ae YY Veg OS Soot Matra) ges aed ., . be yey Lai cole fe Fe LET t w: Het ye FOS it iy 5 Hes a eS tent ; ritiadweyan nes > aA Vesa Z UY, ™ eee - Z a ley | - Se eat a . : ( P : yah wo * sega : ‘ Lact . oe ; zy ey ere ones: y : : 4 v4 TaN Amt th Reet , Wyte op : a : ¥ 4 ; ys 14) Soe Bok abet . é SESE: ee st frtat - o< $e, B. ry E . ° ea Ne “ Sears Seo Soe Se * < Sel ~, ~ a re ~S Coreen : Se Ls, ; 2 es : : Ex , Aenean nnn Boa aS Se Se a a 3 _— s A ‘ ~~ e nner ; me Sceaennse onan’ em eae — oa nected * a. i aes aS ee ee % " a s . a a eles Sa a ee ha REPORT OF THE EIGHTH MEETING AUSTRALASIAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE MELBOURNE, VICTORIA, 1QOO. EDITED BY MELBOURNE PUBLISHED BY THE ASSOCIATION. 1go!I. Please Address all Communications to— THE PERMANENT HON. SECRETARY, THE AUSTRALASIAN ASSOCIATION, THE UNIVERSITY, GLEBE, SYDNEY, NEW SOUTH WALES. McCarron, Bird and Co., Printers, 479 Collins-street CONTENTS. SSS List of Proceedings of the Sections a Officers and Council, and Members of Committees Local Committee and Delegate Members Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of Sections Objects and Rules of the Association ... List of Evening Lectures a Statements of Receipts and Expenditure Table Showing Attendances and Receipts and Sums Paid or Voted for Scientific Pur poses Extracts from the Minutes of the Meeting of fie | pete held 9th January, 1900 . Extracts from the Minutes of the Meeting of the General Council, held 15th January, 1900... Committees of Investigation Appointed Committees of Investigation Reappointed Recommendations Agreed to by the General Council General Programme for the Meeting ... PRESIDENTS’ ADDRESSES. Address by the President, Mr. R. L. J. ees: C.M.G., F.B.S EEA ae. 2 ee Addresses by the Presidents of Sections REPORTS OF RESEARCH COMMITTEES. The Magnetic Survey of New Zealand The Glacial Committee om The Photographic Work of Gealogiculis Surveys Proceedings of the Sections ... List of Authors of Papers ae ad Index of Titles of Papers and Presidential Adar esses List of Members for the Melbourne Session, 1900 3011'\ PAGES 1V xil xill XVI XV1l a 4 | XXll xXXV XXV1 XXVIL1 XXVlll oe XxX Xxxl PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTIONS Section A.—ASTRONOMY, MATHEMATICS anp PHYSICS. WEDNESDAY, lOTH JANUARY, 1900. PAGE Address by G. H. Knibbs, F.R.A.S., L.S., President of the Section 18 THurspay, lltH JANUARY, 1900. 1. The Annual March of Temperature at Melbourne. By R. J. A. Barnard, M.A. a ee om w= ... 184 2. The Production of Micrometric and Diffraction Rulings. By Henry J. Grayson ss he ne apy I 3. The Lunar Eclipse of June, 1899 —... a chy 4 oe Fripay, 12rH JANuarRy, 1900. 4, A Possible Cause of the Earth’s Magnetism, and a Theory of its Variations. By W. Sutherland, M.A. ... ‘gs 2.4 AS 5. On Certain Surface and Volume Integrals of an Ellipsoid. By KG. Hoge, M.A. wits ioe ~ ts ne oo 6. Electro-Magnetic Reflection and Refraction. By Professor A. M‘Aulay, M.A. ee A ay, es ww JS i oh aaa Note on the Specific Inductive Capacity of ee By T..P. V.. Madsen. 2 196 8. A Gravity Ses By Professor Re Threlfall, M.A. : “and Pro- fessor J. A. Pollock, B.Sc. = 196 9. The Bicycle Wheel. By B. A. Smith, M.C.E. Be as eae 10. Note on the Permeability of Samples of Steel cast in Melbourne. ay W. N. Kernot, B.C.E. io of KS ws SATURDAY, 13TH JANUARY, 1900. 11, Fluid Viscosity and the Temperature Variation. an R. Hosking 195 12. The Transference of Energy through Space. By J.G. O. Tepper 203 Section B.—CHEMISTRY. Wepbwnespay, lOtTH JANUARY, 1900. Address by F. B. Guthrie, F.C.8., President of the Section eee te LO. Le. 13. THURSDAY, ll] TH JANUARY, 1900. . Some Notes on the Gold Bullion Assay. by Professor Mica Smith, B.Sc. -. FripAy, 12TH JANUARY, 1900. The Influence of the Elements on the Growth of Plants. By A. N. Pearson, F.C.S... The Composition of Natural Wines. By M. R iagttiotta Biihoiee Notes on Alluvial Gold in Gippsland. By Donald Clark, B.C. B. The Treatment of Auriferous Stone in ory By Donald Clark, B.C.E.. oe Some Practical Points i in the Precipitation of Gold Fe € iaids Solutions by Charcoal. By Robt. B. Lamb The Electrolytic Manufacture of Chlorine. by John Jones A New Standard for Use in Volumetric Analysis. By Professor Orme Masson, M.A., D.Sc. Preliminary Notes on the Alkaloids of Australian Plants. By Geo. Harker, B.Sc. SATURDAY, I131TH JANUARY, 1900. An {xamination of the Wines Retailed in Victoria. By W. Percy Wilkinson A Preliminary Note on the Effect of Viscosity on the Cite: tivity of Solutions. By Professor Orme Masson and C. J. Martin, M.B., D.Sc. Monpay, 15TH JANuaARy, 1900. Experiments on the Relative Velocities of lons. By Professor Orme Masson, M.A., D.Sc. The Molecular Constitution of Water. By W. Sutherland, M.A. Section C.—GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. WEDNESDAY, LOTH JANUARY, 1900. of the Section . Address by Professor a ie F.G.8., F.L.8., &c., President s) Frinay, 127TH January, 1900. The Geological Survey of the Atoll of Funafuti, and What It Teaches. By Geo. Sweet, F.G.S. ; The Rate of Erosion of Some Victorian River Valleys. See Go. Brittlebank . Petrological Notes on the Granites of Victoria. By E. G. Hogg, M.A. si Wee Q re bo b& ~1 =I <1 LD) Vill ~_ we ~ W =} Fripay, 12TH JANUARY, 1900. . Notes on Lemuria. By James Stirling . Geological Evidences of Upheavals and Depressions Accounting for the Islands of the Pacific. a oe William Camp- bell Thomson ... ies The Warrumbungle prouniaras of the New papa District. By His Honour Judge E. B. Docker, M.A.. e . Supposed Further Traces of Leichhardt. by J. A. aan C.M.G., F.R.G.S. 7. Central Australia. By C, W Pees + SatuRDAY, 13TH JANUARY, 1900. . Mounts Juliet and Baw Baw. By W. N. Kernot, B.C.K. An Episode in the History of See ae A. W. Howitt, FE. G:s.- ae a . Bottle Lore from Sea to Shore. By sees A. See Monpay, 15TH JANUARY, 1900. 1l. The Determination of the Constant of Gravity at Melbourne Absolutely and Relatively, with Reference to Bessel’s Determinations at Berlin and Koenigsberg. By Dr. Neumayer Section F.—ETHNOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY. WEDNESDAY, lOTH JANUARY, I9CO. Address by F. J. Gillen, 8.M., &c., President of the Section Fripay, 12TH JANUARY, 1900. 1. On Some Ceremonies of the Central Australian Tribes. By J. G. Oe 3: 4. Frazer, M.A., Fellow of Trinity College, Camb. Trephining in the Bismarck per ee sh the Rev. John A. Crump Bie Some New Britain Customs. By ae Geo. Bion n, \D. so Ophiolatry in Kiriwina is New Guinea). By Rev. S. B. Fellows The Annual Harvest F estiv Ay at eee By hee S. BB. Fr se s SaTuRDAY, 13TH JaNuaRy, 1900. 6. The Aborigines of Australia and Tasmania. By Miss Georgina ds 8. King.. 7 ; eck ee Surface Similarities in Trewte By R ev. Lorimer Fison, D.D.. On Some British New Guinea Numerals. ey Rev. iuegaita Fison, D.D. ee PAGE 298 208 299 yas 290 299 291 297 to ~1 D LO9 312 300 307, 300 320 331 331 — 1X Monpbay, ldorH JANUARY, 1900. PAGE 9. Maternal Descent in the Salic Law. By A. W. Howitt, F.G.S. 321 10. On Trade Centres in the Australian Tribes. By A. W. Howitt, E.G:S. We Bee bs $33 ae .-1 ooo il. Exogamy at Tubetube, British New Guinea. by Rev. J. T. “Field 3: ve ar aes Bis ALOU 12. Burial Customs at Presta iby, Bev. ol. 0. Bieldy —<.: iol 13. The Divisions, Languages, Initiation, Weapons, Xc., of the Aborigines of the North-west Coast of New South Wales. By R. H. Mathews, L.S., and W. Enright, B.A. ... . 9300 Secrion G.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND AGRICULTURE. WEDNESDAY, LOTH JANUARY, 1900. Address by Professor W. Lowrie, M.A., B.Sc., &c., President of the Section aie Ant oa 2 A? a eee! THuRsDAY, lltTH JANUARY, 1900. Address by Professor W. Jethro Brown, M.A., LL.D., Chairman of the Sub-section of Economics 3a2 Heonomic Science Papers. 1. The Probability of Death from Cancer, Mathematically Treated according to Professor Karl Pearson’s Method of Skew- Curves. By A. O. Powys 3d aa ee cnais y/ oeed FRIDAY, 12TH JANUARY, 1900. 2. Railway Labour. By W. Walker ... ee ee .. SbF 3. Natural Rights. By Mr. Justice Clark Le Sh et) Sa eee 4. The Origin of Trusts. By Max Hirsch ot bis a oF ee SATURDAY, 13TH JANUARY, 1900. 5. A Recent Experiment in Currency Reform. By C. W. Adams 333 6. Australian Railways under Federation. By R. L. Nash Wel See 7. The Minimum Voting Age. By H. K. Rusden oe Sant Oe Agriculture Papers. THURSDAY, L1TH JANUARY, 1900. 1. Bacteriological Research in the Milk Flora of Australia. By Dr. R. J. Bull and H. W. Potts, F.C.S. M f LE SEO 2. The Soil: Its Origin and that of Its Fertility. By J. G. O. Tepper, F.L. S, oe a a) xh aoe 3. Ona Gum Disease of Apricots pada in the Wehnthiete Dis- tricts ef Victoria. By G. H. Robinson .., feo a. | doo Fripay, 12TH JANuARY, 1900. PAGE 4. Notes on Practical Entomology. By W. W. Froggatt “oat ee 5. Some Recent Work with Tuberculin and Tuberculous Cattle. By M.A. O’Callaghan .. ee 1 os ee 6. Experiment Farms. By W. Basten 3. BY tis. Ba . 339 7. Variety Tests of Wheat in the Mallee. By D. M‘Alpine ee 7 8. The Scientific Directing of a Country’s Agriculture. By A. N. Pearson, F.C.S. pe sae et Bm te = Section H.—ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE. THtRSDAY, lltH January, 1900. Address by H. nee M.A., M.Inst.C.E., &c., President of the Section : 5 Sars ee = 1, The New eiptenuh Pee nail at the Uae of Mel- bourne. ‘By Professor W. C. ‘Kernot, M.A., M.C.E. 5, 2. The Balancing of Locomotives. By Professor W. C. Kernot, MAS Cals 3. = ae ep sf = jood Fripay, 12TH January, 1900. 3. Results of Five and a-half Years’ Cement Testing. By C. E. Oliver, M.C.F., M.Inst.C.E., and W. P. Wilkinson .. 3846 4. The Monier Method of Construction. By J. T. Noble Anderson 346 5. Circular Arches. By B. A. Smith, M.C.K.... Lo win |) 6. Units of Stress and Weight in Engineering Calculation. By Anketell Henderson, M.C.E. ... ie: Bs ww. 349 7. Australian Building Stones. By Jas. Nangle... on . oa SATURDAY, 13TH JAaNuARY, 1990. 8. Some Deductions from Graphical Chronology of Architecture. By Anketell Henderson, M.C. KE. ah oe ++) aoe Monpay, 15TH JANUARY, 1900. 9. The Early and Later Architects of Melbourne, with a few Illus- trations of their Works. By Lloyd Tayler, F.R.I.B.A eR AS . ee Section I.—SANITARY SCIENCE AND HYGIENE. ae by James Jamieson, M.D., President of the Section is 146 . The Milk Supply of Melbourne and the Scientific Handling of Milk. By Stanley 8. Argyle, M.B. = : 370 . The Pathological and Physiological Treatment of Aingieliees By M. Crivelli, 11) OD a5. “an ~~ 0 . A Comparison of the Drainage Details of Adelaide, Melbourne, and Sydney. By Anketell M. Henderson,M.C.K.,F.R.V.LA. . Some Important Factors in the Prevention of Consuniption in Australia. By F. A. Nyulasy, M.B., Ch.B. . A Description of the Water Supply and Sew S88 of Malpoame! By C. E. Oliver, M.C.E. . The Ventilation of Buildings. By B. " Smith, Be: E. . Some Points of Interest in Connection with Influenza. By J. W. Springthorpe, M.A., M.D. Section J.—MENTAL SCIENCE AND EDUCATION. WEDNEsDAY, 10TH JANUARY, 1900. Address by W. L. Cleland, M.D., &c., President of the Section 4 Fripay, 12TH JANuaRy, 1900. A Curriculum for the Primary Schools of Australia. By C. R. Long, M.A. o> * 2. Child Study: A New Department of Science. -By J. H. Betheras, B.A. . The Training of Faculty. By W. T. Lewis . Child Culture. By Mrs. C. E. Millward bg ~ . The Training of Mentally-Deficient Children. By Miss M. Hodge SATURDAY, 13TH JANUARY, 1900. . Criminology, from a Medical Standpoint. By Dr. J. V. M‘Creery . Some Aspects of the Technical Education Question in Victoria. By F. A. Campbell, M.C.E. . The Country Technical College. By A. J. Sach, F.C.S. . The Need of Training Secondary Teachers. By Miss Henderson Monpay, 1l5rn January, 1900, . The Problem of the State Kducation of Children Physically Afflicted or Mentally Impaired. By R. R. Stawell, M.D.,B.S. . The Place of Australian Girls in the Evolution of the Nation. By Mrs. E. T. Stirling... 2. The Drift of Education in Victoria. By A. W. Craig, M.A. 3. Education and Socialism. By Rey. F. V. Pratt, M.A. 378 374 378 OFFICERS FOR THE MEEBOURNE SESSi@m THE ASSOCIA RH. JANUARY, 1900. Watron: THE Ricgur WoRSHIPFUL THE Mayor Or MELBOURNE, Sir Marconm D. M‘EacHarn. Vresident : Bh. i. - JP EER Y, CoMeG. PRS, 2 A Viee-Presidents: H. ¢. BussEnu, CoM.G.; BoASE.RS., FRAG: Sir JamrEs Hecror, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.B.S. Professor Ratee Tarr, F.G.8., F.L.S. The Hon. A. C. Grecory, C.M.G., M.L.C. Professor A. LiveRsipGE, M.A., LL D., F.R.S. Permanent Sjon. Seeretary: Professor A. Liversipcr, M.A., LL.D., F.B.S. 4jon. General Creasurer: H. C. Russenn, CMG) BARES, ERAS. jon. Seeretaries for the Melbourne Session: Vietoria—Professor BALDWIN SpENCER, M.A.; EK. F. J. Love, F.R.A.S., University, Melbourne. ' C. BR. BLACKER Ses: Sjon. Seeretarics for the other Colonies: New South Wales—Professor Liverstpcn, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., versity of Sydney. OF M.A, Uni- South Australia—Professor W. H. Braac, M.A.; Professor E. H. RENNIE, M.A., D.Sc., University, Adelaide. New Zealand—Guro. M. THomson, F.L.S., Newington, Dunedin. Tasmania—A. Morron, The Museum, Hobart. Queensland—J. Surrey, B.Sc’, District Inspector of Schools, brisbane. xl Ex-Officio Members of Council: The Council consists of (1) present and former Presidents, Vice-Presidents, Treasurers, and Secretaries of the Association, and present and former Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the Sections, who are subscribing members for the current Meeting ; (2) Members of the Association delegated to the Council by Scientific Societies : and (subject to confirmation. by the Council at Hobart) (3) Secre- taries of Research Committees appointed by the Council. Trustees (Vermanent) : Mo jesse, CMCC. A. BRS. BRASS. Kb J bateey, C.M.G., FBS... FR.A.S. Professor A. LivrersipGE, M.A., LL.D., F.B.S. Auditors: R. Trercer, F.1.A. R. A. DALLEN. Auditor for the Melbourne Session: F. T. J. Dickson. Publication Commiitec : The President, the General Secretaries, the Treasurer for Victoria, and the Secretaries of the Sections. Aiecommendation Committee: The President and Past Presidents, the General Treasurer, and the Past and Present General Secretaries. Meception Commitee: The Members of the Local Council for Victoria. LOCAL COUNCIL FOR VICTORIA. [The Local Council consists of Members of the General Council who are residents of the Colony in which the Meeting takes place. ] Baraccui, P., F.R.A-S. Fison, Rev. Lorimer, M.A., D.D. BARNARD, R. J. A., M.A. Fowune, ‘T. W., M.-C Bh. F.R-G-S. Buackett, C. R., F.C.S. GosMAN, Rey. A., D.D. orians, J. T:; M.A., LL.M. Hann, TOS. Mea: Gearc, A. W., M.A., F.C.S. Henry, L., M.D. Eppy, F. C., M.A. HenpeERSoN, A. M., M.C.E., Every, R. L. J., C.M.G., F.B.S., H.R. YL A F.R.A.S. Hoee, E.G., M.A. ELKINGTON, Prof. J.S.,M.A.,LL.B. - Howrrt, A. W., F.G.S. FrEntTon, J. J. JAMIESON, J., M.D. Fre_prer, W., F.R.M.S. Kernot, Prof. W. C., M.A., M.G.E. X1V Ravn, Prof... LL: D; LinegeEy, E. Love, E. F. J., M.A., F.R.A.S. LUEHMANN, J. G., F.L.S. byins Pref, 8. Rs, M.A. M‘Anpine, D. PRITCHARD, G. Bb. Ruspen, H. K. Smiru, Prof. A. Mica, B.Se. Smit, B. A., M.C.E. SpPENcER, Prof. BaALpwin, M.A. SPRINGTHORPE, J. W., M.A., M.D. MacponaLD, A. C., F.R.G.S. STIRLING, JAS. Mats, H. C.,. M-Inst.C.E., ME “Soe@pmn; Rev. KE. H., M.A.. Base Mech. K. SUTHERLAND, A., M.A. Martin, D. SuTHERLAND, W., M.A. Martin, C. J., M.B., D.Se. Syme, G. A., M.B., M.S., E.B.CS. Masson, Prof. D. Ormg, M.A., TAYLER, LLoyp, F:RiVil. A. WILKINSON, W. P. Wricut, A. J., FR.G.8.) Fete. Inst. DSc:, F.R.S-E: FREE AS Morris, Prof. E. E., M.A., Litt. D. Nimmo, W. H., C.E. Pearson, A. N., F.C.S. MEMBERS OF COUNCIL NOMINATED BY SOCIETIES. [The Victorian Local Council invited the various Scientific Societies of Australasia to nominate Members to the General Council, it being understood that (1) Each Society should nominate not more than one Member of Council for every 100 Members on its roll, and (2) that all such nominated Members or Representatives should be subscribing Members of the Association. ] New South Wales : DARFF, H. E., M.A., Royal Society of New South Wales. Docker, His Honour Judge E. B., M.A., Royal Society of N.S.W. GRIMSHAW, J. W., M.Inst.C.E., M.I.Mech.K., Royal Society of N.S.W. SCHOFIELD, J. A., A.R.S.M., F.C.S., Royal Society of New South Wales, Baker, R. T., F.L.8., Linnean Society of New South Wales. HEDLEY, C., F.L.8., Linnean Society of New South Wales. ForseER, 1. F., F.R.A.S., L.S., Institution of Surveyors of N.S. W. Hauican, G. H., Institution of Surveyors of New South Wales. BaRRACLOUGH, 8S. H., B.E., M.M.E., Sydney University Engineering Soc. Victoria : Epwarps, T. E., Royal Society of Victoria. WuiteE, E. J., F.R.A.S., Royal Society of Victoria. SHEPHARD, J., Field Naturalists’ Club of Victoria. Torr, C. A., M.A., LL.B., Field Naturalists’ Club of Victoria. HENDERSON, A. M., M.C.E., F.R.V.I.A., Royal Victorian Institute of Architects. XV YLER, Lioyp, F.R.1.B.A., F.R.V.1.A., Royal Victorian Institute of Architects. GopFrRey, F. R., Zoological and Acclimatisation Society of Victoria. Suittineiaw, H. W., Pharmaceutical Society of Australasia. Brown, E. J., Victorian Institute of Surveyors. South Australia : Dixon, S., Royal Society of South Australia. SrLway, W. H., Royal Society of South Australia. MincHIN, ALFRED C., Zoological and Acclimatisation Society of South Australia. Queensland : Sutton, J. W., Royal Society of Queensland. New Zealand : Tomson, G.M., F.L.8., Otago Institute, Dunedin, New Zealand. Tasmania : Professor W. JETHRO Brown, M.A., LL.D., Royal Society of Tasmania. Mr. Justice CLark, Royal Society of Tasmania. Morton, A., Royal Society of Tasmania. WTT VW “SUo9 AL OS'd “VIN “Wopoug "HW *Aey. 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[Notr.— Portions of Rules printed in italics—proposed and carried at the Melbourne, 1900, Session—require to be confirmed at the Hobart Meeting of the Council in 1902. } OBJECTS OF THE ASSOCIATION. The objects of the Association are to give a stronger impulse and a more systematic direction to scientific inquiry; to promote the intercourse of those who cultivate science in different parts of the Australasian colonies and in other countries; to obtain more general attention to the objects of science, and a removal of any disadvantages of a public kind which may impede its progress. RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. MEMBERS. 1. Members shall be elected by the Council. 2. The subscription shall be £1 for each Session, to be paid in advance. 3. A member may at any time become a Life Member by one payment of £10, in lieu of future subscriptions. 4. Ladies’ Tickets (admitting the holders to the General and Sectional Meetings, as well as the Evening Entertainments) may be obtained by full Members on payment of 10s. for each ticket. Ladies may also become Members on the same terms as gentlemen. SESSIONS. 5. The Association shall meet in Session periodically for one week or longer. The place of meeting shall be appointed by the Council two years in advance, and the arrangements for it shall be entrusted to the Local Committee. CounNcCIL. 6. There shall be a Council consisting of the following Members : —(1) Present and former Presidents, Vice-Presidents, Treasurers and Secretaries of the Association, and present and former Presi- dents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the Sections. (2) Mem- bers of the Association delegated to the Council by Scientific Societies. (3) Secretaries of Research Committees appointed by the Council. 7. The Council shall meet only during the Session of the Association, and during that period shall be called together at least twice. xVlil LocaL CoMMITTEES. 8. In the intervals between the Sessions of the Association its affairs shall be managed in the various colonies by Local Com- mittees. The Local Committee of each colony shall consist of the Members of Council resident in that colony. OFFICERS. 9. The President, five Vice-Presidents (elected from amongst former Presidents), a General Treasurer, one or more General Secre- taries and Local Secretaries shall be appointed by the Council. RECEPTION COMMITTEE. 10. The Local Committee of the colony in which the Session 3s to be held shall appoint a Reception Commititee to assist in making arrangements for the reception and entertainment of the visitors. This Committee shall have power to add to its number. OFFICE. 11. The permanent Office of the Association shall be in Sydney. Ei sks Monty AFFAIRS OF THE ASSOCIATION. 12. The financial year shall end on the 30th June. 13. All sums received for life subscriptions, and from the Sales of back volumes of Reports, shall be invested in the names of three Trustees appointed by the Council, and the interest arising from such investment shall be reserved for grants in aid of scientific researches. 14. The subscriptions shall be collected by the Local Secre- tary in each colony, and be forwarded by him to the General Treasurer. 15. The Local Committees shall not have power to expend money without the authority of the Council, with the exception of the Local Committee of the colony in which the next ensuing Session is to be held, which shall have power to expend money collected or otherwise obtained in that colony. Such disbursements shall be audited, and the balance-sheet and the surplus funds be forwarded to the General Treasurer. 16. All cheques shall be signed either by the General Treasurer and the General Secretary or by the Local Treasurer and the Secretary of the colony in which the ensuing Session is to be held. 17. Whenever ‘the balance in the hands of the Banker shall exceed the sum requisite for the probable or current expenses of the Association, the Council shall invest the excess in the names of the Trustees. 18. The whole of the accounts of the Association, i.e., the local as well as the general accounts, shall be audited annually by two Auditors appointed by the Council; and the Balance- sheet shall be submitted to the Council at its first meeting there- after. Money GRANTs. 19. Committees and individuals to whom grants of money have been entrusted are required to present to the following meeting a report of the progress which has been made, together with a statement of the sums which have been expended. Any balance shall be returnd to the General Treasurer. x1x _ 20. In each Committee the Secretary is the only person entitled to call on the Treasurer for such portions of the sums granted as may from time to time be required. 21. In grants of money to Committees, or to individuals, the Association does not contemplate the payment of personal expenses to the members or to the individual. SECTIONS OF THE ASSOCIATION. 22. The following Sections shall be constituted : — A.—Astronomy, Mathematics, and Physics. B.—Chemistry. C.—Geology and Mineralogy. D.— Biology. E.— Geography. F.—Ethnology and Anthropology. G.—Economic Science and Agriculture. H.—Engineering and Architecture. I.—Sanitary Science and Hygiene. J.—Mental Science and Education. SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. 23. The President of each Section shall take the chair, and proceed with the business of the Section not later than 11 a.m. In the middle of the day an adjournment for luncheon shall be made; and at 4 p.m. the Sections shall close. 24. On the second and following days the Sectional Committees shall meet at 10 a.m. 25. The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the several Sections shall be nominated by the local Committee of the colony in which the next ensuing Session of the Association is to be held, and shall have power to act until their ejection is confirmed by the Council. From the time of their nomination, which shall take place as soon as possible after the Session of the Association, they shall be regarded as an Organising Committee, for the pur- pose of obtaining information upon papers likely to be submitted to the Sections, and for the general furtherance of the work of the Sectional Committees. The Sectional Presidents of former years shall be ex officio Members of the Organising Committees. 96. The Sectional Committees shall have power to add to their number. 27. The Committees for the several Sections shall determine the acceptance of papers before the beginning of the Session. It is therefore desirable, in order to give an opportunity to the Com- mittees of doing justice to the several communications, that each author should prepare an abstract of his paper, of a length suitable for insertion in the published Transactions, Reports, or Proceedings of the Association, and that he should send it, together with the original paper, to the Secretary of the Section before which it is to be read, so that it may reach him at least a fortnight before the Session. 28. Members may communicate to the Section the papers of non- Members. 29. The author of any paper is at liberty to reserve his right of property therein. xX 30. No report, paper, or abstract shall be inserted in the volume of Transactions, Reports, or Proceedings unless it be handed to the Secretary before the conclusion of the Session. 31. The Sectional Committees shall report to the Publication Committee what papers it is thought advisable to print. 32. They shall also take into consideration any suggestions which may be offered for the advancement of science. 33. In recommending the appointment of REesEArcnu CommMirt- TEES, all Members of such Committees shall be named, and one of them who has notified his willingness to accept the office shall be appointed to act as Secretary. The number of Members appointed to serve on a Research Committee should be as small as 1S consistent with its efficient working. Individuals may be recommended to make reports. 34. All recommendations adopted by Sectional Committees sball be forwarded without delay to the RECOMMENDATION Com- MITTEE; unless this is done the recommendation cannot be con- sidered by the Council. OFFICIAL JOURNAL. 35. At the close of each meeting of the Sections, the Sectional Secretaries shall correct, on a copy of the official journal, the lists of papers which have been read, and add to them those appointed to be read on the next day, and send the same to the General Secretaries for printing. RECOMMENDATION COMMITTER. 36. The Council ait its first meeting in each Session shall appoint a Committee of Recommendations to receive and consider the re- ports of the Research Committees appointed at ‘the last Session, and the recommendations from Sectional Committees. The Recom- mendation Committee shall also report to the Council, at a subse- quent meeting, the measures which they would advise to be adopted for the advancement of Science. 37. All proposals for the appointment of Research Committees and for grants of money (see rules 19-21) must be sent in through the Recommendation Committee. PUBLICATION COMMITTEE. 388. The Council shall each Session elect a Publcation Com- mittee, which shall receive the recommendation of the Sectional Committees with regard to publication of papers, and decide finally upon the matter to be printed in the volume of Transactions, Re- ports, or Proceedings. ALTERATION OF RULES. 89. No alteration of the rules shall be made unless due notice of all such additions or alterations shall have been given at one Meeting, and carried at another meeting of the Council held dur- ing a subsequent Session of the Association. 40. Should an interim vacancy occur in any office appointed by the General Council, the vacancy shall be filled by a majority of votes recorded by corres- pondence by an Election Committee composed of the following officers :—-The President, the President-Elect, the Vice-Presidents, the General Secretaries, the T'reasurer, and the Local Secretaries. ‘onvjodiyoay youvwsig oy4 ur qsiBojodoayyuy uy ‘RI]VAysNY UL dOUAING Jo us? 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I have adopted the suggestion, and will now try and show how and when the beginning of astronomy in Australasian lands was made, and trace in chronological order the steps by which it has since grown to the present time, when we find established in several of the colonies State observatories lberally endowed by the colonial Governments, equipped with splendid modern instru- ments of great power, and directed by well-trained astronomers of experience and high attainments, who are thus enabled to undertake, and do undertake, Australasia’s share of the world’s work in contributing to the common stock of astronomical knowledge. For the purposes of this historical sketch, I assume Austral- asia to include Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand, and I shall frequently use the term ‘“‘ Astronomical Work” as I proceed to denote any kind of astronomical observations made for measurement, of the occurrence of astronomical phenomenon, or for any definite and useful purposes ; but simple star-gazing I do not regard as astronomical work. In this aspect the navigator, explorer, surveyor, or others who make astronomical observations for geographical, nautical, survey, or similar useful purposes, do astronomical work ; simi- A 2 INAUGURAL ADDRESS, larly, an expert with a sextant or portable transit instrument, who makes systematic observations for obtaining local time, does astronomical work, all of which contributes some share to the advancement of the science, yet can scarcely be regarded of the same significance as that carried out at fixed and well- equipped observatories for purely astronomical purposes. Up to the time of the first Australian settlement in New South Wales, the only inhabitants were the aboriginal tribes, and, although we now know from the researches and writing of our ethnologists, Mr. A. W. Howitt, Professor Spencer, Mr. ¥. J. Gillen, and others, that many of them have certain myths and superstitions with respect to the principal heavenly bodies, they certainly had no actual knowledge of astronomy. A few instances of some of these beliefs will amply confirm this conclusion. Most of the tribes believe the sky is close to the earth, and covers as a solid canopy the sun, moon, and stars, which are still nearer the earth. They think that beyond their visible horizon is the end of the world, beyond which is a land of plenty inhabited by the spirits of the dead. Many of these myths appear to be common to both coastal and central Australian tribes, and probably had a common origin; for instance, Mr. Howitt informs us that the Gippsland and other south-eastern tribes believe the sun is a woman, who having lost her child while seeking for food, marches daily across the sky in a fruitless effort to find him; at the end of the world, where the sky touches the earth, she descends to walk around at the back of the world, or by the sea, during the night to again commence her search from the east in the morn- ing. In Central Australia, according to Professor Spencer, the myth of the sun is that it is a female risen out of the earth, and, having ascended into the sky, descends in the west, and during the night returns to the east, rising again in the morning, and so on every day. The moon is believed to be a male making similar celestial journeys. A myth concerning the group of stars known as Pleiades is common to both coastal and central tribes; it is that they are a group of young women, who went up into the sky, and have remained there ever since. The south-eastern coastal blacks have a tradition that these young women are in some way con- nected with the first discovery of fire, and are supposed to now carry fire with them across the sky on their yam sticks. Eclipses are a cause of dread to the central blacks, and are attributed to a malignant personal or impersonal influence aimed at the obliteration of the sun’s hght. On the occasion of these phenomena, the medicine men of some of the central tribes throw charmed stones at the sun while singing magic chants, and as Professor Spencer humorously says, always with success. The INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 3 south-eastern tribes seem to be indifferent to eclipses of the sun, but believe one of the moon to portend the death of some of their people. There can be little doubt that the first astronomical observa- tions made in Australasian waters were by our early navigators, Tasman, Dampier, and others, prior to Captain Cook, but we must remember that nautical astronomy of the 17th century was not of very high order, owing principally to the lack of accurate astronomical tables and instruments of precision; the geo- eraphical results obtainable by the earlier of these navigators were only correct within rather wide limits. The marine chrono- meter was only invented a short time before Cook’s first voyage to these waters, for Harrison had about this time completed his third and most perfect one (for which the British Admiralty rewarded him with a prize of about £24,000), but they did not come into general use for navigation for some years after. Still, whatever may have been done astronomically by the navigators preceding Cook, there can be little doubt that he did the first real astronomical work in Australasia, for, apart from his great skill as a navigator and geographer, he was a trained astronomer, and had been selected largely for this reason by the British Admiralty in 1768 to conduct his famous expeditior to the islands of the Pacific for the purpose of observing the transit of Venus in June, 1769, which he successfully accomplished at Otaheite, after which he discovered and visited several islands in the Pacific, and eventually rediscovered New Zealand on 6th October of the same year, and observed the transit of Mercury on 9th November at a place on the north-east coast of New Zealand, now called Mercury Bay. Sailing north on 31st March, 1770, he discovered New Holland, landed at Botany, and took possession of Australia in the name of Great Britain. Eighteen years after this, the first Australasian settlement by the British took place at Port Jackson, but in the early days of colonisation, under many difficulties and adverse circumstances, astronomical science found no congenial soil for its growth or advancement. Nevertheless, during the first year of settlement the British Board of Lengitude sent out a naval officer, Lieut. Dawes, “‘to make astronomical observations, and look for a return” of Halley’s famous comet, which, it was predicted by Dr. Neville Maskelyne (the Astronomer Royal at Greenwich), would reappear in the Southern Hemisphere about September in that year (1788). Lieut. Dawes brought out from home sufficient astronomical instruments to equip an observatory, which was erected soon after his arrival near what is now known as Dawes’ Point, in Sydney Harbour. At our first Congress in Sydney my old friend and colleague, Mr. H. C. Russell, Government Astronomer of New South Wales, A2 4 INAUGURAL ADDRESS. read an admirable paper “On the Astronomical and Meteoro- logical Observers of New South Wales from 1788 to 1860,” from which I have obtained much information as regards early astro- nomical history of that colony. Mr. Russell says he could find no record of Dawes’ work except his determination of the latitude and longitude of the observatory, but nothing about Halley’s comet, which we can now scarcely wonder at, because it Jid not return till 1835 ; its previous apparition was in 1759,and Halley himself had determined its period to be seventy-five years ; one cannot see, therefore, on what grounds an apparition in 1788 could be looked for ; the correctness of Halley’s period was confirmed by its appearance again in 1835. Dawes appears to have made but a short stay in Sydney, for Mr. Russell tells us that “in 1791 a corporal’s guard was mounted daily in the building which had been used as an observatory by Lieut. Dawes.” In 1802 Flinders arrived in the “ Investigator,” and com- menced his great geographical work, the survey of the southern coasts of Australia, and made his first entry into Port Phillin Bay on 26th April of that year, just sixty-nine days after its first discovery by Lieut. Murray in the “ Lady Nelson.” The exten- sive géographical work done by Flinders was remarkable for its accuracy, and, considering the astronomical and nautical instru- ments in use at that time, stamps him as a splendid astronomical observer. As an instance of his accuracy, it is pointed out by Mr. Russell, in his paper already referred to, that Flinders’ longitude of Dawes’ Point, Sydney, the result of the lunar dis- tances obtained with his sextant, only differed from that given by the telegraphic determination of 1883 by 2.2 sec. Captain, afterwards Admiral King, was appointed in 1817 by the home Government to extend Flinders’ hydrographic work in Australia, and in him Australia secured another accomplished astronomer, who, when he retired from active naval service in i830, settled at Port Stephens in New South Wales, and devoted himself to scientific work, including practical astronomy. He built a small private observatory, in which he mounted his transit and other instruments he had used during his hydro- graphic voyages, and carried on astronomical work from 1832 to 18428, the most important results of which were published in the monthly notices of the Royal Astronomical Society of the time. By the appointment of Sir Thomas MacDougal Brisbane, as Governor of New South Wales in 1821, Australia acquired a very accomplished astronomer, who contributed most substan- tially to the growth and progress of the science. Although he was a soldier by profession, and had seen much service, to quote Mr. Russell’s paper, “he had fought in fourteen general actions, twenty-eight great affairs, and assisted at eight sieges,” he was through all an enthusiastic astronomer, and on one occasion, ~ INAUGURAL ADDRESS. vd, when discussing his qualification prior to his appointment as Governor, the Duke of Wellington stated he always did his duty, and in addition kept time for the army by his astronomical work. Sir Thomas having, after his appointment, tried, but failed, to induce the British Government of the day to provide an observa- tory for New South Wales, did it himself from his private means ; brought out a complete suit of suitable instruments, engaged two well-trained assistants, and, on his arrival in the colony, erected an observatory near the Government House at Parra- matta, and set up his instruments in time to observe the solstice im December, 1821, his assistants, Messrs. Runker and Dunlop, having arrived a month before. Systematic and important observations were carried on by Sir Thomas Brisbane and his assistants until 1825, when he retired, and the observatory and instruments were purchased by the Government. Mr. Runker, being appointed astronomer, continued the observations until 1829, when he retired, and returned to Europe. Mr. Dunlop succeeded him, and carried on the work till 1849, when he also retired. After this the observatory was closed, and the instru- ments stored away until the completion of the Sydney Observa- tory in 1858. . This munificent and patriotic act of Sir Thomas Brisbane I regard as the earliest indication of the growth of astronomy in Australasia. For the first time we have a permanent and well- found observatory established, with an accomplised staff of observers, who did splendid astronomical work, and left behind them valuable contributions to the science, not the least being the well-known Parramatta Catalogue of 7385 stars ; moreover, Sir Thomas Brisbane’s instruments afterwards did good service in the early days of the Sydney Observatory until replaced by the more modern and powerful ones now in use, and it may be said that astronomy has, with a brief gap, progressed from Brisbane’s arrival to the present time. While Dunlop was still occupied with his work at the Parra- matta Observatory it became necessary to define the boundary line between South Australia and the Port Phillip District of New South Wales, now the colony of Victoria. The Imperial Act of Parliament fixed this boundary as the 141st meridian of east longitude. The determination of the precise locality of a meridian involves a considerable amount of astronomical work, which in this instance was entrusted to Mr. Tyers, an excellent surveyor and astronomical observer of New South Wales, who, after considerable difficulty, fixed the position of the 141st meridian in 1839. From the point given by Mr. Tyers, near the mouth of the Glenelg River, the line was run north a consider- able distance by Messrs. Wade and White, two Port Phillip sur- veyors, marked by cairns of stones at various points, and after- wards proclaimed in the “South Australian Gazette” as the 6 INAUGURAL ADDRESS. boundary. Although this undertaking was purely a geographi- cal one, it was also “ astronomical work,” and if we except what was done by Murray, Flinders, and others, on the coastal sur- veys, was probably the first done in this colony. Up to this time (1839) I think that astronomical work in Australasia, if we except geographical determinations carried out on the coastal surveys, was confined to the colony of New South Wales. ‘In August, 1840, however, Tasmania comes into the field, when Sir James Ross’ Antarctic expedition, with the ships “ Erebus” and “ Terror,” arrived at Hobart, where, accord- ing to his instructions, he erected a magnetic observatory on what are now the grounds of the Government House of that eity. A separate building for an astronomical observatory was also erected, in which a transit instrument, an altazimuth and astronomical clocks were permanently mounted, as well as an invariable pendulum apparatus for the determination of the gravity constant. The observations with this latter instrument’ were made by Sir John Ross himself, assisted by Sir John Franklin, then Governor of Tasmania, while the magnetic and astronomical work was entrusted to Lieut. Kay, of H.M.S. “Terror,” assisted by two junior officers of the expedition, who carried on the work for a period of eight years. Lieut. Kay continued astronomical work till 1854, after which he came to Victoria, and settled in Melbourne with his brother officer, Lieut. Smith, of the “ Erebus,” both of whom were appointed members of the Board of Visitors to the Williamstown Observatory in 1855. Although magnetic observation was the chief aim of this first observatory at Hobart, some important astronomical work was conducted by Lieut. Kay, including a very elaborate deter- mination of the difference of longitude between Hobart and Port Macquarie, Sydney, Parramatta and Cape of God Hope. After the eight years’ work of this magnetic expedition was over, it appears that the regular meteorological observations carried out by Lieut. Kay and his assistants during the existence of the observatory were continued by a private citizen, Mr. Francis Abbott, who about 1855 acquired some excellent astro- nomical instrumenis, including a good transit and equatorial telescope of about 5 in. aperture; he commenced observations for maintenance of local time with his transit, and has recorded in the monthly notices of the Royal Astronomical Society and in the transactions of the Royal Society of Tasmania many valu- able observations of comets, eclipses, and of some of the southern nebule. Following in Mr. J. Abbott’s footsteps, about 1860, Mr. A. B. Biggs, first of Campbelltown, Tasmania, devoted himself to astronomical work as a recreation, and has been a most inde- fatigable observer up to the present time; he also constructed INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 7 many of the instruments he used for various kinds of astro- nomical measurements. He gave most valuable assistance to the United States observing party at Campbelltown in the 1874 transit of Venus, and won the admiration of the astronomers ot that party for the practical and ingenious appliances he had devised for his astronomical work. I think he and the late Mr. Abbott were the only observers in Tasmania who have done actual astronomical work since Captain Kay’s time at Sir James Ross’ observatory, except the observations made for the pur- poses of obtaining local time at the Government Observatory at Hobart, which was established in 1882 under the charge of the late Commander Shortt, R.N. This observatory, as far as astronomical work was concerned, was established on a very modest scale, and its operations have been limited to the deter- mination of local time for the purpose of dropping a time ball erected on the flagstaff at Battery Point. The chief function of the observatory has all along been that of the centre of the meteorological system of Tasmania. Captain Shortt died in 1893, and was succeeded by Mr. Kings- vill, who still carries on the necessary observations. In 1840 a trigonometrical survey of South Australia was undertaken by Col. Frome, R.E., who was then Surveyor- General of that colony, and a similar work was commenced in Tasmania under the direction of Major Cotton, R.E., in 1849, and continued for several years by Mr. Sprent. In both these surveys astronomical observations for latitude, longitude, and azimuth formed a very considerable and important part of the undertaking. During the progress of this latter survey Ross’ Astronomical Observatory at Hobart, in charge of Lieut. Kay, was still in operation, and on several occasions aided in the astronomical work connected with the survey. In 1852, when the first gold discoveries in Victoria gave rise to a great and rapid influx of population, Hobson’s Bay became crowded with numerous ships, and the desirability of instituting some means by which their captains would be enabled to ascer- tain the errors and rates of their chronometers became manifest and urgent. The Government, therefore, decided to establish a time signal on Gellibrand Point at Williamstown, and a time ball was erected there on the signalling flagstaff, which already played a very important part for the public benefit, for there being no telegraph communication in the colony at that time, ships as they approached Hobson’s Bay reported by. flag signals their names and other particulars to the flagstaff officer, whose duty it was to forward the intelligence to Flagstaff Hill, at Mel- bourne, by flag signals, but the distance from Gellibrand’s Point to Melbourne being too far for a signal to be seen in dull weather, a hulk was moored at the mouth of the river which 8 INAUGURAL ADDRESS. repeated the signals to Flagstaff Hill. Mr. Pownal Pellow Potter, who had been “the sailing master of the ship “ Terror,” of Sir James Ross’ expedition, was appointed astronomical observer in May, 1853; he resigned, however, about a couple of months later before the time sional was fairly in operation. Shortly after I was appointed to undertake the formation of a small observatory at Gellibrand’s Point, Williamstown, and carry on the necessary observations. There were no astronomical instru- ments available except sextants and chronometers, and with these the observations were commenced, and the time signals given in August, 1863, until a few months later, when a small transit instrument and an astronomical clock were purchased from an enterprising clockmaker newly arrived in Melbourne ; these were at once permanently mounted on solid stone piers, and used for the time observations with much more accurate and satisfactory results. There was a somewhat tragic incident in connection with the preparation of these piers; the blocks of stone were hewn from quarries very near the Observatory House worked by convicts of the worst class; among them was a very good stonemason who was set to cut these stones to the requisite shape and dimensions. One day the prisoners were seen to be tampering with their leg irons, in which this class of criminals worked in those days, and it was at once known they were about to mutiny, and try to escape; the guards were notified, and I was advised to get under cover; I was at the moment measuring the stones and giving instructions to the mason at my side, when the guards commenced firing on the mutineers, who were rushing from the quarries, and had already felled several of the guards ; my mason fell beside me with an arm shattered by a glancing rifle bullet. I then quickly took the advice that was given, and ran for cover, for bullets were flying in all directions, and one took away the collar of my coat just as I reached the flagstaff house, where I thought it best to remain till the shoot- ing was over. Another mason had to be employed to finish the first transit pier of our first observatory. This was the beginning of what is now the Melbourne Observa- tory ; commencing its work i in 1853 in a small way at Williams- town, it was enlarged and supplied with better and larger instru- ments in 1855, and again in 1857, when it had to “meet new demands upon it for the geodetic survey commenced in that year ; and in 1863 was removed to its present site in Melbourne, since which it has progressed from year to year, and now is tho- roughly fitted to co-operate in the most: important international astronomical undertakings. In 1856 I was requested to commence and superintend the geodetic and trigonometrical survey of Victoria in connection with my duties as superintendent of the Observatory, for the method of survey decided upon made it, to a very large extent, INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 9 an astronomical undertaking, which rendered necessary several important additions to the instrumental equipment of the Obser- vatory, and conduced considerably to the extension and growth of astronomical knowledge in the colony, for several of the best surveyors who were appointed to assist in the new survey were trained to the use of special instruments and to very important astronomical work ; the demands made upon the Observatory as the survey progressed rendered necessary more assistance, which at first was afforded by the honorary service of the late Sir George Verdon (then | Mr. Verdon), the late Captain Fullarton, and Jas. Smibert, Esq., who had all previously had some training in observatory work ; these gentlemen were appointed honorary assistants, and did ‘yeoman’s service at the Observatory for nearly a year, when Mr. E. J. White was appointed chief assis- tant. The survey occupied many years, but before it was com- pleted the Observatory was removed to its present site in Mel- bourne in 1862, chiefly because the encroachment of the rail- way works had rendered the site unfitted for astronomical opera- tions. The magnetic observatory, hitherto carried on by Pro- fessor Neumayer at the Flagstaff Hill, Melbourne, was moved to the new Observatory y site in 1860, and was eventually amal- gamated with the astronomical department in 1861, when Pro- fessor Neumayer retired, and returned to Europe. _ - In 1854 Mr. John Tebbutt, of Windsor, New South Wales, following the footsteps of Sir Thomas Brisbane at Parramatta, began an astronomical career, and has since built and equipped an excellent observatory, with good instruments, and has devoted his time, money and energy to the advancement of astronomical knowledge in Australia in a thoroughly earnest and practical manner, and some of the results of his earliest work were con- tributed to the Sydney press as early as 1856, and perhaps earher. Subsequently we find valuable contributions, both observational and mathematical, in many of the most important astronomical publications of Europe and America, and since 1887 he has published privately each year an account of his work. His splendid cometic work, extending over nearly forty years, is in itself a grand contribution to astronomy, indepen- dent of the results he has secured from observations embracing a wide range of subjects. To Mr. Tebbutt’s enterprise, persevering and well-directed personal work belongs no small share of Australia’s contribu- tion to astronomy during the last thirty years. He was the first discoverer of the er and comet of May, 1861, which has since been known as Tebbutt’s comet. In 1857 the building of a new observatory in Sydney was com- menced, and completed in 1858. The principal instruments used by Sir Thomas Brisbane at Parramatta were remounted, and astronomical work resumed after a break of about nine 10 INAUGURAL ADDRESS. years. The Rev. W. Scott, M.A., who had already been appointed in England as astronomer, arrived in Sydney in 1856, selected the site of the building, and supervised the mounting of the instruments ; observations were actually commenced in June, 1858. In 1859 Mr. H. C. Russell, the present astronomer, was appointed Mr. Scott’s chief assistant. Mr. Scott retired in 1864, and was succeeded by Mr. G. R. Smalley, who had also been appointed in England, and continued in charge till his death in July, 1870, when Mr. Russell, who had been the chief assistant since his first appointment, became and still remains Government Astronomer of New South Wales. The imperfections of the old Parramatta instruments with which the Observatory was now (1859) furnished, and especially the transit, limited very seriously the scope of the work that could be satisfactorily undertaken; we therefore find that, although Mr. Scott devoted a great deal of energy to meridian observations at first, he soon found the results were untrust- worthy, and turned his attention to extra meridian observations, such as double star measurements, for which class of work the Sydney Observatory has now for many years past attained a high reputation. In Mr. Scott’s time the first telegraphic determination of difference of longitude in Australasia was successfully carried out between the Williamstown and Sydney Observatories. SoutH AUSTRALIA. With the exception of such astronomical work as was done in South Australia in connection with Frome’s survey already referred to, and some isolated geographical determinations, nothing of importance seems to have been done in that colony until 1855, when Mr. (now Sir Charles) Todd arrived. This gentleman had been appointed in England to introduce the electric telegraph and act as Gover nment Astr onomer, for he had already spent nearly fourteen years in astronomical work at the Greenwich and at the Cambridge Observatories. He was at first so occupied in establishing the electric telegraph that no astro- nomical work was done till 1867, and the first important opera- tion was to fix and mark out the boundary line between South Australia and New South Wales. The Adelaide Observatory was built and furnished with a transit instrument formerly used at Williamstown, and lent by the Victorian Government, besides other instruments formerly used by Col. Frome. In 1874 a fine equatorial, by Cooke, of York, 8 in. aperture, was added to the equipment in time for the observation of the transit of Venus in that year. In 1886 a first-class modern transit circle was erected, which, with the addition of many minor, but im- portant instruments, has enabled the Adelaide Observatory to undertake astronomical work of the highest order. INAUGURAL ADDRESS. th WESTERN AUSTRALIA. A good deal of astronomical observation with small survey instruments has been done in Western Australia for many years past, and while the results no doubt served the survey purposes desired, the character of the instruments used precluded the attainment of sufficient accuracy to class it as astronomical work. Recently, however, the Western Australian Government has built a fine observatory at Perth, and furnished it with excel- lent modern instruments, and appointed an accomplished astro- nomer, Mr. Cook, who has had many years’ training at the Adelaide Observatory under Sir Charles Todd; and I think from my personal knowledge of Mr. Cook, and the fine instruments at his disposal, I may predict that Western Australia will soon add substantially to the growth of astronomy in Australasia. New ZEALAND. There can be little doubt that before Captain Cook’s arrival in 1769 no astronomical work had been done in New Zealand, for none of the earler navigators appear to have landed there. As already stated, Cook observed the transit of Mercury on the north-east coast of the North Island in 1769, and this was pro- bably the first purely astronomical work done in Australasia. These islands were not peopled by Europeans till 1839 under the New South Wales Government, and became an independent colony in 1841. Sir James Ross visited New Zealand on his way to the antarctiv regions in 1840, and obtained some geographical deter- minations, and in 1852 the hydrographical expedition of Stokes and Richards carried out the great Admiralty survey of the coast, which included a large amount of astronomical work for survey and geographical purposes. The initial point of this survey was Pipetea Point, near Wellington, the longitude of which was ascertained to be 11 hours 39 minutes 11.53 seconds east. In 1868 a small observatory was established by the Govern- ment on an elevated site near Wellington, and furnished with a transit and several astronomical clocks, with which local time has been maintained, and time balls dropped daily at several of the chief towns for maritime and public purposes. So far, how- ever, as can be ascertained such astronomical work has been limited to maintenance of local time. During the transit of Venus expeditions to New Zealand in 1874 Major Palmer ex- changed time signals with the Sydney Observatory, and similar determinations were made in 1883 by Mr. Adams, of the New Zealand Survey Department. New Zealand thus became con- nected with the chain of longitude determinations linking Aus- tralasia with Greenwich, completed in 1883, to which I shall refer later on, and by which the positions given by Cook and Stokes were confirmed within very small limits. 12 INAUGURAL ADDRESS, About this time a system of meridian surveys was adopted by the Government, necessitating regular astronomical observation, which was carried out under the direction of the Surveyor- General, Mr. J. P. Thomson, and his successor, Mr. Percy Smith. Astronomy in New Zealand has had its votaries among private citizens, some of whom have fitted up observatories with excel- lent instruments, which, however, with some exceptions, appear to have been used solely for “looking at the heavenly bodies.” Of those who have contributed to the advance of astronomy in New Zealand are the Ven. Archdeacon Stock and Mr. Beverly, of Dunedin, who has done a good deal in the observation of such phenomena as afforded scope for mathematical investigation. At the transits of Venus both Major Palmer and Col. Tupman speak of the valuable assistance rendered by volunteer observers in several parts of the colony using their own telescopes. The geographical position of New Zealand fits it admirably for astronomical undertakings in co-operation with observatories of the old world, it is therefore a matter for regret in the in- terests of science that no public astronomical institution yet exists in New Zealand, which would enable her to take a share in such work. ()UEENSLAND. Until 1859 Queensland was a part of New South Wales, when it became a separate colony. I find no trace of any astronomical work in this part of Australasia until 1865, when, in connection with the determination of a part of the boundary line between the new colony and New South Wales, which is a parallel of latitude, a field observatory was established to make the neces- sary astronomical observations. In 1872 a small private observatory was erected in Brisbane near the wharf by the late Capt. H. O’Reilly, in which he mounted a 4-in. equatorial and a small transit instrument. Local time was determined for some time, but beyond this there does not appear that the observatory was devoted to any prac- tical purposes. Capt. O’Reilly died in 1877, and the instruments were purchased by the Government. In 1883 the Government commenced a trigonometrical survey, under direction of the Surveyor-General, Mr. A. M‘Dowell, connection with which he determined astronomically the geo- eraphical positions of 66 points, pretty evenly distributed over the colony, and established a small observatory at the Brisbane survey offices, furnished with an excellent Bamberg transit in- strument, and an astronomical clock by Kulberg; with these, local time is maintained, and since 1894 a time ball on the Signal Tower in Brisbane is dropped daily at 1 o’clock as a public time signal. From time to time several private observers in the eae having provided themselves with good equatorial telescopes and INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 13 built small observatories, some of whom have done astronomical work occasionally, including observations of comets and of the last transit of Mercury by Mr. J. P. Thomson, F.R.G.S., re- corded in 1895 volume of this association. For the observa- tion of the transit of Venus in 1882, a British observing party under Capt. Morris, R.N., took up its station in Queensland, and successfully observed the phenomenon. One of the telescopes brought out by Capt. Morris’ party was afterwards bought by a Mr. Norris, of Townsville, and with it Mr. Davidson discovered, in 1889, the comet now called after him. Some few years ago an effort was made to establish an astronomical society in Bris- bane, and a number of gentlemen subscribed a sum of money, and purchased a 6-in. Grubb equatorial. I believe the society was not formed, and that the telescope is laid by unused. The three principal Australasian observatories—Melbourne, Sydney, and Adelaide—since their establishment, have taken part in several important undertakings, either in co-operation with other national observatories or among themselves, in the observation of phenomena requiring special preparations, estab- lishment of temporary observatories, and sometimes expeditions to distant parts of the colonies. The first occasion, I believe, was 1862, when a very favourable opposition of the planet Mars took place for the determination of the sun’s distance, and both the Williamstown and Sydney Observatories were asked to co- operate with English and European astronomers in the requisite observations of the planet and comparison stars. At Williamstown the whole programme was _ successfully carried out, and the results were used in the determination of the sun’s distance adopted after that time. A valuable series of measures were also obtained at the Sydney Observatory, but for some reason were not used nor published. A total eclipse of the sun occurred in 1871, the path of totality crossing the north of Queensland between Cape York and Cook- town, and the assistance of Australia was naturally looked for to obtain thorcugh observation of the phenomenon within its territory, for at this time many important physical appearances connected with total eclipses required further elucidation. The late Professor Wilson, of the Melbourne University, brought the subject before the Royal Society of Victoria early in that year, urging that the society should take steps to fit out an observing expedition to Northern Queensland. The co- operation of the Sydney Observatory was at ence secured, and both the Victorian and New South Wales Governments promised to contribute to the cost, and through the instrumentality of Mr. Russell, Govern- ment Astronomer, Sydney, the steamer “ Governor Blackall” was lent by the Queensland Government to convey the observers to the place selected as the observing position, viz., one of the Claremont Islands, off Cape Sidmouth, in the Barrier Reef. The 14 INAUGURAL ADDRESS. observing parties from both the observatories left Sydney on 22nd November, 1871, arriving at Claremont Island on 7th December, several days before the eclipse, giving ample time for erecting the observatories ‘and instruments, and also for pre- liminary drill at the various operations involved. The day of the eclipse, however, turned out most unpropitious, heavy thunderstorms and incessant rain prevailing during the whole period of totality, and continued most of the day. The expedition was, therefore, a failure so far as astronomy was concerned. The great astronomical events of the century—the transits of Venus across the sun’s disc, which offer the best opportunity for measuring the sun’s parallax, and hence its distance from the earth—were to occur in December, 1874, and again in December, 1882. In order that the phenomenon should be observed with all the precision that the most recent knowledge and greatly- improved instruments made possible, astronomers all over the world co-operated in the undertaking, and made timely prepara- tions, so that some weeks before the occurrence observing parties of one nationality or another occupied the majority of the most favourable positions on the earth’s surface for the observations. Of course, Australasian observatories also made arrangements to do their share in this work, and both in New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia, observing stations were selected, temporary observatories built, and instruments mounted before hand, so that the observers had plenty of observing practice before the day of transit. The weather proved generally pro- pitious, and most of the observing parties were successful. The results of the work in each of the three colonies named were thoroughly satisfactory. In Victoria the observing stations were Me'bourne, Bendigo, Sale, and Mornington. In New South Wales at Sydney, Woodford, Goulburn, and Eden. Tasmania was occupied by two observing parties of American astronomers, who observed successfully at Hobart and Campbelltown, while in New Zealand an English party, under Major Palmer, observed at Burnham, near Christchurch, and an American one at Queens- town. Transits of Venus across the sun’s disc, as is well known, occur only twice in a little over a century ; first, an interval of 104 or 105 years, then a shorter one of eight years, and so on. if we count from 1769, the transit observed by Capt. Cook, to 1874 gives an interval of 105 years, and eight years after the 1874 transit another occurred in 1882; the next will take place in 2004, followed by another in 2012. The transit of December, 1882, did not present such favour- able conditions as that of 1874, because the first phases occurred before sunrise over Australasian lands. Preparations were, how- ever, made for its observation. New South Wales formed five INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 15 observing parties, viz., Sydney, Port Macquarie, Clarence River, Lord Howe Island, and Dromedary. Victoria had observing parties at Melbourne, Sale, and Hobart, while South Australia was represented at Wentworth. In New Zealand the old station at Burnham was occupied by Colonel Tupman and an English party, assisted by private ob- servers ; and Professor Peters, with an American party, observed at Queenstown. Al! the New Zealand observers were successful, as were the observers at Hobart, Melbourne, Wentworth, but at Sale, in Gippsland, cloudy skies made observation impossible, as was the case with all the New South Wales parties. One of the first conditions necessary to enable an observatory to undertake astronomical work, in conjunction with similar institutions in other parts of the world, is that its geographical position should be ascertained with all possible accuracy. The Australian observatories have on several occasions undertaken interchange of time signals by electric telegraph for determining the difference of lcrgitude between them. The first occasion of this kind was in 1861, soon after the Sydney and Melbourne telegraph line was completed, when time signals were exchanged between Williamstown and Sydney Observatories ; the resulting difference of longitude was 24 min. 55.38 sec., that now adopted being 24 min. 55.40 sec. In 1868 similar work was done for ascertaining the position of the 141st meridian north of the Murray for the boundary line between South Australia and New South Wales, and signals were exchanged between Melbourne, Sydney, and Sir Charles Todd’s temporary observatory erected close to the boundary line. In 1874, while the United States observing parties were in Hobart after the transit of Venus, similar signals were exchanged through the Tasmanian cable between their observatory in Barrack-square and the Melbourne Observatory, and similar exchanges were subsequently carried out between Sydney and New Zealand, and Sydney and Brisbane. After the transit of 1882 it became of the utmost importance to determine the difference of longitude by telegraph between Greenwich and some of the Australian observatories, and as the differences between Greenwich and Singapore had already been telegraphically measured, it only remained to determine the difference between the latter place and some point in the Aus- tralian telegraph system to complete the chain of longitudes between the Australian observatories and Greenwich. It was therefore arranged that the British observers, who went to Queensland for the second transit of Venus, should after that occurrence proceed to Singapore, establish an observatory for the exchange of time signals between Singapore, Java, and Port Darwin, to which latter place our present Government Astro- nomer, Mr. Baracchi, proceeded in December, 1882, and formed 16 INAUGURAL ADDRESS. an observatory. By the end of February a very complete and satisfactory series of time signals were exchanged between Capt. Darwin, at Singapore, Capt. Helb, at Banjoewangie, in Java, and Mr. Baracchi, at Port Darwin, as well as between Port Darwin and Adelaide, and Port Darwin and Melbourne, the result being to reduce the hitherto adopted longitude of Melbourne by 1.43 secs. of time. What may be regarded as Australasia’s greatest contribution to astronomical knowledge is now in progress by the co-opera- tion of the Sydney, Melbourne, and Adelaide Observatories in the great international undertaking for making a complete survey of the heavens by means of photography, from which a chart of all stars down to the 14th magnitude, and a catalogue of the positions of all stars down to the 11th magnitude will be formed. The heavens have been divided into zones, and each observatory joining in the work has allotted to it the particular zones best suited to its latitude ; for instance, the zones allotted to the Sydney Observatory are from 54 degs. to 64 degs. south latitude, and to Melbourne from 65 degs. to the pole. Adelaide was not able to take a share in the photographic campaign, but gives important help in determining the places of the reference stars. This work was commenced in 1891, and will probably occupy four or five more years before the photographic part is completed, after which the formation of the chart and catalogue from the photographic plates (numbering over 20,000) will pro- bably extend over many years. The occurrence of the transits of Venus, and the very general interest taken in them by most civilised countries in the world, had the effect of an astronomical awakening in Australasia, for, although as early as 1855 there were several private individuals practically interested in astronomical matters, such as making reflecting telescopes, and testing their powers on planets, double stars, and so on, with some occasional useful observations, there was a marked increase of the number of people who, possessing themselves of telescopes, took up astronomy as a recreation about 1874 and after. In New South Wales especially was this the case, and quite a number of amateur astronomers appeared on the field, some of whom have become professionally engaged ~ in the science, while others are doing good practical work con amore. One of these, Mr. Innes, of Sydney, is now a talented and valued assistant of Dr. Gill, of the Cape Observatory. About the same time, Mr. James Oddie, a banker at Ballarat, established an observatory at Mount Pleasant, near that city, at his own private cost, and placed it in charge of a well-known amateur astronomer, the late Capt. Baker, who had for many years been very successful in making Newtonian reflectors of considerable dimensions ; one of these, a fine 24-in. mirror, was mounted equatorially in the Mount Pleasant Ubservatory. Mr. INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 17 Oddie also obtained an 8-in. equatorial from Sir Howard Grubb. This observatory is affiliated with the Ballarat School of Mines, but has so far been chiefly devoted to visitors wishing to see the heavenly bodies through a good telescope, and but little actual astronomical work has been done. Several good reflecting tele- scopes have been made at the workshops attached to the observa- tory, and liberally presented to public institutions or observers of reputation, two at least being now in Tasmania, one having been presented to Horton College, and another to the Municipal Museum, Launceston. The late Dr. Bone, of Castlemaine, built a very complete observatory on his private grounds in 1873, and obtained an 8-in. equatorial from Sir H. Grubb in time to successfully observe the first transit of Venus in 1874; unfortunately, he did not sur- vive to carry out the astronomical work he had laid out for himself, and died in 1875. The telescope was, however, destined to do good work, for a little later on it was purchased by Mr. John Tebbutt, and erected in his observatory at Windsor, New South Wales. Among the amateurs at this time who took to observing as a recreation was Mr. David Ross, of Brighton, Victoria. He used a small refractory telescope, which he had mounted equatorially, and while searching for Pon’s comet in 1884, discovered a new one, which has since borne his name. Some years ago a society named the British Astronomical Association was formed in London to gather together the numerous people interested in astronomy and astronomical work, chiefly amateurs and those who took up astronomy as a recrea- tion ; the association also included amongst its members most of the professional astronomers in Great Britain and its colonies. Recently branches of this association have been formed in some of these colonies, and the first branch established in Australasia was that of New South Wales in 1896, which is now a very active and flourishing society, many of its members doing excel- lent observational work in the various sections into which the association is divided. A similar branch was formed in Mel- bourne in 1897, and made a promising beginning, but has not attained to the practical activity exhibited “by its sister society in Sydney. Having traced the advancement of astronomy in Australasia from what I assume to be the beginning, before the earliest settlements, to the end of the 19th century, covering about 130 years, my task is done. In concluding, permit me to hope that during the new century this association will be enabled to give a brilliant record of the advancement of the science, and of what Australasia contributes to it, in the coming decades. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.—SECTION A. (Astronomy, Mathematics, and Pliysies). THE HISTORY OF THE ATOMISTIC CONCEPTION, AND ITS PHILOSOPHICAL IMPORT. By GEO. H. KNIBBS, F.R.A.S., UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY. I. GENERAL HISTORY OF ATOMISM. 1. Introduction.—Kach of the great branches of science, with which this section of our Association is concerned, covers so wide a range that it would be a hopeless task, in the brief time avail- able for an address, to attempt an adequate review of recent pro- gress therein. As an alternative, however, it may not be unprofitable to confine our attention to a subject, of interest alike to mathematician, physicist, and astronomer. I refer to our physical ideas of matter. To the mathematician, because the subject has afforded a dignified field for the exercise of his genius, and depends for its richest results upon the truths which he has secured through research—one may say—in the deepest recesses of Mind. To the physicist, because it covers the domain of Nature. To the astronomer, because in the wide reaches of Time and Space, opened up through his investigation, the material is identical with that with w hich we are all “familiar 2. The Réle of the Atomic Conception.—The foundation of all physical theories regarding the constitution of matter is, of course, the atomic conception; and in that development of natural philosophy, which has formed so striking a feature of the century now closing, no other conception has played a more signi- ficant part. As the eroundwork of a general theory of matter, it has gone far to explain the gaseous, liquid, and solid states, and the whole range of phenomena connected therewith. To some extent it has made intelligible the morphology of crystals, and most optical facts in relation to crystalline structure; it has facilitated the apprehension of the facts of chemistry, and united them in a signal way ; and it may even be said that the majority ot the larger facts of physical science have, by its aid, been wholly or partially reduced to questions of mechanics. PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION A. 19 3. The Conception Convenient, rather than Necessary.— According to the late Professor Clifford, this conception is some- thing more than hypothesis ; he even went so far as to say, in con- cluding his “ fiddle-string” illustration of the contrast between molar and molecular vibration, that “ the modern theory of the constitution of matter is put upon a basis which is wholly inde- pendent of hypothesis. The theory is simply an organised state- ment of the facts.” Despite this dictum, one is tempted to think that the conception is justified by its convenience, rather by an absolute necessity ; it is always possible, and by no means always undesirable, to regard the phenomena of Nature from the purely empirical standpoint, and it is assuredly quite legitimate to esteem either the verbal or mathematical expression of the laws or uniformities subsisting among those phznomena, even though these laws be deduced from the most elementary hypotheses, and justified by the most complex experiments, as purely formal. There is, however, some advantage to the stu- dent of physics, as such, in treating physical conceptions as though they exactly coincided with the realities intended to be represented by them. To the great majority the hypotheses of physical science are, and ever will be, verities of verities; and in the imagination of these the atom will always, as with Democritus, possess a reality that is unique. And so long as such materialistic conceptions are not obtruded into that higher region with which mental philosophy is concerned, it is well that the terms and thought of our Natural Philosophy should be cast in a purely materialistic mould, and with that philosopher we may say, concerning of course the material world only, “in truth nothing exists but atoms and void.” (a). 4. Scope of Subject as Treated—F¥rom the purely physical point of view, therefore, I propose to review historically the origin and progress of this theory of the constitution of matter, to touch, perforce incidentally, upon the part it has played in the explanation of some few of the facts of physical science, and finally to submit for your consideration some observations upon the philosophy of atomism, that is, upon what I conceive to be the real nature of materialistic explanations, and upon the limi- tations of the atomic conception itself. 5. The Origin of Atomism Remarkable.—The theory that the ultimate constituents of all material substances are extremely minute and insecable particles, i¢., drow, seems never to have arisen into prominence in the western world before the time of Anaxagoras (4), although it has been alleged that atoms were spoken of by Mosphus of Phrygia before the siege of (a) ren 6€ drowa Kali Kevov. Mullach. Frag. Philos. Greee. I. 357. (>) [500?— 428 B.C.] For the doctrines of Anaxagoras see Mullach. Frag. Philos. Gree. I. 243—257. B2 20 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION A. Troy (c). In view of the small extent of physical knowledge in the fifth and sixth centuries B.C., the age of Anaximander (d), and of his younger contemporary, Anaximenes (¢), of Miletus, of Heraclitus (f), Empedocles (g), and Plato (/), all of whom had opinions on the nature of matter, and that the evidence of the senses apparently strongly contradicts such a conception, its gene- sis must be regarded as remarkable. Metallic, crystalline, vitreous, gelatinous, albuminous, and liquid substances with which the ancients were familiar, are apparently continuous, and some of them might well have been regarded as structureless. And still more remarkable is it that the characteristic tendency of modern science, viz., the disposition to explain differences in phenomena by the assumption of mere variation of arrangement and move- ment in space, rather than by that of qualitative differences in matter per se, should at once have asserted itself. 6. Anaxagoras, Leucippus, and Democritus.—Anaxagoras taught that objects were made up of constituent particles iden- tical therewith [homoiomeria], a doctrine at once challenged by Leucippus (7), and later by his pupil Democritus (7), both of whom regarded all atoms as qualitatively identical, and supposed differences in appearance and physical properties to be due partly to arrangement in space and partly to variety in form (A). The exact details of Leucippus’ doctrine have not been well ascertained ; indeed, Masson goes so far as to say that Leucippus is only a name to us (/). Nevertheless, from the references of Aristotle and others, it is evident that the fundamental concep- tions of atomistic physics, viz., that atoms and space are the ulti- mate constituents of all things, are due to him (m). Space he regarded as infinite, and, as already stated, atoms as qualita- tively, but not quantitatively identical. It has been supposed, on very insufficient grounds, that Democritus became an adept in the Egyptian mysteries, and that by Egyptian priests he was familiarised with the doctrine which he afterwards taught. There is no reason to doubt that it came from Leucippus. Despite this fact, and that to Leucippus, therefore, belongs the honour of having founded the atomic doctrine, it is with the name of Democritus that it is usually associated. This is not without some show of reason, for Demo- critus’ view was in all probability the more fully developed, and, moreover, he taught definitely what is tantamount to the so- (c) Chevreul. Histoire dela Matiére. Paris 4to, p. 349. (d) [611—547]. (e) [556 fi. ] (f) [535—475 2]. (q) [490—430 2]. (nh) [429—347]. (i Diog. Laert. De Vitis., lib. IX., ¢. 6. /) Mullach. Op. cit., I. 357—365. (k) Zeller. Philos. d. Griechen. I., pp. 704 ff., Aufl. 3. 1) The Atomic Theory of Lucretius. p.3. 1884. (m) Pre-Socratic Philosophy. Vol. II., p. 296. Eng. Trans. PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION A. 21 called modern doctrine of the conservation of mass, viz., that “out of nothing arises nothing; nothing that exists can be destroyed ; all change consists in the combination and separa- tion of atoms” (7). 7. Epicurus’ Theory.—The physics of Epicurus (0) was based wholly on the doctrines of Democritus, and helped to establish this conception as a permanent element of human thought, not, perhaps, so much directly and during his, Epicurus’, life—though even then he made many disciples, and was widely known—as indirectly, and long afterward, through the agency of his admirer, Lucretius (p). According to Epicurus, the number of bodies in the universe is limitless, since it is unbounded ; atoms are, and from all eternity have been, in constant motion; they have no qualities, excepting size, figure, and weight; in respect of the first they are to be regarded as immeasurably small; in respect of figure the variety is inconceivably great, but ‘not actually infinite, though in a finite body both the number and variety are limited, and hence there is no such thing as infinite divisibility. (q¢). 8. Lucretius and his Poem.—It would be difficult to form any opinion as to how far the doctrine of Epicurus would have made its way in human thought, had it not been for the ardent appre- ciation of Lucretius, not only in respect of the doctrine itself, but also in respect of what he conceived to be its religious or philosophical import (r). There can be no doubt, however, that it is to Lucretius’ great poem, “ De Rerum Natura,” and to its wide contact with educated humanity, that the world owes its deep tincture of atomism. Agreeing generally with the views of Democritus and Epicurus, Lucretius qualified, however, the idea that atoms are of indefi- nitely great variety. His argument that the number is finite conveys also the impression that it is by no means great. The atoms, impenetrable, indivisible though having parts or exten- sion in space, indestructible, “strong and eternal in their solid singleness” (s), he supposed to vary in form, size, and weight, as also did Epicurus; but Lucretius is more explicit as to the question of form. Epicurus had written on the angle of the (xn) Zeller. Op. cit. I.,691. Anm, 2. (0) [842—270 B.C.] (p) [99—55 B.C.]. (g) See Lange. Geschichte des Materialismus. I..1V., pp.104—105. Eng. Trans (rv) Epicurus’ courage in promoting a non-theistic v iew of the creation of the universe seems to have aroused nothing short of passionate admiration on the part of Lucretius, as the memorable sentence following on the introduction to Memmius abundantly shows :—‘‘ When human life lay shamefully prostrate on earth, crushed down under the weight of Religion, who showed her face from heaven, with hideous aspect frowning upon mortals, a man of Greece first ventured to lift his mortal eyes to her face, first ventured to withstand her openiy. Him neither stories of the gods, nor thunderbolts, nor heaven’s threatening roar could make afraid, but rather enhanced the eager courage of his soul in its desire to first burst the bars of Nature’s portals.’’ (s) Solida pollentia simplicitate. I.. 574. Aeterna pollentia simplicitate. I., 612. 99 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION A. atom (¢), and Lucretius appears to have thought that three was the smallest number of parts, angles, or sides [ 7] that an atom could have. Some were extremely small as compared with others, some smooth and round, others larger and more hooked and intertangled ; infinite the number of each shape. Differ- ences of density were attributed to the greater volume in the voids in bodies, differences of cohesion to the mode of union of the atoms. Violence and catalytic agents of all kinds would be ineffective but for the existence of the voids; they operate not on the atom itself, not, that is, on the perfectly hard and invul- nerable first beginnings of bodies; they merely separate atom from atom. Such views are essentially similar with those cur- rent to-day; is not, for example, Lucretius’ theory of limited variety really the beginning of the modern doctrine of elements ? Even those who imagine that the mother-stuff, so to speak, of the atoms, the prima materia, or protyle, is one, yet believe that the atoms themselves have intrinsic ard inviolable differ- ences of shape or density, and probably no physicist of to-day hesitates to ascribe differences in the chemical elements to con- stitutive differences in their atoms. 9. Some Peculiarities of Lucretius’ Atoms.—Mention has already been made of Lucretius’ “hooked” atom. The notion has been criticised as crude. Thus Newton :—‘The parts of all homogeneous hard bodies which fully touch one another stick together very strongly, and for explaining how this may be, some have invented hooked atoms, which is begging the question.” | Why ?] But, after all, we have something not w holly dissimilar in modern chemistry in our conceptions of the mysterious link- age of atoms, and in our explanation of the strange activity of the status nascendi, even though we do not regard the lnks as material bodies. Two other remarkable features of Lucretius’ doctrine are his assumption of incessant motion under all circumstances, and his declaration that atoms in forming bodies must unite 7m conczlvo. In regard to the former he says :—‘‘ In some bodies the atoms rebound, leaviag smaller intervals, in others larger. In a mass of iron or stone the atoms are entangled, and can only throb or oscillate, moving to and fro very small distances; in softer bodies the atoms rebound at greater intervals” (v). Democritus had taught that like atoms are mutually attracted, and that the whirling motion to which they were subject sifted them with respect to size and form. The idea of Lucretius was more significant. Atoms, he held, must combine in a specific way [c.e., 2m concilio] to produce bodies. May we not, as Masson eke (v), fairly regard this as a foreshadowing of the molecular (t) wepi Ths &v TH aTOpmy yovias. (u) II. 97—108. See Masson Op. cit., p 38. (v) Op. cit., PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION A. 23 doctrine developing out of the atomic, and as the birth of the leading idea of modern chemistry, viz., that the ultimate ele- ments of bodies are atomic groups ! But to proceed. A boundless space through which is distributed an illimitable number of indestructible, impenetrable, indiscerptible atoms, limited in variety, capable of combining only under definite, but then unknown, laws, in unceasing motion, which had no begin- ning, and which will have no end; atoms out of which worlds, and systems of worlds, are forever being formed, and into which they are for ever being dissolved |—This is the ereat materialistic conception which we owe to the founders ‘of. the atomistic physics, and with this we entered the present era. And it is this conception which, despite its imperfections, has given dignity to the pictorial side of physics, and has assured for it a high degree of respect. ‘10. Atomism stagnant in the Scholastic Period.—It is difficult to realise that for the first sixteen centuries of our era the atomic idea, as it left the hand of Lucretius, and despite its potentiality in respect of the representation and control of material things, brought forth absolutely nothing. Before and during the whole period of scholasticism it remained quite barren, and it was not until the doctrines of the Stagirite were vigorously assailed, that it became productive. Aristotle (w), indeed, had deigned to discuss the doctrine of Democritus, only, however, to pronounce against it. His successors in philosophy were, of course, not likely to bring about its restoration ; it never became popular. The motto of those days was “ philosophia theologie ancilla,” and atomism was treated as hostile. The pl:ysics of Aristotle falls outside our theme ; it may suffice to remark that his #\y can hardly be regarded a materia prima in the sense the atoms were supposed to be. It was potential rather than actual matter, while the atom was already a con- summation. [évrehéxeca]. With regard to the relative productiveness of the systems of Aristotle and Demoer itus, Bacon (x), assigning to that of Demo- eritus the highest place among all philosophical systems, points out that the direct study of matter in its manifold transforma- tions carries us further than mere abstractions. The temper of the Aristotelians was shown in their hostility to the science of dynamics, which the extraordinary genius of Galileo (y) had pro- duced, and which has done so much to render natural phenomena intelligible. 1h; “Restoration by Gassendi._—A reaction against Aristotle set in about the beginning of the 17th century, and prominent among the adversaries was Pierre Gassendi (2), whose apprecia- tion and advocacy of the Ree By: of Epicurus has had so signal (w) [884—321 B.C.]. («) [1561—1626]. wy) [1564—1642}. (z) [1592-1655]. 24 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS— SECTION A. an effect. Gassendi’s claim to recognition in connection with the development of the atomistic view depends, not upon any contribution he directly made, but upon his espousal and ex- position thereof at a time when the scholastic views were rife ; it was then a bold thing to challenge Aristotle. 12. Boyles Application of Atomism.—Gassendi greatly in- fluenced his contemporaries, Boyle (a) and Newton (6), the former acknowledging in an especial way his indebtedness to Gassendi’s small, but valuable, compendium of the philosophy of Epicurus, whose views he (Boyle) regretted he had not earlier adopted (c). As Gmelin (d) and Kopp (e) fully recognise, Boyle is a critical figure in the history of modern physical science. Not only did his “ Chemista Scepticus (f) give a death-blow to alchemy and incidentally to Aristotelian physics, but he was, if not the first, one of the first among modern physicists who realised the importance of well-designed and accurately-con- structed apparatus in physical investigations ; he, moreover, con- ceived the problem of the chemical elements in substantially the same form as it is now presented (g). Boyle regarded the atomic conception as explanatory of qualitative differences in matter (7). 13. Descartes—From one point of view Descartes’ (7) influence on the atomic theory appears small in respect of its fundamental conceptions ; to some extent, he may even be cited in opposition to it, more particularly to the form it had in the mind of Lucretius and his predecessors. Nevertheless, the stress he laid on the mechanical interpretation of natural phenomena, and the value of his co-ordinate geometry in that respect, connects him with important aspects of the theory. Descartes’ doctrine ()), published in 1644, is that :—(a) Extension alone constitutes the essential nature of matter (sec. 4, p. 25); (6) there is no such thing as a void or empty space in the sense understood by philo- sophers (sec. 16, p. 30); (c) and, similarly and strictly speaking, there are no atoms, if atoms are to be regarded as small indi- visible bodies (sec. 20, p. 31); (d) the universe is indefinitely extended (sec. 21, p. 31); (e) matter is essentially the same throughout it (sec. 22, p. 32); (f) that all its varieties of form, and the properties that appertain to those varieties, are depen- dent upon the motions of part of this plenum (sec. 23, p. 32); (a) [1627—1691]. (b) [1642—1797]. (6) Origin of Forms and Qualities according to the Corpuscular Philosophy. Oxford, 664. (dz) Gesch. der Chemie. Gdott., 1798. II., 35. Gmelin observes that no man con- tributed so largely to destroy the authority which Alchemy had exerted over so many minds and sciences. (e) Gesch.d. Chemie. I., 163 ff. (f) 1661 or 1662? (4) eee Op. cit. I1., 224 ff. (h) Op. (i) [15961650]. (7) Opera Philosophica. Renati Descartes Amstelod. 1677. Pars sec. PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—-SECTION A. 25 (g) motion being understood in the ordinary sense (sec. 24, p- 32). Descartes’ explanation of the mechanism of Nature is, however, at least as truly atomistic as, say, either Lord Kelvin’s, Dr. Burton’s, or Mr. Larmor’s, whose views are hereinafter more fully referred to, and, excepting mere form, is substantially identical with that of any physicist who believes the material atom to be constituted by conditions imposed upon elements of a supersensible ether. Descartes may be looked upon as the founder cf that form of atomism, if indeed it was not fundamen- tally the notion which Aristotle had twenty centuries earlier. The difference between Aristotle’s ‘t\7” and Descartes’ “ Ex- tended Substance” is not by any means well marked. 14. Newton.—That Newton accepted the atomic doctrine is disclosed in his somewhat curious assertion :—‘* God made atoms of such sizes and figures, and with such other properties, and in such proportion to space as most conduced to the end for which he formed them’—a statement at least as guarded as it is dogmatic. 15. Hooke, and the Suggestion of the Kinetic Theory of Gases. —An important application of the atomic doctrine, and one of first fruits of Boyle’s espousal thereof, was the application, as early as 1676, of the notion of atomic impact as the cause of the pressure of a gas. This explanation was indicated by Robert Hooke (£), Boyle’s protegé, and is a remarkable example of Hooke’s penetration in physical matters (/). 16. Swedenborg’s Theories of Atoms and Molecules.—In 1721 Swedenborg (m) published his Prodromus principiorum rerum naturalium, containing a theory of the genesis of different kinds of matter. He entered into elaborate calculations concerning the sizes, shapes, and proportions to space of particles formed from atoms, the latter being, according to him, geometrical points, from which, however, are formed hollow spheres all of the same nature, but differing as to size. These hollow spheres are the fundamental elements of all kinds of matter, the pro- perties of which depend upon the size and special arrangement of the component spheres. The molecular structure deduced for water from forty-seven experiments and observations made with that liquid, was a large hollow sphere at each angle of a cube, the eigit large spheres being surrounded by smaller spheres ; these again by smaller, and so on through a series of six down to the geometrical point! Fifty experiments on common salt gave particles shaped like cubes or tetrahedra, but with curved sides. The whole scheme of explanation appears fanciful. 17. Boscovich’s Centres of Force—In 1758 appeared the famous treatise of Boscovich (m), on the molecular theory of k) [1635 - 1703] (m) [1688 -1772]. (1) Lectures de potentia restitutiva, or of Spring. (n) [1711—1787. ] 26 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION A. matter (0), his theory being that atoms were purely geometrical points, or rather centres of force, having definite position in space, and capable of moving continuously therein, but possess- ing, however, mass preperties—.e., force was necessary to pro- duce change in their motion—incapable, however, of absolutely coinciding in space since, though at ordinary distances they attracted each other, at molecular distances they ultimately repelled one another with a force which in- creased without limit as their mutual distance diminished without limit. The theory is of note as an attempt at a purely monistic view of the universe. How far the notion of geometrical points possessing mass, and acting upon each other at a distance, may be said to be intelligible (p) is a question not easy to answer. Anyone holding “such a theory must, it is presumed, regard such functions as ultimate and in- explicable, otherwise [or in any case?] they are pure abstractions. Boscovich’s theory is not peculiar in this respect, for every other is finally involved in difficulties of the same order. It is worthy of note that it furnished a foundation for an elastic theory of what are now called, at the suggestion of Cauchy, isotropic solids. In 1821 Navier (7), and almost immediately afterwards Poisson (r) and Cauchy (s) developed expressions for the inter- molecular stresses, which are set up by the alteration of mole- cular configuration through external agency, 7.e. co say by im- pressed forces. Later, viz., in 1827, Cauchy rejected as incon- sistent the analysis of Navier and Poisson, and during that and several subsequent years developed Boscovich’s theory to its furthest limit. But the part played in the theory of elasticity by the conception of Boscovich, involving as it does the work of some of the most brilliant mathematicians in France, Germany, and England, is a story we must pass. 18. D. Bernoulli and the Kinetic Theory of a Gas.—Another early and important application of the atomic conception was by Daniel Bernouilli (¢) in his Hydrodynamica, published in 1738. Bernouilli theoretically deduced Boyle’s law, empirically observed, from the assumption that the pressure exerted by any gas on its containing envelope was due to the impact of its particles (w). He must be regarded, therefore, as the real founder of the kinetic theory of gases. (0) Theoria philosophiz naturalis, redacta ad unicam legem virium in natura existen- tium. Vienna, 1758. (p) In physical theories, and for the purposes of physical science, the word intelligible seems to be equivalent t» ‘‘ mechanically representable,’’ or ‘* picturable. 4 (q) [1785 - 1836]. (v) [1781—1840}. (s) [1789—1857]. (t) [1700—1782}. (uw) The kinetic energy relation to > pressure and a expressed by the equation, =4mu’ = 2p is equivalent to saying that the sum of the mass of each particle multiplied into the square of its velocity is equal to three times the product of the pressure and volume. PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION A. 27 19. Wenzel and Le Sage, and Atomism.—As further illustrat- ing how the atomistic conception was becoming productive, it ought to be mentioned that thirty-nine years later Wenzel (v), in discussing the doctrine of chemical affinity, argued that the properties of bodies depend upon the configuration of the smallest particles (w). In 1782 George Louis Le Sage, in a remarkable memoir, en- titled Lucréce Newtonien, and in his Traité de Physique Mécanique (x) proposed a theory of gravitation which accounted for that action on the assumption of the mutual screening of two material bodies of each other, from the impact of “ ultramundane corpuscles” on the larger atoms or molecules of the bodies. 20. Vortex-atom Theory.—Passing for the present the story, commencing more particularly towards the end of last century, of the development of the atomic theory through chemistry, and restricting our consideration for the. present to ultimate concep- tions only, the next in historical sequence is the vortex atom theory of Sir William Thompson (now Lord Kelvin), published in 1867. In 1858 Helmholtz (y) had published in Crelle’s Journal (z) his memorable investigation of vortex-motion in a fluid conceived as continuous, homogeneous, incompressible, hay- ing density or mass, but absolutely non-viscous. Vortices in such a fluid, which, of course, is a purely conceptional one, possess three fundamental properties of importance in connection with Lord Kelvin’s theory, viz.: (a) A portion of the fluid at any moment constituting a vortex must, whatever the movement of the vortex as a whole, do so continually ; (4) the strength of a vortex-filament [or thread of fluid rotating about its longitudinal axis|, defined as the product of the area of its cross section into the spin of that section, is constant; (c) a vortex filament must form either a closed curve, or terminate in the boundaries of the fluid, so that in an indefinitely extended fluid the filament must be either of indefinite length or must return into itself. Lord Kelvin’s atom theory is that the ether is [sensibly ?] sucn a fluid; that atoms are minute vortex filaments therein; that since such filaments must be permanent, atoms when once exis: tent will continue to exist; that as no part of the fluid not originally in rotational or vortex-motion can ever enter into such motion, new atoms cannot come into existence. If ring-shaped filaments be linked together, or if a closed filament be in any way knotted, they or it must for ever so remain, since the condi- (v) [1740—1793]. (w) Vorlesungen iiber die chemische Verwandtschaft der Kirper. 1777. Kopp claimed for Wenzel the discovery of the law of reciprocal proportions [Gesch. d. Chem.], but it had already been shown by Hess [1840] that Wenzel’s researches led to no definite con- clusion of this character. Kopp later acknowledged his mistake [1573]. (xz) Afterwards published with a similar treatise of his own by Pierre Prévost in the Abhandlungen of the Berlin Academy, 1818. (y) (1821—1894]. (z) Ueber Integrale der hydrodynamischen Gleichungen welche den Wirbelbewegungen entsprechen. Crelle. 55. pp. 25-55. 1858. 28 YRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION A. tion of continuity, viz., that the portion of fluid forming a vortex filament with motion of a definite character must for ever con- tinue, as its constituent element would, in tri-dimensional space, be violated by untying a knot or separating the rings. It is evident that with a few elementary types a large number of different forms of vortex structures can be invented by knot- ting and linking, so that the theory is credited with being resourceful with respect to its possibilities in the matter of struc- tural variety. Vortices of the closed curve type have peculiar vibrational properties. If not knotted the closed curve vortex has the circular ring for its form of equilibrium, and if at any instant it has any other form, it will be subject to vibrational motion, a result which may also arise from collisions. For example, in an elliptical ring the magnitudes of the axes will alternate. Thus its vibrational complexity is adequate in regard to the evi- dence afforded by the spectroscope of the behaviour of the mole- cules of elements in the state of incandescence. The molecule or atom so constituted is supposed to be dynamically indis- cerptible and impenetrable, and consequently indestructible. 