point, Sydney.

Watt, Walter C., J.P., Bent-street, Sydney.

*Way, His Honor, Chief Justice $.J., Adelaide, S.A.

*Webster, John—Hokianga, New Zealand.

Weedon, Thornhill C.—Woolloongabba, Brisbane.

Weetman, Sydney—Christchurch, New Zealand.

Welch, Wm., Palmerston North, Wellington, N.Z.

Wheatcroft, J., M.A.—Grammar School, Rockhampton, Q.
“White, E. J., F.R.A.S.—Observatory, Melbourne, Victoria.
“White, Rev. J. S., M.A., LL.D.—Singleton, N.S. W.

Whyte, Rev. Chas., M.A.—Brown-street, Newcastle, N.S. W.
*“Wiesener, T. F.-—334 George-street.

Wilkins, G. L., Railway Construction Branch, Public Works Department,

Sydney.

“Wilkinson, W. Camac, M.D.—207 Macquarie-street, Sydney.

Williams, Mr. Justice—Dunedin, New Zealand.

*Willsallen, T. P.—Gunnedah, New South Wales.

*Wilshire, J. T., F.L.S., J.P.—‘‘ Coolooli,” Shell Cove, Sydney.

Wilshire, Mrs. J. T.—‘* Coolooli,” Shell Cove, Sydney.

Wilson, Dr. Gregg—The University, Sydney.

*Wilson, Prof. J. T., M.B., C.M.—The University, Sydney.

Wilson, Wm. —Chief Engineer, Nonsori Mill, Fiji.

W. olstenholme, Mrs. M. 8. —Maybank College, Dulwich Hill, Sydney.
Wood, P. Moore—* Redcliffe,” Liverpool Road, Ashfield, N.S.W.

= Woolcock, John L., M.A.—Town Hall Chambers, Brisbane.

Woolcock, Mrs. J. L.—Ithaca Creek, Brisbane, Q.

Woolnough, W. G.—Brooklyn-street, Burwood, Sydney.
*Woolrych, F. B. W.—‘“‘ Verner,” Grosvenor- street, Croydon, N.S. W.
*Wright, Dr. H. G. A., M.R.C.S.—Wynyard Square, Sydney.
*Wright, Robt. —4 York- street, Sydney.

*W right, Fred., Old Exchange, Pirie-street, Adelaide, 8.A.

Young, J. N., Hutt-street, Adelaide, S.A

EXCHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS.

1139

Exchanges and Presentations

MADE BY THE

AUSTRALASIAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.

The Association’s Report for 1898, Vol. VII, has been forwarded to the following
Societies and Institutions; should the publication not have arrived, the
Institution concerned is requested to communicate with the Permanent Hon.
Secretary, the University, Sydney, in order that inquiry may be made.

* Hachanges of Publications have been received, since Vol. VI (Brisbane, 1895
Session) was issued, from the Societies and Institutions distinguished by an asterisk,

1 Alexandria
2 Algiers
3 Cairo

4 Cordoba...
5 Buenos Aires
6 La Plata...

7 Cracow .

8 Prague
9 Trieste
10 Vienna
1l “8
12 a
13 5
14 55
15 3

Les ms
20 Luxembourg
21 Mons

AFRICA.

Bibliotheque Municipale.
Museum Library.
Egyptian Institute.

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.

Academia Nacional de Ciencias.
National Library.
Museo de La Plata.

AUSTRIA—HUNGARY.

... “Académie des Sciences.
. *Koniglich Bohmische Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften.

Societa Adriatica di Scienze Naturali.

ee * Anthropologische Gesellschaft.

*Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften.
K. K. Central-Anstalt fiir Meteorologie und Erdmag-
netismus,
K. K. Geographische Gesellschaft.
K. K. Geologische Reichsanstalt.

A

fee ian € Zoologisch-Botanische Gesellschaft.

BELGIUM.

Académie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres et des Beaux
Arts.

Observatoire Royale de Bruxelles.

Société Géologique de Belgique.

Société Royale des Sciences de Liége.

Institut Royale Grand-Ducal de Luxembourg.

Société des Sciences, des Arts et des Lettres du Hainaut

BRAZIL.

22 Rio de Janeiro ... *Observatoire Impérial de Rio de Janeiro.

23 »

National Library.

1140

24

25

Santiago...
Copenhagen

Bordeaux
Caen

Dijon
Havre

Lille Shi
Marseilles
Montpellier
Nantes
Paris

99

ve ap
Toulouse...

Noumea...

Berlin

99

-
Bremen ,

2 Bonn

Brunswick
Carlsruhe
Cassell
Chemnitz
Dresden ...

99

Elberfeld .

Frankfurt a/m =

... “Revue Critique de Paléozoologie.

EXCHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS.

CHILI.
Sociedad Cientifica Alemana.

DENMARK.
Société Royale des Antiquaires du Nord

FRANCE.

Académie Nationale des Sciences, Belles-Lettres et Arts.
Académie Nationale des Sciences, Arts et Belles-Lettres.

. “Académie des Sciences, Arts et Belles-Lettres.
... “Société Géologique de Normandie.
... *Société Géologique du Nord.

. “Faculté des Sciences de Marseille.

Académie des Sciences et Lettres.

. *Société des Sciences Naturelles de ?Ouest de la France.

Académie des Sciences de |’ Institut de France.
Bibliotheque de l'Université a la Sorbonne.
Comptoir Géologique de Paris.

Ecole Nationale des Mines.

*Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle.

Ministére de V’Instruction Publique, des Beaux Arts, et
des Cultes.

Address to Monsieur G.

Ramond, Assistant de Géologie au Muséum d’ Histoire

Naturelle, 61 Rue de Buffon.

*Société d’? Encouragement pour l Industrie Nationale.

Société Francaise de Minéralogie.

Société Francaise de Physique.

Société Géologique de France.

Société Philotechnique.

Académie des Sciences, Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres.

NEW CALEDONIA.
Government Library.

GERMANY.

Dentsche Chemische Gesellschaft.
Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde.
Koniglich Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften.

... *Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein zu Bremen.
... “Naturhistorischer Verein der Preussischen Rheinlande,

Westfalens und des Reg.-Bezirks Osnabriick.
Verein fiir Naturwissenschaft zu Braunschweig.

. *Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein zu Carlsruhe.

Verein fiir Naturkunde.

Naturwissenschaftliche Gesellschaft zn Chemnitz.

Konigliches Mineralogisch Geologische und Praehistor-
isches Museum.

Statistische Bureau des Ministeriums des Innern zu
Dresden.

Verein fiir Erdkunde zu Dresden.

Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein in Elberfeld.

Senckenbergische Naturforschende Gesellschaft.

Freiburg (Saxony) K6niglich Sachsische Berg-Akademie.
Freiburg (Baden) “Naturforschende Gesellschaft.

Giessen ...

... “Oberhessische Gesellschaft fiir Natur-und-Heilkunde,

65 Gorlitz ... ... “Naturforschende Gesellschaft in Gorlitz.
66 Gotha ... ... Dr. Petermann’s Geographische Mettheilungen.
67 Gottingen ... *Konigliche Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften in Gottingen.
68 Halle, A.S. ... *Kaiserliche Leopoldina Carolina Akademie der Deut-
schen Naturforscher.
69 Hamburg ... “Naturhistorisches Museum.
7) *Verein fiir Naturwissenschaftliche Unter haltung in
Hamburg.
71 Hannover ... Naturhistorische Gesellshaft.
72 Heidelberg ... Naturhistorisch-Medicinischer Verein zu Heidelberg.
73 Jena = ... Medicinisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Gesellschaft.
74 Konigsberg ... “Konigliche Physikalisch-Okonomische Gesellschaft.
75 Leipzig ... .... Konigliche Sichsische Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften.
76 a ... Werein fiir Erdkunde.
77 Marburg... ... “Gesellschaft zur Beforderung der gesammten Naturwissen-
schaften in Marburg.
78 Munich ... ... Koniglich Bayerische Akademie der Wsseusohatten in.
Miinchen:
79 Stuttgart ... Verein fiir Vaterlindische Naturkunde in Wiirttemberg.
80 Wurtemberg ... *Verein fiir Vaterlandische Naturkunde.
81 Wiirzburg ... *Physikalisch-Medicinische Gesellschaft.
GREAT BRITAIN AND THE COLONIES.
82 Birmingham _... *Birmingham and Midland Institute.
83 ch ... Birmingham Natural History and Philosophical Society,
84 Re .... Central Free Library.
85 * ... Saltley Training College.
86 Bristol ... ... Bristol Naturalists’ Society.
87 Camborne ... Mining Association and Institute of Cornwall.
88 Cambridge ... Philosophical Society.
89 oD .... Public Free Library.
90 es ... Union Society.
91 University Library.
92 Kew... . Royal Gardens
93 Leeds ... ... “Leeds Philosophical and Literary Society.
7. er shite . “Yorkshire College.
95 Liverpool ... Literary and Philosophical Society.
96 London ... ... Agent-General (two copies).
97 2s ee Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland,
98 5 British Museum (Library), Bloomsbury.
99 3 British Museum (Natural History), South Kennsington,
100 es Chemical Society.
101 39 Colonial Office, Downing-street.
102 re Folk Lore Society.
103 AD Geological Society.
104. PF Guild Hall Library.
105 AG ... “Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain and Ireland.
106 39 Institution of Civil Engineers.
107 96 Iron and Steel Institute.
108 is Library, South Kensington Museum.
109 s Linnean Society.
110 ne Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty.
111 5a Museum of Practical Geology.
112 3 ... Patent Office Library.
113 6 . *Physical Society of London.
114 ob Royal Astronomical Society.
115 5 *Royal Colonial Institute.
116 4p Royal Geographical Society.

EXCHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS. 1141

1142

lie London ss

118

119 s

120 i

121 ee

122 i

123 AY

124 An ae
125 Manchester
126 Pe

127

128 Mirfield ...
129 Newcastle-upon-

Tyne.
130 a
131 5
132 Oxford ...
133

134 Peri7ancea
135 Plymouth

136 Windsor...
137 York

138 Cape Town
139

99

140 Colombo...

141 Halifax (Nova

EXCHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS.

.. “Royal Historical Society.

. *Royal Institution of Great Britain.
Royal School of Mines and College of Science.
Royal Society.

i *Society of Arts.

University of London.
Victoria Institute (or Philosophical Society of Great
Britain).
. *War Office. (Intelligence Division.)
. “Literary and Philesophical Society.
Manchester Geological Society.
Owens College.
Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic Society.
Natural History Society of Northumberland, Durham and
Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

... “North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical

Engineers,
Society of Chemical Industry.
Bodleian Library.
Radcliffe Library.

... “Royal Geological Society of Cornwall.

Plymouth Institution and Devon and Cornwall Natural
History Society.

The Queen’s Library.

Yorkshire Philosophical Society.

CAPE OF GOOD HOPE.

... “Department of Geology.

. “South African Philosophical Society.

CEYLON.
Royal Asiatic Society (Ceylon Branch).

DOMINION OF CANADA.

*Nova Scotian Institute of Science.

Scotia).
142 Hamilton (Ont.).. Hamilton Association.
143 Montreal ... “Natural History Society of Montreal.
144 ae Royal Society of Canada.

145 Ottawa
146 Quebec

Geological and Natural History Survey of Canada.
Literary and Historical Society.

147 Toronto ... ... “Canadian Institute.

148 56 aed
149 Winnipeg

150 Aligarh ...
151 4 ac
152 Bombay ...
153 Calcutta...

154.
155,
156

157 Madras ...

University.
Manitoba Historical and Scientific Society.

INDIA.

Anglo-Oriental College.

Elphinstone College.

Royal Asiatic Society (Bombay Branch).
Asiatic Society of Bengal.

Geological Survey of India.

Indian Museum.

Museum.

Central Museum.

158 Dublin

159 ,,
160 ,,
Ter. -,,

162 Kingston
163 Malta

164 Port Louis
165 St. John..,

166 Sydney ...
167 Sie

TESS SS,
169 ,,
170), — 55
ie.
io
va.
Wi >
WG 5;
LW
178 —Cé,,
1°";
ae
igi,
162) J,

183 Auckland
184 Christchurch
185 5

186 Coromandel
187 Dunedin ..
188 Wellington
189 3

190 i

191 Brisbane...

TS +,
dope
ron

.. *New Zealand Institute.
. *Polynesian Society.

EXCHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS. 1143

IRELAND.

Royal Dublin Society.

Royal Geological Society of Ireland.
Royal Irish Academy.

Trinity College.

JAMAICA.
“Institute of Jamaica,

MALTA.
Public Library.

MAURITIUS.
*Royal Society of Arts and Sciences,

NEW BRUNSWICK.
*Natural History Society of New Brunswick.

NEW SOUTH WALES.

Australian Economic Association.

*Australian Museum.

Department of Mines and Agriculture.
Department of Public Instruction.
Engineering Association of New South Wales.

Fis *Government Statistician.

Linnean Society of New South Wales.

. “Mining Department.

N. 8. Wales Government Railways Institute.
Observatory.

Parliamentary Library.

Public Library.

st *Royal Geographical Society of Australasia (New South

Wales Branch),
School of Arts.
Technological Museum.

... University. patie uc
. *Zoological Society. PRY 2
5 y ae 32 a At
NEW ZEALAND. wv jee
ag? £
Auckland Institute.

Philosophical Institute of Canterbury. pSe / F —-
Public Library. ,
School of Mines.
Otago Institute.

*Registrar-General.

QUEENSLAND.

... *Geological Survey of Queensland.

Parliamentary Library.
Queensland Museum.

- *Royal Geographical Society of Australasia (Queensland

Branch).

. *Royal Society of Queensland.

1144

196
Wy

198
199

3 Adelaide

Aberdeen
Dumfries

Edinburgh

99
Glasgow

9

a site
St. Andrews ...

7 Demerara
(British Guiana).

3)

” eee

Singapore

Hobart

bP)
Launceston

Ballarat

Melbourne ...
99
be)
be)
be]
”
9
9°
bi)
3°
”

”

EXCHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS.

SCOTLAND.
University.
“Dumfries and Galloway Natural History and Antiquarian
Society.
Edinburgh Geological Society.

es *Royal Observatory.

Royal Physical Society.

Royal Society.

University.

Geological Society of Glasgow.
Philosophical Society of Glasgow.
University.

University.

SOUTH AMERICA.
Royal Agricultural and Commercial Society.

SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

. *Geological Survey of South Australia.

Government Botanist.
Observatory.
Public Library, Museum, and Art Gallery of South Australia.

“Royal Geographical Society of Australasia (South Australian

Branch).
Royal Society of South Australia,
University.
Zoological Society.

STRAITS SETTLEMENTS.
Royal Asiatic Society (Straits Branch).

TASMANIA.

Parliamentary Library.
*Royal Society of Tasmania.
Geological Survey of Tasmania.

VICTORIA.

School of Mines and Industries.
*Australasian Institute of Mining Engineers.

Field Naturalists’ Club of Victoria.

Government Botanist,

Government Statist.

Medical School Library, University.

. “Mining Department.

Observatory.
Parliamentary Library.
Public Library.
Registrar-General.

*Royal Geographical Society of Australasia (Victorian Branch).
Royal Society of Victoria.
University.

Victorian Institute of Engineers.
Victorian Institute of Surveyors.
Working Men’s College.
Zoological Society.

238 Perth
m5.
240 ,,

241 Athens

2

243 Port-au-Prince ...

244 Bologna ...

246 Catania ...
247 Florence...
248 Milan Ne
249 Modena ...
250 Naples

251 Palermo ...
252) Pisa

253 Rome
254,

256 Siena
257 Turin
258 Venice

259 Tokyo
260 55
26

262 Batavia ...

263 Aguascalientes ...

264 Mexico
265 49

266 Amsterdam
267 Haarlem...
268 he cae
269 x ee
270 Leyden ...

271 Christiania

EXCHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS. 1145

WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

Museum.
Parliamentary Library.
Victoria Public Library.

GREECE.
National Observatory.

University.

Hayti.
Société de Sciences et de Géographie.

ITALY.

... *R. Accademia delle Scienze dell’Istituto.

Universita di Bologna.

. “Accademia Gioenia di Scienze Naturali.

Reale Museo Zoologia.

Reale Istituto Lombardo di Scienze Lettere ed Arti.

Regia Accademia di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti.

Societa Reale di Napoli (Accademia delle Scienze Fisiche e
Matematiche).

Reale Accademia Palermitana di Scienze Lettere ed Arti.

. “Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali.

Accademia Pontificia de Nuovi Lincei.
R. Accademia dei Lincei.

.. *R. Comitate Geologico d’ Italia.

R. Accademia dei Fisiocritici in Siena.
Reale Accademia della Scienze.
Reale Istituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti.

JAPAN.

... *Asiatic Society of Japan (formerly in Yokohama).
.. *Imperial University.

Seismological Society of Japan.

JAVA.

... *K. Natuurkundige Vereeniging in Nederl-Indié,

Mexico.
*E]l Instructor.

... *Instituto Gedlégico de Mexico.
... *Sociedad Cientifica *‘ Antonio Alzate.”

NETHERLANDS.

Académie Royale des Sciences.
Bibliotheque de Musée Teyler.

... “Colonial Museum.

Société Hollandaise des Sciences.
University.

NoRWAY.

. “Kongelige Norske Fredericks Universitet.