21. Matter as a Mode of Motionin a Hypothetical Substance. —According to this theory, then, the plenum, or protyle, is the ether, a purely supersensible substance; it has mass, whatever that may mean, consistently with the other elements of the con- ception, a point to which further reference will be made. Atoms, molecules, and material bodies, with their complex properties, and their mysterious relation to consciousness, are simply elaborate congeries of extremely minute vortices therein ; that is to say, as to substance, they are ether itself, but ct 1s not the substance which constitutes them atoms, it is the mode of motion an the substance. From the philosophical point of view this is not essentially different in respect of its ultimate features from the conception of Descartes, and appears to be little more than a fusion of the ideas of Descartes’ infinitely extended substance and Helmholtz’s vortices. It may here be incidentally mentioned that Clerk- Maxwell realised that if the property of mass be transferred to the ether, then the inertia of bodies built up of vortex rings has to be deduced. How far this becomes a purely a priort method of procedure, and valid from the point of view of those who take the phzenomena of Nature as data to be explained by knowledge experimentally justified, or verified, is worthy of further con- sideration. The vortex-atom theory is remarkable as having been put forward to proye—historico-mathematically as it were—a crea- tive act (a). (a) The Unseen Universe. PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION A. 29 22. The “ Strain Figure in Solid Ather” Theory.—As late as 1891 another theory was propounded which also postulates an indefinitely extended medium, but of a solid or quasi-solid character. That is to say, no part of the medium is regarded as subject to translational motion, even of the atomic order of minuteness. This theory was set forth by Dr. Burton (0). It may be thus stated:—-The ether is an indefinitely extended quasi- solid medium, sensibly perfect in its elastic properties [7.¢., free from viscous yielding and internal friction], in which ever-chang- ing distributions of stress and strain account for all phenomena. Assuming that the zther, hypothetically conceived to be origi- nally homogeneous and isotropic, might by some compelling agency be so strained that the restoring stresses, instead of in- creasing with the strains should fall off, a state would be reached when the withdrawal of the compelling agency would leave the medium in a new condition of stable equilibrium, involving stress and strain at every point. An atom is conceived to be, not an individual portion of the zther, but one or more of these stressed modifications, called by Burton strain-figures, and the motion of an atom is not that of a definite portion of the ether, but the movement only of the strain-figure or system of strain- figures (c). An illustration, given in Professor Fitzgerald’s lec- tures, is the way in which a drop of water travels through a block of ice; that is to say, the zther is regarded as remaining eternally at rest, it is only the modification of structure or energy—the strain-figure—which moves about in it. Similarly the motion of a material body is simply the motion of a con- geries of strain-figures. 23. Properties of Strain-figure Atom.—Since a strain-figure is originally in equilibrium, the transfer to some other portion of the medium, or its change of orientation involves no question of statical resistance or of the medium giving way. Burton shows that the equations of motion of such an atom are of the same form as those of a solid immersed in a perfect fluid ; that a strain-figure, symmetrical in respect to a given point, is dynami- cally equivalent to a mass particle thereat [l.c., p. 283; a result dynamically in conformity with the very different theory of Boscovich]|; that, provided the motions of atoms, molecules, or material bodies be slow compared with a certain critical velocity, say, that of gravitative action, they will encounter no [sensible?] resistance in travelling through the ether, and will obey laws of motion that include Newton’s laws as a particular case. Gravitative and inter-atomic forces may be supposed to (¥) On a theory concerning the constitution of matter. OC. V. Burton, Journ. Phys. Soe. Lond., XT. iii., pp. 275-290. Nov., 791. (c) It is recognised that atoms generally are formed by the aggregation of a large number of strain figures, since the spectra of the vapours of the elements imply a large number of degrees of freedom. 530 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION A. arise from stresses which accompany distribution of strain. Col- lisions between strain-figures will not set them vibrating so that an atom would, as required by the dynamical theory of heat, have a finite number of degrees of freedom. The size and nature of possible strain-figures, therefore of possible atoms, would be limited by conditions of equilibrium, thus giving rise, perhaps, to a discrete series. The theory does not, any more than Lord Kelvin’s, explain why the mass of a material body equals the mass of its atoms. The supposition of limitations implies struc- ture in the ether. The limit in the number of atoms may, it is thought, be determined by the “ coarse-grainedness” [and other qualities ?] of the medium (d). Larmor’s doctrine is essentially similar to Burton’s. His electrons, or the ultimate constituents of the atoms, form rotating systems, and are singular points in the zthereal plenum. This concludes the history of fundamental conceptions of atomism, approached from the standpoint of general physics. AG ATOMISM IN CHEMISTRY. 24. General.—No sketch of the atomistic conception, however, would be adequate which omitted all reference to the illustrious part it has played in the evolution of chemistry, for it is there that its practical value is best seen. The power it has conferred upon our effort to operate upon the more simple forms of matter, and to produce forms many of which apparently do not occur in the ordinary course of Nature, is a signal example of the potentiality of abstract conceptions, even though they are admittedly defective. 25. Boyle.—This history of chemistry, a history of brilliant achievements, may almost be said to commence with Boyle, to whom reference has previously been made (sec. 12). Enunciat- ing the views that only the undecomposable constituents of bodies are to be regarded as elements in the chemical sense, that any adequate theory must be founded on extensive observations and experiments, that the corpuscular view of the constitution of matter throws light upon the formation and decomposition of bodies, Boyle brought about the demise of the then prevailing theory of the threefold constitution of matter, and paved the way for a truer science. 26. The Genesis of the Chemical Atomic Period.—The quan- titative work of chemists quickly revealed the fact that in chemical combination the proportions are definite. About 1790 (d) [I.¢., p. 872. ] PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION A. 31 the idea of compounds being formed by the union of ultimate particles of their elements was indicated by Higgins (a). In 1804, having firmly established, so far as the state of chemical analysis would then permit, the law of multiple proportions, Dalton (6) definitely erected thereupon his chemical atomic theory, viz., that (a) every element is made up of homogeneous atoms whose weight is constant, and (6) chemical compounds are formed by the union of atoms of the different elements in the simplest numerical proportion (c). This view reformed and vitalised chemistry. In 1660 Boyle had shown that gaseous volumes vary sensibly in the inverse ratio of the pressure (d). About 1786 Charles (e) discovered the relation connecting pressure or volume and tem- perature, often called Gay-Lussac’s law because first published by him in 1802 (f). The gaseous laws having thus been suffi- ciently determined (7), Gay Lussac (/), in 1808, defined the law of gaseous combination by volume (z), but did not definitely connect this with the atomic theory. This signal office was ful- filled by Avogadro (7) in 1811 in his affirmation that, the tem- perature and pressure being constant, equal volumes of gases contain equal numbers of molecules (#.e., moléeules intégrantes ou molécules constituantes), these, however, being themselves composed of atoms (molécules élémentaires) united by some form of mutual attraction (%). He showed that so far as was then known, each compound gas, formed by the union of one volume of one gas with one or more volumes of another, occupied two volumes (2). Although cases of combination are known where the volume is not doubled, this observation remains generally true, excepting at temperatures at which dissociation takes place 27. Molecules, Atoms, and Micro-atoms.—In 1812 Davy (mi, declared his adherence to the doctrine that atoms unite to form groups of regular constitution, and in 1814 Ampére (7) endea- voured to establish definite conceptions regarding the arrange- (a) A comparative view of the phlogistic and antiphlogistic theories. 2nd Edit. 1791. (b) [1766 —1844.] (c) Communicated by Dalton to Dr. Thomson; first published in Thomson’s System of Chemistry, 1807. (d) New Experiments touching the Spring of the Air. (e) Jacques Alexandre César Charles. [1746—1823.] He did not publish his results; they became known to Gay-Lussac by accident. (7) Annal. de Chim., t. 43, pp. 1837—175. (g) An interesting fact in this connection is that the idea of the absolute zero was reached as early probably as 1702 by Guillaume Amontons [1662—1705], whose work gave —239.5 deg. In 1779, Lambert {[Pyrometrie, Berlin, p. 29], repeating Amonton’s experi- ments with greater accuracy, obtained—270.3 deg. (kh) [1778—1850]. (i) Mém. de la Soc. d’Arceuil, t. 2, p. 207. (j) [1776—1856.] (%) Journ. de Phys., 73. Juill. 1811. Pp.58—76. Also Févr. 1814. (2) Thus:—1 vol. H.H + 1 vol. Cl . Cl = 2 vols. H.Cl. 2vols. H.H +1vol.O0 : O =2vols. H O.H. H 3 vols. H.H +1vol.N : N=2vols. H.N ‘-H 32 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION A. ment of the elementary atoms (molécules) out of which the mole- cules (particules) are built up. The latter were assumed to be the smallest quantities of any substance which could maintain a stable existence in the free state. That endeavour has not yet been crowned with complete success, more especially in the realm of inorganic chemistry. In 1819 Dulong (0) and Petit (py) enunciated the view that the atoms of simple substances have equal capacities for heat, or that specific heats are inversely proportional to the atomic weights (q). Although this doctrine is of great practical value in considering determinations of molecular weight, yet the frequency of excep- tions discloses the impossibility of retaining so simple a view of the constitution of material bodies. 28. Lsomorphism and Isomerism.—The discovery by E. Mitscherlich (7) in 1819 of the relation of isomorphism to simi- larity: of chemical composition, the recognition of isomerism through the identity of the composition of silver cyanate inyesti- gated by Wohler (s) in 1822, and silver fulminate by Liebig (¢) in 1823 (wz), confirmed if needs be by the transformation, in 1828, by the former chemist, of ammonium cyanate into urea (v), showed with increasing significance the value of atomism to che- mistry, if supplemented by the theory of definite molecular structure. The simplicity of the original atomism is, of course, clearly given up, and Lucretius’ idea of conciliwm comes into striking prominence. Atoms tend to associate according to definite laws, which as yet are only empirically known, and their relations can be changed in general only by the introduction of energy in some form or other. Ordinarily their concilium is well established, though in the case of the so-called unstable com- pounds this is not so. The molecules of cyanic acid, for example, enter into closer relations in a most energetic manner at ordi- nary temperatures; it polymerises with explosive violence into cyamelide (w). 29. Valency and Atomic Linking.—Anythmg like detailed reference to the discussion of the general theory of chemical con- stitution is here impossible: Suffice it to say that the evidence of definite arrangement of the atoms in a molecule is continually augmenting. The singular nature of this, and of the atomic and molecular affinities to which this arrangement must be as- cribed, was brought into prominence by the founding in 1852 (m) [1778—1829. ] (q) Annal. d. Chim., &., X., pp. 395-413. (n) [1775 —1836.] (7) [1794—1863. ] (0) [1785—1838. | (s) [1800—1882. ] (p) [1791—1820. ] (t) [1803—1873.] (u) Silver cyanate Silver fulminate 2[Ag—N:C:0] Agz=CK< s Be (v) Ammonium Cyanate Urea H4: N-N:C:0 H2:N—[C:0]—N:H2 (w) GE. N 3G =O)n PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—-SECTION A. 33 by Frankland (z) of the theory of the saturation-capacity, or valency of chemical elements. The complement of this brilliant addition to the atomic idea was the conception of the hnking or union of atoms (y), for which we are indebted to Kekulé and Couper in 1858. An excellent way of realising what the atomic and molecular conceptions mean to chemistry is to consider the steps by which the empirical, molecular, rational, general, constitutional, eraphic or structural, projective, and stereometric formule of a substance are established (z). It is easy to see that the degree of difficulty continually increases; a nicer appreciation of evi- dence is required for the higher formule; the equipment in knowledge and apparatus becomes more extensive, and indeed the boundary between chemistry and physics here disappears. 30. Molecular Arrangement and Physical Properties—Time will not admit of an historical reference to those labours of genius by which the connection between chemical constitution and physical preperties has been wholly or partly identified. To some extent the relations to the density, viscosity, to the light refractive, and rotatory power of substances have been ascer- tained. Within certain limits it has been conclusively proved that the melting and boiling points of some series of chemical compounds depend solely upon the minimum and maximum moments of inertia of their molecules rotating about their centre of figure. The heat of combustion of hydrocarbons has been shown to throw light upon the nature of their atomic lnkage. The general application of the principles of thermodynamics to chemistry is revealing more deeply the exact nature of chemical changes. The kinetic theory of gases has proved of utility in explaining the phenomena of osmotic pressure; in other words, in dilute solutions the molecules behave as though in the gaseous state. The instability of certain compounds, and the nature of explosive substances, is much better understood than formerly, as also the relations of temperature to the velocity with which substances react. Dissociation by temperature, or electric pres- sure, has been made intelligible, and a definite theory of electro- chemistry established. The facts of crystallisation are also being brought within the domain of mechanical interpretation. The sudden changes of form, seen sometimes in crystallising bodies, are conceived to be due to rearrangement under molecular stresses, so that the system of packing of the molecules shall be (x) [Born 1825. } (y) Verkettung oder Bindung der Atome. (z) The first affirms composition only; the second, the number of atoms in the mole- cule; the third, its general chemical character; the fourth, the class of compounds to which it belongs; _the fifth epitomises its chemical character in full; the six or seventh represents that epitome by showing conventionally the position of each atom; the eighth and ninth, the space relations of the components of the molecule—the former conyen- tionally, the latter perspectively. Cc 34 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION A, closer. But we must cease to multiply illustrations. In a thousand different ways the atomic conception seems to be re- inforcing itself as necessary and valid for the practical work of physics and of chemistry. Hach discovered relation between chemical constitution and physical property becomes an instru- ment facilitating further investigation, and so rapid is the march of progress that it is difficult to conjecture what will be the limit of our control over matter through the application of atomic and molecular theory. 31. No Finality in Atomie Exrplanations—When one con- templates the great advances of physical knowledge, it might appear at first as if the mystery of matter and of its properties was in a fair way to be cleared up. NRelatively simple concep- ticns apparently exhaust their significance. Still closer observa- tion, however, in general introduces new difficulties or reintro- duces the old ones. The kinetic theory of gases as it left the hands of Bernouilli was equal to explaining the phenomena observed by Boyle. But there is no rigorously-deduced kinetic theory to-day equal to the interpretation of all the known facts connecting temperature, pressure, and volume. The Newtonian law of gravitation answered well until the precision of observa- tion showed the impossibility of retaining it as an exact expres- sion (a) of the observed facts. The application of the idea of “ close-packing” seems necessary to explain many of the phee- nomena of crystallisation, but how is the diffusion of solids into solids to be understood under that conception? We cannot play fast and loose with such doctrines as the conservation of mass and conservation of energy; to raise any question as to their validity is apparently to abandon everything. Yet how are Landolt’s experiments showing loss of weight in reacting sub- stances to be understood (5)? The difficulties yet to be explained are not trivial ones. For example, we have supposed that at the absolute zero manifestations of energy would disappear. The indications of the kinetic theory of gases seemed to be supported by other facts of an equally sienificant character, but that sup- port has now failed. As we approach the sup posed lower limit of temperature, phenomena are presenting themselves which may give us pause. The general inactivity of chemical substances at low temperatures, of course, is in agreement with our mechanical view. What, however, is the interpretation of the conspicuous brightening of the sulphide and iodide of mercury observed by Kreuz at — 181.4 C. to be? The test of the truth of any theory is its applicability to the whole range of observed facts. It is not sufficient if it is incon- sistent with some; it must be consistent with all. Is it to be (2) See sec. 40 hereinafter. (b) E. g. .08 to .025 mgm. in 1€0 gm. of silver sulphate and ferric sulphate reacting in sealed U-shaped tubes. Zeits. fiir Phys. Chem. 12. 1. (1893.) PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION A. 35 expected that the progress of science will demonstrate the abso- lute validity of the mechanical view of Nature? Shall we finally ascertain that there are nothing but atoms and void? This is a question which I propose to answer “by considering the philo- sophical character of the explanation of natural phenomena. rt: THE PHILOSOPHICAL ASPECT OF ATOMISM. 32. The Problem of Science Stated.—From the point of view of Natural Philosophy in the older sense of that term, when it did not denote, as is now often supposed, merely experimental physics, the problem of science may be thus generally stated. The whole content of the reaction, through the media of the senses, or in any other way, of the external world upon human consciousness, may, in the last analysis, be regarded as an array and succession of phenomena ; this constitutes the material which it is the function of intellect to render intelligible. ‘“ Die Welt ist meine Vorstellung,” said Schopenhauer ; the phenomena are our data, and behind them we cannot go, except in imagination. In other words, we must perforce take the phenomena as the empirical facts to be reduced to system. Very little considera- tion will show that the unifying system is projected, as it were, by the rntellect on to the phenomena. The nature of all science, we may say, substantially in the words of the philosopher quoted, consists in this, that “we comprehend the illimitable manifold of perceptible phenomena, under comparatively few abstract conceptions, from these constructing a system by means of which we have all those phenomena completely in the power of our knowledge, and can explain the past and determine the future.” 33. Phenomena Orgamcally United by Ideal Relations In- tellectually Conceived—We may say, therefore, that the body of science is made up, not of facts merely, but of organised facts, and the world is intelligible, not in virtue of the phenomena themselves, but in virtue of their organic union, through ideal relations, intellectually conceived. This is what Professor Ferrier means when he says that the deliverance of testimony of the senses is, per se, nonsense (a). The formation of abstract conceptions under which all facts are subsumed, the establish- ment of ideal relations by means of which all phenomena are unified, are processes in their very nature intellectual; that is, they proceed, not from the senses, but from the intellect. And in the genesis of such conceptions and relations, validity depends (a) Institute of Metaphysics, 2nd Edit., 1856. Prop. X. In particular sec. 9, p. c2 36 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION A. upon something higher than the phenomena on which the con- ceptions and relations operate (6). Thus, in proposing to reach an intelligible and consistent view of all natural phenomena, we are brought face to face with questions of criteria of intelligi- bility and consistency; that is to say, with problems of pure metaphysic. 34. The Problem Simplified through Ideal Analogres.— If in the attempt to reduce phenomena under general concep- tions, their classification into groups, for the purpose of syste matic study, had revealed that each, with respect to the rest, was sur generis, so that the establishment of a scheme of hypo- thetical relations between the members of one group, was with- out applicability to those of the others, the difficulty of interpretation would probably have been felt as overwhelming. Fortunately, however, experience has shown that between apparently very different orders of facts there are analogies of so general and all-inclusive a character that the conceptions applicable to the one may be transferred to the other. Thus, for example, the theory of inertia and of motion enable us to predict the character of the flight of a projectile, or, with some limitation, to deduce from their chemical composition the boil- ing points of liquids, or the melting points of solids. Or an illustration of broader significance would be the wide application of certain forms of mathematical solution, those, for example, one meets in hydrokinetics (c). 35. The Causal Nexus Assumed.—A consideration of the processes by which phznomena are reduced under general con- ceptions will show that they are presumed to be so linked together that one is conceived as dependent upon the other. That is to say, we universally assume the causal relation. For the general purposes merely of natural science, it is, perhaps, practically immaterial what theory we entertain in respect of causation, 7.¢., whether we regard it as a fiction of the intellect, a mode in which we are compelled to think, if we think at all, pr as something the validity of which is at least confirmed by the general trend of human experience. 36. The Nexus Conceived as Actually or Potentially Phe- nomenal.—Whatever our view, it is easy to see that the nexus between phznomena is and must finally be essentially ideal, since it is not given in perception. Itis really postulated by the intellect in virtue of an original tendency in our nature, viz., (v) The admission of the doctrine attributed to Aristotle, ‘‘ nihil in intellectu, quod non prius fuerit in sensu,” to which, by the way, Leibnitz, in his polemic against Locke, added *‘ nisi ipse intellectus,’’ is by no means hopelessly inconsistent with this dictum, for that on which the intellect operates may always be taken as coming through the channel of sense- experience. &) The striking correlation of several mathematical theories was the theme of the interesting address by Prof. Bragg to this section in 1892. A.A.A, Sc. Hobart. Pp. 31-47. PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION A. By that which constitutes us intelligent beings. The elements of the nexus between particular phenomena may often, and indeed generally do, imply the intermediation either of other actual phenomena, or of phenomena which might be realised as actual, had we other instruments or other sense-organs through which they could be made apparent. Ultimately, however, we invariably reach a region in which phenomena are conceived to he, not only beyond the range of sense-perception with our pre- sent natural endowment, not only beyond that, too, which has been opened up through our ingenuity in extending our natural powers by mechanical aids, but also beyond all possibility of actual sense-presentation. For example, no one anticipates that we shall ever directly see even atomic forms as built up into a molecule; much less is it expected that we shall see those elements by which they are conceived to be controlled and main- tained in definite mutual relations. But, further, even when we conceptually bridge the gap between phznomena, sensuously perceived, by others imagined as intermediate, this process—assumed ultimately to end—gives as a final result two phenomena in succession, supposed to be, as it were, immediately in the chain of causality; the one as antecedent, the other as consequent. 37. Matter and Energy, and the Last Link in the Chain of Causality.—F or the purposes of natural science the two entities, in terms of which the explanation of the entire realm of Nature is proposed to be resolved, and which must appear in this last link in the chain of causality, are matter and energy, the latter being measured by the quantity and rate of motion of the former with reference to some point conceived as fixed; that is, by spatial and temporal elements (d). In other words, the pro- blem proposed really is, to reduce the phenomena to questions of mechanics by way of explaining their relations. 38. Mass Implicitly Assumed as an Ultimate Property of Matter—Now, in mechanical conceptions and problems, since by its very definition energy is derivative, mass is implicitly assumed as an ultimate property of matter, and the motzon of matter as an ultimate phenomenon, behind either of which there is no occasion to, neither can we for the purpose of the explana- tion, go. 39. The Conception of Energy Otherwise Unmeaning.—l, however, mass be regarded as a property of matter, to be de- duced from some other property of a more general character, then the conception of energy in its original form is no longer (d) Thus the kinetic energy of a particle is said to be } mu2 where m is its mass, and u its velocity in reference to some fixed point in its line of motion. Similarly, the kinetic energy of a system of such particles is 5 4 muz, The term energy is relative, a moving mass has energy only in relation to something else taken as fixed, because it has velocity only in that sense. 38 PRESIDENT S ADDRESS—SECTION A. significant or valid for the purpose of proposed ultimate ex- planations ; it ceases to be intelligible. To use conception as a means of deducing the very property, which is first assumed, nay, even explicitly contained in its definition, is either a petitio principri, or a vicious circle, of the most glaring character. This is a question to which we shall later return. 40. The Law of Parsimony the Basis of Explanation.—The effort to explain natural phenomena by means of the smallest possible number of hypotheses—.e., assumptions not susceptible of direct proof by experiment—is, of course, the necessary aim of science. The justification of this is what has been called the law of parsimony; in other words, we must be niggardly with our hypotheses, and may not create two where one is sufficient. Failing to adhere to this as a principle, there could be no ideal fmality as to modes of explanation; explanation would have no organic unity. Thus the value of Newton’s hypothesis of umi- versal gravitation was that it afforded a purely mechanical explanation of the complex motions, at least in the whole solar system (€); and of so great a range of facts in the realm of natural philosophy. In this way it has not only enormously enhanced our powers of prediction as to the course of natural phzenomena, it has also subsumed them under a great general conception. This last is the highest service. 41. Origin of the Conceptions of Mass and Energy.—The ideas of mass and energy are, of course, formulated out of the contents of sense experience. Through that of muscular resist- ance we acquire the notions of spatial extension, of inertia, and of force, from which that of energy can be deduced by abstract considerations ; that is to say, we learn through the muscular sense that masses have extension in space, and that effort is necessary to npart velocity to them, or, to put it more gene- rally, to change their velocities. Terrestrially, also, we learn the eravitative action of tle earth’s mass in a most impressive way, and by delicate experiment can measure the attraction of ordinary masses. We thus connect the idea of force with that property of mass which causes it to act on other distant masses so as to produce motion in them, or manifest itself as energy. We have also, through direct perception, the idea of action at a distance, which, I submit, we may put out of sight by effort of imagination, but never can get rid of in reality (/). Actio in Distans, and Impact.—for some reason, which is by no means obvious, it has often been tacitly assumed that in the mechanical explanation of phenomena the introduction (e) There are some difiiculties, however, about the sufficiency of the Newtonian law in this connection, which are occupying the attention of mathematical astronomers at the present time, and it is questionable whether the law of the inverse square of the distance is exact. The law, as stated by Newton, may be only approximate. (7) One is reminded of the classical example of actio in distans: A boy gazing at an apple. Result: Motion generated in the boy ; later in the apple. PRESIDENT S ADDRESS —SECTION A. 39 of any such idea as attraction or repulsion is of doubtful legiti- macy ; this, of course, because as an ultimate view it implies actio in distans. According to Sir Isaac Newton (g), “ No one with any competent faculty for philosophical thinking” will admit action at a distance as a final explanation of the reaction between material bodies, a very formidable dictum until other supposed explanations are reduced to their ultimate terms. Mechanical philosophers have been particularly scornful about this matter. On a close examination, however, of all final ex- planations of natural phenomena, it will be found either that the original conceptual difficulties have reappeared, or that others equally embarrassing have taken their place; and this is to be expected. All forms of merely mechanical interpretation of phenomena of which there is any historical record are on the horns of the same dilemma. The mechanical philosophy of Newton supposes that some form of impact or contact is essential in imparting motion. Energy as an Ultimate Conception.—The adoption of energy as an ultimate conception to erp/ain phenomena is open to objection, because in origin it is clearly of a derivative character, its generating elements being mass, space, and time; per se, it is wholly unintelligible. As a generalisation, a pure abstraction in which the mechanical elements of Nature are summed up, and one from which we can formally deduce the details that have already been implicitly or otherwise included in the generalisa- tion, it is admittedly of the greatest practical value. But generalisation and deduction d6 not constitute ultimate explana- tion. The conception, moreover, has not the supposed merit of what may be called’ picturability, which Hagenbach considered to be a not unimportant element of intelligibility (7). Conventional Restriction of the Problem of Science.— “ Nothing,” said Democritus, “sweet or bitter, hot or cold, or coloured exists, in truth there are only atoms and void” (7), which is really equivalent to affirming that one’s philosophy pro- poses to ignore those elements. To deliberately do so, with a view to restricting the problem of explanation within certain definite limits, is, of course, legitimised by the fact that we are overpowered even by the difficulties inherent in the relatively simple problem then remaining ; it is desirable to recollect, how- ever, that the problem solved zs a partial one only. The solu- tion is really of a conventional representation of reality, designed to cover a certain range of facts. The naivete with which diffi- culties have been glossed over, hidden under mathematical (q) Letter to Bentley. (hk) Zielpunkte der physikalischen Wissenschaft, p. 21. (z) vou yap, enc, YAuKe, Kal VOUw TLeKpOV, VOuUW BEpuoV, Vouw PuxXpdV, Vdum xpown. éren 5€ droua Kai xevov. Mullach I. 357. 40 PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS—SECTION A. symbols—often traps for the unwary (7), or pushed back until they might be imagined to have a reasonable chance of escaping detection, is a singular feature in the history of natural philo- sophy. Generation of Motion in Mass.—Historically there are but three different ways, two of them being fundamentally different, in which motion has been imagined to be imparted from one body to another, by those who espouse the mechanical method of interpreting the universe. The first and most popular is by impact. If the impacting atoms (/) are conceived as absolutely hard—if that be intelligible—that is, as having, say, a co- efficient of restitution of unity | ?], no energy will be lost through impact, as experience would suggest, but by definition, such atoms are not subject to elastic deformation, and, therefore, can- not vibrate. Consequently, as is well known, they are incom- petent to discharge their explanatory functions, because certain phenomena involve the assumption that atoms do vibrate. On the other hand, if the atom be conceived as subject to elastic deformation, and to escape the difficulty of an infinite series is also supposed to be structureless, continuous, or non-molecular, then it may be said it is unlike any existing matter, or anything which has come within the range of sense perception. It is a supersensible material, and anything more than a purely empirical and formal theory of its deformation and general behaviour would be impossible. All explanations of the elastic properties of matter, which are not purely formal, that is, which take account merely of spatial distributions of energy without inquiring into the explanation thereof, presuppose mole- cular structure, with attractions and repulsions, and so on; molar examples of elastic deformation being regarded as involv- ing such conceptions in any complete explanation. This exem- plifies the method of eliminating a difficulty at one place to reintroduce it at another. That the linear scale of the element into which it has been transferred is relatively infinitesimal in no way alleviates the specific character of the difficulty. The fact obviously is that either the absolutely hard, or perfectly elastic atom, has a purely hypothetical existence ; the properties assigned to it, by mere transfer from the sphere of sense percep- tion, themselves require explanation as soon as they are regarded as derivative, and not ultimate in that sphere. The Aither as the Medium of Communication of Motion.— The remarkable practical utility of the conception that the ether, by the establishment of systems of stresses therein, may (j) In this connection Magnus, who played so prominent a part in the establishment of a school of scientists in Berlin, may be mentioned. One wonders how far his opposition to mathematics, beyond all question an indispensable and masterful instrument of physical research, arose from an appreciation of its occasional misuse. (k) Cases of molar impact need not be considered, as the phzenomenon is admittedly not then elementary in its nature. @ PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION A. 4] discharge the function of communicating motion from one body to another, and its fertility in leading to discoveries in the realm of light, electricity, magnetism, and heat; the extra- ordinary analogies and identities which exist among the phe- nomena of those elements of natural science, viewed in the light of that conception, all of which afford abundant evidence, too, of the organic unity of the idea of energy; these have for the immediate purposes of the physical sciences justified its adoption. Newton felt that such a medium must be assumed, but he re- frained from expressing himslf definitely in regard to it, in the absence of a sufficient body of experimental evidence (/). Com- plex mechanical conceptions of this medium have been promul- gated in order to render its functions picturable. But a medium regarded as subject to stress and strain and possessed of dynamic stability, in order that it may fulfil its functions in the respect indicated, involves again the original difficulty of choosing be- tween action at a distance, or supersensible existences, as ulti- mate hypotheses, representative of reality. Recently observed phenomena, such as fluorescence, cathodic, Lenard, and Réntgen radiations, the Zeeman phenomena, &c., all go to show what great complexity exists in the relations of ether and matter, and how difficult it is to assign definitely the functions of either in a manner that is mechanically intelligible. The erudite papers of Mr. Larmor on this subject in recent numbers of the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society (7) afford impressive evidence of this. The introduction into the ether of hypothetical structures conceived in the likeness of various mechanical models, gyrostatic cells, or other similar motions, may result in a representational mechanism, the reactions of which are analogous to those con- ceived as actually occurring. They may, too, fulfil the require- ments of deduction when handled by those whose powerful mathematical resources are adequate to the task. But the old conceptual difficulties are not eliminated. If the structural character be regarded as real, the original difficulties are reintro- duced. Such mechanisms are intelligible only by retaining the original ideas of matter and energy ; as ultimate explanations they wholly beg the question. Denial of Actio in Distans.—The third method of explain- ing motion is to at once admit the idea of action at a distance. It is a curious fact that no attempt to get rid of this idea by mechanical contact interpretations of the universe has been com- pletely successful. The implication of such action may have been pushed back so far that it is not readily discerned ; we are (7) Sed haee paucis exponi non possunt; neque adest sufficiens copia experimentorum, quibus leges actionum hujus spiritus accurate determinari et monstram debent. Prin- cipia Lib. III. De Mundi Systemate, p. 530. (m) A dynamical theory of the electric and luminiferous medium. Phil. Trans. 185A, Pp. 719-822. 186 A, pp. 695-743. 190 A, pp. 205-300. 49 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS — SECTION A. disposed to excuse conduct in an atom that we will not tolerate in a bigger creature. If action at a distance be really not im- plied, then the conception itself has elements equally defying all understanding. Is not the fact simply this, that in so-called mechanical inter- pretations we have deliberately elected to regard motion as pos- sible only through actual contact ; we have arbitrarily decided that no other conception is to be treated as intelligible or pic- turable. That is to say, we construct our explanations of Nature in terms of one of the lowest elements in our experience, vizZ., the tactual sense, and sense of muscular effort. And unless we introduce purely fictitious, supersensible, and mexplicable entities, we find that after getting rid of our bogey, it has re- appeared undismayed. Arbitrary Character of Mechanical Interpretation of Nature. —Moreover, is not the fact that the phenomena of Nature can- not be reduced under the mechanical conception adequate evi- dence of its purely conventional and purely arbitrary character ? And are we not, therefore, justified while this is so, in distinguish- ing between Reality and that Conceptual World which we fabri- cate to represent certain of its elements? A point, a curve, a surface, and a volume are conceptual entities dealt with by the mathematician, and between which he discovers, in the recesses of consciousness, not in external Nature, a multitude of relations, some of extraordinary beauty and complexity. Out of these entities he creates ideal forms and structures, which, projected on to the world of phznomena, or, if you will, the real world, serve to represent its geometrical features. The straight lines, curves, surfaces of various orders, and solid forms of the mathematician may, as it were, be said to have no real existence; in }magina- tion, however, he projects them on, or applies them, to the forms in Nature, and when for the purpose immediately in view, or by reason of our limitations in discrimination, the two are apparently identical, the conceptual elements may be said to represent the real. The actual forms in Nature are probably so complex as to completely baffle any attempt at absolute geo- metrical representation. Nevertheless, we apply the elementary and, relatively, meagre concepts of geometry as the only pos- sible way of rendering them intelligible. We say, for example, that sodium chloride crystallises in the form of a cube, that the angle between contiguous faces is 90 deg. But in reality the angle varies about a-half degree either way. We describe a leaf as, say, ovate, or sagittate, or of some other form implying symmetry ; in reality leaves are asymmetrical. We affirm that a planet moves round the sun in an ellipse; in reality the path is bewilderingly complex. Thus we see that our conceptions are fictions, by which reality is represented ; and this 1s no less true in the domain of physies. PRESIDENT S ADDRESS—SECTION A. 43 Atoms and Molecules not Real, but Representative of Reality.—Are we not from the preceding considerations justified, and, indeed, compelled to regard the atom and molecule, the ether, and so on, not as reality itself, but merely as representa- tive thereof? If we adopt a contact theory as the criterion of intelligible explanation, we have simply limited ourselves, in the elements of our conceptual world, to one of the crudest elements in our sense-experience. We cannot legitimately expect that any such limited conceptual construction shall completely coincide with actuality, nor that the mechanical interpretation of Nature will ever exhaust the mystery of its action. Character of the World tmagined in Natural Science.—We are apt to suppose that our dreams, even our mechanical dreams, about reality, and realty are identical; and the confidence with which conceptions have been put forward as true pictures of Nature, capable of revealing the deepest secrets of her being, has sometimes betrayed those who regard her mainly from the mechanical point of view, into positions that are difficult to defend. One can understand something of the, perhaps intem- perate, scorn of the philosopher who, seeing a conception almost at the moment of its birth, and without mature consideration, advanced as equal to the task of explaining the very foundations of the universe, delivers his soul as follows :—* The whole hypo- thesis of vibrating ether atoms is not say a chimeera, but equals in awkward crudity the worst of Democritus, and yet is shameless enough to profess to be an established fact ; and thus it has been brought about that it is orthodoxly repeated by a thousand stupid scribblers of all kinds, devoid of all knowledge of such things, and is believed in as a gospel” (m). The pen seems here to have been dipped in gall unnecessarily deeply. But did not the assurance with which these particular atoms were recog- nised as “ manufactured articles,” not as the manufacture of their real authors, but that of no human hand, and with which it was declared that their energy was being slowly dissi- pated, and, therefore, matter would ultimately vanish from existence; and that they afforded evidence that the material universe came into being at some particular moment of time ; did not this assurance almost justify such a fulmination ? One is disposed to think that the more temperate and invulner- able view is that conceptions, quite as valid as ul‘7mate explana- tions of the mysteries of Nature, may, nevertheless, as we see to be historically the case, be of brilliant service, not only to the material needs of humanity, but also to those of our higher being, if they serve the purpose of enabling us to schematically represent certain aspects of natural phenomena. de 2a papa Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung. Suppl. to Bk. 2, cap. XXIV “44 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION A. If per impossibile we imagine a time when a consistent and complete representation of the whole range of phenomena has been fabricated, which, whatever our assiduity, could never in any of its lineaments be discriminated from reality, all signifi- cance as to the question of identity therewith will then have vanished. In the meantime we may regard the aggregate of the general conceptions of natural science as the depdt in which we hoard up our physical knowledge, rather than the place whence we draw it. It is the terminus ad quem, not a quo, and to change the figure, is at best a picture designed only to represent the world from one point of view. The activities of things are not, and never can be, accounted for, by the mechanical view. The ideas of matter and energy are instruments by means of which we represent, in the most elementary and conventional way, some items of that illimitable complex called Nature, instruments which render a magnificent service, it is true, but which, after all, are hopelessly imperfect and inadequate. Or we may say, the physical conceptions of the universe are creations evolved from the depths of that deepest of all mysteries, human consciousness, and assumed to be in the likeness of what is received in perception. They are in reality, but simulacra, in which, by refusing to allow any but mechanical elements to rise above the threshold of consciousness, we imagine we see the PHYSICAL WORLD PICTURE. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS—SECTION B. SOME LANDMARKS IN THE PROGRESS OF CHEMICAL SCIENCE. bBy_¥.-B. GUTHRIE, FLLC., £6.58. Or all the sciences chemistry is, perhaps, the one richest in discovery. The preparation of new compounds, the observation of new facts, and the propounding of theories to account for the ~ observed facts, proceed at a rate that is sometimes bewildering, and it is not my intention to inflict upon you either a history of chemistry, or a list of the discoveries made in the numerous branches of chemical science. In selecting a few of the more prominent landmarks in the history of the science, my object is twofold. I wish, in the first place, to draw your attention to the evolutionary nature of chemical progress. We shall find that all the striking discoveries and generalisations which have marked the ad- vance of chemical science are not, as is sometimes erroneously supposed, the result of accident or guesswork, but follow each other in a logical sequence. The discovery of a group of new facts requires some generalisation to explain them, the enunciation of this generalisation in its turn advances our horizon, and suggests new lines of research. Thus, each new discovery, at least each new discovery of impor- tance, each landmark in the progress of the science, is itself a corollary from those that have gone — and the precursor of future discoveries. In the second place, I wish to emphasise the fact that the marvellous strides in the development of the science, and the material gains derived from its development, are exactly co- incident with the recognition of the necessity of pursuing know- ledge for its own sake. As long as the efforts of investigators were directed towards a purely material goal, the production of gold, so long did the science remain absolutely at a standstill; no progress was made on either the intellectual or the material side. 46 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION B. Observations and discoveries were, no doubt, made, but their value and import were unsuspected, and, unless they appeared to bear directly on the attainment of the object immediately in view, they were looked upon as meaningless. Our comparatively recent and wonderful progress in chemical knowledge dates from the recognition of the fundamental idea that the aim of the chemist is the study of the constitution of matter, and that this aim is to be pursued by experiment and by induction from experiment. CHEMISTRY AMONG THE ANCIENTS. From the earliest times mankind has found an interest in speculating upon the nature of his surroundings, and the history of chemistry may be said to date from the first unrecorded specu- lations as to the nature of the materials of which the universe is composed. We know, however, nothing of the speculations of the earlier races of mankind. The earliest people of whom records are left who interested themselves with chemical questions were the Egyptians. The name itself is probably of Kgyptian origin. The records of the Egyptians, Israelites, and Phoenicians, show that they were well acquainted with the art of metal work- ing, and of other technical applications. The Egyptians pos- sessed considerable technical knowledge and skill, especially in the working of metals and alloys, and appear to have brought this art to a high state of perfection. The art of dyeing was well understood by them, highly prized, and jealously kept secret. They also excelled in the manufac- ture of pharmaceutical preparations, drugs, perfumery, oint- ments, soap, &c. The art of embalming, which was purely a chemical one, was brought to the highest possible state of perfection by them. From the Egyptians a knowledge of chemistry was spread to the Phoenicians and Israelites. But with neither of these races was there any considerable advance in chemical science. The Phoenicians, who were a com- mercial people, are known to have excelled in many of the arts involving chemical processes, notably those of dyeing and glass- making. They are credited with having been the first to manu- facture glass. The Greeks inherited the chemical knowledge of the Egyptians, but made, it may be asserted, no advance in technical processes. So little is this the case that we find that metals such as iron, which present some difficulties in their extraction, were regarded as being rarer than the readily smelted gold and silver, at least, in Homer’s time. We owe to them a better understanding of the general characteristics of the metals, and they were, indeed, the PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS - SECTION B. 47 first to place metals in a separate group, based on their com- mon properties, and to give them the distinctive name which they still bear. For this want of progress in chemical science, we have to seek the cause in the Greek character. The Greek spirit was essentially emotional and speculative, and their in- tellectual activity was directed to such subjects as abstract philo- sophy, poetry, oratory. history, and the emotional arts of music, painting, and sculpture. A result of this was that those who occupied themselves with industrial pursuits were the least educated of the people, and the manipulative processes were held in contempt, and unknown to those who could have drawn scientific conclusions from them. If, however, the practical and experimental side of the science was neglected, speculation as to the material nature ofthe universe was vigorously pursued. How far these purely specula- tive views are removed from the exact methods of reasoning of to-day will be apparent from a short epitome of the teaching of Aristotle (350 B.c.), whose writings for more than fifteen centuries remained unchallenged, and whose theories held the field down to quite recent times. Aristotle proclaimed the proper method of reasoning to be from the general to the particular; that is to say, the province of the philosopher is to enunciate general laws from intuition, and proceed to apply them to particular in- stances. This method of investigation was the one naturally commending itself to the Greek mind, and included science in their scheme of speculative philosophy. It has proved almost absolutely barren of results. As an instance of the working of this method, we may examine the Aristotelian idea as to the nature of the elements. Accord- ing to Aristotle, matter is that which we can touch and which manifests itself to us by the sense of touch. Consequently, the ultimate elements of which matter is composed must possess certain properties manifest to our sense of touch. These properties are four in number. Matter may be hot, cold, wet, or dry. These, then, are the characteristic properties which are inherent in all matter, and must be looked for in the elements of which matter is composed. He further assumes that two of these properties are combined in each element, and as a substance cannot be at the same time hot and cold, or wet and dry, there remain four possible com- binations, producing four elementary substances, from which all matter is built up:—Hot and dry, represented by fire; hot and wet, represented by air; cold and dry, represented by earth ; cold and wet, represented by water. Tt is clear that this conception of the elements is very different from the present one, and that however creditable as a piece of mental gymnastics, it was valueless to assist progress in experi- mental science. 48 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION B. Before Aristotle’s time Thales (B.c. 600) had proved by similar methods of reasoning that water was the original element out of which all matter was produced. This position was assigned to air by Anaximenes (550 B.c.), and Heraclitus (B.c. 500) announced that fire was the original element. How strong a hold these teachings had is shown by the fact that up to quite recent times (1661) this was the universally received conception of the elements, and that our language still contains tracings of these teachings in such expressions as watery element, fiery element, and so forth. The Greeks passed on their chemical knowledge to their Roman conquerors. If we take Pliny the elder (died 79 a.p.), as our authority as to the condition of chemical technology in his time, we find a very considerable progress in chemical know- ledge. Of metals they knew at least seven which they were able to prepare, some in a state of considerable purity. They knew also many alloys, bronzes, brass, &c., and used a gold and mercury amalgam for gilding. Many metallic salts were known and used as medicines, such as common salt, sulphate of iron, nitre, salammoniac, alum, &c. Sulphur was used in bleaching wool. Even a number of organic substances were known—acetic acid (the only acid known), soaps, fats, and the combination with lead (our lead-plaster), sugar, starch (already prepared on the large scale). They used soda and some basis in dyeing. Of dye-stuffs, the most impor- tant were the purple of the murex (Tyrian) and indigo. With the fall of Rome, Byzantium became the seat of Roman learning, the Byzantine philosophers being in close touch with Alexandria, and it is in Alexandria more particularly that we find the headquarters of scientific thought up to the 7th century. To the Alexandrines we owe, especially, many strictly chemi- cal operations in use in our laboratories to the present day, such as distillation, filtration, &c. With the prominence of the Alexandrine school begins a new and remarkable era in the history of chemistry, namely, the period of alchemy. ALCHEMY. The object of chemistry during this long period, which lasted from the middle of the 7th century till the 16th century, was simply to convert baser metals into gold. The idea of the tran- substantiation of metals was not unknown to the Greeks, but appears to have made little headway with them. It became the leading object of the Egyptian chemists of Alexandria, and in the 7th and 8th centuries the Arabian con- querors gave it special prominence, and by them it was intro- duced through Spain into Western Europe. PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION B. 49 The history of chemistry during the middle ages becomes the history of alchemy, the search for the philosopher’s stone, the universal solvent, the elixir of life, and similar fanciful toys. As far as progress in chemical science is concerned, these 1000 years are almost absolutely barren of result, and it is quite out- side the scope of this address to do more than note this period as a landmark in the history of chemistry—a landmark, one must admit, whose absence would not have delayed the advance of knowledge. The period is, however, one of fascination and interest to the student on account of the intense enthusiasm of the workers, their pathetic self-sacrifice, and the atmosphere of glamour in which their lives were enveloped, both by the mysterious nature of the work on which they were engaged, and the fanciful and imaginative nature of their writings. For, although in the latter days alchemy degenerated into the merest charlatanry and deceit, the alchemists for the most part spared neither labour nor fortune to attain their object, which appeared always so near fulfilment, and so tantalisingly elusive. They worked, moreover, in continual danger of their lives. They were suspected of being magic.ans, trafficking in for- bidden lore, and in league with the enemy of mankind, and in those days the punishment of such was summary. The pro- mulgation of a Papal Bull early in the 14th century denouncing alchemy, and forbidding its practice, made the way of perse- cutors particularly easy and profitable. If the unfortunate alchemist escaped punishment at the hands of his enemies, he was almost certain to fall into the hands of equally dangerous friends, for in those days, as now, princes and rulers suffered from a chronic lack of ready money, and it was the custom with most of the powerful Continental barons to keep en alchemist immured in their castle, with instructions to manufacture the necessary gold under the most frightful pains and penalties. The lives of some of the alchemists read in consequence like the pages of a romance. It is therefore not altogether to be wondered at that the later alchemists degenerated into tricksters and mountebanks, but it is certain that many of them were workers of great ability and enthusiasm, and, however absurd we may regard their strivings, and however fanciful and ridiculous the language they used to describe their operations, we nevertheless owe them a debt of eratitude, for they amassed an astonishing number of facts which succeeding chemists have availed themselves of. We owe them a large number of chemical preparations and apparatus, and they were the only followers of experimental science during the period fitly known as the Dark Ages. Those who escaped violent and tragic deaths were for the most part monks, who carried on their work in the quiet D 50 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION B. of their cells, and it is pleasant to reflect that the Church, which has had so many stones cast at it on account of its treatment of unorthodox investigators, gave asylum to such numbers of those who kept alight the torch of patient investiga- tion at a time when all the outside intellectual world was fight- ing about dogma, or pummelling each other with philosophical disputations. With regard to the theoretical side of the alchemistic problem, a very few words will suffice. The problem of how to convert metals into gold demanded some theory as to the constitution of metals. Such a theory was advanced by one of the earliest of the Arabian writers, Geber, about the middle of the 8th century, and was accepted by all the later alchemists with hardly any variation. Indeed, this blind and unquestioning acceptance of the state- ments of previous authorities is one of the characteristics of the alchemists. This theory enunciated, after the most approved Aristotelian style of reasoning, that all metals contained two principles—the fixed and the volatile, represented by mercury and sulphur. PARACELSUS AND THE IATRO-CHEMISTS. We now come to the next development of chemistry, namely, as the healer of disease. Already amongst the alchemists the philosopher’s stone was credited with all the wonderful qualities which fabulous things naturally assume. It was not only to convert metals into gold, if absolutely pure, and if impure, to convert them into silver. It was to be a uni- versal solvent, dissolving and purifying everything. It was to give the finder the fulfilment of every wish and to procure for him indefinite length of life, it was to be the elixir of life, to rejuvenate the old, and give man immortality in the flesh. This idea, a natural development of the other, was first given practical effect to by Paracelsus early in the 16th century. He announced the discovery that the aim of chemistry was not to make gold, but to prepare medicines. This extraordinary man attacked the alchemists with tremen- dous vigour, and founded the school of Iatro-chemists, the pre- cursors of the physicians of the present day, who forsook the elusive art of making gold directly, and fell to preparing strange drugs, from many of which we suffer to-day. Chemistry became a handmaid to medicine, and chemists merely apothecaries. Paracelsus appears to have regarded everything in Nature as a possible drug, and he did not scruple to dose his contemporaries in the most outrageous manner with substances known to be poisonous, and herbs of whose action he knew nothing. PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION B. 51 To him, however, we undoubtedly owe a considerable debt. He and his followers gave the deathblow to alchemy, which died, however, very hard. He took chemistry out of the hands of the alchemists, and placed it in the hands of physicians and apothe- caries, a step which enriched the science to an extraordinary degree. The aim of the science is still far from being the present one, but its outlook is considerably broader, and no longer directed towards an unattainable object. The search for healing medi- cines was in itself a noble aim, and in its pursuit a multitude of new compounds were prepared and studied. With regard to the philosophical side of the science, the alchemistic theory as to the constitution of matter prevailed un- changed, except that another element, salt, was added to sul- phur and mercury, mercury being the volatile principle, sulphur the combustible, and salt the fixed principle. Paracelsus re- garded chemistry as one of the four pillars of medicine, the others being Philosophy, Astronomy, and Virtue. BOYLE AND MODERN METHODS. Up to this time it will be seen that the science of chemistry, as we understand it now, had no existence. Such aims as it from time to time possessed were either false and illusory, or futile. It possessed: no laws, and the only theories extant were such as had no experimental basis, and were entirely without proof. It is to the Irishman Boyle (1627- 1691) that we owe the introduction of the scientific method of experiment and induction from experiment which in the hands of later chemists has advanced the science with such astonishing rapidity and sureness. Boyle, in his own words, regarded the chemist not as a physi- cian, nor an alchemist, but as a philosopher. The chemist’s aim is not to make drugs or gold, but to investi- gate Nature, to experiment, and to build up a philosophical system upon the facts of experiment. Nature is to be investi- gated by studying the composition of matter, by splitting it up, and by reconstructing it out of its elements. This is, in fact, the definition of chemistry you will find in every text-book to-day. It is true that Boyle had not the same idea of an element that we have, but he showed conclusively that the prevailing notions concerning the elements were untenable. Boyle advanced no new theory concerning the constitution of matter, but he in- dicated the road for future chemists to work on with certainty, and travelled himself a considerable distance along it. He discovered and proved the existence of several of the fundamental laws governing matter. He was the first to observe D2 52 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION B. the effect of pressure on air and other gases, and to enunciate the law wnmich governs these phenomena. We owe to him our conception of the mysterious affinity of the particles of one kind of matter for those of another, which is one of the funda- mental conceptions of the science. He was the founder of our systematic method of analytical chemistry, and the tests he employed to detect some of the com- moner chemical substances are in use in our laboratories to this day. He also made many discoveries in technical applications. From Boyle’s time we are able to trace with accuracy the growth of a well defined science of chemistry. It is to the accept- tance of Boyle’s ideas, and to his discoveries of a few of the funda- mental laws governing matter, that we owe the existence of che- mistry as a science. From this time on we are able to follow the successive steps of its progress, and to connect each successive discovery with those that have preceded it. PHLOGISTON. It is true that Boyle’s work did not bear fruit immediately, not, indeed, till quite 100 years after his time. During this period a theory concerning the constitution of matter was ac- cepted which effectually prevented further advance. This was Stahl’s theory of phlogiston, according to which a certain ele- ment or principle was held to exist more or less in all combus- tible substances. Bodies that do not burn contain no phlogiston, those that burn readily contain much phlogiston. When a substance burns it parts with its phlogiston. Phlogiston was, in fact, the principle of inflammability. It also came to be regarded as the principle of lightness, since many substances were found to increase by weight on burning. This theory was finally overthrown by the discovery of oxygen by Priestley in 1774, and of the compound nature of water by Cavendish ten years later, and these two discoveries may be regarded as the two most important landmarks on the experi- mental side of the science. LAVOISIER. But it is to their contemporary, the great French chemist, Lavoisier, that the credit is due of seeing the full interpreta- tion of these discoveries, of affording the proper explanation of the phenomena of oxidation, combustion, and reduction, and of dealing the final death blow to the phlogistic theory. At Lavoisier’s time, as we have seen, the few scattered facts known with regard to chemical phenomena stood in no apparent relation to each other. Except in one or two instances, no ex- PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SEOTION B. 53 planation of them had been attempted, and in these instances the explanations advanced were vague, or even, as in the case of phlogiston, calculated to retard rather than advance chemical progress. It is Lavoisier’s supreme merit to have grasped the full significance of the discoveries of Black, Priestley, and Cavendish, and to have evolved order out of all this confusion. We owe more than this to Lavoisier. To him is due the proof by quantitative methods of the indestructibility of matter. To him also we owe the definition of an element as the simplest form of matter. He also establish®@ a rigid system of nomenclature for chemical substances, the principles of which are retained to this day. It is the establishment of these three luminous generalisations, the indestructibility of matter, the explanation of the phenomena attending combustion, and the definition of an element, that has rendered possible the later development of the atomic and mole- cular theories, and the science of modern chemistry may be fairly said to date from Lavoisier. To Boyle is to be assigned the supreme merit of pointing the direction along which chemical science should progress, and the methods which should be adopted. To Black, Cavendish, and Priestley we owe the great experimental first fruits of this new method of investigation ; to Lavoisier, the explanation of these discoveries and the establishment of chemistry as a science. Since Lavoisier’s time, the history of chemical progress has been of almost bewildering rapidity, and instead of finding our landmarks scattered and ‘separated by hundreds of years from each other, they crowd so quickly on each other’s heels that the difficulty is to pick out the salient features in the ever-accumulat- ing mass of fact and theory. I shall be able in the limited time allowed to do little more than mention them, and attempt to show their proper position in the general advance, and their connection with prior and later discoveries. We shall have to leave the strictly chronological order which I have hitherto attempted to follow, and trace the development of discovery along one or two of the numerous branches of research. STOECHIOMETRY. The introduction of quantitative methods, and the clear under- standing of what was meant by the terms, elements and chemical compounds, paved the way for the study of the quantitative com- position of compounds, or stoechiometry. The fundamental stoechiometrical laws are the following :—Proust’s (1806) law that chemical compounds consist invariably of the same ele- ments by the same proportion of weight; Berzelius’ law of SECTION B. 54 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS multiple proportions, which asserts that the elements only enter into combination in definite and fixed proportions by weight, and that if two elements combine to form more than one compound, the proportions by weight of the element are always multiples of each other. The same relationship was also shown by Gay-Lussac to exist between the volumes of interacting gases. The discovery of these fundamental laws was the immediate outcome of the intro- duction of quantitative methods of investigation. They are, of course, empirical, and independent of hypothesis. The explanation of their cause was afforded by the atomic hypothesis of John Dalton (1808), which states in effect that matter is composed of aggregations of minute indivisible particles, and that chemical union takes place between the atoms of matter. Further, that these atoms are possessed of definite weight differing with the nature of the element, and that these weights are proportional to the combining weights. This hypothesis, known as the Atomic Theory, provided a satisfactory explanation of the laws then known governing the constitution of matter. The further development of this theory is the characteristic feature of modern chemistry, and all the subsequent generalisations and discoveries are either directly due to its recognition, and are corollaries from it, or have received their interpretation by its means. It is often insisted that the atomic theory is essentially a legacy from the Greek philosophers, and that it is to them we owe the conception that matter is built up of minute indivisible particles. There is, however, a fundamental difference between the e-nceptions of the Greeks and of Lucretius, and the concep- tion of Dalton, and one that is sufficiently important to make all the difference between a fanciful guess and a well-considered theory. The distinction les in the conception of Dalton, that these atoms are possessed of weight differing with the nature of the element, and that they are separated from each other by space. The weights of the atoms are, of course, relative, and not actual. As soon as the fact was recognised that the elements consisted of a number of minute and indivisible particles, and that the elements combined together in definite proportions by weight, the problem of determining the relative weights of the atoms of the different elements engaged the attention of chemists. The equivalent weight is not, as we know, in all cases, the atomic weight. The equivalent weights are capable of direct determination, but as we have no direct method of ascertaining the number of atoms of the elements entering into any compound, the actual weight of the atoms must be determined by indirect means. PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION B. 5D. The following are amongst the most striking of the relations observed between the equivalents of the elements and their other properties. In 1832 Faraday showed that when an electric current is passed through an electrolyte, the quantity of the electrolyte decomposed is proportional to the intensity of the current. This is known as the law of electrolytic equivalence, and its further development will be dealt with later. Mitscherlich (1819) discovered the existence of a similarity in crystalline structure between substances of similar chemical con- stitution. From this is derived the law of isomorphism, which states that substances having the same number of atoms com- bined in the same way give rise to the same crystalline form. The application of this law, though limited, is of enormous im- portance, and is of special significance in organic chemistry. Dulong and Petit (1819) observed also a relationship between the combining weights of the elements and another physical pro- perty, namely, their capacity for heat, which they found to be inversely proportional to their atomic weights. It is notably Berzelius who made use of these equivalents in the first determinations of the atomic weights of the elements. The recognition of the hypothesis of Avogadro (1811) enabled us to determine the relative molecular weights for all gases. Avogadro’s hypothesis states that equal volumes of all gases contain the same number of molecules. It was announced by him in 1811, but its full significance was not recognised until the question of the determination of the atomic weights was in a more advanced state, and it was reintroduced by Cannizaro in 1858. This far-reaching and important hypothesis is a direct corollary to the Daltonian theory of atoms. To attempt to trace its influence on our conception of the nature of matter is quite beyond my present task. Amongst its important developments were the proof of the mechanical theory of heat, upon which is based the now-accepted kinetic theory of gases advanced by Joule and Prescott, 1850, and the explanation of gaseous diffusion discovered by Graham, 1831. The exact determination of the Stoechiometric values has engaged the attention of chemists, amongst the most notable of whom have been Berzelius and Stas, whose determination of the atomic weights of a number of the elements will always be models of exact and painstaking research. Of recent years, and especially since the acceptance of the periodic classification based on the atomic weights of the elements, the exact deter- mination of these weights has been undertaken afresh. Of recent workers may be mentioned T. E. Thorpe, G. W. Morley, Scott, Cooke, Kaiser and Noyes, &e. In 1864, Newlands first drew attention to a remarkable con- 56 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION B. nection that existed between the atomic weights of the elements and their physical and chemical properties, and this was elabo- rated and systematised by Mendeleef in 1869, and by Lothar Meyer into what is known as the periodic law of the elements. The immense importance of this far-reaching and suggestive generalisation is hardly to be over-estimated. It may be said that its influence has revolutionised our conceptions of the material universe. It is true that some modification of its pre- sent representation has become necessary, particularly since the discovery by Rayleigh and Ramsay of the atmospheric elements, ‘argon, metargon, krypton, and of helium. Amongst suggestions for such a rearrangement the most satisfactory is that recently proposed by Crookes. CONSTITUTION OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS. In 1828 the German chemist, Wohler, made the remarkable discovery that by simply heatimg a solution of ammonium cyanate it was converted into urea. This introduced to chemists two distinct substances of different properties, but of identical composition. It became, then, of the first importance to ascertain not alone the composition of chemical substances, not only the number of atoms of the elements which went to form a compound; it became important to find out in what way the separate atoms were combined amongst each other, and to discover the laws which guided such combination. At that time the electro-chemical theory of Berzelius explained the affinity of the atoms of different atoms for each other, those which were electro-positively polarised having the strongest affinity for the electro-negative ones. In 1834 the discovery was made by Dumas that chlorine (—) could replace hydrogen (+) in certain compounds without materially affecting the nature of the compound, thus the dif- ferent chloracetic acids all partake of the nature of acetic acid. Dumas was hence led to enunciate the doctrine of types, which assumed that compounds containing the same number of atoms, similarly united, were of the same type, though these atoms were not necessarily of the same elements. In 1832 the discoveries of Liebig and Wohler introduced the idea of radicles or residues, groups of atoms comon to a series of compounds. These radicles are not necessarily capable of being isolated. Such are ethyl, methyl, benzoyl. Several systems of classification of organic compounds on these or similar bases are now to be noted. Laurent introduced the idea of nuclei, which was an extension of the theory of radicles. Gerhardt introduced a classification of compounds on the system of types represented by He O, N Hs, H Cl., HH. PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION B. D7 Further light was thrown on the constitution (apart from theoretical considerations) of organic compounds by the dis- coveries of the radicle ethyl by Frankland (1848), of compound ammonias by Wurtz (1849), and of the constitution of ether by Williamson, and many others. In 1852 a new direction was given to our views respecting the linking of atoms by Frankland’s discovery of zinc ethyl, and a series of similarly constituted organo-metallic compounds. This led Frankland to the recognition of the fact that each atom has a definite combining power, a definite valency, and that this valency is possessed also by groups of elements or radicles. I[t is the valency of the elements that determines their combination and the constitution of the compounds formed. The peculiar manner in which the carbon atom links itself to other carbon atoms was particularly studied by Kekulé (1858), to whom we owe our present lucid ideas as to the structure of carbon compounds, and who may be said to have founded that enormous field of organic chemistry, which deals with the Renzene derivatives by his explanation of the constitution of Benzene. The most recent theoretical considerations of the linking of the caybon atoms has been the conception of geometrical struc- tural formule in space of three dimensions, the introduction of which we owe to Van’t Hoff and Le Bel, by means of which a beautiful and satisfactory explanation of the constitution of sub- stances of different rotating power has been possible. ELECTRO-CHEMICAL THEORY. We have seen already that the idea of electricity and chemical affinity being identical was held in the time of Berzelius. Davy had already expressed himself convinced of the identity of the two forces. In 1838 Faraday enunciated the law of electrolytic equivalents already alluded to. Before we are in a position to state exactly what happens when a current of electricity is passed through an electrolyte we have first to learn something more about the nature of sub- stances in solution. In 1857 Clausius showed that the current of electricity was not the cause of the decomposition, but that the action of elec- tricity was to effect a separation of the already dissociated ions. Raoult, in 1883, showed that the depression of the freezing point of a liquid by the solution in it of another liquid or a solid was proportional to the amount of the dissolved substance, and inversely proportional to its molecular weight. This law is of special importance in determining the molecular weight of those substances whose vapour density cannot be taken, and to which consequently Avogadro’s law is inapplicable. Raoult also 58 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION B. found (1887) that the vapour pressure of solutions containing dissolved substances follows the same rule. In 1878 Pfeffer investigated the subject of osmotic pressure, and showed that this pressure is also proportional to the mole- cular weights of the substances in solution ; the osmotic pressure being briefly the pressure exerted by the dissolved substance where the solvent is free to traverse a membrane by osmosis. These various phenomena were explained by Van’t Hoff in 1887, who drew attention to the analogy between dilute solu- tions and gases, and showed that the laws which apply to gases— Boyle’s, Marriott’s, Gay Lussac’s, Avogadro’s, &c.—apply also to dilute solutions. The theory that is at present accepted in explanation of the conditions of things in an electrolyte, and which serves to some extent to explain the nature of the action of the electric current in decomposing the electrolyte, is that advanced by Arrhenius in 1888. This theory is founded on the theory of Clausius, and assumes that solutions of electrolytes contain free ions, ions being free atoms electrically charged, behaving as free molecules, ionisation taking place during dissolution. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. The vast domain of the chemistry of carbon compounds pre- sents such a bewildering multitude of new substances, a multi- tude whose number is being daily added to by the discovery of new compounds, that it is quite impossible to follow the march of discovery in such an address as this. A few of the more salient landmarks may be pointed out. The discovery by Wéhler in 1828 of the transformation of ammonium cyanate into urea has been already alluded to, and the enormous field of research into the internal constitution of the chemical compounds which it opened up has been briefly sketched. Wohler’s discovery had, however, another consequence of almost equal importance. Prior to this a sharp line had been drawn between substances which were obtained directly or in- directly from living organisms, and called organic compounds, and those of inorganic or mineral origin. It was considered to be beyond the province of the chemist to prepare in the labora- tory from inorganic materials the substances which were only known as the products of animal or plant life. Wohler’s preparation of one of the products of animal secre- tion from purely inorganic materials completely overthrew this view, and it has become more and more the custom of chemists to disregard this imaginary boundary line between mineral and organic chemistry. Although the terms organic and inorganic are still employed, they are no longer used in their original PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION B. 59 significance, and modern organic chemistry confines itself to the hydro-carbons and their derivatives. Among the more striking synthetical processes are Berthelot’s preparation of acetylene by the direct combination of carbon and hydrogen, and Kolbe’s preparation of acetic acid (1845) from carbon disulphide in several stages. Since then the synthetic production of organic substances has progressed in a highly remarkable way. From these comparatively simple compounds we are now able to pre- pare the most complex organic compounds, containing a large number of carbon atoms linked together. Of the more complex organic acids, tartaric acid was the first to be synthetically prepared by a series of reactions, the final one of which was provided in 1861 by Maxwell Simpson by the formation of succinic acid from ethylene through ethylene cyanide. This reaction enabled chemists to prepare acids con- taining one or more carbon atoms more than the original hydro- carbon. Outside the domain of philosophical chemistry the art of the preparation of organic compounds by synthesis has been made use of in the preparation of innumerable compounds used com- mercially. It will be sufficient to enumerate a few of these. The preparation artificially of alizarin from anthracene by Graebe and Liebermann, and by Perkin. This substance had been exclusively prepared from the madder for thousands of years, and its artificial production replaced a staple trade of Turkey, Holland, France, and Italy. Indigo, another dye stuff, has been artificially prepared by Baeyer. Of substances used for dyeing, and prepared synthetically, the most important are undoubtedly the well-known aniline dyes, aniline being a derivative of coal-tar. The practical application of the aniline compounds to the dyeing industry is due to W. H. Perkin. The use of these dyes has completely revolutionised the dyeing in- dustry. On this account the discovery of the aniline dyes must be mentioned here, though it is not an instance of a naturally occurring vegetable or animal substance prepared synthetically. Of other synthetic preparations of complex compounds may be mentioned. salicylic acid, coumarin (Perkin), vanillin, one or two alkaloids, such as conine (Ladenburg), cocaine, &c. Emil Fischer has prepared some of the sugars by synthesis from glycerine. THE DISCOVERY OF NEW ELEMENTS. The elements known to Lavoisier, and at the beginning of the century, were few in number, and a history of the discovery of _ new ones, or the proof of the compound nature of substances previously considered to be elements, would delay us too long. As landmarks in the progress in this department of chemical 60 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION B. work, it will be interesting to draw attention to those whose discovery involved the use of new methods. Of this nature was the discovery early in the century by Davy of potassium and sodium by means of electrolysis (1807). Their preparation made it possible to isolate several other of the elements from their compounds, such as boron, silicon alu- minium. In 1860 Bunsen and Kirchoff made use of the analysing prism for examining the light given off by bodies at a high tempera- ture, and perfected the spectroscope as an instrument for chemical research. By its means a considerable number of new elements have been discovered, notably rubidium and caesium, by Bunsen; thallium, by Crookes (1861); indium, gallium, scandium, «ec. The recent discoveries by Rayleigh and Ramsay of several new elements in the atmosphere, and of helium, are of special interest and importance, because of the fact that their presence was abso- lutely unsuspected, and because of the remarkable way in which they were isolated. In what has necessarily been a short sketch of the main incidents in the historical development of chemical thought, I have necessarily omitted mention of many important discoveries and many interesting facts and theories. I have, for example, scarcely touched upon the enormous field of discovery in the application of chemistry to the arts and industries, and not at all on its contribution to other sciences, such as physics, astronomy, biology, and physiology. I have simply endeavoured to present to you in something like their logical sequence those prominent features in the development of chemistry which have at their time determined tlie direction of research, or been specially productive of results. The history of chemistry is one of the most fascinating and instructive of studies. The discoveries that mark the progress of the science contribute alike to the intellectual and to the material advancement of humanity, and it is of all the sciences the most intimately associated with human progress. A new discovery, or the preparation of a new compound, may not only be of benefit in increasing our comfort and well-being, in developing new industries and improving old ones, but also in affording us a clearer insight into the laws that govern the material universe, and in aiding us to obtain a more intelligent grasp of its meaning. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.—SECTION C. (Geology and Mineralogy). A REFUTATION OF THE DOCTRINE OF HOMOTAXY. By PROFESSOR RALPH TATE, F.G.S., ADELAIDE, SOUTH AUSTRALIA. +r Ir had been considered up to a certain date that identity of fossil contents was proof of equal time-deposition of the sediments yielding the identical fossils. This fundamental law of strati- graphical geology was established by William Smith at the beginning of this century, and has been universally accepted as applicable to self-contained areas; but as applied to countries separated by wide oceanic basins, it was challenged by the late Professor T. H. Huxley in an anniversary address to the Geo- logical Society, London, 1862, and the main conclusions set forth by him may be shortly expressed by the phrase that ¢dentity of fossil contents is not a proof of contemporaneity. This is a definition of the word homotazis in its geological application ; the word in itself means only equal order, and it may be re- marked that the order and life in two widely separated areas may be equal or the same, but on the doctrine of homotaxis the deposits are not equal in time. The doctrine of homotaxis has held a prominent place in our geological literature since its promulgation ; however, Professor Sollas has this year questioned its validity, so I gather from “ Nature,’ 19th October, in its summary of geology at the British Association Adv. Science, which reports as follows :— “He discussed homotaxy and contemporaneity, showing that Huxley’s well-known contention could not be sustained, and had led to much misunderstanding of the value of fossil evidence.” As the above quotation is the only information I have at the time of writing this essay (November, 1899), it will be conceded that what concordances may eventually be found between his views and mine, they have been arrived at independently. I may say in this connection that this leading question of homotaxy has been adversely pressed to my notice by the increasing growth of an accurate knowledge of Australian paleontology, and has been a subject of lectures to my classes for many years past. I may 62 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION C. add, parenthetically, that the general facts relative to the affinities of the Australian geological faunas, as enunciated by European authorities, have made little advance towards revision since the time of the publication of Prof. De Koninck’s ‘Pal. Aust.” in 1877 ; indeed, so recently as 1896, the President of the Geological section of the British Association Adv. Science in his address has repeated out-of-date statements. . The popular notion that Australia is now in the Oolitic stage has foundation in the survival of a few, though distinctive, types ; but other areas besides Australia have representatives of old faunas—e.g., King Crabs, Lepidosiren, Protoperus, &c., and the molluscan fauna of Lake Tanganyika. However, this geological romance neglects important facts of the geological history of these old types during Cainozoic times. The adoption of the doctrine of Homotaxy, as regards Aus- tralia, has hampered the forms of expression of our ideas of classification, inasmuch as the majority of teachers and field- workers, while wishful to apply the methods of classification, which they had imported to Australia from Great Britain, have been confronted by the possibilities that their estimate of equivalency may be wrong. This notion of homotaxial corres- pondence has driven the Australian geologists to the establish- ment of a local terminology, which, though it may correctly represent our chronological sequence, yet it does not bring our series in an alignment with that of other Continental areas. I offer the following illustrative examples :— 1. Messrs. Jack and Etheridge, “Geol. and Pal. of Queens- land,” admit as component parts of the Cretaceous System in Australia the “ Rolling Down Series” and the “ Desert Sand- stone,” or Lower and Upper Cretaceous respectively. On a liberal interpretation, no more is meant than the Cretaceous System of Australia is divisible into a lower and an upper set of beds. On the other hand, by implication the Rolling Down Series is synchronous with Neocomian, which is not in accord with its paleontological facies, which is that of the Upper Cretaceous of Europe. If thus we denominate the “ Rolling Down Series” as synchronous with Upper Cretaceous, where shall we find a place for the “ Desert Sandstone?’ This has been provided for by Tate and Watt, “Geol. Horn Exped.,” who classify it as Supra-Cretaceous, and in the belief that it offers paleontological features analogous with the Laramie Series of North America. 2. Siluro-Devonian and Devono-Carboniferous are merely tentative terms, because of our limited knowledge of the fauna of each. 3. Permo-Carboniferous.—This term is a compromise; for though the geological series in its fauna partakes of something ef both Carboniferous and Permian, yet it is neither the one nor PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION C. 63 the other, inasmuch as no account is taken of the Mesozoic features of its flora. I suggest the term Hunterian System to replace Permo-Carboniferous. A brief demonstration of the doctrine of homotaxis may be graphically expressed as follows :— Thus in two separate areas a series of deposits have accumu- lated each to each, with identical fossils ; then, on the doctrine of contemporaneity, the series in the two areas are not only equal in order, but equal in time; thus a = a’, 6 = b’, and so on But if, whilst the deposit @ is accumulating, the fauna of it migrates towards the other area, and in the interval deposition has accrued in each area, then the life-line and the term-line are divergent, thus :— Te ae eG cre teed see RR vatraiautbed Bis wait en lines; life-lines by dotted lines. Hence a and @’ are synchronous, but a and 0b’ is a life-line, that is, a and 0’ are homotaxially related. My interpretation of the doctrine of homotaxy involves these two main contentions : — 1. That it implies identity of fossil species in distant areas. 2. That it implies the power of migration of shallow-water species across intervening oceanic areas. Before proceeding to discuss the two foregoing items, which in my opinion constitute the whole crux of the question, I would direct attention to the anachronism implied by the doctrine of homotaxy, that of two distant areas of deposition one must be ahead of the other in point of time. Huxley says:—‘ For anything that geology or paleontology are able to show to the contrary, a Devonian fauna and flora in the British Islands may have been contemporaneous with Silurian life in North America, and with a Carboniferous flora and fauna in Africa.” Pushed to an ulti- matum, it brings us to the absurd position that Recent Times in Australia are not synchronous with Recent Times in Western Europe. Moreover, geology is able to show that the Trias of Australia and South Africa are contemporaneous. In the arguments which follow, I accept the doctrine of the permanency of continents, and of the deep oceanic areas which separate them. Is Lire IDENTICAL AT EAcu oF THE SuCCESSIVE Lirs-Epocus ! As selective examples for comparative study, I shall occupy myself with the order of life in Australia and Western Europe, 64 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION C. whenever possible, because of my larger acquaintance with their several faunas than I have with those of other areas. Taking the chief epochs seriatim, I commence with— I. Recenr.—The molluscan fauna of the Australian shores con- sists of two types as regards geographic origin—(a) That more or less intra-tropical, and forms part of the extensive Oriental region ; (5) that largely prevailing in the temperate waters, and which is endemic as to species, and has many genera peculiar or largely Australian in their occurrence. Nevertheless, in the typical Australhan fauna there are some species attributable to a Palearctic source. They are: Ostrea edulis (O. Angas), Laseaa rubra (Poronia australis), Cryptodon flecwuosum, Saat- cava artica (S. australis), Lutraria oblonga (L. rhynchaena), and Philine aperta (P. Angasi); other alleged identities, as among the Polyplacophora, have not been accepted by those best competent to decide; nevertheless, antipodean examples of all but one of the abovenamed shells have received distinct ve names (as given in parentheses), and between these extreme views it is difficult to decide what course to follow ; for my part I cannot resist the conclusion in respect of Lasea rubra, Cryptodon flecuosum, and, perhaps, also, Saxicava arctica, that the species are identical in the two widely separated areas. As regards Saxicava arctica, we have a remarkable protean shell to deal with, and I am in doubt if it be possible to distinguish more than one species from Eocene times to the present day in Aus- tralia, or even in Europe. | In spite of the admission that there are six species of mollusca (other than pelagic forms) in common between Western Europe and Australia, the proportion is so very insignificant that the absolute distinctiveness of the two faunas is incontestable, and we may ask ourelves how to account for their presence: in Austral Seas? In answer, I suggest as follows:—(a) May we not be too rigid in our comparisons between apparently identical species, and have restricted our investigations to mere shell-form, whilst anatomy may show them to be similitudes; (0) it may be that adventitious agencies, operating unrecognised by us, may have been concerned in the importation of the European species to Australian waters. Dr. Gwyn Jefferies sought to trace Lasewa rubra from Western Europe by way of the Arctic Seas to Japan ; but there intervenes a geographical hiatus between the last- mentioned place to Australia, on the one hand, and to Patagonia on the other. Sir James Hector has recorded the appearance of a number of marine inhabitants of North Queensland having been cast up on the North Coast of New Zealand entangled in a mass of drifted seaweed ; whether or not any of these enforced migrants have established themselves remains unknown. PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION C. 65 II. Laren Tertrary.—No new European elements appear, though Ostrea Angas: and Saxicava australis may possibly be of European origin. III. Miocene.—Sazicava australis and Limopsis aurita are the only named species which are European ; the latter is a very questionable identification (see post). IV. Eocunse.—The possible European identities, recent or fossil, which have been named are Aturia zic-zac, Xenophora agglutinans, Limopsis aurita, and Saxicava arctica. M‘Coy, in describing the Australian Auturia, indicated certain differential characters from A. zie-zac, and apphed the varietal name, «aus- tralis, to it. Subsequent studies by Mr. Newton show that the Australian fossil is more related to A. Parkinsoni than to A, zic-zac, and that it is a distinct species. The Australian Xeno- phora has been shown by Cossmann, and afterwards by Harris (Austral. Tert. Moll., Brit. Mus. publication, 1897), to be distinc- tive, though trivially, but consistently, from X. agglutinans of the European Eocene. Limopsis aurita, so determined by M‘Coy is, on the authority of M. Cossmann, not that species at all; I regard it as a varietal form of LZ. ensolita, common to the Eocene of Southern America, New Zealand, and Australia. The community of species is thus reduced to the protean shell, Sazxtcava arctica, which embodies the characters of many sub- species ranging from the Eocene to the present day, and which by a little elasticity in the application of our methods for specific determination, might reasonably be regarded as species, though falling within the range of variation, as regards shape, ornament, and size, presented by the living S. arctica. V. Creractous.—The only specific identities, if at all, are restricted to one or two species of /noceramus. VI. Jurassic.—Mr. Charles Moore (Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxvi., 1870), in his elaboration of the Jurassic fauna of West Australia, admitted many species of mollusca common to Eng- land and this antipodean development. My many years’ intimacy with the late Mr. Moore, and from actual knowledge of the Aus- tralian material which he possessed have compelled me, since my advent in Australia, to express publicly that Mr. Moore had not been critical enough in his comparisons to permit of the applica- tion of the names of so many European species to the Australian constituents of the Jurassic fauna. This exercise of caution has been justified by the results of the subsequent treatment of the Cephalopoda by Mr. Crick (Geol. Mag., 1894), in which all the European names of the Ammontidee are set aside, and in some cases the similitudes are referred to different genera. It does not necessarily follow that a re-examination of the assumed identical species of the other mollusca would share the E 66 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION C. same fate as that of the Cephalopoda, but it will be admitted that before final acceptance of their specific identity confirmation by an acknowledged expert is imperative. VII. Uprrr Patmozoic.—De Koninck, in his treatment of the Australian species of this era, was largely guided in his reference of them to Silurian, Devonian, or Carboniferous by the associated forms considered by him to be European identities. Unfortu- nately the loss of the entire collection on which his determina- tions were founded has disarmed criticism, as any challenge respecting the correct application of species-names can only apply to those fossils which on our interpretation may be the same as those of the type-collection. This possible element of error on our part is increased by the many omissions of locality- references in De Koninck’s monograph. Nevertheless, there seems good reason for the opinion that many so-called European species are not identities, but analogues. This is particularly noticeable among the corals, as the result of anatomical analysis by Mr. Etheridge, jun.; such similar rigorous re- examination in other fossil groups of presumably Koninckian species has failed to establish absolute identity with the Euro- pean species as applied by the names attached to them by the late Belgian professor. Thus Calcevla sandalina is probably Rhizophyllum interpunctatum, a Silurian, and not a Devonian fossil. Of the seven species of Zaphrentis, elaborated by Mr. Etheridge, jun., not one of De Koninck’s identifications is con- firmed ; so also of the nine species of Pentamerus, only two are admitted to be European. Up to the present time the amount of material awaiting reinvestigation is much greater than that which has been dealt with; what has been accomplished creates a doubt as to the validity of the remaining species attributed to Europe. Under the circumstances it would be wise to record the verdict not proven. The European species of our Upper Paleozoic, which have stood the test of exhaustive comparisons by paleontologists skilled in modern methods of work, are few in number, ¢.g., Chonetes striatus, Spirifera levicosta, Pentamerus Knightii, &e. In this connection I quote the statement made by Mr. Whiteaves that “ Atrypa reticularis appears to be the only well-known Kuropean species in the Hamilton group.” A. reticularis appears to have been more or less cosmopolitan in Siluro- Devonian times. VIII. Orpovic1an.