1146

272 Coimbra...
273 Lisbon

274 Helsingfors
275 Kiefft

276 Cracow ...
277 Moscow ...

278 St. Petersburg ...

279 ”

230 Belgrade...

281 Johannesburg
282 Bp

283 Caracas ...
284 Monte Video

285 Barcelona
286 Madrid

287 Stockholm
288 Upsala
Paste) Bp

290 Berne
291 Geneva
292 Lausanne
293 Neuchatel
294 Zurich

295 Albany
296 Baltimore
297 Berkeley...

298 Boston
299)
300

301 Brookville (Ind.)

302 Buffalo (Ind.)

303 Cambridge (Mass.)

EXCHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS.

PORTUGAL.

Universidade.
Academia Royale das Sciencias.

Russia.

Société des Sciences de Finlande.
Société des Naturalistes.
* Academie des Sciences.

Société Impériale des Amis des Sciences Naturelles d-
Anthropologie et d’ Ethnographie & Moscow (Section
ad’ Anthropologie).

Académie Impériale des Sciences.

“Comité Géologique—Institut des Mines.

SERVIA.
Academie Royale de Serbie.

SoOuTH AFRICA.
Geological Society of South Africa.

- *Chemical and Metallurgical Society of 8. A.

SOuTH AMERICA.
University Library.
National Library.

SPAIN.

. “Real Academia de Ciencias.

Universidad.

SWEDEN.

. *Kongliga Svenska Vetenskaps-Akademien.

Kongliga Vetenskaps Societeten.
*Universite Royale d’ Upsala.

SWITZERLAND.

Allg. Schweizerische Gesellschaft.

*Société Helvétique des Sciences Naturelles.
Société Vaudoise des Sciences Naturelles.
Société des Sciences Naturelles de Neuchatel.

. *Naturforschende Gesellschaft.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.

.. *New York State Library, Albany.
. *Johns Hopkins University.

University of California.

American Academy of Arts and Sciences,
City Public Library.

State Library of Massachusetts.

Indiana Academy of Sciences.

Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences.
Harvard University Library.

304
305
306
307

Chicago ...
Concord ...
Denver

Hoboken (N.J.)...

308 Indianopolis
309 Lawrence

310
311
312

Minneapolis

EXCHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS. 1147

Academy of Sciences.

New Hampshire State Library.
Colorado Scientific Society.
Steven’s Institute of Technology.

. *Indiana Academy of Sciences.
. “Kansas University.

Madison (Wis.) ..
Meriden (Conn.)..

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
Meriden Scientific Society.
*Minnesota Academy ot Natural Sciences.

313 New Haven(Conn.) American Journal of Science.

314.
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325

326 Rochester (N. Y. )

327
328
329
330
331
332
Bib
334
3390
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343

9)

New York

Palo Alto
Philadelphia

29

Salem (Mass.) .

St. Tenis
San Francisco

”
Stanford ..
Washington

9
3)

. *Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences.

Yale University.

American Chemical Society.

American Institute of Mining Engineers.
American Museum of Natural History.
Columbia University Library.

. “New York Academy of Sciences.

School of Mines, Columbia College.
Leland Stanford Junr. University of California.
Academy of Natural Science.
American Philosophical Society.
Franklin Institute.
“Rochester Academy of Science.
*American Association for Advancement of Science.
Essex Institute.
Academy of Science.
*California Academy of Sciences.
California State Mining Bureau.
University of California.
Bureau of Education (Department of the Interior).

. *Bureau of American Ethnology.

Department of Agriculture, Library.

Library (Navy Department).
*Microscopical Publishing Co.

National Academy of Sciences.

. *Philosophical Society.

Secretary (Department of the Interior).

. *Smithsonian Institution.
. *U.S. Geological Survey.
. *U.S. National Museum (Department of~ the Interior,

Smithsonian Institution).

ADDITIONAL (TOO LATE FOR THE ABOVE LIST).

France (Paris) ...

German y (Bonn) _

*Société de Géographie.
*Société de Spéléologie.
*Niederrheinische Gesellschaft fiir Natur-und- Heilkunde.

(Brunn) *Naturforschender Verein.
U.S. America (Chicago) *John Crerar Library.

Number of Publications sent to Great Britain and Ireland ... see | pall
3 ae India and the Colonies siis bon tes
56 5 U.S. of America ae ies .. =A
3 oe Europe... Ge, 7/

a Asia, Africa, South America, Cv 9
Total... S00 wes we «=—348

1148 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

Additions to the Library
OF THE
AUSTRALASIAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.

[Donations from 1 July, 1895, to 30 June, 1898. ]

City or Country. Donations. Donors.

Adelaide. 7a... Geological Survey of South Australia ............ The Department.
Report of the Northern Territory Explora-
tions, 1895.
Record of the Mines of South Australia—
The Balhannah Mine; The Wadna-
minga, 1898,

Royal Geographical Society of South Australia| The Society.
Journal of the Elder Scientific Exploring
Expedition, 1891-2, with accompanying

Maps.
Journal of the Horn Scientific Exploring
Expedition, 1894, with accompanying

Maps.
Aguascalientes,| El Instructirruncisscccn:.nceemeeecheasametaetenets Dr. Jesus Diaz de
Mexico. Vol. XIII. Nos. 10-12, 1897. Léon,

Vol. XIV. Nos. 1-3, 5-10, 12, 1897.
Vol. XV. Nos. 1-4, 1898.
Albany, N.Y.,| New York Statedialorary,....ccomcncetinsinntoomnen gi ssc The Museum.
U.S.A. Bulletins of the N.Y. State Museum. Vol.
. III, Nos. 12-15.
Annual Report of the State Botanist, 1895.

Baltimore ...... Johns Hopking Umiversity, \2 accesses sccceseens The University,
University Circulars. Vol. XIII, No. 109.
Be 73 Vol. XIV, Nos. 119-20.
¥ ee Vol. XV,.Nos. 121-2.
. Vol. XVI, Nos. 128-131.
“ = Vol. XVII, Nos. 132-3,
135, 136, 1898.
Barcelona ...... Real Academia de Ciencias y Artes .............. The Academy.
Boletins. Vol. 1, Nos. 12, 18, 19, 1894-8.
Batavia ......... Koninklijke Natuurkundige Vereeniging in| The Society.

Nederlandsch-Indié.
Boekwerken, 1893, 1895, 1896, 1897.
Alphabetisch Register of Deel. 1-XXX,
1871. XXXI to L, 1891.
Alphabetisch Naamregister, 1872.
Catalogue Supplementaire, 1883-93.

ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 1149

Additions to the Library—continued.

_ City or Country. Donations. Donors.

Batavia ......... Koninklijke Natuurkundige Veeriniging in
Nederlandsch-Indié.
Natuurkundig Tijdschrift. Vols. XXXI-
XXXII, 1869-73. Vols. XXXV-—
XXXIX, 1875-1880. Vols: XLI-
XLIX, 1881-1891. Vols. L-LVII,
1891-1897.
Birmingham ...{ Birmingham and Midland Institute
Programmes for Session 1896-99.
Bologna ......... Reale Accademia deile Scienze .............60:0008 The Academy.
Rendiconto delle Sessioni, 1893-4, 1894-5,
1895-6, 1896-7.
OMNES Ciesuisc sien Naturhist. Verein der Preussischen Rheinlande.| The Society.
Verhandlungen. Series 6, Vol. XI, No. 2.
Vol. XII, Nos. 1-2, 1894. Vol. XII,
Nos. 1-2, 1895. Vol. XIII, Nos: 1-2,
1896. Vol. XIV, Nos. 1-2, 1897.
Niederrheinische Gesellschaft fur Natur-und| The Society.
Heilkunde zu Bonn.
Sitzungsberichte. Parts 1-2, 1895. Parts
1-2, 1896. Part 2, 1897.
BLeDION) sii... Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein zu Bremen ...; The Society.
Abhandlungen.. Vol. XIII, Part 2, 1895.
Vol. XIII, Part 3, 1896. Vol. XIV,
Part 1, 1895. Part 3, 1898.
Beitrage zur Nordwestdeutschen Volks-und
Landeskunde. Vol. XV, Parts 1, 2,
1895-7.
Brisbane......... Royal Geographical Society of Australasia...... The Society.
Proceedings and Transactions. Vol. X,
1894-5. Vol XI, 1895-6. Vol. XII,
1896-7.
Geography in Australasia (Anniversary
Address), by the President, J. P.
Thomson, F.R.G.S., 1896.
An Historical Review, by Alex. Muir, J.P.,

The Society.

baceaotceeeteos The Institute.

1896.

Royal Society cf Queensland. ..............se0ceeers The Society.
Proceedings. Vol. XI, Parts 1 and 2.

Vol. XII, 1897. Vol. XIII, 1897.

Departmrert) of Minesy......nwecsensonrsvire sreseweseee. The Department,
Geol. Survey. Bulletin, No. 7, 1897.

Queensland Government ..........6666 cesceeene ees The Government
Supplements to Gazettes, 1896-8. Printer.

Bruna esc sdenbas Waturforschend err V rein. .i...i.0..00see ssiseeenievsninen The Society.

Bericht der Meteorn. Commission, XIV, 1894
Verhandlungen, XXXIV, 1895.
Capetown ..... South African Philosophical Society............... The Society.
Transactions. Vol. VIII, Part 2, 1892-5.
Volk) Vidg. Parti 2) 896s) Viel Tex
Part 1, 1895=6, - Violin LXoranit 2)
1896-7. Vol. X, Part 1, 1897.

1150

ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

Additions to the Library—continued.

City or Country.

Donations.

- Capetown

Catania

wee e en eee

teens

Wlorence eee

Freiburg-in-
Baden.
Geneva

Giessen

Gorlitz

eeeeee

Halifax, Nova
Scotia.

wee e eee wee

Department of Geology 1. /s:-...0..es--.sequee aera
Bibliography of South African Geology.
Parts 1-2, 1897.
Accademia Gioenia di Scienze Naturali in
Catania.
Atti. Vol. IX, Part IV, No. 73, 1896.
Bullettinos. 44-49, 1896-7.
Bullettinos delle sedute. Fascicolos LI and
LIT, 1898.

John CrerarMibranysaeseenense.ceas ee selseeee ences
Third Annual Report, for the year 1897.
Fauna Norvegie. Vol. I, 1896
Norronaskaller, 1896
Academied esiSclencessnremee-tesmereeeseeeteteeereent

Bulletins International, Comptes Rendus,
March to July, 1898.
L’Academie de Dijon
Memoires. Vol. V, No, 4, 1895- 6.
Dumfriesshire and Galloway Natural History
and Antiquarian Society.
Transactions and Journal of Proceedings,
1895-6.
Anomalie ottiche dell’Analcima, 1897

ee rr iy

eee een eenens

Naturforschende Gesellschaft ...............s00008
Berichte. Vol. IX, Parts 1-3, 1894-5.
Société Helvétique des Sciences Naturelles
Actes de laréunion & Schaffhouse. Vol. 77,
1894,
Actes de la réunion & Zermatt. Vol 78,
1895.
Comptes Rendus des Travaux, Zermatt.
Parts 1-2, 1895.
Oberhessische Gesellshaft .............cccececeeeuees
Bericht fur Natur-und Heilkunde, Part 31.
Naturforschende Gesellschaft................06068 +
Abhandlungen. Pand 22, 1898.
Konigliche Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften ...
Nachrichten Mathematisch-physikalische
Klasse, 1895, Nos. 1-4. 1896, Nos.
1-4. 1897, Nos. 1-3. 1898, Nos. 1-3.
Nachrichten Geschaftliche Mittheilungen,

1895, Nos. 1-2. 1896, Nos. 1-2. 1897,

Nos. 1-2. 1898, No. 1.
Nova-Scotian Institute of Science...............05
Proceedings and Transactions. Vol. I,

Second series, Parts 1, 3, 4. Vol. II,
Parts 1-2.
Vol. IX, Part III. New series, 1896-7.
Kais.-Leop.-Carolina Akad. der Deutschen
Naturforscher.
Acta. Vols. LXITJI-LXVIII-LXIX.

Donors.

The Department.

The Society.

The Librarian.
G. O. Sars.

G. A. Guldberg.
The Academy.
The Secretary.

The Society.

Giovanni
D’Achiardi.
The Society.

.| The Society.

The Society.
The Society.

The Society.

The Institute.

The Academy.

City or Country.

Hamburg ......

LelGlbeNc Meg aadene

Indianopolis,
U.S.A,

Karlsruhe ......

Konigsberg

Lawrence........

Weed siicccssan:

Manchester

Marburg.........

ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.
Additions to the Library—continued.

Donations.

Naturhistorisches Museum..............sscsceseeeees
Mittheilungen. Vol. XI, 1893.
Vol. UL. 1895.
Verein fiir Naturwissenschaftliche Unter-
haltung zu Hamburg.
Verhandlungen. Band IX, 1894-5.
Mittheilungen. XIV, Jahrgang, 1896.
Part 2.

The Royal Society of Tasmania ...............0+0+:
Papers and Proceedings, 1894-5 and 1896.
Indiana Academy of Sciences

Proceedings, 1896.
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein ......c.cscce0e---
Verhandlungen, 1888-95.

ee ry

.| Physikalisch-dkonomische Gesellschaft zu

Konigsberg.
Schriften, Jahrgang, 1894. XXXV. 1895.
XXXVI. 1896. XXXVII.

KG MISAN MW MMIVCNSIGYg bccasiens acs soos seseacscelsaneeinoate
Quarterly. Vol. VII, No. 3, 1898.

Leeds Philosophical and Literary Society ......
Ann. Reports (73rd to 76th), 1894-6, and
78th (1897-8).

WOT KSHIRER CONE RO. veisc-tcsestsvenctscesousinaeoiitbisetons
Annual Reports (21st to 23rd), 1894-7.
Société Géologique du Nord ..... .......ceceeseeees

Mémoires. Vol. I, Nos. 1-3, 1876-82.
Vol. II, 1882. Vol. III, 1889. Vol.
IV, Nos. 1-2, 1894-97.
Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain and
Treland.
Journal. April, 1897.
Regulations and Register, 1898-9.

RoyalyColomial Imstitute .......2.....c...5ssecnesemen:
Journals. Vol. XXVII, Nos. 1-8, 1895-6.

Vol. XXVIII, Nos. 3-8, 1896-7. Vol.
XXIX, Nos. 1,6, 1897-8.
Journals 7, 8, 1898.

Society of Arts.

Journals from June 17 to November 11,
1898, Nos. 2378 to 2399.

.| Literary and Philosophical Society ...............

Bibliog. List of the MS., Vols., and Vols.
of Memoirs, 1896.

Memoirs and Proceedings. Vol. XLI, Parts
1-2, 1896-7, 1897-8; Vol. I, Parts 1-2
and 3-10, Series IV, 1888-9, 1891-6 ;
Vol. XLII, Parts 1-2, and 1-4, 1897-8.

1151

Donors.

The Museum,

The Society.

The Society.
The Academy.
The Society.
The Society.

The University.
The Society,

The Librarian.

The Society.

The Institute.

The Institute.

The Society.
The Society.

Gesellschaft zu Beforderung der Gesammten| The Society.

Naturwissenschaften zu Marburg.
Sitzungsberichte, 1893, 1894, 1895-6.

City or Country.

Marseille

Mexico

Melbourne

soeeee

Minneapolis,

S.

Montreal

Nantes

sete eeere

Newcastle-
upon-Tyne.

ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

Additions to the Library—continued.

Donations

Donors.

Faculté-des Sciences de Marseille..................
Annales. Vols. I-IV, 1891-5. Vol. III,
Supplement 1894. Vol. V, Parts 1-4.
Vol. VI, Parts 1-6. Vol. VII, 1896.
Vol. VIII, Parts 1-4, 5-10, 1897.
Instituto Gedlégico
Boletin, No. 3, 1896. Nos. 4-9, 1897. No.
10, 1898.
Sociedad Cientifica ‘*‘ Antonio Alzate ”
Memorias y Revista. Vol. VIII, Nos. 1-2,
1894-5. Vol. IX, Nos. 1-6, 1895-6.
Vol. EX, Nos= 7-10; 1896) Vols Xs
Nos. 1-5, 12, 1896-7. Vol. XI, Nos.
1-8, 1897-8.
Nociones Elementales de Agricultura, 1895.
Bosquejo sobre la Filosofia Hsoterica, 1895.
Disertacion sobre la Importancia de el
Estudio de la Agricultura, 1894.
Compendio de Etnografia General.
Department of Mines
Annual Reports, 1894, 1895, 1896.
Australasian Institute of Mining Engineers ...
Transactions. Vols. I to V, 1893-8.
Proceedings, Annual Meeting, Melbourne,
and First Ordinary Meeting, Launces-
ton, 1898.
Field Naturalists Club of Victoria
Annual Report. Vol. VI, 1885-6.
IMstibuterok, Surveyonseaen-acrcrctaencn acters teen
Transactions. Vols. I-III, 1874-91.
Royal Geographical Society of Australasia......
Transactions. Vols. XII-XII, March, 1896.
Minnesota Academy of Natural Sciences.........
Bulletin. Vol. IV, Part 1, No. 1, 1892-4.
Occasional Papers—Preliminary Notes on
the Birds and Mammals collected by

eee eee ene

the Menage Scientific Expedition to)

the Philippine Islands, by F. 8. Bourns
and Dean C. Worcester.
Natural History Society of Canada
The Canadian Record of Science. Vol. VII,
Nos. 1-4, 1896. Nos. 5 and 6, 1897.
No. 7, 1898.
Société des Sciences Naturelles de l'Ouest de
France.
Bulletin. Vol. VII, Nos. 1-3, 1897.
North of England Institute of Mining
Engineers.
Transactions.
XLVI, 1896-7.
Borings and Sinkings.