—No single species of fossil of the Larapin- tine series has as yet been recognised as exotic. In regard to the Victorian series only one mollusc is known; it is endemic ; the bulk of the fauna consists of Graptolites, nineteen species of which were monographed by M‘Coy. Of these, seventeen were referred to European or American species, but in later PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION C. 67 years, by the investigations of Mr. T. 8. Hall, the number of identities has been reduced, whilst other endemic species have been established. IX. Camprian.—About forty species in all classes have been recorded from the few known localities yielding fossils of Lower Cambrian age; of these only two have received names borne by American species, namely, the molluscs Hyolithes micans and Stenotheca rugosa. For these identifications I am reponsible, but as they are based on figures and descriptions, and not by actual comparisons, they are open to revision, or, if correct, it is not improbable that those molluscs were of pelagic habit. In conclusion, life at the several epochs is not common be- tween Australia and Western Europe or North America, though in the present state of our knowledge a few cosmopolitan species appear at some of the epochs; in general the older the age, the greater the number of such, and the greater the similarity be- tween the contemporaneous faunas. II. Is Migration oF Species PosststE Across WIDE AND ABYSSAL Oceanic AREAS? The bathymetrical distribution of mollusca in the North Atlantic proves that the greater bulk of the species is limited to the shallow slopes bounding the deep plateau, and that only a very limited number extends into abyssal depths ; the forms in- habiting these regions are of low organisation, of very few species, and of widely extended distribution. The presence of some coastal species on either side of the North Atlantic does not imply migration across the intervening oceanic expanse, else they should appear in the intermediate oceanic floor, which they do not. On the other hand, they may have crossed while in the free- swimming, or “ veliger stage.” I cannot obtain definite infor- mation as to the duration of the free swimming stage of a mollusc, though the sum of the evidence implies days only, not extending to weeks, so that, even aided by oceanic drifts, it is impossible for a living embryo to be carried from one land margin to the other on either side of the North Atlantic. Macgillivrayia pelagica, a muricoid embryo, was taken 15 miles from shore. Cooke, in ‘‘ Molluses,” page 146, says of the larve of Dreissensia, “they pass about eight days on the surface,” and though the Glochidium stage of Unio cannot swim, yet in about four weeks after—the Glochidium has quitted its host. The occurrence of identical species on opposite sides of the North Atlantic must, therefore, be explained on other migratory routes, though it is possible that a mode of dissemination of certain species may be by the agency of driftwood or floating seaweed. E 2 68. PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION C. STRATIGRAPHICAL SYNCHRONISM DEMONSTRATED BY PuysicaL PHENOMENA. Huxley writes :—‘ There seems no escape from the admission that neither physical geology nor paleontology possesses any method by which the absolute synchronism of two strata can be demonstrated” (op. cit., p. xlvi.). This supposition neglects the evidences of vast alteration of the physical geography of the globe, which is implhed by the extinction of the Carboniferous and Cretaceous fauna, and their replacement by equally rich and varied fauna, but of totally different types. Again, Oldham has shown a climatic conformity at two geo- logical horizons in South Africa and Australia, and that the palzontological features are similar in each of the series in which the intercalated glacial phenomena are exhibited. ORIGIN OF SIMILAR CONTEMPORANEOUS FAUNA. My conception of the origin of the similitudes between con- temporaneous faunz of distant areas, which is, however, depen- dent on the hypothesis of permanency of continental areas and deep oceans from very early times, may be briefly stated as fol- lows :— 1. There was a uniformity of life at the beginning, that is, as soon as the temperature permitted life to exist, because of a pre- vailing uniform climate. 2. On the formation of the nuclei of the continental masses evolution of the primitive forms commenced ; but with increasing growth of the land areas and differentiation of climate, divergence from the main lines of evolution occurred in varying degrees according to the greater or less diversity of the conditions in one area as compared with another. In other words, each juvenile continental mass became a fixed centre, around the cir- cumference of which the ancestors common to all underwent modification, so that centres of creation, as it were, were set up around the growing land-masses; from these have developed in more or less parallel lines of divergence similar, but not identi- cal, faunas, characteristic of each area throughout successive epochs. The growth of these ofi-shoots would depend upon cir- cumstances, and in some centres at different epochs the initial force which caused them to bud forth was feeble, and the environ- ment uncongenial to the evolution of species, or of higher types. Such contrast is presented by the Upper Cretaceous fauna of Australia and Western Europe, and by that of the Ordivician in the same areas. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.—SECTION WD. ON THE RISE AND EARLY PROGRESS OF OUR KNOW- LEDGE OF THE AUSTRALIAN FAUNA. By J. J. FLETCHER, M.A., B.Sc. >> 1824.—‘* Kaneguroos live in burrows under the ground, and subsist on vegetable substances, and chiefly on grass. . . . Only three species have as yet been ascertained, all of which are natives of New Holland.” BINGLEY (a). 1797.—** All your genera [of the Protea family] are, I suppose, taken mostly from New Holland plants; some of them are not famihar to me, but I can see the justness of the characters you establish. I wish you would also examine the Cape Proteas, because the two Floras are much more alike than it is supposed they are,—not only parallel, but are both fragments of a whole.”, ABBE CORREA (0). One of the signs of the times of late years has been a mani- fest revival of scientific interest in Antarctica, the Sixth Conti- nent of the Globe. As a result it is gratifying to know that important developments may be hopefully looked for early in the new century. If these should include the discovery of an important recent land flora and fauna, what a stir it would create! What steps would be taken to make the most of the absolutely last chance of investigating an undisturbed conti- nental flora and fauna! How it would certainly quicken a general interest in the Australian land flora and fauna, and enliven the study of their origin! Unfortunately whatever else the renewed exploration of Antarctica may bring to light, the most sanguine biologist hardly dares hope for more than very little indeed, if anything, in the shape of highly organised terres- trial plants and animals. The pregnant opportunity of taking charge of a continental flora and fauna of great intrinsic merits in an absolutely undis- turbed state, and under natural conditions, did, however, once present itself to biologists within the period in which biology began to wear a somewhat modern aspect—and only once. This (a) Bingley’s Animal Biography, or, Popular Zoology. Vol. I., p. 296 (1824). (b) Extract from a letter from Abbé Correa to Sir James E. Smith, under date March 23rd, 1797. Memoir and Correspondence of the late Sir J. E. Smith. Vol. II., p. 215 (1832). 70 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION D. opportunity was offered by Australia, the Fifth Continent of the Globe, to whose flora and fauna we are shut up, and in whose isolation we participate. When by the aid of personal knowledge of the country and its productions, one has at all thoroughly come to realise the Australian standpoint, it seems neither far-fetched nor fantastic to say that the investigation of the Australian fauna and flora on right lines, as a study in continental biology, was not less important, and not less worth doing well, than the investigations in oceanic biology for which in our own time the magnificent “ Challenger” Expedition was chiefly fitted out, and so success- fully sent on its way. Indeed, in the one case the opportunity . was open for a time only, but not indefinitely ; in the other the longer it remained open the more hopeful the prospects of better methods and better equipment, and, therefore, of more complete success. How the botanists, after a little preliminary skirmishing, grandly rose to the occasion, and what they have accomplished, is a simple story, and on the whole from almost every stand- point a satisfactory story; moreover, it has been succinctly Yecorded. How the zoologists accepted their share of the golden oppor- tunity, what they have to show in the shape of net results aiter one hundred and thirty years’ work, and in what condition the land fauna finds itself after one hundred and twelve years’ exposure to the “ravages of civilisation,” are matters which do not seem to be quite so well known, or so easily ascertainable. The present occasion, the last Meeting of the Association, during the nineteenth century, seems to be a very appropriate one for inviting the attention of this Section to the subject of the birth and early growth of our existing know- ledge of the Australian fauna, considered especially from the Australan standpoint. I particularly emphasise the standpoint, because at the outset I feel impelled to add that I think this is about the only standpoint from which the matter is at all worth any very serious attention. One has also to remember, of course, that this was not the stand- point of those who first concerned themselves with the fauna. On 10th January, 1770, one hundred and thirty years ago to- day, the voyagers on board H.M.S. “ Endeavour” obtained their first view of Mount Egmont. The coast of New Zealand had been first sighted on 16th October, 1769, and about three months had already been spent on the investigation of the North Island. The circuit thereof was completed about a month later (on 9th February). That of the South Island fol- lowed in due course, and was completed on 26th March, when the “ Endeavour” anchored in Admiralty Bay, in Cook’s Straits, PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION D. 71 primarily for the purpose of watering the ship preparatory to finally leaving the coast. Up to this time, it is important to notice, Captain Cook had had no discretionary powers in the choice of his route. So far he had merely followed his official instructions, which provided that a certain prescribed course was to be followed ‘* till I fell in with New Zealand, which I was to explore; and thence to return to England by such route as I should think proper.” That is to say, his exploration of New Zealand was made in accordance with his official instructions, but that these made no specific mention of New Holland. Up till this time, therefore, Cook and his companions could have thought but little about New Holland, if, indeed, they had found any occasion to think about it at all. Captain Cook spent 30th March in exploring Admiralty Bay, and on his return to the ship in the evening he found that the watering, &c., was completed, and the ship ready for sea. He, therefore, took the opportunity of consulting with “ the officers” about the next step to be taken. Though Cook mentions only the officers, it seems evident from “ Banks’s Journal” that Sir Joseph was present, and took part in the consultation. Three schemes were discussed—to return to England straightway via Cape Horn, or via the Cape of Good Hope, or “to steer to the Westward until we fall in with the E. Coast of New Holland, and then to follow the direction of that Coast to the Northward, or in what other direction it might take us, until we arrive at its Northern extremity.” The last of these proposals was ‘unani- mously agreed to.” In fulfilment of this momentous choice, the ‘“ Endeavour” left Admiralty Bay at daylight next morning (3lst March). The coast of New Holland was first sighted on 19th April. The “ Endeavour” anchored in Botany Bay on 28th April, and finally left the Australian coast on 25th August. This ever-memorable visit of Captain Cook and his com- panions, Sir Joseph Banks and Dr. Solander, to Austraha in 1770 is universally recognised as the event of fundamental im- portance in the history of everything Australian. If this his- toric event gave England “nothing less” than Australia and New Zealand, an important part of Greater Britain to Great Britain, none the less did it give biologists the flora and fauna of the major and most characteristic portion of one of the pri- mary biological sub-divisions of the globe. Not less also did it make the opportunity for dealing with them distinctly and pri- marily one for- British men of science. This last consideration, per se, was of no importance. It only assumed importance in view of future developments, and from the fact that the oppor- tunity was too good to go begging for long. If British bio- logists do not accept the opportunity, biologists of other 72 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION D. nationalities will. Then, the occupancy of the same field by too many workers of different nationalities will almost certainly bring about a “clash of interests and a waste of power’ detri- mental to the progress of science. In contemplating this event from the end-of-the-century stand- point, and in the light of the knowledge which comes after the event, its scientific possibilities seem to us to have been con- siderable. In many respects, though not in all, the epoch was favourable, and the circumstances propitious. In the first place our knowledge of the flora and fauna began at a very definite stage in the progress of biological knowledge. It is wholly post-Linnean in the sense that though Linnzus lived until January, 1788, the twelfth and last author’s edition of the “Systema Nature” was published during the years 1766-68 ; and thus certainly the first and second, and probably all three volumes, would be included in Sir Joseph Banks’s “ fine library of natural history” on board the “ Endeavour,” which sailed from England on 26th August, 1768. “That work,” says Flower, “contained a systematic exposition of all that was known on these subjects [Zoology and Botany] expressed in language the most terse and precise. The accumulated knowledge of all the works of zoology, botany, and mineralogy since the world began, was here collected together by patient industry, and welded into a complete and harmonious whole by penetrating genius.” Moreover Linneus had successfully established the binomial system of nomenclature. There was hope, therefore, that, in this respect at any rate, those who came to work at the Australian flora and fauna would not attempt to do so from - an antiquated and pre-Linnean standpoint. To lend an air of realisation to the hope, it is only necessary to mention that, not only was Sir Joseph Banks one of the comparatively few English followers of Linnzeus at this time, but that he selected Dr. Solander, a pupil, even the “favourite pupil” it is said, of Linnzeus to accompany him. Apparently the circumstances were also favourable, for no continental area so satisfactorily isolated, and of such a manage- able character, or possessed of a more interesting and character- istic fauna, or one inclusive of so many “ living fossils,” had ever come under the notice of biologists under such unparalleled conditions. Europe, Asia, Africa, and America had each contri- buted its quota towards the production of the “Systema.” But old-established populous races, familiar with the use of gun- powder, or their off-shoots in the shape of colonies, had brought about more or less at least local disturbance ef the faunas of the accessible parts of these regions even before Linnzeus was born. The Fifth Continent offered the first, as well as the last, opportunity for the investigation of an absolutely undisturbed ‘ continental land flora and fauna; for starting upon a new quest PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS-—SECTION D. 13 with a fund of experience and systematised knowledge en y accumulated and to hand. After Cook’s visit in 1770 there was to be no further com- munication with the mainland of Australia until the first at- tempt at colonisation eighteen years afterwards. This lengthy interval seemed to promise that when colonisation actually began, the scientific results of Cook’s voyages would have been - published, and be available for the guidance of such of the first settlers as were interested in natural history; as well as for zoologists desirous of investigating the fauna. After some years of failing “health, Linnzus died in 1778, and shortly afterwards, by Sir J. E. Smith’s acquisition of the Linnean collections and library, England had become “in a sense his heir.” On 26th January, 1788, Captain Phillip hoisted the British flag at the head of Sydney Cove, and exactly one month later ( 26th February), the inaugural meeting of the Linnean Society of London was held. What could seem more hope- ful, more promising than this, that the foundation of the oldest existing Enelish scientific society which has always especially concerned itself with biology, should be concurrent with the first attempt at the colonisation of Austraha? It seems all the more opportune because, as has already been said, though there were some favourable conditions and circumstances attending the scientific discovery of the Australian fauna and flora, there were also some drawbacks. There could not be said to be any national interest in the biological aspect of Cook’s First Voyage. The Royal Society was very much interested in the astronomical _ prospects of the expedition, but could not be said to take any particular interest in any prospective biological developments. The British Museum had been established for some time, but the Natural History Branch was then, and for long afterwards, in abject subjection to the Library, “ under a system of govern- ment,” to quote the words of a writer of a century later, “* that has made the state of our national natural history collections at Bloomsbury so long a bye-word amongst naturalists.” Lastly, there was no Chair of Zoology at either of the oreat English Universities for. considerably more than half a century after this time. The hopeful set-off to all this, however, was the existence of Sir Joseph Banks. For the future prospects of a knowledge of the Australian flora this was simply everything. That it counted for so very much less in faunistic matters was not due to Sir Joseph’s indifference to the claims of the fauna for recognition, but to over-ruline circumstances. The dif- ference, however, is more than the difference between success and indifferent success. It is the difference between success and something akin to failure when there was not, and could not be, any “next time.” We may now turn from the ideal to the real. Almost midway 74 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS.—SECTION D. between the epoch-making event of 1770 and the present time stands the memorable visit of John Gould and his coadjutor, Gilbert—a very notable landmark indeed in the history of a knowledge of the fauna. This enterprising naturalist left Eng- land in May, 1838. His visit to Australia, therefore, is almost synchronous with the commencement of the Victorian Era. At this time Australia had been colonised for slightly more than half a century, and a good deal had transpired which directly affected the well-being of the fauna, as well as the character and growth of knowledge respecting it. At this time, too, Caley, Fraser, and R. Cunningham had for some time finally rested from their labours. A. Cunningham was in ill-health, and he died in June of the year following. Robert Brown some time previously had completed his contributions to a knowledge of the Australian flora with the exception of the Botanical Ap- pendix to Sturt’s “ Expedition into Central Australia,” pub- lished in 1849. The first important chapter of Australian botanical history was approaching its close. From a British point of view the first really important chapter of zoological history might be said to be just about to commence. It is of interest to give Gould’s reasons for coming in his own words, thus :— ‘a ayn in the summer of 1837 brought my work on the ‘ Birds of Europe’ to a successful termination, I was naturally desirous of turning my attention to the Orni- thology of some other region; and a variety of opportune and concurring circumstances induced me to select that of Australia, the birds of which, although invested with the highest degree of interest, had been almost entirely neglected. . . . In the absence, then, of any general work on the Birds of Australia, the field was comparatively a new one, and of no ordinary degree of interest, from the circumstance of its being one of the finest possessions of the British Crown, and from its natural productions being as remarkable for the anomalous nature of their forms, as for their beauty, and the singularity of their habits. In the attempt to supply this desideratum I com- menced publishing from the materials then accessible, but soon found, from the paucity of information extant upon the subject, that it could not be executed in a manner that would be satis- factory to my own mind, or commensurate with the exigencies of science; I therefore determined to proceed to Australia, and personally investigate (so far as a stay of two years would allow) the habits and manners of its birds in a state of nature. I accordingly left England in May, 1838.” “But if the Birds of Australia had not received that degree of attention from the scientific ornithologist which their interest demanded, I can assert without fear of contradiction that its highly curious and interesting mammals had been still less investigated. It was not, however, until I arrived in the PRESIDENTS ADDRESS.—SECTION D. 75 country, and found myself surrounded by objects as strange as if I had been brought to another planet that I conceived the idea of devoting a portion of my attention to the mammalian class of its extraordinary fauna. . . . While in the interior of the country, I formed the intention of publishing a mono- graph of the great family of the Kangaroos; but soon after my return to England I determined to attempt a more extended work under the title of the “Mammals of Australia.’ ” This, indeed, seems to be a rather surprising, not to say a very disappointing progress report to be promulgated early in the second half century of Australian colonisation. If very important classes like the mammals and birds had received unmerited neglect, can any more hopeful tidings be expected concerning the rest of the fauna? At the same time, it is neces- sary to point out that in the passages above quoted Gould does not state his case very clearly. The necessity for his coming was that both the work of collecting the birds and mammals, and the methods of utilising the resulting collections were up to that time for the most part radically wrong in principle. It was not that nothing at all had been done; for in one sense only too much had been accomplished. THE COLLECTORS AND THEIR COLLECTIONS. At the outset the botanists and zoologists who concerned themselves with the scientific study—with the naming, classi- fication, and descriptive cataloguing—of Australian plants and animals were European men of science. Very early the botanist began to recognise the fact that the Australian flora was so intrinsically interesting that it was worth while going all: the way to Australia to see the flora for himself, to study it under natural conditions, and to collect specimens for future examina- tion. The zoologist for a much longer period was less keen about personal knowledge of the fauna; and very much to his disadvantage he adopted the more independent attitude of ex- pecting “the Mountain to come to Mahomet.” But whether the biologist came out to Australia or whether he did not, his prime and indispensable desideratum were the same—collections for study; the largest, the most representative, the best pre served collections that could be brought together by collectors who knew the importance of supplying all requisite information respecting correct habitats, and of supplementing the strictly collecting work by carefully recorded field observations. As in the case of a Challenger Expedition, so in that of taking over a continental flora and fauna, very much indeed depended upon the collectors, and their qualifications, aims, and methods. Botanical.—During the Pre-Victorian period of colonial history the following official, responsible, expert British col- 76 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS.—SECTION D. lectors (z.e., field collectors, as distinguished from owners of collections, or accumulators of specimens) paid more or less attention to the Australian flora—Archibald Menzies, George Caley, Robert Brown and his colleague Ferdinand Bauer Allan Cunningham, Charles Fraser, and Richard Cunningham. With the exception of Menzies, who was merely a visitor, every one of them resided in Australia for at least two years. Their united operations cover a period of nearly forty years. The efforts of these responsible collectors were largely supplemented by a number of enthusiastic unofficial collectors, whose collec- tions got into the right hands, and, with hardly an exception, are accounted for. . Sir Joseph Hooker has included in his classical essay, “On the Flora of Australia, its Origin, &c.,” prefixed to the “ Flora of Tasmania,” an interesting chapter on the progress of botani- cal discovery in Australia. In this will be found an account of the “ Botanists, Navigators, Travellers, Collectors, or Residents, who lave supplied the materials for describing its Flora, or have published more or less of their descriptions,” with remarks on the location of the collections. This eminently satisfactory narrative brings up the history to 1859. In the preface to the first volume of the “ Flora Australiensis,” published in 1863, Mr. Bentham was able to supplement Sir Joseph Hooker’s historical sketch in a very important matter, more particularly with reference to the history of the important collections in general, and especially those which Baron von Mueller, Government Botanist of Victoria, was instrumental in getting together. This very rich herbarium was remitted to Mr. Bentham in instalments, and returned after critical examina- tion. On this head Mr. Bentham says :—‘“ One beneficial result to science of the course he has thus pursued is that there will be for future reference duplicate authentic specimens here and in Australia of the great majority of Australian species.” Thanks primarily to Sir Joseph Banks, secondarily to Sir William Jackson Hooker even before his official connection with Kew Gardens, and at a later period to Baron von Mueller who organised the collecting in Australia, there has been a con- servation of collections and concentration in three main direc- tions. 1. The original Banksian collections, subject to a life-interest on the part of Robert Brown, were left to the nation. These were supplemented in various ways, more particularly by the collections of Caley, Robert Brown, and Allan Cunningham ; and form a good deal more than the basis of the Australian collections now in the British Museum. 2. The magnificent series of Australian collections, which in various ways came into the possession of Sir Wiliam Jackson Hooker. These, with his library, after his death, in 1867 became PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.—SECTION D. tes by purchase the property of the nation, and, with supplementary collections, form the Australian constituent of the magnificent herbarium at Kew. 3. The important reference collection in the Melbourne herbarium brought together by Baron von Mueller, already re- ferred to. In a few words, after a little preliminary hesitation, the botanists settled down to the work of collecting on right lines. Responsible, expert collectors were selected, and sent out to Australia. If not already attached to expeditions, they received orders to seize the opportunity of visiting new settlements or new eglonies, and of joining coast survey and inland explor- ing expeditions. Sir Joseph Banks was the organising head, and was in touch, not merely with the collectors and subse- quently with the botanists who studied the collections, but with the Governors and officials in the colonies who could lend official aid in helping on the collecting. The result was that the exhaus- tive, representative collecting was undertaken by collectors drawn from the nation to which Australia territorially belonged. It was also largely carried out, as far as circumstances per- mitted, before the disturbance of the flora consequent upon the introduction of stock and of cultivated plants and weeds, and from the operations of civilised man. But if the important work of collecting specimens—of muster- ing the flora—was satisfactory, not less satisfactory has been the fate of the collections up to the present day. Not only are the really important, the classical collections extant, but they have always been so carefully safeguarded as never to have been in peril. Collection has been added to collection, and conserva- tion and concentration have been well provided for. In only one instance does Mr. Bentham seem to have had any trouble because of the sale of a private collection containing Australian types. He says:—‘ With the few Australian species described from the herbarium of the late A. B. Lambert, I have had much difficulty. At his death the preparation of his collections for sale was so ill-managed that it is very difficult to ascertain where any particular portions of it may now be deposited” (Preface Fl. Aust., p. 10). If there should ever -be a “Fauna Aus- . traliensis” on the same lines as the “Flora,” the author or authors will have a vastly different story from this to tell about difficulties arisimg from the ill-managed sales of private zoo- logical collections containing Australian types. 4oological.—Loological and botanical collecting in Australia might have continued as they began, co-ordinately, side by side. The opportunities for collecting were potentially the same. The flora and fauna were co-extensive, associated. Where the botanical collector actually went, the zoological collector might have gone. 78 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.— SECTION D. No complementary “Outlines” of the progress of zoological discovery in Australia, to match the historical sketches of Sir Joseph Hooker and Mr. Bentham, has ever been published. As far as my knowledge goes, there is not even a published list of the early zoological collectors available. I have therefore tried to compile a provisional list, probably with only indifferent success. The task is by no means an easy or satisfactory one to undertake at this distance from Europe. Moreover, I have been unable to consult any of the British Museum Annual Reports presented to Parliament. These must contain much in- formation relating to the history of Australian types and type- collections. So far as I can ascertain, these publications are not to be found in Australian libraries. In attempting to estimate the nature and the amount of the British contribution to the all-important work of getting the fauna mustered—of obtaining representative collections of Aus- tralian animals for the study of the zoologists—one is at once beset with difficulties. The fundamental trouble is that there was no organising head ; and in his absence there were no official, expert British collectors comparable with, and responsible for their collections like Caley, Robert Brown, the two Cunninghams, and Fraser. As there was no one at the head of affairs to take the lead, so there was no one to secure and properly conserve such collec- tions as were made; no one to fill the rdle of sponsor or wet- nurse successively filled in botanical matters by Sir Joseph Banks and Sir William Hooker. At one time it appeared likely that the Linnean Society would fill the gap with some measure of success. Finally, the splendid opportunities for collecting afforded by the establishment of new settlements and new colonies, and by coast survey and inland exploring expeditions, when the country was unstocked and the fauna was undisturbed, were lost in so far as the realisation of these depended on properly equipped, expert, responsible collectors. King, Sturt, and Mitchell quite nobly added to the onerous and responsible administrative duties of commander or leader the self-imposed task of trying person- ally or by proxy to collect a few zoological specimens. The character of the men, and the circumstances under which they tried to collect redeem the results of their efforts from being considered paltry. But this was not the kind of collecting that was wanted. If zoological collectors ever again had the oppor- tunity of collecting over some of the country then accessible, they have not declared themselves. In the absence of expert official collectors the collecting was left to private, non-responsible collectors and dealers—to anybody who chose to do it. The collecting was consequently haphazard and miscellaneous in character, not exhaustive and representative. * PRESIDENTS ADDRESS.—SECTION D. 79 Collections made by private individuals found their way into privately-owned museums. The ultimate fate of privately- owned collections is apt to be precarious; and this was extra- ordinarily so with a number of early collections which con- tained Australian types or other material. Private collectors or private owners of collections were free to deal with their specimens as they chose; and the former often, if not usually, distributed the components of an originally single collection among several museums. They were under no obligation to publish the history of their specimens or collections, and in some important cases such was never published. It is also difficult to ascertain in what localities, under what circumstances, and at what time private collectors exercised their functions ; and to distinguish between actual collectors and those who merely obtained specimens from others, and took or sent these to England. Specimens purchased from dealers were apt to be supplied under some such circumstances as those mentioned by Dr. Gray in the preface to his “List of the Specimens of Mammalia in the Coll. of the Brit. Mus.” (1843), in which he says: “ The habitat is given as particularly as the materials pos- sessed by the Museum permit; but many of the specimens having been procured from dealers, some of whom are unfor- tunately very careless on this point, and even occasionally guilty of wilful mis-statement, it is often impossible to give the habitat, except in the most general terms.” Some of the zoologists who described Australian species in the Pre-Victorian Era are also responsible for much of the ob- scurity in which early faunistic history is involved. On the whole, for a considerable time British zoologists fought shy of attempting to work out Australian collections as collections. It was much easier to pick out and deal with specimens that were beautiful or curious, or which were thought to be the representatives of undescribed species, and leave all the rest. The only notable Pre-Victorian exceptions were Mr. Vigors and Dr. Horsfield, who studied the Australian birds in the Linnean Society’s collection (c); and Dr. J. E. Gray and Mr. W. S. Macleay, who described the collections obtained by Captain P. P. King on his coast surveys (d). The first of these im- portant publications, however, for some unexplained reason was not completed, the authors not proceeding farther than the Meliphagide. “The non-completion of their labours is the more to be regretted, inasmuch as the Linnean Society’s col- lection of birds, at that time the finest extant, comprised many species collected by Mr. Brown during his voyage with the cele- brated navigator, Flinders, and was moreover enriched with (c) Trans. Linn Soc., xv., Part I., 1826, pp. 170-331. (d@) Appendix to King’s ‘‘ Narrative of a Survey of the Intertropical and Western Coasts of Australia, performed between the years 1818 and 1822.’’ Vol. ii. (1827). 80 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.—SECTION D. some interesting notes by the late Mr. George Caley, by whom the collection was chiefly formed” (¢). The second contribution by Messrs. Gray and Macleay was also to some extent incomplete, inasmuch as in many cases the habitats were not given. Further, the zoologists were very much behind the botanists both in grasping the importance of geographical distribution and in authenticating the history of their specimens by giving the name of the collector. Zoologists of the standing of Prof. Westwood, Dr. J. E. Gray, John Gould, or Mr. Broderip, would describe a species without habitat or history. The commonly- accepted style was “ Hab. in Australia, Mus. Dom. A.,” but “ Hab. Mus. Dom. B.,” or even “ Hab. —— »’ would often serve quite as well. The explanation is, of course, that many of the zoologists studied specimens and were interested in naming specimens, rather than collections as representing the fauna. 7 By gleaning as one may, I have been able to draw up the following provisional list of early collectors. It is probably very incomplete, but it will sufficiently illustrate the character of the early collecting. It is intended to be a list of Pre Victorian collectors, but for reasons already given, it is difficult to be sure that this is the case. British Collectors (with the exception of Dr. Sieber, an un- attached German private collector) :— Banks, Sir Joseph ) ee Solander, Dr. a 5 Banks Coll. Parkinson, Sydney ... Coll. (?)—Parkinson’s Journal, p. 211 Cook, Capt. ee: ... Lever Mus.; Brit. Mus.—Donovan, Nat. Rep., ii., pl. xvi. (text, &c.); pl. ev. (text) Bailey, W. . Donovan Coil. (insects)— Ins. New Holl., p. iv. Phillip, Capt., Governor Received and sent specimens to England White, Surgeon-General Lever Mus. (birds); John Hunter Mus.; Brit. Mus.; Francillon Coll.; T. Wilson Coll. Considen, Dr. Dennis ... Banks Coll.—Hist. Rec. 1., Pt. 2, p. 220 Bane Or. ... ae ... John Hunter Coll.— Phil. Trans., lxxxv., 1795 (Abridged Ed., xvii., p. 542) Bass, Dr. ... ... Bewick Coll. (wombat, afterwards in New- castle Mus.)—Zool. Journ., iii., p. 478 Hunter, Capt., Governor Nowell Coll. (mollusea)—Hunter’s Journ., p. 581 and plates Mrewities. VV. , ... ... Dru Drury, Marsham, Macleay Colls.—Me- moir of Dru Drury, Jardine’s Nat. Library, Vol. xiii., p. 46 Caley, George ... ... Linn. Soc. Coll.—Trans. Linn. Soc., xii., p. 587 Brown, Robert ... ... Linn. Soe. Coll. (birds)—Trans. Linn. Soc., Xii., p. 598 Westall, W. a ... Linn. Soe. Coll. (per A. B. Lambert)—Trans. Linn. Soc., x., p. 413 Huey, A. ... a ... Coll. (?)—Leach, Zool. Mise.,i., pp. 12, 17, 94 Tobin, —... as ... Coll. (?)—Donovan, Nat. Rep., ii., pl. lxvi. (text) Paterson, Colonel ... Co-operated with Péron (e) Gould’s Introduction to the “‘ Birds of Australia,’’ preface, p. 1. PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION D. 81 Brisbane, Sir Thomas, Governor paris, GP. | uk Fraser, Charles ... King, Lieut. P. G., Govr. King, Captain P. P. Cunningham, Allan Hunter, Surgeon Stutchbury, 8. Young, T. BR. N:... Sieber, Dr. - Macleay, Alex. ... Jamieson, Sir John Thomson, E. Deas Bigge, Mr. Commissnr. J. Iceley, Thos... Field, Mr. Barron Lhotsky, Dr... Darwin, Charles... Scott, Archdeacon Parry, Capt. Sir E. Colles, Mr. a Coxen, C. ... ae Bennett, Dr. George .. Mitchell, Sir Thomas Roach, John } Sturt, Captain Macleay, George Horsley, J. : Humphery, A. W. Ewing, Rev. F. J. Gunn, Ronald Milligan, Dr. Swainson, W. Edinb. Univ. Mus., and Prof. Jameson— Knox, Edinb. Phil. Journ., ix., p. 377; xiii., pp. 107, 130 .. Coll. (?)—Leach, Zool. Mise., i., p. 90 . Type specimen of Macropus rufus presented to Paris Mus. Type of Lyre-bird — Davies, Trans, Linn. Soc., vi., p. 209 . Linn. Soe. Coll.—Trans. Linn. Soe., xiv., p- 603 . Children Coll. (insects); Linn. Soe. Coll. (birds); Brit. Mus.-—-G. R. Gray, Entom. Aust., pp. 17-18; A. White, Grey’s Jour- nals, ii., p. 473; Trans. Linn. Soc., xiii., p. 636; xvi., p. 794 . Linn. Soe. Coll.; Brit. Mus.—Trans. Linn. Soc., xv., p. 531; G. R. Gray, Entom. of Aust., pp. 16-17 . Stutchbury Coll. — Zool. Journ., iv., p. 84; V., p: go ... Stutchbury Coll.—Zool. Journ., v., p. 98 . Coll. (?)—Gray, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ii., 1839, p. 307 . Linn. Soe. Coll.; Entom. Club Coll.—Trans. Linn. Soc., xii., p. 598; xili., p. 636; xv., pp. 532, 533 ;°xvi-, p. 794; xvil.,-p. 597 ; Trans. Ent. Soc. i., Journ. Proc., p. vi. (Dee. 1833) . Linn. Soe. Coll.—Trans. Linn. Soc., xiv., p. 601; xv., p. 532 . Linn. Soe. Coll.—Trans. Linn. Soc., xvi., p. 794 Linn. Soc. Coll.—Trans. Linn. Soc., xiii., p. 636 ... Linn. Soe. Coll —Trans. Linn. Soc., xiv., p. 602 .. Swainson Coll.—Zool. Journ., i., p. 463 . Roy. Mus., Berlin; Brit. Mus.—Gray, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ii., 1839, p. 307 ... Hope Coll.; Saunders Coll.; Brit. Mus. . Linn. Soe. Coll.; Geol. Soe. Coll.—Trans. Linn. Soc., xiii., p. 636; Zool. Journ., v., p- 331 . Type of Macropus parryi—P.Z.S. 1834, p. 151 . Children Coll. (type specimen of Chelypteryx Collesi) ... Gould Coll.; Australian Mus. . Brit. Mus.; Coll. Surgeons’ Mus. Aust. Mus.—Mitchell’s ‘* Three Exped.,” i., p. XVil. . Aust. Mus.; Zool. Soc. Mus.—P.Z.S. 1836, . 74 p .. Coll. (?)—Sturt’s Two Exped., ii., p. 62 . Coll. Saunders—Trans. Ent. Soc., iv., 1845, p. 144 . G. Humphery Coll. — Donovan, Nat. Rep., ili., pl. xci. (text) . Westwood Coll.; Brit. Mus.— Trans. Ent. Soc., 1i., 1835-1838, pp. 24, 252; Arcana Ent., ii., p. 19 ... Brit. Mus.—Ann. Nat. Hist., i., 1838, p. 101 bot Pb IS. . Coll. (?) F 82 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION D. Lempriere, T. J.... ... Haslar Hospital Mus.—Richardson, P.Z.S., Vil., p. 95 Lewis, R. H. ..._.... Westwood Coll.—Trans. Ent. Soc., ii., 1838, p. 252; iv., 1845, p. 269 Franklin, Sir John ... Richardson, P.Z.S., vii., p. 95; Owen, Brit. Assoc. R. 1841, p. 70 Roe, Lieutenant J. 8. ... Linn. Soc. Coll.; Hope Coll.—Trans. Linn. Soec., XVili., p. 725; Trans. Ent. Soe.,1., p. 14 Dale, Lieutenant ... Type specimen of Myrmecobius—P.Z.S. 1836, p. 69 Cothe, Dr, A., :.. ... Children Coll.—G. R. Gray, Entom. Aust., p. 22 Among early collectors in South Australia were Dr. Behr, Mr. Fortnum, and Mr. W. Davis; in Victoria, Mr. Howitt, Mr. T. Oxley, and Mr. Porter; and in “New Holland,” Mr. Tring (Saunders, Trans. Ent. Soc., iv., 1845, p. 154), but whether or no these belong to the Pre-Victorian Era I cannot ascertain. Dr. Bynoe, Capt. Sir George Grey, Dr. Preiss, and Mr. Drum- mond, jun., belong to the very early portion of the Victorian Era. Among others who presented specimens of Australian animals, without published history, to the Linnean Society’s collection during the Pre-Victorian Era, but who never resided in or visited Australia, as far as I know, may be mentioned :—Sir Everard Home, Mr. Edward Barnard, Mr. Charles Stokes, Mr. Joshua Brookes, Mr. Milne, Rev. S. Bale, Mr. Leadbeater, Mrs. Howley, Mrs. Huskisson, and Dr. Merriman. In 1827 (or 1828) Mr. C. Telfair presented an “ assemblage of Mammalia, Reptiles, and Fishes, from New Holland and Madagascar” to the Zoo- logical Society’s Museum (Zool. Journ., v., p. 610). Dr. Leach notes that he received specimens of Neuroptera, including specimens from Australia, from (Sir) W. J. Hooker, some of which were apparently presented to the British Museum (Zool. Misc., i., p. 102; ii., p., 96). The non-British factor in the work of collecting the fauna is more easily reckoned with. Omitting the ill-fated expedition of La Pérouse, seven French circumnavigating expeditions visited Australia between the years 1792 and 1832. An eighth, to- gether with the United States Expedition under Commander Wilkes, arrived before John Gould’s return to England. These all carried capable botanists, or zoologists, or both; or else the medical officers, and in one case the commander, volunteered for the work. In every case they were acting under a sense of responsibility officially imposed or voluntarily acknowledged. With the exception, perhaps, of Labillardiére and Riche, the French collectors knew that their collections were destined for the National Museum in Paris. Before the expeditions left France the collectors spent some time with the Professors at the Museum, and were coached in their duties. They were also PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION D. $3 furnished with circulars of information, in which their atten- tion was particularly drawn to the animals and plants of very special interest indigenous to the countries they expected to visit. For every one of these expeditions there is, at least, an officially- published narrative, and usually a great deal more in the shape of scientific results. There is no difficulty therefore in following the movements of the collectors, and in understanding in what localities and under what circumstances the collecting was done. As the work of the French collectors—Labillardiére, Péron and Lesueur, Quoy and Gaimard, Dumont d’Urville, Duperrey, Lesson and Garnot, Busseuil and Eydoux—is summarised in the latter part of this address, no further mention need here be made of them. The characteristics of the collecting during the Pre-Victorian Era are now intelligible. The exhaustive and representative general collecting should obviously have been the special work of resident British responsible collectors, ready to utilise new settlements, new colonies, coast surveys, and inland explorations as means to that end. Preferably, too, such collecting should have been carried on in the interests of the British National Museum. Unfortunately, the zoologists failed to profit by the example set by the botanists ; and the collecting was accordingly left to private enterprise, and to whomsoever would undertake it. But, in the absence of organisation and co-operation, the task was too stupendous for merely private enterprise. The result was that the work got out of hand, and that at too early a stage it became international in character. The final result is not a little curious. Though Australia has now been colonised for more than a century, and though during that time an enormous amount of energy has been devoted to collecting the fauna, it is still a fact that only two great groups have ever been pro- perly collected. To John Gould is due the credit of rescuing the study of Australian mammals and birds from the international complications in which, like that of all the other great groups which attracted notice in the old days, it was steadily becoming involved. This great achievement he accomplished in the capacity of a private individual, and at his own risk, by organi- sation and persistent effort. His collections of mammals and birds were not only very fairly exhaustive and representative for the portion of Australia accessible to the traveller in his day, but they included the most complete Australian series, the collections richest in types, ever brought together by a single individual, and monographed as collections in self-contained publications. Gould estimated the number of Australian birds described up to the time of his departure for Australia at about 300 species. The estimated number given in his Introduction (1848) is “upwards of 600 species,” his collection comprising “ 600 F2 84 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION D. species and 1800 specimens, with the full complements of eggs of more than 300 species.” The number of species enumerated in the “ Handbook” (1865) is 672 species, and the number now recognised about 765. For all the other groups of the fauna there has unfortunately been no John Gould, though Mr. E. Meyrick’s successful at- tempts to collect the Micro-Lepidoptera deserve mention. For these the collecting has been of a sporadic, unorganised, and inexhaustive character in so far as any one existing collection is concerned. Those who have tried to collect have not had the opportunity and the resources necessary to deal with one or a very limited number of classes or large groups in such a thorough manner as to be exhaustive and representative for the whole of Australia. On the return of John Gould freighted not merely with collec- tions, but also with facts gained by personal knowledge, British naturalists for the first time had a chance of studying a really gocd and representative collection of one group of the Aus- tralian fauna, namely, the mammals. This, too, was secured for the National Museum. First of all, Dr. J. E. Gray’s contribu- tion to a knowledge of the geographical distribution of the group made its appearance. Then came Mr. Waterhouse’s two admirable handbooks, and finally John Gould’s splendid mono- graph—evidence more than sufficient to show that previously it had not been so much the men that were at fault, as the unsatisfactory standpoint from, and the unfortunate want of system under which they had attempted to deal with Australian mammals. In what manner, and to what extent, the material brought together by the collectors, or possible collectors, enumerated in the foregoing list, or by others not known to me, found its way into British museums, is not easy in all cases to follow in detail. As far as I have been able to ascertain, the subjoined list pro- vides for some of the very numerous museums or privately- owned collections whose origin dates from the Pre-Victorian Era, and which contained Australian material, and in many cases type-specimens. It is necessary to point out that the list is provisional, and probably far from complete. (a) British museums dating from the Pre-Victorian Era which still survive in a developed form :— British Museum (Natural History) John Hunter’s Museum, afterwards the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons Hope Collection, presented by the owner to the University of Oxford Macleay Collection, now forming part of the Macleay Museum, Sydney University (b) British collections which were disposed of by their original owners or their heirs by gift or by sale, or which were broken PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION D. 85 up, and dispersed partly by gift and partly by sale, or in some such way ; or whose subsequent history is unknown to me :— Sir Joseph Banks Sir Ashton Lewer Duchess of Portland Earl Tankerville... Mr. Bullock Mr. Dru Drury ... Mr. Francillon ... Mr. Marsham Mr. T. Wilson Mr. H. C. Nowell Mr. T. Davies Mr. Milne Mr. Donovan Rev. W. Kirby . Mrs. Dunn Mr. and Mrs. cn ... Coll. dispersed by gift or by sale . Coll. dispersed. Many of the typical speci- Linnean Society... Zoological Society Geological Society Entomological Society... Entomological Club Haslar Hospital ... United Service Museum ,.. Coll. (?)—J. E. Gray, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Chatham Hospital Lord Derby Mr. G. Humphery Mr. G. B. Sowerby Mrs. Mawe 3 Mr. G. Stutchbury Dr. J. E. Gray Mr. Broderip __... Mr. A. P. Lambert Mr. Swainson Mr. Brogden... Mr. Leadbeater ... Sir Patrick Walker Mr. W. W. Saunders Mr. Melley Mr. Raddon bie Mrs. M. A. Mauger .. Coll. dispersed by gift . Coll.acquired by Mr. Parkinson ; subsequently sold by auction in 1806 .. Coll. sold . Coll. purchased by Mr. G. B. Sowerby . London Mus. Nat. Hist., sold April, 1819. Ac- cording to the sale catalogue some of the birds were Banksian specimens ... Coll. sold May, 1805 .. Coll. sold June, 1818 (New Holland insects) ... Coll. sold Sept., 1819 (New Holland insects) .. Coll. (?) »-- Coll. (2) ... Coll. (?)—Trans. Linn. Soc., iv., p. 2403 vi., » 209 . Coll. (?)}—Marsham, Trans. Linn. Soc., ix., pp. 286, 294 . Coll. sold—Hope, Ann. Mag. N. H., vii., 1841, p. 60 vat Ole presented to Entomological Society, . Coll. (2) - G. R. Gray, Trans. Ent. Soe. nee ean Coll. (?)— mens purchased by the Brit. Mus. (Strickland) . Coll. (2) Coll. dispersed ; Brit. Mus.; Trans. Ent. Soc. (3), pp. 158, 162, 193 types presented or sold to the rest of the Coll. sold— 1. (1862-64), Proc., - Coll. (?) s Colle (2 Coll. (?)—Gould, P.Z.S. 1837, p. 138 viil., 1841, p. 86; Gould, P.Z.S. 1837, p 144 (2) ... Coll. ‘* presented at Lord Derby’s decease to the town of Liverpool” (Strickland) . Coll. purchased by Mr. B. Sowerby— Proc. Linn. Soc., ii., p. 415 sac GOlk:€?) .-» Coll. (?) ..» Coll. sold—Zool. Journ., v., p. 99 .. Coll. (?) ... Coll. purchased by the Brit. Mus. ... Coll. sold . Coll. sold June, 1823 (New Holland birds and insects) ... Coll. (?)—Swainson Zool. Journ., i., p. 465 vee MEOLl. (2) ... Coll. ‘*nune Hope” —Westwood ..- Coll. (2) =.. ‘Coll.*(7) . Coll. (2) . Coll. (?)—Gray, Zool. Journ., i., p. 494 86 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION D. MAM, Bland > [s.. ... Coll. (?)—Zool. Journ., v., p. 100 Mr. N. A. Vigors ..» Woll, (2) Prof. T. Bell om ... Coll. (?)—Zool. Journ., v., p. 393 Mr. John Gould ... ... Coll. dispersed by gift or by sale I am unable to place chronologically the Collections of Messrs. Haworth, Shuckard, G. H. K. Thwaites (of Bristol), John Curtis, D. Turner (of Manchester), Norris, and E. Newman. Some or all of them may have dated from the Pre-Victorian Era. Of foreign private collections containing Australian types, &c., mention may be made of those of Dejean, Riche, Olivier, Chevrolat, Dupont, Guérin, Gory, and Buquet. The first-named of these was, I believe, sold. The fate of the others I do not know. There must have been many others besides those men- tioned. With regard to the museums comprised in the first group, one or two matters may be mentioned. In looking into the Pre-Victorian history of what is known of the Australian fauna one cannot fail to notice the marked absence of any influence emanating from the British Museum. In fact, as far as the fauna is concerned, the British Museum might have been non- existent. The Australian fauna was poorly represented in the National Collection before the Victorian Era. How poorly in the case of mammals, for example, may be realised by taking Mr. Thomas’ Catalogue, and mentally subtracting the specimens contained in the Gould Collection and those presented by Sir George Grey or other donors in the Victorian Era. John Hunter’s Museum was not intended to be a zoological museum. Some Australian specimens, primarily of zoological interest, at one time in this museum, were afterwards, I believe, presented to the British Museum. Rey. F. W. Hope’s collection of insects was presented to the University of Oxford in 1849 (f). The extensive collection of the Rey. O. Westwood was added to the Hope Collection in 1857. Among the donors of Australian specimens to the Hope Collec- tion were Charles Darwin, Lieutenant J. S. Roe (of West Aus- tralia), Sir E. Parry, John Gould, Mr. Walker, Mr. Porter, and Mr. Fortnum. Some specimens also were purchased by the owner. When the entomological collections in Australian Museums come to be developed, probably the Hope Collection will claim much attention as an entomological Mecca for pilgrims from Australia. Mr. Alexander Macleay’s entomological collection is the nucleus of the present Macleay Museum, Sydney University. The history of the specimens in this collection seems not to have been published. Mr. Macleay is said to have been one of a small syndicate which subsidised J. W. Lewin to collect and (/) Proce. Linn. Soc., 1862, p. xci. PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—-SECTION D, 87 send home specimens (g). Probably, therefore, specimens were received from this source. From the inspection of Mr. Macleay’s copies of the sale catalogues of the collections of Mr. Francillon and Mr. Marsham, I should suppose that very probably certain marginal notes in manuscript refer to specimens purchased from these collections by Mr. Macleay. No doubt, at a later date Mr. Macleay added extensively to his collection by his own collecting. Of the collections enumerated in the second group, it is only necessary to mention that of the Linnean Society of London. This in its day is said to have been “the most extensive collec- tion of the zoological products of Australia now -in this country’ (h). The most important constituents of this collection were “an extensive Cabinet of insects,” comprising Fabrician types, and an “extensive collection of shells,” the gifts of Sir Joseph Banks; “an extensive and valuable collection of Quad- rupeds, Birds, and Reptiles, made by Mr. George Caley, in New South Wales,” purchased by subscription by forty-one members, for the sum of £220 14s., and presented to the Society ; a large series of specimens presented by Mr. Alexander Macleay and other early colonists of standing; the birds collected and pre- sented by Robert Brown; a donation of specimens presented by Captain P. P. King. The complete list of donors will be found in the donation lists at the end of Vols. x. (1811), xxi. (1852-55) of the Transactions. Professor Temmnick described twelve species of pigeons and parrots; and Messrs. Vigors and Horsfield published a very valuable but incomplete account of the birds. Otherwise the imperfect manner in which this great collection was utilised, its subsequent dispersal (7), the loss of information relating to the geographical distribution of animals in the early days of coloni- sation, and to a great extent the labour in vain of those who sent home specimens, form one of the most sorrowful episodes in Australian faunistic history. Such meagre information as can be gleaned from the fore- going list is ample to suggest that the early Australian collec- tions containing types or specimens of historic interest have been exposed to extraordinary vicissitudes. A number of types certainly did eventually arrive at the British Museum. But what proportion of them I do not know, nor do I find it possible to enter into any details on the subject. But one thing is certain, namely, that in a general way the question of the whereabouts of the Australian zoological types is a much more complicated and perplexing one than the botanist interested in the Australian flora can ever have to battle with. (9) Jardine’s Naturalists’ Library, xiii., 1842, p. 46. (2) Swainson, Zool. Journ., i., p. 463 (i Proc. Linn. Soc., 1863, pp. Vii. (April 16), li. (June 4), i. (Nov. 5); 1864, p. xlvii. June 16). 88 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION D. THE BIOLOGISTS AND THEIR WORK. We have next to consider what scientific use European biologists made of their collections of Australian plants and animals. Looking at the matter from the Australian stand- point, and with the knowledge which succeeds the event, one can see that the biologists in question fall into several groups. The most effective work was done by the biologist who studied large collections which he had himself helped to accumulate, in the light of personal knowledge of Australia. But the earliest biologists would not, or could not, wait until they could deal with the fauna and flora from this standpoint. The consequence was that a beginning was made with collections of a less representative character. Leaving out of consideration the entomological work of Fabricius, up till the year 1804—\thirty- two years after the return of the “ Endeavour,” and sixteen years after the foundation of the first colony at Port Jackson —British zoologists practically had Australian faunistic work in their own hands. This early chapter in the history of what is known of the Australian fauna is, however, truly melancholy. It was not the study of collections, but the cataloguing of speci- mens in an antiquated and crude manner. In the year 1804, the Paris National Museum “was suddenly enriched by the most considerable accession in zoology and botany that it had ever received.” These were the magnificent collections secured by Péron and Lesueur, and their botanical colleague, Leschen- ault, the naturalists of Captain Baudin’s expedition; and they were rich in Australian material. The zoological portion of this great collection, either in its original form, or supplemented by the acquisitions obtained on similar expeditions of a later date, was studied, among others, by Géoffroy St. Hilaire, Lacépéde, Lamarck, Cuvier and Valenciennes, Duméril and Bibron, Desmarest, and other distinguished French naturalists, some of the members of the professorial staff of the Muséum National. The standpoint of these great naturalists to a large extent was that of the systematist in the Linnean sense—the propounder of a system of classification. The knowledge of the Australian flora began as good cataloguing, and then at a very early date in this century, and at one bound, it passed to the stage of an analytical study of a great flora under very favourable circumstances. The course of the knowledge of the fauna was more erratic and complicated. The indifferent cataloguer had much to do with it at first. The qualifications of the cataloguer subsequently improved in some respects, but were a long time reaching the standard of the thoroughly good all-round cataloguer. The systematist, who lacked personal knowledge of Australia, who was sometimes interested more in his system than in the fauna, and who PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS~—-SECTION D. 89 studied collections which, if large, were still miscellaneous, had much to do with formulating the foundational knowledge of the fauna. The zoologist best qualified for the work was very late in appearing. He is not to be met with during the Pre- Victorian Era, except in so far as Quoy and Gaimard, and Lesson and Garnot, with very limited opportunities, made some approximation thereto. But these naturalists saw too much of other countries visited on circumnavigating cruises, and not enough of Australia to give the Australian fauna the leading place in their studies. Botanical—From his letter to Hasted (quoted in Hooker’s Banks, p. 26) it is known that Sir Joseph fully intended to publish a descriptive and illustrated account of the plants collected during Cook’s First Voyage, and that he made some extensive preparations for doing so. For reasons which have been regarded as insoluble, but for which the death of Solander, in 1782, is supposed to have been in some measure responsible, this project was not carried out. Up to the time of the founda- tion of the colony at Port Jackson, in 1788, the only published descriptions of Australian plants were those of four species of Banksia, from specimens presented by Sir Joseph to Linnzeus, and described by his son; some species described by Gartner, from fruits or seeds presented to him by Sir Joseph; and of some species raised from seeds taken to England also by Sir Joseph. However much the non-publication of the descriptions of the Banksian collection of plants was, and is even still to be de- plored on historical and sentimental grounds, it was not in the end a matter of so much scientific importance as at the time it might have seemed to be, except that it made an opening for a commencement with even less complete collections. In 1791, Sir James E. Smith, President of the Linnean Society, began his series of contributions to a knowledge of the Australian flora from the study of specimens raised in England from seed, or of collections sent home by Surgeon White, Mr. David Burton, Mr. Menzies, and other collectors; and, in some cases, of specimens from the Banksian herbarium. As was to be expected from the possessor of the Linnean collections and library, from his being in a sense the heir of Linnzeus, and from his official position, Sir James was an ardent follower of Linnean methods and principles, and the upholder of the Linnean system. His work is of the cataloguing order, but it is distinctly good of its kind, and far ahead of that of the con- temporary British zoologists who worked at the Australian fauna. He made use of the binomial nomenclature. His de- scriptions were full and even elaborate, as a rule; and fre- quently were accompanied by good illustrations. He had due regard for locality, and he did not ignore the name of the 90 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION D. collector or grower of his specimens. He was by no means con- servative on the subject of Linnean genera. In his fourth paper, read before the Linnean Society in 1798 (Trans. Vol. iv., 1798), he proposed and gave the characters of twenty new genera, of which nineteen were Australian ; and of these eighteen are still recognised. Finally, Sir James took care of his type specimens. They were available to Robert Brown when required, and they are still extant in possession of the Linnean Society. Even more interesting and important was the work of Labillardiere, the French naturalist, who in 1791 accompanied D’Entrecasteaux in his voyage in search of La Pérouse. Labillardiere was an accomplished botanist as well as an en- thusiastic collector. He was singularly unfortunate in regard to his very limited opportunities for collecting. Two brief visits to Tasmania, and one unfavourable opportunity for collecting on the mainland and on one of the off-lying islands, gave him very little chance of making a satisfactory collection. If he had had the opportunity of visiting Port Jackson his results would have been vastly different. His standpoint was very much that of Sir James Smith—the artificial system of Linnzeus. But he brought personal knowledge to his task, and he worked out his complete collection, the best that circumstances allowed him to make. He was not conservative on the subject of Linnean genera. His work is a separate publication (7), which takes ac- count of about 265 species, and as far as possible every, or nearly every, species is illustrated by good outline drawings. Perhaps even more valuable than the actual accomplish- ment of so much work, may have been the stimulus which Labillardiere’s visit applied to the British interest in the Aus- tralian flora, and the share which it may have had in bringing about the visit of Robert Brown. In 1806, Dryander published his “Chloris” (4), a particularly interesting landmark. The number of species herein catalogued is about 376. Allowance has to be made for the fact that Labillardiére’s “ Specimen” was issued in parts, and that the work was not quite completed when the “Chloris” was published. The list is arranged ac- cording to the artificial system of Linnzus, but the modern botanist has no difficulty in translating it into modern phrase- ology. One can see that when used with discretion the “ Systema Nature” was not at all a bad standpoint from which to produce good cataloguing. The “Chloris” is particularly interesting, however, as showing the state of affairs when Robert Brown was just preparing to appear on the scene. It shows, too, that up to that time Labillardiére had done the larger share of the work. (j) Nove Hollandize Plantarum Specimen, 2 vols., 1804-06. A (:) Chloris Noyze Hollandis, or Catalogue of the Plants of New Holland and Van Diemen’s Land, Annals of Botany, ii., 1806, pp. 504-532. PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION D. 91 With Robert Brown’s participation in the work of elucidating the flora, knowledge proceeded by leaps and bounds. He entered upon his Australian work with a preliminary critical knowledge of about 1000 Australian species of plants contained in the Banksian Herbarium. He spent about four years in Australia. His collections amounted to 3900 species (including 300 from Timor), and as the result of Caley’s collecting, the total number of species at his command was raised to 4200, “The species were in great measure, at any rate, described as collected in Australia itself, the descriptions were written out on the home ward voyage, and it only remained on the return to England to complete the work” (/). His first published contribution to- wards a knowledge of the Australian flora was his masterly monograph, “On the Proteacee of Jussieu,” read before the Linnean Society in January, 1809 (Trans. Vol. x., pp. 15-226, 1810). Herein the author described or redescribed twenty-three Australian genera, and 204 Australian species, the majority of them brought to light by his own collecting, in addition to a large number of genera and species from the Cape. He dis- cusses history, and generalises respecting the geographical dis- tribution, the morphology, and the affinities of the order ; and he groups the species of the large genera into sub-divisions by morphological characters. In 1810 the “Prodromus Flore Novee Hollandiz” made its appearance. In this the natural system of Jussieu was applied to the classification of the Austra- lian flora, and 464 genera and more than 2000 species are treated of. In 1814 appeared Flinders’s “ Voyage,” to which Robert Brown contributed an appendix, giving a general sketch of the natural orders included in the Australian flora. In the year 1849 he contributed the Botanical Appendix to Sturt’s “ Expedition into Central Australia,” in which he estimates that the number of known Australian species was about 7000. In looking at Robert Brown’s work, oné cannot but be impressed with his broad views, with the high plane and the large scale on which he worked, not less than with the general excellence of his work. It is with something like a shock that one turns to the painfully synthetic attempts of his zoological contem- poraries to build up a reference collection, and a knowledge of Australian marsupials—a group as characteristic as the Proteacee, and with less than one-fifth the number of species. The number of Proteads enumerated in Dryander’s “ Chloris” is nine genera, and about forty-five species. In Baron yon Mueller’s “Second Census” (1889), the number of species is given as 597. Robert Brown’s “Supplementum Primum Pro- dromi” was published in 1830. This is an octavo pamphlet of 35 pages, devoted entirely to Australian Proteads, chiefly from ® Sir J. D. Hooker’s ‘‘ Eulogium on Robert Brown,’’ Proc. Linn. Soc., Session 1887-88, /p. 57. 92 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION D. the collections of Baxter, Caley, Cunningham, Fraser, and Sieber. It supplements the author’s account of the Order given in the “Monograph” and the “ Prodromus” to the extent of about 142 new species. Thus by the year 1830, Robert Brown had published the results of a critical study of about 350 species, or considerably more than half the total number of known species. This great advance in a knowledge of the Order was due in the first instance to the excellent organised collecting, and, secondly, to Robert Brown’s personal knowledge of and interest in the flora as a flora. In 1831, Mr. Ogilby recognised eleven genera and about thirty species of Australian marsupials. Of the latter he says: —“ At the present moment there are not more than thirty dis- tinct species of Australian marsupials enumerated as authentic, in the most correct and extensive catalogues of zoology.” But a considerable number of the thirty species were unknown to British zoologists. The number of species of Macropods known to Dr. Shaw (ob. 1813) was two—-the Great Grey Kangaroo and the Common Rat Kangaroo. The third Macropod known to British zoologists—omitting JM. elegans of Lambert, imperfectly described, and never subsequently satisfactorily identified—was the common Rock Wallaby (Petrogale pencillata) described by Gray in 1827. Up to the year mentioned the total number of now recognised species of Macropods established by British collectors and zoologists was three; and by the French natura- lists nine and one variety. In 1837 Dr .Gray drew up a synopsis of the Australian Macropods known to him; this in- cludes twelve species, reducible to eight or nine. As the neigh- bourhood of Sydney (County of Cumberland) was probably in- habited by seven species of Macropods at the time of the founda- tion of the first colony, the progress so far attained can hardly be characterised as of the first magnitude. The disparity in the progress and state of knowledge of the Australian Proteads and Marsupials here disclosed, may in a large measure be taken to be the expression of the fundamental difference between the botanical and zoological collecting in the Pre-Gouldian Era, aggravated by the want of personal know- ledge of the fauna under natural conditions. Zoological.—Sir Joseph Banks apparently did not make’ public any intentions he may have had respecting the publica- tion of a complementary work descriptive of the zoological speci- mens collected on Cook’s first voyage, or of such of them as Fabricius did not deal with. The following quotation from the posthumous, and presumably editorial, conclusion of Sydney Parkinson’s Journal seems to show what the popular expectation on the subject was :— “It may not be amiss to inform the curious in natural sub- jects, that Mr. Banks and Dr. Solander have discovered, in the PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION D. 93 course of this adventure [Cook’s First Voyage], many thousand [sic] species of plants heretofore unknown. . . . They have also described a great variety of birds and beasts, heretofore unknown, or but indifferently treated of ; and above three hundred new species of fish, and have brought home with them many of the several kinds ; with about one hundred species of new shells; and a great number of curious insects, some of them of a new genus; and corals; also of other marine animals, particularly of the Molusca [sce] tribe. “Copious descriptions of all these curiosities, with elegant engravings annexed, are now preparing to be published to the world by the above-mentioned gentlemen.” However this may have been, nothing was published with the exception of the entomological contribution of Fabricius, a pupil of Linneus. The first instalment was contained in the “Systema Entomologiz,” published in 1775; in this about 223 species of Australian Arthropods are described, including 12 Linnean, 2 Drurian, and 209 new species. Fabricius has left a most interesting autobiographical sketch (mm), in which he has made his standpoint quite clear, namely, that of the systematist. The Banksian collection of insects is still extant, and in the British Museum, to which institution it was pre- sented by the Linnean Society in 1862. Olivier subsequently went over much of the same ground. Donovan in his “ Insects cf New Holland” figured a number of the Fabrician types; and Mr. Butler, of the British Museum, has drawn up a “ Catalogue of the Diurnal Lepidoptera described by Fabricius” (1869). It is not necessary here to refer more at length to the subject. If Solander had supplemented the work of Fabricius by pub- lishing an account of the vertebrates and molluscs, for which it appears he had made more or less preparation, it might have been a blessing indeed to Australian zoologists. The omission to do it was somewhat disastrous. Such a work might have served as a guide, not merely for others to follow, but which they could hardly have helped following. As an example, the work of Fabricius upon invertebrates was without effect, apparently because it was wholly invertebrate work. In Pen- nant’s “Faunula’ of New Holland no mention is made of Fabricius. In the absence of any authoritative published account of the Banksian vertebrates and mollusca, only too favourable an open- ing was made for Dr. John Latham, Dr. George Shaw, and Herr F. Aug. Zorn von Plobsheim. Latham and Shaw had the opportunity of making a beginning with Australian birds and mammals more particularly, though the former did not alto- gether confine his attention to birds, nor the latter to verte- brates. But by comparison with the botanical work of Sir (m) Trans. Ent. Soc., iv., 1847, p. 1 (Proceedings). 94 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION D. J. Smith and Labillardiere, their results are terribly disappoint- ing. The “Systema Nature” used with discretion would have answered the purpose of the zoologist just as well as that of the botanist. To what extent they were influenced by the example of Buffon I do not know, but at first Latham and Shaw had not arrived at the Linnean standard. They described Australian species under vernacular names. Before this was rectified by the authors, Gmelin, Kerr (7), and others stepped in to supply what was wanting. Here is the origin of some of the characteristics of early Australian faunistic work—the waste of energy exemplified by the duplication and triplication of effort requisite to accomplish what might have been done once and for all; an avoidable want of finality about the nomenclature,'and a complicated synonymy, biblography, and literature to match. However, after much mischief had been wrought, Drs. Latham and Shaw eventually arrived at the Linnean standpoint, but never got beyond it. They became slavishly Linnean, even ultra-Linnean, and were absurdly conservative on the subject of Linnean genera. The Australian fauna was discovered after the “ Systema” had been drawn up, and some of the characteristic animals would not fit comfortably into the Linnean genera. At an early stage, therefore, it became a question of the System or the Australian animals in question. And as the System must be maintained at all hazard, the animals, with a few exceptions, had to give way. The misfortunes brought about by the ministrations of Latham and Shaw were both direct and indirect. In addition to the difficulties already mentioned, their work compares un- favourably with that of the botanist, inasmuch as they paid much less attention to the habitats and history of the species they described. A comparison of Smith’s “ Botany of New Hol- land” (1793) with Shaw’s companion volume, * Zoology of New Holland” (1794), will show a very marked, but characteristic, difference in these respects. Latham, too, brought about serious complications in another way. Surgeon White, on his return to England, took with him several volumes of original drawings of Australian birds by an unknown artist. These subsequently came into the possession of Mr. A. B. Lambert, who allowed Dr. Latham to examine them. The drawings in some cases are said to have been “ rude” drawings. From these drawings alone, without any actual specimens for examination, Latham described a considerable number of species of Australian birds. For many years after- wards the drawings were lost sight of, and were unknown to Vigors and Horsfield, when in 1825-26 they contributed their epoch-making paper on Australian birds to the Linnean Society ; (n) On the subject of Kerr’s contribution to the nomenclature of Australian Mammals, see Thomas, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (5), Vol. [V., 1879, p. 396. PRESIDEN'I’S ADDRESS—-SECTION D. 95 and who in all good faith redescribed as new some of his im- perfectly described species. At a later period the drawings again came to light, and were investigated by Dr. J. E. Gray, G. R. Gray, H. Strickland, and John Gould (0). By the com- bined efforts of these four gentlemen, and with the expenditure of much trouble, the synonymy was at last cleared up, and matters were put straight in time to permit Gould to enter upon his great work on Australian birds without making confusion worse confounded. At this very early stage we are brought face to face with another characteristic of Australian faunistic work. At the very beginning this was the study of the fauna. At an early stage it began, and in some cases continued to be largely the study of a complicated nomenclature and its accompaniments, and incidentally that of some section of the fauna. Indirectly the work of Latham and Shaw was unfortunate, because time was lost and the advance of knowledge was re- tarded. Later on the inevitable revolt came, to some extent in the shape of the Quinarianism of W. Sharpe Macleay and his school. Hugh Strickland, who was by no means a prejudiced observer, thus sums up the state of affairs in the first quarter of the present century (p):—‘“ The backward condition of orni- thology must be attributed in great measure to the pertinacity with which its followers during many years adhered to the letter instead of to the spirit of Linnzeus’s writings. In this country the venerable Latham, who for half a century was re- garded as the great oracle of ornithology, persisted so late as 1824 in classifying his 5000 species of birds in the same number of genera (with very few additions) as were employed by Linneus for a fifth part of those species. The consequence was that many of the genera in Latham’s last work contain each several hundred species, frequently presenting the most hetero- geneous characters, and massed together without any, or with only very rude attempts at further subdivision. Shaw’s ‘General Zoology’ was, in a great measure, a servile copy of Latham’s ‘ Ornithology,’ and these two works formed for many years almost the only text-books on the subject. On the Con- tinent meanwhile, those who were not disciples of Linnzeus trans- ferred their allegiance to Buffon, and often exceeded that author in their contempt for systematic arrangement and uniform nomenclature.” Brief mention may be made of Zorn’s early connection with Australian conchology. It is said that it was Solander’s inten- tion and aim to develop and remodel the conchological portion of the “ Systema Nature,” just as Fabricius attempted to do it for the entomological section. This, however, was not carried out. (0) Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., xi., 1843, pp. 189, 333. (p) Report Brit. Assoc., xiii., 1844, p. 170 ; Collected Works, Part IT., p. 248. 96 PRESIDENI’S ADDRESS—SECTION D. Meanwhile a considerable collection of shells obtained on Cook’s voyages came into the possession of Mr. G. Humphery, of Lon- don, well known in his day as a ‘‘commercial conchologist” as well as a writer on conchology, who sent it to Danzig. This collection was studied by Zorn, who had not arrived at the Linnean standpoint, and who described about 179 species under vernacular names only. The collection was afterwards lost sight of, and complications arose in consequence. Thus, like other branches of Australian zoological knowledge which date from the Pre-Victorian Era, with the exception of entomology, con- chological knowledge begins under a cloud. Professor von Martens (7) has heroically endeavoured to wrestle with the difficulties that have arisen; and after much trouble has come to the conclusion that about 109 species of them are rightly attributable to Australia, and, if so, were probably ob- tained on the first voyage. It is important to notice that both the collections and the published results which accrued from the visits of the various non-British expeditions during the Pre-Victorian Era were in every case but one very much more important from a zoological than a botanical point of view. This seems surprising, as ths non-British naturalists were visitors merely, whose time was short, and whose collecting operations had to be carried on at a few more or less distant spots, and at no great distance from the coast. By no possible chance, though the collectors were expert and enthusiastic, could their collections be ex- haustively or representatively Australian on a large scale. Their collecting was necessarily more or less superficial, with- out being locally exhaustive. The collectors of different ex- peditions sometimes visited the same locality, and then the collecting might be overlapping in character. When non-British botanists acquired Australian botanical collections, they found the way already prepared for them to name their specimens and to describe the non-descripts without creating complications. From the study of far larger and more’ representative collections than they possessed, Robert Brown had not only laid the ground plan of Australian botanical know- ledge, but had filled in a good deal of the detail. But in zoological matters it was quite different. No zoological Robert Brown had already prepared, or seemed likely to prepare, the way from the study of better collections than non-British zoologists themselves possessed. They were strongly attracted by, and deeply interested in, the Australian fauna. The prevalent opinion among them might very reasonably have been that of Lesson, one of the French naturalists, who visited Sydney and Bathurst in 1824, and who wrote :—‘ The English, (q) ** C mchylien von Cook’s Reisen,’’ Malak. Blitt, xix., 1872, p. 1. PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION D. 97 who have established a splendid colony in this part of the world, are excellently situated for exploring the country with complete success, and leaving nothing to be desired with respect to it by the naturalists of Europe. We do not find, however, that they have as yet taken due advantage of their excellent opportunities, and if we except the works of Shaw (Zoology of New Holland) and Lewin (Birds of New South Wales), both of considerable merit, no particular work has made known in detail the natural riches of a country still almost unknown, especially in its interior (r). The work of the non-British contributors to a knowledge of the Australian fauna was in most cases profoundly important and valuable in introducing order and system, and advancing knowledge. Nevertheless, viewed from the present-day Aus- tralian standpoint, it had its drawbacks. The collections studied, if very large were still miscellaneous in character, and not representative on a large scale. Hence it came about that descriptions which may have seemed to be satisfactorily distinctive to the naturalist who drew them up, ceased to be distinctive to the naturalist of a later epoch at work upon better collections in which allied species were well represented. Next, the collections were usually brought together and studied from a more or less cosmopolitan standpoint. Accordingly, much valuable matter relating to the Australian fauna is spread over numerous volumes, and buried amidst very much other matter with which the Australian naturalist has now no need to concern himself. The total number of volumes containing matter of this kind is so large, some of them are so rare, and others are so costly that the resources of the best Australian libraries are unequal to the strain of purchasing complete sets of them, even if this were possible. The types and type- collections have become so distributed over the museums of so many different and distant countries that in many cases it is difficult to ascertain whether the old types are extant, and, if so, where they are, or in what condition. Thus for the Aus- tralian naturalist, to the difficulties arising from the fact that types are out of reach have been added those resulting from a cumbrous literature which is often inaccessible, and from obstacles in the way of the identification of described species because of descriptions based on imperfect knowledge. Some- times, too, the systematist was so absorbed in the purely systematic aspect of his subject, that he overlooked much important local or geographical information which the col- lectors had been able to place at his disposal. It is gratifying to note that Robert Brown had the oppor- tunity of studying the Australian plants, or some of the plants, (7) Edinb. New Philosop. Journ., 1827-28, p. 156. G 98 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION D. collected by Leschenault on Captain Baudin’s expedition. This circumstance seems to show that even early in this century Challenger Expedition methods might have been anticipated in relation to the Australian fauna. Sir Joseph Banks de- servedly stood high in the estimation of Continental men of science. If the exhaustive and representative collecting of the Australian fauna had been made a British undertaking, carried on in the interests of the British National Museum, the influence of Sir Joseph Banks would probably have suthced to secure international co-operation in working up the collections in the most advantageous way—without waste of energy, without clashing, with the types reserved for the British Museum, and collections of co-types available for presentation to, or exchange with other museums. At this stage it may be convenient to consider the ultimate reason why Australian faunistic collecting and work compare so unfavourably with the corresponding botanical undertakings. Primarily it was the Zeitgeist that was at fault—the more back- ward state of zoology as compared with botany in Britain, or as compared with zoology on the Continent (s). This, however, might perhaps have been successfully got over, or at least mitigated, if Solander had lived longer, or if he had been as keenly interested in the Banksian Collections as Fabricius was. Sir Joseph’s personal tastes were botanical. But still during the voyage of the “ Endeavour’—especially during the early part, or when there was no botanising to be done—he -was keenly interested in collecting, identifying, naming or describ- ing the pelagic organisms, the marine birds, and the belated animals which found their way on board the ship or which could be rescued as they floated by. But after the death of Solander, Sir Joseph seems to have lost all interest in zoology. He safeguarded the future welfare of his herbarium, but he dispersed his zoological collections some considerable time be- fore his death—the insects and mollusca by gift to the Linnean Society, and the fishes te Broussonet (¢). Moreover, Royalty was interested to some extent in the Australian flora, but ap- parently not in the fauna. Australian plants, too, had a horti- cultural, and, therefore, an economic or commercial value. Minerals also might prove to have a commercial value, and the discovery of valuable minerals might help to develop the young colony. But at this early date the indigenous land animals (s) See W. S. Macleay, Hor. Ent., p. 457. quoted and supplemented by Westwood, Arcana Entomologica. i., p. 45; Bell. Pres. Add. to Linn. Soc. Proc., Vol. ii. (24th May, 1855), pp. 389-396, and Journ. vi. (Proc. 24th May, 1861), pp xiv.-xvi.: Vigors, sep: Journ. i., pp. 309, 532; Swainson, Zool. i., pp. 409, 464; Kirby, Zool Journ. ils Zool. Society’ s Prospectus in Zool. Journ. ii. 286 ; and “Life and Letters of Charles Darwin,” Vol. i., chapter vii., especially pp. 272 and 355. (t) The fate of the birds and mammals I have been unable to ascertain. Some of the birds, however, according to Calvert. came into the possession of his grandfather after Robert Brown’s death (Discovery of Australia, p. 89.) PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION D. 99 could not be called useful, and had no’ recognised commercial value outside the colony. Sir Joseph Banks was the adviser of the Government in all matters relating to Australia. From the documentary evidence furnished by the “ Historical Records” it is evident not only that Sir Joseph was responsible for the appointment of Archibald Menzies, the naturalist of the ex- pedition under Captain Vancouver who discovered King George’s Sound in 1791; and also of the scientific staff, includ- ing Robert Brown and Ferd. Bauer, of the expedition of Flinders; but it is also quite evident from the start that in both cases botany was to be the first consideration, and that zoology was to be relegated to an altogether subordinate and un- important position, even compared with mineralogy. It may have been, perhaps, that Sir Joseph Banks felt some delicacy in proposing that money should be spent in collecting animals which, strictly speaking, could not be called useful. Sir Joseph sent out George Caley in 1799, and maintained him in the position of collector for about ten years. Allan Cunningham, too, came out to Australia to collect under instructions from Sir Joseph. But though Robert Brown, George Caley, and Allan Cunningham were responsible for their botanical collec- tions, every one of them finally disposed of any zoological speci- mens he may have collected as he chose. Lastly, the dis- appointing attempts of Drs. Latham and Shaw must have been quite sufficient to damp the ardour even of Sir Joseph, and lead to his concentrating his energy on the flora. It is true that a great deal is known about the Australian fauna. It is not less true that the same amount of energy ex- pended in a more judicious manner might have yielded a much richer harvest than we to-day possess. The investigation of the fauna is a very much more stupendous undertaking than that -of the flora. There was all the more need, therefore, for organi- sation and co-operation in faunistic work. The question of statistics, however, may be left out of account. The botanists not less than the zoologists' were quite in the dark at the beginning as to what they were undertaking. The difference to-day is not that the botanists have finished, while the zoologists have made a proportional advance in a _ bigger enterprise. Unfortunately, the zoological advance is far from proportionate. During the first half-century of colonisation the advance of the botanists was prodigious, but sure. Splendid collections, personal knowledge, the work kept in few but effective hands, the subject studied in its larger aspects—these were some of the elements of success. But when we turn to the fauna it is not too much to say that on the whole the zoologists were half a century late in beginning really effective work. In the absence of large and representative collections in too many cases they concerned themselves with specimens merely, G2 100 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION D. disconnected specimens, sometimes even single specimens, with the resulting disadvantage that their contributions to literature were piecemeal, and too often on the scale of one specimen, one species, one paper. The lack of personal knowledge of Australia; the indifference to questions of geographical dis- tribution and the authenticity of specimens; the want of knowledge, or the incorrectness of the information supplied on those heads, in conjunction with imperfect knowledge of the collections and of the work of naturalists in other countries, eventually resulted in the necessity for undoing a good deal that had been done; for correcting and for supple- menting, which has tended to complicate matters. For the collections available, too, the field was occupied by too many zeologists. The study of the fauna for too long was synthetical when it should have been analytical. Further, as both the collecting and the scientific work soon became international on a large scale, but without any organisation, it has become difficult to reach the revisional stage of knowledge of large groups, especially among the invertebrates. The collecting has been so sporadic, so independently carried on, and the resulting collections are so scattered, without in any case being exhaus- tively representative, that the prospect of some of the large invertebrate groups ever being completely worked up becomes more and more remote. Under these circumstances it becomes more and more difficult for any one individual to acquire a critical knowledge even of a single group. The Austrahan - naturalist may compile a list of the described species of a group in which he may be interested, but very rarely can he make it a critical list, because types and type collections and literature are out of reach; or because species still “live in descriptions” only and cannot be identified from descriptions drawn up without knowledge of allied species, or from the only descriptions which are available. From the way in which the knowledge of the fauna has developed, it results that at the end of the nineteenth century no man can say precisely what it amounts to. No data in a suitable form are available for enabling one to arrive at a definite conclusion as to what exactly is known of the fauna as a whole, or even of the land fauna as a whole. The colonisation of Australia not only offered an unexampled opportunity of dealing with a continental flora and fauna, but also of studying on a large scale the important questions of the displacement and replacement of species. In the light of the evidence which has already been adduced it is not taking a pessimistic view to say that as regards the fauna the first of these opportunities was but imperfectly realised. As to the second, it is difficult to say anything very definite. The changes in the land fauna directly or indirectly traceable to the advent of PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION D. 101 civilised man during the period of little more than a century since Australia was colonised have been profound. The changes which the coming century will bring about will probably be drastic. But in endeavouring to realise what the disturbing in- fluences already amount to, there is the initial difficulty in the way of realising what the land fauna was in its undisturbed state. The botanist by the aid of the “ Flora Australiensis” can com- pile local floras from reliable data secured when the flora was undisturbed. The Illawarra of to-day is not the Illawarra of Allan Cunningham’s day. But in its palmy days it received the attention of the botanist, and thé results of his investiga- tions are on record. But for the zoologist matters are different. The information respecting the distribution of the fauna in early colonial days has for the most part been lost—the first half-century is largely a blank. The leavening influence which could help to convert a descriptive catalogue of specimens in a museum into a “ Fauna Australiensis” long since became inert. Under the influence of the zoological renascence which Gould’s visit to Australia inaugurated, Dr. J. E. Gray thus expressed his views in the year 1841:—“If in our collection[s| and catalogues we were to mark all the species found in Europe as coming from England, we should be nearly as correct as we are at present in the determination of the localities of the Australian animals, for almost all the specimens are marked as coming from New Holland. This is not only the case with the speci- mens contained in the museums, but also with respect to the observations of some recent voyagers [on King’s surveys]” (w). And in a letter of date July, 1841, to Captain Grey, he speaks of ‘‘the very little attention which has hitherto been paid to the distribution of the animals of Australia, and the very incorrect manner in which the habitats are given in collections and systematic works” (v). At this time Dr. Gray had recently taken charge of “a complete series of all the species and varieties brought by Mr. Gould from different parts of this Con- tinent | purchased by the British Museum]; and these specimens were all marked with the habitat immediately after they were procured.” The state of things indicated by Dr. Gray’s remarks is one of the unsatisfactory legacies which has come down to us from the Pre-Victorian Era. It was the accumulation of half a century, during which the land fauna was becoming disturbed and de- pleted—locally it is true, but on a steadily increasing scale. Hence it became a heritage which needs to be put into liquida- tion, with a view to reconstruction. (u) Brit. Assoc. Report, 1841, Trans. of Sections, p. 68. (v) Appendix to Grey’s Journals, Vol. ii, p. 397. 102 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION D. One might hope that at the end of the nineteenth century, if not early in the Victorian Era, the objectionable practice of describing species simply from New Holland or Australia with- out any further details, and without history, would haye be- come altogether obsolete. It is a matter for regret that this is not the case (w). Is it not within the province of this Section, by formal resolution or otherwise, to seek to discountenance a custom which a century’s experience has shown to be almost certain to bring difficulty in its train? Or might not this Sec- tion move the Association to memoralise the International Con- gress of Zoologists on the subject?! Anyone who will look into early Australian faunistic history may find questions in need of consideration from Australian zoologists. This Association is the Australasian Federal Parlia- ment of Science; and Section D stands for organisation and co-operation among Australian biologists. The questions I have in mind, in my opinion, are such as might fitly engage the attention of this Section. One has only to inspect some of our faunal lists—as for example Master’s “ Catalogue of Described Coleoptera’”—to see that a considerable number of species described by the early zoologists have apparently never since been recognised, and con- sequently must be unrepresented in Australian collections. Is it desirable to know what these amount to; or what the prospects of their re-discovery are! Correlated with this subject is the question of the old Aus- tralian types and type collections. Is it desirable that we should have a better knowledge of these matters, as well as of the history of the early collectors ? The indisputable evidence of a larger Australia than the present mainland, which is not altogether hypothetical, is fur- nished by a fringe of off-lying islands, many of which were, or still are, inhabited by marsupials. The geological epoch in which these islands were cut off from the mainland has not yet been fully considered in detail. Surely when the time for this discussion arrives, the zoological evidence which they ought to be able—or to have been able—to afford will be of the very greatest value. Except in a few cases the zoology of these islands is very imperfectly known—much more imperfectly known on the whole than their botany. The way in which the fauna of some of these islands has already been punished is truly lamentable. Of others the fauna is subject to competi- tion from introduced animals on an alarming scale. The Field Naturalists’ Club of Victoria has done some excellent work in investigating the fauna of King Island, and also of some others of the islands in Bass Straits. Mr. A. J. Campbell and Mr. R. (w) See for example, Ann. Soc. Ent. de Belgique. T. xlii., 1898, p. 121, &c. PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION D. 103 Helms have paid some attention to the fauna of Houtman’s Abrolhos. What is now wanted is a systematic organised in- vestigation of the whole series of islands. Is not this an oppor- tunity slipping away under our very eyes; and cannot some- thing be attempted before it is quite too late? So important is this matter that I should lke to see this Section give up the whole time available at one meeting of this Association to its consideration. If it is impossible for any one at present to declare precisely how we stand with regard to a knowledge of the fauna as a whole or the amount of the depletion and disturbance which the land fauna has already suffered, need this preclude all effort to deal with these questions by making a beginning with classes, orders or families? Is not something possible in these direc- tions ? Cognate questions will readily suggest themselves, as, for example, what are the prospects of a “ Fauna Australiensis” complementary to the ‘‘ Flora?” Its delayed production would seem to have been in some measure due to the course of events in the Pre-Victorian Era. If this Section would resolutely close with some of these ques- tions, by calling for reports to be drawn up with the express object of preparing the way for discussion, I venture to express the opinion that it would not only add to the interest of our biennial gatherings, but also make for progress in some very desirable directions. Could this section signalise the advent of a new century in any more efficacious way than by an organised and co-operative endeavour to ascertain how we stand in rela- tion to faunistic matters generally, with the special object of obtaining a fresh set of bearings for future guidance! In conclusion, I must admit that so far I have merely touched upon the fringe of the subject of my discourse. Having arrived at this stage, I propose to abandon any further attempt to deal with it directly per medium of the Pre-Victorian collectors, col- lections, and zoologists. The zoological collecting was so dif- ferent in character from, and so much less satisfactory than the botanical collecting ; and the history of many of the types and collections is so obscure, and in many cases their dispersal so extraordinary, that it becomes a hopelessly bewildering task to try to follow the example of Sir Joseph Hooker and Mr. Bentham at any length. Happily there is another avenue of approach to the subject. Thanks in some measure to the good example set by Captain Cook and Sir Joseph Banks, we are the fortunate possessors of a splendid series of Narratives, Journals, Reports or other publica- tions written by early explorers, officials, visiting naturalists or other travellers, and colonists. These are a store-house of facts re- lating to observational zoology accumulated by observant men 104 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION D. who, though not always professed zoologists, saw with interest the land fauna in the earlier stages of its now disturbed and depleted condition. At present this information is spread over a considerable number of volumes, some of which have become rare. I venture to think it would be a useful and helpful accomplishment if the scattered records thus preserved for us were summarised and brought together in a connected and con- venient form with an up-to-date identification of the animals noticed so far as this is possible. It was a résumé of the observational zoology of the Pre- Gouldian Era carried out on these lines which I had in view when I undertook to deliver an address on the rise and early progress of faunistic knowledge. This, however, is too lengthy a production for a single address, and for the space available in the forthcoming Report of this year’s meeting. It seems desirable, too, that it should be kept intact. In the hope of publishing it in its entirety elsewhere I have found it necessary, therefore, to content myself with offering merely an amplified Introduction on the present occasion. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS—SECTION E. AN ARTIFIGIALLY WATERED STOCK-ROUTE THROUGH CENTRAL AUSTRALIA. By W. BH. TIE TEINS, &.E.G.S. > Tus subject opens out many possibilities, and is worthy of consideration. The particular route that Mr. Carnegie would have suggested is, of course, unknown to us, but suppose that no direct line has been adopted, we may, perhaps, infer that he would have proposed to cross the central desert tract in a locality where it is at its least extent in an east and west direc- tion. This probably would be in about lat. 25 deg. 40 min. 5. Adopting this parallel of latitude, and travelling westerly from the overland telegraph line, the natural features and more favourable conditions for travel offered by the Mann, Tomkin- son and Cavenagh Ranges would be taken advantage of, such waters that are known to exist in these ranges would be utilised for the work of experimental bores for well-sinking at points to be decided upon, the construction of reservoirs and enlarging any existing natural water where the supply is doubtful or inadequate. These ranges extend in an east and west direction for +00 miles. No difficulty was experienced at the time of my visit. Grass and water were found in abundance, proving that the country is at times visited by heavy rains, which leave the gullies and creeks running for weeks, and the larger reservoirs full for months afterwards. Alexander Springs, situated about 100 miles west of the War- burton Ranges, would appear to be an important. position when considered in connection with such an undertaking, and one where the present supply should be greatly enlarged, for it ap- pears to be on the threshold of a waterless tract that extends to the westward for perhaps 200 miles, which distance would require six watering places to be established, and presents greater difficulties than would be met with in any other part of the work, but small native wells and reservoirs hitherto un- discovered may be found which would render valuable aid, and 106 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION E. with parties working west from Alexander Spring, and east- wards from either Weld Springs or some other known point farther south, this distance will be accomplished, and the water- shed of the Murchison River be attained from this point. I imagine no serious difficulty would be anticipated (I may here mention this journey was accomplished by Sir John Forrest in 1875 with horses only). Such works as are now under con- sideration have been carried out in Egypt and in Abyssinia upon quite as large a scale, and with even smaller prospects of ultimate advantage, and in making use of any slender natural water supplies we have but to remember the w ater conserva- tion works that have been effected in Soudan and Algeria mainly from such slender sources. Quite apart from its value as a route for stock, it is perhaps worthy of consideration from a strategic point of view, for when we consider the pos- sibility of future European complications, and Australia being ‘dentified therein, we have a vast extent of unprotected coast line, and a safely watered route for troops through the interior might secure many advantages. Again, such a provision of permanent or reliable waters would form a valuable base from which prospectors could radiate in their search for the mineral wealth of the interior. With mineral developments the present railway system of West Australia would be gradually extended, and eventually meet that of South Australia, which already extends northwards for 600 miles. An alternative route presents itself that would, perhaps, be more advantageous to the North Queensland stockowners. By leaving the overland telegraph line in about south latitude 24 deg. 18 min., and taking up a westerly course, the waters and well-grassed lands at the foot of the Krichauff and Gills Ranges: would be secured, but to avoid the arid and, so far as we know, waterless country that prevails to the west of Gills Range, and north and west of Lake Amadeus, a south-westezly course would have to be taken towards Ayers Rock and Mount Olga, thence: westerly along the Petermann and Rawlinson Ranges. The country along the slopes of these ranges is poor in com- parison to that found at the foot of the Musgrave and Mann Ranges. The distance from their western extremity to the Weld Spring is, perhaps, 350 miles, and is described as an ex- panse of spinifex sand hills and gravelly undulations, and so far as we know it is waterless, and may be considered almost im- practicable for stock, but by travelling southerly from any part of the Rawlinson the distance to the Cavenagh "Range could be accomplished without much difficulty ; but even these desert sandhills are not without their valuable treasures of water. Unfortunately they are difficult to find, and the traveller in doubt and anxiety as to where the next supply may be found, PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION E. 107 often may pass by the lifegiving element. This is forcibly exemplified in the journey of the Hon. David Carnegie, who would often have been at fault but for his native guides, to whom he was indebted for the discovery of Helena and Empress Springs. Speaking of the former he says in his diary :—‘ This small basin, on a surface outcrop of limestone, is surrounded by a little oasis not more that 400 yards wide. Outside this welcome spot, away to the horizon on all sides stretches the desolate sea of sand ridges.” He stayed here several days, and the water was found to rise rapidly after his camels had watered. The Empress Spring in 8. lat. 26 deg. 47 min, E. long. 126 deg. 30 min., has not even the small oasis extent of a few hundred yards. There is absolutely no feature at all by which to find it; the sandhills encompass it upon every side; it is simply a small opening in the surface slab of limestone. Creeping through this opening, and making use of a sapling that is used by the blacks for purposes of egress and ingress, you find yourself in a large cave, 40 ft. to 50 ft. across, quite dark except for the feeble light from the aperture through which you came, and 15 ft. from the surface on the floor of this cave there is a deep well, speaking from memory, about 15 ft deep. It is not quite perpendicular; and at the bottom of this hole the water -was found. It was quite dark, but by working with candles, and keeping a small fire alight on the floor of the cave, a bucket was passed from man to man under ground, and lifted to the surface with a rope, and given to the camels by the man on top. On the floor of the cave the usual debris of a blacks’ camp were found. The fire lighted there is probably for the purpose of assisting the one who was going down the shaft, but to ap- pease a sharp appetite small game would no doubt be thrown on the fire for immediate consumption. Here there is a known very valuable permanent water, surrounded by sandhills on every side; not a tree or a mark cf any kind by which to find it. Carnegie certainly did put up two mulga poles, upon which the initials of the party were cut, but the blacks will most likely remove or destroy these. Very careful observations for latitude were taken to fix the position of this desert treasure, the mean taken of many observations, but Carnegie almost despairs of its ever being found without a guide, for with one sandhill intervening it would be passed by. The native name of the place was obtained from the black, but as a rule not much reliance can be placed on their statements. My own recollection of the circumstances under which Vic- toria Spring was found, you can imagine, are very vivid. After a march of 300 miles without finding any water, one begins to doubt whether there is any left anywhere. We found no water 108 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION E. for about 300 miles! But with the experience of Carnegie, who can say what waters we may have passed in that distance, and almost within reach, very many of them of scanty volume, and all of them difficult to find, but gradually they will be made known, and each discovery made will assist and pave the way for further search. Artesian water would possibly be obtained by adopting a route further northward, but we are confronted in this latitude by such a vast extent of spinifex sandhills that would appear impracticable for stock, no matter what the water supply might be. In conclusion, I may say that if these suggestions for an artificially watered stock-route be worthy of consideration the question of cost need not for a moment be entertained. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.—SECTION fF. (Ethnology and Anthropology.) MAGIC AMONGST THE NATIVES OF CENTRAL AUSTRALIA. By F. J. GILLEN. +r Macic may be defined generally as the attempt to produce results by aid of some occult or superhuman agency. Unless one has come into contact with savages it is difficult to realise the extent to which the whole of their life is influenced by, and, indeed, bound up with, magic of various kinds. From the moment of his birth until the day upon which, perhaps, the spear of an enemy puts an end to his existence his thoughts are more or less occupied with magic in one form or another. If he suffers from the effects of an overabundance of food, it simply means that some evil magic has entered him; if he suffers from drought and hunger, this is due to the strong magic of enemies, who are preventing the rain from falling, and animals and plants from multiplying, and can only be overcome by counter magic. When he has eaten too much, the medicine man must exorcise the evil spirit which causes him pain, and if he cannot get enough to eat, then by magic he must cause rain to fall, and animals and plants to increase. If he desires either to help himself or to injure his enemy he has recourse to magic. In matters of magic a savage never dreams of putting his belief to anything like experimental test. That is a stage of culture to which he has not attained. What he is taught to believe, that he most firmly adopts as his creed; anything which appeared to be the right and proper thing for his father and ancestors to do and to believe is the right and proper thing for him to do and to believe, and, further stiil, it would be rank heresy for him, and would subject him to what he feels most keenly—the opprobrium and ridicule of his fellow men—to show the faintest trace of disbelief in what everyone else believes. Long after a people has passed through barbarism and savagery magic still holds sway ; within the past few years there have been found in certain out-of-the-way parts of Great Britain, hidden in nooks and cranniex where they are not likely to meet 110 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION F. the eye of anyone who should not see them, lumps of clay modelled to roughly represent a heart, and pierced all over with sharp bits of iron. They have been made by superstitious peasants, and their object is by means of sympathetic magic to bring some evil upon the person whom it is desired to harm. Just as the clay heart is pierced by the iron, so it is believed that out of a kind of sympathy with this the real living heart will be similarly afflicted. If we turn to savage peoples we find that in some the magic power is supposed to be possessed, at least, to an almost ex- clusive extent by a special class of individuals, who rank as so- called medicine men, sorcerers, or, perhaps, sometimes as priests ; in other tribes, while there are some individuals whose skill in magic is acknowledged to be above the ordinary, yet there is no such special class of magic men. It is impossible, however, to draw a hard and fast line, for probably in all savage tribes magic is practised to a greater or less extent by every individual, though in some it has been apparently more and more restricted to a definite class, the members of which often profit to a large extent by their superior ability or cunning, and the belief which they are careful to inculcate in the younger people in the efficacy of their methods. In Central Australia, while there is a distinct class of medicine men, the practice of magic is by no means confined to them ; their special ability consists in curing disease, and in finding out who is responsible for the death of any individual. For the purpose of bringing more clearly into view the large part played by magic in the life of a Central Australian native we will briefly follow one through his career. Amongst the Arunta and other tribes which inhabit the open scrubland and mountain ranges of Central Australia every child is supposed to be the reincarnation of some ancestral individual who lived in the far-away dream times, to which the name of the Alcheringa is given. Sooner or later the individual died, or, rather, as the natives say, his body went into the ground, while his spirit remained there dwelling in some special rock or tree which arose to mark the spot. From this, which is called the Nanja, there issued a second spirit, the double of the first. What we may speak of as the original spirits are called Iruntarinia; their doubles are the Arumburinga. The former inhabit certain spots where the old Alcheringa people went into the ground, and each one of them carries about with him or her a sacred magic stick or stone called a Churinga. The Churinga is one of the class of objects which may never be seen by women or uninitiated men. When undergoing reincarnation the ‘spirit drops the Churinga, and as soon as ever the child is born the father and one or two men who are close relatives go in search of it, and if they do not find it, then one is made out of a tree PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION F. 111 close to the Nanja. Very often they actually find the original one, in which case we may presume that some one lke the child’s paternal grandfather, who always forms one of the search party, has thoughtfully provided himself with one. It is difficult for us to understand the ease with which a native can delude himself into beheving what is an evident fraud, at least, it is so to us, but it has to be remembered that the aborigine lives in the midst of mystery, and has to provide some, to him, satis- factory explanation of the processes of Nature. If another man believes the myths which all are taught then he must. He accordingly believes that the spirit has dropped the Churinga, or, at least, that it has one with which it is specially associated. Now the Churinga are all kept, that is, those of the local group are, in one special store house, the locality of which is known to the old men, and so it is not difficult for any old man to go to the store, and extract a special Churinga for the purpose. The spirits are constantly visiting the spot, indeed, when once a spirit has undergone reincarnation his Churinga lies in the store house, and there is no difficulty in a man taking one out, perhaps, under the impression that he has been told in a dream that the child is the reincarnation of some special ancestor who has been living in company with the Churinga at the store house. He firmly believes that in the case of other children the Churinga are really found, and so, not to be behind the others, he has to resort to what we should call a fraud. However, the result is that every man and woman in the tribe is represented by a Churinga in the sacred store house of the local group to which he or she belongs. The latter has usually the form of a cleft in some wild, rocky range, the exact position of which is only known to the initiated men; no woman dare go near to the sacred spot under penalty of death. | The old men have no difficulty in determining after consulta- tion exactly which of their far-away ancestors it is who has come to life again, and then, though never uttered in. public, the child bears as its secret or Churinga name that of the ancestor. The women never know their secret names, and the men only after they have been initiated, and have shown by their demeanour that they are capable of being made acquainted with the sacred matters of the tribe. No sooner is the child born than, unknown to itself, it becomes the object of magic arts; the navel string is dried, swathed in fur, and tied round the child’s neck. The necklace not only facilitates growth, keeps it quiet and contented, but it also has the admirable. faculty of deadening to the child the noise made by the camp dogs. To keep sickness away from the child a black line is painted over the eyebrow. The natives believe that children who are born with their eyes open will have special power when they arrive at maturity HY PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION F. of communing with the spirits, that is, if they are sedate, for the spirits dislike scoffers, frivolous people, and men who are, as the natives say, like women, “irkun oknirra,” or much given to chattering. No sooner does a boy begin to go about in the bush in search of food than he finds himself very considerably restricted as to what he may and may not eat. Through fear of evil magic there are many foods otherwise tempting which he must carefully avoid. Should he eat kangaroo tail or wild turkey, or its eggs, then he will become prematurely old ; parrot or cockatoo flesh will cause the growth of a hollow on the top of his head, and of a hole under his chin; large quail and its eggs cause the beard and whiskers not to grow; any part of the eaglehawk other than the sinewy legs will produce leanness,. though the strong legs are admirable, as they improve the growth of the same limb; in fact, to strengthen the limb, boys are often hit on the calf by the leg bone of an eaglehawk, streneth passing from the one into the other. Should the podargus, or night jar, be eaten, then the boy’s mouth will ac- quire a wide gape. It is evident from this, which is by no means a complete list, that there is at once a desire by means of sympathetic magic to strengthen the boy, and more still, a desire to take advantage of the strong influence of magic so as to reserve the best things for the older men. As the youth grows up, and begins to mingle with the men, associating with them in their hunts, he hears vaguely of other forms of magic which are as yet kept secret from him ; he knows that there are sacred objects powerful in magic which he may not look upon, and that there are certain men who know much more about the hidden matters than others do, and are corres- pondingly respected by their fellow tribesmen, and looks forward to the time when he shall be initiated, and allowed to take his place amongst the other men, and learn something of the secrets, a knowledge of which is all the more attractive to him because it is so zealously guarded by the older men. Up till the time of his initiation he has been taught that the strange noise which he every now and then hears when the men are engaged in the performance of sacred magic rites, from which he has been carefully excluded, is the voice of a great spirit, Twanyirika. When he is initiated he learns that the noise is made by the twirling round of the bullroarers, and with much solemnity a few of them are handed to him for safe keep- ing, with the stern injunction that on no account must they be lost, or shown to women and children. They are so full of magic that should a woman or child see one she would die. After initiation he takes his place amongst the men, and when the head man of his group thinks he is worthy of the honour he is taken to the sacred store house, and there shown the Churinga, learns what they signify, and is told his secret name. PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS —SECTION F. ig He is painted with a special design, which remains upon his body until in course of time it wears off, and after this it depends upon himself as to how deeply he becomes learned in all magic arts. Every day he hears more or less talk of the magic pointing-sticks and bones, by means of which men and women may be mysteriously done to death, and as he finds that everyone else believes in their efficacy, naturally he does so himself. These pointing sticks are called by various names, the common forms, known as Irna or Injilla, being merely rounded pieces of wood or bone, one end of which is pointed, while the other is tipped with a small lump of porcupine-grass resin. The Takula is in general form similar to the Ina, but, instead of being rounded, is flattened from side to side. When the man wishes to use one of these he retires with it to a secluded spot in the bush, and, crouching down, mutters some such incantation over it as the following:—‘‘May your heart be rent asunder, may your backbone be split open, may your ribs be torn asunder, and your head and throat be split open.” This is supposed to endow it with evil magic. The stick is then left for three or four days in the secret spot, and then breught near to the camp; finally, choosing his time, he steals out into the darkness beyond the area which is lighted by the camp fire, and turning his back upon his victim, jerks the stick in the direction of the latter, repeating each time the curses. This over, he conceals the instrument, and within a short time the man begins to sicken, and will surely die unless saved by the skill of a medicine man. The spirits are supposed to use a special form of pointing stick, which is hooked at one end, and is called an Ullinka. This is projected into the body of the victim, and every now and then the spirit gives a malicious tug at the hair string which is attached to the hook, so as to increase the victim’s pain. The natives cannot understand illness save as the result of evil magic which has been projected into the body by some enemy, and the effects of which can only be remedied by counter magic. The evil magic is usually supposed to be resident in some specific object planted in the man’s body, and therefore before he can be cured this must be extracted by a medicine man, most often in the form of a piece of stick or stone. The native applies the term Arungquiltha both to the evil influence and to the object in which for the time being it may be resident, and whilst some men are more powerful in evil magic than others, there is no special class to which the practice is confined ; any man may practise the art, but, on the other hand, it is only the medicine men who are able to counteract the evil influence. In some cases the pointing sticks made by men of particular localities are more complicated, and, as in the following, two men may be associated in their use. The Chimpila is a double H 114 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION F. stick, the blunt ends being fixed into a mass of resin, to which a hair string is attached, and the whole implement is coated with grease and charcoal, the latter being in many places especially associated with magic. The two men stand facing one another ; one holds the end of the string, while the second grasps the resinous half in both hands, and, stooping down, points and jerks the implement between his legs in the direction of the man whom it is desired to harm, muttering curses all the time. In another form there are a number of small pointing sticks attached to a strand of fur string, at the opposite end of which are one or two eaglehawk claws. After the usual pointing, jerking, and muttering of curses have been gone through, the man pinches up in front of him a little ridge of earth, perhaps, an inch or two high; if this were not done, the victim would probably dream of the place at which the operator’s mother camped in the Alcherina, and would then know at once who his enemy was. The eaglehawk claws are supposed to grip the internal organs of the victim, and to cause great pain. In some cases medicine men are supposed to assume the form of eagle- hawks, and during night time to travel long distances visiting strange camps, where they cause much trouble by digging their claws into men. It requires a distinguished medicine man to extract one of these claws, but it can be done. To produce particular diseases the natives have special forms of magic. For example, long ago in the Alcheringa there lived a man named Uneutnika, afflicted, ike Job, with boils, but when he could bear them no longer he plucked them out, and threw them from him, each one turning into a stone, in evidence of which the stones may be seen at the present day by anyone who visits a sacred spot called Undiara. They are called “ aperta tukira,” that is, the “stone boils.” If a man desires to afflict anyone with boils he makes some small toy spears, and throws them at these stones, which part with some of their virtue to the spears, the latter in consequence becoming, as it were, charged with evil magic. The spears are then thrown one by one in the direction of the man whom it is desired to injure. If a man wishes someone to become emaciated all that he has to do is to go and rub a particular stone, which arose to mark the spot at which in the Alcheringa an emaciated emu died, the stone in consequence being full of that form of Arungquiltha which pro- duces emaciation. There are numberless ways in which a man may use evil magic, but while he does so he must remember that it is a game at which two can play, and, further still, if he have at all the reputation of being too fond of magic, he is quite sure sooner or later to be indicated by a medicine man as causing the death of some individual. Every death is the result of evil magic, PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION F. 115 and it is the duty of a medicine man to see that the crime is sheeted home to some culprit, and, though it may be after the lapse of a considerable time, yet the guilty man is always found, and is lucky if he escapes with his life. A potent implement of magic used by the men, all of whom carry one about, is a form of knout, called Ililika, the sight of which is quite enough to recall an obstinate and intractable wife to a sense of what is fit and proper and to a state of sub- mission; the stroke of one of these is firmly believed by the women to be followed by very serious results, just as the men believe that the wound, however slight, of a charmed spear is sure, unless counteracted by very strong magic, to prove fatal. The Central Australian native, like those of other parts of the world, has a wonderful power of imagination, and though under ordinary circumstances he will recover from wounds such as would at once prove fatal to a European, yet if he once gets the idea firmly fixed in his mind that the very slightest wound has been made by a charmed spear, and that he must die, then he simply hes down, and does die. Forms of magic such as we have been hitherto dealing with are closely allied to those met with amongst savages generally, but in Central Australia there is a curious absence of a par- ticular form which is elsewhere, even in other parts of Australia, very prevalent. This relates to the use of small cuttings of hairs and nails, or even anything specially associated with an individual, as the means of working harm to him. The hair, for example, will be burned while incantations are muttered over it, the idea being that by a form of sympathetic magic the evil which is done to the hair may happen to the body, of which it once formed a part. Now the Central Australian native is quite innocent of this ; in fact, he not only has no fear of anyone getting hold of his hair, but it is his duty at certain times to cut it off for the purpose of presenting it to certain individuals. Every native wears, often as his sole article of clothing, a girdle of human hair, which once adorned the head of his mother- in-law. So far is hair from being associated with evil magic that, on the contrary, no one would dream of attempting to hurt an individual whose hair is a valuable perquisite to him. In Central Australia hair is only associated with what we may call helpful magic. When a man dies his hair is cut off, and made up into a girdle, called “kirra-urkna,” which means “orave flesh.” This, which descends to a son, is one of the most sacred possessions of a native, and when worn during a fight endows the possessor with all the warlike attributes of the dead warrior, and ensures to him accuracy of aim, and _ at the Same time destroys that of his adversary. How sacred it is may be judged from the fact that as yet only one has passed H 2 116 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION F. into the possession of white men. Even a lock of hair taken from a dead man and placed in the centre of a necklet is one of the most valuable and powerful charms which a man can secure. No part of a man, nor anything worn by him, appears to be ever used for purposes of evil magic amongst the Central Australian natives. At the same time we see clearly the idea, which is universally held amongst savages, that what we may call the essence or special virtue of a man is resident in any part of his body, such as a lock of hair, or even in the girdles and head bands which he has worn. We may now pass on to consider other forms of magic. In his childhood the native has heard plenty about the dreaded “ Kurdaitcha,’ the bogey man, who walks silently about the bush with his feet clothed in emu feather shoes so that he leaves no ordinary track, but when once the youth has been initiated he may possibly see a real Kurdaitcha, or, if he care to submit to a painful operation, may even act the part of one himself. A Kurdaitcha is a man who goes out either on his own initiative to avenge some private injury, or is sent out by the older men to kill someone who has offended against tribal custom. His hair is done up into a peculiar form of headdress, his body and face are grotesquely decorated with charcoal and lines of white down, and on his feet he wears shoes which are simply pads of emu feathers, the uppers being made of net twisted out of human hair string. It is not, however, everyone who may act the part of a Kurdaitcha; to qualify himself the native must first of all submit to an operation, which consists in the dislocation of a big toe. A stone is heated, and the ball of the toe placed upon it until, as the natives say, the joint is sufficiently soft; when this is so, a friend gives it a sudden wrench to the side, dislocating it, and causing it ever afterwards to stand out at a decided angle to the foot. To accommodate the toe there is a small hole left in the net work of the shoe. In some secret spot unseen by women and children, and even by other men, the shoes are bound on to the feet by human hair string, while the man chants over and over again the simple refrain—“ Intérlinia turla atipa, Interlinia atipa,” which means “ Interlinia (the native name of the shoe) to me stick fast, Inter- linia stick fast.” He may or may not be accompanied by a medicine man; if he be, the latter also wears the shoes; both of them steal stealthily towards the victim, carrying in their mouths the sacred Churinga, which prevents them from being seen, and ensures accuracy of aim. As soon as the victim has been speared, and is insensible, the medicine man, who has meanwhile kept in the background, comes forward, and heals him by magic power, closing the wound. In some cases a little lizard is carried, which is supposed to have the power of sucking up the blood; in others, when no medicine man is present, the PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION F. LZ Kurdaitcha puts a small pointing stick under the tongue which has the power of rendering the man oblivious of all that has happened. Before the victim comes to his senses the Kurdaitcha is far away, and when the former recovers he simply imagines that he has been asleep, and returns to camp quite ignorant of his serious condition. Before long, however, he sickens and dies unless there be some able medicine man at hand who can detect the fact that the mysterious sickness is caused by a Kurdaitcha. It is quite possible that the whole of the Kurdaitcha business is a myth, that is, so far as the actual use of the shoes for the purpose stated is concerned. There is no myth about the dislocation of the toe, and it is quite in keeping with the savage mind that there should be men who are willing to submit to what must be a painful ordeal simply to gain the kudos which attaches to anyone who can, to the satisfaction of his fellow- men, prove himself to be a wearer of the feather shoes. No- thing could be much more unsuitable for travelling over the rough eround of Central Australia than the latter; they could not even conceal the direction in which the wearer has walked, for a downturned blade of grass or an upturned stone is quite enough to reveal this to the native eye. Most of the shoes, again, are far too small to be used for the purpose, and as a matter of fact, are actually used for carrying about small sacred objects. The native has to be able to account for everything, and amongst the many myths which he has created to account for sickness and death this is probably one, and it is one which has become magnified and elaborated in course of time. There is no doubt that one native believes that another does really “go Kur- daitcha,” and not to be outdone he will submit to having his toe dislocated. So strong also is his power of imagination that, in course of time, he may even come to believe about himself what the other men believe. In all lkelihood it is a case of each man believing the other to be guilty, while in reality both of them are equally innocent. Very rarely a woman will go out to kill some one who has broken a tribal custom. This happens unknown to anyone save the woman and her husband, who decorates her body with bird’s down, and charms, by singing over it, a stick with which the woman is supposed to strike her enemy, the stick always enter- ing by the back of the neck, and breaking up into small pieces, which are very difficult to extract from the body. When the woman goes away she fixes one of her digging sticks upright in the ground, and ties on to it a bunch of the tail tips of the rabbit bandicoot, which she is accustomed to wear as an orna- ment; should she be seen and killed, then the tuft tumbles down ; the husband, who does not stir out of his camp while she is away, knows what has happened, burns his camp, leaving un- touched, however, the stick and tuft, and goes off to a distance. 118 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION F. Here, again, the magic relation between the individual and something worn by her is clearly seen. If the native feels drawn towards matters of magic, he may realise that he has a call to the medical profession. In that event his long silent and solitary broodings, and frequent fits of absentmindedness will prepare the members of the camp to hear some morning that he has disappeared, and cannot be found. What has happened is that probably with considerable trepidation he has gone alone to the mouth of a cave inhabited by the spirits. He must not venture inside, or he would be spirited away, and never return again, but lies down close to the entrance. At break of day one of the spirits comes to the ‘mouth of the cave, and throws at him a spear, which passes in at the back of the neck and out at the tongue, making a perma- nent hole in the latter, which actually remains throughout life as the outward and visible sign that the man is in reality a qualified medical practitioner. A second spear pierces his head from ear to ear, and then the spirit carries the insensible body into the cave, and far away underground, to where he lives, amidst perpetual sunshine and running water. Here the spirit removes all the internal organs, and provides the man with a new set. When this delicate operation has been successfully performed the man comes to life again, but is scarcely for some time in possession of his full senses; however, he gradually recovers, and then the spirit takes him out of the cave into the open, and guides him unseen to his people, unless it be, per- haps, to some special individual who has the rare gift of seeing and communing with the spirits. For a few days the man is more or less strange in his behaviour, sitting silently by him- self, evidently brooding over something, but one morning it is noticed that he has painted across the bridge of his nose a broad band of charcoal, and then it is at once recognised that a new medicine man has arisen amongst them. However, it will be quite a year before he will practise his profession, and if during this time the hole in his tongue should close up, then he will regard this as an indication that he is not qualified. Meanwhile, however, he mingles especially with the members of the craft, learning their secrets, such as they are, practising sleight of hand tricks, and not least in importance accustoming himself to looking preternaturally solemn, as if he knew, and were constantly dealing with things hidden from the knowledge of ordinary men. The most important thing which the spirits do is, however, to place in his body a number of small stones called Atnongara, to the possession of which he really owes his - magic power. It is by means of these that he is able to combat the evil magic which an enemy has planted in the body of his patient. These stones he can, unseen by any ordinary being, project into the patient’s body. In certain respects the PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION F. 119 aborigine is a homeceopath; something endowed with magic power has entered, he says, the body of tis man, and is causing all the trouble. The only way to treat it is to send some more magic into the body, and accordingly he does so in the form of a number of his Atnongara stones. The actions of a good medical man are fetcn very dramatic; in fact, dramatic capacity is as needful to a successful practitioner amongst the natives as a good “ bedside manner” is to a town practitioner. The result in both cases is identical, the patient is inspired with confidence, and Nature does the rest. This association of magic powers with the possession of stones, in which the power is supposed to be resident, is met with in other parts of Australia, as, for example, amongst the Kurnai, who once inhabited Eastern Gippsland, and amongst whom in their natural condition Mr. Howitt says that it was a universal practise to carry about a “rounded, generally black pebble,” to which the name of “ bulk” was given, and that it was sup- posed to be of general magic power. In some cases the new medicine man is initiated by another practitioner, in which case he has to submit to having his body scored in a painful way by the magic stones, which the older man produces from his body for the purpose. He has to eat and drink food and water, into which small stones are actually introduced, and to submit to having his tongue cut with a sharp flake, and to having also a hole made in the end of one of his first fingers, into which a small stone is introduced. All this is, of course, carried out in some secret spot, and when the painful operations are all over the man returns to camp, and maintains strict silence until the wound in his tongue is healed. When, however, the native has learnt about the use of pointing sticks and other articles of magic, and has been initiated into the mysteries associated with the sacred Churinga, he has yet to witness and take part in what is, perhaps, the most important of the many ceremonies connected with magic. Every native, as we have already said, is regarded as the reincarnation of an individual who lived in the Alcheringa. Now each of the latter is supposed to be the transformation of some animal or plant, or of some material object, and the name of this the individual bears as his totemic name. That is, some men in the Alcheringa were kangaroo men, others were snake men, others eaglehawk men. The natural consequence is that the man who is the re- incarnation of a kangaroo man is himself a kangaroo man, and so on. Every member of the tribe has some material object with which he is supposed to be especially associated, and which is spoken of as his totem. In one locality it is customary to find a considerable number of men who belong to one par- ticular totem, owing to the fact that in the Alcheri nga the men of one totem were closely associated with one another, and 120 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION F. when they died then their spirits in the same way remained in company, occupying certain more or less definite localities. Now, both amongst these ancestral men of the Alcheringa and amongst their living descendants it is very clearly recognised that there is a close relationship existing between the man and the totem, and that by means of the performance of certain magic ceremonies the men can secure the increase of the totem— a matter of very great importance when the fact is remembered that it is these very totemic animals and plants which serve as food and drink. To these ceremonies the name of Intichiuma is given, and they may be regarded as the central magical or sacred ceremonies of the tribes in which they occur. In the dntichiuma ceremony having reference to any particular totem only the initiated men of that totem may take part. One example will suffice to illustrate the nature of the ceremony. In the southern part of the James Range, a few miles to the north of the Finke River, there is a aglow cave, which from time immemorial has been associated with the Kangaroo totem, and here at certain seasons determined upon by the old man, who is regarded as the head of the kangaroo men, the latter assemble to perform the ceremony. First of all the leader and another man climb a little way up the face of the steep hill by the side of the cave, and there each of them rubs with his hands one of two projecting rocks, one of which represents a male and the other afemale kangaroo. Then they descend and seat them- selves along with the other older men in front of the cave, at the — back of which there runs a ledge of rock. The younger men climb on to the latter, the face of which is decorated wah alter- nate stripes of red and white, the former representing the fur, and the latter the bones of the kangaroo. At a signal from the leader the young men all open veins in their arms, ‘and allow the blood to flow down in streams over the face of the ledge. Tradition says that in the Alcheringa the body of a great kan- garoo, which had been killed by kangaroo men who wished to eat it, was carried in to this spot, and that the rocky ledge sprang up to mark the spot, the spirit part of the animal remaining in the rock, and, further, it is said that at a later time a large number of other kangaroos came here and went into the earth, their spirit parts also going into the rock, which is thus, as it were, charged with spirit kangaroos, which can be born again just as spirit men and women are. The object of the letting of blood is to drive these spirit kangaroos out, and so to increase the supply of the animal which gives its name to the totem. It is a most remarkable fact that the members of every totem have a similar magic ceremony, so that it practically comes to this— the members of the totem are charged with the duty of ensuring by magic means the supply of the totemic animal or plant. That kangaroo men should be charged with the duty of looking PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION F. POT after the supply of kangaroos is just what appears to be the natural thing to the savage mind, but at the same time we have to note the fact that, while he can cause, by his magic, kan- garoos to increase, he is the very man who does not benefit by the act. On the other hand, while our native is a kangaroo man, and so is debarred from eating the animal because it is his totem, and as in many tribes a man must only very sparingly eat the latter, he, in his turn, profits by the magic ceremony of, say, a witchetty grub man, who causes the grub to increase, and provides a food supply for the kangaroo man, just as he has done for the grub man. Right through the tribes, which occupy a very large area in the centre of the continent, we find first, that at the present day, a man eats only sparingly of his totem, and secondly, that he is charged with performing magic ceremonies for the increase of the animal or plant. It is just possible that things have not always been thus, and that there was a time when this restriction did not hold good. Even at the present time there is a ceremony performed, which seems to indicate very clearly the fact that the members of any totem are regarded by the other people as having the first right to the totem. If we take the kangaroo totem again, what happens is this. After the Intichiuma ceremony has been performed, the men— those who belong to the totem and those who do not—go out in search of kangaroo; when one is found it is killed and brought in to the old men of the totem, who eat a little, and then anoint with fat the bodies of those who took part in the cere- mony. This is repeated on a second day, and after that, then, but not until then, the men who do not belong to the totem may eat it freely, while the men of the totem will scarcely touch it. In the case of all totems we have ceremonies the equivalent of this one, which can only be interpreted, along with other facts, as indicating that theoretically the members of the totem have, and are acknowledged to have, the first right to the animal or plant, the name of which they bear as their totemic name. In connection with the totems there are one or two matters, concerned with magic, which are of some interest. Suppose our native to belong, say, to the Euro totem; now, he must not himself go out hunting euros, but at the same time he has no objection to helping a friend to do this, provided, of course, that the friend does not belong to the totem. For his purpose he charms, by singing over it, one of the sacred Churinga, and gives it to the friend. He himself being a euro man, has special influence with the animal, and this Churinga will in some magic way help the man who carries it to come close up to the animal without disturbing it. In some cases we find that the Churinga representing certain animals are supposed to be endowed with special magic power. If our native is desirous when a young man of promoting the 122 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION F, growth of his beard, then he persuades an older man, who be- longs to a rat totem, to rub his chin with a Churinga, which represents the rat. The sacred object is painted with long lines of black and red, which indicate the long whiskers of the animal, and the rubbing results in some whisker-growing virtue passing from the Churinga into the chin. Again, if a native be suffer- ing from the complaint of “ bunged “eyes,” brought on by the bites of flies, which are a never-ending pest in Central Australia, then it is a very common thing for the eyes to be rubbed with a Churinga belonging to a fly totem. In addition to all the forms of magic already dealt with, the native is certain to come into contact with, and to avail himself of, magic in connection with the obtaining of his wife or wives, or in punishing some one who has run away with one of them. The methods of charming a wife are simple. In the first place a man accompanied by a few friends will steal away out of camp, and in some secluded spot the night will be spent in singing refrains, the burden of which is an invitation to the woman to come from some distant group. At daybreak the man will get up and swing round a little wooden Churinga, or bull-roarer. The sound is carried away to the distant woman, and it is said that sooner or later she is sure to comply with the summons. Or, again, when the woman is near at hand, it is customary to charm an ornament of some kind, such as a fore- head band or one of the pearlshells worn by the men. In the case of the latter an incantation is sung over it, inviting the lightning to come and dwell in it, then the man wears it at the corroboree ground, and the woman whom he wishes to attract alone sees the lightning flashing from it. Needless to say, these methods of obtaining wives, though recognised as lawful, always provided that the man and woman belong respectively to groups which may intermarry, are not in- frequently the cause of considerable trouble. That they are not more frequently practised is due to the fact that if the woman be caught, the chances are that if not put to death by her former husband, she will receive, and the man also, some very rough treatment. However, if the two get away to a place of safety it is still possible to deal with them by means of magic; and this is especially used when the man belongs to a group “which is too powerful to make it worth while having an open fight. To punish a man a small toy flake knife is made, and attached by resin to a little spear; then the former husband, accompanied by a friend, goes out into the bush and attaches the spear to a spear thrower, which is painted, and left in the sun for a few days, the men going every day and singing to it the words, “Go straight and kill him ; go straight.” Finally one man kneels down, huddling himself together, while the other, standing be- tween his legs, throws the magic object as far as he can in the PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION F. 135 direction in which the culprit lives; then he huddles down between the legs of the front man, both of them having their heads on the ground, and in this uncomfortable position they remain probably for some hours in perfect silence, until they hear some one saying, “ Where is he?” Then they get up and go to camp, and sooner or later hear a noise like a crash of thunder, and know that the spear has gone straight to the man, and killed him. To punish the woman a rough diagram is drawn on the ground, which is supposed to represent her body, and by the side of this a piece of bark is placed, which again represents her spirit. All the time the men who are present keep singing exhortations to the evil magic, with which their singing is endowing the bark to go straight and eat up all the woman’s fat. Then all of them stick minature spears into the bark, which is finally thrown in the direction in which the woman has gone. Nothing further happens for, perhaps, some time, until one night they see a shooting star, and know that that is the woman’s spirit, and that she is dead. If she should turn up at a later period the explanation is a very simple one— there was some counter magic stronger than theirs, and what they saw was the spirit of some other woman. Though this by no means exhausts the various forms of magic, in the midst of which our native spends his life, and of which his thoughts are naturally full, still it will serve to give some idea of what a large part magic plays in the life of a savage. In different localities the nature of the magic naturally varies, but everywhere and at all times the savage is to a large extent occupied in endeavouring in some way to produce the results which he desires to bring about by means of the employment of superhuman agency. It never occurs to him to test his belief by means of experiment, or. to find out whether there is any such relationship as that of cause and effect between the means which he adopts and the results which follow. It is quite suffi- cient for him that his fathers have told him that if he performs a certain act a certain effect will follow, and if it does not then, he is quite content with the explanation that he failed because the magic of some one else was stronger than his own. Just as his entrance into the world was associated with magic, so is his exit. Some one must have injured him by evil magic, and the last act connected with the life of the Central Australian native is the attempt to find out by magic the name of the man whose magic is killing him. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.—SECTION G. (Economic Science and Agriculture. ) THAT IN OUR PRACTICE OF AGRICULTURE THE DETERMINING INFLUENCE OF CLIMATIC CON- DITIONS IS NOT SUFFICIENTLY RECOGNISED. By PROFESSOR W. LOWROE, M.A., B.Sc. +o>r- = THe text gives extensive scope, but it is not proposed to dis- cuss the full range of it, for the sufficient reason that the ex perience of one man must necessarily be inadequate. I will con- fine attention to those extensive areas distributed over the southern half of the continent, which are spoken of popularly as the wheat-growing areas, where the rainfall is limited, and where the summer is prolonged, and severely dry. These con- ditions prevail over the greater part of the arable land of South Australia, and over considerable tracts in Victoria, New South Wales, and West Australia, and there we know that, in accord- ance with the maxim that climate is one of the determining fac- tors of agricultural practice, rural effort is directed more par- ticularly to the growth of cereals, the breeding of sheep, and the production of wine. I know no reason which would lead one to suggest the widening of this general practice. On the con- trary, I believe that development on these lines is likely to react to the general advantage of the community. Of course, local exigencies of market and other conditions will justify varied modifications, but such as I have indicated is the general trend, and it is well. It is to some of the operations in the course of cereal growing more especially that I wish to draw attention. Over the tracts of country that I have indicated the low rainfall—l1 in. to 22 in., falling chiefly in the winter months—is a limiting factor very pronounced. It must be kept prominently in view in directing in detail the course of cultural operations. The early colonists practised lifting the land in autumn, and sowing thereon, but that practice has been almost generally abandoned in favour of fallow in the preceding winter and summer, and PRESIDENT S ADDRESS—SECTION G. I byte: that for several reasons, of which some are even now not suffi- ciently appreciated. Such advantages as the conservation of soil moisture, facility for clearing the land, possibility of early seeding, and general improvement of the land, are patent enough, and the great majority of farmers fully appreciate them. But we are justified in believing to the limit that analogy can be stretched that there are influences brought into fuller play by the practice which are of potent utility in the amelioration of the soil—the biological or bacteriological activities. The old theory that soil nitrates were produced from organic matter, or, rather, ammonia, as the result of direct chemical action, was long ago found insufficient. Schloesing and Muntz, first in 1877, Warrington, Winogradsky, and others later by experiment and pure culture have demonstrated that the disintegration of organic matter in soils is the work of organised ferments, pro- ducing in sequent process ammonia, nitrites and nitrates. They have shown that the action of these ferments is favoured by conditions of warmth, humidity, zeration, and darkness. All this is history, but the application of the knowledge does not yet obtain, and it is this I wish to encourage. The importance of nitrates from the point of view of farming no one questions. From the point of view of wheat-growing a supply of nitrates in the soil is indispensable. But nitrogenous manures are ex- pensive, and accordingly it becomes desirable to govern the processes of cultivation as far as practicable in favour of the accumulation in the soil of what, for the want of a more apt designation, may be termed natural nitrates. Of the favouring conditions just mentioned it will be allowed we have of warmth a sufficiency. The activity of the ferments increases as the temperature of the soil rises from 41 deg. F. to 99 deg. F., then » decreases until 131 deg. F. is reached, when it ceases. Thus prac- tically all the year through if moisture be present, nitrification may be proceeding in well cultivated erated soils. Unfor- tunately, while the temperature reaches high enough for best results, or even too high, our soils are liable to become deficient in moisture, and in this relation I would urge that an awakening is necessary. Deherain found that nitrification could be induced in soils containing 5 per cent. of water, and that 15 per cent. of water, with a moist atmosphere, was sufficient to allow of activity. While we cannot hope to maintain a sufficient humidity throughout the year in our fallows (those of us at least who work in the drier districts), we nevertheless find it desirable to endeavour after this condition. It is at least practicable to have our fallows lifted earlier in the rainy season to secure wration while there is moisture abundant, and to lead to the increase of the percolation of water into the soil, so that by judicious surface cultivation the presence of moisture may be prolonged well into the summer, or even throughout the year. 126 PRESIDEN'T’S ADDRESS—SECTION G. Such experience as I have acquired, such experiments as I have conducted, and such observations of farming practice as I have been able to make in South Australia, have in each and every case gone to confirm the conclusion that it is a grave mistake in these drier areas to delay fallowing until late winter or early spring. From the harvest just completed I have had a repetition of the common object lesson. A few acres in a field were cultivated in the beginning of May, 1898, in July and August the field was ploughed in the ordinary course of fallowing, and in the harvest of 1899 the part so worked in May showed a distinct gain of upwards of 4 bushels per acre. Objections are frequently advanced to lifting the land early, of which these are the most prominent:—That the growth of weeds consequent to this early ploughing is difficult to destroy in the spring; that it is desirable to spell teams for a while after the heavy work of seed time; that the feed offered by the adventitious herbage on the land for at least two months is sacrificed ; that there is danger that the land be leached; and that in undulating country the winter rains wash out awkward gutters. But all these objections together amount to nothing serious. Sheep will graze the rank vegetation to a degree that it can be scarified; I say scarified, as ploughing back in the spring is not often to be recommended, and draught horses can be fed to withstand the work. Every sixpence in the value of the feed sacrificed will be met by upwards of a bushel of wheat in the increased return. The danger from leaching even on soils with a porous subsoil is very slight in the absence of under drainage, and in presence of the extreme surface evaporation that prevails during the long severe summer, when the soluble substances, carried into deeper layers by the per- colating water, are returned to the surface layers through capillary action. The evil of winter “ wash-outs” can be lessened by ploughing in the direction of least declivity, and altogether the gain in grain will more than sufficiently contra all these objections and minor inconveniences unless in very exceptional instances. Some farmers in South Australia carry the practice so far as to set the ploughs going in summer, and before seed- time, on land to be fallowed the following winter, when the physical texture of the soil makes it practicable, or when summer or early autumn rains admit of the land being ploughed, and I have not met one individual who has practised it who is not fully satisfied of its utility or financial advantage. Of course, this practice must be adopted with judgment, for it is possible to have low-lying lands waterlogged in some years for a considerable time, and a certain amount of denitrification, and consequent loss of nitrates will ensue. On the other hand, if ploughing be delayed until the dry season is at hand, or has set in, the full possible reserve of mois- PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION G. 127 ture will not be secured; the ploughing will turn up a fresh moist surface for evaporation ; the land will be sufficiently open to allow of its drying to the bottom of the plough furrow ; difficulty occurs in securing a tilth of a mellow character, for the land will work into dust, and also there is some danger that a sufficient state of consolidation in the soil, to provide a desirable seed bed in the autumn for wheat, will not be ob- tained; and lastly, but by no means of least importance, the provision of conditions the most favourable to the action of the soil ferments wii! be missed, and much of their valuable ameliorating influence lost for the year. The fact that our climate offers facility for the securing of conditions favourable to rapid nitrification has to be considered from another point of view—that of manuring. My predecessor, Prof. Custance, seventeen or eighteen years ago published re- ports of experiments, with the deduction from the results that phosphatic manures were specially advantageous, and the results of experiments which I have carried out at Roseworthy confirm the inference. I will instance some results which have just been harvested :— I. 5 2 cwts. Lawes’ Superphosphate, 36 to 38%... 18 53 12 (2 cwts. Lawes’ Superphosphate, 36 to 38 ee 19 4 * (+ 2ewt. sulphate of ammonia ... 23 1 ewt. Lawes’ Superphosphate ... HY a8 14 48 14 Nomanure ... . ¥. ; ate Usd 6 2 5 2 ewts. Ohlendorff’s eae . guano... bk 19 55 A, 24 2ewts. basic slag... he a as 15 3 7 te ewts. basic slag “2 | + 1 ewt. nitrate of soda a a 2 ewts. basic slag “2 7 + 1 ewt. muriate of potash — 2 ewts. basic slag 24 ) + lewt. nitrate of soda { + 1 ecwt. muriate of potash ae 24 Nomanure ... tes ee ee ha ea 6 14 Saas See eo — w oa wo) The field in which these blocks were laid out was purchased for the College farm two years ago, and had been severely cropped for many years with wheat after fallow, but had re- ceived during that time no manure. It therefore showed to advantage the effects of manures. I should also mention that the season was exceptionally adverse. The total rainfall for the year was 14.8 in., but of that amount 4.7 in. fell up to the 128 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION G. end of April, so that only 10.1 in. fell from the time the wheat was sown until it was harvested. The reserve from preceding years also could not be much, as in 1897 the total was 12.1 in., and in 1898 it was 17.7 in. In spite of the fact that the rain- fall was small—2.2 in. below the average—the increase of grain from a dressing of 2 cwts. of mineral superphosphate per acre was 12 bushels 32 lbs. per acre, and from 2 cwts. of basic slag it was 8 bushels 46 Ibs. per acre. When # cwt. of sulphate of ammonia was added to the 2 cwt. of superphosphate, the increased yield over that of the superphosphate alone was only 11 Ibs. per acre, and 1 ewt. of nitrate of soda added to the 2 cwts. of basic slag gave an increase, compared with basic slag alone, of 25 lbs. per acre. The inference from these results is necessarily that nitrogeneous manures are not profitable, are, in fact, not required. The results of nitrification in the soil was sufficient to furnish nitrates to the light crops, which, owing to the deficiency of phosphates, and low average rainfall, and his practice of fallowing, the farmer had been in the habit of harvesting. A condition of things somewhat similar to this prevails over a large proportion of the drier wheat-growing areas. Had the yield been submitted for some years to vigorous farming, and heavy crops, as the result of phosphatic manuring, removed in each two years, with occasionally a summer crop on the fallow, the effect of nitrogenous manures would have been more marked. In 1888 I had some test plots in a field that had been cropped thus for eight years, and the result of # cwt. of sulphate of ammonia, added to 2 cwts. of superphosphate, was that the yield for the mixture of manures was 22 bushels 39 Ibs. per acre, while the yield from superphosphate alone was 19 bushels 42 Ibs. But this is an exceptional case. When the practice of cropping is one crop in three years, and that after fallow ploughed for the first time early in the rainy season, I believe it will be found that there is relatively very little re- sponse in the crops to dressings of nitrogenous manures. In the absence of underdrainage of our lands, or of serious leaching in any form, the natural nitrates will suftice, or well-nigh sutfiice, to furnish the necessary nitrogen to the crop. It is for phosphates that the demand in a large proportion of our Australian soils is strong. Considered in relation to the climate, the application of phosphates to the soils deficient in it is particularly to be recommended. Phosphatic manuring in this climate has really a triple, or even fourfold, significance. Phosphoric acid is an element of plant food; it encourages vigorous action of the soil ferments; it promotes tillering and hastens maturity ; and, lastly, and by no means of least impor- tance, in view of our climate, it enables the plant to build up its tissues, and develop ‘he grain with a less transpiration of water, and therefore is a means of enabling the plant better to with- PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION G. 129 stand conditions of drought. This phase of the utility of phos- phatic manures had puzzled me for many years. In my work I have had to advocate the extension of the use of phosphatic manures in South Australia for a number of years as the most profitable development of our farming possible for the time. Farmers from experience of the use of farmyard manure were sceptical in the extreme of its utility; the climate, they argued, forbids it; we have not rain enough they said. All the while I was conscious of the fact of experience that wheat treated with soluble phosphates gave a better account of itself in a drought than wheat which was sown on unmanured land, but otherwise under similar conditions. In 1897, for example—a year, I believe, of nearly record dryness, if not the very record minimum—I reaped 22 bushels of wheat on a block of land treated with 2 cwt. per acre of superphosphate after a rainfall of 12 in. for the year. There was no succumbing to the hot wind days of early summer, as would have been the case if fairly strong dressings of nitrogenous manures had been used, whether organic or mineral; the wheat stood up well, and filled well, and the grain was equal as a sample to that from un- manured land. It was difficult to explain from ordinary notions of the amounts of water transpired or evaporated from the leaves how the plant found moisture enough for the quantity of organic material to be elaborated. But the work of Lawes, at Rotham- sted, and of Marie Davy would have thrown light on the problem had one known of it. Lawes concluded from the researches at Rothamsted that the employment of mineral manures dimi- nished the transpiration of water required f r the elaboration of a unit of dry matter. Marie Davy, also carrying out investiga- tions on wheat, showed definitely enough that mineral manures enabled the plant to do with less water. In unmanured soil he found from exact measurement that an evaporation of 1324 parts of water was required for the production of one part of grain, but that when he added to the soil for each 2 litres 1 gramme of acid phosphate, of lime, saltpetre, common salt and gypsum, there was consumed only 887 parts of water for one pert of grain elaborated. This result, you will agree with me, is pregnant with importance in relation to wheat-growing in our climate. It is equivalent to s.ying that wheat dressed with mineral manures uses one-third less water for the elaboration of the same quantity of grain than it would require when grown on hungry or semi-exhausted land. It is a statement that must make any man engaged in active field work in this climate sit back and think. As Wendell Holmes would have said: “ It is one of those hot thoughts which now and again come crashing into the brain, and plough up the deep ruts that have been formed by the waggon trains of common ideas.” Our soils over extensive areas in Australia, I think I am justified in saying, I 130 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION G. contain a low percentage of phosphoric acid, and our lands that have been submitted through a long period of years are, my experience leads me to believe, extremely deficient in that indispensable ingredient. Accordingly, as phosphatic dressings repl nish this deficiency, and as they enable the plant to succeed with less moisture if-applied in soluble form, the inference can he drawn a priorv that they must have special utility in our practice. And that, I take it, experiment and practice proves to the full. Our soils contain abundance of potash and lime, speaking generally; nitrates are formed by our . practice of fallowing ; and, accordingly, we tind, in spite of the orthodoxy based on European traditions and experience, that phosphatic manures can be used for a number of years with the very best results. ; Again, the climate nee ies that. in ihe selection of varieties of wheat we should favour spring rather than winter wheats—early rather than late—for late wheats in our relatively short growing season are liable to suffer.from heat strokes in the early summer. One hot wind day. may work most serious mischief on such if they do not practically succumb to it. But early wheats, generally speaking, are among the less prolific. There are exceptions, but these are few, and as this subject is to be discussed in one of the papers to be read before this sec- tion, I will not encroach on it further than to say that in our climate it is a most important gain, though one that. is very fre- quently neglected, to sow at the very earhest opportunity. There may be danger from occasional spring frosts, but on the average it is a disti..ct gain to increase the length of time that the crop is growing at ‘the autumn end. The “plant enters on the winter period of its life with a more vigorous root system, and benefits from this right through to “seedtime. In this relation also does phosphatic manuring aid the farmer in over- coming climatic difficulties. In some seasons rains come very late, and seeding, on lighter lands at least, has to be postponed, for the working of light lands dry is too. frequently hurtful. But the use of even a light dressing of superphosphate has a very marked effect in favouring the arly development of the plant, both above and below the | ‘ground, giving it vigour, which is well sustained through the winter, and tells a joyful tale at harvest. The period of ripening is also, without doubt, hastened, and there is no question that this is a great advantage, for the risk of heat stroke is lessened, and ome danger rust is diminished. I will put this in another way. The climate com- pels us to grow earlier varieties of wheat, but in these the root system is less developed than in winter wheat proper. I refer those who may doubt this general statement to the researches of Garola. With a relatively feeble apparatus of assimilation to draw nutritive material from the soil it is the more necessary PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION G. V3} to provide for these wheats a full supply of available substances for nutrition, and accordingly to add a fair dressing of soluble phosphates. I cannot find that the extremely light dressings here and there used are as profitable as a medium dressing of, say, 1} cwts. to 2 cwts. per acre. In the experiments I have mentioned, the gain from the use of the second hundredweight of superphosphate was 4 bushels 7 lbs. per acre, 2.e., by an expenditure of 4s. 6d. per acre the value returned was 10s. 84d., the gain proportionally, compared with unmanured land, was less for 2 cwts. than for 1 cwt.; in fact, the second hundredweight gave an increase of just half that obtained from the first, but surely 10s. 8d. for 4s. 6d. is good business. I would humbly advance the opinion then that it pays us to deal out phosphates in excess considerably of what the plant is likely to use in the immediate crop, for the climate warrants it. The phosphates are not lost, but as we are exposed to long periods of drought more or less frequently, it is well to have excess present that in favourable weather the plant may absorb excess of the im- mediate requirements, and so draw on this in the periods of scarcity, which dry spells undoubtedly bring about. There is considerable debate in the country on the relative merits of thick or thin seeding. The climate, I think, does not favour extreme views either way, but fairly thick seeding, which means about 1 bushel per acre, is, at least on Mallee land in South Australia, where I am _ working, to be prefereed. The plant does not lose time in tiller- ing, ripens earlier, and gives a heavier yield per acre, although the sample is not always so good as when the crop has been sown thinly. In 1898, a year in which the rainfall approached 17 in., the average at Roseworthy, 80 lbs. of King’s wheat per acre returned 24 bushels 31 lbs., while 40 lbs. per acre yielded 21 bushels 58 lbs.—nearly 3 bushels less. Of course, it is to be noted that this wheat tillers but feebly, but, speaking generally, this is a characteristic of most of our early wheats. Thus I think I have demonstrated that our climatic conditions require us to look more carefully to our practice in relation to nitrification ; to follow what, from a European point of view, is a very heterodox practice—the use of phosphatic manures with but little supplement ; to select the earlier class of wheats, which in other conditions may yield relatively lightly, and in the selection of them to favour those less liable to rust; and to sow fairly thickly. . Depth of Seeding.—I have in these remarks confined attention to wheat. But there is one other matter to which I would like very briefly to refer—the question of natural pasture on the class of country with which I have been dealing. The climate forbids 12 ot 132 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION G. the seeding down of such with artificial grasses, but when the old lands have been ploughed up, and the natural grasses de- stroyed, it requires many years to recover them. The recom- mendation then at once suggests itself to save a field for old grass, and if this be done, and stock removed from it in the early summer to allow the grasses to seed, it will be found that a very fair bottom can by degrees be secured, and a useful field will be available for grazing in late summer, autumn, and winter. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.—SECTION H. (Engineering and Architecture. ) . THE GEORGE STREET TRAMWAY, By HENRY DEANE, M.A., M. Inst. C.E., F.L.S., &c. (o—-o—__—__—_— I uucu regret to have to announce that Mr. Sulman, who, as you are aware, had accepted the office of president of this section, has suffered an injury to his head, which necessitates complete rest, and precludes him from undertaking the duties attached to this chair. This unfortunate accident has prevented him from ‘preparing the address which he had contemplated on the Federal City of Australia, and which, being one of the topics of the day, many of us were looking forward to with much interest. ‘As I was thus called upon at so late an hour, as it were, to preside over this Section, I felt that one could not leave out the Presidential Address, without incurring for myself and Sec- tion H some degree of reproach, although I had stipulated on acceptance of the chair that I should not be expected to deliver one. I therefore looked about for some subject with which my mind was pretty well saturated, and which consequently required little preparation, and this I found in one that has been in New South Wales productive of more abuse and ill-feeling on account of alleged inexcusable delay in its completion than any other for some years past; I mean the George and Harris-street tramway. This work, which has been favoured with super- abundant criticism of all sorts, ignorant and ill-natured, has recently been opened for traffic, and now that the latter is suc- cessfully running, and the receipts flowing in beyond all ex- pectation, nothing but words of praise are heard. A few remarks on the history of Sydney tramways will not be out of place. In most cities where tramways have been introduced horse traction is first resorted to, and the conversion to some mechanical system takes place at a later period. In Sydney this preparatory stage may be said to have been absent. It is true that more than twenty years ago the Government laid down a horse tramway in Pitt-street, but it was voted ‘a nuisance, and 134 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS-—-SECTION H. after some time was taken up. Pitt-street has a width of 60 ft. only; in those days there were places where it was much narrower. The tramway was laid as a single line. The street surface was macadam, and was badly kept, and the rails, owing to the wear of the roadway, projected above the surface, so that the complaints of the shopkeepers that it hindered traffic generally, and prevented carriages from drawing up at their doors, were probably well founded. The Sydney Tramway and Omnibus Company, as the name implies, was formed for the purpose of constructing and work- ing tramways, as well as of running omnibuses, but failed, after repeated attempts, to get Parliamentary power to lay down tramways. Probably the company’s want of success may be largely attributed to the disrepute in which the Pitt-street tram- way had been held, and perhaps it did not strike the legislators of the day that the public convenience and rights could have been safeguarded if proper conditions of a stringent character were imposed. The result has been, however, that the company had to confine its operations to the running of omnibuses. _In 1879, the exhibition year, the Government laid down a tram- way along Elizabeth-street, from the Redfern terminus to Hunter- street, on which the cars were provisionally drawn by horses. It was recognised, however, that horses were not suitable to drag heavy cars up the steep grade between Belmore Park and Liverpool-street—1 in 183—and steam motors were provided. This was the commencement of the present steam tramway system in Sydney. The tramway was later on extended to Bridge-street, and numerous extensions and branches, which are shown on the map, have since been carried out. The mileage for the city and suburbs, including North Sydney, now totals 52 miles 27 c., and the capital cost, according to the last report of the Railway Commissioners, is £1,361,768. In 1889 two cable tramway proposals were brought forward —the George and Harris-street tramway, and the King and Ocean-street tramway. These were referred to the Parliamen- tary Standing Committee on Public Works, which in 1891 completed its inquiries, and reported in favour of the King and Ocean-street, and against the George and Harris-street proposal. During the deliberations a large number of witnesses, expert and otherwise, were examined, and reports prepared by Sir John Fowler and Mr. W. Thow, Chief Mechanical Engineer to the Railway Commissioners, were put in. When examined by the Committee I strongly urged that the lines should be worked electrically, instead of by cable. I pointed out that, seeing that there were already 3000 miles con- structed and working, electrical traction in America was not, as had been’ stated, still in the experimental stage. I also recommended that the steep grades on King-street, William- PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION H. (135 street, and Bayswater-road should be reduced to 1 in 12, to make it easier for electric traction, an alteration which could at that time easily have been carried out. The Committee, however, decided in favour of the cable, being, I think, wrongly led to their conclusion by the fact that it had been decided to put down a cable line, and not an electric line, in the Broadway, New York. The real reason for the selection in the latter case was that the New York authorities would allow no overhead wires, and the cable system was the only alternative at that time. The Broadway line has recently been converted to an electric conduit system. As before mentioned, the George-street line did not at that time meet with approval. A new proposal to construct a tram- way along George and Harris streets was brought forward in 1896, and the Parliamentary Committee, after careful con- sideration, resolved to recommend it. In September, 1896, an Act was passed authorising the construction. The line was designed to be worked with an overhead conductor, the cars being provided with trolly arm and wheel, for taking cur- rent. The estimate first submitted was £123,500, but this sum was added to later on so as to provide for an extension at the Circular Quay, and some additional lines near Redfern Station, and the total became £130,000. The scheme approved by Parliament included the provision of power for the tramway itself, estimated at £11,250. The plant proposed to be provided consisted of electric generators of a total of about 900 h.p., driven from the existing engines at the Rushcutter’s Bay cable power house by means of counter shafting, and two boilers were to be added, the whole being housed in the existing buildings at the same place. The current would be conveyed by underground feeders, and these and the return feeders were estimated to cost £7800. The traffic was to be worked by means of forty moior cars, estimated by Mr. Elwell to cost £500 each, or a total of £20,000, but to this sum I added before submitting to Parliament a further amount of £3200 for contingencies, making a total of £23,200 for rolling stock. Before any steps were taken to carry the work out a proposal to provide power for the whole tramway system of Sydney and North Shore, buildings to house the same, as well as a large car shed, came under the consideration of the Railway Commis- sioners and the Minister for Works. In January, 1897, it was decided to call for tenders for four sets of engines and generators of 800 k.w. each, making an aggregate capacity of 3200 k.w., or 4300 h.p. Twelve firms selected from different parts of the world were invited to tender. Several of these firms responded, the prices varying from £37,287 to £58,210. | 136 PRESIDEN’T’S ADDRESS—SECTION H. The tender of H. H. Kingsbury end Co., to supply General — Electric Co.’s generators and EK. P. Ellis Co.’s engines, was looked upon with most favour. A suggestion to adopt the General Electric Co.’s new and improved 850 k.w. machines, in lieu of the proposed 800 k.w., was considered, and it was eventually decided to make the order accordingly. The total power thus supplied would be about 5000 h.p., as against the provision of 900 h.p., originally contemplated. A contract for delivery and erection of these engines and generators was entered into on the 12th July, 1897. Details of certain modifications recommended to be made in connection with the governor gear, and some other details, as well as the information as to dimensions of the larger machines now ordered had to be supplied, and led to some delay in preparation of plans for buildings, &c. These were, however, eventually got ready, and the building and other con- tracts let. The contract time for the completion of the build- ings was the end of 1898, but owing partly to imperfect management, and partly to causes beyond the contractors’ con- trol, the roof and end of the engine house were not finished till June, 1899. As, however, the machinery had already arrived, a commencement of the erection was made before the building was quite closed in. On lst September steam was admitted into No. 1 engine, and a few days afterwards into No. 2. The generators and field coils, however, proved to take longer to dry out than anticipated, and it was not deemed safe to build up the full current at 550 volts,-and the date, therefore, which had been fixed by the Minister for the opening, 18th September, could not be ad- hered to. The armatures themselves, which were stated to have been so badly treated, gave very little trouble; the field series coils, and especially the shunt coils, which are composed of many wind- ings of fine wire, took a long time to dry out. ‘these coils had not been exposed to the weather ; they had been stored in their original waterproof packing cases in the car shed till wanted, and after taking out great care was exercised to keep them dry. I fully expected that 1st October would see everything finished, and the line opened for traffic. The delay by build- ing contractors had been disposed of, and we had nothing but the work of manufacturers of very high repute to ceal with, and surely that would give no trouble. Disappointment, however, came. As beforementioned, the drying out took longer than expected. By 12th October the insulation of Nos. 1, 2, and 3 generators showed satisfactory tests, and an attempt was mde to subject the generators to the specified loads. The bearing: of the crank pins, however, became hot; both crank pins of Nos. 1 and 2, PRESIDEN'’S ADDRESS—SECTION H. ‘Tor and one of No. 3, and some of them seized. This had to be rectified before the loads could be put on again. I do not wish to introduce any contentious matter, but I think it is right to the contractors for the generators to point out that is a most unusual thing to put new engines right on to the maximum load, and I cannot help thinking that if these engines had been put at first to a light load, say, for some weeks, there would have been no trouble. Unfortunately I was laid up at this time with a bad attack of influenza, and could not look into matters personally and advise, but it was reported to me that the crank pins gave no trouble so long as the engines were not worked beyond ‘about 700 h.p., which, if true, is a significant fact. Three engines were available, and any two to- gether would far more than produce the power required to work the George-street tramway. Mr. Libbey, the E. P. Ellis Co.’s representative, engaged in erecting the machinery, altered the crank pin bearings of the two engines from brass stepped ones to white metal. “This did not, however, completely get rid of the evil, and investigation seemed to convince him that the pins were not quite square with the disc, and it became necessary to true them up. They were taken in hand, and by about the middle of November Nos. 1 and 2 machines had been put through their specified tests. These consist of six hours’ running under working load of 1545 amperes at 550 volts, one hour at 25 per cent. overload, a short time at 50 per cent. overload, the circuit breakers then being opened, reducing the current instantaneously to nil. The fly wheel of No. 4 engine was now turned, and that of No. 3 was taken in hand. The Railway Commissioners asking for more lengthened trials, these were taken in hand with Nos. | and 2 engines. When the engines were ready, and current could be led into’ the line, it was found that the feeder junction boxes in the streets were working unsatisfactorily. Of these the following is to be noted :— The system of feeders and feeder boxes was submitted in open tender by Messrs. Noyes Bros., acting for the Callender Cable and Construction Company Limited, and the particular system recommended by them—of Callender-Webber casing, with unarmoured cables, and cast-iron junction boxes—was specially discussed between Mr. J. O. Callender, Mr. Elwell, and myself, and selected by Mr. Elwell as probably the most efficient of any submitted. A contract was afterwards made, the company giving a five years’ monetary guarantee. The original feeder boxes proved unsatisfactory ; they passed the low voltage tests, but not those with the 550 volt current, and they appeared to be leaky. Several attempts were made to ir prove them, but with- out much success, and the hot bitumen used as a seal seemed to 138 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION H. spoil the insulation of the cables. The result has been that I agreed to brick pits being substituted, with drainage to the sewers, and construction of these was carried out by Messrs. Noyes Bros. in the most energetic and satisfactory manner. Shortly after the lst December two sets of engines, feeder cables, and permanent way were found to be in a satisfactory condition, and after a few days’ trial running of the cars the tramway was opened for traffic. No. 3 and No. 4 engines have now also passed the tests. Look- ing back cu the events connected with the construction of these works, I think it’ must be acknowledged that deducting the delay resulting from the building contractor’s operations, and the somewhat unfortunate accidents of hot bearings and in- efficiency of junction boxes, the time taken for designing and carrying out the whole was not excessive, and the department does not deserve the abuse which was hurled at it from every quarter. The abuse arose chiefly from the public not having been in- formed by the Minister of the magnitude of the works going on. It was July, 1897, before a decision as to methods could be arrived at; the building contracts were five and a-half months behind time, and the other delays, say, two months, these being beyond departmental control. It will be seen by a little calcula- tion that the net time occupied was about twenty-two and a-half months. The total expenditure is over £260,000. The traffic on the tramway is a most lucrative one. The ordinary traffic has been from the start very heavy, and instead of forty cars, as provided at first by Mr. Elwell, seventy or eighty cars have been running. The fares are one penny from the Circular Quay to the Redfern Station, 2 miles, and one penny along Harris-street, a distance of about 1 mile. On Christmas Eve the receipts amounted to £358, representing - 83,000 penny fares. PERMANENT WAY. IT will now proceed to shortly describe the work as carried out. The George-street and Harris-street electric tramway com- mences at the eastern side of Circular Quay, and following the curvature of the Quay, passes the wharves of the various ferry companies, thence by way of Queen’s Wharf to George-street, and along that street to its junction with the existing tramway opposite the Benevolent Asylum, running parallel with the exist- ing steam lines to a point opposite to Terminus-street. Follow- ing the existing steam lines for a few chains, it branches off at Harris-street, along which the line runs until John-street is reached, where it terminates. A branch is run into the Redfern Railway Station, and after passing in front of the arrival platform, curves round into Devonshire-street, on the existing Botany tramway, to opposite PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION H. 139 the Benevolent Asylum, where the cars are enabled to pass on to their proper track in George-street. The distance from Circular Quay to John-street is 3 miles 20 chains, and is double track all the way ; the length of track, including cross-over roads and junctions, is about 7 miles. The rails used on this tramway are of the grooved girder type, 83 lbs. per yard, 30 ft. in length, and of specially hard steel. They are laid on concrete 10 in. deep, and kept to gauge with wrought-iron tie rods. All joints rest on bed plates, and are provided with fishplates with 6 bolts and Pullen’s patent rail joint boxes, and are close bolted. On opening up the streets it was found that certain lengths of the concrete bed were sound and strong enough for the tram- way; in these places it was, therefore, made use of. For the greater part of the length, however, including the whole of Harris- street, and from Queen’s Wharf to Bathurst-street, the concrete was too thinly laid in the first instance to afford the required support. Double crossings are laid down at intervals so as to provide the means of shortening the traffic in case of any block occur- ring. The Edison-Brown plastic bond has been used on this tramway. Particular attention has been paid to the bonding, as this tramway will act as the trunk line for the whole of the western suburbs, and consequently there will be a heavy return cur- rent. As a supplementary return a copper cable having a sec- tional area of .49 sq. in. is laid between each track from Circular (Juay to Redfern. Each cable is connected to alternate rails on either side, so that every car will be connected direct to the cable. These cables are laid against their respective tracks, and cross connected every 60 yards, the connection between the cable and inner rail being made with a special gun metal clip bolt. At the intersection of Liverpool and George streets nine cables are taken direct underneath the Callender-Webber casing, carry- ing the return current to the power house at Ultimo, a distance of 900 yards. There are also from Engine-street two cables, and from Harris-street along William Henry-street four cables, which carry the return current. The sectional area of trolly wire used is 167,803 circular mills (equal to No. OOO B. & S.) hard drawn copper of figure 8 section. The clips and ears are of Billings and Spencer’s make. The section insulators at the cross-over roads are of local manu- facture. The overhead conductor is carried for the most part by poles and double brackets erected along the centre of the track. The centre, span, and anchor poles are of Mannesmann manufacture, being solid drawn in three lengths of different diameter. The wrought and cast iron work has been made locally. ‘140 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION H. Feeder cables are provided and laid in Callender-Webber casing, the route being taken from the power house along Wil- liam Henry-stre-t, and thence vid Harbour and Liverpool streets to George-street. The feeding points are situated as follows :— Intersection of Liverpool-street and George-street, at 1 mile 34 chains, intersection of Hunter-street and George-street, inter- section of Bridge-street and George-street, intersection of Pitt- street and George-street. In order to provide for the safe working of the traffic on the whole of the lines converging opposite the Redfern Railway Station, a complete signal box has been erected, for which the whole of the points on to the existing steam and the George-street trams are controlled. There is also a subsidiary box opposite the Cyclorama to control the traffic in and out of Harris-street, and also from the Botany-road siding to the existing steam tramway. A complete telephone service has been erected throughout the George-street tramway. Telephone communication with the power and car house is situated at convenient places along the route of the tramway. The power and car houses are situated at Ultimo, on the ground which was originally part of the Harris Estate, being that portion between William Henry and Mary Ann streets, adjoining the Darling Harbour railway lines. The total area of the land resumed is 44 acres. The portion allotted to car house -ccommodation amounts to 1 acre 3 roods 26 perches, and to the power house 2 acres 1 rood 13 perches. The site for the power house has a frontage to William Henry-street of 188 ft., and the car house to Mary Ann-street of 142 ft. The power house covers an area of 189 ft. by 147 ft., of which 101 ft. by 147 ft. is occupied by the power house and offices, 88 ft. by 147 ft. by the boiler house, pump chamber, &c. There is ground space for very extensive additions to the engine and boiler houses. In the basement of the offices quarters are provided for fore- men, line repairers, greasers, together with ample sanitary accommodation, including bathrooms ; there is also a storeroom 75 ft. by 13 ft. On the first floor, fronting William Henry-street, the main offices for engineers and other officers engaged in connection with the power plant are situated. They consist of five large and lofty rooms opening on to a corridor, which is approached by steps from William Henry-street. Across the corridor is a lavatory and bathroom, and other sanitary accommodation, adjoining which is the testing room and chemical laboratory, 32 ft. by 13 ft., next to which are two small storerooms for electrical supplies. PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION H. 141 The second floor is devoted to the accumulators. A goods elevator is provided for the purpose of carrying material, acids, &c., from the street level. Over the accumulator room comes the roof, which is flat, and so constructed that it can be used as a floor when further accommodation is required, and the building added to in height. The engine-room basement covers an area of 100 ft. by 98 ft., the main ‘part of which is taken up by the foundations of the engines; the space between the engine foundations is occupied by the condensers and air pumps, steam pipes, &e. From the basement to William Henry-street Bridge a brick | tunnel 114 ft. long has been constructed to carry the cables to and from the switchboard. The engine room is 105 ft. long by 100 ft. wide, under one roof, supported by centre columns. Across each bay is mounted a travelling crane of the 3-motor type, each capable of lifting 30 tons. At the northern end is the switchboard gallery, the level of which is 14 ft. above the engine room floor. The length is 90 ft., and the width 20 ft. Under this gallery a cable room 8 ft. wide has been provided, from which the leads to the switchboard above are distributed. Every provision has been made for the prevention of fire, an efficient service having been laid down in accordance with the regulations of the Fire Brigades Board. It might be pointed out that the power house and offices are practically fireproof, the main hall being built of brick in cement, the party walls, floors, and cable rooms being of terra-cotta lumber supported on rolled joists. The boiler house, which is 105 ft. long and &6 ft. wide, ad- joins the engine room on the eastern side. Adjoining the engine room on the northern side is the pump chamber, which is 47 ft. by &6 ft. The chimney stack is situated in the pump chamber, and is 200 ft. high from grate level, with a 6-ft. minimum internal diameter. It contains an independent fire brick lining, which is carried up to a distance of about 75 ft. There are fourteen horizontal tubular boilers each capable of generating 300 h.p. at 140 Ibs. pressure, which allows for twelve boilers to supply the engines, with two as a standby. Each boiler is of the multitubular return flue type, 16 ft. long and 7 ft. diameter, and provided with twenty-two stay tubes and fifty common tubes each 4 in. in diameter. The boilers are arranged in two batteries of seven, the main flues passing along either side of the boiler house, and converging into the chimney in the pump room. From a tunnel below the flue the blow-off cocks are accessible. 