Vol. XLV, 1895-6, and Vol.
Vol. 6, U to Z.

The Society.

The Institute.

The Society.

The Department.

The TIustitute.

The Club.
The Institute.
The Society.
The Academy.

The Society.

| The Society.

The Institute.

ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 1153

Additions to the Library—continued.

City or Country. Donations. | Donors.
New Haven..... Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences...... | The Academy.
Trans. Vol. VII, Parts I, II, 1886, 1888.
“s os 5 | 1, 1, 690; 1893.
- plone 5 0, Ws 892% USO:
New York..... IN CAMEMIVAOIPSEICNCES 0, cc eescecsasenduessecers ses The Academy.
Transactions. Vol. XIII, 1893-4.
Ola gor ccas-v. MaormAnten wols)T, TT, 1896-7 (F.edsccdsedcns cee A. Hamilton.
Paris... aes Etude de Géologie sur le Bassin de Paris—Note |Georges Ramond,
Sommaire sur l’Aquedue-Egout de Clichy-
Acheres.
Asie et Oceanie. Vol. X

idi nosoumeeonepe meemaiaas 3p
Géologie des Indes Anglaises ... ............é.c0000 oa

Etude G ‘éologique de L’ Aqueduc de L’ Avre...... 3
Revue rita Paléozoologie. Nos. 1-6, 1897.} M. Cossman.
2me Année, Nos. 1, 2, 1898.
Societé D’Encouragement pour L’Industrie| The Society.
Nationale.
Bulletins. Tome X, Sérié IV, Nos. 113-
20, 1895.
Bulletins, Tome I, Sérié V, Nos. 1-11, 1896.
ap Tome I, SériéV , Nos. 2 12, 1897.
3 Tome Ill, Sérié Nos. 1-10, 1898.
Annuaires pour lAnnées, 1896, 1897, 1898.
Table Générales des Matiéres, 1884 and
1893 (inclus).

Museum D’Histoire Naturelle ...............000008 The Museum,
Bulletins. 6-8, 1895. 1-7, 1896. 1-6, 8,
1897.
Haciéerde Spcléalogic..............cessessnseocsennens The Society.

Spelunga (Bulletins de la Société). Vol.
I, Parts 3-4, 8-10. Vol. IJ, Parts 5-8.
Vol. III, Parts 9-12.

Société de Geographie Pea ce ouecte cet cnoaeley aspueuee The Society.
Comptes Rendus, No. 4, April, 1898.
Penzance ..... Royal Geological Society of Cornwall. ........0... The Society.

Transactions. Eighty-third and eighty-
fourth Annual Reports. Vol. XII,
Part 2, 1896, and Part 3, 1897.
WR caitino.ntewaes Societ& Toscana di Scienze Naturali............... The Society.
Atti. Vol. IX, May-July, 1895.
Memorie. Vol. XV, 1897.
Processi Verbali. Vol. X,1897. Vol. XI,
1897-8, Part 1. Vol. XII, Jan., March,
May, 1898.
Prague vc. .c.-e: Kéniglich Bohmische Gesellschaft der Wissen-) The Society.
“schaften.
Sitzungsberichte, 1892-3. Parts 1-2, 1895.
Jahresbericht, 1892-3, 1895.

Rochester,N.Y.| Rochester Academy of Science .........:.:csseeees The Academy.
Proceedings. Vol. II, Parts 3-4, 1894-5.
i Vol. III, Part 1, 1896.

1154

City or Country.

ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.
Additions to the Library—continued.

Donations.

Donors.

Salem,

Mass.,
U.S.A.

San Franci‘sco..

f

American Association for the Advancement of
Science,
Proceedings. Forty-second Session. Madi-
son, Wisconsin, 1893.
Proceedings. Forty-third Session. Brook-
lyn, N.Y., 1894.
Proceedings. Forty- fourth Session, Spring-

field, ‘Mass, 1895.
California Academy Of SCIENCES weeescadaueesnete
Proceedings. Vol. IV, Part 1, Series II,
1894, Vol. IV, Part 2, Series II, 1895.
Vol. I, Parts 1-2, Series II, 1888-9.
Vol. II, Series II, 1889. Vol. III,
Parts 1-2, Series II, 1891-3. Vol. V,
Parts 1-2, Series IT, 1895-6. Vol. VI,
Part 2, Series II, 1896. Vol. I, Series
ITI, 1897, Botany, Parts 1-2; Zoology,
Parts 1-5 ; Geology. Parts 1-3.

St. Johns (New| Natural History Society of New Brunswick ...

Brunswick).
Stockholm

Bulletins. Nos, XIJI-XVI, 1895-98.
L’Académie Royale Suédoise des Sciences

Ofversigt. Vol. LIII, 1896. Vol. LIV,
1897.
Bihang. Vol. XXI, 1-4, 1895-6.

ne XXII, 1-4, 1896-7.
XIIJ, 1-4, 1897-8.
Report. of Government Commission on the
Decrease of Native Population, 1896.
The Australian Museum
Reports of the Trustees, 1896-1897.
Government Statist
Wealth and Progress of New South Wales.
Vols. 1894-97.
New South Wales
Vols. 1895-7, and Part 12,
previous years.
Statistics of the Seven Colonies of Austral-
asia. Vols. 1861-96, 1897-8.
The Structure and Composition of a Basalt
from Bondi.

er i ee i ee er id

Statistical Register.
1896 and

Icebergs in the Southern Ocean................6865.

Royal Geographical Society of Australasia... ...

Transactions and Proceedings. Vols. III
and IV, 1885-6.

Institute of Architects of New South Wales ...
Annual Report, 1885.
Zoological Society of New South Wales
Annual Report. Vols. VIL and VIII,
1885-86.

es

The Association.

The Academy.

The Society.
The Academy.

The Government.
The Museum.

The Department.

Rev. J. Milne
Curran, F.R.G.S.
H. C. Russell,
C.M.G., F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S.
The Society.

The Institute.

The Society.

ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 1155

Additions to the Library—continued.

City or Country. Donations. Donors.

MOO essce a ste Asiatic SOCleby, Od apallnsneccrraecdecesensecees et The Society.
Transactions. Vol. XXII. Part 3, 1894.
Vol. XXIII, 1895, and Supplement.
Vol. XXIV, 1896.
Transactions. Vol. XXIV (Supplement),
1896.
Imperial University of Japan ...........c.sseeceseee The University.
Calendar, 1895-6.

MOrOntOny..1s+0s: CAMS AM ENSHGUGE .. idee ssoncdecvaessesesencawtens The Institute.

Transactions. Vol IV, Part 2 2, No. 8; Dec:
1895. Vol. V, Part 1, No. 9, Oct., 1596,
and Supplement ; also Part 2, No. 10,
1898

Proceedings. Vol. I (New Series). Parts
1 to 5, 1897-8.

Annual Reports. Sessions 1886-7, 1887-8.

Archeological Report, by David Boyle,
1894-5.

The Functions of a Great University
(Inaugural address), 1894.

Wpsala™.z,.5.2.. Kong. Universitet IT Upsala .......c.scessece seenee The University.
Redogorelse, 1896-7.
Festskrift, Wilhelm Lilljeborg, 1896.
Konung Oscar IT, 1897.
Bidrag, Carl von Linné, WV, I, 1897.
Geological Institution of the University of} The University.

sala,
Bulletins. Vol. III, Part 1, 1897. . Part 2,
No. 6. 1898.
WAONTIA cco .0c00: K.K. Zoologisch-Botanische Gesellschaft ...... The Society.

Verhandlungen. Vol. XLVI, Nos. 1-9,
1896. Vol. XLVII, Nos. 1-10. 1897.

Washington, The Microscopical Publishing Company ......... The Publishers,
U.S.A. American Monthly Microscopical Journal.
Vol. XIV, Nos. 1-12, 1893; Vol. XVI,
Nos. 11-12, 1895; Vol. XVII, Nos.
1-12, 1896; Vol. XVIII, Nos. 1-4 and
6-10, 12, 1897. Vol. XIX, Nos. 1, 2,
3, 1898.
United States Geological Survey ..............00 The Department
Annual Report (15th), 1893-4. (16th),| of Geology.
1894-5. (17th), 1895-6. Parts I and
101,
Bulletins. Nos. 123-131, 1895. Nos. 132-4
1896. Nos. 87-127, 130, 135-148, 1897.
Monographs XXV-XXVIII (with large
map).