142 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION H. Each boiler is set in fire brick, and the entire weight of each boiler is carried by four suspending bolts, prone ss being made to allow of expansion in ev ery direction. The fronts are of cast iron, resting on brickwork at the bottom, and tied sae to setting by stay bolts; each battery is completely tied in by stay bolts and buck stays. The furnaces are equipped with the “ Alves’ Patent Fuel Economisers,” which is a method of heating the air supplied to the furnaces, and feeding it to the back i the grate under the bridge. Each ash pit is closed to the atmosphere, the bottom being in the shape of a hopper (wrought iron), into which the dalle fall, and are removed through a door at the bottom. Under the ash pits, and below the level of B. house floor, is a tunnel having a continuous cast-iron floor, with a track cast in it similar to that in the boiler house; this allows of a small car being placed under the hoppers when removing the ashes. The floor space between the fronts of the boilers is covered with cast-iron plates, in which is cast a complete system of tracks for handling charging cars, the tracks extending out under the coal pocket, with scales arranged for weighing the coal on the car. The cast-iron floor and cars were supplied by the R. W. Hunt Co. . At the end of boiler house, and outside the building, is erected a coal pocket, over which a siding from the main track runs, and the coal dumped immediately into the pocket. From the pocket it can be discharged by gravity into the charging cars, taken into the boiler house, and shovelled from, the ear into the furnace. The ashes are collected in a tip car running under the ash pits, and tipped into a pit at end of the tunnel, and from there lifted by a conveyor, worked by an electric motor, to a hopper erected over the coal pocket; they can then be dumped into one of the empty coal cars, and taken away. The main steam piping is of steel, and is so arranged with its valves as to allow of any of the fourteen boilers being on any one of the engines, and reducing the likelihood of having to shut down the whole station, due to any accident to’ either engines or boilers, to a minimuin. There are two complete systems of feed mains, one for hot water from hot well, the other for cold water from tank con- nected with city mains. They are of 6-in. diameter piping throughout, and make complete loops in the boiler house, being placed in pits under the floor, running close to boiler fronts, and crossing over at each end of boiler house. The feed pumps are situated on the western side of the pump room. Two triplex plunger pumps are provided, each capable PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—-SECTION H. 143. of delivering 135 gallons per minute, against the steam pressure of 140 Ibs. - per square inch. Each feed pump is geared to a 25 h.p. electric motor, running at 600 revolutions per minute, the speed of pump shaft being 45 revolutions per minute. There is also provided one steam feed pump as a “standby” in case of a shut down of the electric plant. All pumps are con- nected to the hot and cold water supply. To work the-condensers three electrically- driven centrifugal circulating pumps are provided, each capable of delivering 2000 British gallons per minute against a head of 36 ft., the maxi- mum suction lift being 13 ft. Under working conditions at full load two pumps will be run in parallel, the third being a “ stand- by.” . Each centrifugal pump is directly connected to a 50 hp. motor, running at 5 25 revolutions per minute. The supply of condensing water is obtained from Darling Harbour through a conduit 1000 ft. in length, and 3 ft. 3 in. in diameter, terminating in a sump 12 ft. diameter, situated outside the boiler house. The diameter of the’ sump is such that the ascending velocity of the water does not exceed .05 ft. per second, and matter held in suspension will therefore settle. The hot well is situated close by the feed pumps, and the water is discharged from the pumps through a “ Reeves’” filter before it reaches the feed water headers in the boiler room. Four units are provided, each unit consisting of one multi- - polar direct current compound wound generator, capable of generating 850 kilo-watts at 550 volts, when run at 100 revolu- tions per ‘minute. The armatures are mounted on the main shaft of the engines adjacent to the flywheel, and betwen the high and low pressure cylinders. The engines are Allis Corliss horizontal cross com- pound condensing type, with cylinders 26 in. and 48 in. diameter, by 48-in. stroke, indicating 1250 h. p. at full load, with steam pressure of 130 lbs. per square in. The engines are made in pairs, right and left handed, so that two engines will exhaust into one condenser. The piping is so arranged, however, that either engine can exhaust into either of the two condensers provided. The condensers are of the Wheeler surface type, with “ Blake” direct acting air pumps. The steam supply for the air pumps can be obtained either direct from the main steam ring or through the steam jacket of the receiver. The object of the latter being to maintain a constant supply of superheating steam circulating through the receiver jacket, the air pumps being so designed as to be capable of working at the lower pressure due to portion of the heat being extracted while passing through the receiver jacket. Each engine is provided with two governors, one being belt- driven to regulate the speed within 2 per cent., and the other 144 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION H. driven by eccentrics off the main shaft, to automatically shut off steam in case the engine should exceed its normal speed by five revolutions. Each engine is provided with a by-pass from low pressure exhaust, to enable the engines to exhaust into oimosnee in case of a breakdown of the condensers. An elaborate system of oiling arrangements has been prevaaed the whole of the oil draining into a common reservoir, and from thence to a filter, after which it is elevated to an oil tank by air pressure, and from thence it will gravitate to the oil cups on engines. The switchboard consists of four generator panels, one sum- mation panel, two accumulator panels, one lighting panel, and ten feeder panels. Each panel is provided with circuit breaker, switches, ammeters, and watt-meters, the watt-meters on generator and summation panels being of the static type. The equalising switches for paralleling the generators are mounted on pedestals close to the generators. Independent switchboards are provided for controlling the lighting circuits in offices, engine room, and car barn. Two batteries of accumulators, each of 300 cells, are provided for the lighting circuits; one battery has a capacity of 380 square hours, and the other a capacity of 140 ampere hours. In designing and carrying out the above work, I had the benefit of the advice and assistance of Mr. P. B. Elwell, M. Inst. C.E., now unfortunately deceased, and I have much pleasure in testifying to the able co-operation of my principal assistant for tramways, Mr. G. Fischer, M. Inst. C.E., under whose super- vision the whole of the designs were prepared, and the work carried out. Cars were provided by the Railway Commissioners direct, and without my intervention, they being advised as to selec- tion of design and details by the late Mr. P. B. Elwell, M. Inst. C.E. The following is a brief account of their design and con- struction :— There are four types of cars used, three of which are either provided with motors and controllers, or they are used as trail cars only. Four-wheeled Closed Type.—Leneth over headstocks, 25 ft. ; length over saloon body, 18 ft.; width, 6 ft. 8} in.; weight, including two motors’ equipments, 7 tons 19 ecwt. 2 qrs.; seating capacity, 26 passengers; or with motor and trailer, 52 passengers. The seats are longitudinally placed, and there are sliding doors at each end. Four-wheeled Combination Type.—Length over headstocks, 28 ft.; length over bulkhead pillars, 23 ft.; length of saloon body, 10 ft. 2 in.; width, 6 ft. 84 in.; weight, including two PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION H. 145 motors’ equipments, 8 tons 3 cwt. 2 qrs.; seating capacity, 34 passengers ; or with motor and trailer, 68 passengers. There is a central saloon and open compartments, with bulkhead at each end. The saloon seats are longitudinal. The outside seats are transverse and reversible. Sliding doors are provided at each end of the saloon. Bogie Combination Type—Length over headstocks, 37 ft. 6 in.; length over bulkhead pillars, 30 ft. 84 in.; length saloon body, 12 ft. 14 in.; width, 7 ft. 14 in.; weight, including two motors’ equipments, 10 tons 10 cwt.; seating capacity, 48 passengers ; or with motor and trailer, 96 passengers. The car is arranged with a centre saloon and open compartments, with bulkhead at each end. The seats are placed longitudinally, and the outside seats are reversible. Sliding doors are provided at each end of the saloon and in the bulkhead. The bogies are constructed on the maximum traction principle. The motor equipment of the above cars consist of two GE 1000 motors, a controller at each end, as well as a circuit- breaker and a fuse. All cars are fitted with the standard air brake, and the lighting is effected with 100 V incandescent lamps, in series. A head light, consisting of 200 volt 32 candle power lamp, is provided. St. Louis Type.—Length over all, 37 ft. 4 in.; length over bulkhead pillars, 28 ft. 7 in; length over saloon body, 11 ft. 5 in.; width, 7 ft. 2? in.; weight, including two motors’ equip- ments, 11 tons 10 cwt. 2 qrs.; seating capacity, 46 passengers ; or of the coupled cars, 92 passengers. Each car is arranged with an end saloon, having longitudinal seats. The seats in the rest of the car are transverse and reversible. Sliding doors are provided at each end of the saloon. The bogies are constructed on the maximum traction principle. These cars are run in pairs. The motor equipment for each car consists of two GE 1000 motors and one controller at the outside end, and the electrical connections are arranged so that all four motors are worked from the one controller. The lght- ing and brake fittings are similar to those of the other cars. Kach car is fitted with a trolly, but only the forward one is used at a time. Although the GE 1000 motor is the one adopted as a standard, there are included in the car equipment twenty No. 49 35 h.p. Westinghouse motors. The above particulars of the cars have been kindly furnished to me by Mr. O. W. Brain, Acting-Electrical Engineer. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.—SECTION I. (Sanitary Science and Hygiene). MEDICAL SCIENCE AND DISEASE PREVENTION, By JAMES JAMIESON, M.D. > Durine the last few years science in all its branches has made immense strides, and it may be safely said that medicine has not lagged behind. Hygiene, regarded as a department of medicine, has benefited freely by the progress made in the various sciences upon which its principles and practices must be based. No department of human knowledge can establish a claim to the name of a science until its practices are fairly based on something better than empirical observation, or on what is commonly called “rule of thumb.” It is still the case that doubts are thrown on any claim made by medicine to rank among the sciences, and even those who are most justly proud of its astonishing advances have to admit that they cannot supply scientific eround and reason for every point in their practice. But, at the same time, it may quite properly be claimed that much in medicine which was once empirical is now rational. In these days we cannot be content to remain at that empirical stage in any of the great subjects which occupy the attention of the physician and the medical sanitarian. Extended knowledge in chemistry, improved methods in physiology, and, where neces- Sary, experiments on animals have allowed such progress to be made that whole departments both of curative and preventive medicine can now be described as resting on a scientific basis. There are three diseases which are always with us, and the causation, prevention, and cure of which have received special attention of late years. These are typhoid, tuber- culosis, and diphtheria, about each of which much that is interesting and important has, in recent times, been elicited. F or some years there has been almost complete agreement among pathologists that diphtheria is a contagious disease, and that it owes its origin to a specific form of bacillus. Now, it is a characteristic of most, if not all, of the acute germ diseases, that after they have passed off the person so affected is protected against a further attack for a PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION I. 147 longer or shorter period. This period varies greatly in different diseases, being of life-long duration in some, and comparatively short in others. As soon as the science of bacteriology had attained sufficient exactness, the problem as to the nature of this immunity from a recurrence of the same disease was at once attacked. It was gradually made clear that the symptoms of the disease are due mainly to the action of some poison or poisons called toxins, whicli the specific agents of disease (bacteria) manufacture in the blood or tissue fluids. If re- covery takes place, it can only be by the escape of the poisons from the body, before their action has become too destructive, or by the formation of some counter poison or antidote. That the cessation of symptoms and consequent recovery are due largely, and in the first instance, to this formation of a counter- poison or anti-toxin, has now been clearly shown. But is it necessary to wait for the natural formation of this antidote, while meantime the patient is in danger of dying, because the antidote comes too late? And in diphtheria, where the mor- tality, on the average, readily amounted to 25 or even 50 per cent., it is apparent that the natural process of cure was apt’ to be too late in coming about. But as the anti-toxin was shown to remain in the blood for some time after recovery, the question was the very practical one of using this stock of anti- dote for preventive or curative purposes by borrowing it from one person or animal for the relief of another. It would be manifestly inconvenient, if not impracticable, to trust to supplies from persons who had just recovered from an attack. But it was shown that some animals, by repeated inoculations or injections of the germs of the disease or of their poisons, were capable of producing the antidote. Much skill and labour were needed in selecting the most suitable animals for the purpose, and for securing safety in the use of the material obtained. The blood serum, containing the counter-poison, was first tried sufficiently on animals, and when this had been done, the technical diffi- culties were at an end. ‘This antidote is now used, and if sceptics have not been finally silenced, evidence of its efficacy, satisfactory to the vast majority of observers, has been supplied. The good results in the way of cure have been shown to depend chiefly on the promptness with which the remedy is applied, and, of course, on its quality, and the sufficiency of the dose. Anti-toxin is used, too, not only as a curative, but as a protective. Children in a family in which the disease has occurred may, by this system of inoculation, be guarded against the liability to attack during the exposure to infection. We are looking forward to the time, which can hardly be far distant, when others of the epidemic diseases which are now the scourge of humanity will, by similar methods, and by the application of similar principles, be rendered as harmless as small-pox now K 2 148 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION I. is, in countries where full and proper use is made of vaccination. Encouraging results have already been obtained in the direction of cure or prevention in cholera, plague, yellow fever, typhoid, by methods of inoculation, though the evidence has not yet the same cogency as in the case of diphtheria. That a new era has been opened in the science of preventive medicine we cannot doubt. Typhoid fever is a disease which has long been unduly pre- valent in Victoria, and particularly in Melbourne. There was some reason, if not full excuse, for this condition of affairs, at least as regards Melbourne, in the fact that the metropolis of the colony had grown rapidly into a populous city, spread over a large area, with such fouling of the soil as must inevitably result where drainage facilities are defective. There need be no diffi- culty in accepting the belief that milk or water, accidentally contaminated with the virus of typhoid, may be the means of spreading the disease. Milk epidemics, happily of no great ex- tent, have occurred occasionally in Melbourne, as in other parts of the world. Contaminated water has also been suspected of ‘acting in a similar way, though on less exact evidence. It is a mistake, however, to assume, as seems sometimes to be done, that water and milk are almost the sole means or agency by which the disease is spread. I have always held that this foulness of the soil had much to do with the persis- tent prevalence of this typical filth disease. Recent investiga- tions in England have shown that the specific bacillus of typhoid is capable of multiplying in the soil, when favourable conditions for its growth are present, in respect to moisture, heat, and organic defilement, especially of animal origin. There is good reason to believe that the prevalence of typhoid in Adelaide and Sydney has been greatly reduced by the extension of drainage operations, and the consequent purification of the soil around dwellings. Typhoid is a disease with very marked differences in its prevalence and fatality in successive years or periods. Ten years ago I thought there were distinct indications that the disease had a four-yearly periodicity. I made an endeavour to discover whether anything in meteorological con- ditions could be brought into relation with that periodicity. whether regular or not. I had to confess to a failure, though I felt driven to the belief that some such conection there must be. The periodicity has been less regular of late years, and it is a very natural suggestion that this disturbance of rhythm might be due to the extensive breaking of the surface which attended the great building operations of the land boom, and to those con- nected with the sewerage works. Taking the notifications of cases of typhoid in the months of November and December, we find that in 1899 the cases noted were fewer than in any pre- vious year. But 1893 was almost as low, and, as there were PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION I. 149 then no sewerage connections, it cannot be yet said that the improvement is due to the drainage connections. Though we must wait for the fuller evidence which time alone can supply, experience in other cities and other parts of the world justifies us in cherishing the confident hope that before many more years have elapsed, typhoid as a cause of death will stand constantly at or below the lowest level which it has hitherto occasionally reached. Tuberculosis is the great scourge of civilised life. With the doubtful exception of malaria, it causes a larger mortality the world over than any other disease. In this colony it is true, as it is in Great Britain, that tuberculosis causes about twice as many deaths, yerr by year, as all the well-known epidemic diseases taken together. Within the last few years we have almost got rid of the depressing belief that consumption is a hereditary disease, and so, in a manner, the inevitable fate of very many persons in whose family the tuberculous taint seemed to exist. We cannot say that heredity counts for nothing in calculating the liability to consumption. But we are now clear, from the results of observation and experiment, that unhealthy surroundings and contagion are the real causes of its occurrence in most cases. We have attained the firm assurance that tuber- culosis, in all its forms, is a preventable disease, and also that in a large proportion of cases it is curable if proper treatment is instituted at an early enough stage. The knowledge that a fatal disease is preventable is in itself a call to the adoption of vigorous steps for its prevention. That all kinds of improve- ments, in the conditions under which people live, tend to make tuberculosis less common and less fatal, is true, as it is true of many other diseases. And it is to the progress of sanitary improvement, both in town and country, that we must ascribe the reduction in the mortality from consumption, which has steadily been going on in Great Britain and other countries for the last fifty years. Now that we can trace the occurrence of tuberculosis to some infection by means of food, or by the inhalation of dried particles of the sputum of consumptive per- sons, we have at our disposal modes of prevention more specific than ordinary sanitary measures. If all the matter expectorated by consumptive persons could be carefully collected and quickly destroyed, there can be no doubt that within a few years the disease would be comparatively rare, and, further, if pure milk and perfectly sound meat, and no other, were allowed to pass into consumption, a further reduction in tuberculosis prevalence would be effected. Common as the disease still is, the hope is not an unreasonable one, that tuberculosis will, at no very remote period, be as rare in England as leprosy is, that it will be practically extirpated, as that disease has long been. For the hastening of that most desirable end there has been estab- 150 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION I. lished in London a National Association for the prevention and cure of tuberculosis, and similar associations have been formed in most European countries. Arrangements were almost com- pleted three months ago for forming such an association in Melbourne, but the outbreak of influenza and other causes led to the postponement of the necessary public meeting. It is to be hoped that the movement will, at an early date, be again started, and that, before long, a powerful organisation will be formed, with the double object. of diffusing information in popular form, and of aiding in the establishment. of Sanatoria, where consumptives will have a chance of cure, far greater than is possible in their own homes or in general hospitals. I do not know of any movement more deserving of public support, or one more capable of lessening human suffering; and if the matter could be properly put before our citizens, that support would not fail to be given. Just at the present time the risk that the plague may reach these colonies is attracting the special attention of sanitary authorities. It is almost at our doors, and unless careful pre- cautions are taken, it may any day be in our midst. Such pre- cautions are being taken now, and we may hope, if not to escape entirely, at ‘the least that there will be but isolated cases, such as we have had of sm-ll-pox on comparatively rare occasions. Cleanliness, cleanliness, and again cleanliness, must be our resource. And it may be that the revival of plague epi- demicity will give such an impetus to sanitary improvements, here and in other countries, that the number of lives ultimately saved by such means would be greaier than the deaths which the scourge itself causes. The outbreak of cholera had this indirect beneficial effect fifty or sixty years ago, and it may well be so again. The great lesson to be derived from history, in relation to the subjects which we are here to consider, is that money and labour appled for the bringing about of sanitary improve- ments is always well expended. Whatever be the immediate cause which leads to that expenditure the good effects are far- reaching and permanent, beyond what even the most ardent students or pre -‘oners of sanitary science could at the time have anticipated. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.—SECTION J. (Mental Science and Education). THE ANATOMY OF MIND AS BEARING ON EDUCATION. By W. L. CLELAND, M.B., CH.M. —4¢@r — Tue placing of the subjects of Mental Science and Education in this section emphasises the close connection that should exist between the two. And no one professing to be a teacher should be ignorant of what is known respecting mind, considered anatomically, physiologically, and from the philosophical stand- point. Considering how important are the duties of the teacher, no one should be allowed to enter upon these without being able to show some hall-mark of competency. And if teaching is to take its proper place as a profession, and rank with divinity, law, and medicine, there should be a carefully-considered curri- culum, with its attendant examinations, the passing of which would open the portals to an honoured profession, and make the successful aspirant a licentiate, as in the case of the other pro- fessions named. In no other way will the teacher acquire the status to which he is entitled considering the responsibilities of his duties. | : The subject of education is of great practical interest to’ the Commonwealth, for on the methods on which it is conducted depend the qualities and characters of the coming generations. If we ourselves have grown too old to learn, this is not the case with the young, to whom the effects of education are most applicable. In considering questions of educational procedures attention necessarily has to be focussed as to their suitabilities or otherwise to young growing creatures. It may not therefore be unprofitable to consider a few points that are characteristic of immature organisations, and how maturity may be reached with the most desired effect. For it must be remembered that, whether any effort is made or not to train the mind, a mind will be educated, but it may be on lines that are not most desirable. And also, as a result of neglect, the process of educating may be needlessly wasteful if left unaided or unguided to the chance 152 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—-SECTION J. influences of a child’s environment. The object of education should therefore be, whilst working on natural lines, to produce the greatest results with a minimum of expenditure. Not, indeed, to go against Nature, but, having discovered Nature’s methods, to utilise these towards the attainment of the desired end. That this end is not always the one which Nature, un- aided, would have attained, adds to the difficulty, but does not invalidate the process. The corpus vile then for our consideration is the immature and growing child, and attention will be chiefly directed to various anatomical and physiological points that may be considered to have a bearing on the subject. And, perhaps, in passing, a word may be said to those who may think that some of the following statements are purely materialistic, and be con- sequently inclined to take offence. As a matter of fact, no one is able to say what is the ultimate nature of matter, or what is the ultimate nature of mind, and, as Herbert Spencer writes :— “The truth is not expressible either by Materialism nor by Spiritualism, however modified and however refined.” So that any decisions on these points can be only hypotheses or beliefs, which are quite distinct from knowledge, and each individual must form and adopt that particular hypothesis or belief which is most consistent with his own individual proclivities. And, as Herbert Spencer goes on to say :—‘ Carried to whatever ex- tent, the inquiries of the psychologist do not reveal the ultimate nature of Mind any more than do the inquiries of the chemist reveal the ultimate nature of Matter; or those of the physicist the ultimate nature of Motion.” But he adds :—“ The law of evolution holds of the inner world as it does of the outer world. . . . Ii we study the development of the nervous system, we see it advancing in integration, in complexity, in definiteness. If we turn to its functions, we find these similarly show an ever- increasing inter-dependence, an augmentation in number and heterogeneity, and a greater precision. If we examine the relations of these functions to the actions going on in the world around, we see that the correspondence between them progresses in range and amount, becomes continually more complex and more special, and advances through differentiations and integra- tions like those everywhere going on. And when we observe the correlative states of consciousness, we discover that these too, beginning as simple, vague, and incoherent, become in- creasingly numerous in their kinds, are united into aggregates which are larger, more multitudinous, and more uniform, and eventually assume those finished shapes we see in scientific generalisations, whose definitely quantitative elements are co- ordinated in definitely quantitative relations.” And if we accept with Stewart and Tait, as expressed in their “ Unseen Universe,” the only two completely fundamental divisions into the “ Un- PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION I. 153 conditioned” and the “ Conditioned,” we find that Matter and Mind are both contained in the latter. So that whatever their essential natures may be, they both have limitations and both have the appearance of being manufactured articles; and must at one time have had no existence, and must as certainlysome time have an end, at least, when no longer sustained by the “ Un- conditioned.” This community of dependence on condition leads the psychologist to hope that by considering the physical struc- tures which are necessary for the expression of the phenomena of mind, he may at the same time exert an influence on the nature of the product. This brings us to the point as to what extent it is justifiable to speak of the brain as the “organ of mind.” It is obvious that we can only have knowledge of anything through the im- pressions which are received by the senses, or from different parts oi the body, and conveyed to the brain. A study of the nervous system shows that all parts are anatomically and physio- logically connected with certain portions of the brain, and that all the organs and tissues of the body are similarly related to the nervous system. The brain cannot be considered as one uniform whole, but must be looked upon as consisting of a number of specialised organs or structures. According to Hugh- lings Jackson the brain for functional purposes may be divided into a basement, and a lower and upper story. In the base- ment all impressions are presented, and unless controlled or inhibited by more specialised structures, the resultant is a simple reflex action, not differing materially from spinal cord responses to stimuli. This simple condition is found in all vertebrate animals. In the lower story all impressions are re- presented in more or less complex groups, and the functioning of these structures will influence the functioning of the centres in the basement. This is the more advanced stage of develop- ment reached by many animals. In the upper story all impres- sions are re-represented, that is, for a third time, and in ever- increasing complexity and generalisation of groupings. As far as is known, the possible manifestation .of mind, humanly speak- ing, is the functioning which is resultant of the degree of com- plexity and development of this portion of the brain, forming what is called the cortex cerebri. If any structure is to be called the “organ of mind,” the name would most justly apply to this portin. It must, however, be remembered that although all other portions of the nervous system are either directly or indirectly under the controlling influence of this latest and most specialised portion of the organism, yet this latter has no in- dependent action, and simply reflects the body as a whole in its most complex relationships to itself and to the external world. It is found that if the cortex can influence the functioning of any other portion of the organism, any other portion of the 154 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION J. organism may profoundly affect the functioning of the cortex. This is seen in those diseases of the cortex which constitute what is called “ mental disease.” In chronic cases of this we find the nutrition of the whole body becoming involved, so that after a time the patient may be said to be “insane” from the crown of his head to the sole of his foot. Or, conversely, take the effect of disease or-loss of a small portion of the body, such as the thyroid gland. The result is great mental depression, passing into a complete dementia. And what is very remarkable is the fact that if such a patient eats the corresponding portion of an animal, say, of a sheep, for a length of time, there gradually returns a decided improvement in “the mental condition. It is evident, therefore, that to get the fullest mental results, atten- tion must be paid to seeing that the organism as a whole is functioning in the most perfect manner. As Herbert Spencer has remarked: “In consequence of specialities of inheritance, specialities of education, and specialities of mode of life, high mental manifestations of certain kinds may go along with weak- ness of body. But classing such cases as abnormal deviations from that constitutional balance which is needful for survival through future generations, and limiting our attention to cases where no monstrosity has been produced by undue forcing of the individuals or his ancestors, we shall, I think, trace a con- nection between abounding physical vigour and power of think- ing and feeling, as well as between sluggishness of constitution and comparative inertness, intellectual and emotional.” In con- sidering the question of mind as correlate with brain growth, the portion of the brain that will be chiefly interesting to study will be the cortex cerebri, or at least some structures that help to form it. The cerebral cortex is the last portion of the organism to be developed, and at birth all the different fibres have not been pro- duced or properly organised. The most matured portion at birth corresponds roughly to the middle third of three trans- verse divisions of the cortex, and is often referred to as the motor region, because stimulation of this area with a feeble current of electricity elicits definite muscular movements. This area is apparently the sphere of bodily sensibility, and in pro- portion toe its development and growth arises the psychical idea of the ego, or self-consciousness. By means of the connections between this portion of the cerebrum and the rest of the body we are enabled to form ideas of our own personality. The fact that this portion of the cortex is the first to become organised, emphasises the importance of our developing a self-consciousness as early as possible. In cases of commencing disease of this part, as often appears in general paralysis of the insane, there may be, owing to pathological irritation, an exaggerated idea of personality and grandiose delusions ; or, in another class of cases, PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION J. 155 where the nutrition has become impaired, as in melancholia, there may be depressing ideas of self-depreciation. Then in other cases of faulty development of the other divisions, the functioning of this central third becomes disproportioned, and an egotistical state is produced, because it is not duly inhibited or controlled by those parts more especially having to do with the harmonising of the ego and the non-ego. In other words, the regulation of conduct. This may sometimes be seen in certain idiots with high cylindrical heads. At the same period of growth fibres become organised in a small portion of the posterior third, whose function appears to be connected with psychical visual conceptions. Stimulation of this area with a feeble current of electricity puts in motion the muscles having to do with sight. Very shortly after these developments, fibres in connection with the psychical conceptions of hearing and smell are organised near the already developed areas connected with the face and the power of articulate expression. Accord- ing to Flechsig there are first organised these three important sensory areas having to do with future mentalisation, namely, the sphere of bodily sensibility, the sphere of visual sensibility, and the sphere of auditory sensibility. Between these are placed what he calls association areas, three in number, one in front, one behind, and one at the base. These association areas are the last to be organised, and although their fundamental cells and larger fibres are to = seen in early life, the finer connec- tions on which consecutive mentalisation depends may not be all formed until the capacity for learning comes to an end. As Michael Foster expresses it: “ Cores, so to speak, of medullated fibres make their apparance, each surrounded by a zone in which myelination takes place more tardily. This we may inter- pret as meaning that certain main connections between the cells in a special part of the cortex and distant structures are laid down first, and subsidiary connections established later; and it is open for us to suppose that these subsidiary connections are especially influenced by what we call education.” Cases of disease give some striking examples of how what has been learned may become destroyed or lost. It has been mentioned that different portions of the cortex have to do with the psychical conceptions of sight, or hearing, or speech. There appear also to be connections that have to do with the association of, say, sight with speech, or of hearing with speech, and these we have eradually acquired. Upon disease affecting these connections certain forms of aphasia, or loss of memory, are developed, which, instead of being total, may be only partial, that is, there may be only “ word-blindness” or “ word-deafness.” ‘ The indi- vidual can see or can hear, and can speak; but the association mechanism connecting the shown or the heard word, and the speaking of it, and this alone, has broken down.” 156 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—-SECTION J. Whilst there is considerable definiteness in allotting functions to the different sensory spheres, this is not the case with the association areas. The frontal association area appears to have to do with the capacity to combine the attention with personal motives for the regulation of conduct. In disease of this area many observers report an alteration in the personal character- istics of the individual. The function again of the occipito- temporal association area would appear in the same way to be largely associated with great intellectual power. This should not be surprising, as the larger development of this area is pre-eminently characteristic of man. As Dr. Ireland writes in his review of Flechsig’s work: “Man owes his mental superiority not only to the larger mass and surface of the brain, but also to his greater posterior association centres, which enable him to associate all his conceptions with words, and then to clothe them with words. His capacity to utter these words rests upon the larger development of his third temporal gyrus, and also of a part of the sensation sphere, which last is not nearly so well developed even in the highest apes.” Although the cortex cerebrt may be mapped out into areas having more or less specialised functions, yet for correct mentali- sation it is absolutely necessary that they should all function co-ordinately, or be in intimate association with one another, This appears to be largely brought about by certain structures in the cortex, called pyramidal cells and neurons. These cells, although all over the cortex, vary in size, being largest in the sensory spheres, but their function appears to be the same wherever they exist. These pyramidal cells and neurons are formed in the cortex by the time that the child is born, so that the adult does not possess any larger number than the immature infant. The difference between the two consists in the increase in size of the cell, and the greater production of processes or fibres from them. If these cells are once destroyed they are never renewed ; this does not apply to the processes. The most remarkable feature of the neurons is the process called the “apical dendrite,” which is developed from the end pointing to- wards the surface of the brain. The main branches run directly outwards and then divide into numerous fibres running parallel with the surface. These finer branches especially present a serrated appearance, the lateral processes being sometimes called “ vemmules,” and it is these which have considerable recuperative power after injury. The suggestive name of “ association fibres” is given by physiologists to these apical dendrites. An im- portant anatomical fact is that these dendritic processes never anastomose or form organised connections with those of other neurons. They become contiguous, but not continuous. Quite recently a view has been held that the functioning of these dendritic processes is due to a certain power of extension and PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION J. 157 retraction possessed by the gemmules or lateral processes. In the condition of extension they approach so near to those of other dendrites that the energy generated in the neuron of the one passes into the fibres of the other. If all the gemmules are in a state of extension, any energy liberated will be so diffused over the whole dendritic processes of the cortex as to produce a generalised co-ordinate functionising, producing but little effect, and which is probably the condition of natural sleep. During active mentalisation it appears necessary that the motility of these gemmules should be at their greatest, so that upon a suffi- ciently strong stimulus liberating energy, a certain number of them retract, leaving only a few in a state of extension. The result is a distinct action in a given direction which may rise into consciousness, and we feel that we have made an effort or controlled our mental processes. This making of efforts is exhaustive, and soon wearies the neurons, and deadens the motility of the gemmules. We then experience the feeling of being tired. This expenditure of force being wasteful from a physiological economic point of view, we find that the necessity for it is reduced to a minimum as quickly as possible. This is brought about by paths of functioning becoming more organised or altered, that is, they lose their gemmules, and the fibres become encased in a non-conducting material which saves the necessity of causing the retraction of the gemmules when it is desired to prevent the diffusion of the impulse to the contiguous dendrites. Only the functioning gemmules remain what is called “naked.” As a result a train of functioning is estab- lished, and requires a much weaker stimulus to set it in action than in the earlier stages when a great effort was necessary, be- cause the possibility of diffusion is lessened. In fact, the path thus formed for certain impulses becomes so easy for them to travel along that no feeling of conscious effort is evoked, and the action is then said to be automatic. Most of our mentalisation is of this character, and in thinking we are only conscious of some of the ultimate resultants from the invading of new tracts by terminal fibrils, which still retain their naked protoplasm so as to allow of impulses being transmitted from one to the other. It is this condition which makes progressive education a pos- sibility. Such being the rough general mechanism, the question of the conditions necessary for effective functioning may be briefly considered. As the dendritic processes are extensions of the neurons, and as on these processes depend the possibilities of associated action, the proper nutrition of the neuron must be of primary importance. The neuron as a portion of the organism will be well nourished or otherwise in common with the other tissues of the body; and in proportion as other parts are functioning effectively so will the physiological activities of 158 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION J. the neurons be to the same extent. It is seen that the health of one set of tissues is much influenced by the normal functioning of other tissues with which they are physiologically closely con- nected. An instance may be given showing how if an area of the cortex be affected, deeper parts of the brain connected with it physiologically also suffer. If the area having to do with psychical visual conceptions be destroyed, it is noted that a part of the structure called the optic thalamus, which is intermediary in the visual tract between the retina of the eye and the cortex, begins also to show signs of degeneration. It is apparent, there- fore, that a part degenerates if severed from its normal in- fluences or not allowed to function in its usual way. As a re- sult of nutrition the neuron becomes increasingly capable of more forcible energising, and on the occurrence of an excitant the impulse is passed along the various processes or extensions which in the meantime have also been nourished. It may be inferentially accepted that as a result the dendritic processes will be developed to a fuller extent, and connections of touch be made wider afield. The motility of the gemmules will also be increased. In this way new associations become gradually organised and rendered capable of extended co-ordinating func- tioning. The larger extent of the sensory areas has been noted, and their early appearance in the course of development. From this may be inferred the great importance of these areas as furnish- ing the raw material from which psychic conceptions of a more associated nature will be ultimately elaborated, the site of these being the association areas situated between the sensory ones. Whilst the activity of the sphere of bodily sensibility keeps the organism conscious of its personality, the visual and auditory spheres in functioning keep it in touch with its environment. From what has already been said of the dependence of one part for its physiological activity on the proper activity of other parts closely connected with it anatomically, it will be evident that the proper health of the association areas will depend upon the healthy action of the sensory spheres. It is, therefore, of ereat imporance in efforts to educate the association areas that the stimuli received through the senses should reach a sufficient intensity to allow of a transmission of the influence into definite paths that may not yet be fully organised. This intensity of action is felt more or less by the individual as a kind of shock, and arouses what is called “attention.” This expressed physiologically, as has already been done, means that most of the gemmules are in a condition of retraction, and that only a few are functioning. The resultant sensation is consequently definite and intense in proportion to the limitation of general diffusion. In early life stimuli reaching the cortex must pro- duce such a shock in forming the paths along which some PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION J. 159 associated act has to be eventually performed, the attention in the first place being directed separately to certain groupings of action, which ultimately constitute the whole. Herbert Spencer takes speech as furnishing an illustration: “Each muscular adjustment of the vocal organs, and each articulate sound made, have in childhood concomitant sentient states that are vivid, and for the moment all-absorbing.” We may suppose that in this case the auditory sphere has been stimulated to a sufficient in- tensity to produce a shock. Then that the impulse has spread to the closely adjoining area, more especially in relation to the muscles of the face, tongue, and larynx. The result may be simply the production of a sound. The frequent repetition of these shocks causes extensions of connections into the occipito- temporal area, and eradually paths are formed which allow of the psychic association of certain sounds with certain objects, or groups of things. | It is seen that when these extensions have become organised that a small excitant may liberate large amounts of nervous energising. This is because that when once a route has been established impulses pass along it with facility, and there is a minimum of loss. As a consequence large areas physiologically connected may be stimulated, but of whose functioning we may be quite unconscious. If it were not so, our mental efforts would never get beyond the arduous efforts of the child learning to read or to write. It is therefore necessary in education that stimuli of a certain intensity should be constantly repeated until the effect can be easily reproduced. The only difference between this acquired functioning and “instinct” is that the latter is inherited in an organised developed condition at birth, whilst the former is an acquisition after birth and the resultant of subsequent functionings. Another result is that the actual direct stimulus may have no conscious connection with the train of psychic conceptions it may arouse, owing to the intermediate tracks having long passed into an automatic functioning. It is owing to this that our ideas appear to have an independent spontaniety, which, however, is quite fictitious, because they can only be the ultimate resultants of previous excitations. Systematic functioning is therefore a valuable aid to what is called education, and in forming the desired organisation of the cortex. The result of education will be in direct proportion to the extent of this laying down of a physical substratum. As the initial quality of the neurons will vary with each individual, the resultant will differ in each case, and we cannot expect to raise everyone to the same educational level. Whilst nutrition, sufficient stimulation, and repetition of excitations causing organisation, are absolutely necessary for producing future effective mentalisation, there are other condi- tions which tend to retard it. One of the most important of 160 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION J. these is fatigue, and if it fail to be recognised and efforts at teaching are not at once relaxed, injurious effects are likely to be produced. This is why a thorough appreciation of the fact of the inseparable connection of mental phenomena with physical conditions is of the greatest importance. As to what that con- nection is, is quite another matter, and will probably never be ascertained. A knowledge of the natural physiological function- ing of cells shows that after activity there should come a period of rest to allow of the cell recuperating itself. To do this it must get rid of the poisonous products generated by its own activity, and absorb material to be converted into potential energy when the proper time again arrives. If this period of rest is curtailed, and the cell is stimulated to a functioning before it is ready, an irritable condition is set up as the result of malnutrition, which may become habitual. This is seen in certain diseased conditions of the nervous system, such as epilepsy, hysteria, and some other neuroses. The explosions of nerve-cell functioning in these cases take place without due re- gard to the proper associated functioning. It is extremely im- portant that the delicate, highly sensitive, and actively-growing nerve-cells and processes of the child-brain should not be sub- jected to such unhealthy stimulation. In natural fatigue the gemmules are in a state of extension and sluggish, and ought to be left alone. Experiments on animals go to show that if this is not allowed, but persistent stimulation is continued, that a condition of pathological fatigue is produced, proving ulti- mately fatal to the animal. In this pathological fatigue the gemmules entirely disappear, and the mental result is the stupor sometimes seen as a sequela of continued active delirium. This condition has been demonstrated by fatiguing mice by persistent stimulation, and comparing their neurons and den- drites with those of mice killed in an ordinary manner. It was found in the pathologically-fatigued mice that the gemmules had disappeared, whilst spherical thickenings occurred in the ramifi- cations of the dendrites themselves, especially towards their ex- tremities. Further confirmation of this opinion has _ been obtained by the examination of the neurons and processes of brains which have been subjected during life to the poisonous action of certain drugs, such as alcohol, morphine, and potassium bromide. In medicinal doses these drugs produce much the same effect as is seen in natural fatigue, namely, extension and sluggishness of the gemmules. According to Lugaro, this is “the attitude of repose—that is, of greatest expansion—contacts are multiplied, the nervous processes become more and more dispersed and incoherent, the associations become enormously diffused, the stimuli subside without provoking reaction, and then results the unconsciousness of sleep.” Hence these drugs are largely used as hypnotics. The appearances after fatal PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION J. 161 poisoning are much the same as is seen after pathological fatigue, namely, disappearance of the gemmules and irregular moniliform enlargements of the dendrites. It is evident, there- fore, that all attempts at teaching should at once be discontinued upon a child showing any of the signs of mental fatigue and exhaustion, depicted by Warner in his book on Mental Faculty. Education to be a science ought to harmonise as far as pos- sible with what is known respecting the development of the anatomy and physiology of the brain. Bain, in his Education as a Science, urges the necessity for this harmony, and points to the educational value of certain subjects at varying ages. It has been seen that the spheres of sensibility, bodily, visual, and auditory, appear on the scene first, and reach a certain degree of organisation even at birth. These are the sites in which sensations acquire a psychic value, and become data for future use. All mental functioning must necessarily depend, first, on the data supplied, and, secondly, on the way in which these data are grouped and associated in ever-increasing intricacy as long as the possibility of acquiring knowledge lasts. Considering also that the child differs from other young animals in inheriting but few organised experiences or so-called instincts, it follows that the experiences it acquires are more individualistic, and all help to form its character. Owing to this, .all the child’s activities, muscular and otherwise, have an educational value, and should be respected as such, especially in its early years. To interfere with these by any artificial methods must always be a matter of some delicacy, and may be fraught with danger unless in skilled hands. For convenience of consideration, the period of growth and development may be divided into three lustra, each distinguished in a general way by certain cortical cerebral anatomical characteristics. The first lustrum is characterised by a comparatively greater development of the spheres of bodily, visual, and auditory sensi- bility. And it cannot be too constantly borne in mind by those who have to do with the young that another characteristic of this period is that during the first seven years of a child’s life an extraordinary amount of brain growth is going on. It is stated that at birth the brain weighs from 15 to 16 ozs., whilst at two years of age it weighs from 35 to 40 ozs., and at seven about 45 ozs., the adult brain at twenty weighing from 48 to 50 ozs. At seven years of age the general body weight ought to have increased ten times, and at twenty twice that amount. This all means a vast production and expenditure of force, and that a child’s powers during the first seven years of its life are quite sufficiently taxed by simply living, and growing, and receiving the natural impressions that pertain to a well-regu- lated, healthy environment. Another peculiarity of the young brain is the large preponderance of the cerebrum to the other L 162 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION J. portions of the brain; in an infant it is as much as 15 to 1, whilst in the adult it is only 7 to 1. It has been already noted that although nerve cells and fibres exist in the cerebrum at birth, yet that they have not in any way become co-ordinated in function, and that the cerebrum of an infant is practically a tabula rasa as regards associated action. The infant, there- fore, notwithstanding its proportionately large cerebrum, is a most helpless object, and has no power of adaptation. The existence of the cerebrum, however, ensures the production of “ activities,” for it is an inherent attribute of living cells to function when nutrition has reached a certain point, and in the case of nerve-cells a discharge or nerve-wave becomes impera- tive. As Bain points out, there is always “a spontaneous or self-moved commencement, followed by the gradual attempt to direct it into definite channels. The rule seems to be that activity is always prior.” If we look upon the cortex cerebri as posses- sing pre-eminently the power of registering impressions for future psychic use, it becomes evident why it should precede in development other portions of the brain. An inherent attribute of this structure is that it is highly receptive and plastic. As the body continues to grow, other portions of the brain proceed in development pari passu, and each in its functioning in- fluencing the nutrition of the other. So that in estimating the laying down of the foundations of a psychic life, and the raising of its superstructure, we cannot afford to ignore the influence of any portion of the organism. In this connection reference may be made to the intimate relationship that appears to exist between the development of the museular system and the in- tellectual powers. In the feeble-minded the imperfect develop- ment of the muscles of the limbs is most obvious, and the move- ments are awkward and ungainly. This may be the result of an inherent want of receptivity and plasticity in the cortex, not allowing of the beneficial efforts of reciprocal stimulation on other tissues physiologically connected with it, as was noted was the effect of a lesion in the visual area of the cortex on the optic thalamus ; or the result may be due to feebleness in other parts of the brain and organism failing to supply the requisite stimula- tions for registration in the cortex. If, therefore, during the first few years of a child’s life we see it growing in stature and in muscular strength, we may rest assured that the cerebral cortex is also functioning in a normal and healthy manner. During this lustrum no attempt should be made to attain any acquisition, the active element of which is not already in ex- istence. “ Language (spoken),” as Bain points out, “seems the most precocious of all acquirements, being usually in advance of the manual capabilities. The activity of the eye is also very early, and the cognition of visible movements, magnitudes, forms, and all space relations, proceeds rapidly. This is the PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION J. 163 stag» of spontaneous observation and of impressions in the concrete; and it is the necessary grounding for the artificial education in things. The pre-school education consists in de- veloping the articulate capacity, in cultivating an interested ob- servation of surrounding persons and things, and in connecting names with these various objects. The further these three branches. have gone, the better is the child fitted for the more methodical instruction of the school.” Nothing should be at- tempted in the way of schooling but such mechanical acquire- ments as reading, writing, and spoken language, whether the mother tongue or a foreign one. This lustrum is also cha- racterised by the predominance of that division of mind called feeling or emotion. That it should be so is only natural if we bear in mind the characteristic anatomical development of the cortex of this period of life. Reference is made to the large extent and comparative maturity of the sphere of bodily sensi- bility. The fact that all expression of feeling has its muscular equivalent, and that it appears early, seems to justify the opinion that this portion of the cortex is largely concerned in its production. It has also been noted that stimulation of it by electricity always produces definite muscular contractions. The muscular expression of feeling is generally manifested by small and easily moved muscles, such as those of the face and fingers. Herbert Spencer points out that in animals other small muscles are employed, such as those that move the ears and the tail. The regulation and guidance of feelings into appropriate channels should also be objects of endeavour during the early stage. And, as Bain points out that the feelings of pleasure and pain are the most fundamental incentives to action, it would follow that efforts should be made to make the educationally desirable, also the personally pleasurable, and wice versa. The second lustrum is characterised anatomically by a larger proportionate development in the association areas situated between the sensory spheres. The growth in bulk of the brain is small, and not at all comparable to that of the early stage just mentioned, Specialised growth, however, continues, and the tissues still remain extremely plastic or impressionable. Education in a more technical sense is now permissible, but it must be of such a nature as to be suitable to the physical development of the cortex. The tissues being at their most plastic age, it is impor- tant to impress them in certain desired directions by stimuli of considerable intensity. And the energy of the stimulation will leave an impress on the tissues, even though the subject may be distasteful to the pupil. Hence we see that the cha- racteristic attitude of the teacher towards the young at this stage is a dogmatic insistence—a method learned by experience to be suitable. Efforts should be made to establish a habit of L2 164 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION J. method, that is, a habit of functioning always in a certain manner. It is one of the inherent qualities of the living tissues of the body to function in a certain manner after a certain number of repetitions of a stimuli, and they acquire a habit. These habits of functioning in tissues are often apparent after attacks of disease, and especially so in patients of an unstable nervous constitution. In these cases, after the disease has dis- appeared, certain tissues will persist in continuing to function as though they were still subject to the morbid influence. This in its essential characters constitutes what is called memory. As the period of life of this second lustrum is characterised by great plasticity in the tissues of the cortex, and perceptions are vivid, it is pre-eminently suited for the organising of dogmatic and axiomatic truths. As Bain writes in Hducation as a Science :— “It is specially interesting to view this plastic moment with reference to moral impressions. Commands, maxims, verbal directions are all well laid up in the memory; even the more difficult doctrines of religion may find a lifelong lodgment by being iterated at this period. . . . We must also look at the dispositions to obedience, the cultivation of the affections and sympathies, and the foresight of remote consequences.” The habits of method or proper sequence would still be largely of an intelligent, rather than of a reasoning nature, and the amount of their acquisition will depend on the natural in- herent quality of the brain tissue of the particular individual. If they are to rise to a higher psychic value than the intelligent actions of animals, it is necessary that they should become sub- ject to the influence of the “will.” What is meant by “ will” might be expressed by another word, namely, “inhibition.” It is a well-known fact in physiology that one nervous functioning has the power of inhibiting another, either altogether or by directing it into another channel. A familar example of inhibi- tion is the prevention of sneezing, which is simply a reflex action resulting from irritation of the nasal mucous membrane. The incipient sneeze can be at once arrested by placing the finger on the upper lip at its junction with the septum of the nose. This is not a mental act, but physically is analogous to what occurs in the cortex when an act of volition is performed. This laying down of the foundation of a discriminative mental atti- tude should be of great value in the subsequent efforts at reason- ing, or the forming of concepts. The educational scope of this lustrum is the forming of perceptions, the acquirement of knowledge in the concrete, the acquirement of habits of methods and proper sequence by the cultivation of the power of inhibi- tion, or willing. In other words, as the lustrum of general training. The third lustrum is characterised anatomically by the de- delopment of intra-associated connections, allowing of still more PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION J. 165 elaborate and intricate functioning in the cortex. This permits, in proportion to the organisation effected, a transition from the concrete to the abstract, from the particular to the general. As Bain writes: “For this novel effect there must be a distinct phase of brain development, and, thercfore, a certain age at- tained, irrespective of the amount of preparatory impressions. : This is the stage when we must be prepared to handle symbols, to pass from sense perceptions to abstract conceptions ; when we can manipulate numbers and forms having no apparent reference to particulars at all. . . The passage from the empirical to the scientific is really a mode of transition from the concrete to the abstract ; it marks with emphasis the arrival of the Age of Reason.” If education were to stop short of this lustrum, the re- sult might be possibly an intelligent and practical man, apt and clever at his work, but everything would be done by rule- of-thumb, and not by reason. The intelligence, although greater in degree, could not be different in kind to that of the highest animals. The disadvantages of this empirical knowledge are its limitations ; the advantages of knowing the why and the where- fore are its more generalised application. The student should now be capable of deriving benefit from such studies as mathe- matics, logic, and science generally, both physical and natural. The teacher should cease to be the schoolmaster, but assume the réle of guide, philosopher, and friend. The former dogma- {ism is now quite out of place, and requires to be superseded by an appeal to the various bearings of a proposition or generalisa- tion. With this there must be combined a sufficient energy in presenting the subject so as to produce an impression strong enough to leave an effect on the brain tissue, and cause it to push out fresh paths of association. The process is the same as before, only the possibilities of arrangements have become far more elaborate. Also here again “ activities’ must precede any attempts at education; that is to say, the pupil must feel the necessity for brain-functioning of some kind. The teacher then takes the tide of nervous impulses at the “ flow,” and the result will be proportionately satisfactory. Considering the many new psychic influences that are beginning to arise as the pupil approaches puberty, it is evident that only the most skil- ful management will succeed in inducing him still to submit to guidance, and consequently any authority must be veiled as much as possible. Athleticism will still be a valuable adjunct to the more scholastic duties, and afford a safe outlet to the new emotions characteristic of that period of life. A word in passing may be said on behalf of the “ pupil-teacher.” Is it likely to be conducive to his best mental development that he should be subjected to the weariness and monotony of long school hours and the correcting of exercises? After this ex- haustion of energies is he likely to resume his own studies feel- 166 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION J. ing that “activities must always be prior?” A little practical exercise in the methods of teaching is doubtless good, but it should be for the sake of the benefit to him personally, and not because his energies are being turned to a useful account by any Government department or the principal of any educational establishment. He should be looked upon as a student, and treated as such until he has passed an entrance examination to the scholastic profession, and reached mature years. The necessity for studying under the influences of general weariness, bodily and mental, cannot fail to produce an injurious effect on his future mental condition. The conclusions that are arrived at, if education is to be conducted on the lines of a brain growth, and with a due regard to its developing anatomy, are :— 1. The necessity for an abundance of nutriment out of which to elaborate nerve force. 2. The necessity that there should be a cultivation suited to each period of growth, and, as in other cases of growth, the cultivator must wait on Nature, and be careful not to thwart her efforts. 3. And, lastly, the necessity for a study of the individual potentialities of each pupil, so as not to expect the unattainable in one case, nor repress the possibilities in another. Each one can only proceed along the road of acquirement of knowledge as far as his inherent cerebral powers, when properly educated, will carry him. The object of the foregoing remarks has been to emphasise the principle of growth in the production of mind, and the necessity for educational efforts to harmonise with this as re- gards time and methods of procedure. REPORTS OF RESEARCH COMMITTEKS, 1.—PRELIMINARY REPORT OF COMMITTEE UPON THE MAGNETIC SURVEY OF NEW ZEALAND. ———_____ MEMBERS: Mr. P. BarAccut, F.R.A.S.; Mr. R. L. J. ELLERY, C.M.G., F.R.S.; Sir JAMES Hector, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S.; Mr. H. C. RUSSELL, B.A., C.M.G., F.B.S.; and Mr. C. C. Farr, B.Se., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E. (Hon. Secretary). Your committee beg to report that with a view to carrying out the object of your resolution, they approached those bodies in New Zealand, who from their connection with the maritime affairs of the colony might naturally be supposed to take an interest in every movement which was conducive to safer navi- gation. ‘They were thus fortunate in securing the support of His Excellency Admiral Pearson, who, in reply to letter from the secretary of the committee, wrote as follows :— H.M.S. “ Royal Arthur,” Nelson, New Zealand, 6th May, 1898. Sir,—In reply to your letter of the 22nd ult. in regard to the proposed scheme for a magnetic survey of New Zealand, and for the erection of a permanent magnetic station. I am directed by His Excellency Adiniral Pearson to inform you that in his opinion such work would be of considerable value to seamen, as, owing to the dearth of magnetic observations in the Southern Hemisphere, and particularly in this portion of it, neither the magnetic variation nor the annual change in it are known to that degree of accuracy which is essential to the purpose of navigation. I have the honour to be, Sir, Your obedient servant, (Signed) CHARLES J. FERGUSON, Secretary to the Commander-in-Chief. C. Coleridge Farr, Esq., B. Sc., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., Christchurch, N.Z. Your committee also received the strong support of the com- mittee of the Shipmasters’ Association of New Zealand, who at an exceptionally large meeting, held in Wellington, on 3rd May, 1898, carried the following resolution :— 170 THE MAGNETIC SURVEY OF NEW ZEALAND. » “That the committee fully recognise the immense importance of having a magnetic survey of the colony of New Zealand made, and that it should be commenced at as early a date as possible, taking into account the very favourable position New Zealand occupies for such a purpose.” This resolution of the committee of the Shipmasters’ Associa- “tion of New Zealand was subsequently brought, together with your own resolution, before the notice of the Canterbury Cham- ber of Commerce, who carried a resolution indorsing the resolu- tion of the committee of the Shipmasters’ Association, and who forwarded their indorsement to the other Chambers of Commerce throughout New Zealand and to the Government. Your committee were also fortunate in securing the cordial co- operation of the Hon. C. C. Bowen, M.L.C. Mr. Bowen brought the matter, together with the allied subject of antarctic ex- ploration, before the notice of the Legislative Council of New Zealand, and induced that body to carry a resolution urging the New Zealand Government to contribute towards the expenses of the proposed National Antarctic Expedition, and to carry out a magnetic survey of the colony. Your committee laid these various resolutions before the Government, who at once agreed to place a sum of money upon the estimates for the purpose of carrying out your resolution, and the New Zealand*Parliament passed a vote of £500. This sum has again been voted, and there is every reason to hope that it will be of a permanent character. Mr. S. Percy Smith, the Surveyor-General of the Colony, under whom the expenditure of this money has been placed, and who has given the committee much assistance, has since been in correspondence with Dr. Chree, and the order for the magneto- graphs is now in Dr. Chree’s hands. Professor Rucker and Dr. Chree have been asked to supervise their construction. No order has yet been sent home for the absolute instruments, as the Kew committee very generously sent out on loan a set of these, and it was thought that these would suffice for the immediate present, and that the cost of absolute instruments for: New Zealand might be incurred a little later. It.is anticipated “that the magnetographs will be fixed in a suitable position during the course of the present year (1900), so that they may be of service to the proposed National Ant- arctic Expedition, which is shortly to set out, and which may possibly make one of the New Zealand ports (Lyttelton) its headquarters. In the meantime the absolute instruments lent by the Kew Observatory Committee are being used in New Zealand, and observations are being taken there with a threefold object— (1) to make a suitable choice of a site for a fixed Observatory, (2) to establish groups of stations at the principal towns, from THE MAGNETIC SURVEY OF NEW ZEALAND. EFL which the secular change over the time during which the obsservations are in progress can be deduced, (3) to obtain the present conformation of the iso-magnetic lnes. The purposes of (1) and (2) are for the present identical, and groups of stations have accordingly been established at Invercargill, Dunedin, and Christchurch. It is proposed to extend these to other towns, and especially to those on or near the sea coast, while for (3) the stations have been spaced at intervals of, roughly, 20 miles from Stewart Island and Orepuki, in the south and south-west of New Zealand, along south-east, east, and north coast of the South Island ; the number of stations at which observations have so far been made is sixty- nine. Your committee learn with pleasure that it is the intention of Professor M‘Aulay and Mr. E.G. Hogg to carry out a survey of Tasmania, and they anticipate that his work in conjunction with that in progress in New Zealand will lead to a valuable increase in our knowledge of the magnetic distribution of this part of the Southern Hemisphere, and they would express the hope that the interest which your resolution has undoubtedly aroused in these colonies may induce others in the part of Aus- tralasia as yet untouched to take up this work. The early years of the new century would in that case see the removal of the re- proach under which we at present exist—that we are standing in the way of progress in magnetic knowledge. 2.—FIFTH REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON GLACIAL ACTION IN AUSTRALASIA. EVIDENCES OF GLACIATION IN HINDMARSH VALLEY AND KANGAROO ISLAND. MEMBERS: Captain F. W. Hurton, F.R.S.; Mr. R. L. Jack, F.G.S., 42 ReGees Professor TATE, F.G.8.; Mr. R. M. JOHNSTON; Mr. G. SWEET, F.G.S.; Mr. J. STIRLING; Mr. W. HowcuHin, F.G.S.; Mr. E. -G. Hoae, M.A.; Mr. E. J. DUNN, F.G.S.; Mr. A. MONTGOMERY, M.A., F.G.S.; Mr. E. F. PirrMAn, A.R.S.M.; Professor T. W. E. DAvVIn, B.A., F.G.8. (Secretary). With Plates 1 and 2. SINCE our last report was presented to this association, observa- tions have been made which have advanced our knowledge of the area included in the extinct icefield in South Australia in two directions. One of these comprehends the Hindmarsh Valley, which is roughly parallel with the Inman Valley, already described ; and the other, more distant from the supposed centre of glacial action, comprehends the north-eastern portions of Kangaroo Island. Tue HrxpMarsH VALLEY. def. Trans: Royal Soc. 5:A.,; 1898; Vol. xx. p12: The Hindmarsh River, although possessing a distinct outlet to the sea, may be considered as belonging to a larger valley system, in which the Inman, the Hindmarsh, and the Back Valley are collateral lines of drainage. The Inman River occupies the cen- tral line of drainage in the main valley, confined by two lateral ranges of hills about 500 ft. to 600 ft. in height. The easterly range separates it from the Hindmarsh Valley on the one side, and the western range separates itfrom the Back Valley on the other. It has been shown in a former report that the Inman and Back Valleys, with the range of hills separating them, are comprehended in one continuous deposit of glacial drift, and as the Hindmarsh Valley, with its intervening range, must be included within the same larger valley system, it seemed highly probable that the Hindmarsh section would also yield proofs that it had been subjected to similar glacial conditions. This has now been demonstrated to be the case. GLACIAL ACTION IN AUSTRALASIA. 173 The Hindmarsh, which, although named a river, is really but an insignificant creek, makes a somewhat sudden descent from the hilly country known as the “ Hindmarsh Tiers,” at Nettles Hill, about 9 miles from the sea, and from this point flows through a rich ailuvial valley. The bed of the creek, for the most part, is in alluvial wash of considerable thickness, which effectually masks the geological features. Towards the head of the valley, however, on the Beaudesert Farm, and from thence to the foot of the ranges the glacial sandstone can be seen at intervals in the bed and sides of the creek. About a quarter of a mile below the Beaudesert farmstead the glacial beds have the character of a soft flagzy sandstone, carrying erratics, and ex- hibiting a dip of 18 degs. N.N.E. About a mile further north similar beds, with fewer erratics, form a cliff, on the western banks of the stream, 15 ft. in height. Here the beds have a dip of 12 deg. 8., 3 deg. E. At various points in the cultivated paddocks, as well as in the bed of the stream, near Beaudesert, and on the low range of hills separating the Hindmarsh from the Inman Valley, large eranite boulders up to 7 ft. in their longer axes were observed. The watershed between the two valleys named, which is about 3 miles wide, has a superficial covering of loose white sand, which is probably the result of the disintegration of the soft glacial sandstone which is seen in many places to underlie these surface features. No erratics were observed on the high ground at the head of the valley, and it seems likely that the abrupt escarpment of the Hindmarsh Tiers diverted the ice-flow in a westerly direction, where it found its outlet into the Inman Valley, joining the main stream, which in opposition to the present lines of drain- age overflowed the watershed of the Bald Hills, passing into the valley of the present Gulf St. Vincent. As the stream, in no part of its course below the Tiers, passes over bed-rock, and as the base of the glacial beds is not ex- posed, no opportunity was given for observing polished or striated surfaces on the elacial. floor. Kancaroo Isnanp. ef. Trans. Royal Society, S. Aus., Vol. xxiii. (1899), p. 198. The localities examined for glacial remains embraced the north-east portion of the island from Queenscliffe, around the Bay of Shoals, Point Marsden, and the northern coast as far west as Smith’s Bay. No special reason existed for selecting this district for observation, but it proved very fruitful of results. The geological features of the island are, to a great extent, obscured by superficial deposits of sand and travertine lime- 174 GLACIAL ACTION IN AUSTRALASIA. stone. The travertine beds are often seen as cappings, 12 to 20 ft. in thickness, on the sea cliffs, producing by their waste extensive talus slopes, covering from sight the underlying beds. This was the case in several instances when the presence of boulder clay was indicated by the existence of numerous large erractics on the adioining beach. The boulder clay becomes visible only where the lines of denudation have cut through the newer deposits, or the sea has exposed a section in the cliffs of the coast. The North Coast, as far as it was explored by the beach (from Point Marsden to Smith’s Bay) is more or less marked by the - presence of large erratics. As many as twenty could in places be counted within sight at one time. These measured up to 12 ft. in length, and consisted chiefly of granites, quartzites, eneissic, and other metamorphic rocks. No similar rocks occur on the island within many miles of the localities over which they are now distributed. The greatest numerical groupings of these transported blocks, on the north coast, occurred about three- quarters of a mile west from Point Marsden, and at Smith’s Bay. . The best exposure of glacial till met with during the visit was at Smith’s Bay. A very characteristic till bed is seen in the cliffs on the east side of the Bay, and contains some very large stones highly glaciated. The cultivated ground in the neighbourhood is the product of this boulder clay, and, in places, is so thickly strewn with large erratics that the land has had to be cleared of these before it could be ploughed, and in some cases the ground is too stony to be worked atall. Many of the boulders give the clearest evidences of their glacial origin by their grooved and polished faces. An extensive exposure of these beds can be seen in a small creek and adjoining scrub land, on the east side of the main road to Queenscliffe, about half a mile from the Bay. A sketch section of the beds, as they occur ot Smith’s Bay, is given on Plate II. A reference to the map (Plate I.) will show the occurrence of the glacial deposits in their inland extensions. At Emu Bay, as well as at Smith’s Bay, the boulder clay follows the low ground. The Emu Bay branch runs almost due south, skirting the base of Retties Bluff, and continues in the same direction to Salt Lagoon, in sec. 63, Hundred of Menzies, a dis- tance of 7} miles. The Smith’s Bay branch passes through the gap, in the Gap Hills, to about the same southern limits. The glacial exposures are for the most part marked by the presence of erratics, which are often of large size. At Smith’s Bay the till rests uncomformably on reddish and dark-coloured sandstones and shales of doubtful age. They are probably of paleeozoic age, but newer than the Cambrian beds of the mainland. The formation just described exists as the GLACIAL ACTION IN AUSTRALASIA. 175 bed-rock along the northern coast from Point Marsden to some distance west of Smith’s Bay. The glacial clay is not only un- conformable to this series, but its lithological features suggest a much more recent formation. The glacial till is overlain by two beds of very diverse character. The first, in ascending order, is a white, friable, quartzose sandstone, false-bedded in places, and is easily re- duced under atmospheric influences to a loose sand. The dis- integration and distribution of this bed may be the source of much of the sandy country which forms the bane of the agri- culturists on the island. I saw no erratics in this sandstone, which has evidently been formed under diiferent conditions from the underlying till, and yet may be in some way connécted with it. A coarse gritty sandstone, sometimes highly indurated, occurs in association with the glacial drift at Hallet’s Cove, Yankalilla and Inman Valley, and in these localities it not unfrequently carries erratics, but not always. At Queenscliffe (K. Is.) the sandstone rests on an indurated clay at sea level, but the latter is not sufficiently exposed to determine clearly whether it be the till or not. The white sandstone, just described, is overlain by an interest- ing sheet of basalt, forming flat-topped eminences at Kingscote and along the Gap Hills range, over a lineal distance of 12 miles. The basalt reaches a maximum thickness of about 200 ft., and is intimately jointed, vertically and horizontally, which leads to its breaking up readily into small prismatic fragments from 2 to 4 in. in length. Im consequence of this physical feature of the basait, the sides of the hills are thickly strewn with screes and talus belts at a much lower level than the parent rock. The geological age of this igneous overflow has not been determined, but it is probably Tertiary, or even later. Up to the present the stratigraphical relationship which the glacial beds may bear to the lower tertiaries has not been made clear. Although Eocene limestones occur at Queenscliffe, and also at a locality inland from Smith’s Bay, they are not seen in close proximity to the glacial beds. At Queenscliffe, be- tween tides, a stiff clay is seen to underlie the Eocene limestones, and apparently the same clay underlies the white sandstone and basalt at Kingscote, a mile further to the north, but from its low position and imperfect exposure it is a little doubtful whether it be the boulder clay or not. Its stratigraphical posi- tion is, however, analogous to that of the boulder clay on the north coast, and if it be the same bed which is seen under the Eocene cliffs of Queenscliffe there is a strong probability that the glacial features date from pre-eocene times. This point, however, awaits confirmation (a), as also the main centre of (a) Since this paper was written evidences have been obtained which leave little doubt that the clay referred to is of glacial origin. 176 GLACIAL ACTION IN AUSTRALASIA. radiation from which the ice flowed outwards. The northern portions of this extinct ice field give abundant evidence of the transporting agent having passed over the great granitic out- crops of the coast near Port Victor. Erratics exhibiting the lithological characteristics of the Port Victor granites were noted on Kangaroo Island, but these were mixed with other types which appeared different from those present in the northern part of the extinct glacial field. A more detailed in- vestigation of this subject, and comparison with the granitic outcrops of the southern coast of Kangaroo Island, may bring to hght evidences which were not apparent to us during a few days of hasty travel under very trying climatic conditions. The inclusion of Kangaroo Island within the region affected by a past ice age, reveals the enormous extent of the extinct glacial area in South Australia. The glacial field can now be roughly described as forming an obtuse isosceles triangle, having a base of 70 miles in an east and west direction from the Hindmarsh Valley to Smith’s Bay, with its apex at Hallet’s Cove, 40 miles to the north. This forms the largest area comprehended in any one extinct glacial field known in Australia, and it is improbable that the extent of the field has even yet been fully defined. Plate l. Vol. viii, 1907. Australasian Assoc. Adv. Sci. Sait dvVoO Sr GNy AVG SHLINS NSSML3AEG N OILOAS To face page 176. anne e Australasian Assoc. Ady. Sci., Vol. viii, 1901, Plate Il PLAN OF PART OF HUNDRED OF MENZI KANGAROO ISLAND. S ps0" etl GLACIAL CLAY g : 92: oy i = parece S Po Le i ee we iro | 44w | 44 Sea Rh Op {} | SSF Af eae ‘28 Ae arn POEM as ARAM camer cea he Tol eT e0al 2001 | ENE { ne at To face page 176. 3.—REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE PHOTOGRAPHIC WORK OF GEHOLOGICAL SURVEYS. MEMBERS: Mr. P. BARACCHI, F.R.A.S.; Professor T. W. E. DAvip, B.A.; Mr. T. FOURBER, F.R.A.S., L.S.; Sir JAMES HEcTOoR, K.C.M.G., M.D. tf i.e.; Professor R. TATE, F.G.S., F-L.5.;\ Mr. J. H. HARVEY, A.R.V.I.A. (Secretary). THis committee, which was appointed at the meeting held at Hobart in January, 1892, presented a progress report at the meeting, held in Adelaide in 1893; it was reappointed at that meeting, a slight alteration having been made in its constitution, but it was found impracticable to bring up a further report in 1895, and at the Brisbane meeting in that year the committee was not reappointed. At the meeting held in Sydney in January, 1898, it was re- constituted, three of the original members (Sir J. Hector, Professor R. Tate, and the secretary) being still upon it. Since the last meeting the subject has received much atten- tion, and as the treatment of purely geological photography was fully dealt with in the report presented at the Adelaide meeting, the subject of topographical photography alone will be given consideration in this report, as was foreshadowed in the opening remarks of the 1893 report. It is not intended to give an exposition of the theory, or a full account of the practical means and methods employed either in the field or in office work for the execution of photographic surveys. Such an undertaking would now be superfluous, in view of the complete treatises upon the subject published. by Laussedat, in France; Capt. E. Deville, in Canada; Paganini, in Italy; and Reed, in America, besides other contributions to societies’ transactions, periodicals, &c., but it is considered that it will be sufficient to mention some points in connection with what has been done lately in Italy and Canada, the two countries which are at present probably the most conspicuous exponents of activity in the application of photography to surveying. In Italy this work has been carried out since 1878 by the Royal Geographical Military Institute at the instigation of General Ferrero. r The successful completion of topographic maps to a scale of 1/25,000 with hypsometric contour lines at every 10 metres, M 178 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC WORK OF GEOLOGICAL SURVEYS. ecnstructed from photographic survey of broken and difficult parts of the Alps, which were executed by Paganini in 1879- 85, so clearly proved the efficiency and economy of the method that the new survey of the whole country is now being made by the aid of photography. The work done in Italy is universally admitted to be of the highest degree of perfection attainable. The difficult photo-survey of portions of the country, includ- ing elevations of over 15,000 ft., such as Mount Rosa, has been accomplished also. At the Vienna Exhibition of charts and maps, which was held in 1891, under the auspices of the nineteenth Congress of German Geographers, an Italian topographic map of a scale of 1/50,000, which had been made in 1889 from photo-surveys, gained first place. These are sound proofs of the value of photo-topography. In Canada the results have been still more remarkable ; photo-surveying has been conducted over vast areas by the topo- eraphers of the Dominion under the direction of the Surveyor- General, Capt. E. Deville. The regions dealt with include the Rocky Mountains along the Canadian-Pacific Railway, and they extend for many hun- dreds of miles, comprising altitudes exceeding 10,000 ft. From these surveys a topographic chart was constructed to a scale of 1/40,000, with contour lines at vertical intervals of 100 ft. The chart is in fifteen sections, and it represents a zone 20 miles on each side of the railway, and 1500 miles in leneth. The surveys were accomplished in three years by the engineer, Mr. M‘Arthur, with the assistance of a topographer and two labourers, and Capt. Deville states that the cost of the field work and the preparation of the map did not exceed $2.84 per square mile. This party can actually complete photo-survey work at the rate of 500 square miles per annum. The chart just mentioned was exhibited at the Columbian World’s Fair, and the instrument used will be described under the head of “ Instruments.” It is stated that the degree of accuracy attained in mapping from data derived from these photographic perspectives is equal to that of the ordinary plotting by protractor and scale, or of a map executed with the plane table. With regard to the rapidity with which these photo-surveys are accomplished, Cap- tain Javary, in France, made in the year 1874 in one day a survey extending 14 miles in length, and 1 mile on each side of the route. Lieut. Reed, in the United States, completed in ten hours all the field work for the accurate mapping of an area of 27 square miles with the necessary levels for hypsometric contouring, taking four or five views at each of three principal and two auxiliary stations. THE PHOTOGRAPHIC WORK OF GEQLOGICAL SURVEYS. 179 It is evident, therefore, that there are magnificent records, which go far to show the virtues of photo-topography, and it is hoped that their influence will be widely felt in the proper quar- ters in Australia. INSTRUMENTS. It may now be expedient to consider some of the forms of instruments that have been made use of or recommended. ConTINENTAL MetHop.—PHOTO-THEODOLITES. This is a combination of the transit theodolite and the camera; there are several forms, but usually the camera rests on a vernier plate, and carries either on the top or on one side a telescope and a vertical circle. The “ Bridges-Lee” instrument, made by Casella, is complete, but its adjustments are complex, and its use requires a large amount of care. In Laussedat’s photo-theodolite, which is of Parisian manu- facture, one of the latest forms has the camera resting on the top of a transit theodolite, having the supports, which carry the Y bearings of the horizontal axis of the telescope, extended up- wards, so that the telescope may ‘pass clear under the bottom of the camera. There is another form in which the eye-piece is placed at the back of a rectangular camera to form a telescope in con- junction with the photographic objective. The camera in this form rests upon a horizontal vernier plate rotating around a vertical axis. The instrument used in Italy is a camera in the form of a square pyramid mounted on a vernier plate, which plate also carries a standard vertical arm, to which is fixed a telescope and vertical circle, &c. The instrument is levelled by three screws resting on the vernier plate ; two fine platinum wires are stretched at right angles just in front of the plate, and determine by their intersection the collimation axis. The camera accurately rotates round the vertical axis of the instrument, and the proper accessories are provided for adjusting the parallelism of its axis of collimation with that of the telescope. A Steinheil aplantic lens of 240 m.m. focal length, aperture of diaphragm 2 m.m., is used, and the size of the plate is 18 x 24 centimetres. This photo-theodolite has been improved by Paganini. In the new form the telescope is omitted, the camera itself being made t» act as the observing telescope, being centrally mounted, and rotating in all respects like the telescope of a transit theodolite, and having the photographic lens as the objective, and the eye-piece mounted on a metallic plate, which replaces the ground glass of the camera when visual observations are to be made. Some of these photo-theodolites are very complicated and delicate instruments, and are apparently not very suitable for M 2 180 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC WORK OF GEOLOGICAL SURVEYS. rough work, such as much of that which would have to be done in these colonies, and they are very expensive. We now propose to give attention to instruments of a simpler nature. One of the best consists of a rectangular box having an open- ing at one end for the purpose of inserting the plate holder or dark slide, and a lens in front, with all necessary adjustments for levelling and for ensuring the important condition of the maintenance of the relative positions of the plate and the objec- tive; it is, in fact, a “ fixed focus” camera, the focus being ad- justed for parallel rays. It should be constructed of metal, and should be perfectly accurate. This camera rests on a tripod with levelling screws, the tripod head screwing on to an ordinary theodolite tripod stand. Such a camera is used simply for photographing the views, all measurements of angles being made with a theodolite—a separate instrument. In Canada a simple camera is used; it is a rectangular metallic box carrying two sets of cross levels and the photo- graphic objective, and it is placed within a mahogany box with openings for reading the levels, and having proper fittings at the bottom for mounting it on a plate provided with three level- ling screws. The lens is a Zeiss anastigmat No. 3, Series V., 141 m.m. focal length, and an orange screen is used in the front. The plate holder or dark slide is inserted loosely, and then a screw arrangement, which is provided for the purpose, sends it home against the back of the metallic box, so that it always occupies the same position during the exposure of the plate. The photographic plates used are isochromatic 64 in. x 42 in., and the angle of view is 60 deg. After as many views as may be required are taken from:any given station, the camera is taken from the stand, and replaced by a theodolite, which fits on the same plate. The exposed plates are not developed on the spot, but are put up in batches of two dozen, packed in double tin boxes, and forwarded to Ottawa for development. The committee is of opinion that this report, taken with the previous one, deals with all the important points of the ques- tion, and suggests that, as this work is of a national character, and as it is important that the same system should be observed throughout Australasia, the council of the association should approach the Federal Government after its constitution with a view of impressing upon it the importance of proceeding with- out delay, with the aid of photography, in the commencement of the topographical and geological survey of the whole of the territory which is under its control. J. H. HARVEY, A.R.V.LA., Secretary to the Committee. PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTIONS. : ' oe ei i] a i ' - TY, fo yi od « - » i ~ * ¥ . , 7 - . ’ , i . \ cE, _ ‘ a ‘ * . . PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTIONS. Section A. ASTRONOMY, MATHEMATICS, AND PHYSICS. —_—_—_—. 1.—THE ANNUAL MARCH OF TEMPERATURE AT MELBOURNE. By R. T. A. Barnarp, M.A. (Printed in “ Philosophical Magazine,” October, 1900.) 2.—THE LUNAR ECLIPSE OF JUNE, 1899. By A. B. Biaas. 3.—ON THE PRODUCTION OF MICROMETRIC AND DIFFRACTION RULINGS. By Henry J. Grayson. [ Abstract. | Axsout six years ago I had occasion to use some finely-ruled glass plates, not exceeding the .01 in. in thickness, the lines upon them ranging from .02 in. to .004 in. apart. These, I found, were not readily obtainable commercially, so that I had to devise some method of producing them for myself. After a few experiments, I soon found I had no difficulty in ruling lines greatly exceeding in fineness and accuracy any of the kind I had hitherto seen, and as the matter was interesting to me, from a microscopical standpoint, I pursued it apart from my immediate requirements. 184 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. The apparatus I first devised and used was exceedingly simple in principle, and consisted essentially of a fine steel screw and wedge of glass, the incline of the latter bearing some definite ratio to the pitch of the former. This glass wedge travelled along a bed, or base-plate, also of glass, being kept in position by means of a slot cut along its surface. As the wedge was propelled forward by the screw it raised a vertical plate, accurately adjusted at right angles to the base-plate, and as free as possible from movement other than that imparted to it. by the wedge. To this vertical plate the slide, or disc to be ruled upon, was attached by means of a suitable cement. A platform, for the support of a sliding diamond carriage, bridged the base-plate and wedge at a suitable height, being, of course, arranged transversely to and in front of the vertical slide. With this roughly constructed apparatus I was able to pro- duce ruled bands, or groups of lines, ranging from 5000 up to 50,000 lines per inch. The apparatus has since been com- pletely rebuilt, being variously modified and altered in accord- ance with experience gained, and the greater precision de- manded by the class of work subsequently undertaken. My work has tended mainly in the direction of perfecting rulings for micrometric measurements, and for test purposes. To accomplish this, I have had so to modify and improve the apparatus with which J first commenced work, as to render it capable of precise and accurate movements much less than .00001 in. Also to select and mount diamonds with knife edges of a fineness or keenness equal to the grouping together of lines less than .00001 in. apart, and yet of such strength and durability as to be capable of producing many thousands of such lines without material alteration in character. And, lastly, but by no means least, so to mount these rulings as to— exhibit them in the best possible manner, while at the same time ensuring their permanency as microscopical preparations. Dealing with these essential features in the order stated, I will first describe somewhat more fully some of the more im- portant modifications of the apparatus, the principal features of which are, as already indicated, a sliding table, carrying the plate to be ruled, elevated, or, more correctly, precisely advanced by a wedge propelled by means of a screw. Wedge, base-plate, screw, ruling table, and diamond carriage, are all supported by, or connected to, a single metal casting, resting upon and surrounded by a mahogany casing. Some parts are necessarily detachable ; for instance, the screw and its bear- ings, which is complete in itself, also the various sliding wedges, the pitches or gradients of which range from 1 in 2 to 1 in 100. These wedges, which are interchangeable, are all of glass, accurately ground, but not polished. Their contact points are PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. 185 small polished facets of agate, three in number. All the wedge faces, as also the base-plate face, have been produced by grind- ing together three pieces of similar dimensions, so as to obtain an approximately true plane; polishing has in no case been resorted to, as being likely to affect the truth of the surface obtained by grinding. The diameter of the screw is about 2 of an inch, with a pitch of 25 to the inch. It was cut, ground, and polished in the main, after the manner recommended by Rowlands. The nut, which alone travels, is adjustable, and transmits its motion to the wedges by means of two steel guide rods parallel to the screw axis, and connected with the nut by means of a swivel ring. The screw itself is maintained in position in its bear- ings by means of a thrust plate of polished sapphire at one end, and a powerful spring at the other. The head of the screw, which is about 4 in. in diameter, is divided into 360 degs., reading by means of a vernier to 6 minutes. It is provided with mechanism to ensure the accurate repetition of any given reading automatically. The vertical table, or, rather, slide, for carrying the plates or discs to be ruled upon, consists of a sliding rod, the inequali- ties of which have been removed by grinding. This travels in agate-faced V ways. The base of the rod rests upon a glass plate in contact with the upper surface of the wedge at three points only. This plate is held in position by a glass-faced vertical slide, with which it is in contact at two points, which are agate facets. The diamond carriage, which supports the mechanism neces- sary to afford some four movements of the diamond point around a central axis, as well as affording the essential traverse movements, rests upon a platform of heavy plate-glass highly polished, having five contact points, which in this case are facets :f ivory, which is found to afford the smoothest frictional movement, and requires no lubrication—a point of importance. The traverse motion, as well as the lowering and raising of the diamond point at the beginning and end of the lines, is im- parted and controlled by a lever. The selection, setting, and cutting action of the diamond is of the utmost importance. Nearly all the stones I have used have been obtained from Bingara, N.S.W. IT have tried Brazilian and West Indian diamonds, also the black diamond or carbonado, none of which appear to possess any advantage over those obtained from New South Wales. Some little time ago I received from Dr. Van Heurck, of Ant- werp, two stones which had been specially prepared, after the method of Nobert, by one of the most skilful diamond workers 186 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. in that city, neither of which was of any value, the cutting edges being much too blunt for fine work. My own method of preparation is to carefully break the stones so as to ensure fracture parallel with some of the numerous cleavage planes. The fragments so obtained are examined under the microscope as to the perfection or otherwise of the angles or edges and faces forming them, the promising pieces being put aside for trial. Good results have also been obtained with stones upon which Jarge facets had been ground on the outer, or natural face and afterwards broken so that one face of the knife edge was artificially formed, while the other followed the line of cleavage. Excellent cutting angles have been obtained, too, in the case of stones, one face of which forms the outer coating, or skin as it is termed, of the uncut gem. I always set or mount the diamond so that its cutting edge is perfectly parallel with the line to be cut, and slightly raised in the direction in which it is to travel. This is contrary to what one would expect, comparing the action of a diamond with a steel graver or other cutting instrument for like purposes, but when it is remembered that the faces, the junction of which from the cutting edge wear more rapidly than the edge itself, one sees the analogy no longer holds good. In the setting and adjustment of the diamonds it is important to remember that, in the case of test rulings at any rate, the lines after being ruled must on no account be rubbed or polished, consequently, the material removed must be deposited on one side or the other of the groove formed, and this involves the utmost nicety of ad- justment of the cutting edge, and not infrequently is a consider- able tax upon one’s time and patience. The finer the ruling, the ereater is the importance to be attached to this particular fea- ture. The J/ength of the cutting edge is also of moment. The longer the edge within certain limits, soon ascertained by ex- perience, and providing it is perfectly straight, the longer will it endure, but as depth and breadth of line are important fac- tors, too long an edge implies too great a pressure strain to produce a line of given depth and width. The pressure upon the diamond to produce a line of a certain depth and breadth, I apply, in the case of micrometric rulings, by means of a spring controlled by a screw; this gives good results up to a rate of 20,000 lines per inch, but beyond this the friction involved is detrimental. The variation of pressure requisite in test plate ruling is obtained by means of a series of weights, ranging from 20 grammes or more down to a fraction of 1 eramme. In the matter of spacing, it is of the utmost importance that a correct standard should be obtained as a basis for all micro- metric measurements. At the outset, I obtained copies of por- PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. 187 tions of the standards in use at the Melboure Observatory, both metrical and English inch values. On carefully examining these I found a slight discrepancy between the inch scale, as copied directly from the standard, and the same values obtained by computation and ruling from the metrical standard. As I had no means of determining which of the two scales was most likely to be correct, I adopted the metrical scale as it stood as my standard for metrical values, and the inch values, as copied from the standard inch scale, as a standard for frac- tional values of an inch. At a later date I submitted several micrometer rulings to Mr. E. M. Nelson, a recognised authority upon ali matters connected with measurements of this cha- racter, with the result that it was found that the ratio of inch to m.m. was, in the case of my inch rulings, 25.3821, instead of 25.39997, but as the metrical values proved to be correct, in comparison with the best standards, I have since adopted this scale as a basis for both systems. It may be of interest to knew how I determine that lines stated to be ruled, say, at the rate of 90,000 per inch, are really of that value. For this it is only necessary to adjust the relationship of the wedge to the screw once for all, so that forty revolutions of the latter give a movement = .02 in., in which case one revolution will equal .0005 in. As the error in forty revolutions can easily be brought within 1/50,000th of an inch, the error in 1/40th of this is a negligible quantity. The screw head being divided into 360 dee. reading by a vernier to 1/10th of a degree, 8 deg. cf movement of ‘the screw head advance, the plate being ruled the 90,000th part of an inch, and so, proportionately, for other values up to 120,000 lines per inch, the finest I have ruled, which have so far been resolved. . In passing, I may state that the finest lines it has been possible to resolve or separate, by means of the most perfect microscopical apphances hitherto constructed by the best makers, have not exceeded 120,000 per inch. I have as yet said nothing concerning the glass most: suitable for ruling upon. Ordinarily the outer. crust. or surface of the glass as it leaves the makers’ hands is much too hard and brittle for the purpose, and speedily ruins the hardest diamonds. This is especially so in the case of thin unannealed microscopical cover glass, which it is essential to use for many purposes. Hence it occurred to me that it might be possible to so modify and alter the surface of this glass by a process of annealing that better results would be obtained. After some few trials I found that by enclosing carefully cleaned cover glass in a metal ‘capsule, and slowly heating to a certain point, short of actual softening, and allowi ing the cooling process to extend over as long a period as possible, the glass proved to be both softer and tougher, and at the same time far less liable to any alteration 188 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. due to changes in temperature, or the relief of certain surface strains inherent to the glass in its unannealed condition. I pass on now to a matter of equal importance with any hitherto dealt with, viz., the preservation of the completed rulings. Ordinarily in the case of micrometer rulings varying from 1 m.m. to .01 m.m. all that is necessary is to fill the lines with graphite, and mount the cover on a slip with Canada bal- sam. But this method is not suited to the finer rulings, or where it is desirable to preserve the lines without the graphite filling, as in the case of test plates. Nor is it possible to pre- serve them by attaching the cover glass to a cell wall or ring of cement or wax, as is frequently done with other micro- scopical preparations. I myself tried every, or almost every, known cement and wax cell at all suited to the purpose, and in every instance it was only a question of time, probably a year or more, and the cover glass became coated or covered with minute crystals in some instances, or microscopical beads of moisture in others, to such an extent as to detract greatly from the beauty and perfection of the lines, and in some cases to partially ob- literate the finer bands altogether. It, therefore, remained for me to endeavour to mount the ruled plates in a medium pos- sessing a refractive index differing from glass by an amount equal to the difference between glass and air. Several such media existed, and had been used for other purposes, but with only partial success. These were prosphorus, sulphur, and realgar, or arsenic disulphide. The latter appeared to me the most promising substance to work with, seeing it possesses a refractive index equal to 2.549, but its use is attended with many difficulties, and J worked with it for nearly a year with only partial success. I soon abandoned all attempts to use it in a liquid form dissolved in the usual solvent, bromine, which I found both uncertain and dangerous to use, and turned my at- tention to the production of thin films by sublimation. With these I was more successful, and after a time was able to pro- duce exceedingly thin films, which have so far proved quite per- manent. Some of the films here shown have been mounted over two years, while those sent to London some little time ago with- stood all the changes of temperature to which they were sub- jected on the journey without showing any signs of depreciation. As tc the general results I have so far achieved, I cannot do better than quote from the presidential address of the president of the Royal Microscopical Society for last year, to whom samples of the various rulings were submitted for critical ex- amination, the quotation being as follows:—‘“ You have re- ceived a valuable present from Mr. H. J. Grayson, of Melbourne, . of micrometric rulings, mounted in a high refractive medium, the refractive index of which is as great as that of a diamond, viz., 2.549. This subject is of so great importance that special PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. 189 attention must be given to it. This importance is twofold— fir-t the medium, secondly the rulings. “Mr. Grayson’s are said to be on a new formula (not pub- lished), and are quite permanent. There can be no doubt that both the diatoms and the rulings mounted in it show up in a very superior manner. Now, with regard to the micrometric rulings, the most important of the slides is the one which con- tains 100ths and 1000ths of an inch, and 10ths and 100ths of a millimetre. I have carefully micrometrically measured these rulings with an oil immersion, ¢ of 1.43 N.A., and a very fine micrometer eye piece by Powell. Taking the ruling of .001 in. first, we find that the mean for the ten ruled spaces gives a micrometric value of 450.25 divisions of the screw head. The difference between this mean and the widest space was + 1.25 divisions, and the least was — 1.25. Now, as the value of one division is 1/450,250 in., the maximum and minimum error in each case is 1/360,200 in. This may seem to some ridiculous ; but allow me to state that a half of a single division made a differ- ence that could be perceived. Therefore, it appears that. while with the best microscopical appliances of the present day you cannot separate a quantity less than, say, 1/120,000 to 1/30,000 in., yet you can measure inequalities in larger objects, certainly up to 1/500.000 in., and probably less, as half a divi- sion of my micrometer meant under the conditions in which it was used 1/900,000 in. “Now with regard to the millimetre rulings, we find that they are remarkably accurate, the maximum differences from a mean of 354.7 for .02 mm., being only + 1.72 and — 1.27. As the value for one micrometer division is .05637 »., the maximum and minimum errors are + .097 and — .072 w. respectively. With regard to the ratio between the inch and millimetre scales we have— Now the value of the inch with the metre, both being at a temperature of 62 dee. F., is 25.3999779; we see, therefore that Grayson’s has slightly too small a ratio. “To illustrate the advance we have in Mr. Grayson’s micro- meter, an old one was measured, and the difference between inaximum and minimum values was found to be no less than 1/16,270 in.—a very difierent result. “When Mr. Grayson’s millimetre rulings were compared with those by Mr. Rogers, it was found they came out very favour- ably. Unfertunately, Mr. Rogers’ scale is mounted dry, and has sweated considerably, consequently the measurements could not be carried to so fine a point as before. Mr. Grayson’s rulings 190 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. being mounted in a dense medium, stand out clearer and sharper than those which have been plumbagoed and mounted in balsam.” The complete series of measurements upon which the calcula- tions in the extract just quoted are based have been kindly for- warded to me by Mr. Nelson, and are subjoined. | SCREW MICROMETER VALUES. OBJECTIVE 4 O11 IMMERSION APO- CHROMATIC, 1.43 N.A. ILLUMINATION 3/4 AXIAL CONE. 001 Inch . Measurements. A—451.0 B—450.0 C—450.0 Difference of maximum intervals F and D—450.0 J from mean = + 1.25. E— 450.0 F—451.5 Difference of minimum interval H from G—449.5 mean = — 1.95, H—449.0 LORE This reduced to inches = : inch. J —451.5 360,200 450,25 mean reading. .01 mm. MEASUREMENTS. CONDITIONS SAME AS BEFORE. Two INTERVALS TAKEN FOR EACH MEASURE. A—354.5 B—355.5 C—356.5 Difference of maximum interval C D—355.5 fr —— BD rom mean = + 1.72. E—354.0 I —354 0 Difference of minimum space H G—353.5 fr disteery 27 3555 rom mean = — 1.27. T — 355.5 ; Reidy) ce These values are equivalent to +.097087 | 9)3193.0 and —.072033 p respectively. 2) 354.7 = .02 mm. 177.38 = ,01'mm. Only one other matter remains for me to refer to, viz., my experiments with, or attempts to produce, diffraction gratings. To effect this, it was necessary to render the ruling machine completely automatic. This was conveniently done, experimen- tally, by means of an electric motor driven by current from four large Daniel’s cells. The capacity of my screw with the ratchet used cnly enabled me to rule some 13,000 lines without a stop- page. To rule this number of lines occupied some twenty hours, more or less ; 600 lines per hour gave good results. Un- fortunately, I possessed no suitable speculum metal for ruling upon, and therefore had to fall back upon plate-glass, which PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. 191k soon told severely upon the cutting edge of the diamonds used, although, in one instance, I ruled with the same diamond be- tween 200,000 and 300,000 lines without appreciable alteration in the character of the line cut. I am hoping to take up this particular work again at no distant date, with improved appli- ances and material, and consequently with greater prospects of SUCCESS. In concluding this paper, I have to acknowledge most valu- able assistance at the hands of several friends. More partiecu- larly, I am very greatly indebted to my friend Mr. William Stone, electrical engineer to the Victorian Railways, and Mr. James Wedeles, of Armadale. 4—ON CERTAIN SURFACE AND VOLUME INTEGRALS OF AN ELLIPSOID, By->He ‘Gi Hoce. WA. Tue following paper is an application of the theorem JS{[(tutmv+nwydS= Sif (GE+4 gu yt gee, in which the first integral is taken over the sur ae of the ellipsoid ee = - 1=0, and the second through the volume enclosed by the ellipsoid, 7, v, w being, with their first deriva- tives, finite, continuous, single-valued functions of the variables 2 The method employed is illustrated by a few examples, and the results are embodied in a table. The direction-cosines of the normal at any point on the ellipsoid being = p ee Ls Zi , the surface-integral takes the form, 2’ A=KE (+ oy, +r )as b C ExampLe I.—Let u =a’ x, v=? y,w =c* z; then (A) becomes —du,dv,dw Sip(e@+y+ 2PdS =ffprdS,andaz= =@V+R +c? = x(a’). Hence. //prdS=3(@)//fdV=3(@)V. Gi) Wiemann ae 192 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. Exampre II.—Let u = x (= + a + =) ae b? Cc? oe sr aes * a % a whence 4 = 3 S*¥ 4 2 Bos +7 +—)= Cn + 3) 5" Ee) a a Examp.e III.—To evaluate J [3 (=+ = 7) where Pp, and p, are the principal radii of curvature at any rae of the ellipsoid. aie aave determining the lengths of the radii of curva- 4 ture is - as sas saz =o snk yf" 1 1 = where L = C. +a) at (= +- at + (+ :) entire Letty col Py P2 Se y 2 Sfi 1 1 Selet x) ameeas 1 Ip butt, Ti, 94 Likioalitgeae ==/fh del Pints a Mas eos “lds = oe ux y Naa as. whereu == (jo + pas fe 1) and w= — Aas ~) 1 H ae. Dafoe a he ene &=2 (tart apr) “i ee =)=? s (sz) ie oe 193 A Zl PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. por?) <—"AP VT +2544 we, ope a spud lf Aves {J s\e owen nt ee) NI | uS 2% 9 ;0 =n ot x f= -v ‘——_ =>) oy) 4D Sg ga af _ n x D = x ‘AxX=N rd ‘iS Ax SNn hope ( Dies 1 0 ‘Sv=n ‘~ Un ' SECTION A. OF PROCEEDINGS 194 <. (v ) © @ + ( gv ) Ss | |= spud || gt, 9= M@‘gt4h eq = a ‘g4¥,0=MN ‘OI ge. i iF _ SP (09 + hg + wv vw) ad [f gt Zp I= Ma ghhyQ=a ‘ghAXy VD =H “GT AStADS] (w) s 5+ ws < (9) |= x) 29 9 AP (= re eae l-#* & v6 qd ane GJ _ he Fee aa Cr aa ee Z,9 - aq i cu 2 od ee 2,9, 9\(o wo, w (( bp iO Bg a AO A (=) caplet ere, (52245) z Bees : for ae TAT) 284,147) #11 - I z Il 5 7 AP (4 wy¥) ({f ; foi irae. de, rt z oe re) at oF re cgt We wv) s ue ess see a il ati, eal PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. 195 1 1 1 1 : TG » 4 A Se as (az) oY. ¥ Ss Be 6 1 18. a" efi: Ga)} + 23 (; s) |ev. 19. ea peer ee Py P2 20) el +=y)d5 = s (ez)?” eee In 17 and the two following p; and p, are the principal radii of curvature at the point x, y, s; in 20 7 and 72 are the lengths of the semi-axes of the central section parallel to the tangent plane at x, y, z, and in 21 a is the length intercepted by the ellipsoid on the normal at x, y, z. pe ~I t I take this opportunity of thanking Mr. R. J. A. Barnard, M.A., University of Melbourne, for his kindness in verifying the accuracy of the integrals in the preceding table. 5—FLUID VISCOSITY AND ITS TEMPERATURE VARIATION. By R. Hosk1ne. (Printed in the “ Philosophical Magazine,” March, 1900.) 6.—NOTE ON THE PERMEABILITY OF SAMPLES OF STEEL CAST IN MELBOURNE. By Witrrip N. Kernot, B.C.E. [Abstract with Plate ITT.) Tus object of this investigation is to determine the permeability of locally-manufactured cast steels with reference to their fitness for making dynamo fields and other similar magnetic structures. The tests were made on rings by the method of reversals, using a low resistance ballistic galvanometer. The magnetify- N 2 196 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. ing currents were measured on a Siemens dynamometer (No. 2686), which had previously been checked with a Kelvin electric balance (No. 528), the error being less than 4 of 1 per cent. The ballistic galvanometer was calibrated, both from an earth inductor and a current inductor before and after each test. The conclusions arrived at are :— (a) That the cast steel made by the Heskett process is fairly suitable for the work, although it is not so good as imported steel. The elbow of the curve being rather low. (6) That the crucible cast steel is inferior to the Heskett steel. For the sake of comparison a welded ring of common annealed wrought-ir-n was tested at the same time, and the results are included in the diagram. 7. — ELECTROMAGNETIC REFLECTION AND REFRACTION. By Proressor A. MacAutnay, M.A. 8.—NOTE ON SPECIFIC INDUCTIVE CAPACITY OF SELENIUM. By T. P. V. MaApseEn. [ Abstract. ] Tue method adopted was that used by Prof. Threlfall and Mr. Brearley in their work on the Specific Inductive Capacity of Sulphur, described in the “ Philosophical Transactions,” Vol. 187 (1896). The selenium was first prepared by Prof. Threlfall, and cast into a plate by Mr. Brearley. After the first set of ex- periments, the cake was broken up and recast. On _ being heated, the selenium first became sticky, then suddenly solidi- fied, and finally melted. After another series of experiments, the cake was again broken up, and found very free from air bubbles, and remelted. The results for the first plate gave an average of 5.61; for the second, 5.78; and the third (one ex- periment only), 5.83. 9.—-A GRAVITY BALANCE. By Proressors THRELFALL AND POLLOCK. Australasian Assoc. Ady. Sci., Vol. viii, 1901. Plate Ill. al 10000 =" Oo ‘ 9000 a ; 4 URVES 41 (| S\_| = 8000 | = Y | = 5 ‘ | 7000 To face page 196. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. 197 10.— THE BICYCLE WHEEL. By B. A. Suir, M.C.E. WE assume that the number of spokes, supposed radial, is very great, so that we may regard the tension applied to the rim to be uniformly distributed round it and to amount to ¢ per unit length. Let a=radius of wheel mea- sured to c. g. of rim, and suppose that there is an initial tension in thespokes amounting to ¢ per unit length of arc. This pro- duces a radial displace- ment — 2, throughout, and a corresponding rim ten- sion — T,, the centre being supposed fixed. When the load is applied a further radial displace- ment w is produced (to- gether with a corresponding tangential displacement v), which gives rise to a tension ¢= wu, which is to be superposed on éo, ay: a ,in which x is the number of spokes, H where \ = 27 a a the sectional area of a spoke, and Y is Young’s Modulus of the material. Calling T, L, M the rim tension, the shear and the bending moment respectively at P measured as Fig. 1, we have for equilibrium of the element P Q of the rim T + 6 Ef \--L oe — T= 6 L+6L+7T760+ta60-—-L=o0 M+656M+Laéé@ -M-=o or at do = ie a: eA.) CD) di aqetitta=o ai) tes) d M ; d 6 =I a= oO Ble’ (3) We have also 3 d*u M=Kéx=- g («+ dB: (4) where K is the bending moment required to produce unit increase of curvature in the rim. 198 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. ‘K = Y Gr? (approximately), where G = area of section of rim, and r=radius of gyration of rim, about an axis through its c. g. parallel to the axis of the wheel.] ee We 73 me hey (i) YG dv =e ¥Y Gf he ae eee tT) From (1) and (3) M + aT = constant = E, say ... aus Ui, From (4), (6), and (7) Ae? MN a E f=vul op+u)+F).. (8) From (3) and (4) I1dM_ Kd fd? Tie L=-@de@ ado\ae * — + (9) Hence from (2). (5), (6), (8), and (9) Ee 20h ogg Nee Re ra! Ea — 2 ] aa = — do eet ke Sa late or ae A particular integral of (10) is cee Sige | w= - sr ereeh and the complementary function is v0 —vo 1 = | A cos 10 + Bsin wd . + 1 C cos uO + Dsin wé i ¢ (12) where Viv hat | a/ Fy cena A 7 - (13) LEY ERG NT ene OS | eh, Rt ea ee Hence the solution of (10) is ] vé —v®0 i 1 A cos »wO6+ B sin pw @ went {c cos 9+ D sin pw? iz Bal = * (14) ~ Nat +K In order that we may have “,~ “. (the suffix denoting the 6G 20-0 5 position of the point under consideration), we must have ZV C3 (A cos 2m + B sin 2 wr) ae (A sin 27 — Beos 2 um) PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. 199 so that we have vo f a 8) =(AcosuO+Bsinud)e + | (A cosu(27-0)+B sin yp (2 7-8) E a? hat +K ci) we have at once du v0 v(27-6) Tp= A+ UB) {cos uO x e —cosu(27r-8) xe i v8 (27 — 6) + (— wA+yB) fe sin wO—e sin (2 m6) (16) d2u ve y (27-6) ) =7 aa A+2yuvB) {e cos wO+e cos pm (2 w— 8) gpa vy (2 7-8) 2 = (2uvA +B) je sin 48 +e sin p (2 -8)} (7) aS a - ve v(27-90) } ee (14+-2¢?)A+p(1— 2? )B) }e ) ¢ cos —e Cos p. (2 7 — 9) ( :, v(27 6) + \u(r-202)A-v(rt2n7) Bh f Ve sinwO—e sin w (2-0) (18) vo vy (2 r—-8@) 1+ u a= (t= 4 ut yt) Ang uy 3 ye cos LO+e cos uw (2 r— 9) i ( cay El VBE vy (27-8) i a Te Peal ae 2, EG. Vane sin uw (2 7-9) a) and these satisfy (10). From (6) and (8) dv | oe ace do*"-YG| a? \d@ Hence dv d? u E Nat as sds 20 ao =you d @? + (vow = +YG on Hence if we write for short vA —-pB=A',pA+rB=P,rvA+pB=C, —-pA+vB=D, we have F Ja E Diet Fi Wl Nal °K) l we } A’cos 20+ B! sin pb a Yep? nae 2 ) Fs sa i = cos w(2m7-—6)+ B’ sinp(2a7- at, eae al Mee ie |C’ cos 0+ D'sin pot .”° YG OV— $0 cos wlam- 0) +D’sin p (2-0) ¢ .” 27-9 (21) 200 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. In order that we may have % = - ¥,,_ g, we must have eo. ee 1+ 4G) ha'+K YG (22) We have now 3 arbitrary constants, viz., A, B, E. To deter- mine these, we have when 9 = o (vo i. = —L ) ’ ae - a aie ee v =|0 3 a — 0 i; = : W : l : From (21) and (22), remembering that 7 = 0, and restoring the unaccented letters, na? E A a? MO ] . eS oa parr ke (1° ve ) meen * (ree Ly PHP (8 PAIGE [ (yA - wB) (1-e cos 2u7)—-(uA+vB)sin2u7 xe ] (23) From (16) ZT 2vVT (vy A +B) (1-e cos 2u7m) + (uw A-—vBoe sin 2 LT = O (24) From (9) by means of (16) and (18), and remembering - =o : a - y(1+2yu?2)A-p(2v?)B i +[ Jo(r +22) Atm(x—202) Bt cos 2.7 f aA Ae: Bl aS BP eee DA) = gui t2 75) V(r Qa) 3 sin zum |e 2K (25) Tw 2v If, as is generally the case, e last three equations become ma? Res 2 oe OLY | Se oe hat+K YG we tv? Y Ga? * 2vT a [WA +»B)sinzur+ (vA - 4B) cos2um fe Jae (26) (u A —vB)sin2u -(vA+7yB) cos 247 =0 is large compared with 1, the _ {o(r+2n%)A +m (1-202) Bh cos 2mm SSPE Oe + ja (t+ 202) A —v(I +202) Bh sin aun =e e ( ic (28) From (27) and (28) 2 —2v 0 (« A-v B)cos2urt(yA + 4B) sin2zuar= - Ok e (29) From (26) and (27) Eee By Y 1c yeer Yk 2» K rare k ( ee == mre * (eee 207 (A cos 2p + Bsin2p7) e (30) PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. 201 From (27) and (29) ee ae. Wa (ucos 2pm + v sin 2 pz) aotae 4 py (pw? + v*) K y, ae pa. Wa(usin2pe -veos2pum) , ~”™ 4pv (ee tv) Kk Hence from (30) and (31), observing that (u + »?)*"K=(\ at + K) rat Wa K #5 (14 ve )= 2 (¥ee-') 1.6:, ey i Wa ( Y E a 1 TS a ra (32) 2% ( Like ee ) Hence finally 7 ae = POI a8) 8 4 pv (we + v) paver PTR | {wcoswo tr sinwof e =f {cos ye (2 — 0) - v. stn, fe.(2. a7 = 0) Ta ih deg cha me ra ce Wa 1 - Vv @ @ "4 Aa 27 ( uae ya) Qa? £1) A. (33) If K is small compared with Y G «a? and with > a4, the last tN tie, Oe eR ae . term in (33) becomes 274, (, , da and the limiting Vas W value towards which ¢ tends § =’%= ae oe T 274 1 = Aa YG — PA if » is so large that e may be neglected, we have when 9 = 0 {calling ¢t’=t) +t)t’=t, + Maciel, 3 tig rags WO 2 Reh Va + py (mw? + v2) K KE and when 6=7_, W a A at and ?¢’ rapidl 27a Lh ote apl ap- 7 ( + °) pidly ay proaches the value t’z, ... Se Hes Yee, ee (34) 202 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. If we have m spokes in the wheel, and if 7 = tension in a 2 WG spoke, we may assume 7 = —— x 1, and we have from (5) i bd Os YxH 2% a? In a particular case, n = 32 spokes K = 480 ft. (lbs. weight) per unit change of curvature a == 1,02 41 = .0951 sq. ze H = .0046 sq. i Y = 28,900,000 ative: weight per sq. inch, so that A = 630, 500 Ibs. weight. per sq. inch, ite 9: : =, 256a: Bapecwn me Ne ii S —— ] a / H ve Ye XO? 4 000 K p) er oe i/ Nan gi a ae | ee — 2 ; l ~ 14 4.2848 pe? p* = 37.720 V je — 27.64602 = Sa + (144° 0’) 3 = 26.92255 ~~” OS and we have (¢’ = ¢,+ ¢ Wa? id i +36 ~ 4py (pe? + 9?) K * 27a YG i = = ¥8 ) —V (20-8) | {neon Or» sinpohe + [eos (am 0) +v sin (27 — 8) Fe | cn ree oe J Snean When @ = x, =t, + cs 1k) 7 a x ( VG. h ; Ww W a® i % When” 0—"0, ¢ = % eet “Ay (uw? + v2) K ( ya) W WwW = pecs ~ 8S x 13.81, XS ae 27 a 274 PLE Se) Hence, in order that the spokes shall always be in tension, i.e, Us > o, we must have f W 274 and the necessary initial tension in the spokes— 27a t Wok As: x 13.0 hy ee pee Sesser ies .4 x W, say, Te > - x re) 32 y ‘tf t 8 W T= Oo = 27a , Ty = if i == Ts ave 8 W ze a me WG PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. 203 77 = iW W 0 oe ai 27a 2 Suppose 4, = 16 x Lies Ag ~» 9 se [168-314] {yu cose +r sin pol, : + { pcos p (2 7—O)+v sing (27 20) Seay aa 27 = and we have 7’ = i The following table gives the ratio of the tension of a spoke in various positions to the weight of the rider when the initial tension of the spokes is half the weight of the rider :— ) Ww 0 .093 10° .240 20° 427 30° 522 180° | .522 The practical result of the above investigation is that, with steel rim and spokes of the usual proportions, if the initial tension is about half the weight of the rider the spokes will always be in tension, and the tension of spokes at a greater angle than about 30° from the bottom is only very little increased above its initial value by the weight of the rider. 1].—A POSSIBLE CAUSE OF THE EARTH’S MAGNETISM AND A THEORY OF ITS VARIATIONS. By W. SuTHERLAND, M.A. (Printed in “ Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity,” June, 1900.) 12.—THE TRANSFERENCE OF ENERGY THROUGH SPACE. By J. G. O. Tepper. Section B. CHEMISTRY. 1—NOTES ON ALLUVIAL GOLD IN GIPPSLAND. By. D, CrarK, B.C3E: 2.—THE TREATMENT OF AURIFEROUS STONE IN GIPPSLAND. By Dy CrarK BiC Eh. 3.—THE COMPOSITION OF NATURAL WINES. By Raymonp Dusots, B.Sc. 4.—PRELIMINARY NOTES ON THE ALKALOIDS OF AUSTRALIAN PLANTS. By G. Harker, B.Sc: [ Abstract. ] A NuMBER of Australian plants were examined by the author for alkaloidal poisons. Large quantities of material were treated in each case in order to detect the presence of small traces. The bark and leaves were treated separately, and volatile alkaloids were also tested for in each case. The following plants were examined :— Monime—Daphnandra micrantha, Bentham. This plant has been examined by Dr. Bancroft physiologically, and found to be active. A considerable quantity of an alkaloid was isolated by the author, to which a large number of tests were applied. The alkaloid, which, so far as could be seen, was amorphous, was present in the bark. In the leaves the presence of a glucoside in considerable quantity was detected. Caurinee—Cryptocarya obovata, R. Brown. No alkaloid present. Pittosporee—Pittosporum undulatum, Andrews. No alkaloid present. Euphorbiacee.—Phyllanthus ferdinandi, J. Mueller. This plant contained a small trace of a volatile alkaloid. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. 205 5.—THE ELECTROLYTIC MANUFACTURE OF CHLORINE. By Joun JONES. 6—SOME PRACTICAL POINTS IN THE PRECIPITATION OF GOLD FROM CYANIDE SOLUTIONS BY CHARCOAL. By Rosert B. LAms. 7.—EXPERIMENTS ON THE RELATIVE VELOCITIES OF IONS. By Orme Masson, M.A., D.Sc. [With Plate IV.| l.—IntTRopucToRY. In a paper published a few months ago by the Royal Society of London (Phil. Trans., Vol. 192, p. 331), I gave an account of a method for the direct comparison of the speeds of positive and negative ions when travelling through a jelly under the influence of an electromotive force, and of the results obtained by apply- ing the method to the chlorides of potassium, sodium, lithium, and ammonium, and to the sulphates of potassium, sodium, lithium, and magnesium. In this paper I desire to give a few results of further experiments with the same method, but it is necessary first to give a brief recapitulation of its essential features. The solvent employed is water containing sufficient gelatine to set, on cooling, to a stiff jelly. Enough of the salt under investigation is dissolved in this to give a solution of the re- quired strength, say, half-normal. A straight graduated tube of convenient length and small bore is filled with the molten jelly, allowed to cool, and then fitted at each end, by means of caoutchouc stopper, into the side neck of a flask of compara- tively large capacity. The whole apparatus is then placed in water kept at a constant temperature, through which the eraduations of the tube can be read. The flasks contain elec- trodes connected by wires with a battery capable of maintain- ing a small current at a constant E.M.F. of about 40 volts. There are suitable arrangements for indicating the current and E.M.F. at any moment. The circuit is closed and the experiment started by filling the flasks with certain solutions, the nature of which is all-important. The flask containing the 206 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. electrode (a copper one) which is to receive the current, in the conventional sense, from the battery, and which will therefore act as the anode in the electrolysis, is filled up with a cupric sulphate solution; while the other flask, which contains a platinum cathode, is filled with a solution of potassium chromate. At the moment the circuit is closed the tube contains no ions except those of the original salt, say, potassium chloride, and the composition of the jelly and the potential slope are uniform from one end of the tube to the other. The result is the start- ing of a procession of potassium ions towards the cathode, and of an opposite procession of chlorine ions towards the anode, each kind moving with a velocity determined by its own specific velocity coefficient, by the degree of ionisation of the salt, which varies with the concentration, and by the potential slope. Since ionisation and potential slope are both necessarily the same for both K and Cl and for all parts of the K Cl jelly, it is clear that an observation, if practicable, of the actual speeds with which the two processions move simultaneously in opposite direction will give a fair measure of the relative speeds of the two ions under any equal conditions, 7.e., of their relative specific velocities. Now it is obviously necessary that, as the rear end of the K procession vacates the part of the tube nearest the anode, it shall be followed up by the only other available cations, namely, Cu ions from the copper sulphate solution; else the current would be arrested. In the same way, the rearmost Cl ions, at the other end of the tube, must be followed up by Cr O, anions from the potassium chromate solution. The tube thus im- medi..tely becomes differentiated into three parts—a colourless K Cl jelly in the middle, a blue Cu Cl, jelly at the anode end, and a yellow K, Cr O, jelly at the cathode end; and the first of these continually decreases in length as the others grow towards an ultimate meeting point. The boundaries between the coloured and colourless portions, while advancing, remain sharply defined. In other words, there is no mixing up of the ions where Cu follows K, nor where Cr O follows Cl; and it can be shown theoretically that there should be none, provided that (as in this instance) certain conditions are fulfilled. The rates of advance of these boundaries can be accurately measured by means of a stop-watch and the graduated scale of the tube ; and they afford the required test of the actual speeds of the K and Cl ions respectively, which are thus rendered visible by contrast with their coloured followers. The relative speeds, and the consequent meeting point of the coloured boundaries, are calculable with fair accuracy from the first few readings; but the experiment is continued till this meeting actually occurs. Of course, the rate of advance of the blue boundary is a correct indication of the actual velocity of the Cu ions as well PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. 207 as of that of the K ions, these keeping pace with one another ; and so, at the other end, we have a simultaneous measure of the actual equal speeds of Cl and Cr O, But it is important to observe that no information is thus gained concerning the specific velocities of the coloured ions, or the speeds with which they would move if given equal chances with each other and with the K and Clions. For, after the first starting of the cur- rent, the fall of potential through the tube is not uniform. The coloured parts of the jelly, which offer higher resistances than the K Cl portion, receive larger shares per unit length of the total E.M.F.; and the two coloured portions themselves are far from being equal, the blue part offering a much higher resistance than the yellow. Thus the observed speeds of the four ions concerned in the case are not at all comparable with one another, except those of the K and Cl, as already explained ; and to make further use of the observations it would be neces- sary to have exact measurements of the actual potential slopes in the different parts of the tube, and also to take into account the unequal ionisation coefficients. There is, however, one way of avoiding such complications and still getting some real in- formation about the speeds of the coloured ions. This will be dealt with in Part III. of this paper. In the meantime, one or two other features of the process must be briefly mentioned, which are theoretically necessary and already proved by experiment (loc. cit.). While the K Cl concentration—to retain this salt as a typical example—is pre- determined by the operator and retains its value unaltered throughout the colourless jelly, however much its length be cur- tailed by the progress of the experiment, the concentrations of the coloured salts in the other parts of the tube are independent of the strengths of the solutions in the flasks and are always of smaller value than that of the K Cl itself. Related to this is the fact that each ion of the K Cl increases its speed as it crosses the boundary travelling towards it, thus spacing itself out to suit the smaller concentration of its new partner, and also obeying the law of the proportionality of ionic speed and potential slope. Further, the total resistance of the tube neces- sarily increases as the coloured boundaries advance; and there- fore, as the difference of potential between the electrodes re- mains practically constant, the current gradually falls off. This involves a proportional diminution of the actual velocities of all the ions, though relatively to one another they remain con- stant. It has been proved experimentally that the theoretical numerical relation holds good between the observed intensity of the current at any moment and the speed and number of the ms which are conveying the electricity across a section of the tube. Ii a series of experiments be made with different potassium 208 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. salts, we obtain the specific velocities of the different negative ions, all referred to that of the K ion as unity ; and thus these negative ions can be indirectly compared with one another. In the same way various chlorides, for instance, may be dealt with ; and thus the specific velocities of the various positive ions may be indirectly compared. Il. RELATIVE VELOCITIES OF THE IONS OF THE ALKALI METALS. In the paper already quoted, I gave the relative velocities of K, Na, and Li as deduced from experiments with their chlorides and sulphates in different states of concentration. The values were shown to remain nearly constant and to agree well with those calculated from Kohlrausch’s determinations of the con- ductivities of aqueous solutions of salts of similar concentration. I have since made experiments with half-rormal solutions of rubidium and caesium chlorides, thus completing the alkali- metal group. Fresh observations were made at the same time with half-normal potassium chloride, so as to connect the two sets of experiments. The found value for the K velocity was 1.07 (putting the Cl velocity as 1.00), which differs slightly from the older value of 1.02. This is probably due to the fact that the gelatine employed in the two cases was not identical, though very similar, and that neither sample was wholly free from electrolytic impurities. The earlier sample gave nearly .5 per cent. of ash, while the later one gave about 1 per cent.; so that the 1.02 value is probably the more correct. There were other slight differences in the conditions, but none of a kind to affect the numerical results to an appreciable extent. The jellies contained 10, instead of 12, per cent. of gelatine. The temperature was about 15 deg. C, instead of 18 deg., which would reduce the absolute velocities, but not, appreciably, their relative values. The tube used was 12 cm. long instead of 15 em.; which materially reduced the time spent on an experi- ment, since this varies as the square of the length of the tube, but did not otherwise affect the results. The internal diameter of the tube was the same as before, namely, 2.2 mm.; but of course the ionic velocities are independent of this factor. In the following tables the details of four experiments are given in condensed form, omitting all readings of position and time except those corresponding to exact scale divisions for the yellow advance. The simultaneous galvanometer readings are also omitted as they do not enter into the calculation of the relative velocities of cation and anion, their purpose being to afford data for proving that (as is the case) the actual current density agrees with that calculated from the observed velocities and the known concentration of the salt. The ratio of the blue advance to the yellow advance at each stage is given in a separ- PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. 209 ate column; and this is the ratio of the speeds of cation and anion, taking the average speed of each from the start, and is therefore the ratio of the specific velocities. The time read- ings are not necessary for this calculation, but are quoted as having some interest by comparison with one another. In each experiment the final reading corresponds to the meeting of the coloured boundaries. Here the position measurement was accurately verified by a lens and millimetre scale, after the cir- cuit was broken. Th other positions were estimated by eye to the nearest half-millimetre, the divisions of the scale of the tube being 5mm. apart. The time readings were to the nearest half minute. TABLE I, Exp. 1. XK Cl. Mean Temp. 14.8”. Advance of Yellow Advance of Blue Time from Ratio of Boundary (or Cl) Boundary (Cation) Start Velocities, (Cm.) (Cm.) (Minutes). Cation: Anion. rs 1.6 oS Bee 1.07 2 pipe Bly Re 1.10 ney. caag 40.5 Bue 1.08 3 aa 49.5 ht 1.07 aoa asta 59.5 a OR 4 4.25 69.5 23, 1.07 4.5 4.75 SO bxd 1.06 5 SA 92 Ee 1.06 Bao) 5.8 104.5 ae 1.06 5.80 6.20 114 te Lay Exp. Iv. X KCL Temp. 146°. 15 1.6 vig 1.07 2 zal 31 1.05 2.5 2.65 39.5 1.06 3 3.15 49 1.05 3.5 aan 59 1.06 4 4.25 70 1.06 4.5 4.75 81.5 1.06 5 Bes 94.5 1.06 a0 5.85 108 1.06 5.80 6.20 119.5 KOT Exp. III. zn Rb Cl. Temp. 15.1°. 5 1.6 22 1.07 ws Des 30 1.07 2-5 2.65 38.5 1.06 3 = Bly 48.5 1.08 3G By be 59 1.07 4 4.3 i 1.08 ——— 4.5 4.9 85 1.09 y' 5 5.4 100.5 1.08 “ 5.5 5.95 117 1.0 e0Ds 5.73 6.27 lpi feed 1.0 4 2 210 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. Exp. Il. =! Cs Cl. Temp. 14.6°. 1.5 1.6 22 m6 1.07 2 2.15 31 de 1.07 2.5 2.7 40 1.08 3 3.2 49 1.07 3.5 3.75 60 1.07 + 4.3 71 1.08 4.5 4.85 83.5 1.08 5 5.4 98 1.08 5.5 ae 5.95 113 1.08 5.77 : 6.23 dee 123 si. 1.08 Comparison of the figures of Exp. I. with those of Exp. IV. (both with half-normal potassium chloride jelly) shows to what extent the method can be trusted to give constant results ; while comparison of either of these with Exp. IJ. and Exp. III. proves that the substitution of Rb or Cs for K makes but a very small difference, these ions having nearly the same specific velocities. The contrast between these results and those got in the earlier series with the chlorides and sulphates of K, Na, and Li is very striking; for the Na travelled with only about two-thirds and the Li with only about four-ninths of the K velocity. These relative values are shown in the second column of Table II., that of K being taken as 100. The NH, value is quoted from former experiments with normal jellies, but this difference of concentration does not materially affect the relative ionic velo- city. In the third and fourth columns are given, for compari- son, the values calculated from Kohlrausch’s conductivities at 18 deg. C of aqueous solutions of about half-normal strength (Ann. Phys. Chem., 1879, vol. 6, p. 172), and of infinite dilu- tion (Ann. Phys. Chem., 1893, vol. 50, p. 408). In the fifth column is given the relative velocities of the ions as calculated by Bredig from the conductivities of their salts at 25 deg. C (Zeitschr. f. Phys. Chem. 1894, vol. 13, p. 242). Baur (Zeitschr. f. Phys. Chem., 1895, vol. 18, p. 183) calculated some- what higher values for Rb and Cs; but Boltwood’s calculations (Zeitschr. f. Phys. Chem., 1897, vol. 22, p. 132) practically con- firm those of Bredig. It must be remembered that the relative values of velocities in half-normal jellies may well differ some- what from those found in aqueous solutions of infinite dilution. TABLE II. Relative Velocities of the Ions of the Alkali Metals. Found. - ———Calculated.—— —_— ~ In © Jelly. In = Solution. In Infinite Dilution. _ 2 iohitehanei. Kohlrausch. Bredig. Day, os 44.7 44 54.5 57.4 Ma... a 65.7 65 68.2 69.7 es: ate 100 100 100 100 Rb... oe 102 a — 104 Cae. Ste 101 ~- — 104 [NH, ihe 100 98 100 39:7] PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. ZEt TII. SimuLTANEOUS CoMPARISON OF Four Ions. When at the end of such an experiment as those just described, Cu cations meet Cr O, anions, they act on each other to form a Cu Cr O, precipitate which shows as a dark- coloured film across the jelly. The current now rapidly falls off and soon almost ceases, the film being impermeable by the ions; and the experiment necessarily stops. If, however, Ni SO, and a nickel electrode be substituted for Cu SO, and a copper electrode in the anode cell, this is not the case; for Ni Cr O, is soluble. The experiment may then be continued with- out interruption after the coloured boundaries have crossed each other, note being taken of the progress of the Ni through chromate towards the cathode and of that of the Cr O, through Ni salt towards the anode. After the first stage of the experi- ment, during which the jelly is divided into three parts as al- ready described, there comes the moment of crossing at which it consists of only two parts, each having a distinctive colour. Then follows the second stage, when the jelly is again divided into three parts with different colours; and now the central one (Ni Cr O,) continually grows at the expense of each of the others, but faster towards the anode than towards the cathode. Ii the jelly contained originally KCl, the three portions (reckoning from the cathode end) are in the first stage, ior O.. KCl NivCh;) mm the sseeond stage, “K.. Cr’ Og Ni Cr O, Ni Cl, The green colour of the nickel is not so readily distinguished in a fine tube as the blue of copper, but correct observations are still possible in a tube of 2.2 mm. diameter; and the boundaries are easily seen after they have crossed. It is now possible to compare the velocities of Ni and Cr O, ions under equal conditions as to ionisation and poten- tial slope, and it at once becomes evident that the Cr O, is about double as fast as the Ni. But it is also possible to obtain comparable measures of the velocities of all four ions at the moment of the crossing of the boundaries, and further to assign values to the concentrations of all the four salts. For this purpose the results of an experiment are plotted in the manner shown in the accompanying figure. (Plate IV.) Here the abscissze repre- sent the time in minutes from the first closing of the circuit, and the ordinates represent the positions of the various bound- aries measured in cm. from the cathode end of the tube. The figure is seen to consist of four curves which cut one another at a single point. Curve « shows the advance of the Cl—Cr O, boundary through a K region; curve # shows the advance of the K—Ni boundary through a Cl region; curve vy shows the advance of the Cl—Cr O, boundary through a Ni region; and curve © shows the advance of the K—-Ni boundary through a Cr O, region. Between the curves are regions of definite salts ; K Cl between « and 8, Ni Cl, between 8 and vy, Ni Cr O, be- 02 Ae PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. tween y and 4, and K, Cr O, between 6 and «. Each curve is’ shown extended slightly beyond the crossing point. By drawing a tangent to each curve at this point the following simul- taneous velocities are found (centimetres per minute) :— (a) Cl or Cr O, passing K = .0366 (8) K or Ni passing Cl = .0375 (y) Cl or Cr O, passing Ni = .0909 (6) K or Ni passing Cr O, = .0492 Hence the following relative velocities, each ratio being neces- sarily independent of ionisation or potential slope :— From (a) and (8), Cl: K = .976; From (a) and (6), Cr O,: K = .744; From (8) and (y), Cl: Ni = 2.424; From (y) and (6), Cr O, ; Ni = 1.847; or, referring all to the K value as in previous tables, we have the following relative values :— K= 00,00 976. -Gri0 4 744 Ni = 2408: Consideration of the total velocity (i.e., the sum of the cationic and anionic velocities) of each salt leads further to a knowledge of the concentration, which, as already noticed, differs in each case. The total velocities are :— For K Cl, .0375 + .0366 = .0741 For K, Cr Og, .0492 + .0366 = .0858 For Ni Ch, .0375 + .0909 = .1284 For Ni Cr O4, .0492 + .0909 — .1401 These inequalities of velocity must be compensated for by differ- ences of concentration, since the product of the velocity and concentration must, like the current, have the same value in each case. Since also the concentration of the K Cl is neces- sarily half-normal, is it was at the start, all concentrations be- come known. They are as follows :— For the K Cl, = 500 S741 For the Kz Cr Og .5 » Sar ia 432 ForthacNieChwes 1 a _ 289 "Al For the Ni Cr QO; .5 x —2= = .264 F LO Tah Apart from any value which such experiments may have in connection with the exact measurements of relative velocities, they have some interest as affording a striking demonstration of the truth of that general theory of the migration of ions which we owe in the first instance to the classical work of Hittorf. *In my previous paper (loc. cit.), the theory of the moving boundary and ofthese inter-relations of velocity and concentration are more fully discussed. On p. 341 one of the equations was misprinted. It should read— a ui U + Vv iz il= pt n a vu! +y! U 1- p PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. 213 ITV. Arrempts to MEASURE THE VELOCITY OF THE HYDROGEN Ton, AND THE REALISATION OF THE EXTREME CASE OF THE Hi?TvToRFIAN PRINCIPLE. A practical difficulty is met with in any attempt to apply the method already described to the case of the hydrogen or hydroxyl icn, for even strong jellies tend to liquefy in the pres- sure of an acid or an alkali. Sulphuric acid is not so bad in this respect as hydrochloric or nitric. A trial was therefore made with a (roughly) half-normal sulphuric acid jelly, kept at a low temperature, the conditions being otherwise the same as in the experiments with the chlorides and sulphates of the alkali metals. It was found that the migration towards the cathode was at first nearly five times as fast as that towards the anode, which accorded well with the ratio indicated by Hittorf’s and Kohlrausch’s results; but the apparent relative speed of the hydrogen diminished as the experiment proceeded. It is pos- sible that this unusual deviation from constancy is due to the fact, which is pretty well established by conductivity data, that sulphuric acid solutions contain not only H and SO, ions but also H SO,. To such a mixture the method would probably not apply, as H SO, and SO, would have unequal velocities, and the com- position of the jelly would not remain constant. To use hydrochloric acid and still work with a solid jelly is impossible unless the concentration of the acid be low. About one-tenth normal suffices; but then two new difficulties arise. The first is the faint colour of the copper indicator, which enters the tube in very small concentration; but this is obviated by using a tube of larger bore so as to render the colour more easily seen. The second and more serious difficulty arises from the presence of electrolytic impurities in the best gelatine, the quan- tity of which is by no means negligible when that of the added electrolyte is so small. The only way to overcome this difficulty is to remove the impurity by special treatment. It consists essentially of calcium phosphate. The method of purification adopted was to soak thin sheets of the gelatine for twenty-four hours in deci-normal H Cl, and then let them wash by dialysis in distilled water for several days, the water being changed about twice daily. After the acid bath the gelatine swells in water to about thirty times its own bulk (about four times as much as the same gelatine without the acid treatment), but it does not liquefy in the cold. The whole of the lime and phosphoric acid is removed by the first two or three washings, but it appears im- possible to remove the whole of the hydrochloric acid. For the present purpose, however, it was not necessary to do so. After the eleventh wash the gelatine was melted and proved to contain H Cl to the amount of about e Some of this was used for experiment as it was, while some was rapidly concentrated till it 214 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. / solidified, on cooling, to a solid x jelly, and was then used. The latter material worked more satisfactorily, being stronger both ir acid and in gelatine ; but the results obtained were simi- lar with both. The tube used was 12 cm. long and 6.9 mm. in- ternal diameter. The cell solutions were Cu SO, and K, Cr Oy, and the other arrangements were as described in the first part of this paper. The results were striking; for, while the yellow chromate indicator advanced as usual, and with a quite clear-cut boundary, there was hardly any corresponding advance of the blue copper from the anode end of the tube. In one experiment the tube was under observation for more than three hours, and the position of the yellow boundary at the end of this time was 10 cm. from its starting point, or the rearmost Cl had got to within 2 cm. of the anode end of the tube. In the same time the blue colour had penetrated only a few mm. in the opposite direction, and what there was of it was without any properly defined boundary. Practically, therefore, the transport was in one direction only, namely, in the direction of the chlorine migration ; and this con- clusion was supported by the fact that the observed velocity in this single direction agreed well with the total average velocity as calculated from the galvanometer observations and the known strength of the acid jelly and the cross section of the tube. Although further experiments are desirable before any certain inferences can be drawn, the following provisional explanation may be offered of the observed facts. If the jelly contained H Cl as such, i.e., H and Cl ions, much the greater share of the transport should be from anode towards cathode, for all known facts point to H having a specific velocity nearly five times that of Cl. The jelly therefore did not contain H Cl but the chloride of some very complex organic base, whose positive radicle was unable to travel through the jelly with any appreciable velocity. The current must, in such a case, consist entirely of a procession of negatively-charged chlorine atoms, followed by chrome ions, past positively charged but stationary organic groups. And such a case is merely the realisation of the extreme instance of the Hittorfian principle of unequal velocities. In support of this view of the case, it may be pointed out that various proteids have the power of combining with acids and alkalis to form compounds of a saline character, and that there are good reasons for regarding such proteids as weak bases or acids. They themselves, in accordance with this character, have practically no ionisation tendency, or they may be called non-electrolytes; but the salts they form with strong acids or alkalis ionise well. It is not difficult to under- stand that either gelatine itself or some complex product of its hydrolysis behaves in this way, so that what purports to be a solution of acid in jelly does not really contain free acid until Australasian Assoc. Adv. Sci., Vol. viii, 1901. P| t : ea ate IV O (@) co Minutes To face page 214. es paw Se ‘ bos Ss . es ey a = PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. 215 a certain excess has been added. The phenomena observed in the experiments described above would thus be explained; and moreover some light would be thrown upon the liquefaction of gelatine by cold acids and alkalis, and also upon the swelling of gelatine in water, this last being due to the osmotic pressure of such saline compounds of complex ions incapable of permeating the jelly mesh. 8—A PRELIMINARY NOTE ON THE EFFECT OF VIS- COSITY ON THE CONDUCTIVITY OF SOLUTIONS. By Proressor OrME Masson, M.A., D.Sc., anp PRroressor C. J. Martin, M.B., D.Sc. 9.—THE INFLUENCE OF THE ELEMENTS ON THE GROWTH OF PLANTS. By A. N. PEARSON. 10.—NOTES ON THE GOLD BULLION ASSAY. By Proressor A. Mica Smitu, B.Sc. 11.—THE MOLECULAR CONSTITUTION OF WATER. By Wa. SuTHERLAND, M.A. (Published in “ Philosophical Magazine” [5] vol. 50, Nov. 1900, p. 460. 12.—A NEW STANDARD FOR USE IN VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS. By Proressor OrmME Masson, M.A., D.Sc. (Published in “ Chemical News,” 1900, vol. 81, p. 73.) 216 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. AN EXAMINATION OF THE WINES RETAILED IN VICTORIA. By W. Percy WILKINSON. In continuance of the researches on Victorian wines begun in 18881, a systematic examination of the wines retailed in Vic- toria was undertaken last year with a view chiefly to ascertain the extent to which the practice of adding preservatives or anti- ferments to Victorian wines is now carried; but, at the same time, advantage was taken of the opportunity to determine the alcoholic strength, total acidity, extract and potassium sulphate in the 203 bottled samples collected for the purpose. To make the samples as representative as possible, they were obtained from forty-four grower-merchants and retailers of all classes in Melbourne and various country towns of Victoria, in the ordinary way of purchase, and in such a manner that their destination was quite unknown to the vendors. At the same time, thirty-seven samples representing continental wines ob- tainable in Melbourne, and certain Californian wines, were secured for purposes of comparison. The most important result of the examination is that sixty- seven out of 166 Victorian wines contain salicylic acid in amounts varying from 1 to 6 grains per reputed quart bottle, and that no other preservative was detected. This is in strong contrast to the results of the official Austro-Hungarian examina- tions for 1898, made at the Klosterneuberg Experiment Station?, where, out of 3255 wines, only thirteen were found to contain salicylic acid. The Austro-Hungarian percentage of salicylated wines is 0.4 per cent., the Victorian 40 per cent. The small- ness of the Austro-Hungarian percentage is to be traced largely to the strictness with which the laws against adulterations of wine are enforced there, as applies also to France, Germany, Russia, Switzerland, Spain, Italy, Belgium, United States and California. The following extracts from European wine laws show what legislation has been enacted there to deal with the subject of wine adulteration :— France.—The present law on the adulteration of wine dates from the 12th July, 1891, and prohibits the addition of salicylic acid or other preservatives to wine®, as well as any colouring matters, compounds of sulphuric, nitric, boric, or analogous acids, chloride of sodium if above 1 gramme per litre, sulphate of po- tassium if above 2 grammes per litre. The Committee of Advice 1 Official Record Melbourne Centennial International Exhibition, 1888-9. 2 Berichte der Klosterneuberg Versuchsstation, Wien. 1899. 3 Journal officiel du .2 Juillet, 1891. Loi tendant 4 réprimer les fraudes dans la vente des vins. Art. 2, 2mesemestre. Bulletin des Lois, 1891. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. 217 for Hygiene* has repeatedly issued instructions to forbid the addition of salicylic acid to foods (Séances du 29 Octobre, 1877, 15 Octobre, 1880, 14 Adut, 1892, et du 3 Juin, 1883), A circular from the Minister of Justice, dated 7th February, 1881, instructed the authorities to prosecute all those infringing this law, and a second circular, dated the 30th January, 1884, re- newed this prohibition with great severity. The addition of sali- cylic acid, or compounds containing it, to wine is, therefore, ab- solutely prohibited>. Germany.—The law on the traffic in wine is dated 20th April, 1892, and is a model for brevity and directness :—‘‘ Law with reference to the traffic in wine, wine-containing and wine- resembling beverages.—From the 20th April, 1892, the following substances, viz., soluble aluminium salts (alum, &c.), barium com- pounds, boric acd, glycerine, kermes-berries (fructus phytolacce), magnesium compounds, salicylic acid, impure (containing fusel oil) spirit, impure (not technically pure) glucose, strontium com- pounds, aniline dyes or mixtures which contain any of these sub- stances must not be added to wine, wine-containing or wine-re- sembling beverages, either during or after manufacture®. This law was amended in 1900, the operation of the new law to date from Ist October, 1901. By this amended wine law the manufacture of half-wines (sugar-wines) or other artificial wines is forbidden®*. Hungary.—The present wine law dates from 1893. Sec. 2.— Wine will be considered as adulterated (1) if not mace from grapes or grape-must exclusively ; (2) if, with the exception of highly rectified spirit, water, or under any name any other substances are added. Saccharin, glycerine, salicylic acid, boric acid, aniline dyes, artificial flavourings or essences, oils, liquids or extracts of any kind, are absolutely prohibited to be added to must or wine’. Spain.—On the 30th January, 18885, a law was passed to the effect that the addition of salicylic acid or any other preservative to wine would be regarded as an adulteration, prohibiting also the addition of impure spirits, glucose, or starch sugar, colouring matters of any description and glycerine®*. Switzerland.—The law dates from December, 1891, and defines wine to be a drink prepared by alcoholic fermentation of fresh grape juice, without the addition of any other substance’. 4 Comité consultatif d’hygiéne de France. 5 Viard. Traité Général de la Vigne et des Vins, p. 834. 1892. 6 Reichs-Gesetzblatt. Berlin. 1892. §. 597. 6* Veréffentlichungen des Kaiserlichen Gesundheitsamtes, 1900. _7 Mesterséges borok készitésének és forgalomba hozatalinak tilalmazdsd4rol sz616 tirvény, 1893. évi xxiii., Térvényezikk. 8 E. D Wenzen._ Reich=gesetz, betreffend den Verkehr mit Nahrungsmitteln. Genussmitteln, ete. Gesetzgebung des Auslandes, s. 215. 1898. 8* Also Gaceta de Madrid. Dec. 1895. 9 Revision der Beschliisse des Vereins Schweizerischer Analytischer Chemiker iiber die Analyse und Beurtheilung des Weines. Versammlung vom 25. und 26. September, 1891. Luzern. 1891. 218 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. Italy.—The law relating to wine is similar to that of Austria, and prohibits preservatives or any substance not natural to the grape being added to wine.—Codice Penale 1 Gennaio, 18901°. Belgium.—On the 28th November, 1899, a law was passed defining wine to be “the product of the alcoholic fermentation of fresh grape-must,” the addition of any foreign substance is re- garded as an adulteration. The addition of salicylic acid or other antiseptics is expressly prohibited as dangerous to the public health11. Denmark.—The present amended wine law dates from April, 1894. The addition to wine of salicylic acid, boric acid, organic colouring substances, impure spirit, saccharin, artificial ethers, or flavouring essences, is prohibited?!*. Austria.—The present law dates from 21st June, 1880, and absolutely prohibits the addition of any preservatives or anti- ferments to wine, or of any substances not existing naturally in grape juice.! 2. Romania.—A very complete food and liquor law came into force in Romania in 1895. According to this law the addition to wine of boric acid and its compounds, salicylic acid and its compounds, artificial wine essences, colouring substances (or- vanic or inorganic), glycerin, impure spirits, artificial sweeten- ing substances, bisulphites and sulphites, is prohibited. The maximum limit fer potassium sulphate is fixed at 2 grammes per litre, sodium chloride 0.5 grammes per litre. The sale of diseased or unsound wine is also forbidden? 2*. United States.—The law relating to wine is based on those of Germany and Austria. | California.—The law prohibits the addition of any preservative to wine??. It is evident that when all the leading wine-producing coun- tries in the world have enacted laws prohibiting so definitely the use of salicylic acid and other anti-ferments, Victoria cannot afford to go on retailing its wine in such a way that 40 per cent. of it would be absolutely condemned throughout Europe. It seems a pity that tie Victorian public should not receive the same protection from the incompetent wine producer or vendor as the European consumer, for the fact that practically all Euro- pean wine is produced and marketed in a sound state without the aid of salicylic acid or other preservatives, shows clearly to Le Adulterazione del Vino. D. Pinolini. 1890. (The Italian wine law was amended in 1990.) See Gazetta Ufficiale, 1297. 1900. : 11 E. Grognard. Recueil des Lois et Réglements relatifs au Commerce des Denrées Alimentaires, pp. 86-93. Bruxelles. 1900 b 11* Ausfiihrungsverordnung zu dem Gesetze vom 1. April 1894. Verdffentl. des Kaiserl. Gesundheitsamtes, Berlin. 1895. 2 js 12 Reichsgesetzblatt fiir die im Reichsrathe vertretenen Kdénigreiche und Linder. Jahrgang 1880. 12* tKuletinul directiunei generale a serviciului sanitar, 1895. Nr. 18-19. 13 Report of the Viticultural Commissioners. California. 1887. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. 219 that the Victorian wine-maker or vendor who resorts to the use of salicylic acid does so to escape the consequences of faulty manufacture, or of subsequent incompetent handling in the cellar. Our climate furnishes no excuse for the wine-maker who resorts to the use of salicylic acid, as he can, if he cares to take the trouble, effectively control the temperature of fermentation! and the proportion of acidity in the must to a nicety, as is so suc- cessfully done in the hot climates of the South of France, Algierst®, and California!?, and by a few of our more pro- gressive vignerons. The adjustment of the amount of tannin in the wine and other recognised legitimate treatments, and finally pasteurisation!S or sterilisation!® (already applied on an enor- mous scale in European wine countries!**), afford the soluticn to every difficulty the wine-maker or wine merchant has to con- tend with, so far as the production and management of sound marketable wine of good quality is concerned. Among the twenty-seven European and ten Californian wines examined, not a single one was found to contain salicylic acid, boric acid, formaline, or fluorides, so that the foreign wine-maker can produce a wine and send it across the equator, store it for years, and sell it in perfect condition in a country where the use of salicylic acid is not forbidden without condescending to avail himself of the free opportunity for adulteration. It is evident, as an indirect result of this examination, that increased scientific knowledge and training are urgently needed by our wine-makers in order to enable them to produce sound marketable wines not requiring the addition of anti-ferments. But it should be remembered that so long as no restrictions are placed on the use of preservatives in this colony, wine-makers cannot be expected to avail themselves of the facilities afforded for scientific instruction in vinification by such an institution as the Viticultural Station at Rutherglen. There is abundance of recent work on artificial and natural digestions to prove that all the preservatives or anti-ferments are anti-digestives, more or less, and that, on hygienic grounds, their use is to be generally discouraged and absolutely condemned when resorted to as in the case of wine, to enable an unsound product to be palmed off on the consumer. It is to be remembered, also, 14 Miintz and Rousseaux. Etudes sur la Vinification et sur la Refrigération des Mouts, 189° ; also Studies on the Importance of Refrigeration in Wine-Making. Translated by W. Perey Wilkinson. Australian Vigneron. 1896. 15 L Roos. L’Industrie Vinicole Mé:idionale. Montpellier. 1898.; also L. Roos. Wine- Making in Hot limates. Translated by Raymond Dubois and W. Percy Wilkinson. Department of Agriculture, Victoria. 1900. 16 H. Dessoliers. Vinification en Pays Chauds. Alger. 1894. 17 A.P. Hayne. The Control of the Temperature in Wine Fermentation. University of California, Sacramento. 1897. 18 Percy Frankland. Pasteur Memorial Lecture. Jour. Chem. Soc. 1896. pp. 19 U. Gaxyon. Revue de Viticulture. 1894 19* Franz Malvezin. Manuel de Pasteurization des Vins et Traitement de leur Maladies. Paris. 1899. 220 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. that the public health is endangered by the use of preservatives in many other food products, and I have found them in beer, various effervescing beverages, unfermented wine, non-intoxi- cating ales, aromatic wines, lime-juice, tomato sauce, fruit pre- serves generally, meat (corned beef and sausages), and milk and butter. The great extent to which food producers or preservers are availing themselves of the present license in the matter of the reckless use of preservatives in Victoria, constitutes a serious menace to the public health, and constantly threatens our export trade with discredit. To facilitate comparisons, the analytical data have been grouped under the following headings: —Port (sweet red wines), Bur- gundy, Claret, Hock, Chablis, Sherry, Madeira (sweet white wines) and Quinine Wines. The average results for each of these groups are summarised in the following table, the averages for the same data in the case of the French and Californian wines being ap- pended. The methods of determination followed were those of the Imperial German Commission for Wine Statistics, as de- scribed by Windisch?° :— VICTORIAN WINES. ” B dtc S : Sa. |e 3 Lo} ~~ Wy ws = o 5 ed (aes! 2.) Bal a |) oS Se ee Ae BE< Ce | BS | 8% 58 |258 iB. Group. ome] ne A aie} he Oo} so ho § “08 |.2 Og wa i(xee| Sa] Ss] se] #2 |29718e6 CH |oSS| 2 | ea | ga] Ss [ees aa PARR CARA RES FRM Ross i qm |gar|ce Port 51 5. | 36.9 | 29.7 45 | 6.69 | 0.050 | 1.106 Burgundy 7 3 | 14.3] 25.1 | 4.27 | 7.05 | 0.049 | 1.076 Claret ae rls, SL 8 | 13.0} 22.8 | 2.68 | 6.60 | 0.042 | 0.927 Hock-Chablis ... secom 17 | 12.9 | 22.0 | 2.11 | 6.05 | 0.044) 0.972 Sherry... se eof RD 8 | 16.2 | 38.0 | 4.44] 6.00 | 0.061 | 1.340 Madeira ... - So 3 | 16.1 | 28.2 | 9.99 | 5.62 | 0.050 | 1.092 Quinine Wine ... a (is 3 3 14.7 | 25.7 | 8.15 | 7-41 | 0.050)) 1gg2 Motel. o4 a eaa| EGG 67 | 14.8 | 25.9 | 5.86 | 6.48 | 0.049 | 1.076 = 40 FY French Wines, various types... 11 — 10.8 | 18.9 | 2.47 | 6.17 | 0.045 | 0.987 German Wines, various types ... — 10.3 | 18.0 | 2.05 | 6.60 | 0.013 | 0.942 Californian Wines, vari- ous types ae Par ti It is noticeable that fhe average alcoholic cee of the Wie. torian wines is almost half as lar: ge again as that “of the French and German wines, the alcoholic strength found in the present examination, 25.9 per cent. of proof spirit, agrees very closely — | 12.7 aside 4.46 | 6.33 | 0.046 | 1.017 20 K. Windisch. Die Chemische Untersuchung und Beurtheilung des Weines. Berlin. 1896. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. 231 with that arrived at as the result of the determination of alcohol contained in 421 samples of Victorian wines entered at the Cen- tennial Exhibition in 1888-9, namely, 25.5 per cent. of proof spirit?!, the difference amounting to only 0.4 per cent. The minimum strength in alcohol, as would be expected, is found in the hock, chablis and claret groups of natural wines, and these approximate more or less the French and German averages. The average strength found for the French clarets examined by Gayon, Blarez, and Dubourg in 188822 is 17.1 per cent. However, the same authors point out that this is subject to annual variations depending on the climatic conditions during the periods of ripening and fermentation, as proved by the results they obtained in 1887, being nearly 2.5 per cent. higher. But even larger annual variations have been noticed in the Deéparte- ment of the Gironde from analyses made by Faure, Boussin- gault, and Gayon, for in 1841 the average alcoholic strength was only 18.9 per cent. proof spirit, as compared with 26.3 per cent. in 1873, a difference of 7 per cent. and actually above our claret average. We should therefore expect the average strength in the case of our natural wines to be subject to not inconsiderable annual variations. The port, sherry, and Madeira types are invariably fortified, the maximum of alcohol allowable in Victoria being fixed by law at 32.5 per cent. of proof spirit. Among the sixty-seven Victorian ports and sherries examined, ten were found to exceed the statu- tory limit. The average strength of the Victorian sherry type is 28.5 per cent. of proof spirit. This is below that of the two imported samples, and is below that (36 per cent.) given by Blucher (Die Analyse der Weine, Kassel, 1894) as the average of twenty-five samples. The average results for some hundreds of Spanish wines (including sherries) examined by Bonet y Bonfill?? at the Madrid Exhibition of 1857, is, however, only 26 per cent. of proof spirit, but sherries intended for foreign markets are always ex- cessively fortified, as evidenced by the two imported wines ex- amined, both of which are from well-known exporting firms of Jerez de la Frontera. The average alcoholic strength for the Victorian port group is 49.7 per cent., while that given by Blucher?*, as the mean of ten European samples, is 36 per cent. ; this is practically 6 per cent. above our figure, and is identical with that found in the case of the two imported wines obtained in Melbourne. 21 The Alcoholic Strength of Victorian Wines, Journal of the Board of Viticulture, No. 5, pp. 81-96. Melbourne. 1892. 22 Analyse Chimique des Vins du Département de la Gironde. Bordeaux. 1888. 23 José de Hidalgo Tablada. Tratado de la Fabricacién de Vinos en Espaiia y el Estrangero, Madrid, pp. 60 ¢t seq. 1880. 24 Die Analyse der Weine. 1894. 222 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. The Victorian hock-chablis group has an average alcoholic strength of 22.6 per cent.; this is in close agreement with the average result for French chablis obtained locally, but is 5 per cent. ‘above the mean for German wines, found as the results of some thousands of determinations made annually since 1895 by the Imperial German Commission for Wine Statistics2°. The total dry extract (unfermented sugars, &c.) varies con- siderably in the Victorian port-shiraz group, and to a far greater extent than occurs in similar wines of European origin. For our clarets the individual variations in extract are less marked; the average, however, is above that of the French clarets?°, exceeding the latter by nearly 7 grammes per litre. In the sherry group the individual variations are very marked, although the average lies close to that of imported wines. The hock-chablis group shows fairly large variations -from the mean, but agrees closely with that of French and German wines of the same type. The acidity of the Victorian fortified wines need not be dis- cussed at length, but may be dismissed with the remark that the differences shown are excessive. [or the dry wines of the claret and hock-chablis types the averages are close to those of the French and German wines. This result seems unexpected, but if the criticism of the expert tasters be taken into consideration, it will be noticed that a large number of the wines are classed as sour and unsound, and it is to these that the apparent high average acidity is due. If these are excluded, the total acidity becomes much lower, in fact, too low to enable the wines to be considered on the average as either true hocks or clarets. In this connection the opinion of the well-known authority, Pro- fessor L. Roos, Director of the Génological Station of the Hérault, is worty of serious attention’? :—‘‘ All dry wines to be of good quality should contain 8.6 grammes of total acids per litre, ecal- culated as tartaric acid. All wines favourably judged by expert wine-tasters always possess a relatively high acidity, which is never below the figures given.” But as far back as 1851 the illustrious Liebig?* showed how important the amount of acidity in the must is in the production of high-class wines, and also that “wines made in hot climates from over-ripe grapes are always deficient in acidity and never of good quality.” It has been shown previously, at the meeting of this Associa- tion held in Adelaide in 189529, that, as the must result of an examination of 119 musts palliectdd during vintage time, the ratio 25 Weinstatistik fiir Dentetblands Zeitschrift fiir Aamlytiene Chemie. 1885, et seg. 26 Viard. Traité Général, &c. Ibid. 27 L. Roos. L’Industrie Vinicole Méridionale. Montpellier. 1898. = Letters on Chemistry. Third edition. 1851. 9 The Sugar Strength and Acidity of Victorian Musts, with Reference to the Alcoholic Strengtii of Victorian Wines. A.A.A.S. Adelaide. 1893. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. 223 of total acids to 100 parts of sugar is only 2.8 in Victoria, as compared with an average ratio of 4.8 in France and Germany. During the vintage of 1894°° similar determinations of acidity were made on 196 Victorian musts, with almost identical results. We are therefore forced to the conclusion that, to improve the quality of our dry wines, it is necessary either to vintage earlier than is usual in Victoria or to increase the proportion of acidity in the musts by the addition of tartaric acid or second crop®! ; to this practice, already current in the South of France and Algiers, no exception can be taken, as it adds nothing which does not exist naturally in grapes, and is regarded as lawful in Euro- pean wine countries. Ifthe export trade demands dry wine of high alcoholic strength and low acidity, then, evidently, refrigera- tion during the making of such types of wine becomes impera- tive in our hot northern viticultural districts. The figures for potassium sulphate are interesting, and indicate that the practice of “ plastering” must does not obtain to any ex- tent in Victoria, as among the 166 wines examined only one ex- ceeds the limit of 2 grammes of potassium sulphate per litre allowed by law in European wine countries. The averages, how- ever, are rather high, and seem to show that the custom of sul- phuring is rather freely indulged in. The practice of using sul- phuric acid in cleansing casks may be responsible for a certain proportion of the potassium sulphate found, especially as it is difficult to wash the sulphuric acid completely from the wood. This practice might be discontinued and replaced with advantage by steam cleansing, more especially as potassium sulphate affects the taste of wine detrimentally. Professor Kulisch, of the Geisenheim Experiment Station? 2 has shown that as little as 0.02 gramme of potassium sulphate per litre is sufficient to distinctly affect and impart a harsh cha- racter to the taste of wine. As no previous determinations have been made of the amount of potassium sulphate existing normally in Victorian musts, a number of sterilised musts (forty-five) from various vineyards collected during the vintage of 1894, were examined as to their content of potassium sulphate. The average result found was 0.0072 grammes per litre, as compared with 0.00832 for French musts, and 0.0096 for German?4. However complete the chemical analysis of wine may be, it does not enable its commercial value to be fixed ; it appeared advisable, therefore, to submit the samples before analysis to expert wine-tasters, in order to gain ee of opinion as to 3° Proceedings of the Royal Sanieey of Victoria, 1894. 31 Acidity in Musts. Translated from the Revue de Viticulture 1895. By W. Percy Wilkinson. Australian Vigneron. 1895. 32 Weinlaube, No. 44, 1499. 33 J. Konig. Chemie der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel. 1893. 34 Medicus, Weller, Omeis, and Full. Weinstatistik fiir Deutsehland, Zeit. f. Anal. Chem. 1895, et seq. 224 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. the condition, quality, &c., of the wines collected. With this object, two well-known merchants and recognised expert wine tasters in Melbourne, Mr. Maurice Steiner (who graduated as a master cellarman at the Royal Hungarian Model Wine- cellars, Buda-Pesth) and Mr. A. H. L. Browne (of the Chateau Tahbilk Prop. Ltd.), were consulted, and very kindly undertook to taste the 203 samples of Victorian and foreign wines. These gentlemen tasted the wines quite independently of and unknown to each other, the samples being submitted to them under num- bers. Their opinions, together with the marks awarded for colour, condition, bouquet, and flavour, were averaged (the agree- ment between their decisions was really excellent), and are re- corded side by side with the other determinations for each wine, in order to facilitate comparisons. It will be seen that the ex- pert tasters condemn eighteen out of the fifty-one wines in the port group as unsound, sour, or unfit for consumption, and seven- teen in the remaining 115 Victorian wines, or a total of thirty-five wines in all, equal to 21 per cent., while among the thirty-seven wines imported they did not succeed in detecting a single unsound bottle. Attention may be drawn to the fact that in most cases where salicylic acid was found the expert wine-tasters detected some fault, or suspicion of unsoundness or disease. In the annual official examination of wines in Austro-Hungary, already referred to, in 1897, the number of unsound wines sold was, out of over 3000 examined, only 6 per cent., and reached 7.5 per cent. in 189835. So that even with the aid of preser- vatives, the Victorian wine-makers, wine merchants, and retail vendors are unable to place wine before the public in as sound and drinkable a condition as the wine-makers and retailers of Austro-Hungary where the use of all preservatives and other adul- teration is absolutely prohibited. In conclusion, I desire to offer sincere thanks to Messrs. Mau- rice Steiner and A. H. L. Browne for their kindness in judging at great sacrifice of time, the collection of Victorian and foreign wines, of which the detailed results, both chemical and organo- leptic, are given in the appended tables. [Tables omitted.—Eb. ] Notre.—The above paper by Mr. W. Percy Wilkinson excited considerable public interest, and an extended discussion on the subject took place in the daily press, lasting over nine months. Official analyses of wines, as retailed in Victoria, amply con- firmed Mr. Wilkinson’s statements. Finally, an Act of Parlia- ment was passed on the 13th October, 1900, prohibiting adultera- tion of any Victorian wine, the Act coming into operation on the first day of January, 1901.—Ep. 35 Weinbau und Weinhandel, s. 449. Mainz. 1899. SECTION C. GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY, 1—NOTES ON SOME VICTORIAN DIATOMACEOUS DEPOSITS. By W.5; Dun: [ Abstract. | Diatomaceous earth from Coralulup Creek, Lilicur, collected by Mr. G. Sweet, F.G.S., and from Eglington, was sent by the author to Dr. Murray, of the British Museum, and was reported on by Mr. T. Coomber, who says :—‘‘ The general facies of these re- sembles that of a deposit known to diatomists as from ‘ Split- ters’ Creek, Victoria.’ ” A list of the species identified by Mr. Coomber was given, the Coralulup deposit including twenty-four species and varieties belonging to the genera, while the Eglington deposit yielded sixty-four species and varieties referable to nineteen genera. 2—NOTES ON SOME BRACHIOPODA FROM MANSFIELD AND KILMORE. By W. S. Dun. [ Abstract. | This is a preliminary report on a collection made by Mr. G. Sweet, F.G.S., some years ago. The specimens are badly pre- served. Mansfield yields twenty species and Kilmore five. Some of these have been already recorded by M‘Coy, from Victoria ; others can only be determined generically, while five new species are indicated but not described. 3.—NOTES ON THE GEOLOGY OF SEVILLE. By Rev. A. W. Cressweit, M.A. [ Abstract. | Caleareous sandstone, or impure limestone, occurs at Seville, 8 miles east of Lilydale. Schistose silurian rocks outcrop but P 226 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. rarely, and have a meridional strike, whereas the limestones strike nearly east and west, and dip at about 40 deg. to the south- ward. So there is a marked unconformity. The lmestone is much metamorphosed, jointed, and spangled with iron pyrites. Mr. A. E. Cresswell gives its composition as follows :— Insoluble in H Cl 59.73 per cent. Fe. O, and Al? O 3.15 Me C0, Bef CAP BD Ge eas fog} 1 Can 0, co ey. | ee iets em ag. 99.74 3) The facies of the fcssils differs from that of the Lilydale silu- rian, though several forms are common. They comprise, amongst others :—Cheirurus sp., Phacops fecundus? or more probably, P. latifrons, Athyris cf. obovata, Rhynchonella cf. R. stricklandi, (?) Pleurorhynchus or Conocardium, Conularia, Favosites spp., Heliolites differing from the Lilydale one, Fenestella sp., Petraia sp. The author, with some hesitation, refers the Seville lime- stones to lower devonian, or to passage-beds between silurian and devonian. 4_NOTES ON THE ROYAL PARK (MELBOURNE) RAILWAY CUTTING. By F. E.. Grant, [ Abstract. | The cutting has been widened by removal of rock from the north side, and shows interesting differences from the south side, already described by Hall and Pritchard. Silurian :—The nor- thern outcrop is 50 ft. long and 6 or 7 ft. high. Older Vol- canic:—There is a much greater extent displayed than on the south side. The rock is decomposed to clay, and is overlain by irregularly-bedded sands, a basaltic boulder being surrounded by the sands. Eocene and Miocene Fossiliferous Beds :—The litho- logical differences between the eocene and miocene are much more marked than on the other side of the cutting. The haematitic band (eocene) extends almost the whole length of the cutting, and passes underfoot to the east, and is very full of fossils, which frequently show littoral or shallow water characters, indicating the northern limit of the eocene. The miocene beds are now inaccessible on the north side of the cutting. bo Le ~I PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. 5.—SOME AURIFEROUS DEPOSITS. By Henry C. JENKINS, A.R.S.M. [ Abstract. | The author has lately been inspecting some deposits known locally as “sandstone reefs,” and occurring both at Greytown and at Heathcote, Victoria. The deposits are interbedded sand- stones, and are auriferous, but although they are in localities where considerable disturbance has taken place subsequent to the criginal folding, their continuity is not broken, nor are lodes formed in them. The gold is in “shoots,” and the hardness of the beds themselves varies from that of a sandy clay up to that of quartzites. The beds show traces of water action, and the shoots of gold appear to follow the lines where this action is greatest, as where the decomposition and staining of the rock is most marked, and where patches of “ dice holes” occur, the last probably repre- senting vanished iron pyrites. Gold does not appear to occur in any appreciable quantity in the harder parts of the beds. The metal also occurs in quartz reefs at Greytown, where the more detailed examination was made. It was evidently precipitated from solution into the “sandstone reefs,’ and the possibility is advanced that alluvial gold arises not only from lode degradation, but also from deposits formed at the surface by the agency of springs, with a deep-seated source, and containing gold in solu- tion, the decomposed “reefs” under notice being the track of such a spring. It is to be noted that the “sandstone reefs” occur in both places near valleys that have yielded very coarse alluvial gold or nuggets. 6—THE RATE OF EROSION OF SOME VICTORIAN RIVER VALLEYS. By C. C. BritrLEBANK. Published in the “ Geological Magazine,” 1900.) 7.—FURTHER NOTES ON THE ROCKS OF SOUTH- WESTERN VICTORIA. By J. Dennant, F.G.S., F.C.S. (Published in Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria, N.S., Vol. XIV.) P 2 228 ‘ PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. 8.—ON THE DISCOVERY OF FISH IN THE MESOZOIC ROCKS OF VICTORIA. By 9 "8) 4a rr. (See Proc. Roy. Soc. Vie.,' N55 Vol XIT, Pt. 2, 190% 9—PETROLOGICAL NOTES ON THE GRANITES OF VICTORIA. By : G) Hoce te (Published in Proc. Roy. Soc. Vic., N.S., Vol. XIII., Pt. 2.) ON THE NOMENCLATURE OF GEOLOGICAL AGE. By G. B. PritcHarp. (Published in Proc. Roy. Soc. Vic., N.S., Vol. XI: “Pica 10. 11.—NOTES ON THE NEW GEOLOGICAL MAP OF VICTORIA. — By JAMES STIRLING. 12.—_THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE ATOLL OF FUNAFUTI, AND WHAT IT TEACHES. By G. Sweet, F.G.S. 13.—THE LANGWARRIN METEORITE. By R. H.: Watcort, F.G:S. 14.—ADDITIONS TO THE CENSUS OF VICTORIAN MINERALS. By RK. . Warcort F.G:S. (Published in Proc. Roy. Soc. Vic., N.S., Vol. XIIL, Pt. 2.) Srction D. BIOLOGY. 1.—ON THE CONSTANCY OF SPECIFIC CHARACTERS OF THE GENUS EUCALYPTUS. By R. T. Baker, F.1L.S., Curator and Economic Botanist of the Technological Museum, Sydney, New South Wales. In this paper the author endeavours to show that much of the hitherto supposed variability of specific characters of our Euca- lyptus trees is the result of various artificial classifications applied to the species in the past, whereas, if classified on what appears to be a natural basis, the species possess very little, if any, variability, and retain in a marked degree individual cha- racters through their whole area of distribution. Each species is taken seriatim to prove a want of variation in its specific characters. This constancy is acounted for by the author on the geological age of this continent, for whilst other continents have undergone subsidences and upheavals, Australia has stood still or remained stationary, thus giving the plants enormous periods of time for differentiation, so that the “ missing links” naturally are wanting. Further, such a natural classifica- tion based on scientific data is of the greatest importance to the commercial community of Australia. For, as matters have stood in the past, under the old artificial régime it was quite possible (and actual specimens in the Technological Museum prove that such cases did occur) for a contractor, say, in bridges or railway sleepers, to supply an inferior timber under the botanical name specified by respective colonial Governments. [or instance, under the name of our mountain gum, Hucalyptus goniocalyz, F. vy. M., four distinct species are included, and of these only one is suitable for bridge decking; three are good for indoor and general work ; two are quite worthless, and all this is due to our having classified in the past our Eucalypts on what the author contends is an artificial basis, namely, morphological characters. By following a natural classification, that is, one founded on a long and intimate acquaintance with the trees in nature, their habits and places of growth, the form and qualities of their seed, the manner of their elevation, increase and reproduction, the peculiarities of their radication, their interior substances, the infinitely varied formation of their vascular system (by which the plant is not only enabled to circulate the juices necessary to 230 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. its support), the peculiar qualities of seeds, salts, gums, resins, oils by which they are distinguished, and all other constituents on which their natural combination so ultimately depends, almost all traces of variability disappear, and the above anomaly or difficulty in timber identification would be obviated. Again, the further commercial importance of a natural classification based on the specific characters above enumerated is well illustrated in the volatile oils of Eucalypts. By working on such clear and definite lines as above enumerated it is possible at once to know what quality of oil any particular species will yield. And this has been proved beyond dispute, for the oil of Hucalyptus macrorhyncha, F. v. M., contains Eudesmol, Eucalyptol, and other constituents, whether the botanical material is obtained from a tree in the north of New South Wales or in the south of Victoria. The case of Hucalyptus globulus Labill. is so well known that it need only be mentioned ; #. globulus oil is identical whether obtained from trees in Algeria, France, Victoria, New South Wales, or Tasmania. The oils of nearly 100 species have been tested in this museum with like results, information invalu- able to those about to start on Eucalyptus oil distillation. A morphological classification gives a type and its so-called varie- ties which yield respectively good, bad, and indifferent oils and timbers, &c.; in fact, products having no connection whatever with each other, but placed under the same species, owing to some slight or imaginary resemblances in character in the dried speci- mens. In many instances it is impossible to classify Eucalypts on the shape of the fruits, anthers, buds, and leaves, and in this connection is mentioned the case of #. bicolor and EF. pendula of A. Cunningham. It has been customary in recent times to synonymise these species under the name of #. largiflorens, F. v. M. Now, Cunningham, who was a field botanist, and who was familiar with these trees, named the bastard box of Cabra- matta #. bicolor, a tree with a dark box bark on the stem, and with clear white limbs, and having a lightest brown-coloured timber, whilst the “ Coolabah” of the interior he named £. pen- dula, from its drooping habit. This tree has a red-coloured tim- ber and a box bark extending to the ultimate branches. The oils of the two trees are also quite distinct. The economic and sys- tematic materials of #. pendula have been obtained from many parts of the colony, and show the usual constancy of specific cha- racters which the author has found to hold in almost all other Eucalyptus species. This also applies to #. bicolor, and on these grounds it is contended that the two trees should be re- garded as distinct species. The only resemblance is the venation of the lanceolate form of leaf. If placed under F. largiflorens, then there would be the anomaly of having under one species a tree with two kinds of bark, two kinds of timber, two kinds of oil, and a variation in leaves. These remarks also apply to (1) PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 25 the apple of Victoria, #. Stwartiana, F. v. M., and the apple of New South Wales, #. Bridgesiana, R.T.B.; (2) #. Stuartiana, F. v. M., and #. noveanglica, H.D. et J.H.M.; (3) #. Gunni, Hook, and £. paludosa, R.T.B. ; (4) Z. Gunni, Hook, and EZ. cam- phora, R.T.B. ; (5) #. macrorhyncha, F. v. M., and E. laevopinea, R.T.B.; (6) #. saligna, Sm., and #. propinqua, H.D. et J.H.M., and many other recently described species. Finally, it is found that once the products of Eucalypts are shown to be distinct, there is very little difficulty in differentiating systematically the species, and then the whole specific characters are constant throughout the geographical distribution of the species. 2.—CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF THE MUSCLE OF . ECHIDNA HYSTRIX. By H. G. CHapman, M.B. (Published in “ Journal of Physiology,” 1901.) 3.—A PRELIMINARY REPORT UPON THE LEAF-BEARING BEDS OF AUSTRALIA. BY Fy Deane: MAS UM. Inst. CE. Bis: 4.—ON A NEW ZEALAND FRESH-WATER LEECH. By Pror. A. Denny, D.Sc., anp Marcaret F. Oniver, M.A. 5.—NOTES FROM THE MALLEE. By C. Frencu, Jun. 6.—THE INSECT FAUNA OF CENTRAL AUSTRALIA. By W. W. Froceeatt, F.L.S. 232 | PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 7.—METHODS OF CONTROLLING INSECT PESTS. By W. W. Froceatt, F.L.S.. Government Entomologist, New South Wales. [ Abstract. | The paper dealt with the practical application of means for destroying insects. An economic entomologist should be ap- pointed from the ranks of collectors rather than from those of museum specialists. Orchardists should know why certain washes and sprays are used, and the orchard should be planted with full knowledge of the conditions required, and all trees should be free from pests of any kind. The good effect of the Vegetation Diseases Acts of the various States is dwelt upon, and the state of things now is contrasted with that obtaining before the passing of the Acts. Fumigation and spraying are often ineffective, because im- properly carried out, and to guard against this the orchardist should know the why and wherefore of the processes he adopts. Some entomologists believe that the destruction of insect pests should be brought about by the encouragement of their parasites, while others would accomplish the work by spraying, and there are good points in both plans. It is pointed out that though fungus diseases when occurring naturally are wonderful in their results, still the disease when artificially spread is unreliable in its action. Insectivorous birds should be strictly protected, and an efficient gun Act should be enforced. Children in schools should be encouraged to foster instead of harm bird life. 8.—THE PROGRESS OF THE ZOOLOGICAL AND ACCLIMA- TISATION SOCIETY OF VICTORIA. By F. R. Goprrey. 9—SOME EXAMPLES OF ALTERATION PRODUCED IN PLANTS BY CHANGED ENVIRONMENT. By Aex. G. HAmttron. (With Two Plates.) Eight years ago I collected a small plant of Dendrobium cemulum of the usual type found in the Illawarra district, New South Wales, that is, like Fig. 1. In this form the pseudo-bulbs PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 235 are short, 1 to 34 in. long, thin, and having usually three joints. The plant commonly grows on black-butt and other Eucalypts, and on the pine (Podocarpus elata). On the Paterson River, Hunter District, I found the same type very plentiful on iron- barks. I fastened the plant on a block of wood, and it grew and flowered well for three years. I then removed it to a com- mon earthenware pot, which had drainage at the bottom, then a layer of leaf-mould, then one of rotten bark, on which the roots were placed and packed with moss. In a couple of months the plant came into active growth, and the new pseudo-bulbs were remarkable for their thickness. Each succeeding year the young pseudo-bulbs were thicker and finer, so that now the plant looks like a small rock lily (D. speciosum). But since it. was placed under these conditions the plant has never flowered. Fig. 2 shows a pseudo-bulb of this plant. There can be no doubt but that the remarkable alteration in form and habit of the plant is due to the change from the natural condition, in which the plant derived a scanty supply of nourish- ment from the rain trickling down the tree trunk on which it was seated, and from the vapour contained in the air, which the aerial roots absorbed, to the artificial conditions, under which it received a plentiful supply from the rotting bark and leaf-mould and the frequent waterings it received. The ceasing to blossom is not uncommon in plants when the vegetative system is highly nourished, the reproductive system becoming less active or ceasing to develop altogether. Here, then, we have an example of great change produced by artificial alteration of environment. It happens also in the case of the rock lily, as the late Mr. R. D. Fitzgerald some years ago showed me some abnormally large plants grown under the stimulus of manure and water. But there is also a great difference in plants which live under differing natural conditions. On the northern coast rivers of New South Wales the plant has an altogether different appear- ance (which, however, does not extend to the flowers). I am not aware of the boundaries, but Mr. Fitzgerald says (a) that south of the Macleay and Hastings only the first form is found, and the second form extends north into Queensland. In this form of the plant the pseudo-bulbs are about the same thickness as in the southern form, nearly that of a lead-pencil. (Mr. Fitzgerald says the southern form is thicker in proportion, but I have not observed this). They are, however, very much longer, being from 6 to 15 in. in length, and having six joints at least (Fig. 3.). The leaves are, if anything, smaller in propor- tion. In all the specimens I have seen from the Bellingen River and Queensland they are the same shape and proportion, twice (a) Fitzgerald, R. D., Australian Orchards, Vol. I., Part 2. 234 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. as long as broad. But Mr. Fitzgerald’s figure of the plant shows the leaves nearly as long as broad. The habitat is the same— Eucalypts, especially ironbark, and the pine. Mr. Fitzgerald remarks that this is one of the few epiphytal orchids which habitually grow on Eucalypts. It is the only one so far as I know, for Cymbidium always grows, not on the trunk, but in spouts, deriving its nourishment from the rotting wood. He also says it is impatient of removal to the bush-house or green-house, but flowers freely till it dies. This is contrary to my experience, as in addition to the one mentioned which I have had eight years on my verandah, other plants have lived and flourished with me for years. The main difference between the northern and southern form no doubt arises from environment. Probably the greater heat and moisture of the northern river scrubs is the cause. But why the difference should be merely one of length of pseudo-bulb I confess I do not see. One might reasonably have expected the variation to be in the direction of more robust plants, for plant food must be more abundantly and regularly supplied in the northern localities. Mr. Fitzgerald (loc. cit.) says the flowers are finer in the north, but I have not found it so. Some flowering plants from Queensland certainly had no more and no finer blooms than the average southern plant. Dendrobium tetragonum is not a very common orchid in Iila- warra. It usually grows on myrtle trees (Backhousia myrti- folia), but I have seen it on Lugenia Smith, and on rocks. It grows on the same and other trees on the Bellingen River. The pseudo-bulbs are four-angled and thin at the base, thickening up rather suddenly beyond the middle and thinning again near the leaf-bearing apex, the leaves being four or less. The flowers spring out from the centre of the leaf cluster, and sometimes from the joints of the thick portion of the pseudo-bulb. This is the southern form (Fig. 5). But on the Bellingen and Nambucca Rivers, and, I have no doubt, on the rivers further north, al- though the form and size of the plant is just the same, there is still a great difference. From the centre of the leaf cluster, and from the joints of the thick portion of the pseudo-bulb, young shoots develop into perfect pseudo-bulbs (Fig. 5), and aerial roots grow out from their bases and twist over the parent stems, ad- hering to them tightly just as the older or primary roots do to the tree or other support. The aerial roots develop from the joints prior to the appearance of the shoots. There can be little doubt but that this proliferation is directly caused by the greater amount of moisture present in the atmos- phere in the northern localities. Just in the same way adven- titious roots are more common in the fig-trees on the north coast than in Illawarra (where, indeed, they seldom occur, and then only in favourable surroundings, as when they overhang creeks, Australasian Assoc. Ady. Sci. Vol. viii, 1901. Plate V. A C.Hamilton. nee eM i hee Rt ie SA NEN OE AE ORO SS ACN ENTREE SN ee NC i ent To face page 234. ot gee temo ne Letts en te Ww aa," . m tas\n «ais owns ee 4 ane, 2] aman fe ince siege tm Ey eat yar sy 4 j [eran | o hes ol Ar sou 2 Ape? ’ De fae Australasian Assoc. Adv Sci., Vol. viii, 19017. Plate VI. 4 A.G. Hamilton < To face page 234. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 235 &c.). This, then, is a case of differing natural conditions pro- ducing variation of form. The close adhesion of the aerial roots to the parent pseudo- bulbs brought to my mind a problem which puzzled me a good deal at one time, namely, the method by which aerial roots of epiphytal orchids adhere so closely to the trunks of trees, rocks, or, in cultivation, to flower pots. In removing them from their support it will often be found that the roots split, and leave a part adhering tightly to the tree or rock on which they live. Since I began growing them, however, I have repeatedly noticed that if the green-growing point of the root be soaked either by rain or in watering them, a transparent mucilage exudes, and this coming in contact with anything sticks firmly and holds it to the support when dry. I have noticed this par- ticularly in Clezsostoma tridentatum and Dendrobium emulum. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. Vv. Fig.1 Dendrobium enulum ... ays ... Southern form. Fig. 2 BA 5 a2) er ... Form under cultivation. Fig. 3 re re ae as ... Northern form. VI. Fig.4 Dendrobium tetragonum Es .... Ordinary form. Fig. 5 Mf Ss 4 ... Proliferous form. 10.—NOTES ON A COLLECTION OF BIRDS FROM WESTERN AUSTRALIA. By! RCH acy: 11—NOTE ON THE FAUNA OF THE GILL-CAVITIES OF FRESH-WATER CRAYFISHES. By Wi.tiiam A. Haswett, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. An examination of the contents of the branchial chambers of Australasian fresh-water crayfishes has revealed an extensive and varied assemblage of animals that pass their entire lives in this sheltered position, and are never to be met with elsewhere. In addition, there are some that, though so far they have only been found in this situation, are in all probability not restricted to it, and are to be looked upon rather as chance visitors than constant members of the population. Some of these inhabitants of the branchial chambers are not, in any sense, parasites: others, ap- 236 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. parently, afford us examples of a variety of conditions ranging through various degrees of commensalism to true parasitism. Studding the stems of the branchiz in. certain crayfishes are species of * Pyxidium and of Lagenophrys—Infusorian genera, which, though probably. they occur in other situations, yet con- stitute an important feature of the fauna I am describing. Nematodes abound in the branchial cavities of most species. Though there are a number of different kinds, none of them appear to present features of any special interest. Various Rhabdocoeles are very constant members of this fauna. These are highly characteristic forms, and at least one or them (of which I hope to publish an account shortly) is not assignable to any of the recognised families. These live permanently in the branchial chambers, creeping among the gill filaments and fasten their eggs to the bases of the stems. Several species of Zemnocephala live habitually in the bran- chial cavities and lay their eggs there, attaching them to the epimeral plate or the branchiostegite or to the gills themselves. In one of these, a Tasmanian species not yet described, eyes are absent. Craspedella under normal circumstances never leaves the branchial chambers ; it occurs in this position, some- times in great numbers, in both Astacopsis bicarinatus and A. serratus. Actinodactylella I have only found in the branchial chambers of Engeus, a crayfish closely allied to the Astacopsis, but differ- ing from the members of the latter genus in its mode of life. The two known species of Engeus, E. fossor, of Gippsland, in Victoria, and #. cunicularius, of Western Tasmania, are never found in streams, but live in burrows, often of considerable depth, at the bottom of which sufficient moisture collects to keep them alive. Actinodactylella occurs in both of these species. Another interesting member of this remarkable fauna is a member of the Hzstriobdellide, a family of uncertain affinities commonly assigned to the Archiannelida. Hitherto the only known species of this family has been Histriobdella Homara, P. J. van Beneden (a), which is stated to live on the eggs of the European lobster (Astacus gammarus) (0), and is thus a marine and not a fresh-water animal. The new representative of the eroup (which I have named Stratiodrilus) lives in the bran- chial cavities of Tasmanian fresh-water crayfishes. It differs from Histriobdella Homari in certain points, one of the most important of these differences being the presence of paired cirri on the segments of the body. Stratiodrilus appears to be con- (a) A. Foettinger. ‘‘ Recherches sur Porganisation de Histriobdella homari. P. J. Van Beneden, rapportée aux Archiannélides.”’ “Arch, de Biol. v. (1884). (2) It is remarkable how little we know of the habits of this species. The statement made above is repeated bv writer after writer. But evidently it cannot be regarded as complete. The Histriobdella must have a more permanent abiding-place than ‘the eggs, which only remain for a short period. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. es Ti fined to Astacopsis tasmanicus and its gigantic ally of the nor- thern rivers of Tasmania, A. Franklini. I have searched in vain for it in large numbers of the New Zealand Paranephrops, and of Astacopsis serratus and A. bicarinatus from various parts of New South Wales. 12.--THE MARINE WOOD-BORERS OF AUSTRALASIA AND THEIR WORK.* By Cuaries Heptey, F.LS., Conchologist to the Australian Museum. (Plates VII. to X.) Preface ; Crustacea; Mollusca—General Aspect—Propaga- tion—Boring—As an Esculent—Natural Enemies—Classifica- tion; Ravages; Remedies; Summary. As a professional naturalist I have been frequently asked for information on the ship-worm, locally called the cobra. What little is known of the subject is scattered in literature, and diffi- cult of access. Many widely-circulated statements are also erroneous. It therefore seemed to me that a summary of present knowledge, designed rather for the engineer and general student than for the systematical zoologist, would be a useful work. For references to engineering and to crustacean literature I am in- debted to Mr. G. H. Halligan and to Mr. T. Whitelegge respec- tively. : The subject before us may be suitably considered under the following heads :—-What these pests are; How they work; and How their ravages may be remedied. Two Classes of the Animal Kingdom have produced enemies to submerged timber, the Crustacea and the Mollusca. THE CRUSTACEA. The people of Europe and North America suffer from the attacks of two species of boring Crustacea—Limnoria lignorum and Chelura terebrans. Neither of these have as yet been re- ported by naturalists from Australasian seas. Our fauna is, however, still so imperfectly known that it is possible that they or kindred destructive species may be indigenous, but have, so far, escaped detection, or they may at some future date be acci- dentally introduced.+ It is, therefore, worth directing attention * On the Report of Section H, a committee was appointed by the Brisbane meeting (Report Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci., vi., 1895, p. xix) to ‘‘inquire into the habits of the teredo and the best means of preserving timber or structures subject to their action in tidal Mien It is hoped that this essay may be acceptable as an informal report on the subject. _.t Footnote, 14/6/1901.—What I forecast has now happened. Mr. T. Whitelegge has identified LZ. lionorum in timber from a floating jetty at Circular Quay, and again from part of the hull of a ferry boat plying in Sydney Harbour. 238 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. to them. An inoffensive kind, Zimnoria segnis, has been de- scribed by Chilton (a) from Lyttelton, New Zealand, as living, not on wood, but on the roots of the giant kelp Macrocystis. The Zimnoria can endure considerable cold, and consequently attains higher latitudes than the other boring Crustaceans. It is about the size of a gram of rice, is a common and gregarious species, and commits much destruction. Wood is riddled by it in numerous small perforations, perpendicular to the surface, until reduced to the semblance of a sieve, or a target struck by shot. White writes :—“ They ply their masticatory organs with such assiduity as to have reduced great part of the woodwork which constitutes their food into a state resembling honeycomb. One specimen was a portion of a 3-in. fir-plank, nailed to the north pier-about three years before, which is crumbled away to less than an inch in thickness ; in fact, deducting the space occupied by the cells which cover both surfaces as closely as possible, barely half an inch of solid wood is left, and though its progress is slower in oak, that wood is equally liable to be attacked by it (6). It was by depredations at the Bell Rock Lighthouse, where it was first observed by the celebrated engineer, ‘Robert Stevenson, that it first came into notice as a member of the British fauna. White thus refers to the circumstance :—“ It occurs in the ereatest abundance at the Bell Rock, in the old woodwork used whilst the lighthouse was building, which it perforated in a most alarming manner, entering to the depth of 2 in. or more, boring in every direction. They seldom or never deviate from a straight line in their perforations, unless interrupted in their progress by a knot in the wood, when they pass round it.” A full account of Z. dignorum is given by Bate and Westwood (ce). The Chelura terebrans is rarer than the foregoing, but is larger and more destructive creature. Allman (d) has given an excellent account of its structure and economy. He found the alimentary canal full of wood in process of digestion, which proves that the animal excavates the timber to procure food rather than shelter. Timber carved by it differs in appearance from the work of the Zimnoria. In the latter we find narrow, cylindrical burrows running deep into the interior, while the excavations of Chelwra are considerably larger and more oblique in their direction, so that the surface of the timber thus under- mined by these destructive animals seems to be ploughed up rather than burrowed into (e). (a) Chilton. Trans. New Zealand Inst., xv., 1882, p. 76, Pl. ii., Fig. 2 (6) White. Popular History of British Crustaceans, 1857, p. 229, oh (c) Bate and Westwood. History British Sessile-eyed Crustacea, li., 1868, pp. 351-6, igs. (d) Allman. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (I.), xix., 1847. pp. 361-370, Pls. xiii., xiv. (2) Snow. Proc. Am. Soc. Civil Engineers, xxiv., 1898, Pls. xxviii. and Xxx, PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 239 Chelura was recorded as occurring on the Atlantic coast of the United States by S. T. Smith, who adds an illustration and useful bibliography (/). We now pass on to the only genus yet found boring timber in Australasia, namely, the Sphaeroma. In different parts of the world, but only in the warmer seas, different members of this genus have been detected injuring submerged woodwork. One ae the earliest to report its action was Fritz Muller, who found Sphaeroma terebrans to be an active pest in Brazil. Spence Bates has given particulars of an Indian species, Sphaeroma vastator. “This is smaller than the Sydney kind, being but one-third of an inch long. It was, however, regarded by that experienced carcinologist as one of the largest and most powerful wood destroyers that he knew. The specimen of its ravages, which he described, was “a piece of wood which had formed part of a railway bridge over one of the backwaters on the west coast of the Indian Peninsula. The wood was honey- combed with cylindrical holes from about one-tenth to two- tenths of an inch in diameter, placed close together. In many of these holes the animal was rolled up lke a ball.” It has been recently found that the sphere of operations of this genus is not altogether restricted to salt water. Miss Richardson (7) has pointed out a species, Sphaeroma destructor, discovered attacking railway trestles mi the fresh water of St. John’s River, at Palatka, Florida, U.S.A., at a distance from the sea of 100 miles. Sections of the ar received had been re- duced during a period of eight years from a diameter of 16 in. to that of 74 in. No such case has yet been published as occur- ring in any Australasian lake or river, but the writer has seen a loo from the fresh water of the Rewa River, Fiji, pitted by the borings of a Sphaeroma, and he anticipates that when attention is directed to the subject, it will be commonly found in Queens- land and elsewhere. The species boring wood in Sydney Harbour has been kindly identified for the writer by Mr. T. W hitelegge, the first au thority on Australian Crustacea, as— SPHZROMA QUOYANA, Milne Edwards. Prof. Haswell, who states that he had never found the species, has published the following English rendering of the original diagnosis :—“ Body slightly granular, last segment of the abdo- men ornamented above with two longitudinal rows of four or five small tubercles, and with a thick, obtuse, transverse crest ine Smith. Proc. U.S. National Museum, ii., 1879 (1880), pp. 232-5, in the Smithsonia iscell. Collection, xix. (g) Richardson. Proc. Biol. Soc., Washington, xi., 1897, pp. 105-7, Figs. 240 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. situated above its posterior extremity, which is rounded. Rami of the caudal appendages small, pointed, and granulated, the exterior ramus obscurely toothed on the external border. Length, half an inch” (h). As no figure of this species has yet been published, the accom- panying enlarged illustration (Pl. X., fig. 1) has been prepared for this article by the writer :— SPHEROMA VERRUCAUDA, White. A New Zealand species which hardly differs from the fore- going. Dana reports it from the Bay of Islands “ in rotten wood in cavities bored by the Teredo (z).” By the kindness of Mr. G. M. Thomson, who furnished me with a specimen from Kerepuru, New Zealand, I am enabled to pre- sent the accompanying illustration of the species (Pl. X., fig. 2) :— a species of Sphaeroma, distinct from S. quoyana, and pro- bably unnamed, has been seen by the writer from Wyong, N.S.W., and Port Mackay, Q. The Sphaeroma works from half tide to low tide level. In all stages of growth it is very destructive to timber, both hard and soft. As Bates has remarked, of an allied form :—‘‘ The mouth appears well adapted for the purpose (of gnawing timber). The mandibles are strong and powerful appendages, and furnished with a rasping organ, while the strong posterior pairs of pleopoda are well adapted for the purpose of pressing the animal forward in its cavity ; the posterior pair of pleopoda must be very effective organs also, by the leverage that may be attained through them for assisting the animal to turn easily in its narrow cave.” On Plate VII. is shown the action of adult Sphaeroma quoy- ana on a block of hardwood (Eucalypt), 3 x 4 in. This timber formed one of the ribs of a craft which is now, and has been for several years, lying as a wreck at the head of Mosman’s Bay, Sydney Harbour. The individual perforations are } in. in dia- meter. At one end the timber has been completely eaten through by these vermin, while softer wood of equal size had been altogether demolished. With the Sphaeroma is always as- sociated a minute crustacean identified for me by Mr. Whitelegge as Janira sp. This Sphaeroma has been observed by Mr. Whitelegge to bore holes in the sandstone rock at Mosman’s Bay. S. verrucauda has been accredited with a similar habit. To the direct injury wrought by the Sphaeroma may be added the harm that it may do by exposing wood otherwise protected to the entrance of the shipworm. (h) Haswell. Catalogue Australian Crustacea, 1882, p. 287. (i) Dana. U.S. Expl. Exped., xiii., 1852, Pl. ii., p. 779. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. | 241 THE MOLLUSCA. - Active for evil though the Sphaeroma and other boring crus- tacea may be, their depredations are insignificant beside the secret and enormous damage inflicted by the shipworms. There are several popular notices of the shipworm in books on Australian travel. One of the earliest and most interesting is the following entrv in the diary of Mr. J. Backhouse, under date (th April, 1836, Brisbane, Queensland :—“ One of the young men of the company told us that, on a certain occasion when lost in the bush, he was driven by hunger to eat a species of Z’eredo, or Auger worm, called by the blacks Cobra, which he found very palatable. In this part of the country, within reach of the salt water, this animal is abundant in logs, which it perforates, till they resemble honeycomb (7).” GENERAL ASPECT. The shipworms are regarded as the most highly modified of the whole order of bivalve mollusca. Their general aspect. is shown by the figure of Vausitoria thoracites, a common tropical species, on Plate VIII. At the broader end is seen a globe with a large opening, like a diver’s helmet. This is the bivalve shell, through the aperture of which protrudes the muscular, con- tracted, pestle-shaped foot, raised in a ring round the edge. In life this, the instrument of perforation, is capable of considerable protrusion and movement. This is the end which lies in the deepest or farthest portion of the burrow. Upwards from the shell the long worm-like body tapers towards the small end. It is pale pink or yellow, soft, and semi-transparent, showing the contained viscera through its walls. There may be traced the gills, the stomach, and the intestines. From the smaller end protrude two shelly projections, the pallets, which afford the best means of distinguishing the different kinds. Between these two pallets lie two conjoined tubes, the siphons, as they are technically called, which play a most important part in the economy of the animal. Through one, the inhalant siphon, water is constantly sucked in, and through the other regularly expelled. By pouring a little colouring matter into the water the current entering one and leaving the other may be rendered visible. With the water used for respiration the food of the animal, consisting of minute floating animalculae and algae, is drawn in. Through the exhalant siphon are expelled the water exhausted by respiration, the faeces, wood pulp from the exca- vation and the genital products. When alarmed, the siphons shrink down the burrow, the pallets then close over them and (7) Backhouse. Narrative Visit Australian Colonies, 1843, p. 365. Q 242 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. shield the animal from predacious intruders. If the siphons fail to maintain free communication with the water, the animal must at once be choked and perish. A part of the skin of the shipworm, technically called the mantle, secretes a shelly tube, which lines the burrow. This tube is better developed and thicker in some instances than in others. Occasionally it seals over the termination of the burrow, con- verting the whole into a blind sack; thus conclusively showing that the object of the Cobra in boring is to seek shelter, not food. The shelly tube is shown in the split log (Plate IX. Ng perforated by Vausitoria edaz, as standing out from the mass. Some allied bivalves which do not bore in “wood, but burrow in sand or mud, construct a similar tube. Hence it has been argued by Wright that the habit of constructing a shelly tube is older than the habit of boring in timber. These tubes serve to protect the molluscs from the attacks of the Sphaeroma, which, though it lays them bare, cannot pierce them. When so exposed, they are always thickened from within. PROPAGATION. The breeding of the shipworm has been watched by several careful and able observers, of whom De Quatrefages (Ann. Sci. Nat. (3) Zool. XI., 1849, pp. 202-226, Pl. IX), Hatschek (Arb. Zool. Inst. Universitat Wien. Tihy 1880, pp. 1-44), and Sigerfoos (John Hopkins’ University Circular XIV. , 1895, and XV. "1896), are the most important. In all the species hitherto examined, the sexes are separate, ova and spermatozoa not occurring in the same individual. The females appear to preponderate over the males. Quatrefages remarked of 7’. fatalis (op. cit., p. 35) that out of 100 examples which he dissected, not more than five or six proved males. On the other hand, Sigerfoos found the sexes in 7’. norvegica of about equal proportions (op. cit. XIV., p. 78). The course of development usual in marine bivalves is fol- lowed. When expelled from the glands, the ova are about one five-hundredth of an inch in diameter, and the spermatozoa one- thousandth of an inch in length ; the latter possess great vitality, and are active and potent for many hours after emission. Though we have no direct evidence, it seems safe to conclude that the spermatozoa, which are shed in great quantities, are inhaled by the female through her siphon, and impregnate the ova in the gills. The knots, which are a conspicuous feature in the body of a shipworm, are composed of masses of developing ova lodged in the branchize. On the fourth day of its existence the larva acquires a membraneous shell, the next stage is marked by the acquisition of a ciliated membrane, the swimming organ, PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 243 technically called the velum, later the foot, appears as a very long and mobile limb. The larve are then sufficiently advanced to commence an inde- pendent life, and are expelled into the sea through the exhalant siphon. Each is about the size of a millet grain, and is enclosed in a brown, globose shell. Their appearance at this stage is un- like the adult on all points, and is shown by Pl. X., Fig. 3 (after Quatrefages), the foot protruded from the parted valves, and the velum displayed half-furled. Two means of locomotion are at their disposal—swimming and crawling. In swimming, the velum is employed; it can be spread over half the shell or en- tirely retracted within it. By its means they dart through the water like a flash of light. In crawling, the long flexible foot is used, when climbing over a piece of timber ia search of a lodging their movements are comparable to those of a cater- pillar (4). It is not known by what sense they are enabled to select timber and to discriminate between it and other sub- “stances. Probably it is analogous to a sense of smell. In this free swimming stage, which from the economic point of view is the critical one, large numbers of the young perish without obtaining wood to bore. Sigerfoos remarks (op. cit., 1896, p. 87) :—“ Though we have no direct evidence as to the time the shipworm larva is free-swimming, we may assume, I think, that it is at least a month, it may be two. During this time most of its energies are expended in locomotion, while after it has be- come attached it may devote all its energies to forming its bur- row and to secure food for itself, so that its rate of growth is very rapid. Coming in contact with the wood, the larva throws out a single long byssus thread for attachment, and never again _ leaves its place. The velum is lost within a few hours, and the transformation of the small bivalve into the shipworm is begun. “Almost as soon as the larva has settled it begins to clear away a place by means of the ventral edges of the valves of the shell. In this way a small pit is formed. But very soon rows of teeth are formed in succession on the anterior edge of the valves; the small knobs are formed on their umbonal and ventral regions, the ligament becomes functionless, and the two adductors become antagonistic to each other. The teeth are formed independently, and afterwards are cemented to the valves, pointed outwards and backwards. While the foot performs a cupping action, the posterior adductor contracts, the two valves swing on each other by means of the two pivots formed by the knobs, and the teeth are brought to bear on the wood, rasping away its surface. Twelve days after attachment the young has attained a length of an eighth of an inch.” (4) Moquin-Tandon. The World of the Sea. Engl. Transl., 5th ed., 1882, p. 193. Q2 244 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. BorInG. The operations of the Teredo are said to have suggested to Brunel, the engineer, his method of tunnelling under the Thames. It is of the first importance to an inquirer into the operations of the Cobra to know how it does its work. Yet this is exactly the point upon which all non-biological authors are in error, and upon which many zoological authorities are undecided. To the writer the matter appears simple and clearly demonstrable. Three possible methods by which the Cobra may bore have been suggested. Firstly, that it rasps out the wood with the edges of the valves—a plausible and popular mistake. Secondly, that it dissolves away the wood by chemical action, an ingenious, but unproved and unaccepted theory. Thirdly, that it wears away the wood with its foot, which, though the truth, has been generally ignored. The first hypothesis occurs naturally to any untrained observer. On extracting the animal from the tube, he remarks that the creature consists of a soft body and a hard shell, as the soft body could not dig through wood harder than itself, the shell must be the instrument of perforation. This simple argument is clinched by adding that the tube is enlarged only at the farther end, and it is just at that end where the shell occurs. The answer to this is, that if the shell has carved out the tunnel it is a tool which has done much service. A tool so employed would show traces of its work, bwt wnder the microscope the valves show no sign of wear. Under the lens the anterior area of the shell is seen to be denticulated by numerous rows of fine granules, giving to the surface a rasp-like aspect. Those who hold the shell to be a boring tool have pointed (/) to this apparent rasp as conclusive proof of their opinion, and ask what can be the use of it if not for filing wood. But the microscope exhibits these delicate granulations as fresh and sharp, without sign of wear, and it is impossible to suppose that they are so used by the Cobra. To a naturalist, it is obvious that this sculpture is the homologue of corresponding sculpture on the valves of Pholas, its near relation, and are an inheritance from some common ancestor. Its function probably is to keep the valves from slipping when expanded to grip the sides of the burrow. Had the shell been the instrument of excavation it would have appeared as a more imposing feature of the total organism. All systematists are agreed that the Teredimde are allied to the Pholas group. Granting which, it is evident that the evolution of the shipworms has been in the direction of the elongation of the animal and the excessive degeneration of the shell. Another step on the same path and the shell would totally dis- appear. (2) Cailliaud. Mémoire sur les Mollusques perforants. Harlem. 1856. Bayley. Trans. Am. Civil Engineers, iii., 1874, p. 165. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 245 We are indebted to Dr. Dall for an ingenious explanation of the real function of this rudimentary shell. He points out (m) that without a hold-fast the foot of the shipworm could exert no ressure on the wood. The requisite grip is obtained by opening the valves and holding them apart against the wall of the tube. With the fulcrum so obtained, the foot gains power to rasp at the end of its hole. This view that the shell acts as a fulcrum is, of course, incompatible with the view that it is a boring tool. Deshayes decided that it was impossible for a shipworm to carve out its abode with the valves of the shell, and suggested that certain chemical secretions of the animal might be capable of dissolving the wood. Exactly what that chemical agent was, or how it operated, was not explained. To the advocates of this hypothesis De Quatrefages replied, that such a solution would act differently upon different materials, whereas the resinous and ligneous layers of pines and various woods of different hardness and density are cut evenly and alike, and that such a solvent would present a rough and half-consumed layer at the point of attack, but none such is found. Therefore, continued De Quatrefages, it is obvious that the shipworm’s bore, as smooth and even as if cut with the sharpest gouge, must result from mechanical means, the means being friction, and the agent the foot. The foot of the shipworm is a highly modified and powerful organ. Its shape, that of a disc, is much modified from the usual Pelecypod type, in accordance with the work it has todo. It is capable of considerable exten- sion and lateral movement, and in natural position is applied to the end of the burrow, the seat of operations. An apparent objection to the idea that the foot is the in- strument of perforation is that it is softer than the wood. It is, however, within the experience of all that harder sub- stances may under certain circumstances be abraded by softer. A well-known instance is the toe of the statue of St. Peter, in Rome, worn down by the kisses of generations of wor- shippers. The foot of the shipworm is aided by working under water on a macerated surface, and its substance is capable of being renewed as fast as it wears away. Hancock* has shown that the foot contains calcareous bodies such as have been proved to occur in the skin of other Mollusca. It is not generally known that the boring of the Cobra is audible. But most waterside folk can from experience indorse the following statement of Lamb:—“ On a still summer night IT have heard them grinding their way into the wood, and the noise of their grinding would surprise you if you should put your ear to the head of a pile in which they were at work (7).” (m) Dall. Trans. Wagner Free Inst., iil., 1895, p. 498. (*) Hancock. Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist., Oct., 1848, p. 225. (n) Lamb. Trans. Am. Civil Engineers, xxxi., 1894, p. 239. 246 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. As AN ESCULENT. Though uninviting to the civilised eye, the Cobra are as human food both wholesome and palatable. By savages they are everywhere held in high esteem. An extract, quoted a few pages earlier from Backhouse, shows how it was relished in South Queensland. Old settlers have informed the writer that it was the same on the coastal rivers of New South Wales. Steel states (0) that in Fiji the kanakas greedily devour V. fluviatilis raw. In Venice the Teredo norvegica is eaten (p), and called “ bisse dei legni.” No doubt any carnivorous marine animal lucky enough to find a shipworm unprotected would consume it promptly. Naturat ENEMIES. ‘Only one insidious enemy is known to follow the shipworm to the fastness of its burrow. In Europe the Zeredo is de- voured by the larva of an annelid worm in the same way that caterpillars are sometimes consumed by the larve of Ichneu- mon flies. The eggs of this predacious annelid, Verezs fuscata, probably gain admittance to the body of their victim through the inhalant siphon.* Once arrived, they hatch and feed on the entrails of their hosts. Most of our information on this subject is due to the Dutch (q). Of this predacious annelid, Grainger sententiously remarks :—“ Man finds in this predacious annelid a puissant ally against the shipworms” (7). Two species of Werevs, NV. jacksona and NV. languida, are known to inhabit Sydney Harbour (s). If our native species do not share with the European the habit of preying on shipworms, it is suggested that the European species might be introduced. Extraordinary success attended the acclimatisation of the Aus- tralian Friendly Lady-bird, NVoviws cardinalis, into American orchards, where it almost:exterminated the Cottony Cushion, or Fluted Scale, Zcerya purchasi. CLASSIFICATION. The nomenclature of the Australasian shipworms is in a state of considerable confusion, and it is, therefore, necessary to briefly review it. In engineers’ reports and similar documents, all shipworms are indiscriminately termed “ Teredo navalis.” As a matter of fact, neither the species navalis nor the genus (0) Steel in Hedley. Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., Xxlii., 1898, p. 91. (p) Jeffreys. British Conchology, v., 1869, p. 193. (*) Under the name of Lycoris yuscata, de Hann, it is described and figured by von Bauhauer, Arch. Neerland, Sciences I., 1866, p. 22. Pl. ho adizese (q) Vrolik. Verslag. Akad. Amsterdam, x., 1860, pp. 162-4; xii., 1861, pp. 132-150 ; Xill., 1863, pp. 318-329. Abstract in Ann. Sci. Nat., xlii., Zool., 1860, pp. 309-313, and in Nostrands Magazine, iv., p. 466. (r) Grainger. Hist. Natur. de la France, Pt. vii. Moll., no date, p. 193. (s) Kinberg. Ofersight of K. Vetensk. Akad. Forhandlungar, 1865, p. 169. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 247 Teredo are present in our waters, and it will be shown that we have not one but several species to contend with. The shipworms known from Australasia are distinguished generically from the 7’eredo proper by having the siphons con- joined for the greater part of their length, and by the siphons > arising from within a cup-like process of the mantle. Gould, the American conchologist, who was the first to name this genus, proposed, in 1862, to call it Calobates. Wright, in 1864, described a second species under the generic name of Vausitoria. Later Tapparone-Canefri pointed out that Gould’s name was in- admissible, as it had been previously twice used for birds; for it he proposed to substitute Bactronophorus (t). Since, however, Wright’s name is the earliest available, we are obliged by the rules of nomenclature to call the Australasian genus Vawsitoria. The rudimentary bivalve shells of all the species of shipworms are much alike, and scarcely to be distinguished even by a special- ist. The pallets, on the contrary, exhibit excellent features for discrimination. The following sketches of them (Pl. X., Figs. 4-9) are intended to enable any observer to identify most of the Australasian species at a glance. Taking them in the order in which they were described, the list of Australasian shipworms are as follows :— Uperoris cLavA, Gmelin, 1790. Synonyms.—7eredo nucivora, Spengler, and Fistulana gregata, Lamarck. Reference.—Griffiths’ Cuvier. Animal Kingdom, XII., 1834, p. 124, Pl. VIII, Figs. 3, 3a, 3b, 3c, 3d. Occurs at Mauritius, Tranquebar, and Pondicherry. Recently reported by Melvill and Standen (Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool., XXVIT., 1899, p. 199) from Mer Island, Torres Straits. NAUSITORIA THORACITES, Gould, 1856. Synonym.—Calobates australis, Wright. Distinguished by pallets shaped like a stilt, or a sheathed Malay kreese. This species was originally described by Gould (Proc. Boston moc. Nat. Hist., VII, 1856, p. 15) from Tavoy, Burmah. Wright afterwards described C. australis, from Fremantle, Wes- tern Australia (Trans. Linn. Soc., XXV., 1865, p. 564, Pl. LXIV., Figs. 1-5), which he thought might “prove to be only an Aus- tralian form of C’. thoracites, Gould.” It had best be considered as such. Wright also recorded C. thoracites from Singapore. Schmeltz has mentioned J. thoracites from Bowen, Queensland (Cat. V., Godefiroy Museum, 1874, p. 178). Tapparone-Canefri has recognised the species from Sorong, Dutch New Guinea (¢) Tapparone-Canefri. Ann. Mus. Ciy., Genoa, ix., 1877, p. 290. 248 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. (Ann. Mus. Civ. Genoa, 1X., 1877, p. 290), and Prof. von Martens obtained it from Elphinstone Island, Mergui Archipelago (Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool., XXI., 1887, p. 174). The writer has received it from Cooktewn, Queensland. NAUSITORIA MANNI, Wright, 1865. Reference.—Trans. Linn. Soc., XXV., p. 565, Pl. LXV., Figs. 1-8. Distinguished by scoop-shaped pallets. Discovered at Singapore and recently detected at Cooktown, Queensland, in association with the preceding (Hedley, Records Aust. Museum, III., 1899, p. 134). NAUSITORIA SAULII, Wright, 1865. Synonym.—TZredo fragilis, Tate. Reference.—Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S. Wales, XXIII, p. 94, Figs, 7-9. Distinguished by imbricating jointed pallets. This species was described first from Port Phillip, Victoria. It has since been found at Adelaide, Launceston, Sydney, and the Bellenger River: Probably this is the species which Denison (Proc. Roy. Soc. Van Diemen’s Land, 1852, p. 74) and Tenison Woods (Proc. Roy. Soc., Tasmania, 1877, p. 47) mistook for Teredo navalis. N. sauliv seems to be always smaller than J. edax, with which it is frequently associated. NAUSITORIA ANTARCTICA, Hutton,1873. ’ 7 Reference.—Proc. Linn. Soc. (2), IX., 1894, p. 503, PI. XXXIII., Figs. 6, 7. Distinguished by a peculiar oblique auricle of the shell, by its great breadth in proportion to height, and by fork-shaped pallets. ' Occurs from Auckland to Dunedin, New Zealand. It is im- probable that Smith was correct in identifying with this species a shipworm collected by Dr. Coppinger at Bowen, and by the “Challenger” expedition off Cape York, Queensland. NAUSITORIA EDAX, Hedley, 1894. Reference.—Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S. Wales (2), IX., 1894, p. 509, Pl. XXXII, Figs. 1-5. Distinguished by pallets shaped like a cricket bat. This species has been found at Adelaide and Sydney. A speci- men of its ravages is shown on Pi. IX. NAUSITORIA FLUVIATILIS, Hedley. 1898. Reference.—Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S. Wales, XXIII, p. 93, Figs. 1-6. Distinguished by hatchet-shaped pallets. This interesting species has lately been discovered boring in piles submerged in the Rewa and Navua Rivers, Fiji. Only two PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 249 other cases are on record where the shipworm has extended its depredations into fresh water, the one from the Ganges River, in India, the other from the Zambesi River, in South Africa. NAUSITORIA AURITA, Hedley, 1899. Reference.—Memoir Austr. Museum, III., p. 507, Fig. 56. Dis- tinguished by an expanded and recurved auricle. Inhabits New Caledonia and the Ellice Group. Besides the shipworms proper there is but one other mollusc known to systematically riddle timber in Australasian seas, namely :— MARTESIA STRIATA, Linné. Pl. X., Figs. 10, 11. This circumzequatorial species has been identified by myself boring timber at Cooktown, Queensland. It occurs in New Caledonia ; its southern range is indicated by a single dead valve which I picked up in Middle Harbour, near Sydney. A species of the same genus was found perforating logs in Borneo, 12 miles from the sea, where the water was perfectly fresh (Adams, Gen. Rec. Moll., IT., 1838, p. 331). A few other bivalves, as Venerwpis or Sazxicava, might occa- sionally occur in wood. Other genera which habitually bore in stone as Pholas, Lithophaga, Gastrochaeha, or Naranio do not here concern us. RAVAGES. Perhaps no country has suffered from the shipworm more than Holland, where, in 1730, the low-lying districts narrowly escaped destruction from the collapse of the dykes ruined by shipworms. In England it was once estimated that at Plymouth and Devon- port alone the shipworms in one year destroyed Government pro- perty to the value of £8000. In America, piles have been rendered useless by a submergence of 100 days in Mobile Bay. On the Louisville and Nashville rail- road, piles 13 in. x 15 in. frequently have to be replaced after six months’ service. (2). Probably in Australia, where the warmer climate imposes no check on the multiplication or activity of the animal, and where larger species occur, damage is wrought more rapidly than in Kurope or America. We are much in need of exact details of the work of the Cobra. Statements are required which should show :—(1) The locality ; (2) the freshness or saltness, purity or impurity, of the water; (3) the botanical name of the wood infested; (4) the time it has been subject to infection; (5) the damage done; and (uv) Montfort. Trans. Am. Soc. Civ. Engineers, xxxi., p. 221. 250 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. (6) the name and size of the Cobra. No such complete data has been published in Australasia. Much of the conflicting evidence offered by reliable witnesses on the subject of the ravages of the Cobra might be harmonised if the different factors above enumer- ated had been taken into consideration. It may be confidently stated that no timber impervious to ship- worms exists. The writer endorses a statement by E. O. Moriarty—“ In the pure part of the sea-water of this (Sydney) harbour I am satisfied that no timber that ever grew will resist the worm” (v). The fibres of endogenous plants, such as Palms and Bamboos, possess a high power of resistance, yet one shipworm earned the specific name of nuczvora, from its habit of boring cocoanut shells. The fossil wood and palm fruits (Nipadites) of Sheppy and Brabant are mined in the same way. Hardness is in itself no obstacle to perforation. Comparative immunity, such as is credited to the jarrah (Huca- lyptus marginata) is probably owing to the presence of aromatic essential oils repugnant to the mollusc (w). Continued submergence would be likely to abstract such essences by solution, and so weaken their defensive power. And it is also probable that such odours would be more effective abroad than against the native species accustomed to them. In the opinion of the late Baron von Mueller, the jarrah, £. marginata, best resists the shipworms, and next to that he ranked Lucalyptus rostrata (2). In New South Wales, authorities are generally agreed that the turpentine tree of New South Wales, Syncarpia laurifolia, is superior to all local timbers in ability to resist Cobra. Both the Cobra and the White Ant prefer the hardest Ironbark to the Turpentine. Maiden, who has published a full account and illus- trations of Syncarpia laurifolia (y), writes :—“ This immunity is believed to be owing to the layer of oleo-resin between the bark and the wood, which is distasteful to animal organisms, but we have no absolute experiments on this point.” The question was again discussed by Maiden and De Coque (z). They found two forms, locally distinguished as Black and Red Turpentine, the latter being the younger and more healthy state of the former, and yielding superior materials for piles. Timber grown on swampy land is inferior to that from well-drained hillsides. They were informed by Mr. C. W. Darley that “In pure sea- (v) Moriarty. Report to the Select Committee on Wharf Accommodation in Sydney Harbour, 1874, p. 44. (w) Laslett and Ward. Timber and Timber Trees, Native and Foreign, 2nd ed,, 1894. (xz) Mueller. Eucalyptographia Decades III. and IV. (y) Maiden. The Turpentine Tree, Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales, V., July, 1894, pp. 463-7, Plate. (z) Maiden and De Coque. Report on Turpentine Timber with Special Reference to its Resistance to Cobra (Teredo). Agricultural Gazette, New South Wales, iii., Nov., 1895, pp. 733-743. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 251 water I have reason to believe that the red wood of Turpentine will resist the Z’eredo for many years (I can speak for twenty years at least), but when there is some fresh water mixed with the salt water, as up rivers, I find the worm will go through and destroy Turpentine piles wzthin a year in some cases.” It is pointed out that the life of a pile chiefly depends on whether the bark is intact or not, and these writers lay it down as an important rule “ That Turpentine piles be, as far as pos- sible, felled in the summer, as the bark then clings to the log, and it not so likely to start when felled. In the ‘winter, when the sap is down, the bark is readily separable.” The representative of this tree in Queensland is Syncarpia hill. Myr. Fred. Turner informs the writer that he found it growing at Frazer’s Island and at Tin Can Bay, near Mary- borough. The local blacks, who called it Peebeen, or Peabeen, construct their canoes of it, and informed him that the wood was proof against Cobra. The bark is said to contain a consider- able amount of tannic acid. The drawback to its utilisation is that the timber does not grow in good straight barrels, or in ac- cessible places. Mr. E. O. Moriarty, then Engineer for Harbours and Rivers for New South Wales, showed a Parliamentary Committee sec- tions of an Ironbark pile from Dunmore Bridge, on the Paterson River, about six miles above its Junction with the Hunter River, New South Wales, entirely destroyed by Cobra in the space of four years; also an Ironbark log, which had been completely riddled after ten years’ immersion at Circular Quay (a). Mr. E. M. de Burgh deposed before another Parliamentary Committee that the Ironbark walings of the Glebe Island Bridge were so destroyed by Cobra after thirty-seven years’ service that he could not dispose of the fragments for firewood. When he took them up they were hanging clear of the bolts, which had broken through them (0). Captain Ferguson, Chief Harbourmaster of Williamstown, Victoria, has given some particulars of the boring of submerged timbers in Victorian waters (c). An account of worm-eaten piles from the Franklin Wharf, Hobart, was published by Sir William Denison (d). Mr. C. W. Darley has shown the writer an example in spirits of a shipworm, apparently V. edaz, procured from the Richmond River, New South Wales, which, when fresh, extended for the enormous length of 5 ft. 10 in., and has assured him that such a length has been exceeded by others which he has measured. The ae Moriarty. Op. cit., (b) De Burgh. Report ‘of the Proposed Removal of Pyrmont and Glebe Island Bridges, 1894, p. 6. (c) Report on Class III., Indigenous Vegetable Substances. Catalogue of the Victorian Exhibition of 1861, pp. 8-11. (d) Denison. Proc. Roy. Soc. V.“Diemen’s Land, 1852, pp. 74-77. 252 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. longest shipworm does not necessarily bore a hole of the greatest diameter. Three-quarters of an inch is the usual diameter for the burrows of VV. edaz, but as the type of that shell exceeds an inch in breadth, such a diameter cannot be regarded as of the lar- gest calibre. The largest foreign records of length of animal and diameter of hole appear to be 4 ft. and 14 in. respectively. Unfortunately, the species furnishing these measurements are not mentioned by name (e). To the destruction of wharves, bridges, and shipping is to be added the damage done to submarine cables. Coppinger writes : “There are now two submarine cables connecting Port Darwin with Singapore, vid Java, and thence with Europe. The first was laid in 1872, and was found most difficult to maintain on account of the ravages made in it by a boring mollusc, a species of Zeredo, which, in an amazingly short space of time, pierced the galvanised iron wire sheathing of the cable and destroyed the insulation of the copper core. The repairs of this cable necessi- tated an outlay of £20,000 per annum, a circumstance con- trasting strangely with the condition of a similar cable in the India and China seas, which is not attacked by the Teredo. Recently a duplicate cable has been laid, in the construction of which a tape of muntz metal was wound round in a spiral fashion between the insulating material and the twisted wire sheathing. By this provision the new cable has been rendered proof against the boring effects of the Z'’eredo, and has hitherto worked success- fully without the slightest hitch (/). REMEDIES. Remedies may be divided into natural and artificial. One natural agent has been mentioned in a preceding section dealing with Life History, as the Vereis, a carnivorous Annelid, whose larve preys on the living shipworm. Another natural agent which, as it is inapplicable to our latitudes, deserves but brief mention, is cold. A severe frost coinciding with a low tide has been observed in Holland to effect a wholesale destruction of Teredo. A dense sheath of living sessile cirripedes might afford a natural protection, if they could be induced to grow where re- quired. The natural agent of most service in Australia is mud. Water fouled by mud or sewerage is obnoxious, or even fatal, to the Cobra. Mr. J. Booth related to a Parliamentary Committee the following instances of the longevity of certain piles :—*“ This is a sample, as far as I can glean, of the old King’s Wharf. A gentleman who does not live far from here went, in 1821, with Mr. Hutchinson, Colonel Grimwood, and Major Druitt to survey and report upon the old King’s Wharf. The piles were driven in 1801, and in 1821 they reported that the Cobra was only in (¢) Snow. Op. cit., p. 410, Pl. xxvi. (7) Coppinger. Cruise of the Alert, 1883, p. 202. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. m5 FS i$in. In 1840 this gentleman went to look at them again, and found them sound. When Mr. Randall took the contract for the Circular Quay he did not take the trouble to pull these piles out, as they were not in his way, and my informant told me where to go and find them, so this specimen must be seventy- three years old. There is the Ironbark quite sound” (g). No doubt these piles were effectually protected by the foul and muddy water. A proposal, which cannot be considered practical, is to destroy the shipworms by pouring such a poison as corrosive sublimate into the water in which infected piles stand, especially directing it against larva and spermatozoa as they issue from the parents. The volume of sea-water to be treated is an insuperable obstacle to this plan. Any method which protects timber from the ravages of ship- worms will incidentally save it from boring Crustaceans. Artificial protection has proceeded along two directions—to render the interior proof against perforation, and to sheath the external surface with a substance impenetrable by the shipworm. In the former direction, various experiments have been con- ducted in Europe and America with creosote. Ten to sixteen pounds of heavy creosote to the cubic foot was forced into the timber before the piles were driven in. This process has yielded very uncertain results, and cannot be relied on to protect the wood. Only the lighter and more absorbent kinds of timber ad- mit of saturation. The dense woods usually employed by Aus- tralasian constructors do not lend themselves to this treatment. The cooking which the wood undergoes in the process renders it brittle, and unfits it for pile driving. In defending timber by some worm-proof coat it is necessary to extend the armour over the area of contagion, which is from half tide level down to the ground. How deep the Cobra goes is uncertain. A deep record is 1400 fathoms, east of Cape York, Queensland (h), but this may represent a log infected and water- logged and sunk, not infected where it was found. An even deeper record is that of Xylophaga abyssorum, which burrowed in the hempen covering of the first Atlantic cable at a depth of over 1500 fathoms (2). The most primitive method of obtaining an impenetrable coat for piles and vessels was to thoroughly char the whole external surface. Dr. Wright describes how “The Hindoo fishermen suspend the boat infested across two upright poles and light a fire beneath it, which in a short time destroys all the mollusks, and by slightly charring the wood hinders for some time a second attack” (7). In the seventeenth century the Portuguese mariners (7) Booth. Report from the Select Committee on Wharf Accommodation in Sydney Harbour. 1874, p. 20. (h) Smith. Challenger Report. Zoology, xiii, 1885, p. 27. (i) Dall. Bull. Mus. Comp., Zool., xii, p. 318. (j) Wright. Op. cit., xxlv., p. 452. 254 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. scorched the hulls of their vessels so as to form a crust of char- coal an inch thick. Much risk was incurred of destroying the vessels in the process. A remedy once proposed was to cover the face of submerged woodwork with fascines of brushwood. Some measure of success may be achieved hy this method where the brushwood becomes clogged with sediment, and thus prevent the shipworm, not from reaching the timber, but from obtaining on arrival access to pure water. The Dutch experimented unsuccessfully in studding the wood with broad-headed nails, driven in close together. It was claimed that the heads, in rusting, practically united in one sheet of armour. Tarring, painting, and sheathing with metal are variations of one idea. Each and all are good only as long as perfect; a mere film, however thin, of each will suffice to exclude the infant shipworm, but an abrasion, so small as to be invisible to the eye, will admit the pest. Woodwork such as it is desired to protect is, unfortunately, peculiarly liable to.abrasion. Vessels touch- ing at a wharf grate against the piles; the rise and fall of the tide or the shock of the waves equally grind any floating object against them. Vessels touch on the bottom and injure the coat- ing of their hulls. In a warm climate, such as ours, metals de- teriorate in the sea by chemical action more rapidly than in colder latitudes. In using tar it is recommended to char the wood thoroughly, apply the tar hot, and follow with a coat of sand. This is more economical and, perhaps, more efficacious than copper sheathing. A cheap and fairly successful means of providing piles with an invulnerable coat is an American method of wrapping around them a composition of asphalt and netting, or a mat of canvas and bitumen. An admirable cure for infected piles, at once inexpensive and thorough, is thus described by Snow :—“ Cylinders of earthen- ware pipes joined together by a special cement are lowered over the pile and pushed into the bottom. The space between the cylinder and the pile is then filled with sand. Any fracture or leakage is made evident at the top, and can at once be made good (/). The sand, of course, operatés by choking the ship- worms.” SUMMARY. Some of the principal points in the foregoing essay may be here conveniently condensed. The species of shipworms infest- ing Australasian waters, miscalled Z’eredo, are shown to be numerous and to be totally distinct from those of Europe or America. Observations and deductions made'by foreign writers (Kk) Snow. Op. cit., p. 427. Anstralasian Assoc. Ady. Sci.. Vol. viii, 1901. Plate VII. To face paye 254, Ve ee eens. a a s3s)¢ aC by Australasian Assoc. Ady. Sci., Vol. viii, 19017. Plate VIII. To face page 254. eam at | a = ————————— =a 4 1 Balls Ny 4, = Distal aie repent = x9 TR ee as Sa oe DOSNT \\ \ ———————SS== SSE NY ty) —— ———— ———— = s ; eu : Plate X. 1907 Australasian Assoc. Ady. Sci.. Vol. vili, by Wir i tH 4 iB He lat 77 ? y Lars x ad, a. To face pag ie = 4,9 ge! : 7 _ - i+ oe : aT = nts ~ a Vi ft - § a é * 7 ; ae: aS ] > ; ; ; fi + oe ; 4 ‘ Ty = 1 ay yee a a ee sae} vy be re Bad Gwar ‘ 5 he j ‘ A ie eaos My ’ of De » PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 295 upon foreign species may not, therefore, be applicable to local conditions. No timber is immune from borers, though some, like the turpentine tree of New South Wales, resist more than others. In tropical regions submerged woodwork may require protection in fresh as well as in salt water from several kinds of borers. Unlike the boring Crustaceans, the shipworms do not use the wood for food, Oe baron are constructed for shelter only. They excavate by means of the foot, not the shell. The only reliable protection to submerged timber is given by a coating which excludes the entrance of the larva, and does not suffer from abrasion. Having entered, the shipworm may be destroyed by suffocation. ILLUSTRATIONS. Plate VII.—Wood bored by Sphaeroma quoyana. Original. Plate VIII.—Animal of Nausitoria thoracites. After Wright. Plate IX.—Wood bored hy Nausitoria edax. Original. Plate X.—Fig. 1—Animal of Sphaeroma quoyana. Original. 2— verrucauda. ,, 3—Larva of Teredo. After Quatrefages. 4—Pallet of Nausitoria thoracites. After Wright. o— zs x edax. Original. 6— a AS saulii. ve (Oe ees ms fluviatilis. Ae Soh ry manni. After Wright. 9— antarctica. After Clessin. 10, 11—Shells of Martesia striata. After Adams. 13.—THE ANTARCTIC ELEMENT IN THE AUSTRALIAN FAUNA. By Cuas. Hepury, F.I.S. 14.—NOTES ON SOME DESERT BIR By G. A. KEARTLAND. 15—THE LAND LEECHES OF AUSTRALIA. By Apa M. Lampert, M.Sc. 16.—THE VARIATION IN THE COLOUR OF AUSTRALIAN BIRDS’ EGGS. By D. Le Sover, C.M.Z.8. eB i) 256 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 17.—THE PROTECTIVE COLOURATION OF AUSTRALIAN BIRDS AND THEIR NESTS. By D. Le Sover, C.M.Z.S. 18.—A CENSUS OF AUSTRALIAN LIZARDS. By A. H. S. Lucas, M.A., B.Sc., anp C. Frost, F.LS. THE following list comprises all the species of Australian lizards (390 in all) which are known to us. It shows the colonies from which each lizard has been recorded. For purposes of convenience, the colony of South Australia has been divided into a Southern, a Central and a Northern area. These are designated by the initials S, C, N respectively. The other colonies are indicated by the usual initials—Western Australia (W.), Victoria (V.), New South Wales (N.S.W.), Queensland (Q.) and Tasmania (T.). E GECKONIDE-.. We OBI REL PV ba eee vi Nepurvrvs, Giinth. SS a eee N. asper, Giinth. .. es slips. Ge liver we ey pee NV. levis, De Vis .. se Piha ae @aty.4 D: Gani tee, & | | | RuyNcHepuRA, Giinth. R. ornata, Giinth... a8 ne. as eee NOP: Chen erie Brae fee Shs “ | CrrAMODACTYLUS, Blanford. C. dameus, Lucas and Frost ..|..|.. |X |--]..|X GyMNopactTyLvs, Spitz. G. pelagicus, Girard a WS Rs a NAN at ee ects |B, G. miliusii, Bory .- aS Sig] a i Wea te cil G. platurus, White BAH ete eal Cert cote G@. cornutus, Ogilby aril detent] Smee retaaal heats : G@. sphyrurus, Ogilby i piis'l darsaceuttoaenedldt sehisce |e tee a eae ri > Ph: HetTERonota, Gray. H. bynoei, Gray +» Ay Pars Dees Gaby Pears al Sai Barer fer if 2S PHYLLODACTYLUS, Gray. P. marmoratus, Gray =e PS We, Gan ee. mn ea P. macrodactylus, Boulgr. P. guentheri, Boulgr. xe X P. ocellatus, sis 4 | EBENAVIA, Boettger. | E. horni, Lucas and Frost oe : | XxX : PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. Geckonidw—cont. DIPLODACTYLUS, Gray. SESS L OSE ESE . ciliaris, Boulgr. . spinigerus, Gray . strophurus, D. & B. . teniocauda, De Vis intermedius, Ogilby vittatus, Gray ee os ele Giinth. steindachneri, Boulgr. pulcher, Steind. tessellatus, Giinth. byrnei, Lucas and Frost . conspicillatus, Lucas and Fiast elderi, S. & Z. OxEpDURA, Gray. . marmorata, Gray . tryoni, De Vis.. . robusta, Boulgr. . lesueurii, D. & B. . rhombifera, Gray . fracticolor, De Vis . verrillii, Cope .. . monilis, De Vis . cincta, De Vis GEHYRA, Gray. G. variegata, D. & B. G. australis, Gray LEPIDODACTYLUS, Fitzing. L. pusillus, Cope .. PEROCHIRUS. yg mestoni, De Vis Hopiopacty1ts, Fitzing. H. tuberculatus, Lucas and Frost; .. PYGOPODIDEA. Pyaorus, Merr. Pep lepidopus, Lacép. CRYPTODELMA, Fischer. C. nigriceps, Fischer C. orientalis, Giinth. Detma, Gray. D. fraseri, Gray 2. a. D. impar, Fischer. . tincta, De Vis .. plebeia, De Vis PLETHOLAX, Cope. te gracilis, Cope : 4 1 eM ; PAPI pds tf: gag ; ppd pd : rs: R 258 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION Pygopodidz—cont. APRASIA, Gray. A. pulchella, Gray LiaLis, Gray. L. burtonti, Gray .«- OPHIDIOCEPHALUS, Lucas & Frost. | O. teniatus, Lucas and Frost AGAMIDE. GONYOCEPHALUS, Kaup. G. spinipes, A. Dum. G. godeffroyi, Peters : G. boydii, Macleay a ae CHELOSANIA, Gray. C. brunnea, Gray .. AMPHIBOLURUS, Wagler. . maculatus, Gray . imbricatus, Peters . ornatus, Gray .. . cristatus, Gray.. ; . caudicinctus, Giinth. .. . decresii, D. & B. . pictus, Peters .. ' ue . reticulatus, Gray as se adelaidensis, Gray | pulcherrimus, Boulgr. pallidus, Boulgr. rufescens, Stirling and Zietz.. scutulatus, Stirling and Zietz . angulifer, Gray - : . muricatus, White . barbatus, Cuv. .. . inermis, De Vis bhbbbhbbbrhbbhhhh TyMpaNnocryPtis, Peters. T’. lineata, Peters . T. cephalus, Giinth. 7’. tetraporophora, Lucas & Frost! DIPoRoPHORA, Gray. D. bilineata, Gray.. D. australis, Steind. D. bennettii, Gray tis D. winneckei, Lucas and F rost .. PuHysIGNATHUS, Cuv. P. gilberti, Gray ree longirostris, Boulgr. P. temporalis, Giinth. P. lesueurii, Gray .. ee >: rs ae eee 0s eer ees eG ea Ds TERA Ce Oe ea eg ee hag ig - ataele -~ -iaealil aie Oe MAM as he lea Say gee eta ea Bike. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 259 | Agamidez—cont. WwW. Ss. | Came | | Zi CCHLAMYDOSAURUS, Gray. pe | es C. kingiit, Gray... A “4 Mou.ocu, Gray. | M. horridus, Gray a oft S| Xl |) otis | | VARANIDZ. ‘aod Re | | | ‘VARANUS, Merr. V. salvator, Laur. oa ry area ee ed ie ei V. indicus, Daud... a ee | Se Ot baer nad Pee i | Ra pws V. varius, Shaw .. a Ses HERO TREE NR OX SD V. giganteus, Gray Se ta en ae. all esa. V. gouldii, Gray x x Pe x bX V. punctatus, Gray fig - V. timorensis, Gray A UP atl 2 Er taeeeee gen V. acanthurus, Gray V. laudolineatus, Boulgr. Be ee V. eremius, Lucas and Frost ..| .. | .. V. gilleni, Lucas and Frost pa Pd Ps bt : ARMA: aia y a Mrs: SCINCIDZ. fs aad . a= thts . . . at” se Ole Ae Dae ae ‘ i a he nbc neers cee ee meee 6 . a . . . EGERNIA, Gray. HE. luctuosa, Peters ay ey. | pares een aed). as Pel Se : E. lauta, De Vis .. os 2 «| Seal oer PET Hh awa Gar : E. whitii, Lacep. .. oe 2 foe, pe ty ENA OE Al E. dorsalis, Peters re acd area 3) Mataeh ty Rake. lowe na ge a) Las EB. major, Gray... oy AG Res 28! een eed Gees ae E. bungana, De Vis re Altea ime Piaea: hth atta oe Woe y E. striolata, Peters apis. ee «Wee Le E. kingii, Gray xX : miahst #. cunninghami, Gray FP. stokesii, A. Dum. E. depressa, Giinth. AA: A Sb A Sriusosavurvs, De Vis. S. zillingi, De Vis ee = eatin sl, ps. xe ze AeA Seee eS ¢ ee. ‘TRACHYSAURUS, Gray. | 1’. rugosus, Gray .. be CPN ec) 0. le eatin ee, a ic og s,s beet al Be Tinigua, Gray. | | | T. scincoides, White | 7’. longicauda, De Vis_.. Pie i Pye eat as ne 7’. nigrolutea, Gray , ae Pa Sd eons ee fe er ee | b. G0 re T’. occipitalis, Peters ae ope tas) | Mm ephe 1’. adelaidensis, Peters .. Perera Ome sh! ae, ly combate Was: | uae toa H. gerrardii, Gray | | HEMISPH ERIODON, Peters. | | SECTION D. 260 PROCEEDINGS OF | Scincidz—cont. W. Hinviia, Gray. H. lesueurii, D. and B. 5. H., lee, Boulgr: 5 x. H. teniolata, White ahs Hi, fischeri, Boulgr. D4 H. strauchii, Boulgr. af H, labillardiéri, Gray xX H. quoyi, D. & B 4 H. tenuis, Gray uf H. murrayi, Boulgr. + oie HH. pallida, Giinth. a Ge. Gl H., isolepis, Boulgr. oa] ae Hi. elegantula, Peters and Doria Se H, richardsonii, Gray eae H. ambigua, De Vis sf H. fasciolata, Steind. .. yx H, monotropis, Boulgr. ex H, tigrina, De Vis ok H, domina, De Vis LioLterismA, D. & B. L. spectabile, De Vis LL. mustelinum, O’Shaughn. L. challengeri, Boulgr. L. lichenigerum, O’Shaughn. > LL. infrapunctatum, Boulgr. re: L. entrecasteauxii, D. & B. ies: LL. trilineatum, Gray = tea 2 LL. metallicum, O’Shaughn. sa} a5 LL. guichenoti, D.& BB. . o's (fae LL. pretiosum, O’Shaughn. : LL. ocellatum, Gray LD. fuscum, D. & B. L,. vertebrale, De Vis i rhomboidale, Peters L. peronit, D. & B. L. pectorale, De Vis Ee oe L. tetradactylum, O'Shaughn. .. .. LL. mundum, De Vis Sie LL. maccoyi, Ogilby + L. delicata, De Vis A Rcd ate Emoa, Gray. EE. spenceri, Lucas and Frost Riopa, Gray. i. albofasciolata, Giinth.. R. rufescens, Shaw — Homo.epipA, Gray. H. branchialis, Giinth. .. a. H. casuarine, D. &B. .. ee Sa H. australis, Gray —- oe al H. punctulata, Peters... iaiteva le. | Hi. crassicauda, A. Dum. ed H, pumila, Boulgr. +4 sale = 4! H. melanops, Stirling and Zitz a4 | 1 AMM: : 4: mr: mi: A: PP: Mr: A“ wn" AA: mrs: Mr: A: ~ : PaPbd 1 A: AMM: ; AS: BO id dd at PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. Scincidz—cont. HemierGis, Wagler. Hi, peronii, Fitzing PS: y AAA: 262 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 19.—REMARKS ON THE NATIONAL HERBARIUM OF VICTORIA. By G. Lurenmann, F.L.S. 2C.-—NOTES ON THE BOTANY OF PITCAIRN ISLAND. By J. H. Maipen, Director of the Botanic Gardens, Sydney. INTRODUCTORY. Prrcearrn Istanp was discovered on Thursday, the 2nd July, 1767, during Captain Carteret’s voyage round the world. He says :—‘ It is so high that we saw it at a distance of more than 15 leagues, and it having been discovered by a young gentleman, son to Major Pitcairn, of the Marines, who was, unfortunately, lost in the ‘ Aurora, we called it Pitcairn’s Island” (Hawkes- worth’s Voyages, 3rd Edition, 1785, ii., 52). Captain Carteret did. not land owing to the violent surf, and materials for a de- scription of its vegetation were not available until Captain 3eechey’s visit in H.M.S. “ Blossom” in 1826. Cook imagined that the Island of Pitcairn, discovered by Car- teret, is the Island of St. Juan Baptista of Quiros, but La Perouse is not of that opinion, and states his reasons. “A voyage round the world . . . wunderthe command of J. F. G. de la Pérouse,” published under the superintendence of Milet- Mureau (Eng. Edn.; ‘1799, i., p. 77). Pitcairn is situated in Lat. 25 deg. 4 min. 8. and Lone. 130 deg. 16 min. W., to the south-east of the Society Islands (of which Tahiti is the most important). It forms part of the Low Archi- pelago or Paumotu Group, which also includes the Gambier Is- lands, Elizabeth Island and Easter Island, on which last are the remarkable colossal statues. The greater portion of the crew of H.M.S. “ Bounty” (Capt. William Bligh, afterwards Governor of New Sanit W ales) having mutinied, Fletcher Christian, the master’s mate, set out with the PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 263 view of finding an island in which he would probably be secure from arrest, and which would furnish sustenance to his party. Accordingly, in October, 1789, he landed at Pitcairn Island. The descendants of himself and his party peopled the island, which finally became too small for them, the greater number of whom removed to Norfolk Island in 1856. A few returned (in 1858 and 1863) to Pitcairn, they and their descendants forming nearly the whole of the present inhabitants. In 1808 the “ Bounty’s” people were discovered on Pitcairn by Capt. Folger, of the ship “ Topaz,” of Boston, U.S.A., and from that date until recent years the liveliest interest was taken by the British people in Pitcairn, quite a library of works, chiefly of a religious cha- racter, having been written to supply information in regard to the island and its people. In 1898 a Judicial Commissioner was sent from Fiji to Pitcairn to investigate a murder which had taken place, and Capt. A. W. Torlesse, of H.M.S. “ Royalist,” then in Sydney, was despatched to the island. Capt. Torlesse very willingly entered into my plan of obtaining specimens of the Pitcairn flora, but, as his stay was so short, he handed over the collecting appliances to Miss Rosalind A. Young, a native of the island, who was known to take an interest in plants. Several months afterwards I received, via Tahiti and Fiji, the collection formed by Miss Young, but many of the specimens were damaged owing to their having been delayed at Fiji for some months. Most. of the specimens were, however, determinable, and, inasmuch as no lists, other than very brief ones, of Pitcairn Island plants have ever been pub- lished, I offer this small contribution to the botany of Polynesia. If it were possible [ would make my present paper more com- plete, but communication with Pitcairn is both infrequent and uncertain, and one may have to wait for years for additional material. Owing to the proximity of Pitcairn to Tahiti, many useful plants have been taken from the latter to the former island, while Tahitian names preponderate in regard to such plants as pos- sess any name on Pitcairn. BorTaNIcAL BIBLIOGRAPHY. The following works contain all the notes on the botany of Pitcairn with which I am acquainted :— 1. Beechey, F. W. Narrative of a Pasihoe to the Pacific and Beering’s Strait, &c., 2 vols.: Colburn and Bentley, 1831. [Chapters III. and IV. deal with Pitcairn Island, which Cap- tain Beechey was specially instructed by the Admiralty to visit. This work contains two excellent engravings of views of the island. | 264 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. Following is the most complete list of Pitcairn Island plants available. It is taken from Beechey, I., 106, 119, 130, &c.:— Banana ( Musa sapientum ) Tee ( Dracana terminalis ) Plantain (Musa paradisaica ) Cloth-plant Melons and Pumpkins Sugar-cane Yam (Dioscorea sativa) (a) Ginger Taro (Caladium esculentunc) (6) Turmeric Potatoes No bamboo on the island Sweet Potato (15, LOT) Arum costatum (c¢) “Tobacco 2. The Botany of Captain Beechey’s Voyage, &c., by W. J. Hooker and G. A. W. Arnott, 1832-1840. At Part II., p. 59, the plants collected at the Society Islands (including, amongst others, Pitcairn Island) are described, but “as many of the plants appear common to the whole group, we have rarely thought it necessary to mention the particular stations of the species.” Pitcairn Island is not further men- tioned, so that it is impossible to say what plants were gathered upon it. 3. Wood, Capt. James, of H.M.S. “ Pandora.” Report dated July, 1849. Lady Belcher, at p. 225 of her work, quotes Cap- tain Wood’s report, which contains the following list of plants observed at Pitcairn :— Pandanus Orange Banyans Lime Cocoa (nut). ‘“Vhe” tree, ‘‘ but it is now Breadfruit (a very large tree) very scarce.” (Can this be A fern the Vi, Spondias dulcis /— The Mountain Plantain J.H.M.) Some species of Acacia (sic) 4. Waldeerave, Capt. W., R.N. Recent Accounts of the Pit- cairn Islanders. Journ. Roy. Geog. Soc., II., 156 (1838). Comm., John Barrow, 1833. Mr. Barrow’s communication includes three contributions :— 1. Journal of Hon. Capt. Waldegrave, of H.M.S. “ Seringa- patam.” He obtained a list of plants found on the island in March, 1830, and compiled by Mr. Andrew Mathews, late Chief (a) Beechey, i., 119, says the yams are made into “‘pillihey” (cakes); doubtless the same word as ‘‘ pill-eye’’ used by me (‘‘ Observations on the Vegetation of Lord Howe Island,”’ Proc. Linn. Soc., 1898, 155) for a dish mainly composed of sweet potato. (b) Caladium antiquorum. (c) Probably a form of Colocasia antiquorum. It cannot well be Arum costatum, Wall: a synonym of Arisema costatum, Mart: a Nepalese plant figured by Wallich. As regards the vernacular name of this plant, Beechey spells it in no less than three different ways— Appai, Yappai, Yappe. Ape is the Tahitian name according to Guppy. Ellis (‘‘ Poly- nesian Researches,”’ i., 358) speaks of a large kind of Arum called Ape (Arum costatum), which is frequently planted in the dry ground; itis also used in some seasons, but is considered inferior to the Taro. ‘PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 265 Clerk of the Horticultural Society. ‘“ The specimens of some of these may be seen at the British Museum, whither they were sent.” INTRODUCED. Artocarpus tneisa — Nicotiana tabacum Gossypium vitifolium Cucurbita citrullus Poinciana pulcherrima | Cucurbita pepo Gomphrena globosa Citrus limonum, aurantium Capsicum frutescens INDIGENOUS. Musa paradisaica — Solanum nigrum 5, sapientum | Nephrodium sp. Dioscorea sativa | Davallia sp. - aculeata — Polypodium aureum Convolvulus Batatas _ Asplenium, 2 undescribed spp. Cocos nucifera Polypodium, 8 ‘5 +s Ficus indica Euphorbia, 1 a 45 Morus chinensis | Triumfetta, 1 aN # Dracena sp. ey | Zingiber, 1 oH +f Hibiscus tiliaceus Bumelia, 1 be - Pandanus fascicularis | Cerbera, 1 . . Arwin sp. Corchorum echinatus (d) Tree fern, 14 ft. in height, probably a Cyathea. Cucurbita lagenaria | Piper sp. | 2. Capt. Sandilands, of H.M.S. “ Comet,” whose paper contains no botanical information. 3. A shert paper from Capt. Fremantle, of H.M.S. “ Chal- lenger,” giving an account of the drunkenness resulting from the spirit obtained from the Dracena. 5. Belcher, Lady. The Mutineers of the “ Bounty” and Their Descendants in Pitcairn and Norfolk Islands. John Murray, 1870. 6. Pitcairn: The Island, the People, and the Pastor. S.P.C.K., lst Ed., 1852 ; 2nd Ed., 1858. Gives a useful account of the island. 7. Hemsley, W. “Challenger” Reports; “Introduction to the Reports on Insular Floras,” p. 18, says of Pitcairn :— “This island was visited by Capt. Beechey, and there are specimens of a few plants in the Kew Herbarium collected there by Cuming and others; amongst them Hibiscus tiliaceus, Osteo- meles anthyllidifolia, Metrosideros polymorpha, Morinda citrtfolia, Guettarda spectosa, Cerbera Odollam, Solanum sp., Achryanthes sp., Broussonetia papyrifera, and a few common grasses. We also learn from Beechey’s narrative that the Ti (Cordyline sp.) (d) Triumfetta procumbens (?). 266 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. grew there; and in a view of the interior of this island in the same work, a large fig tree is represented amidst cocoanut palms.” 8. M‘Farland, A. Mutiny of the “ Bounty” and Story of the Pitcairn Islanders. Sydney, J. J. Moore (1884). A valuable compendium of information. LIST OF SPECIMENS. The number preceding a species-name is that of my Pitcairn Island correspondent. Numbers were not, however, given in all cases. The vernacular names given are, unless otherwise stated, those in present use on the island. CARYOPHYLLE®. 12. Cerastium vulgatum, Linn.: ‘* Winter Weed.” 13. Stellaria media, Linn.: ‘*‘ Chickweed.” MALVACES, Sida rhombifolia, Linn. Abutilon sp.: ‘* Yellow Fowtoo.” 1. Hibiscus tricuspis, Banks: “ Red Fowtoo.” 22, 25. Hibiscus tiliaceus, Linn.: ‘‘ Booroa,” native name. Beechey, i. 130, speaking of Hibiscus tiliaceus (which he calls “Parau” or “ Porou,” evidently the same word as “ Booroa,” now stated to be in use), and H. tricuspis (which he calls “ Fow- too” without any qualifying adjective), states “ these trees pro- vided them with fishing-lnes, rope, and cord of all sorts.” The * Pau” of Tahiti, applied to H. tiliaceus, is evidently identical with the first syllable of “ Fowtoo.” Thespesia populnea, Linn.—This is known as “ Miro” in Tahiti, and is doubtless the same as the “ Mero” referred to by Capt. Wood and the “ Laws for Wood ;” it is very durable under water. ‘ The ‘ Aruni or Mero’ is in principal use for housebuild- ing; it is very dark, like rosewood, very durable, standing ex- posure to sun, wind, and rain for many years without show- ing any symptoms of decay. The first settlers’ houses were made entirely of it, and are now as sound as the day they were erected, though without paint or covering of any kind. _—Capt: Jas. Wood, HMMS. “ Pandora,” 1849, in Belcher, 225. One of the “Laws for Wood” of the Pitcairn Islanders runs thus :—‘* If any person cut more wood than is sufficient to build his house, the wood that remains after his house is finished is to be given to the next person who may want to build a house. This extends only to the Mero and Brou timber.” GERANIACES,. 14. Ovalis corniculata, Linn. bo far) PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. RUTACE. “Soap-tree leaf. Cheritah?” In leaf only. Leaves alternate or nearly opposite, oval-lanceolate, blunt, up to 6 in. long and 2 wide, with winged stalks. Seems to me a Rutaceous plant, al- though the oil glands are scarcely evident. MELIACE®. 35. Melia Azedarach, Linn. CELASTRINE, 4, Kleodendron sp.’ in young fruit: “Hard Jasmy” (Jasmine). SAPINDACER. Cardiospermum Halicacabum, Linn. ANACARDIACE. Mangifera indica, Linn,: “ Mango.” LEGUMINOS. Bauhinia purpurea, Linn.! in leaf only. “ From Honolulu.” RosAcE#&, 47. Osteomeles anthyllidifolia, Lindl.: Rock-rose. See Bot. Magq., t- 7354. 48. ‘*Tah pau.” Genus 2? P MyrtTace®. 17. Metrosideros villosa, Sm. (Syn.: M. obovata, Hook. and Arn. in Beechey, with Fig.; also M. polymorpha, Gaud). Known in the island under the name of “ Rata,” doubtless because of its. similarity to the well-known New Zealand species of the genus. The name ‘ Rata” is, however, a genuine Tahitian name also, and is applied to the Tahitian chestnut, /nocvarpus edulis. See Ellis, Polynesian Researches, i., 375. 42. Hugentia Jambos, Linn.: ‘Rose Apple.” Ellis, i., 374, says “the ‘ Ahia’ or ‘Jambo,’ H. malaccensis, is, perhaps, the most juicy of the indigenous fruits of the Society Islands.” This species must, however, not be confused with F. malaccensis, Linn.: Psidium)}Guayava, Raddi, ‘“‘ Guava.” PASSIFLOREX. 6. Carica Papaya, Linn.: The “ Papaw,” largely cultivated in Polynesia. UMBELLIFERS. 27. Apium prostatum, Linn.: ‘ Parsley.” 268 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. RUBIACEA., Canthiwn lucidum, Hook. and Arn. : ‘‘ Jasmy” (Jasmine). Guettarda speciosa, Linn. Chiococca barbata, Forst. (Fig. xvi. Hook. and Arn. in Beechey Voy.) 45. Coffea arabica, Linn : “Coffee.” Morinda citrifolia, Linn.: ‘‘ Nono” or “ Flower-tree.” The hair of the women (of Pitcairn Island) was retained in that position by a.chaplet of small red or white aromatic blos- soms newly gathered from the flower-tree (Morinda citrifola), or from the tobacco plant (Reechey, i., 99). A yellow dye is procured from the inner bark of the root in this and other islands. M. citrifolia is probably the tree referred to in the following passage ; the other timber is V’hespesia populnea. The note is taken from the report of Captain James Wood, of H.M.S. “* Pan- dora” (1849). , “The two most valuable trees on the island, of which they build their houses, and which are now very scarce are :— 1. Tafano, or flower-wood. A yellow wood, very. hard and durable when not exposed to wet; of this most of the joiner’s work is done.” 25. Morinda umbellata, Linn.: “ Climber.” CoMPOSIT. 15. Bidens pilosus, Linn.: “ Broom-stuff.” The meaning of this name is not obvious to me. A POCYNES. Cerbera Odollam, locally known as “ Oleander.” 24. Alywxia sp., apparently A. scandens, Reem. and Schult.; but in young fruit only. SOLANACE. 29. Solanum nigrum, Linn.: “ Obro.”’ 30. Physalis peruviana, Linn.: ‘Cape Gooseberry.” ACANTHACEE. 67. Thunbergia sp.: a garden plant. V ERBENACES. 8. Verbena bonariensis, Linn.: ‘* Wild Verbena.” 19. Lantana camara, Linn.: “ Lantana.” LABIAT#. Salvia officinalis, Linn. : ‘ Sage.” PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 269 LAURINES. Hernandia peltata, Meissn.: Native name “ Tuninna.” This is doubtless the tree referred to by Beechey i., 130, 131, as “ Toonena,” and described at some length by him. EUPHORBIACE, Aleurites triloba, Forst.: “ Doodoe.” Evidently the same word as “Tutui,” of Tahiti. Beechey (i., 102) speaks of torches made of the dodoe nuts strung upon the fibres of a palm-leaf, and which formed an excellent substi- tute for candles. These torches, in common use in many Poly- nesian islands, are used in Pitcairn at the present day. A red dye is procured from the inner bark of this tree. URTICE. Broussonetia papyrifera, the common ‘paper mulberry” or ‘*Tappa” of all Polynesia. ‘‘ Ante” is a name also in use on the island (Belcher) ; this is the Tahitian name. This word is given to Hibiscus rosa-sinensis in Samoa ; it probably has the meaning ‘‘ fibre” or ‘‘fibrous.” Beechey mentions that on Pitcairn the cloth was used for sheets and dresses, and that beds were made cf the wood of the tree. Artocarpus incisa, Linn.: ‘ Bread-fruit.” For a full account of this tree and the methods for preparing the fruit for food, see Ellis’s Polynesian Researches, i., 353, et seg., which work should also be referred to for particulars in regard to yams and other foods. Ficus proliva, Forst.: ‘‘ Banyan.” Beechey (i., 106, 132) speaks of an immense banyan tree, 200 paces in circumference, on the island. The latex is used by the islanders for caulking the seams of their boats. See aiso Wyatt Gill, Jottings from the Pacific, 172, for a full account of this interesting tree. PIPERACER., 32. Peperomia sp.: ‘ Wild Joe.” It is not the P. rhomboidea, Hook. and Arn. of Beechey’s voyage, which has alternate leaves. ZINGIBERACEX. Curcuma longa, Linn.: The Common Turmeric. It is evi- dently the ‘‘yellow dye produced from a species of ginger,” referred to in Beechey, 1, 132; ‘‘Indian Shot.” ii. Canna indica, Linn. Musacem. Musa paradisaica, Linn. Called on the island “ Mountain Plantain” or “ Fei.” For an account of this plantain see Ellis’s Polynesian Researches, 1, 373. The ‘ Fei” is the principal support of some of the Polynesian islanders. 270 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. ‘TACCACE. Tacca pinnatifida, Linn.: Yields an arrowroot. DI0SCORIDE#. 5. Dioscorea sativa, Linn.: “ Arrowroot.” The common yam. LILIACE®. Cordyline (Dracena) terminalis, Kunth: “Ti.” Beechey (i., 130) speaks of its leaves as affording the common food of hogs and goats, and wrappers for cooking ; the root affords a very saccha- rine liquor, resembling molasses, which is obtained by baking it in the ground; the islanders also made a tea from the root. This is undoubtedly the best known plant of the island, and M‘Coy, one of the original settlers, who in early life was em- ployed in a distillery in Scotland, introduced the practice of pre- paring a fiery liquor from the root which was known as “ rum,” and which was the means of causing much trouble in the island for a long period of years. For an account of the distillation in other Polynesian islands see Ellis 1., 229. PALME. 64. Cocos nucifera, Linn.: ‘Coco Nut Palm.” For an admirable account of this plant in Polynesia, see Ellis’s Poly- nesian Researches, 1., 364, et seq. PANDANE. Pandanus odoratissinus, Linn. f. Beechey calls this ‘ Pawalla.” The Tahitian name is, however, “ Fara,” the name “ Ara” being used over a wider area. See Wyatt Gill, p. 183. ee CoMMELYNE. 16. Commelyna sp.: ‘* Wandering Jew.” AROIDE®. Colocasia antiquorum, Schott. One of the cultivated forms of this species yielding the ‘‘ Taro” of Polynesia was sent to me under the name of Arum giganteum. Ante p. 264. CYPERACEX. 18. Cyperus sp.: ‘* Cow Grass,” near C. hamatodes, Endl., but a poor specimen. GRAMINESX. 10. Sorghum halepense, Pers.: ‘ Broom Grass.”’ Panicum sanguinale, Linn.: ‘‘ Ladies’ Grass.” Setarta glauca, Palis.: ‘* Fox-tail Grass.” 55. Hleusine indica, Gaertn.: ‘* Dog Grass.”’ Oplismenus compositus, Palis.: ‘‘ Grass from Tonga.” PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 271 10. Cenchrus sp.: “Sticking Grass.” This specimen has no leaves, but it is identical with or closely allied to C. calyculatum, Cav. FILICcEs. Davallia solida, Swartz. Aspidium molle, Swartz (Syn.: Nephrodium molle, Desv.) 50. Vittaria elongata, Swartz. Nephrolepis acuta, Presl. , I have also fragments of four Pitcairn Island plants in regard to which I can offer no opinion. All are in leaf only, with the excep- tion of No. 51, which bears a bud. They are :—51, * Mountain Apple ;” 3, “High White Flower” (szc); 9, “Red Jessamy ;” “ Tapau” (no number). The list of plants recorded by others and myself for Pitcairn Island is obviously incomplete. The highest point of the island is more than 1000 ft., and the surface is rugged and broken, and in some places very difficult of access. It is reasonable to sup- pose that a trained botanical collector would obtain a very large number of species from this rocky island of the Pacific, and I trust that the publication of these notes will lead to steps being taken to botanically explore it more fully. 91.—ON SOME VARIETIES OF TASMANIAN EUCALYPTUS. By L. Ropway. °32— THREE BLIND VICTORIAN CRUSTACEA FOUND IN SURFACE WATER. By O. A. SAyce. 23.—THE ROTIFERA OF VICTORIA. By J. SHEPHARD. 24.—SOME RECENT ADVANCES IN BACTERIOLOGY. By R. Greic Suiru, B.Sc. a2 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 25.—_THE RELATION OF BRAIN SURFACE TO BODY SURFACE. By ALEx. SUTHERLAND, M.A. 26.—RESERVE FERTILITY IN BIRDS. By ALex. SUTHERLAND, M.A. 27.—WOMAN’S BRAIN. By ALEX. SUTHERLAND, M.A. 28.—ON CERTAIN POINTS IN THE ANATOMY OF AUSTRALIAN EARTH-WORMS. By GrorGina SwEeEt, M.Sc. 29.—THE PROPOSED BIOLOGICAL STATION AND MARINE FISH HATCHERY NEAR DUNEDIN, NEW ZEALAND. (Communicated by Geo. M. Tomson, F.L.S.) At the meeting of the Association held in Sydney in January, 1898, a communication was received on the above subject, in the form of a letter from me addressed to Captain Hutton. In this I narrated the steps which had been taken by the Otago In- stitute up to 3lst December, 1897, to establish a marine biological station near Dunedin, and concluded with an expres- sion of the hope that at the next meeting of the Association it would be possible to present a report of the work done at the Purakanui Fish Hatchery. As stated in my letter, the New Zealand Government were asked to vote the sum of £500 towards the project during the session of 1897. The sum actually passed on the Estimates was £750, but this amount was voted “ for Fish Hatcheries and ex- penses of Expert Ayson to Canada and America ;” and, further, it was stated “that nothing will be done by the Government in the matter of establishing hatcheries pending the return of the expert.” PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. OTs Mr. Ayson left the colony on &th April, 1898, and proceeded to Europe via Suez. After visiting marine fishery establishments in various European countries, he proceeded to America, and studied the preblems being worked out there. Meanwhile, as the before-mentioned vote of £750 was evidently insufficient for the expenses of Mr. Ayson and the hatcheries together, Parliament, in the session of 1898, voted an additional sum of £250, making £1000 in all. Unfortunately, as votes lapse which are not expended by the end of each financial year, all of the above amount not spent on Mr. Ayson’s expenses lapsed on 31st March, 1899, so that there is now nothing to the credit of the project. One recommendation of the Institute was given effect to during 1898, the Governor-in-Council setting aside an area of 64 acres in Purakanui Inlet, the site indicated by the committee, as a reserve for the Marine Hatchery. In August, 1899, Mr. J. A. Millar, M.H.R., senior member for Dunedin, asked the Government what steps they now proposed to take in connection with the Purakanui scientific station, and the reply received by him was to the effect that “they intended to establish such a station, provided the summer and winter tem- perature of the water would suit, and this they are now testing.” Later on, the Government sent Mr. L. F. Ayson (previously appointed Inspector of Fisheries) down to Dunedin to report on the whole scheme; and on 9th December, 1899, a conference of those interested met Mr. Ayson in the rooms of the Otago Acclimatisation Society. The following were present :—Pro- fessor Benham, Mr. A. Hamilton, and Mr. G. M. Thomson, representing the Otago Institute; Messrs. J. P. Maitland (chair- man), Thos. Brown, Wi. Begg, aarti D. Russell, representing the Otago Acclimatisation Society; and Messrs. L. F. Ayson and i, H. Hastings (local inspector) representing the Government. Mr. Thomson explained shortly the object of the conference, and stated the course the two local bodies interested were willing to adopt in the event of the Government helping them. He submitted to the meeting the following memorandum, which he had drawn up on the subject :— “The scheme originated in a paper read before the Otago Institute on 8th October, 1895, by Mr. G. M. Thomson, published in the Otago ‘ Daily Times and Witness’ of a few days later, and reprinted i in Sir James Hector’s report (H. 17, Sess. II., 1897, entitled ‘ Protection of Mullet,’ p. 21). The Institute appointed a committee to investigate the question, and report. This com- mittee has been continued up to the present time, and consists of Professor Benham, Mr. A. Hamilton, and Mr. G. M. Thomson. In May, 1897, the Otago Acclimatisation Society and the Otago Institute each voted the sum of £250 towards the construction of such a station, conditional on the Government agreeing to Ss 274 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. contribute pound for pound, and undertaking to grant a sum annually for maintenance for a term of years. These votes are still available. The Government have since voted various sums towards the movement, and have set aside 6 acres of the eastern half of the waterway of the Purakanui Inlet as a site for the establishment.” Objects of the Establishment.—(1) To institute scientific in- vestigations on the marine fish fauna: (a) Physical, viz., tem- perature and density of the sea at various seasons, depths, &c., currents, &e.; (4) Biological, viz., study of the development and life history of the local fishes, their food supply, &c., and of the marine invertebrate fauna. (2) To collect and hatch out eggs of various local marine fishes and to distribute them. (3) To in- troduce and rear desirable species of foreign fishes (including lobsters and crabs). Buildings Required.—(a) One or more tidal ponds in which to place any fish, native or introduced, while under investigation ; (6) spawning pond for ripe fish; (¢) a building to serve as a spawn-collecting chamber; (d¢) a _ hatching-house, containing boxes, &c., in which the ova are hatched out; (e) tank-house, fitted with boiler and pump; (f) laboratory. Probably the last four could be erected under one roof, but this is a detail. In 1895, Mr. G. M. Barr, C.E., estimated that these buildings, erected on the same scale as those of the Scotch Fishery Board at their Dunbar establishment, would cost £550. a veh) 91-415 uk Section Foremen (gangers) fac copia, a ae bol Other Trackmen (repairers)... Beal 7 Abaya 4 10 Switchmen, Flagmen and Watchmen 43,768 7 2 Telegraph Operators and Despatchers 21,452 Eb Employees (account floating equipment) 6,409 Beg All other Emloyees and Labourers .... 90,725 6 10 Total... at ae re AM { 823,476 The amount involved is £97,000,000 per annum. The gene- ral average afforded by these rates is about £120 per annum, which is practically the same as in these colonies.* The hours of railway men have to be considered along with their wages. In many countries ten is the standard number of hours per day. SPECIAL CIRCUMSTANCES. The rules of the railway service require men to live at points convenient for their duties, and also render them subject to re- moval from place to place as occasion requires; their hours of duty are in some branches arranged in shifts ; extra shifts must be worked whenever directed, with or without previous notice. Night work and some Sunday duty are unavoidable, and work at high pressure at Christmas and other holiday seasons is in- evitable. The occupation is distinctly of a dangerous character, carrying extra insurance premiums. In these and other ways the service taxes the men severely, but the sense of urgent need to supply the pressing requirements of the community—combined with highly developed organisa- tion, in which the men are trained to work together intelligently —enables them to fulfil their mission. Strikes and lock-outs are practically unknown. The great regularity of employment in railway service is almost proverbial, and holds good even in America. In many ~ Increased traffic has brought up the number of U.S. railway men, at the time of publication, to a million. x 338 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. countries special facilities for improvement are freely offered, and largely availed of. In 1897 the 40,000 depositors in the sixteen registered rail- way savings banks of the United Kingdom had an average of £85 to their credit. DIscreLine. This is necessarily severe. The passenger or the consignor may miss his train time, but we cannot allow the engine-driver to be late at his post. The complex working of a railway, with its through bookings, its goods classification, its ordinary and special rates, its signals, its power brakes, its engines to keep in working condition, and its track and structures to maintain, gives rise to a series of elaborate rules which, together with the divisions of the staff, are calculated to provide for the efficient operation of the lines. THE FuTUuRE Railway enterprise is a matter of the last three-quarters of the nineteenth century. China is as yet practically untouched except by the ambitious schemes of European diplomats and financiers. Its vast territory and population of 400,000,000 afford correspondingly great opportunity for railway development. Assuming this develop- ment to call in the near future for the same low proportion of railway labour to population as India, 400,000 men will be re- quired to work the trains of China. Russia is making immense strides, and has enormous pos- sibilities. England and America are still adding largely to the railway army, and throughout the world there is perhaps a ereater activity in this than in any other sphere of human energy. The number of men employed on the railways of the United Kingdom has more than doubled since 1875, though the railway miles age has not increased one-third ; there were then fifteen men to the mile, there are now twenty-five. The possibilities of the future are evidently great. The ques- tion, “Is electricity to displace steam,” is, however, one on which much depends ; still more important is another question, arising from the partial success of aerial navigation, namely, “ Whether two parallel metals will continue to be required?” while they are we may expect the railways to progress. Meanwhile we Australians, not having the inland navigable waters of our American cousins, will find the railway man more and more necessary ; and, as we are fortunate in having well trained bodies of men on the railway systems of our colonies, we may fairly anticipate that, under the inspiration of the PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 339 motto, “One people, one destiny,” we will awake to the sense of what hes before us, and the important part railway labour has to play in it. The annual railway revenue of our seven colonies is £11,000,000, half of which is paid away in wages. It may be said that for every quarter of a million pounds’ additional rail- way revenue a thousand extra men can be employed on the lines, while paying 4 per cent. interest on the capital investment. Besides the advantages to the trading community of the regular employment of these extra men, it “will be apparent that the people who contribute the rates and fares required to pay them are promoting a healthy activity in productive industry, the profits on which will enable both the State and the muni- cipality to lighten the burden of taxation, and to assist in improvements. These considerations will be accentuated by the promotion of inter-communication between all parts of the Continent, without the present fiscal restrictions, as provided for in the Federation Bill. | Further facilities for technical education are amongst the means to be used for fitting our Australian men for their increasing responsibilities. The secretarial and accountancy staff, and the various branches of the other departments, should also be induced to qualify in the best institutions for higher education by making promotion depend on this class of culture in combination with practical ability. Under such conditions our railway men will prove themselves fit te assist in the energetic development of the transport business of the federated colonies. 14.—EXPERIMENT FARMS. By W. Farrer, B.A. 15.—THE MINIMUM VOTING AGE By H. K. Ruspen. x2 340 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 16.—BACTERIOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN THE MILK FLORA OF AUSTRALIA. By R. T. Butt, M.D., BS., anp H. W. Poris; eae Durine the past twenty years our knowledge of bacteria in their associations with fermentations has assumed an importance, marvellous in its practical application, but commensurate with our advanced civilisation. The evolution of biology creates profound surprise in the minds of modern thinkers, not only with regard to the diagnosis and control of disease, but in its universal relationship to in- dustrial fermentations. The latter have been defined by a recent writer, Dr. Green, as the “decomposition of complex organic material into substances of simple composition by the agency either of protoplasm itself or of a secretion prepared by it.” (“The Soluble Ferments and Fermentations,” by J. Reynolds Green, Sc. D., F.R.S., Cambridge, 1899.) The haphazard and empirical methods of manufacture pur- sued for centuries in the production of bread, beer, wine, spirits, sugar, leather, tobacco, and dairy products are gradually being abandoned and replaced by the adoption of newly- developed systems based on fundamental scientific principles, with the result that these valuable industries are becoming more exact, profitable, and uniform. It is only recently the aid of economic science has been in- voked to assist dairymen in perfecting the processes requisite to secure high-class products. The help which bacteria can render our dairying industry is almost a new development disclosed by the researches of Pasteur, storch, Duclaux, Wiegmann, Adametz, Freudenreich, Russell, and others. Bacteriology has solved many problems linked with abnormal conditions in milk, such as the ripening, souring, or fermenta- tion of milk and cream, their decomposition or putrefaction ; the existence of ropiness or bitterness in milk, and many other phases familiar to those associated with the dairy industry. Investigation proves that bacteria are found in the “fore” milk from a healthy cow, and from that point we must keep continually in view the action of organic fermentations, their cause and effect. Our knowledge of the ubiquitous germ, its constant presence in air, water, and soil alike, is sufficient to warn us of the danger pure milk is subjected to before it is consumed as an article of food. The air of the cowshed, laden with imperceptible particles of bacteria-inhabited dust, the filth and dirt adherent to the cow’s body, udder, and teats, the constant swish of her tail, the milker’s dirty clothing and uncleansed hands, the slovenly- PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 341 washed milk pail, the ill-smelling can and sieve, are sources of contamination. These initiate conditions antagonistic to desir- able fermentations. The milk is sewn with seeds of taints and ill odours. In our warm climate the provision made at the dairies, and often at the creameries and factories, is insufficient to retard the increase of hostile germ life, and emphasises the need for teaching the elementary. principles of bacteriology to our mana- gers and supphers. The presence of bacteria in the milk supply to an undue ex- tent is frequently manifested at our dairies, creameries, and factories. The rancid butter odour and flavour found in milk, cream, and butter we know to be the result of fermentation or de- composition created by recognisable micro-organisms. In our work of investigation these have been isolated. They perform their functions anaérobically, and resemble in their structure, habits, and efiects those families described by various writers as Bacillus butyricus, Bacillus Amylobacter, Vibrio butyricus, Clostridium butyricus, Amylobacter Clostridium. This form of bacillus is frequently found in the alimentary canal of herbivorous animals. The prevalence of pigment-producing or chromogenic bacteria is not by any means common in this colony in milk, but occa- sionally we are called upon to examine red milk produced by Bacillus prodigiosus, Sarcinoe rosea, and other forms, ranging in colour from pink to red. Blue milk created by Bacillus cyanogenus is found at rare intervals. Other forms of chromogenic germ life in milk we are familiar with, principally, however, from a laboratory point of view, as rarely such are submitted to us for identification. There exists a number of yellow pigment bacteria, and found in both milk, cream, and butter. They liquefy gelatine, and possess varying degrees of colour. Their functions produce a peptonising ferment, and are in consequence an objectionable invasion. Cases of bitter, and ropy, or slimy milk are frequently brought under our notice. Apart from such diseases, we find milk a suitable medium for the propagation and distribution of pathogenic germs. A subject of vital importance, and which demands more attention than can be afforded in this paper. The inoculation of milk at the source of supply, with a variety of adventitious and putrefactious organisms of the pus- producing series, 1s always a source of investigation. These are traced chiefly to the careless handling of milk. Such organisms as the Bacillus Coli Communis and Bacillus subtilis are a serious source of trouble to the butter-maker. 342 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. PASTEURISATION. Recognising existent dairying conditions, in which the intro- duction of numberless organisms to the milk, including yeasts and moulds, are all provocative of tainted flavours, and retard ihe development of keeping qualities as well as good taste; it is a question often asked—Ought we not to adopt pasteurisation ? and the answer is Yes. The principles underlying its applica- tion are readily grasped. The separator removes a large percentage of organisms, and ihe remainder, which are so liable to induce abnormal fermenta- tions and changes in the cream, should be destroyed by means of the admirable pasteurisers now in use. These are so con- structed as to reduce the cost of pasteurisation to a minimum. After cooling, the cream must be impregnated with selected families of acid-producing organisms, which set up the fermenta- tion needed to impart desirable acid, nutty flavour, waxy tex- ture, and durable keeping qualities. On the purity and selec- tion of the cultures, and their suitable treatment, depend the butter-maker’s ability to provide his customer with any flavour er aroma he may demand. At many of our factories indigenous “ starters” are developed from the daily supply of buttermilk direct from the churn. These undoubtedly give good results, but their use is empirical. No assurance is obtainable under ordinary conditions that un- desirable bacteria, yeasts, or moulds are not present. No cer- tainty of purity in the culture is assured. When examining buttermilk “starters” at our factories we have occasionally identified foreign invasions, all of which may impart to the butter objectionable taints and flavours, or “ fishiness.” In one case we found a free growth of Bacillus prodigiosus, a red organism. All factories or butter-makers should aim at securing a pure culture from which to make the starter. It is the most cer- tain, effective, and reliable. With a vigilant regard for the principles associated with pasteurisation, no contaminating influence can prevail or inter- fere with a constantly uniform manufacture of good butter. ImMrorTED PuRE CULTURES. The Department of Agriculture imported direct from five of the principal laboratories in Europe a number of so-called pure cultures in powder form, also a few from America. These came to hand at regular intervals during a period of twelve months, and were submitted to practical tests as well as bacteriological examination. Our experience with them went to prove that it is difficult to import and ensure a pure supply. In fact, there is no certainty about the purity of the cultures. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 343 The accompanying photographs of yeasts are taken from gela- tine plates inoculated with the imported cultures. They pre- sent unmistakable evidence of impurity. We are convinced of the necessity of abandoning their distribution. Mr. Martin, Secretary for Agriculture, recognised the posi- tion, and issued instructions for the preparation and distribu- tion of pure cultures to any factory applying for them. To secure a pure basis we were obliged to institute an ex- aminati-n of our indigenous milk flora, particularly at. factories where the butter realised the best prices in London. The bacteria direct from fresh buttermilk were systematically examined in the leading dairying centres of the colony. Sub- cultures were grown and exhaustively tested. Eventually, after numerous trials, it was decided to select a special species of lactic acid-producing bacteria taken from the buttermilk in the Garvoc Factory. On the 10th June, 1899, a plate of nutrient gelatine in a petri dish was inoculated. A modification of Koch’s method of fractional cultivation was adopted. On the 16th June a quantity of specially selected new milk was sterilised, and run into a number of sterilised bottles. Each was inoculated direct from the petri dish pure growth. The bottles were suitably closed with sterilised cotton wool plugs and incubated at 35 deg. C.; another batch was kept at 20 deg. C. At first the coagulum failed to form in twenty-four hours. Repeated inoculation was resorted to, and the coagu- lating power of the organism increased. The bacteria became more vigorous and healthy, and coagulation ensued in twenty- four hours at a temperature varying from 50 deg. C. to 33 deg. C. Coagulation in every instance was less rapid at the lower temperatures. Constant records of the acidity developed were taken, and these were found to vary up to .9 per cent. lactic acid from twenty-four to forty-eight hours after coagula- tion. Later on, when the rapidity of coagulation was accelera- ted, an acidity of 1.2 per cent. was invariably found present. The acidity was estimated by the “ titration” test with an alco- holic solution of phenol phthalein as an indicator. At this point we found a cessation of fermentation. In the culture of this bacteria little or no gas was generated, in marked contrast with other lactic acid cultures we prepared. There was an entire absence of bitter taste and objectionable odour. In every case the coagulum was uniform, with prac- tically no separation of whey. Culiures have remained in this condition, afd in other respects unaltered for six months. The flavour naturally is acid, but it possesses an agreeable and palatable taste, with a distinctly pleasant, nutty, butter aroma. 344 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G, The coagulation action is due to the production of lactic acid from the lactose, or milk sugar, by the bacteria and no subsequent peptonising effect takes place on the caesin. “ The action of the organisms in the sterilised milk was shown to be more vigorous and healthy when free access to oxygen was given through using sterilised cotton wool plugs. THe Lactic Acip Bacteria. An examination of the bacteria microscopically x 1000, showed them to be very short rods with rounded ends, and rang- ing in length from 1 to 1} +, and in thickness from .5 to .8 4. They occur singly, or in chains, threads, or filaments. The bacillus is non-motile, and divides by fission. No spore formation has been noted. It does not liquefy gelatine. It gives a delicate translucent bluish, or mother-of-pearl growth, with wavy margins, on a gelatine or agar surface. With a stab culture in gelatine or agar, growth takes place more rapidly at the surface. It extends slowly along the track of the needle, with rounded colonies at the end of the growth, showing the organism to be facultative anaérobic. No chromogenic or pigment formation or production has been observed in any of the cultures. The protoplasm of the bacillus stains well and uniformly with the ordinary dyes, such as methylene blue or fuchsin. Thirty cultures of this bacteria have been prepared and dis- tributed to several of our principal butter factories, where prac- tical tests and demonstrations have been conducted. The results throughout are satisfactory. Amongst a number of reports to hand we are permitted to quote the following, relating to two samples of butter manufactured at the Kyneton Butter Factory. They were judged and bacteriologically ex- amined ten days after manufacture, and during this time they were kept at normal room temperatures. Report on two samples of butter from the Kyneton Butter Factory, submitted to Mr. A. Simpson, care of Messrs. Dalgety and Co., Melbourne :— Maximum Points. Minus Points. Mark or bE | Milky Brand Mottle 4 Tex- | Salt- Pack- \ | 2or/ | otal Flavor. ture. Colour. ing. | ing. Total. Streak ‘Cloudy Award. 7 ‘ Brine. = 500011195. |) te) 10 | os baoo [aS baer No. 1 4g | 25 | 45..) 10 | — 1; 684) =e No. 2 46 | 23 15:}'-10. b=" ga 74S) ee | Australasian Assoc. Adv. Sci., Vol. xiii, 19017. Plate Xl. Fig. 1.—Yeast cells found in an imported Lactic Acid Ferment. From a culture on agar. Stained with carbol-fuchsin. x 1000. Fig. 2.—Yeast cells found in an imported Lactic Fig 3.—Lactic Acid Bacilli, from an imported Lactic Acid Ferment. From a culture on agar. Stained in carbol-fuchsin. x 1000, Acid Ferment. Froma culture on agar. Stained with carbol-fuchsin. x 1200. Endogenous spore formation. To face page 344. Australasian Assoc. Adv. Sci., Vol. viii, 1907. Plate Xll. Fig. 4.—Lactic Acid Bacilli. Indigenous. Froma_ Fig. 5.—Lactic Acid Bacilli. Indigenous. From culture on agar. Taken at Colac. a culture on agar. Taken at Camper- Stained in carbol-fuchsin. x 1000. down. Stained in Carbol - fuchsin. x 1000. Fig. 6.—Lactie Acid Bacilli. Indigenous. From Fig. 7.—Penicillium glaucum. Common green a culture on agar. Taken at Kuroa. cheese mould. From a gelatine plate Stained in carbol-fuchsin. x 1000. culture. Taken froma sample of cream. Stained with carbol fuchsin. x 1000. To face page 344. ie ‘ite ‘ ro. ,) 7 fe AP AW A Le ye és ie pe Eh ese ee net ae i - U AS het | vel ie F ; Mi ey essay ] f ic) ; 0 etki oe an j v bee at ’ poe’ ‘ Me od > WY anh. ' be as, ( “i ' 5 doen 1 he en | - , ‘ | " . : i i ; t bd s PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 345 GENERAL REMARKS. “99th December, 1899. “No. 1.