1156

ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

Additions to the Library—continued.

City or Country.

Donations.

Donors.

Washington,
Wise/2\

Wellington,
N.Z.

Wurtemburg.
Witirzburs nae

Yr iaOl ad Aepbone F

Bureau of American Ethnology .........0.....00008:
Sixteen Vols. of Annual Reports. 1880-95.
Also—The Maya Year; James and Potomac

Valleys; Siouan Tribes of the East;
An Ancient Quarry ; Chinook Texts;
Bibliographies of the Wakashan, Sali-
shan, Chinookan, Athapascan, Siouan,
Eskimo, and Algonquin Languages ;
The Pamunkey Indians of Virginia ;
Catalogue of Prehistoric Works; Omaha
and Ponka Letters ; Circular, Square,
and Octagonal Earthworks of Ohio ;
The Problem of the Ohio Mounds ;
Textile Fabrics of Aneient Peru; Per-
forated Stones from California; The
Use of Gold and other Metals ; Mound
Exploration.

Philosophical Society of Washington
Bulletin. Vol. XII, 1892-4.

Department of the Interior (Smithsonian

Institution).
U.S. National Museum Reports, 1886-8,
1893-4, 1895.

Board of Regents’ Reports, 1892-5.
Smibhsoniane Inshitubiomi sas-ccsanesesetee dae easeiess
The New Zealand Institute _...s.c;.sescaceseesennss

Transactions and Proceedings, Vol. XX,

1887.

New Zealand Government . 5

Statistics of the Colony, "1894- i ‘and Parts
I-III and IV to VII, 1897.

Official Year Book, 1895-97.

Results of Census taken 1896-97.

A Maori-English Lexicon. By the Rev. W.

Colenso, F.R.S., F.L.S., &c.

Polynesiant Socte bya wcreecnnee seen een eeeee eee ee

Journals, Vol. VI, No. 3. 1897. Vol. VII,
Nos. 2, 3. 1898.

Ce

..| Verein fiir Vaterlandische Naturkunde mu

Wurtemburg.
Jahreshefte. No. 51, 1896.

Physik. Medicinische Gesellschaft zu Wurzburg
Sitzungsberichte, Jahrgang, 1896. Nos. 1
and 2. 1897. Nos. 1-9.

Naturforschende Gesellschaft............ssssseee+e =
Vierteljahrsschrift. Vol. XL, Hefte 2-4,

1895; Vol. XLI, Hefte 1-2, 1896.
Neujahrsblatt. XCVIIIL, 1896; XCIX, 1897.
Verhandlungen zu Zurich, 1896.

The Secretary.

The Society.
The Secretary.

The Institute.

The Department.

The Society.
The Society.
The Society.

The Society.

PRECIS OF PREVIOUS VOLUMES OF REPORTS, 1888-95. 1157

Précis of Previous Volumes of Reports, 1888-95.

VoLtume I.—CoONTENTS.
SypNrEY Sesston—28 Avea., 1888.

[659 pages, strongly bound in gilt-lettered cloth boards. ]

Official Report of the Meeting. Inaugural Proceedings. List of Officers and
Members. Research Committees and Recommendations. Presidential Address
by Mr. H. C. Russell, C.M.G., F.R.S., N.S. Wales Government Astronomer.
Section A [Astronomy, Mathematics, Physics, and Mechanics]. PAPERS
by the following :—R. L. J. Ellery, C.M.G., F.R.S. (President’s Address) ;
H. C. Russell, F.R.S., C.M.G.; W. Sutherland, M.A., B.Se.; Prof. R.
Threlfall, M.A. Srcrion B [Chemistry and Mineralogy]: W. A. Dixon,
F.C.S.; G. Gray, F.C.S.; Edgar Hall, F.C.S.; W. M. Hamlet, F.C.S.; Prof.
A. Liversidge, LL.D., F.R.S.; J. H. Maiden, F.L.S.; G. 8. Mackenzie,
Ph. D.; J. C. H. Mingaye, F.C.S.; C. A. Smith, F.C.S. ; W. Skey, F.C.S.
Section C [Geology]: R. L. Jack, F.G.S. (President's Address); H. Y. L.
Brown, E.G.S.;.S: H. Cox, F.C.S. ; Prof. T. W. EH. David, B.A., F.G.S. ;
A. W. Howitt, F.G.S. ; Prof. F. W. Hutton. F.R.S.; R. M. Johnston, F.L.S. ;
W.H. Rands, F.G.S. Prof. Ralph Tate, F.G.S. Srcrios D [Biology]: Prof.
Ralph Tate, F.L.S. (President’s Address) ; Dr. J. Bancroft ; W. M. Hamlet,
F.C.S. ; Prof. T. J. Parker, B.Se., F.R.S. ; E. C. Stirling, M.A. ; H. Tryon.
Section E [Geography]: The Hon. John Forrest, C.M.G. (President’s
Address); G. S. Griffiths, F.R.G.S.; H. G. McKenny, M.E.; J. Panton.
Section F [Heonomic and Social Science and Statistics]: H. H. Hayter, C.M.G.
(President’s Address); Angus Mackay, F.C.S. Srecrion G [Anthropology]:
The Hon. J. W. Agnew, M.D.; Rev. J. Copeland, M.A. ; Rev. 8. Ella; J. Fraser,
LL.D.; Rev. G. Pratt; J. J. Wild, Ph.D. Section H [Sanitary Science
and Hygiene]: Joseph Bancroft, M.D. (President’s Address; J. B. Henson,
C.E.; W. E. Roth, B.A. ; J. M. Smail, C.E.; J. Ashburton Thompson,
M.D. Secrion I [Literature and the Fine Arts]: J. J. Horrocks; G.
Macartney, J. Plummer. Secrion J [Architecture and Engineering]: Prof,
W.C. Kernot, M.A., C.E. (President’s Address); Hon. Allan Campbell, M.D.,
M.Inst.C.E. ; K. L. Murray, C.E.; T. Parker, C.E.; John Sulman, F.R.,
B.A.,; Prof. W. H. Warren, M.Inst.C.E.

Vo.LumeE I1.—ContTents.
MEBLBOURNE SESSION—7 JAN., 1890. (745 pages.)

PRESIDENTIAL Address by Baron von Mueller, K.C.M.G., F.R.S., M. and Ph.D.
Section A [Astronomy, Mathematics, Physics, and Mechanics]: Papers by
the following :—Professor R. Threlfall, M.A. (President’s Address) ; Professor
Kernot, M.A., C.E. Section B [Chemistry and Mineralogy]: Professor E.
H. Rennie, M.A., D.Sc. (President’s Address) ; W. M. Doherty ; J. B. Kirk-
land ; E. W. Knox; Professor A. Liversidge, LL.D., F.R.S.; J. H. Maiden,
F.L.S. Section C [Geology and Palwontology]: Professor F. W. Hutton,
F.R.S. ; John Dennant, F.G.S8., F.C.S. ; E. J. Dunn, F.G.S. ; A. W. Howitt,
F.G.S. ; Professor A. Liversidge, LL.D., F.R.S. ; James Park, F.G.S. ; W.
J. Clunies Ross, B.Sc. ; 8S. H. Wintle, F.L.S. Srctrion D [Biology]: Pro-
fessor A. P. Thomas, M.A., F.L.S. (President’s Address) : A. J. Campbell,
F.L.S. ; T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S. ; Professor W. A. Haswell, D.Sc., F.R.S. ;

1158 PRECIS OF PREVIOUS VOLUMES OF REPORTS, 1888-95.

W. Saville Kent, F.L.S. ; W. H. D. Le Souef; F. A. Skuse; D. Sullivan,
F.L.S.; J. Bracebridge Wilson, M.A. Sxcrion E [Geography]: W. H.
Misken, F.E.S. (President’s Address) ; Rev. 8S. Ella. Srcrron F [Economie
and Social Science and Statistics]: R. M. Johnston, F.L.S. (President’s
Address); H. H. Hayter, C.M.G.; Fred. Turner, F.R.H.S. Sxcrion G
[Anthropology]: Hon. John Forrest, C.M.G., M.L.C. (President’s Address) ;
James Barnard ; Rev. R. H. Codrington; Bolton 8. Corney ; Rev. W. W.
Gill, LL.D. ; A. W. Howitt ; Rev. Geo. Pratt; Rev. A. J. Webb. SEcTION
H [Sanitary Science and Hygiene]: J. Ashburton Thompson (President’s
Address) ; J. Jamieson, M.D. ; F. A. Nyulasy, M.B., Ch.B.; J. W. Smail,
M.Inst.C.E. ; W. L. De Roberts, C.E. Srcrron I [Literature and Fine
Arts]: J. W. Agnew, M.D. (President’s Address). Srcrion J [Architecture
and Engineering]: Professor W. H. Warren, M.Inst.C.E. (President’s
Address) ; Professor Kernot, M.A., C.E. ; John Sulman, F.R.1.B.A.

Reports of Research Committees.—(1) Mineral Census of Australasia ; (2) The
State and Progress of Chemical Science in Australasia with special reference to
Gold and Silver Appliances used in the colonies and elsewhere ; (3) Bibliography
of the Australasian, Papuan, and Polynesian Races; (4) Australasian Biological
Station ; (5) Construction and Hygienic Requirements of Places of Amusement in
Sydney ; (6) Australasian Geological Record ; (7) Town Sanitation.

VoLume III —CoNnTENTS.
CHRISTCHURCH SEssSION—13 JAN., 1891. (595 pages.)

PRESIDENTIAL Address by Sir James Hector, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S. SEcrion

; A [Astronomy, Mathematics, Physics, and Mechanics]: Papers by the follow-
ing :—Professor Lyle, M.A. (President’s Address); Professor A. W. Bickerton ;
Professor W. H. Bragg, M.A. ; A.C. Gifford ; Geo. Hogben, M.A. ; John T.
Meeson, B.A. Secrion B [Chemistry and Mineralogy]: Professor Orme
Masson, M.A., D.Sc. (President’s Address) ; Professor Bickerton; N. T. M.
Wilsmore, B.Sc. Section C [Geology aud Paleontology): Reginald A. F.
Murray, F.G.S. (President’s Address) ; J. H. Baker; H. Hill, F.G.S8.; James
Park, F.G.S. ; Professor Geo. H. F. Ulrich, F.G.S. Sxrcrion D [Biology] :
Professor W. A. Haswell, D.Sc., F.R.S. (President’s Address) ; Professor A.
Bickerton ; J. T. Kirk, F.L.S. ; Professor T. J. Parker, D.Sc., F.R.S. ; Geo.
M. Thomson, F.L.S. Srcrion E [Geography]: G. 8. Griffiths, F.G.S. (Presi-
dent’s Address) ; F. R. Chapman ; Captain Crutchley, R.N., F.R.G.S. ; Dr.
T. M. Hocken ; J. T. Meeson, B.A. ; C. W. Parnell; S. Percy Smith, F.R.G.S.
Section F [Economic and Social Science]: Hon. G. W. Cotton, M.L.C.
(President’s Address). Srcrion G [Anthropology]: A. W. Howitt (Presi-
dent’s Address); Rev. W. W. Gill, LL.D.; R. Coupland Harding ; Rev.
Jas. W. Stack ; E. Tregear, F.R.G.S. ; John White. Srcrion H [Sanitary
Science and Hygiene]: Hon. Allan Campbell, M.D., M.L.C. (President’s
Address) ; Benj. Backhouse, H.A.R.I.B.A.; W. E. Cook, M.C.E. ; Court-
ney Nedwill, M.D., and Edwin Cuthbert, M.Inst.C.E. ; I. de Zouche, M.D.
Section I [Literature and Fine Arts]: R. H. Roe, M.A. (President’s Address).
Section J [Architecture and Engineering]: John Sulman, F.R.IB.A.
(President’s Address); C. W. Adams; C. Napier Bell; R. W. Chapman,
M.A., B.C.E. ; E. Dobson, M.Inst.C.E.; J. P. Maxwell, M.Inst.C.K. ; W.
H. Warren, M.Inst.C.E. ; Robt. Wilson, F.R.S.E.

Reports of Research Committees. —(1) The Committee to investigate and report
upon the Seismological Phenomena of Australasia ; (2) The Tides of South
Australia ; (3) The Unification of Colours and Signs of Geological Maps; (4) The
Improvement of Museums as a Means of Popular Education ; (5) The Fertilisation
of the Fig in the Australasian Colonies; (6) The Location and Laying out of
Towns; (7) The Question of Antarctic Exploration ; (8) Rust in Wheat.

PRECIS OF PREVIOUS VOLUMES OF REPORTS, 1888-95. 1159

VoLumeE IV.—CONTENTS.
Hopart SEssion—7 JAN., 1892. (985 pages.)

PRESIDENTIAL Address by His Excellency Sir Robert G. C. Hamilton, K.C.B.,
LL.D. Papers by the following :—Srcrion A [Astronomy, Mathematics,
Physics, and Mechanics]: Professor W. H. Bragg, M.A. (President’s
Address) ; Sir Robert Ball; A. McAulay, M.A. Srcrion B [Chemistry and
Mineralogy]; W. M. Hamlet, F.C.S. (President’s Address) ; Donald Clark,
B.C.E. ; A. W. Craig, M.A. and N. T. Wilsmore, B.Sc. ; W. M. Doherty ;
A. Henrick Jackson, B.Sc. ; J. B. Kirkland, F.C.S. ; Professor A. Liversidge,
LL:D., F.R.S.; J. H. Maiden, F.L.S.; J. C. H. Mingaye, F.C.S8.; A. J.
Sach, F.C.8.; N. T. M. Wilsmore, B.Sc. Srction C [Geology and Paleon-
tology]: Professor T. W. E. David, B.A., F.G.S. (President’s Address) ;
J. H. Harvey ; H. W. F. Kayser, M.E.; A Montgomery, M.A., and W. F.
Ward, A.R.S.M.; F. Danvers Power, F.G.S.; J. Provis; W. J. Clunies
Ross, B.Sc., F.G.S. ; A. J. Sach, F.C.S8. Srcrion D [Biology]: Professor W.
Baldwin Spencer, M.A. (President’s Address); F. M. Bailey, F.L.S.; A.
Dendy, M.Sc.. F.L.S, ; Professor W. A. Haswell, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S. ;
Professor F. W. Hutton, F.R.S.; W. Saville Kent, F.L.S. ; Colonel Legge,
R.A. ; Pr&essor T. J. Parker. Srctrrton E [Geography]: Commander Pascoe,
R.N. (President’s Address); J. Fraser, LL.D.; J. McClymont, M.A.;
Captain N. Moore, R.N.; A. Mault; Rev. J. B. Woollnough, M.A.; J. P.
Thomson, F.R.G.S. Srcrron F [Hconomic and Social Science and Statistics]:
R. Teece, F.I. A. (President’s Address); Hon. N. J. Brown; J.J. Fenton, F.8.S8. ;
Robert Giffen, C.B., LL.D.; H. H. Hayter; Alfred de Lissa; Mrs. A.
Morton; E. Paris Nesbit; A. J. Ogilvy ; W. E. Stopford ; A. Sutherland,
M.A. Section G [Anthropology]: Rev. Lorimer Fison, M.A. (President’s
Address); Rev. S. M. Creagh; Rev. B. Danks; Rev. S. Ella; Rev. W.
W. Gill, LL.D.; Rev. W. Gray; Rev. J. Lawrie; Rev. J. W. Leggatt ;
Rey. D. Macdonald. Sxrcrion H [Sanitary Science and Hygiene]: Professor
W. H. Warren, M.Inst.C.E. (President’s Address); C. E. Barnard, M.D. ;
EK. O. Giblin, M.D.; E. Hirschfield, M.D.; T. James, M.D.; A. Mault;
Miss V. Mackenzie; A, Park, M.R.C.V.S. Srcrron I [Literature and Fine
Arts}: Professor E. E. Morris, M.A. (President’s Address); J. R. Ashton ;
T. A. Browne; R. V. Elliott, M.A. ; Miss E. Mills; W. C. Piguenit; P. A.
Robin; J. Rule; A. Sutherland, M.A. Section J [Architecture and Engi-
neering]: C. Napier Bell, C.E. (President’s Address); EK. Dobson, M.Inst.C.E. ;
W. W. Eldridge; C. Wordsworth James, C.E. ; D. M. Maitland; A. North;
A. O. Sachse, C.E. ; Allen Stewart ; Alan C. Walker, A.R.I. B.A.

Reports of Research Commitiees.—(1) Seismological Phenomena in Australasia ;
(2) The Tides of the Coast of South Australia; (3) The Fig in the Australasiaz
Colonies ; (4) The Antartic Committee ; (5) Supplementary Bibliography for
Australia, Malaysia, Melanesia, and Polynesia.

VoLuME V.—CONTENTS.
ADELAIDE SESSION—25 SeEpt., 1893. (665 pages.)

PRESIDENTIAL Address by Professor Ralph Tate, F.G.S., F.L.S. Papers by the
following :—Srction A [Astronomy, Mathematics, and Physics]: H. C.
Russell, C.M.G., B.A., F.R.S. (President’s Address) ; R. W. Chapman and
Captain Inglis; C. C. Farr, B.Sc.; G. Fleuri; G. Hogben, M.A.; W. H.
Steele, M.A. ; Sir Charles Todd, K.C.M.G., M.A. ; Captain Weir. Sxrcrion
B [Chemistry]: C. N. Hake, F.C.S. (President’s Address); D. Avery, B.Se. ;
Donald Clark; T. C. Cloud, F.C.8., and G. J. Rogers, A.R.S.M.; D. H.
Jackson, B.Se.; G. W. MacDonald, B.Sc. ; Professor Rennie, M.A., D.Sc.,
and E. F. Turner; W. Perey Wilkinson. Srcrion C [Geology and

1160 PRECIS OF PREVIOUS VOLUMES OF REPORTS, 1888-96,

Mineralogy) : Professor T, W. E. David, B.A., E.G.S. J. Dennant, F.G. 8.,

,029:50G-6b. Pritchard and 7s: Hall, M:A.; W. Howchin, F.G.S. ;
Professor A. Liversidge, LL.D., F.R.S.; Geo. ‘Sweet, F.G.S., and C.
C. Brittlebank. Srcrion D [Biology] : es W. de Vis, M.A. (President’s
Address); Rev. Thomas Blackburn, B.A.; A. J. Campbell, F.L.S. ; Prof.
A. Dendy, D.S¢. ; C. Hedley, F.L.S. ; M. Holtz, F.L.S. ; Col. Legge, F.L.S. ;
D. McAlpine; John Shirley, B.Sc. Srcrion E [Geography]: A. C. Macdonald,
F.R.G.S. (President’s Address) ; Charles Hedley, F.L.S. ; Charles Hope Harris ;
J. Stirling, F.G.S. Srcrion F [Ethnology and Ane oe Rev. S. Ella
(President’s Address); A. F. Cudmore; A.T. Magarey; 8. E. Peal, F.R.G.S. ;
Francis H. Wells. Srcrion G [Economic Science and ‘Agr icultur el: BC
Anderson, M.A. (President’s Address) ; His Honor Mr. Justice Bundey ; W.
Gill; A. Molineux; D. Murray. Srcrion H [Engineering and Architecture] :
R. J. Scott, A.M.I.C.E. (President’s Address) ; J. T. Noble Anderson, C.E. ;
Chas. Hope Harris; Prof. Kernot, M.A., C.E.; Geo. Knibbs; J. C. B.
Moncrieff, M.I.C.E.;. J. H. Packard; S. Smeaton, B.A., C.E.; S. A.
Institute of Surveyors. Sercrion I [Sanitary Science and cen : A. Mault
(President’s Address); Dr. Barnard, and A. Park, M.R.C.V.8.; G. A. Goyder,
junr., F.C.S.; C. E. Owen Smyth ; John Sulman, F.B.LB.A. Srcrion J
[ Mental Science and ideation Professor Laurie LL. D. (Presiglent’s Address);
E. F. J. Love, M.A. ; Rev. Canon Poole, M.A. ; P. Ansell Robin, M.A. ;
John Shirley, B.Se.

Reports of Research Committees.—(1) Seismological Phenomena in Australasia ;
(2) The Systematic Conduct by the various Governments of Australia of the
Photographic work of the different Geological Surveys ; (3) Progress Reports upon
the Evidences of Glacial Action in Australasia during the Tertiary and Post-
Tertiary Kras ; (4) The Protection of Native Fauna.

VoLumeE V1I.—CoNTENTS.
BRISBANE SESSION—l1TH AvcusT, 1898. (858 pages.)

Presidential Address by the Hon. A. C. Gregory, C.M.G., F.R.G.S., M.L.C.
Papers by the following :—Secrion A[Astronomy, Mathematics, and Physics] :
Alex. McAulay, M.A. “(President’s Address) ; Sir Robt. Ball, ake Dynes
P. Baracchi, F.R.A.S.; Professor Bragg, M.A.; Ralph Copeland, Jen De
ReRSAGS ss E.R.S.E. ; rem Fleuri; H. C. Russell, B.A., CM. Gia ReSaeadk p.
Thomson. SEction B [Chemistr yi dg) Jake Maiden, FS. (President’s
Address) ; W. M. Doherty, F.C.S. ; F. B. Guthrie, F.C.S. ; W. A. Hargreaves,
M.A., B. O. EK. ; Dr. Jos. Lauterer, Pract. Arzt., M.R. Sh 9 Prof. A. Liversidge,
acc: , ERS. 3 J. H. Maiden and H. J. Smith ; J. C.H. Mingaye, F.C.S. ;
K. H. Rennie, See and EK. F. Turner; F. W. Simmonds; E. A. Wein-
berg, M.E. Section C [Geology]: Professor T. W. E. David, B.A., F.G.S.
(President’s Address) ; Wm. Fryar; E. G. Hogg, M.A. ; R. L. Jack, E.G. She
Prof. A. Liversidge, LL.D.,; F.R.S. ; John Munday ; Graham Officer, B.Sc.
and Lewis Balfour, B.A.; E. F. Pittman, A.R.S.M.; G. B. Pritchard.
Section D Biology: Professor Arthur Dendy, D.S8c., or eS! (President’s
Address) ; F. M. Bailey, F.L.S.; Dr. M. C. Cooke, M.A.; A. J. Campbell;
A. G. eg Joseph Lauterer, M.D.; Col. W. O. Legge, ELS Drwdi:
Muller; D. Le Souef. Srction E [Geography] : Baron Ferdinand Von
er K.C.M.G., Ph.D., F.R.S. (President’s Address); Rev. W. Allen ;

M. Astrie; Rev. Geo. K. Baskerville; J. P. Brooke ; Mr. Christopher
oes C.M. Gis B. R.G.S. ; His Excellency Sir a. W. Norman, G.C.B.,
G.C.M. G.; C.1. E. Hon. A. W. Paul, C.1L.E.; H. Warrington Smith.
Section F [Evhnolog y and Anthropology) : Thos. iWiomtop (President? . Ad-
dress); Rev. S. Ella; W. J. grin and R. H. Mathews; Prof. R. O.
Garner ; Jos. Lauterer, M.D.; A. 'T. Magarey; Rev. J. E. Newell; T. A,

PRECIS OF PREVIOUS VOLUMES OF REPORTS, 1888-95. 1161

Parkhouse; Rev. J. B. Starr. Section G [Economic Science]: Prof. W.
Scott, M.A. (President’s Address); R. R. Garran, B.A.; Hon. Andrew
Garran, M.A., LL.D.; Sir S. W. Griffith; J. B. Gregory, B.A.; W.
MeMillan; Grace Neill; Rev. R. Stephen, M.A. [Agriculture]: A. H. Benson;
P. R. Gordon ; Angus Mackay, F.C.8. ; C. C. Mair; E. M. Shelton, M.Se. ;
Section H [Architecture and Engineering]: Jas. Incham, M.Inst.C.E. (Presi-
dent’s Address) ; P. F. Hockings, A.F.R.I.B.A. ; Prof. W. C. Kernot, M.A.,

E., F.R.G.S. ; Prof. A. Liversidge, LL.D., F.R.S. ; Thos. Parker, C.E. ;
John Rogers, A.M.I.C.E.; Thos. Turnbull. Srcrron I [Sanitary Science
and Hygiene]: J. W. Springthorpe, M.A., M.D., M.R.C.S. (President’s
Address) ; Joseph Ahearne, L.R.C.P.; S. 8. Cameron, M.R.C.P.S. ; E.
Hirschfield, M.D.; J. Sydney Hunt, M.R.C.S.; Wilton Love, M.B. ;
K. I. O'Doherty, F.R.C.S. ; J. Ashburton Thompson, M.D. ; F. H. V. Voss,
cea Szction J [Mental Science and Education]: H. Belcher, M.A.,

Reports of Research Committees :—(1) Seismological Committee; (2) Glacial
Evidence Committee ; (3) Pyschical Research Committee.

PRICES.
5s. to members.
vee cie ae ne 7s. 6d, to non-members, With postage
Viole aVaAW . 5: Bae He Wot for sale. added.
Vol iValle zoe pe 10s. 6d. to non-members.

Sydney : William Applegate Gullick, Government Printer—1898.

7 wr’ see Te ! eT Moree
Pree ea Te

S WHSE 041

ee

~
“: ae sm
ae a re en WS tk Te tie tes St ene meme nara
» Set Leable a aS eee BA lack tne pinot tenses trate i nes Sa eat inp) a on I HE ne A a i een wi yt tent Tp ee nit it abi Ee tanta in i nla Sn Rl ot peeks O Onin Bite hy nis Dement Reames firs
meen ete Seebeatee herbert tae ene ey Re em ee REE Re ete tt A cnt Mit eae tee Ce ee ae a coe oe ae. oe oe 4

DY ei eee eee

eee es
See =

ee Fs ) gee,
Seat ewan ee aes
ae eoy*<.
aK

te