—Clean, close, very good flavour and aroma, colour perfect, bright primrose, with satisfactory salting. “No. 2.—Clean and close, with fair flavour, but greasy to the palate, with fair aroma, colour very good, and satisfactory salting. ‘The samples from which the above judgment was made were somewhat small, viz., about 4 ozs. each, and to assimilate the points to value commercially I have added five extra points to colour, as packing would not be taken into consideration. I may further state that both lots are particularly good quality and well manufactured. * The points are made on the basis that the choicest butter is worth at the time of inspection commercially 100s. per cwt., so that I consider No. 1 worth 98s. per cwt., No. 2 worth 94s. per cwt. A. SIMPSON.” No. 1 butter was manufactured from pasteurised cream, and subsequently ripened with the Garvoe pure culture. No. 2 is the ordinary output from the factory, and not submitted to pasteurisation. The bacteriological examination confirmed Mr. Simpson’s report, and, further, it is fully indorsed by Mr. R. Crowe, Chief Dairy Expert. It may be interesting to know that the culture used was the thirty-sixth remove from the original plate cultivation. - In every case bacteriological examinations have been con- ducted of both pasteurised as well as control or ordinary factory samples of butter. In the former case it was found that none but lactic acid organisms were developed, whereas in the latter distinct in- vasions of yeasts, moulds, and adventitious organisms have been recognised, several of which are responsible for the creation of the Australian butter-makers’ béte noir, “ fishiness.” We are therefore justified in assuming that, given proper condition of ripening after pasteurisation, this prevailing fault will dis- appear. This advantage is a large commercial gain apart from that secured from higher uniform quality. Section H. ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE. 1.—THE MONIER METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION. By J.-J. Nopie Anperson, B.A. 2.—RESULTS OF FIVE AND A-HALF YEARS’ TEST OF VARIOUS BRANDS OF CEMENT USED BY THE MEL- BOURNE AND METROPOLITAN BOARD OF WORKS. By Caper E. Ouiver, M.C.E, anp W. Percy WILKINSON. [With Folding Table and Plate XTI.] At the outset of the Melbourne and Metropolitan Board of Works, in 1892, a cement specification was drawn up by the authors. This specification provided, amongst other things, for the method of sampling by augers. j On the chemical constituents of the cement great stress was laid, and the results tabulated summarise 154 analyses. The standard of fineness was fixed very low, even at that. date, not more than 10 per cent. on a sieve of 2500 mesh ; specific gravity of not less than 3.00. The seven-day tensile streneth between limits of 350 Ibs. per square inch and 500 Ibs. The twenty-eight day test 450 and 700 Ibs. Pats mixed neat on glass kept in a moist heat of 90 till set, and then placed in a bath of 100 dee. Fah., or in air, to show no signs of blowing or cracking. The cements, the results of which are tabulated, do not by any means include all the brands used by the Board, but only those of which, at the commencement, sufficient briquettes were made to allow of tests being conducted over long periods. Before enumerating the results it may be as well to describe the methods adopted in testing. MerHop oF ANALYSIS. 1. Weigh 0.5 gramme of cement into a beaker, add 30 cm.3 hydrochloric acid, shaking constantly during the addition, TABLE SHOWING CHEMICAL ANALYSIS, SPECIFIC GRAVITY, AND TENSILE STRENGTH OF CEMENT. Lrg. Sinica. Insouusie 1x Acrp. OxivE or IRon AND ALUMINA. Resipvuz on 60 x 50. Sprorric Gravity. A 7 Days. “28 Days. ry | RENEE 4 | 2 noe mee, Mos. Mos. Mos. Mos. ts Mos. hios. Mea) Mes. Mos. Mor. Max. Min. | Average.| Max. Min. | Average.| Max. Min. | Average.J Max. Min. | Average.| Max. Min. | Average.| Max. Min. | Average. = Max. | Min. | Aver. | Max. | Min. | Aver. a bs. per’ ae | SS : % %, % % % % 50 % % %0 % % % % % sq.1n.| Ibs. | lbs. | Ibs. | Ibs. | Ibs. | Alsen 200 A ..| 63.80 | 50.80 | 62.99 19.60 18.60 18.98 4.60 | 2.40 3.27 12.40 | 10.80 11.70 3.20 | 1.87 2.42, 3.08 5.00 3.03 588 | 509 | 5386] 668} 61 635 780 | 717} 768| 808| 810} 817} 802} 800} 803} 800} 790, 810) 800 Tower (German) ... ...| 68.20 | 62.20 | 62.70 | 19.80 19.40 19.60 4.00 | 2.20 3.10 10,30 10.20 10,25 2.50 | 2.50 2.50 3.04 2.89 2.96 498 | 493 | 496} 675) 668} 671 670 | 700} 720] 7380} 785 | 740] 743) 745 | 750) 750) 740; 750] — Gibbs > 83 .--| 62.60 | 60.80 | 61.73 19.40 | 16.20 18.10 6.68 | 4.20 5,29 12.90 | 11.40 12.00 8.50 | 6.50 7.53 3.20 3.00 3.08 470 | 467 469 | G07} 511) 569 600 | 632} 652) 668} 690) 687] 700) 699 | 723 726) 700 700| 708 Gresham ... : .| 64.66 | 57.80 | 61.35 | 20.80 | 10.28 18.34 | 10.58 2.50. 544 12.80 10.20 11.95 | 10.30 | 4.70 7.83 3.15 2.94 3.07 598 405 | 461) 693} 468 | 547 650 | 723 | 763| 807| 817| 812} 818) 803] 808] 805] 815| 810} 810 Gillingham 5 ...| 62.68 | 59.20 | 60.77 | 21.20 | 16.60 18.93 8.40 | 2.68 5.53 14,28 10.80 12.00 | 11.00 6.50 7.97 3.13 3.00 3.08 566 | 410 | 458) 663) 493) 511 613 | 600 | 612] 637| 682] 710} 730] 768} 793) 797 | 802) 812) 797 Knight Beyan .. ..| 61.60 | 58.20 | 59.84 19.80 18,20 19,26 5.20 | 3.60 4.48 13.40 11.00 12.52 8.90 | 2.78 9,29 3.10 3,00 3.02 493 | 407 | 454) 500] 478) 550 450 | 502) 507] 515| 580] 553) 588 | 608} 610) 630} 615) 617} 617 Formby .. ae ...| 60.60 | 58.64 | 59.62 18.56 | 17.00 17.78 8.16 | 6.00 7.08 14.36 11.60 12.98 | 10.10 | 4.00 7.10 3.20 3.11 3.15 486 | 408 | 447 | 543!) 458 | 500 602} 577] 533] 533] 563 | 607] 618 | 635] 682) 690) 705) 702| 703 Invicta... ie «| 61.20 | 61.20 | 61,20'| 21.10 | 21.10 | 21.10 3.00 | 3.00 3.00 11.75 11.75 11.75 6.20 | 6,20 6.20 3.05 3.05 3.05 481 | 423 | 445 | 552) 508) 525 512 583] 580 | 570] 587| 613} 610) — 610 627 | 623 | 642 | 650 Anchor... Rey | 64,16 59.00 | 60.71 20.60 18.54 | 19,22 6.30 | 2.80 | 4,62 13.70 11.00 12.27 10.00 | 1.25 7.04 3.18 3.00 3.07 598 | 353 | 444) 628 | 455] 509 627| 717 | 758] 758| 760| 768) 788} 793) 795) 797| 805) 812) 807 Australian Portland ...| 63.30 60.00 | 61.99 | 22.46 | 16.80 22.13 7.60 1,20 3.29 13.08 10.20 11.71 5.10 | 0,00 2.24 3.16 -2.99 3.06 581 | 318 | 431 | 593 | 367 | 493 478 | 510 | 520] 525| 538] 550| 562) 572) 582) 603] 608 |) 621) 626 Tower... .. «| 61.54 | 58.60 | 60.73 | 21.43 | 16.83 | 18.99 9.50 | 4.00 6.35 12.80 | 11.00 | 11.85 | 11.00 | 6.20 9.07 3.15 3.00 3.10 449 | 379 | 416] 589] 460 | 496 600 | 650 | 680} 680) 690] 700 | 710} 715} 710) 720) 715 | 720) 710 Emu me 4) 64.00 59.00 | 60.55 22.20 18.00 | 20.58 8.20 1.60 3.99 14,80 9.60 11.46 5.60 | 0,62 3.85 3.18 2.90 3.11 515 | 310 | 410 | 611) 450} 510 462 | 487) 515 | 520| 585 | 545 | 545 | 562) 572) 600) 613 ) 613 | 618 Wouldham oo | 62.00 | 60.70 | 61.35 | 21.00 18,40 19.70 5.70 5.16 5.46 11.24 10.20. 10.72 9.40 | 9.40 9.40, 3.12 3.12 3.12 409 | 408 | 406 | 565 | 519] 542 639 | 800| 647| 627) 673 | 728| 775 | 783 | 800) 807) 808| S18} 813 White Bros. 6 .--| 60,26 56.60 | 58.43 21.13 | 20.40 | 20.76 8.44 | 5.83 7.13 11.20 11.13 11,16 9.00 7.50 8.10 3.08 3.08 3.08 402 | 377 | 388} 482 426 | 459 500; 5d8| 618] 678| 722| 712) 707] 708) 705 | 705) 707) 712) 712 | } | q | 9 $$ : -—-p-- vee eee vr UCTIIULLU 111UU @ UCAKEL, AUU VU CIN.”? hydrochloric acid, shaking constantly during the addition b] 5 v fo] ? PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. 347 break up clotted particles of cement with a glass rod. Add 20 cm.® water and filter, retaining undissolved portions in the beaker, to these add 5 em.* hydrochloric acid and a few drops of nitric acid, heat for a few moments, add 10 cm.* water, filter and wash, dry ‘and ignite the filter—Insoluble in acid. . 2. Evaporate the filtrate from the above to dryness, heating finally to 150 deg. C., add 10 cm.* hydrochloric acid, a few drops of nitric acid, and warm for about ten minutes. Add 20 cm.* water, filter and wash. 3. Dry and ignite the filter, fuse in platinum crucible with carbonate of soda (silica free), boil out with water, add excess of hydrochloric acid and evaporate to dryness, heating to 105 deg. C. Take up with hydrochloric acid, dilute with water, filter and wash. Dry and ignite filter—Soluble Silica. Add excess of ammonia to the filtrate, boil and filter. Dry and ignite the filter—Alumina. 4. Add excess of ammonia to the filtrate and washings from 2, heat for a few minutes, filter, decanting as closely as pos- sible from the precipitated iron oxide and alumina, redissolve the precipitate with hydrochloric acid, add about 50 cm.? water, then excess of ammonia, warm and filter. Dry and ignite filter—Oxide of Iron and Alumina. 5. The filtrate from 4 is raised to boiling point, and oxalate of ammonia added in excess, continue the boiling, stirring mean- while, for one or two minutes, cool, add 10 cm.? ammonia, stir well, and set aside for six hours, filter, wash with dilute ammonia solution, dry, ignite over blast to constant weight—= Lime. The filtrate from 5 is concentrated by evaporation, and the magnesia precipitated as ammonium-magnesium phosphate, setting aside for ten hours, filter, dry, and ignite over blast —= Magnesia. The specific gravity determined on 50 grammes, using kero- sene or turpentine. MECHANICAL TEstTs. The briquettes were all made and tested by one person; the cement was mixed with as little water as possible, generally 18 per cent. to 20 per cent. being used, enough being mixed at once on a slate to allow of three briquettes of 1 square inch section to be made, according to temperature. They were hand rammed with a small iron, having a head of 1 x 3, and trowelled off smooth. The briquettes were broken in a Faija testing machine, con- trolled by an Adie machine. 348 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. They were kept in lead trays, through which water (Yan Yean) was allowed to slowly trickle. | The tests at seven days and twenty-eight days are not plot- ted, as they were used merely to serve as control over cement, and to show that an increase did take place. The results are an average of the number of briquettes shown in column; in all they total 4592. The long-date tests were made from three briquettes, and the average is put down at each of the following dates, viz., 3, 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, 42, 48, 54, 60, and 66 months, making in all over 5000 briquettes broken for the results on table. In looking at the appended diagrams it will be noticed that in the chemical analyses only the lime, silica, insoluble silica, and oxide of iron and alumina are given, the amount of magnesia being small and always under 2 per cent.; in a few cases small quantities of sulphuric acid were determined. The results of fineness were only taken on a 2500 mesh stan- dard sieve, as that is what was specified; now we get a very much greater degree of fineness, only some 5 or 6 per cent. on a 32,000-mesh sieve. The specific gravity, it will be noticed, varies from 2.96 to 3.15. It is noticeable in the appended graphic curves that in three cases, viz., Alsen, Gillingham, and Formby, a drop takes place at six months, which in the case of Formby continues for the nine and twelve months, and that they then rise. In another case, viz., Wouldham, the fall takes place at nine months, continuing to twelve months before rising. Two cases, viz., Alsen and Gresham, apparently .reach their maximum strength at twelve months, thereafter continuing at the same strength, the variations being within the limits of error. In one case, viz., Anchor, there is a heavy rise to nine months, followed by a gradually decreasing rate of rise. In one case there is a heavy rise to eighteen months, and then a fluctuating movement, viz., in White Bros. In the case of Invicta brand, after a sharp rise to six months, followed by a fall at nine and twelve months, a fairly steady rise takes place. In two cases, viz., Wouldham and Formby, after the fall up to twelve months, a comparatively uniform increase takes place. There are three brands which run almost identically, viz., the well-known Knight, Bevan and Sturge brand, and the two Vic- torian cements, viz., Australian Portland and the Emu brand ; Plate XIII. pany Table N24. DIAGRAM To accom, MELBOURNE AND METROPOLITAN BOARD OF WORKS. Australasian Assoc. Ady. Sci., Vol. vili, 1901. swung To face page 34S : : E > a ‘ S = elles g 3 : “ < As Pls : aI a = + She eS ~~ as ane + S } BssSs $ vst ma ey « F SSS q SES5 Sta 3 PSS S gsSK§ 2 soz & SEE s : Sis Seren 99] = a 1400999 x & |] 3] Slo] oir nn Sqeay oF quOn 09 R 2/R2isia S| RI Sls \ Sven OS ss 2le|i% supeon ss] S| xeils|o Aa) oy x re SyoN Ob y/0W 8 yun TF} eyo th yon 8 SuWOn 96 Ty/uom OC! Suen or s 3 bo $s 5) rT | Hs 3 as = (eee 4 Suwon LF / i] ~ hi (le ae 2 8 Pe vy] ¥ yon SHWE os = x a Fateen 9) Huon 9 cee Ss 32 SS YeONS ~ = = ae SL x3 SS nr 2S SSS So N = LSe $ s S o ace s : ‘ — & iS s> $ 3S Ls 4 = ES so Ld 3 = < Wy 8 < S x ; g i — s ~Yy 3 2 w € S S iN 2 LJ s S| » = SS ‘ : 5 = : § > S x 5 : S i S S ; x 2 BS i a1 8 g 5 S 2 = & a = S 23 a, 8 8 aS a5 sr 8 Si x Ss gs S| $ S 8 ass S| 2 ~ g S = s sf (00 ale Sj S Ss Ouide of Iron ais 8 ® x Alumina am ee 3] | BR N RIS QA] ow aly S a S x wl 9 ea = ARE — Ss = - Ss = chs S & S a ‘ =| Ss ™~N be ° s s} 8S] S S = Qe g S © FS Ses 3 = £2 3) 9 s Sy s&s i ae Bod > 8 Fe & S w z - & Nd ry = § & $ c 5 wo he} aS Ss SS a Wi eS hg WASHES mas [= RS re — ‘ § ' aed, cittiermeihidielll tan a cateaes + i + 7 i n * a Ves Anaeinada ! co PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. ; 349 starting at under 500 Ibs. per square inch at. three months they increase rapidly, at six months and thereafter a slow and steady increase, and apparently have not reached their maximum yet. In conclusion, there have been over 309,000 casks of cement used by the Board. The tests, however, that are recorded do not necessarily mean that the cement was accepted, but the ‘results have been tabulated in order to arrive at an average result for each brand. 3—UNITS OF STRESS AND WEIGHT IN ENGINEERING CALCULATION. By ANKETELL Henperson, M.C.E., F.R.V.I.A. | Abstract. } Tue object of the paper is to protest against low units of weight and stress in engineering testing and calculations, as they tend to waste of mental energy in unnecessary arith- metic, false ideas of accuracy, and, worst of all, to weakening of the imagination and judgment. The imagination is necessary to the engineer as well as to the architect, for it is the source of originality. Comparing the work of the old-time engineer and the present, the latter has done best for the business of the world, but has too largely in- creased its stock of ugliness. An exact appreciation of the forces at work in a unit that appeals to the imagination and judgment will result in better-looking work, which need not be less scientific. Some of the old solid structures cost less, and last longer than modern complexities, because of their simplicity. In English business, heavy goods, such as coal, flour, iron, &c., are quoted and sold by the ton and cwt., and these weights are mentally appreciated by all. Consider the enormous extra work if quoted by the lb., yet such extra work ‘is done in many engineering calculations, the result being loss of originality and judgment, as well as loss of time. The assumptions as to the external forces acting on struc- tures, and the internal distribution of stresses, and the resist- ance of materials being likely to vary within 5 per cent., there is no necessity for a low unit, with its extra labour. 350 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. 4.—-NOTES ON SOME WELL-KNOWN AUSTRALIAN BUILDING STONES. By J. Naneusz, F.1.A., N.S.W. THE intention of the writer is to bring before the members of the Engineering Section the results of some tests made on some of the best known of the Australian building stones. The pieces of stone were prepared so as to have as nearly as possible an uniform amount of surface. All the specimens were carefully dried at a temperature of 100 deg. centigrade. They were then carefully weighed and put, resting on pin points, in a bath, the water being all the time 2 ft. deep. After being left for twenty-four hours in the water, they were again weighed, and the increase noted. The cubic specimens were afterwards tested in the large testing machine at the Sydney Technical College to ascertain their resistance to compression. It is always a difficult matter to dress such specimens with accuracy, but the best attempt possible was made to get the specimens with at least two opposite faces quite parallel. Per- fect accuracy was not altogether reached, but the shape was fairly good, excepting in the case of No. 3, which was a little out. ‘The cubes were tested between pieces of stout millboard, which seemed to serve well. Owing to difficulties in the way of getting specimens Nos. 1, 14, 15, and 16 prepared, there was not time to get compression tests made. SPECIAL NOTES ABOUT TESTS. Gaso Isutanp Syenite (Victoria). The specimen (No. 3 in the table) stood up to 11.20 tons per square inch, and even then collapse did not take place, the destruction being slowly developed. The shape was not. per- fect, otherwise the cube would have withstood the whole 100 tons of the machine. Bowrau “TRACHYTE.”’ No. 4 in the table is a sample of the Bowral stone. This piece took up 3 drs. of water, and stood 5.69 tons per square inch, failing very suddenly, and going to pieces. Comparing this result with those obtained by Professor Warren, it would seem that the specimen was not a good one. Or — PROCEEDINGS .OF SECTION H. 3 Biurstone (Malmsbury, Victoria). The sample was rather much honeycombed, and _ conse- quently shows a large soakage of water. The cube only stood 4.87 tons per square inch, which, when compared with some of the sandstone tests, dass not seem good for one of the igneous rocks. TABLE SHOWING PERCENTAGE OF WATER ABSORPTION AND CRUSHING STRENGTH OF SOME WELL-KNOWN AUSTRALIAN BUILDING STONES. f : j\GonAa ; Sizeof | Weight |e. (eam a ~ SEs) hes z | | in. in. in fs oz. dr. A*< a= 3 1 | Granite .., Harcourt, Vic. ...| 3x3x3 [2 910] 300} — 2 ce ..| Moruya, N.S.W....) 3x3x3 | 212138 418 | 6.97 3 | Syenite ...| Gabo Island, Vic. | 2g x 3x 23; 2 1 0] Trace | 11.20 4 | “ ..| Bowral, N.S.W....| 3x3x3 | 214 8 403 | 5.69 » | Bluestone ..| Malmsbury, Vic...) 3x3x3 | 2 515] 1.1538 | 4.87 6) a ...| Footscray, Vic. ..|3x3x3 | 211 0 043 | — c| / Waverley ... oxox oy, | a A. Bh. rote meee 8 | {| Pyrmont |3x3x3 | 2 412] 3.2381 1 3.19 a | Hawkesbury .. 3x 3x3 1-2 27 4-2) eae 10 Sandstone - Marrickville | 3¥3x3y | 2-712) 3.773'| 1.80 11 | Sydney, N.S.W. | | 3x3x3;|/2 7 4] 3.343 | 2.46 12 | Parramatta N a Kees ea wo : 3.028 | 1.51 13 | 3aX38x3°|2 4 3.466 | 1.21 i4 | Limestone . Waurn Ponds, Vie.| 3x 22 x 2% 1 6 6 | 12.849 | — 15 Sandstone ...| Stawell, Vic. .| 3x3x22 |} 2 412] 2.380} — 16) . .... Barrabool Hills, V.| 3x 3x 22) 115 6) 5.468 |= 17 | Slate ...| Mintaro,S. Aust. |6x3x1 |1138 14 641 | — 18 | A . a x Pea BE YO 12 1S A487 | 859 19 | + ..| Castiomname, Vie. |. 6x5= 1 | 2 cater 02 | — 5.—CIRCULAR ARCHES. By Bernuarp A. Smitu, M.C.E [ Abstract. | On the assumptions— 1. That the pressure at any point of the arch ring is normal to the surface and proportional to the depth from the “free surface” (i.¢,, the roadway) to the centre of the arch ring; 2. That in the case of a partial load, uniform over the loaded portion, the free surface of the loaded segment is at a height above the roadway such that if uniformly filled with material of the same density as the filling above the arch ring the weight of the material added would be equal to that of the partial load, while the free surface of the unloaded segment is the roadway ; PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. Se wt Lo 3. That if a heavy load is applied at the end of the partial load, the effect is the same as if this heavy load is applied direct to the arch ring ; 4. That there are no spandril walls— it is shown that, if we call u,v the radial and tangential dis- placements at any point (@) of the arch ring, the differential equation for w is au Gu au Tpa es 763 ie 78 yr ere sin 0 7 aps (1) where yp is the weight of filling per cubic foot, «a ,, radius of the arch ring, is) PIIOE a 4 x i.¢., the moment of either of the balancing couples (per unit width of arch ring) required to produce unit change of curvature in the ring, = ;, Y# where Y is Young’s modulus: and ¢ is the thickness of ring (supposed uniform). The complete solution of (1) is BY o= A. 44(B +.C 6)-cos. 6. = (D4 E 0) sin 0 ~ 7 6° cos @ ... (2) If the arch ring is incompressible, as it practically is in all ordinary cases, dv Z u tae =) 19 ue at ie (3) so that v is known at all points, to an arbitrary constant, F. The bending moment (per unit width of arch ring) is, for the unloaded segment, 2KE ae Me a * gpa’) cos a (2 = ype 0) sin 6 (4) a* ay a- while for the loaded segment, it 1s M = — Ss = (" K - * gpa’) cos0 + i a = -9 pate) sn 6 (5) a- ae a" From the conditions of continuity at the junction of the loaded and unloaded segments, it is shown that we have 1 gpa(b—b')+W sin pt Oe ee S | 9 pa(h—b') sin B +w} 3 x a {= E - = 2K where 6 is the angle to the point on the arch ring vertically below the end of the partial load; } and 0’ the heights from the crown of the arch to the free surfaces in the unloaded and loaded portions respectively. x gpa(b-b’)cos Bp (6) PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H, 353 In the case of an arch in which the abutments and direction of the arch ring at the abutments are fixed, we have, calling a> + asinacosa— 2sin?a=T and a — sinacosa =A, g pa’ . - ane Ax" _ (2 @ cos a — a Sin a — Sin” a cos a) —- 2C a cos 4 4K +2D sina + F (a + sina cos a) E x P=!" (acosa- sina)? +C(sinza—acos?a)-Da-Fsina (7) where C ei x A=y pa(b—-0b’) { cos a(2—cos a+) —cosB—(a +B) sin s + W { F(sin2 a- sin28)—(a+8)+2 cosa cos pt D aks x A=gpa(b-D’) {2 a (sina + sin 8) — 2 cos a (I—cos a+) —a(a+) cosB+8 cosa sin a+ Bt + W { a (sin a + sin B)? — sin 2.a-+a4 B costa — 2 cos a cos + cos asin 8 cos a+r 4 RUF -Ceosa)=gpa(b-0') | (a +8) (2+c08a+ B)— 3 sin (a+) +W { (a+ 8) (2sin 8 ~ sina) +2(cosB ~ cosa) — sing sin(a +p) | (8) If there is no partial load, b’=6 and W =0; hence, C = D=F =o, and we have — gpa 2a° cos a—a sina—sin-a cos a 4K a> +asinacosa—2sin?a Bo! pa (a cos a—sin a)? 4K at+asinacosa—2 sin? a (9) The bending moment is known, from (4) or (5), at all points, for a given value of 6 the maximum bending moment can be at once determined by differentiation. 6.—GRAPHICAL CHRONOLOGY OF ARCHITECTURE. By ANKETELL Henperson, M.C.E., F.R.V.I,A. [Abstract and Diagram. | THE object of the paper was to bring under the notice of the members the advantages of graphical chronology in dealing with architectural history and the analysis of styles and their mutual influence and reaction on each other. The principal example was a diagram showing the evolution of architectural styles from the earliest periods down to the Northern and ye 354 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. Southern Gothic. In compiling this, lines were ruled to scale corresponding with every hundred years, and the appearance of each style or race marked by printing its name on the line corresponding with its earliest date the proximity of the names corresponding with the influence. Date EVOLUTION. 4000 By Anketell Henderson, 1895. 3800 EGYPTIAN CHALDEAN 1 LS | | eas SEER aCe RONDO MNEEE Hh TAIN: (tho Dame MPa Prope ENS 1500 MYCENEAN ASSYRIAN HITTITE TRY G [Ve ete aed nett te Ri ot Date RRO esa TDR ce Sh ae en REM CIAL CIcICe c5- 1000 PERSIAN B.C. te ETRUSCAN SI kel aoa ee hee DORE ION EG ph. ALI iit ots ee PNAC, ROMAN Tectia oo Meads Eran Se Se, Si total 0 SYRIAN SASSN ALD = 2 Shee Maperatee BYZANTINE.............. ROMANESQUE 500 (GREEK) (LATIN) LOMBARD SARACEN SAXON RPHENISH ITALIAN C0) [aera i oo ce Pee PROVENC: © oe. .227 2 eee ee 1000 NORMAN ROMANESQUE NORTHERN GOTHIC SOUTHERN GOTHIC In the early days of Egypt and Chaldea, about 3000 B.c., the styles were few and simple, and clearly defined. About 1500 B.c. the Mycenean or Mediterranean element appeared, followed on the one side by the Assyrian and Hittite, and these again followed by the Persian and Etruscan. On the other side appear the Doric and Ionic, which merge into the Attic Greek, and the whole of these styles ultimately become lost in the hybrid, al- though powerful, architecture of Rome, which used the Greek columns to decorate the Etruscan arched and vaulted construc- tion. After this, in Syria a new truthful style of arches supported directly by columns grows up, and this spreads both in the Eastern and Western Roman worlds. The Byzantine Greeks combined with it the use of domes and a severe ascetic type of sculpture, while the Latins elaborated the roof, and adopted a rounded sensuous sculpture. The Lombards, from the north, introduced grotesque in their sculpture, and used groupings of columns and arches, and new forms of vaulting, while the Saracens, from the south, used pointed and other arches, and foliated the arch, and revelled in geometrical forms. The PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. 355 diagram showed how out of these very diverse elements grew the Romanesques of the middle ages, which culminated in the soaring Northern Gothic and the rich-coloured Southern Gothic. Other “diagrams dealt in detail with the chronology of Egypt and Chaldea, contrasting it with the Mycenean work and the dates of Jewish chronology. The Doric and Ionic work of the Greek colonies, and their united work in Athens, was the subject of another diagram. Roman work was analysed according to its construction, and in the chronology of the Gothic and Renais- sance periods the racial effects could be seen. The object of the paper was to introduce the subject in the hope that others may develop it. The advantages of graphical work were emphasised, appealing, as it does, to the eyes, which seem to have a royal road to the memory. 7—THE NEW ENGINEERING LABORATORY, UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE. By Proressor Krrnot, M.A., M.C.E. [With Plates XIV. and XV.] THe engineering school, although established at a very early period in the history of the University, has hitherto been un- provided with properly designed accommodation. The rooms so far allotted to it were built for other purposes, and in point of access, lighting, &c., are very far from being ideal. About nine years ago it was thought that the time was opportune for erecting a proper building, and the Professor of Engineer- ing visited Europe and America with a view of obtaining in- formation as to arrangement and equipment. During his absence, however, a wave of financial disaster overwhelmed the colony, and for years after his return it required the most strenuous endeavour, and the most rigid economy, to preserve alive the existing organisation, all forward movement being absolutely out of. the question. Recently, however, a sum of money has been rendered available by the Government for ex- tension of University buildings, and of this an amount of be- tween £4000 and £5000 was allocated to the long-delayed and urgently-needed engineering laboratory. The amount being exceedingly moderate, it was necessary to exercise economy in design, and, therefore, the dimensions had to be modest, and the material and treatment unpretentious. Good red brick was consequently adopted as being much cheaper than the stone construction hitherto so largely employed for the University buildings, and also stronger and more durable than the aaa, 356 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION HU. majority of building stones used in Melbourne. At the same time considerations of appearance were not wholly ignored, and by the insertion of a few bands, string courses, and arches of white brick, or Waurn Ponds limestone, the University archi- tect has succeeded without much extra expense in producing a structure that will, I think, be presentable, and at the same time appropriate to object intended. The accommodation at present being provided is intended for the Professor of Engineering and the Lecturer on Surveying, the Lecturers on Architecture, Hydraulie and Sanitary Engineering, and Mining being unprovided for. They will, as heretofore, have to be content with makeshift accommodation in some other part of the University premises. This is greatly to be deplored, but it is hoped that before long further funds may be available, in which case an extension already planned and provided for in laying out the present building will be carried out. The building is two stories in height, with a tower rising 70 ft. from the ground. The lower story will be devoted to engineering, the upper to surveying and drawing. The build- ing stands upon solid silurian rock, which forms an excellent foundation. On this come footings of concrete, composed of Geelong Portland cement and broken bluestone, upon which the brickwork commences, being carried up in Geelong cement mortar to the level of the ground floor. Along the south, and therefore cool, side of the building a basement passage, largely below the level of the ground, extends for a length of slightly over 160 ft., widening out at the end to a fair-sized room. This will provide for all kinds of work requiring uniform con- ditions of temperature and humidity. Primarily, a high-class standard of length is intended to be here provided. Piers rest- ing on the solid rock will carry terminals for testing 66 it. and 100 ft. chains. This will be of value, not only to the Uni- versity, but also to the public. The ground-floor plan com- prises at the west end or front the engineering lecture-room, 25 ft. by 27 ft., which will comfortably accommodate fifty students. As the attendance has hitherto never reached twenty, this provides a fair margin for growth. The room has a level floor, and is abundantly lit by windows on the west and southern sides, which should be very pleasant during the morn- ing, when the lectures are given. Should it be necessary, pro- vision is to be made for darkening any or all of these windows. Another point of importance is that they are sash windows, capable of being opened when required, and therefore, while cheaper, immensely more comfortable and healthy than the costly fixed windows, with stone mullions and transoms, of the rooms at present occupied in a building which, while regarded as a triumph of architecture by connoisseurs, is anything but a triumph either of comfort or scientific construction. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. 357 The lecture-room will be provided with a fixed blackboard of ample horizontal dimensions. The popular shifting black- board, about 4 ft. square, resting on a shaky easel, has long been the writer’s pet aversion. A proper blackboard should be made of slate or cement on a solid wall, and should be at least 12 ft. long. A large extent of vertical dimension is of little use, as practically one can work conveniently between levels little more than 2 ft. apart. Above the backboard will come arrangements for supporting and displaying diagrams, or, if necessary, a screen for lantern demonstrations. It is not proposed to have any fixed furniture in the room. A good substantial table, bequeathed to the writer by the late Pro- fessor Wilson, the founder of the school, will act as lecturer’s table, while the small movable tables and chairs, of which the University possesses some hundreds for examination purposes, will answer perfectly well for the students, at any rate for some years to come. At one side of the room near the lecturer will be a water tap, sink, and drain, the utility of which is obvious for many purposes, including motive power for ex- perimental apparatus. At each side of the blackboard is a door, one leading to an apparatus-room, the other to the pro- fessor’s study—a convenient room, 20 ft. x 16 ft., with a south light and plenty of wall space for bookshelves. The students reach the lecture-room from the main hall, and the professor has a separate entrance to his private room also from the hall. Behind these apartments comes the tower, which serves a number of purposes. 1. The lower part of the tower provides space for the main staircase Jeading to the surveying and drawing department on the first floor, and also to a staircase leading down to the base- ment, where the standard of length is placed. 2. It provides for a mercury column for testing pressure gauges. The height of the tower is sufficient to give a mercury pressure of 25 atmospheres, or nearly 400 lbs. per square in. 3. It provides for the erection of an experimental set of sanitary fittings, with glass windows, to show siphonage ventila- tion, &e. Such an appliance is to be found in some of the best American schools. 4. It carries at the top a tank containing over 2000 gallons of water. This will supply a constant reliable pressure tnrough- out the building, and to the hydraulic laboratory to be here- after described. 5). It provides for experiments on the elastic properties of long wires, and other experiments requiring a clear, but acces- sible vertical space of considerable extent. 6. It provides for illustrating operations in underground surveying, such as the transference of an azimuth from the top to the bottom of a shaft. 358 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION IH. At the top, which is a platform about 12 ft. square, is placed a central pier to carry a theodolite for practising rounds of angles, the height being sufficient to render visible many definite points, botli in the city and suburbs, and also trigono- “ieee points on distant mountains. . It provides opportunities for investigating wind pressure a spree upon which there is much need of further research. Behind the tower comes the laboratory proper, consisting of a room, 50 it. by 30 ft., the whole of which is commanded by a travelling crane capable of lifting 2 tons. Access is provided from outside by a sliding door capable of admitting an ordinary dray or jinker, so that any heavy object may be at once brought under the crane. The room is well lit from both sides, but the windows are kept high, so as to leave an unbroken wall space of about 8 ft. from the floor to provide for ample shelving for the stowage of tested specimens. At some future time an engineering museum may be provided, but for the present the laboratory must act as museum, and is adapted for the pur- pose. In the laboratory will be placed the fine Greenwood and Batley testing machine that the University has possessed for the past ten years. Other testing machines may be added as financial considerations permit. At the rear of the laboratory are two commodious and well- lit workshops. One, the larger, for metal work, and here the gas engine, lathe, shaping, drilling, and other machines will be placed; the other workshop is for wood, and will contain a lathe, driven from the engine, and other apphances. Outside will be a yard, with a tall, close fence, within which cheap sheds may be placed. One of these will contain a forge, emery- wheel, grindstone, and other appliances of a comparatively rough and dirty kind. Another will constitute the hydraulic iaboratory, which will be provided with means of occupying the ordinary laws of flow of water, testing efficiency of turbines and pumps, &c. A supply of water from the top of the tower through a pipe of ample dimensions to render friction head negligeable will provide for many such experiments. Also ar- rangements are made for having a centrifugal pump, driven by the gas engine, to supply a comparatively large quantity of water at a small elevator for experiments on weirs. In view of the increasing importance of hydraulic engineering, this hydraulic laboratory should be of great value both for teaching and research purposes. The first floor in its arrangements closely follows the ground floor. The surveying lecture-room and lecturer’s private room are directly over the corresponding rooms below, while over the laboratory is the main drawing- room, commodious and well lit. Over the workshops we have smaller rooms for special purposes, including photography. blue PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. 359 punting, &e. Above these rooms comes an important feature in the form of a flat roof, accessible by a staircase, with pins to carry various instruments for astronomical purposes. The elevation here is sufficient to admit of star observation at com- paratively low altitudes without interruption from trees and buildings, and the space abundant for very large classes of students. The following description of the part of the building con- nected with surveying, drawing, and astronomical work has been supplied by Mr. T. W. Fowler, M.C.E., the lecturer on these subjects. | In conclusion it may be stated that this building, though of but limited dimensions, compares favourably in completeness and adaption to its purposes with those the writer has visited in other parts oi the world, and cannot fail greatly to facilitate the practical training of the students as well as the research work and public testing that a well-equipped engineering school finds a constant demand for. THE SuRVEYING PoRTION OF THE NEW ENGINEERING SCHOOL BuitpInc, MELBOURNE UNIVERSITY. At the bottom of the building provision is made for a chain standard, which will be placed on the south side of the build- ing in a passage 105 ft. 6 in. long. The general width of the passage is 5 ft. 8 in., but at the western end it is widened out into a standard bar-room, 20 ft. long and 16 ft. wide. The fiducial points will be placed on brick piers, 28 in. high, 224 in. wide, and of lengths varying from 36 in. to 224 in., all being bedded in the silurian rock on which the building rests. The intention is to have two series of marks placed 45 in. apart laterally, one on brass plugs for ordinary comparisons, and the other on platinum wires let into brass plugs, and carefully covered over for more exact comparisons. Six piers in all will be provided, two at the ends, one at 33 ft. from each end, one at the centre, and one 11 ft. from the terminal pier in the standard bar-room. The marks will be placed at 00 ft., 35 ft., 90 ft.. 66 ft., 99 ft., and 100 ft., and also at 00 metres, 10 metres, 15 metres, 20 metres, and 30 metres. The chains will be supported on a timber staging between the piers. Windows are placed in the south wall opposite each pier for facilitating comparisons. In view of the remarkably even temperature and absence of direct sunlight, the comparison and testing of sur- veying chains will be carried on under very favourable circum- stances. The surveying lecture-room is on the first floor, and is 27 ft. 4 in. by 25 ft. 4 in., and will accommodate fifty students. The space available for blackboard is 15 ft. wide, leaving ample 360 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. room for diagrams. The lecture table will extend the full width of the room, and will have a leaden trough along the side nearest the class. Over this, staging can be erected, and glass tubing fitted for purpose of illustr ating the lectures on discharge of water through orifices, pipes, &c. At one end a massive stone slab will be let into the wall, forming a steady support for instruments used in illustration of lecture. Provision is being made for darkening the room when necessary to permit of the lectures being illustrated by the optical lantern. A small apparatus-room and the lecturer’s private room both open off the lecture-room. The drawing office is 50 ft. by 30 ft., hghted from both sides and from the roof, and heated by two fireplaces placed at opposite corners of the room. It will accommodate about forty students at one time. Access is obtained through the drawing office to the eastern wing, in which is the dark room, the research room, a small workshop, and the astronomical observatory on the roof. The dark room will be 10 ft. by 15 ft. 6 in., and will be entered through a light lock. It will be fitted up with facilities for blue print work up to antiquarian size, in addition to ordinary photographic work. The light obtained in the room is from the east. The research-room is 20 ft. equare, fitted up with draft cupboard in one corner, a stone slab 3 ft. wide along the south wall, a stone table 6 ft. by 3 ft. in the centre of the room, sup- ported on a brick pier resting on a division wall of the build- ing, and, in addition, water will be laid. The workshop will be the same size as the dark-room, and will be available for hght work. The astronomical observatory is located on the roof of the eastern wing, which is made flat. A transit-room, 10 ft. by 13 it., and 9 ft. 9 in. high, will be placed at the north-west corner of the wing, the instrument being supported on a pier over the junction of the north wall of the drawing office and the west wall of the eastern wing. The transit-room will be constructed in timber and calvanised iron, with a flat roof, but the north wall of the wing will be carried up to the top of the room, giving a steady support to all supplementary instruments, such as barometer, chronometers, chronograph, and astronomi- cal clock. Rolled steel joists will be placed across the north- east and south-east corners of the eastern wing immediately above the flat roof, and on these brick piers w ill be built for supporting theodolites, &c. The joists will be covered, but not touched, by the timber platforms supported on the roof, thus allowing of the observer moving round the instrument without communicating any vibration to the pier. A third pier will be placed on the centre of the eastern wall, which is steadied Plate XV. Australasian Assoc, Ady. Sci., Vol. viii, 1901 FIRST FLOOR PLAN. iS S En Jefe bmcbeaie oe Gl) oes pape ce XY x iMyAAUIIC | RSS ; ‘Laborasory wi . : rn ce g | q | Lp PINCCTINE Laboralor y | es x ] Frofessors \ x = . | Kroon. | -). : oe = y Tat clip ee eee South a. GROUND FLOOR PLAN. ~ y 8 Ge 5 Q S Be ' a as x: = 1 SHUALNY'S ees eS ri Hn) MC S (a ‘| if : ) ay (Room | Vay) sa. : ae r\ Lrawing OYICC iH =—SP ol 3 ee 7) ae = aaa OO//? Es fells ee: = J Study = 5a) JOO) | a ld Sows) er ee 7 oe a * o 7 t mm by a : : ; hal | i é tris ‘ ni ay ’ ‘ r == ‘ (ha ee ~ = 3 . 4 ‘ ' 6 tie & H i t A i _ i *y ee iG IRE 0 a ea meey overs Poke ieee PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. 361 by a brick buttress built up from ground level. A small plat- form carried out on brackets will give access all round this nler. On top of the tower a brick pier will be placed, on which a theodolite suited for geodetic work will be placed. The alti- tude above sea level will be 200 ft., and a view of all surround- ing geodetic stations, as well as the sea horizon, can be obtained. At this pier the horizontal circles of theodolites can be tested by measuring angles of known magnitude. A clear space of 2 ft. square passes from the top. of the tower to the floor of the chain standard, a height of 75 ft. This will be available for plumbing work in connection with the mining survey work, the chain standard passage being darkened, and used as a drive. ° 8—ON THE BALANCING OF LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES. By Proressor W. C. Kernot, M.A., M.C.E Ix the year 1893 it was the writer’s duty to preside over an inquiry relating to the administration of the Locomotive Branch of the Railway Department, in the course of which much evi- dence was given to the effect that certain locomotives of recent design and construction had proved unsatisfactory, being de- ficient in point of speed, causing great discomfort to the drivers and firemen, and damaging the permanent way by fracturing rails and otherwise. An examination of these engines, the majority of which were of the six wheels coupled inside cylinder class, showed that there were no balance weights whatever, the designer having apparently considered the outside coupling rods and their crank pins and bosses a sufficient balance to the inside cranks and their connections, a view that is taken by at least one recent English writer on the subject. As the engines presented no other abnormal feature it appeared to the writer that possibly imperfect balancing might account for the de- fects complained of. He therefore obtained full data as to dimensions and weight of moving parts, and proceeded to compute the magnitude and position of the balance weights needed in order to minimise the disturbing effects of inertia and centrifugal action. The result was somewhat surpris- ing, indicating that weights of so much as 200 lbs. were needed where none were provided, and that for want of these weights pressures exceeding by some tons that due to the dead weight of the locomotive were imposed on the rails at each revolution at not excessively high speeds. A memorandum was thereupon drawn up, and appended to the report of the Board 362 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION i. of Inquiry, setting forth these conclusions, and recommending the systematic balancing of all locomotives that did not comply with the requirements of the investigation. Pressure of other matters of urgency prevented attention being given by the department to this matter for some time, but ultimately Messrs. Von Steiger and Box, officers of the de- partment possessing special mathematical qualifications, were called upon to check the writer’s conclusions. They went into the matter with even more minuteness and precision than he had done, and arrived at practically identical results. A con- sultation then took place between these gentlemen and the writer, and in accordance with the conclusions unanimously, arrived at, a locomotive of the class most complained of was balanced. The result was so satisfactory that orders were given for the proper balancing of all the other engines of the same class, and from these the work has end a to other classes, until up to date more than 200 engines have been attended to. When about fifty engines had been balanced, and the earlier ones had been running about two years, the writer addressed a letter to Mr. Woodroffe, the Chief Mechanical Engineer of the Department, asking him to state definitely and officially the result of the work, giving its effect upon the speed of the engines, the loads drawn, the fuel consumption, the mainte- nance expenses, the comfort of the men, the effect upon coup- lings, permanent way, and bridges. Mr. Woodroffe replied in a very full and clear letter, from which the following extracts have been taken :— “1. Before balancing, when the engines were running at a speed of over 25 miles. per hour, the fore and aft motion and jolting was considerable, and they could not be run at a much higher rate without difficulty. Since balancing, they run smoothly and easily at from 35 to 40 miles per hour. “2. It is found that similar loads can be drawn with less difficulty than before balancing, the engines running more smoothly. | “3. It is considered that less fuel is now used to perform similar work. “4. There is no doubt that the cost of maintenance of these engines has been reduced by balancing on account of smoother running. There is a marked diminution in the number of broken axle-boxes, &c. Enginemen are unanimous in regard to the greater com- fort of the balanced engines. “6. Fracture of couplings less.” As to effect on permanent way and bridges, no absolutely definite answer could be given, but it was believed that there PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. 363 was an improvement. This want of definite information is not to be wondered at, as the balanced engines constituted but a small proportion of those traversing the lines. The date of this letter is December, 1897, and the locomo- tives then dealt with were powerful six-coupled engines, about 46 tons total weight, excluding tender, and having “wheels only 4 ft. 6 in. in diameters Sinta then the work has continued, and engines of other classes been dealt with with equally satisfactory results. This, then, is the brief history of a reform, the money value of which on any reasonable computation must be very great indeed. Assuming the locomotive charges to average Is. per mile, and each engine to travel 20,000 miles per annum, figures certainly within or below the truth, the cost of each locomotive will be £1000 per annum. Assuming then that the value of each engine is improved owing to greater speed and capability, and reduced maintenance of only 5 per cent., or £50 per annum (surely a very low estimate of the value of the advan- tages detailed in Mr. Woodroffe’s statement), we have for the 200 engines the sum of £10,000 per annum, capable at ordi- nary rates of paying interest on a quarter of a million of money. There is therefore no need to go into elaborate figures to show the enormous money value of a proper system of “balancing, or the serious loss due to its absence. But it may be asked has not all this been threshed out long ago? Surely there is no- thing new to be discovered about so trite and well-known a subject as locomotive design. Well, strange to say, there seems to have been for the past half-century a good deal of know- ledge, but very irregularly distributed. In D. K. Clark’s “ Railway Machinery,” a work published more than forty years ago, accounts are given of the successful balancing of engines by Heaton and Fernihough, in England, and by Nollau and Le Chatelier, on the Continent of Europe, the reported results being strikingly similar to those obtained here, and a careful examina- tion of actual locomotives in various parts of Australia, and also of a large collection of photographs of locomotives by various English and American makers shows that, while many of them are balanced in a rational and intelligible way, others are either quite devoid of balance weights, or possess balance weights the magnitude and position of which cannot be reconciled with the principles of dynamics. In fact, we have well-balanced, wrongly-balanced, and unbalanced engines, and of these the two latter classes are undoubtedly wasting fuel and damaging themselves and the roads they travel over to a greater or “less extent. As, then, there has been, and apparently still is, InN some quarters a Jack of information on this very important subject it appeared desirable to place on record the method adopted with such satisfactory results in Victoria. 364 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. At the outset it is to be stated that there are two entirely distinct classes of irregular and undesirable motions in loco- motives, the first originating in the actual pressure of steam on the pistons, and the second due to the inertia and centrifugal action of the moving parts. The first class are quite un- affected by any balancing or want of balance, and are felt most at low speeds and when full power is being exerted. They con- sist of pitching and rolling movements (these terms being used in the uusal nautical sense), and are due to the varying pres- sure of the cross heads on the guide bars, and in engines with inclined cylinders to the vertical resolved part of the steam pressure on the cylinder cover. To minimise the pitching we should keep the cylinders as nearly horizontal as possible, have long connecting rods, a long wheel base, and stiff springs. To minimise the rolling we should comply with the first, second, and fourth of the preceding conditions, and also prefer inside cylinders to outside. There appears also some reason to believe that a boiler with its centre high up tends to check rolling. The heaviest pitching the writer has observed was in a six- coupled-inside cylinder engine, with very sloping cylinders, struggling with a_ heavy load up a steep incline, and the heaviest ‘rolling: with a four-coupled bogie outside cylinder engine, also with steeply-inclined cylinders, under similar con- ditions. Of these irregular movements there is nothing more to say, having pointed out how they may be reduced to compara- tive harmlessness. The irregular movements due to inertia and centrifugal acticn of moving parts are, contrary to the pre- ceding, felt most at high speeds, when the pressure of steam on the pistons is small or non-existent, as when running down- grade. They consist in inside-cylinder engines of a fore and aft jerking destructive to couplings, and most uncomfortable to the men. In outside-cylinder engines this is combined with a sideways motion of the front of the engine, which beats the flanges of its leading wheels alternately against each rail. In addition to this, there is another and very dangerous action that may easily pass unnoticed until a certain critical speed is reached, when it evidences itself in a most violent and disas- trous manner. This is a periodic variation in the pressure of the driving wheels on the rails, which at all times means extra stress on the rails, and which at a certain speed easily cal- culated by the methods of dynamics, becomes so great that at a certain point in the revolution the wheel rises off the rail, and comes down upon it again lke a huge hammer. This actually happened in the case of locomotive 365X some twelve years ago. This engine had been rebalanced in accordance with an erroneous calculation, and carried 300 lbs. more balance weight in each driving wheel than it should. Running freely down along a steep erade the critical speed was exceeded : PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. 365 the driving wheels bounded along the rails, which were bent and broken in the most extraordinary way, as by blows of a gigantic hammer, the points of impact being situated at dis- tances apart exactly equal to the circumference of the wheels. As the critical speed at which the wheels should begin to lft off the rails was only 48 miles per hour, while the actual speed, according to the finding of a board of inquiry, was 75, the wonder is, not that a long stretch of heavy railway was utterly disorganised, but that the engine and train escaped total destruction. These, then, are the actions which we seek to minimise by in- serting balance weights in the wheels. The mechanism of the locomotive may be divided into parts of two kinds. First, those that revolve about a centre; second, those that reciprocate, or travel backward and forward. Cranks and coupling rods belong to the first class; pistons, piston rods, and cross heads to the second. The connecting rod is an intermediate case, and may be dealt with by reearding part as revolving and part as reciprocating. To divide the connecting into its two parts accurately would involve difficult mathematics, but it is a sufficiently good approximation to re- gard half its length (not half its weight) as one, and half as the other. Eccentrics, eccentric rods, and valve gearing being compara- tively light, and having but a short stroke, especially when linked up, as is usual at high speeds, have no perceptible dis- turbing action, and so may be ignored. Now, revolving masses may be accurately balanced by other revolving masses placed opposite to them, and of the same moment. By this is meant that a weight of 1 lb. at 1 ft. radius may be counteracted by ; 4 Ib. at 2 ft., or 2 lbs. at 4 ft. All that is really necessary is that the product of mass oa radius be kept the same. Mr = Mr' If it is net convenient to place the balance weight exactly opposite the part to be balanced, to take an actual case, we desire to balance an inside crank and big end, weighing 600 lbs., by weights in the wheels, we must proportion those weights inversely to the distance of the crank from the wheels, and as in an ordinary inside-cylinder engine the centre of the crank is almost exactly twice as far from one wheel as it is from the other, we should put 400 lbs. in the near, and 200 Ibs. in the far wheel at the same radius as the crank. As there are two cranks at right angles, each requiring balancing, we should thus have two balance weights in each wheel at right angles to each other. But there is no objection, from a dynami- cal point of view to replacing these two balance weights by 366 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. one which a simple calculation based on the parallelogram of forces shows to be 448 lbs., situated at an angle of 26 des. 34 min. from the larger one. This axle is now in a state of what the writer proposes to call normal balance, and its critical speed is infinite; in other words, no matter how fast it rolls along the rails, the pressure will be simply that due to the weight, and nothing more. An outside crank pin, and the proportion of coupling, or con- necting rod, carried by it may be balanced by an equal weight at equal radius in the adjoining wheel. This is not exactly correct, as the weight in the wheel does not revolve in quite the same plane as the crank pin and coupling rod. Still, the disturbance due to this cause is in most engines not serious. To effect this balance with absolute accuracy there must be a larger weight in the near wheel opposite to the coupling crank, and a small weight on the same side in the distant wheel. For example, taking an actual case, the weight of outside crank proportion of coupling rod carried by it was 330 Ibs., and to balance this with Loe accuracy needed 363 lbs. opposite it in the near wheel, and 33 Ibs. on the same side as it in the far wheel. Thus in a coupled engine each wheel would carry two balance weights to balance the coupling rods and cranks at right angles “to each other, one about eleven times as large as the other. Of course, these could be combined into one, and combined with the other balance weights by the parallelogram of forces, as in the preceding case, and, like them, can be re- duced in weight proportionately if the size of the wheels per- mits their being placed at larger radius. Suppose this is done for all the driving and coupled axles of an engine, such an engine is in a state of normal balance, its critical speed is infinite, and it is absolutely free from any vertical action on the road other than that due to its weight. But though most unobjectionable from this point of view, such an engine might still be subject to undesirable fore and aft movements, and if with outside cylinders lateral movements, due to inertia of pistons and other reciprocating parts, and the problem of dealing with these is much more difficult than the preceding one, and can, in fact, be practically solved only in a very partial manner by a method of compromise. The diff- culty arises from the fact that reciprocating parts must be balanced by revolving weights, and that while the horizontal resolved part of the centrifugal force of these weights is useful for this purpose, the vertical resolved part is us seless, injurious, and, if not kept within proper limits, exceedingly dangerous, causing the wheels to act as in the case of 365X, already re- ferred to. The mode of treatment re ecommended is as fol- lows :— Australasian Assoc. Ady. Sci., Vol. viii, 1901. Plate XIV. ENGINEERING SCHOOL,UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE TAA Ae ae | Prepased (Gammel Be LXICNSIO/ Re! WEST ELEVATION. SOUTH ELEVATION. Nae) ree ; Bee atthe ta ane Es tw .. a 9 lie a Oa] +. pare Se ysrtee 4 Ls aly) PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. 367 1. Make the reciprocating parts of the engine as light as possible. The writer is of opinion that more could be done in this direction than has been hitherto by the use of high-class material and careful scientific design of pistons, rods, and cross- heads. 2. Do not attempt to fully balance these parts. Be content with a palliative treatment, in which from one-half to three- fourths of the reciprocating parts are balanced, the lower propor- tion being taken when the permanent way is known to be weak, and it is desired to spare it as much as possible, even MM: D. Craig, A. W RA Creswell, Rev. A. W. ay Crump, Rev. J. A. ... M.A., Deane, H., M.A., M.Inst.C. E. Dendy, Prof. A., D.Sc. Dennant, J., F.G.S., F.C.S. Docker’ His Hon. | pg 5 ae . Dubois, M. Raymond Dun, W. Soe Ellery, R. L. J.,C.M.G., Enright, W. J., B.A. Farrer, W., B.A... Fellows, Bea S. B. Field, Rev. J. T. Fison, Rev. L., M.A. Fletcher, J. J., M.A. Fowler, Thos. W. M.C. Judge F.R.G.S., F.R.Met.S. Frazer, J. &, M.A.. French, Chas. (jun.) Froggatt, W. W. Frost, C., F.L.S. .. 231, 232, 133, < F.R.S. PAGE Gillen, Bod. 5. M. ..;- -v-4§ ee Godfrey, F. R. so em -- Grant,’ . FE... “ep Bae Grayson, H. J. om pe 183 Guthrie, F. B., F.C.S. ir 45 jE) Leal teat ples pablo oe ay oe Hail EB: mY siete Hamilton, A. G. aT, eee Harker, Geo., B.Sc. EF 204. ae tes Prof. W.« pas id AS: D.Se., F.R.S 23d Hector, Sir ae K.C.M.G., MLD. EES. af ei || Hedley, Chas., F.L.S. 237, 255 Henderson, A. M. pls a 349, 393 Hirsch, Max re s : 5 Hodge, Miss M. ee oe om eo ED Hogs, fe Gy MA. Ss 191, 228 Hosking, R. ... aah 195 Howitt, A. W., F.G.S. 291,321, 330 Jamieson, J., M.D. : 146 |; Jenkins, H. C., A. R. S. M. ai | Jones, J. Zh ree 3. | Keartland, Ge A. oy ee Kernot, W. N., B. CE 195, 299 Kernot, ee W. C.. ee M.C.E rai : S00, ou King, Miss Georgina dol ais G. He, FRIAS. LS. 18 Kamb, BR. B: ... 2 Bes Lambert, Miss A., M. Se. iso eee Le Souéf, D., C.M.Z.S 255, 256 Lewis, W. T.. ee io | Long, C. R., M.A. - 376 Lowrie, Prof. W., MA.. EB: Se. 124 Lueas, A. ‘H. S., ‘M.A : 256 Muchmann: J. G. oy ile LS st Madsen, TP Vi. ..- MI i Maiden, J. H., F.L. S. i 262 Martin, o Jes M. BB. USE 215, PAT Masson, Prof. D. Orme, M.A., PeSe:.: aa ate 205, 215 380 Mathews, R. H., L.S. McAlpine, D.... McAulay, Prof. A., M. A. McCreery, Dr. J. V- Millward, Mrs., C.F. Nangle, J. Nash, BR. L. .: Neumayer, Dr. O’Callaghan, M. A. ... ee Oliver, Miss M. F., M.A. ... iMiver,. C. °° B., - M:GX., M. Inst.C. E. ae Panton, J. F.R.G.S. . Pearson, A. N., F.CS. Plummer, J. ... A Pollock, Prof. ba As ‘B. Des or A. C.M.G., Potts, H. W., F.C ie, Powys, A. O.. Pratt, es F. Vv. Be M. A. Pritchard, os: am Funes He FB A. abaicon GC. i: Rodway, L. .. Rusden, Hi. K. pach, A. J., H.C.S. Sayce, O. A. ... Shephard, J. .. aL; Bee INDEX TO AUTHORS. PAGE Simpson, Capt. A... 297 Springthorpe, J. W.. M. (Ne AV. SD): =f! Stawell, R. i. M. nye B.S Stirling, sas. s 228, 298 Stirling, Mrs. E. T.... Pe Smith, B..A., M.C.E. 197, 351 Smith, Prof. A. Mica, B.Sc. 215 Smith, R. Greig, M.Sc. 271 Sutherland, A., M.A. 2 Zz Sutherland, W., M.A. 203, oA Sweet, Miss G., M.Sc. 272 Sweet, Geo., F.G.S.... 228 Tate, Prof. pale ¥.Gas3 F.L.S e 61 Tayler, L., ¥. R: i B. A Km. VA. 369 Tepper, J. G. O. i: Tire 203, 333 Tee G. M., "F. L.S. 272 Thomson, Capt. Wm. C. 299 Threlfall, Prof. R., M.A. 196 Tietkens, W. H., F. R.G. Ss. 105 Turner, Fredk. , MES E.R-H.S. ... 279 Waites WLS. +p: Walcott, 1 e.. Bee 228 Walker, W. ... og 334 Watts, Rev. W. Ww. 2147, White, W. J. +. ee Wilkinson, W. P. 216, 546 Winnecke, C. i. toe INDEX OF PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESSES AND TITLES OF PAPERS. Aborigines of Australia and Tasmania ... wt he Aborigines of the North-west Coast of New South Wales, The Agriculture, Determining Influence of Climatic Conditions upon Australian aes e asf Agriculture, The Scientific Directing of a Country’s Alcoholism, Treatment . ! Alkaloids in Some Australian Plants, Galton of Alluvial Gold in Gippsland, Notes on an Analysis, A New Standard for Use in Volumetric Anatomy of Mind as Bearing upon Education, The Annual March of Temperature at Melbourne, The mee Apricots in the Northern Districts of Victoria, A Guin Disease of Arch Construction, The Monier Method of Arches, Circular Architects of Melbourne, The Bale ee tee “op Architecture, Some Deductions from Graphical Chronology of Assay, Some Notes on the Gold Bullion.. » Astronomy in Australasia, The eae and Growth of Atomic Theory of Matter, The History of the Auriferous Deposits, Some ~ Auriferous Stone in Gippsland, The Treatment of Australasia and their Work, The Marine Wood-borers of ... Australasian Oceanography, A Second Contribution to Australia, A Curriculum for the Primary Schools of Australia, A Census of the Lizards of . a? Australia, An Artificially-watered Stock-route through Central Australia, Bacteriological Research in the Milk Flora of ... Australia, Central x i ane Australia, Magic among the Natives of Central .., Australia, Notes on a Collection of Birds from Western Australia, The Insect Fauna of Central... Australia, The Land Leeches of fe ase sd Australian Birds’ Eggs and their Nests, The Protective Colouration of 382 INDEX OF PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESSES, &C. Australian Birds’ Eggs, Variation in the Colour of Australian Building Stones Ae a Australian Earthworms, Certain Points in the Bettany of Australian Fauna, The Antarctic Element in the a Australian Fauna, The Rise and Early Progress of our Knowledge of the ... es, 4 : Australian Girls in the Roldan of the Aon, The Place of Australian Plants, Note on the Alkaloids in Some Australian Railways under Federation ... = Australian Tribes, Some Ceremonies of the Centr al Australian Tribes, Trade Centres in the Bacteriological Research in the Milk Flora of Australia Bacteriology, Some Recent Advances in Balancing of Locomotives, The.. Baw Baw, Seven Days on Bicycle Wheel, The Biological Station and Marine Fish pe aoe in ‘N ew Fonte The Proposed : : mae wae vos Birds and Their Nests, The passes ain bie of ae Water, The Molecular Constitution of ... ax ay ax (BES Water Supply of Melbourne... i ay oe UBEO Wheat in the Mallee, Some Variety Tests rc i MO Wee woe (BZ Wines Retailed in Victoria, An Examination of the det Loca Wines, The Composition of Natural... coe = fee Woman’s Brain st * $2 od Sah Wood-borers (Marine) of aeapnged ee their Wor k LF 0 ee Words, Surface Similarities in... Le mek ee Soares Zoological and Acclimatisation Society of Victoria, The Progress of the eee to we to BIST. OF MEMBERS. Laon LIST OF MEMBERS, MELBOURNE, 1900 SESSION. Abbott, W. E., Wingen, N.S. W. Adam, Dr. C. Rothwell, 84 Collins-street, Melbourne, V. Adams, C. W., C.E., Chief Surveyor, Blenheim, Marlborough, N.Z. Adams, J. H. M., Athenzeum Club, Sydney, N.S.W. Adams, Miss, Blenheim, Marlborough, N.Z. Adams, Mrs. C. W., Blenheim, Marlborough, N.Z. Adams, P. F., Casula, Liverpool, N.S.W. Adams, W. J., 163 Clarence-street, Sydney, N.S. W. Ahern, Miss Johanna, ‘‘ Kilmorna,’’? Dandenong, V. Alexander, E. J., J.P., Rokewood, V. Allen, J. B., B.Sc., University, Adelaide, S.A. Allfrey, Miss Constance, Fernhurst, Mysia, V. Anderson, Andrew, President School of Mines, Ballarat, V. Anderson, J. T. Noble, 49 Elizabeth-street, Melbourne. V. Anderson, Mrs. John, Finley’s Hotel, Spencer-street, Melbourne, V. Andrews, E..C., B.A., Rocky Point, Rockdale, N.S. W. Andrews, H., 46 Elizabeth-street, Melbourne, V. Archibald, Joseph A., ‘‘ Tatura,” Fitzroy-street, St. Kilda, Melbourne, V. Argyle, Stanley 8., M.B., M.R.C.S., ‘* Karnak,” Kew, Melbourne, V. Armstrong, E. La Touche, M.A., Librarian, Melbourne Public Library, V. Arnall, George Neil, ‘‘ Gnarwarre,” Maud-street, Kew, Melbourne, V. Avery, D., M.Sc., 23 Belmont-avenue, Kew, Melbourne, V. Avery, Mrs. D., M.A., 23 Belmont-avenue, Kew, Melbourne, V. Bage, Mrs. E., Fulton-street, St. Kilda, Melbourne, V. Bagge, Jas. (Sec.) Department of Education, Melbourne, V. Bailey, F. M., Government Botanist, Brisbane, Q. Bailey, J. F., Department of Agriculture, Brisbane, Q. Bailey, Miss Julia, Leichhardt-street, Brisbane, Q. Baines, Arthur E., Riccarton, Christchurch, N.Z. Baker, H. H., 78 Swanston-street, Melbourne, V. Baker, Mrs. R. T., Technological Museum, Sydney, N.S. W. Baker, R.T., F.L.S., Technological Museum, Sydney, N.S.W. Balfour, Lewis J., B.A., M.B., B.S., Children’s Hospital, Carlton, Melbourne, V. Binerlen, Wm., Technological Museum, Sydney, N.S.W. Baracchi, P., F.R.A.S., Government Astronomer, Melbourne, V. Barff, H. E., M.A., University of Sydney, N.S.W. Barff, Mrs. H. E., University of Sydney, N.S. W. Barnard, F. G. A., 49 High-street, Kew, Melbourne, V. Barnard, R. J. A., M.A., 171 Sydney-road, Royal Park, Melbourne, V. Barraclough, S. H., B.E., ‘‘ Lansdowne,” Bayswater-road, Darlinghurst, Sydney, N.S.W. Barton, H. I., ‘* Nyrangie ” Gladesville, Sydney, N.S. W. Barton, Robert, Deputy- Master of the Mint, Melbourne, V. Bassett, Wm. F., George-street, Bathurst, N.S.W. 392 LIST OF MEMBERS. Batson, Arthur, Town Hall, Fitzroy, Melbourne, V. Beale, Bruce, Palmerston North, Wellington, N.Z. Belfield, A. H., Dumaresq. Sydney, N.S.W. Benham, Prof. W. Blaxland, D.Sc., Otago University, Dunedin, N.Z. Bergmark, O., Auburn-street, Goulburn, N.S. W. Betheras, John H., B.A., State School, Templestowe, V. Bill, G. T., M.A., Moonta, 8. A. Blackett, C. R., F.C.S., Victorian Government Analyst, Melbourne, V. Blackett, Mrs. C. R.., ‘‘ Ingleby,” Walsh-street, South Yarra, Melbourne, V. Blackett, W. A. M., Architect, Collins-street west, Melbourne, V. Blakemore, G. H., ‘‘ Metacom,” Wolseley-road, Point Piper, Sydney, N.S.W. Blanche, H. B., 38 Regent-street, Elsternwick, Melbourne, V. Blashki, A., 169 Clarence-street, Sydney, N.S.W. Blunno, M., Department of Agriculture, Sydney, N 8.W. Borthwich, Dr., North Terrace, Adelaide, S.A. Bowditch, W. L., M.A., Melbourne, V. Bradley, Robert S., Queen’s Coll-ge, St. Kilda, Melbourne, V. Bragg, Prof. W. H., M.A., The University, Adelaide, §.A. Brennan, Miss S. O, 448 Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S. W. Britten, Miss, Craigend-street, Darlinghurst, Sydney, N.S. W. Brittlebank, C. C., ‘‘ Dunbar,’? Myrniong, V. Bromby, Wilfred, Mount-street, Heidelberg, V. Brothwood, H.8.,J P., 291 Parramatta-road, Leichhardt, Sydney, N.S. W. Brown, E. J., Collins-street, Melbourne, V. Brown, Hy. J. (Solicitor), Newcastle, N.S.W. Brown, Prof. W. Jethro, M.A., LL.D., Hobart, T. Brown, Rev. Geo., D.D., Gordon-road, Gordon, N.S. W. Bull, R. J., M B., B.S., 10 James-street. Richmond, Melbourne, V. Buntine, Mrs. W. M., c/o Mr. W. M. Buntine, V. Buntine, W. M., M.A., Caulfield Grammar School, East St. Kilda, Mel- bourne, V. Burge, C. O., M.Inst.C.E., ‘‘ Fitzjohns,” Alfred-street, N. Sydney, N.S. W. Burgess, Miss Amy, ‘‘ Merindee,’’ South Malvern, Adelaide, S.A. Burgess, Miss May, ‘‘ Merindee,” South Malvern, Adelaide, S.A. Burne, Alfred, D.D.S., 1 Lyons Terrace, Hyde Park, Sydney, N.S.W. Burns, James, 10 Bridge-street, Sydney, N.S.W. Butler, W. R., F.R.I.V.A., 60 Queen-street, Melbourne, V. Butters, J. 8., F.R.G.S., 349 Collins-street, Melbourne, V. Cameron, Donald, M.A., Grammar School, Ipswich, Q. Campbell, A. J., 10 Elm Grove, Armadale, V. Campbell, F. A., M.C.K., Director, the Working Men’s College, Mel- bourne, V. Cape, A. J., M.A., Edgecliffe-road, Woollahra, Sydney, N.S.W. Carolin, J.P., 191 Collins. street, Melbourne, V. Carri C.5 Messrs. Carr and Sons, Spring- -street, Melbourne, V. Carson, Rev. Jas., Vooeyyterae leiarel Junee, N.S. W. Carter, Miss L. C., 72 Barkly-street, St. Kilda, Melbourne, V. Castner, J. L.3)Bex195,GiPs04 Sydney, N.S. W. Caterer, T. A., B.A., St. Peter’s ’ College, Adelaide, S.A. Catlett, W. H., i S., F.R.G.S., Burwood-road, Burwood, Sydney, N.S. W. Chambers, John, Mokopeka, Hastings, Napier, N.Z. Chapman, H. G., M.B., ‘‘ Westonburt,” Fairfield Park, Melbourne, V. Cheeseman, T. F., F.L.S., Curator, The Museum, Auckland, N.Z. Cherry, Mrs., c/o Dr. Cherry, University of Melbourne, V. Chilton, C., M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S. Chisholm, Ed., M R.C.S., 82 Darlinghurst-road, Sydney, N.S.W. Chisholm, W., M.D., 139 Macquarie-street, Sydney, N.S. W. LIST OF MEMBERS. 393 Clark, D., B.C.E., School of Mines, Bairnsdale, V. Clark, Miss C., Adelaide, S.A. Clark, Miss, Hobart, T. Clark, Mr. Justice A. J., Hobart, T. Clark, M. 8., Adelaide, S.A. Clarke, Miss Marian, ‘‘ Abbotsleigh,” Wahroonga, N.S. W. Clarke, Mrs. G. E., 72 Barkly-street, St. Kilda, Melbourne, V. Cleland, Dr., J., Adelaide, S.A. Cleland, Dr. W. L., Adelaide, S.A. Cleland, Mrs. Dr., Adelaide, S.A. Clendinnen, F. J., M.D., Williams-road, Hawksburn, Melbourne, V. Clendinnen, Mrs. F. J., Williams-road, Hawksburn, Melbourne, V. Clough, C. F., ‘‘ Forest Hill,” Chapel-street, South Yarra, Melbourne, V. Clough, Mrs. C. F., c/o Mr. Clough, V. Coane, H. E., 70 Queen-street, Melbourne, V. Cobb, N. A., B.Sc., Ph. D., Department of Agriculture, Sydney, N.S.W. Cole, F. Hobill, M.B., Ch.B., Rathdowne-street, Carlton, Melbourne, V. Colley, D. J. K., Royal Mint, Sydney, N.S. W. Collins, J. T., M.A., LL.M., Trinity College, Melbourne, V. Collison, C. N., Eagle Chambers, King William-street, S.A. Collison, Miss H., Eagle Chambers, King William-street, S.A. Collison, Miss M., Eagle Chambers, King William-street, S.A. Combes, Miss A. H., Glanmire Hall, Glanmire, N.S.W. Comrie, Jas., Kurrajong Heights, N.S. W. Connell, Miss H. Rita, B.Sc., Power-street, Hawthorn, VY. Connell, Miss, Power-street, Hawthorn, V. Conway, Miss, c/o Mr. D. Watterston, ‘‘ Toowong,” Boundary-road, Malvern, Melbourne, V. Cook, J. H., Adelaide, S.A. Cook, Mrs. E. B., Tintern Ladies’ College, Hawthorn, V. Cook, Mrs. W. E., c/o Mr. W. E. Cook, N.S. W. Cook, W. E., M.E., District Engineer, Metropolitan Board of Water Supply and Sewerage, Sydney, N.S.W. Copeland, Mrs., ‘‘ Drumlarney,” Warragul, V. Corlotte, Canon J. C., D.D., the Rectory, Ashfield, Sydney, N.S.\W. Cormack, Donald, c/o Messrs. James Sandy and Co., 330 George-street, Sydney, N.S. W. Cowlishaw, M. C., 3 Macquarie-place, Sydney, N.S.W. Crago, W. H., M.R.C.S., 34 College-street, Sydney, N.S. W. Craig, A. W., M.A., F.C.S., College of Pharmacy, Swanston-street, Melbourne, V. Crane, A. W., 375 Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S. W. Creswell, Rev. A.W., M.A., St. John’s, Camberwell, Melbourne, V. Cribb, T. B., M.L A., Ipswich, Q. Crivelli, Madame, 35 Ferrars-place, Albert Park, Melbourne, V. Crivelli, M., M.D., 35 Ferrars-place, Albert Park, Melbourne, V. Crombie, A. F., 19 Collins-street, Melbourne, V. Crowe, Robert, Elizabeth-street, S. Preston, Melbourne, V. Cuming, Jas. (Jr.), Willis-street, Yarraville, Melbourne, V. Cummins, R. H. LaB., ‘‘ Lota,’’ Allison-road, Elsternwick, V. Curran, Rev. J. Milne, Technical College, Sydney, N.S.W. Daish, Wm. C., M.D., 80 Collins-street, Melbourne, V. Dalmas, Miss L., B.A., Pennant-street, Parramatta, N.S.W. Danks, A. T., 391 Bourke-street, Melbourne, V. Danks, John, ‘‘ Vermont,” South Melbourne, V. Darley, C. W., M.Inst.C.E., J.P., Australian Club, Sydney, N.S.W. Darling, Rev. F. A., Surrey College, Surrey Hills, Melbourne, V. Davenport, Dr. A. F., 159 High-street, St. Kilda, Melbourne, V. 394 LIST OF MEMBERS, Davenport, Sir Samuel, K.C.M.G., Beaumont, Adelaide, S.A. Davidson, W. H., Existing Lines Department, Public Works Offices, Sydney, N.S.W. Davis, R. N., 207 Glebe-road, Sydney, N.S.W. Dawbarn, G. J., B.Sc., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., School of Mines, Ballarat, V. Day, M. C., la Hunteér-street, Sydney, N.S. W. Deane, Henry, M.A., M.Inst.C.E., Engineer-in-Chief, Railways Depart- ment, Sydney, N.S. W. Dendy, Prof. A., D.Sc., Professor of Biology, Canterbury College, Christ- church, N.Z. Dennant, J., F.G.S., F.C.S., Stanhope-grove, Camberwell, Melbourne, V. Dick, Jas. A., M.D., ‘‘ Catfoss,” Belmore-road, Randwick, Sydney, N 8.W. Dixon, Hugh, ‘‘ Abergeldie,’? Old Canterbury-road, Summer Hill, Sydney, N:S..W. Dixon, Samuel, Royal Exchange, Adelaide, S.A. Dixon, W. A., F.C.S., 97 Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S.W. Dobbie, A. W., College Park, Adelaide, S.A. Dohbie, Hector J., College Park, Adelaide, S.A. Dobbie, Mrs. A. W., College Park, Adelaide, S.A. Dobson, Edward, C.E., Papanui-road, Christchurch, N.Z. Docker, His Honour Judge FE. B., M.A., ‘‘ Eltham,” Edgecliffe, Sydney, N.S. W. Donnelly, Martin C., Smeaton, V. Douglas, A., Bank of Australasia, Collins-street, Melbourne, V. Downe, pee Locomotive Superintendent of Trams, Randwick, Sydney, NS. W. Downs, Miss Helen E., Girls’ Grammar School, Rockhampton, Q. Dubois, Raymond, Viticultural College, Rutherglen, V. Dudley, U., F.G.S., White Rock Silver Mine Ltd., Drake, N.S. W. Dun, John, Palmer-street, Richmond. Dunstan, A. J., ‘‘ Erdington,” Croydon, Sydney, N.S.W. Durack, J., Physical Laboratory, The University, Sydney, N.S.W. Eames, Dr. W. L’Estrange, Newcastle, N.S.W. Eames, Mrs. W. L’Estrange, Newcastle, N.S. W. Eddy, F. C., Yorick Club, 80 Swanston-street, Melbourne, V. Edwards, J. R., Post Office Chambers, 114a Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S. W. Edwards, T. Elford, 14 Market-street, Melbourne, V. Elgar, Mrs. 8., ‘‘Geraldine,” Pollington-street, St. Kilda, Melbourne, V. Ellery, Mrs. R. L. J., The Observatory, Melbourne, V. Ellery, R.,L. J., C.M.G., F.R.8., F.R.A.S., The Observatory, Mel- bourne, V. Ellis, J. S. E., F.R.I.B.A., Kensington Chambers, 108 Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S.W. Elkington, Miss Agnes M., ‘‘ Clovernook,”’ Balmain, Sydney, N.S.W. Elkington, Professor J. 8., M.A., LL.B., University of Melbourne, V. Embley, Dr. E. H., ‘‘ Thornbury,” 245 Latrobe-street, Melbourne, V. Engelhardt, B. G., Public School, Germanton, N.S.W. Enys, J. D., F.G.S., Enys Castle, Penryn, Cornwall, England. (Life Member.) Esdaile, Thos., School of Mines, Bendigo, V. Evans, Heber D., Electric Light Branch, G.P.O., Melbourne, V. Evans, W. P., D.Ph., M.A., Christ’s College, Christchurch, N.Z. Fairfax, Sir Jas. R., Sydney Morning Herald, Sydney, N.S.W. Faithfull, Dr. R. L., 5 Lyons-terrace, Hyde Park, Sydney, N.S. W. Farr, C. Coleridge, B.Se., c/o Mrs. Baber, Carlton-Mill-road, Christ- church, N.Z. Farrer, Arthur, City Surveyor, Town Hall, Ballarat City, V. LIST OF MEMBERS. 395 Farrer, Wm. J., B.A., ‘‘ Lambrigg,” Tharma, Queanbeyan, N.S. W. Fennelly, R., A.M.Inst.C.E., L.S., Kilmore, VY. Fenton, J. J., Government Statist, Melbourne, V. Ferguson, W. H., 23 Service-crescent, Albert Park, Melbourne, V. Fiaschi, Thos., M.D., 149 Macquarie-street, Sydney, N.S W. Fielder, Rev. Walter, F.R.M.S., Physiological Department, University of Melbourne, V. Fishbourne, Dr. J. Y., ‘‘St. Aidans,”” Moonee Ponds, Melbourne, V. Fison, Rev. Dr. Lorimer, M.A., Essendon, Melbourne, V. Fitts, F. A., A.R.V.I.A., 420 Chancery-lane, Melbourne, V. Flavelle, A. E., ‘* Wellbank,” Concord, Sydney, N.S. W. Flavelle, Miss E., ‘‘ Wellbank,” Concord, Sydney, N.S.W. Fletcher, J. J., M.A., B.Sc., The Linnean Society, Ithaca-road, Elizabeth Bay, Sydney, N.S.W. Fletcher, Mrs. J. J., c/o Mr. J. J. Fletcher, Elizabeth Bay, Sydney, N.S. W Foreman, J., M.R.C.S., 141 Macquarie-street, Sydney, N.S. W. Forsyth, Wm., Centennial Park, Paddington, Sydney, N.S. W. Fowler, Mrs. T. W., c/o Mr. T. W. Fowler, Melbourne, V. Fowler, T. W., M.C.E., F.R.G.S., University of Melbourne, V. Fraser, John, B.A., LL.D., West Maitland, N.S. W. Freeman, William, Local Land Board. Bourke, N.S.W. French, Chas., F.L 8., Crown Law Offices, Melbourne, V. Froggatt, W. W., Department of Agriculture, Sydney, N.S. W. Fryar, Wm., Inspector of Mines, Brisbane, Q. Fryett, A. G., F.R.M.S., “Clendonald,’’ Park Hill-road, Kew, Mel- bourne, V. Furber, T. F., F.R.A.S., L.S,, Department of Lands, Sydney, N.S.W. Fynie, Wm., The Colonial Sugar Refining Co. Ltd., 43 Queen-street, Melbourne, V. Gabriel, Joseph, 293 Victoria-street, Abbotsford, Melbourne, Ve Gates, Wm. F., M.A., Education Department, Melbourne, V. Gatliff, John H., The Commercial Bank, Lygon-street, Carlton, Mel- bourne, V. Gault, Dr. E. L., 26 Denbigh-road, Armadale, V. George, Miss, Advanced School for Girls, Adelaide, 8.A. George, Miss Marian, Advanced School for Girls, Adelaide, S A. Gibbs, Geo. A. (Sec.) Melbourne and Metropolitan Board of Works, Mel- bourne, Vic. Gilfillan, Alex., 434 Collins-street, Melbourne, V. Gillen, F. J., Moonta, S.A. Godfrey, F. R., ‘ Graylings,” 107 Alma-road, St. Kilda, Melbourne, V. sxoodlet, J. H., J.P., Ashfield, N.S. W. Gordon, Geo., M.Inst.C.E., ‘‘ Ellerslie,’’ Toorak, Melbourne, V. Gore, Henry, 395 Collins-street, Melbourne, V. Gosman, Rev. A., D.D., 444 Burwood-road, Hawthorn, Melbourne, V. Grant, David, M A., M.D., 77 Collins-street, Melbourne, V. Grant, Mrs. D., 77 Collins-street, Melbourne, V. Grant, F. E., The Union Bank of Australasia, Melbourne, V. Grant, K., Ormond College, Melbourne, V. Grayson, H. J., Geological Department, University of Melbourne, V. Green, W. Heber, B.Sc., Chemical Laboratory, University of Mel- bourne, V. Gregory, Mrs., Wellington-parade, East Melbourne, V. Griffith, Sir Samuel W., G.C.M.G., M.A., Supreme Court, Brisbane, Q. Grimshaw, J. W., M.Inst.C.E., M.I.Mech.E., Harbours and Rivers Branch, Public Works Department, Sydney, N.S. W. Grimshaw, Mrs. J. W., c/o Mr. J. W. Grimshaw, N.S.W. 396 LIST OF MEMBERS. Gullett, Henry, Sydney Morning Herald Office, Sydney, N.S. W.- Gurney, KE. H., F.C.S., Department of Agriculture, Sydney, N.S.W. Guthrie, F. B., F.C.S., Department of Agriculture, Sydney, N.S. W. Hall, Robert, Elgar-road, Box Hill, Melbourne, V. Hall, T. S., M.A., The University, Melbourne, V. Hall, Mrs. T. §., c/o Mr. T. 8S. Hall, University of Melbourne, V. Hall, W. R., ‘* Wildfell,” 10 Wylde-street, Potts Point, Sydney, N.S.W. Halligan, G. H., Public Works Department, Sydney, N.S. W. Halligan, Mrs. G. H., c/o Mr. G. H. Halligan, N.S.W. Hamlet, W. M., F.I.C., F.C.S., Government Analyst, Sydney, N.S.W. Handsford, Miss, ‘‘ Belhaven,” Leopold-street, Box Hill, Melbourne, V. Harber, A., 95 Walsh-street, South Yarra, Melbourne, V. Harber, Mrs. A., 95 Walsh-street, South Yarra, Melbourne, V. Harbinson, J. W., L.R.C.P. and 8.E., etc., Middle Brighton, Mel- bourne, V. Harker, George, B.Sc., 35 Boulevard, Petersham, Sydney, N.S.W. Harris, Alderman J., Bulwara, Ultimo, Sydney, N.S.W. Harrison, G. R., Beecroft, N.S.W. Hart, T. S., M.A., School of Mines, Ballarat, V. Hartnell, Wm. A., ‘‘ Irrewarra,’’ Burke-road, Camberwell, Melbourne, V. Harvey, J. H., 128 Powlett-street, East Melbourne, V. Hawker, Herbert, Demonstrator in Physiology, University of Sydney, NS. Ve Hay, John, LL.D., J.P., ‘‘Crow’s Nest,” North Sydney, N.S. W. Hector, Sir James, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S., The Museum, Welling- ton, N.Z. Hedley, Chas., F.L.S., Australian Museum, Sydney, N.S.W. Hedley, Mrs. C., c/o Mr. C. Hedley, Sydney, N.S. W. Henderson, Anketell M., M.C.E., F.R.V.I.A.,-352 Collins-street, Mel- bourne, V. Henderson, James, City Bank, George-street, Sydney, N.S.W. Henderson, Miss, ‘‘ Oberwyl,”’ Burnett-street, St. Kilda, Melbourne, V. Henry, Louis, M.D., 4 Collins-street, Melbourne, V. Haswell, Prof. W. A., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., University of Sydney, N.S. W. Higgins, Geo., ‘‘ Hybla,” Wallace-street, Toorak, Melbourne, V. Higgins, H. B., M.L.A., Parliament House, Melbourne, V. Higgins, Miss A., M.A., ‘‘ Killenna,” Sorrell Avenue, Malvern, Mel- bourne, V. Hiscock, W., Parkside, Adelaide, S A. Hocken, T. M., M.D., F.L.8., Moray Place, Dunedin, N.Z. Hockings, P. F., F.R.1.B.A., ‘‘ The Oaks,” Montague-road, Brisbane, Q. Hodge, Miss M., ‘‘ Shirley,” Edgecliffe-road, Sydney, N.S. W. Hogg, EK. G., M.A., Trinity College, Parkville, Melbourne, V. Hogg, H. R:, M.A., 16 Market Buildings, Flinders-lane, Melbourne, V. Holder, Miss Ethel, Advanced School] for Girls, Adelaide. S.A. Holder, Miss Caroline, Advanced School for Girls, Adelaide, S.A. Holding, Edwin, 184 Darling-street, Balmain, Sydney, N.S. W. Holmes, Miss A., Wellington-parade, East Melbourne, V. Holmes, W. A., Telegraph Superintendent, Railway Offices, Spencer- street, Melbourne, V. Horne, Dr. George, Clifton Hill, V. Hosking, Richard, 22 Hopetoun-street, Ballarat E., V. Howchin, Miss Edith, Goodwood East, Adelaide, S.A. Howchin, Miss Stella, Goodwood Kast, Adelaide, S.A. Howchin, W., Goodwood East, Adelaide, 8.A. Howell, F. J., Ph.D., Agricultural Laboratory, South Yarra, Melbourne, V. Howitt, A. W., F.G.S., Finch-street, East Malvern, Melbourne, V. Howitt, Miss, Finch-street, East Malvern, Melbourne, V. LIST OF MEMBERS, 397 Howitt, Mrs. A. W., Finch-street, East Malvern, Melbourne, V. Hunt, Miss Fanny K., B.Se., Grammar School, Ipswich, Q. Hutton, Captain F. W., F.R.S., The Museum, Christchurch, N.Z. Hyam, Hon, 8. H., M.L.C., J.P., ‘‘ Mascotte,” 6 Queen-street, Woollahra, Sydney, N.S. W. levers, R. L., ‘‘ Mount Ievers,” Sydney-road, Royal Park, Melbourne, V. Iilidge, Rowland, Crown Insurance Office, Adelaide-street, Brisbane, Q. Jackson, A. Henrick, B.Se., M.I..E., F.C.S., The Electrical Engineering School, 358 Collins-street, Melbourne, V. 4 Jacob, A. F., Prospect, Sydney, N.S. W. Jaffray, J. W., Equitable Buildings, 350 George-street, Sydney, N.S.W. Jamieson, J., M.D., Ch.M., Exhibition-street, Melbourne, V Jamieson, Sydney, B.A., M.B., Ch.M., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., 157 Liverpool- street, Sydney, N.S. W. Jarrett, Miss, ‘‘ Ithaca,” Walsh-street, South Yarra, Melbourne, V. Jarrett, Mrs., ‘‘ Ithaca,” Walsh-street, South Yarra, Melbourne, V. Jarrett, W. H., Commercial Union Assurance Co., 53 Queen-street, Mel- bourne, VY. Jenkins, H. C., Assoc.R.S.M., ‘‘ Tarawera,”’ Canterbury, Melbourne, V. Jenkins, Mrs. H. C., c/o Mr. H. C. Jenkins, V. Johnston, R. M., F.8.S., Government Statist, Hobart, T. Jones, Dr. D. Egryn, Powlett-street, East Melbourne, V. Jones, P. Sydney, M.D., F.R.C.S., Hyde Park, Sydney, N.S. W. Josephson, J. Percy, C.E., Fitzevan Chambers, 28 Castlereagh-street, Sydney, N.S. W. Joske, Madame, c/o Mr. Otto Linden, 30 Westbury-street, St. Kilda, Melbourne, V. Kater, Hon. H. E., M.L.C., Berrima, N.S.W. Kayser, W. F., Launceston, T. Keartland, G. A., 515 Nicholson-street, Carlton, Melbourne, V. Keep, John, ‘‘ Broughton Hall,” Leichhardt, Sydney, N.S.W. Kelly, Miss Florence, Semaphore, Port Adelaide, S.A. Kelly, Rev. Dr. E. J., St. Brigid’s R.C. Church, Nicholson-street, North Fitzroy, Melbourne, V. Kelly, Rev. T. P., The Priory, South Melbourne, V. Kelly, T. H., 14 O’Connell-street, Sydney,-N.S.W. Kenny, A. L., M.B., Ch. B., 87 Collins-street, Melbourne, V. Kent, H. C., M.A., Bell’s Chambers, Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S.W. Kenyon, A. 8., 13 Erin-street, Richmond, Melbourne, V. Kenyon, Mrs. A. F., 291 Highett-street, Richmond, Melbourne, V. Kernot, Miss K., ‘‘ Firenze,” Sydney-road, Royal Park, Melbourne, V. Kernot, Miss, ‘‘ Firenze,’ Sydney-road, Parkville, V. Kernot, Prof. W. C., M.A., M.C.E., University of Melbourne, V. Kernot, W. N., B.C.E., ‘‘ Firenze,” Sydney-road, Royal Park, Melbourne, V. Kerr, J. S., Central State School, Brisbane, Q. Kershaw, James A., .F.E.S., National Museum, Public Library, Mel- bourne, V. Kiddle, H. C., F.R.M.S., Public School, Sevenoaks, Smithtown, Macleay River, N.S.W. King, Miss G., ‘* Montesea,” Beresfoad-road, Homebush, Sydney, N.S.W. King, E. M., Launceston, T. King, Hon. P. G., M.L.C., ‘* Banksia,’’ Double Bay, Sydney, N.S. W. Kitson, A. E., F.G.S., Department of Mines, Melbourne, V. Knibbs, Geo. H., F.R.A.S., L.S., Hon. Sec., Royal Society of New South Wales, Sydney, N.S.W. 398 LIST OF MEMBERS. Knight, Rupert, Karoninia, Rewa, Fiji. Knox, E. W., J.P., 5 O’Connell-street, Sydney, N.S.W. Knox, Sir Edward, ‘‘ Fiona,” Double Bay, Sydney, N.S. W. Laing, Geo., C.E., Shire Office, Donald, V. Laing, R. M., M A., Boys’ High School, Christchurch, N.Z. Laingmuir, J., David-street, Caversham, Dunedin, N.Z. Lambert, Miss A. M., M.Sc., 27 Morrah-street, Royal Park, Melbourne, V. Larking, R. J., 345 Flinders-street, Melbourne, V. Laurence, Chas. A., ‘* Dellwood,” Manly, Sydney, N.S. W. Laurence, Mrs. C A., ‘‘ Dellwood,’’ Manly, Sydney, N.S. W. Laurie, Henry, M.B., B.S., Creswick, V. Laurie, Prof. H., LL.D., University of Melbourne, V. Law, Miss Jennie C., 35 Mary-street, St. Kilda, Melbourne, V. Lawford, L. E., Inspector of Schools, Wagga, N.S. W. Leeper, Alex., M.A., LL.D., Trinity College, Melbourne, V. Le Souéf, Albert A. C., C.M.Z.8., Royal Park, Parkville, Melbourne, V. Le Souéf, W.H. D., Parkville, Royal Park, Melbourne, V. Lewis, Mrs. W. T., Sydenham-street, Moonee Ponds, Melbourne, V. Lewis, W. T. ‘‘ Dolguan,”’ Sydenham-street, Moonee Ponds, Melbourne, V. Lidgey, Ernest, 41 Burke Crescent, Geelong, V. Lidgey, Miss H. C., ‘‘ Belhaven,” Leopold-street, Box Hill, Melbourne, V. Lidgey, Mrs. E., 41 Burke Crescent, Geelong, V. Littlejohn, E. Sydney, B.A., M.D., Ch.M., 94 Darlinghurst-road, Sydney, N.S. W. Liversidge, Prof. A., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., University of Sydney, N.S. W. Lochhead, Robert, Victorian Railways, Spencer-street, Melbourne, V. Long, Chas. R., M.A.. ‘‘ Ivanhoe,”’ Lygon-street, N. Carlton, Melbourne, V. Looney, Miss Ellen T., ‘‘ Norwood,” St. Vincent-street west, Albert Park, Melbourne, V. Looney, T., 55 Greville-street, Prahran, Melbourne, V. Lord, Henry, G.T.C.A.C., Technical College, Sydney, N.S.W. Loughrey, Bernard, M.A., M.C.E., M.B., Ch.B., 1 Elgin-street, Hawthorn, Melbourne, V. Love, K. F. J.. M.A., F.R.A.S., 213 Sydney-road, Parkville, Melbourne,V. Love, Miss F, E., 213 Sydney-road, Parkville, Melbourne, V. Love, Wilton W. R., M.B., Wickham Terrace, Brisbane, Q. Lowrie, Prof. W., M.A., B.Sc., Agricultural College, Roseworthy, S.A. Lenehan, H.A., The Observatory, Sydney, N.S.W. Lucas, A. H. S., M.A., Sydney Grammar School, College-street, Sydney, N.S.W. Luehmann, J. G., F.L.S., Curator National Herbariam, Melbourne, V. Luehmann, Mrs. J. G., c/o Mr. J. G. Luehmann. Macdonald, A. C., F.R.G.S., 31 Queen-street, Melbourne, V. Macdonald, Rev. D., D.D., Efate, New Hebrides. Macdonald, Miss Margaret R., 210 Punt-road, Prahran, Melbourne, V. Macgibbon, Walter, 17 Brunswick-street, Fitzroy, Melbourne, V. Mackay, Miss J., ‘‘ Geraldine,’’ Pollington-street, St. Kilda, Melbourne, V. Maddrell, Robt., ‘‘ Bedervale,’’ Braidwood, N.S. W. Madsen, H. F., Young, N.S. W. Maiden, J. H., F.L.S., Curator Botanic Gardens, Sydney, N.S.W. Maiden, Mrs. J. H., c/o Mr. J. H. Maiden, N.S. W. Mais, H. C., M.Inst.C.E., M.I.Mech.E., M.Amer.Soc.C.E., 60 Queen- street, Melbourne, V. Mais, Miss, ‘‘ Cintra,” St. Kilda-road, Melbourne, V. Maitland, A. G., F.G.S., Government Geologist, ‘‘ Bon Accord,” 154 Hay- street east, Perth, W.A. Maitland, Claude, Box 110, Kalgoorlie, W.A. LIST OF MEMBERS. 399 Mansfield, G. Allen, F.R.1.B.A., ‘‘ Rothsay,” 39 Elizabeth Bay-road, Sydney, N.S. W. Maplestone. Chas. M., Eltham, V. Marks, P. J., 80 Victoria-street, Darlinghurst, Sydney, N.S. W. Martin, C. J., M.B., DSc , University of Melbourne, V. Martin, D. C., Secretary for Agriculture, Melbourne, V. Martin, Geo., P.M., Court House, Wagga, N.S. W. Masson, Prof. D. Orme, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., The University, Mel- bourne, V. Mathew, Rev. John, M.A., ‘‘ The Manse,”’ Coburg, Melbourne, V. Matheson, John, Commissioner for Railways, Melbourne, V. Maughen, Miss, Malvern, S.A. McAlpine, D., 22 Armadale-street, Armadale, V. McClymont, J. R., M.A., Hobart, T. McConnel, Mrs. J. H., Cresbrook, via Esk, Q. McCreery, J. V., L.R.C.S.I., Medical Superintendent, Kew Asylum, Mel- bourne, V. M‘Creery, Mrs., Asylum, Kew, V. McCutcheon, J., Royal Mint, Sydney, N.S. W. McDouall, H. C., M.R.CS., L.R.C.P., Hospital for the Insane, Glades- ville, Sydney, N.S. W. McHugh, Miss E. T., 124 Ferrars-street, South Melbourne, V. Mcllwraith, Wm., Rockhampton Bulletin, Rockhampton, Q. Melbourne, The Right Rev. the Bishop of, ‘‘Bishop’s Court,” East Melbourne, V. Merfield, C. J., Railways Construction Branch, Public Works Depart- ment, Sydney, N.S.W. Merifield, Mrs. 8., 4 Nelson-street, Woollahra, Sydney, N.S. W. Merton, T. D., Spottiswoode Refinery and Metallurgical Works, Spottis- woode, Melbourne, V. Millward, Mrs. C. E., Girton College, Bendigo, V. Milson, Jas., ‘‘ Elamang,’”’ Milson’s Point, Sydney, N.S.W. Minchin, A. C., Zoological Gardens, Adelaide, S.A. Mingaye, J. C. H., F.C.S., Department of Mines, Sydney, N.S. W. Mitchell, Mrs. 8. J., c/o Mr. S. J. Mitchell, Adelaide, S.A. Mitchell, Professor W., M.A., D.Sc., The University, Adelaide, S.A. Mitchell, R. P., c/o John Connell and Co., Bourke-street, Melbourne, V. Mitchell, S. J., Queen’s Chambers, Adelaide, 8.A. Montefiore, Miss C. l., c/o Miss Arnold, ‘‘Stradbroke,” Walker-street, North Sydney, N.S.W. Moore, Mrs. M. H., Coffee Palace, Albert Park, Melbourne, V. Moore, Professor Harrison, B.A., LL.B., University of Melbourne, V. Moors, Henry, 498 Punt Hill, South Yarra, Melbourne, V. Moors, Mrs. H., 498 Punt Hill, South Yarra, Melbourne, V. Morgan, W. J., 11 Robb-street, Moonee Ponds, Melbourne, V. Morgan, Mrs. W. J., 11 Robb-street, Moonee Ponds, Melbourne, V. Moran, His Eminence Cardinal P., St. Mary’s Cathedral, Sydney, N.S.W. Morrah, Mrs. E. B., 9 Princes-street, St. Kilda, Melbourne, V. Morrison, Miss, ‘‘ The Chestnuts,” Ipswich, Q. Morrison, Mrs. Mary D., ‘‘ The Chestnuts,” Ipswich, Q. Morris, Prof. KE E., M.A., Litt.D., University of Melbourne, V. Morton, Alexander, Curator Tasmanian Museum, Hobart, T. Morton, C. E., Rockhampton, Q. Moule, F. A., *‘ Holmwood,” Alma-road, East St. Kilda, Melbourne, V. Moule, Mrs. F. A , ‘‘ Holmwood,” Alma-road, East St. Kilda, Melbourne, V. Mowling, Geo., 14 The Avenue, Windsor, Melbourne, V. Mullens, Jos., F.R.G.S., Shaftesbury-road, Burwood, Sydney, N.S. W. Munday, John, c/o Messrs. Caird, Maxwell & Co., 18 Bridge-street, Sydney, N.S.W. 400 LIST OF MEMBERS. Muntz, Miss Edith M., Wattletree-road, Malvern, Melbourne, V. Muntz, T. B., C.E., Wattletree-road, Malvern, Melbourne, V. Murnin, Miss E., 7 Bligh-street, Sydney, N.S.W. Murray, Lee, 65 Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S.W. Myles, Chas. H., J.P., Wentworth-road, Burwood, Sydney, N.S.W. Nangle, Jas., Architect, Sydney, N.S. W. Newman, Thos. M., Peel-street, Tamworth, N.S.W. Niesche, Dr., Franklin-street, Adelaide, 8.A. Nimmo, W. H, C.E., Melbourne Club, Melbourne, V. Se sea H., A.Ph.C., H.M.C., Ashley-street, Chatswood, Sydney, .S.W. Norton, Hon. A., M.L.C., Milton, Q. Norton, Hon. Jas., LL.D., M.L.C., 2 O’Connell-street, Sydney, N.S. W. Nyulasy, F. A., M.B., Ch.B., Toorak, Melbourne, V. Oakden, Percy, A.R.I.b.A., 2 St. James’ Buildings, Melbourne, V. O’Grady, T. A., Whiteman Creek, Grafton, N.S. W. Oliver, C.E., M.Inst.C.K., M.C.E., Melbourne and Metropolitan Board of Works, The Rialto, Collins-street, Melbourne, V. Oliver, Mrs., C. E., c/o Mr. C. E. Oliver, Melbourne, V. Owen, E. T., F.S.5., Registrar of Friendly Societies, Perth, W.A. Panton, J. A., C.M.G., F.R.G.S., ‘‘Carrannya,” Kast St. Kilda, V. Parfitt, P. J., Bank of New Zealand, Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S.W. Paterson, Hugh, 197 Liverpool-street,, Hyde Park, Sydney, N.S.W. (Life Member). Paterson, Miss, Sydenham Ladies’ College, Moonee Ponds, Melbourne, V. Pearson, A. N., F.C.S., Agricultural Laboratory, 440 Lonsdale-street, Melbourne, V. Pearson, Mrs. A. N., c'o Mr. A. N. Pearson, V. Pearson, Miss E., c/o Mr. A. N. Pearson, V. Philipson, Miss Edith, Barton Terrace, North Adelaide, S.A. Phillips, Albert E., Box 396, G.P.O., Melbourne, VY. Phillips, Coleman, Featherston, Wellington, N.Z. Phillips, Edwin, 533 Collins-street, Melbourne, V. Pickells, W. E., Ph.D., F.R.G.S.E., 231 Elizabeth-street, Melbourne, V. Piguenit, W. C., ‘“‘ Kaoota,” Hunter’s Hill, Sydney, N.S.W. Piper, W. G., Editor Chemist and Druggist of Australasia, Fink’s Buildings, Elizabeth-street, Melbourne, V. Pittman, E. F., A.R.S.M., Government Geologist, Department of Mines, Sydney, N.S.W. Plummer, John Northwood, Lane Cove River, Sydney, N.S.W. Pollock, Prof. J. A., B.Sc., The University, Sydney, N.S.W.: - Pollock, Hugh, B.A., LL.B., ‘‘ Redbank,” Darling Point, Sydney, N.S. W. Poole, Miss, Rose-street, Prospect, Adelaide, S.A. Poole, W., jun., A.M.Inst.C.E., 87 Pitt-street, Redfern, Sydney, N.S. W. Potts, H. W., F.C.S., ‘‘Wickley,” Kooyong-road, Caulfield, Melbourne, V. Pound, C. J., F.R.M.C., Stock Institute, Brisbane, Q. Power, J. P. (Messrs. Sulman and Power), Wynyard-street, Sydney,N.S.W. Powys, A. O., 45 The Avenue, Kast St. Kilda, Melbourne, V. Prankerd, P. D., England Pratt, Rev. F. V., M.A., The Manse, Katoomba, N.S.W. Pritchard, G. B., Mantell-street, Moonee Ponds, Melbourne, V. Pritchard, Mrs. G. B., c/o Mr. G. B. Pritchard. Purdie, Alex., M.A., School of Mines, Perth, W.A. Purdie, Mrs. Alexander, c/o Mr. Alexander Purdie, Perth, W.A. Pye, Mrs. Ellen, Ryde, Sydney, N.S. W. LIST OF MEMBERS. 40] Rainbow, W. J., F.L.8., The Australian Museum, Sydney, N.S. W. Ralph, Miss C. M., Adelaide, S.A. Ralph, Miss J. L., Adelaide, S.A. Ralph, Mrs. B., Adelaide, S.A. Rattray, Jas., Craig Hall, Dunedin, N.Z. Rees, R. Bloomfield, Ph.C., ‘‘ Wyuna,” Dandenong-road, Armadale, V. Relton, R. H., c/o Messrs. Perkins & Co., Queen-street, Brisbane, Q. Rennie, Professor E. H. MUA. Des The University, Adelaide, es Richardson, R. P., Drummoy ne, Sydney, N.S.W. Roberts, W. 8. de L., ‘‘ Kenilworth,” Penshurst, Sydney, N.S.W. Zobinson, Gerald H., Ardmona, V. Xobinson, Gresham, Carlton College, Royal Park, Melbourne, V. Rodway, iL Hobart, A Roe, Reginald H., M.A:, Grammar School, Brisbane, Q. Rogers, Robt. S., Premier’s Office, Treasury Gardens, Melbourne, V. Rosales, Henry, 34 Grandview-grove, Armadale, Melbourne, V. Rosales, Mrs. H., c/o Mr. Rosales, Melbourne, V. Ross, H. E., B. Se. , Equitable Buildings, 350 George- street, Sydney,N. S.W. Ross, W. J. Chunies' B.Sc., Technical College, Bathurst, N. S.W. Roth, Dr. Reuter E., 65 Darlinghurst-road, “Sydney, N.S.W. Roth, Walter E., M.R.C. wage Ah Cooktown, Q. Rougier, Dr. Emile, Rose Bay, Sy dney, N.S. W. Rusden, H. K., ‘‘ Ockley,” Bay-street, Brighton, V. Russell, H. C., B.A., C.M.G., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Government Astronomer, The Observatory, Sydney, N.S.W. Russell, Mrs. H., The Observatory, Sydney, N.S. W. Sach, A. J., F.C.S., Technical College, Goulburn, N.S. W. Sach, Mrs. A. J., Copford Farm, Kenmore, Goulburn, N.S. W. Sargood, The Hon. Sir Fredk., M.L.C., ‘‘ Rippon Lea,” Hotham-street, Elsternwick, Melbourne, V. Satchell, E. K., M.R.C.S., 261 Elizabeth-street, Hyde Park, Sydney, N.S. W. Saunders, J. H., M.R.C.S.; M.B., Box 92 G.P.O., Perth, W.A. Saunders, J. H., M.B., B.S., Box 92, Perth, W.A. Sayce, O. A., 83 Harcourt-street, Hawthorn, Melbourne, V. Schofield, J. ve ARS LM. EC. 8., The University, Sy dney, N.S. W. Schofield, Mrs. a A., c/o Mr. J. A. Schofield, Sydney, N. St Ww Scott, Miss Rose, ** Ly nton,” 242 Point Piper- -road, Paddington, Sydney, N.S. W. Scott, P. R., 440 Lonsdale-street, Melbourne, V. Selby, J. W., 99 Queen-street, Melbourne, V. Sells, Miss Marian, Advanced School for Girls, Adelaide, S.A. Selway, Miss C., c/o W. H. Selway, Treasury, Adelaide, S.A. Selway, W. H., Treasury, Adelaide, S.A. Sharkey, N. J., Architect and Surveyor, Esperance, W.A. Shaw, P. W., A.M.Inst.C.E., 189 Macquarie-street, N. Sydney, N.S. W. Shellshear, Wi , A.M. Inst.C. B., Goulburn, N.S. W Shephard, Sohn, 135 City “road, South Melbourne, ie Shephard, Mrs. J., 135 City-road, South Melbourne, Vv: Shillinglaw, Godfrey V., ‘‘ Tarawangani,” Canterbury-road, Camberwell, ° Melbourne, V. Shillinglaw, Harry W., ‘‘ Umina,” Park-street, Middle Brighton, V. Shirley, John, B.Sc., stuck Inspector of Schools, ‘‘ Ranelagh,” Cordelia- street, South Brisbane, Q. Shorter, J., 193 Clarence-street, Sydney, N.S. W. Simpson, D. Ae: eeasont street, Oakleigh, Melbourne, V. Simpson, E. S., Geological Department, Perth, W.A. BB 402 LIST OF MEMBERS. Simpson, Hon, A. M., M.L.C., Paiainent House, Adelaide, S.A. Sip Member). Simson, Aug., Launceston, T. Simson, Miss, ‘‘ Trawalla,” Toorak, Melbourne, V. Simson, Mrs. John, ‘‘ Trawalla,” Toorak, Melbourne, V. Smeaton, S., Engineer-in-Chief’s Office, Victoria-square, Adelaide, S.A. Smith, B. Ass _M. C.E., 352 Collins-street, Melbourne, V. Smith, Col. 8. C., R. A. , Victoria Barracks, Sydney, N.S. W. Smith, J. Ns 15 Collins- -place, Melbourne, V. Smith, J. E., 19 Park-street, South Yarra, Melbourne, V. Smith, J. MG.. Denison-street, Woollahra, Sydney, N.S.W. Smith, Miss Jessie Knox, c/o Professor A. Mica Smith, School of Mines, Ballarat, V. Smith, Mrs R. Greig, c/o Mr. R. Greig Smith, N.S.W. Smith, Professor A. Mica, B.Sc., School of Mines, Ballarat, V. Smith, R. Greig, M.Sc., Linnean Society’s House, Elizabeth Bay, Sydney, Spencer, Prof. Baldwin, M.A., University of Melbourne, V. Springthorpe, J. W., M.D., M.A., Collins-street, Melbourne, V. Statham, E. J., ‘‘ Athol,”’ Beaconsfield-street, Rockdale, N.S.W. Steane, G. R. Bowen, C.E., Cunningham-street, Northcote, Melbourne, V. Steane, Miss N., 87 Cunningham-street, Northcote, Melbourne, V. Steane, Mrs. G. R. B., 87 Cunningham-street, Northcote, Melbourne, V. Steane, 8. A., Government Surveyor, Hay, N.S.W. (Life Member.) Stephen, His Hon. Judge W. H., Supreme Court, Sydney, N.S. W. Stephenson, A. R., Orrong-road, Caulfield, Melbourne, V. Stephenson, Stuart, Prince Albert College, Auckland, N.Z. Stirling, Dr. E. C., Adelaide, S.A. Stirling, James, Department of Mines, Melbourne, V. Stirling, Mrs. James, c/o Mr. J. Stirling, V. Stone, Wm., 48 Alma-road, St. Kilda, Melbourne, V. Stone, Wm., “‘ ie Trafalgar-road, Camberwell, Melbourne, V. Sugden, Miss M., Queen’s College, University of Melbourne, V. Sugden, Mrs. E. 17 OR Queen’s College, University of Melbourne, V. Sugden, Rev. E. H., M.A., B.Sc., Queen’s College, University of Mel- bourne, V. Sulman, John, F.R.I.B.A., Wynyard-street, Sydney, N.S.W. Summons, H., Stawell-street, Kew, V. Sutherland, Alexander, M.A., 14 Dalgety-street, St. Kilda, V. Sutherland, C., ‘‘ Caithness,’? Maribyrnong-road, Moonee Ponds, Mel- bourne, V. Sutherland, Mrs. G., 2 Stawell-street, Kew, Melbourne, V. Sutherland, W., M.A., 2 Stawell-street, Kew, Melbourne, V. Sutton, J. W., ‘* Lindeera,” Chelmer, Q. Sweet, Geo., F.G.S., ‘‘ The Close,” Brunswick, Melbourne, V. Sweet, Miss G., M.Sc.. ‘* The Close,”’ Brunswick, Melbourne, V. Swinburne, Geo., 99 Queen-street, Melbourne, V. Swynny, Wks, B. A., Grammar School, Deniliquin, NES AW. Syme, G. A., M. B:, M. S?; F.BR: Gas. 82 Collins-street, Melbourne, V. Tate, F., M.A., Training College, Grattan-street, Carlton, Melbourne, V. Tate, Miss, c/o Professor Tate, University, Adelaide, 8. A. Tate, Mrs., c/o Professor Tate, University, Adelaide, S.A. Tate, Professor Ralph, F.G.8., F.L.8., The University, Adelaide, S.A. Tayler, Lloyd, F.R.I.B.A., F.R.V.I.A., 420 Chancery-lane, Melbourne, V. Taylor, James, B.Sc., F.C.S., A.R.S.M., ‘‘ Blaen Crai,” Dundas, Sydney, N.S.W. (Life Member). Taylor, Miss E. I., M.A., Railway-parade, Kogarah, Sydney, N.S. W. Teece, Mrs. R., ‘ Tauranga, ”” Wolseley-road, W oollahra, Sydney, N.S.W. LIST OF MEMBERS. 403 Teece, R., F.I.A., F.F.A., F.S.S., 87 Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S. W. Tepper, J. G. O., The Museum, Adelaide, S.A. Thiele, H. H., Colonial Sugar Co.’s Nansori Mill, Fiji. Thodey, Alan, c/o ‘‘ The Argus,” Melbourne, V. Thomas, H., Pharmaceutical Chemist, Croydon, Q. Thomas, Prof. A. P., F.L.S., University College, Auckland, N.Z. Thomas, W., M.D., 57 Colombo-street, Christchurch, N.Z. Thomas, W. M., District Survey Office, Dubbo, N.S. W. Thomson, Dugald, M.L.A., Box 116, G.P.O., Sydney, N.S. W. Thomson, George M., F.L.S., Newington, Dunedin, N.Z. Thomson, J., ‘‘ Closeburn,’’ 291 Dandenong-road, Prahran, Melbourne, V. Thomson, Miss Frances, | Hampden-road, Armadale, V. Thomson, Mrs. J., ‘‘ Closeburn,” 291 Dandenong-rd., Prahran, Melb., V. Thomson, R., 1 Hampden-road, Armadale, Melbourne, V. Thornber, Miss C. M., Unley Park School, Unley Park, Adelaide, S.A. Thornber, Miss Daisy, Unley Park School, Unley Park, Adelaide, 8.A. Thornber, Miss Ellen, Unley Park School, Unley Park, Adelaide, S.A. Thornber, Miss Mary, 47 Riversdale-road, Hawthorn, V. Thow, Wm., ‘‘ Ascot,’? Dutruc-street, Randwick, Sydney, N.S.W. Threlfall, Professor R., M.A., Edgbaston, Birmingham, England.. Thwaites, W., M.A., M.Inst.C.E., Engineer-in-Chief, Metropolitan Board of Works, Melbourne, V. Tidswell, F., M.B., Ch.M., D.P.H., Board of Health Offices, Macquarie- street, Sydney, N.S. W. Tietkens, W. H., F.R.G.S., Post Office, Forbes, N.S.W. Tilly, Miss F. M., Adelaide, S.A. ’ Tilly, Miss L. A., Adelaide, S.A. Tisdall, H. F., 7 Washington-street, Toorak, Melbourne, V. Tisdall, Henry T., 7 Washington-street, Toorak, Melbourne, V. Tobin, A. E., Barkly-street, Ararat, V. Topp, C. A., M.A., LL.B., Observatory Quarters, South Yarra, Mel- bourne, V. Touch, J. E , The Morton-Pringle Gas-heating Co. Ltd., Moorgate Court, Moorgate-street, London, E.C. Trail, Miss E. M., Sandringham, Melbourne, V. Traquair, G. E., Quabochoo, Quambone, N.S.W. Tulloch, Lindsay, Launceston, T. Turnbull, Mrs. Thos., Wellington, N.Z. Turnbull, Thos., Wellington, N.Z. Turner, Basil W., A.R.S.M., Lecturer in Metallurgy, The University, Sydney, N.S.W. Turner, Fred., F.L.S., F.R.Hist.S., The Zown and Country Journal, Sydney, N.S. W. Twynam, E., ‘‘Como,” Pott’s Point, Sydney, N.S.W. Uhr, Chas. I. K., Barristers’ Court, Sydney, N.S.W. Vickery, Hon. E., M.L.C., ‘‘ Edina,” Cowper-street, Waverley, Sydney, N.S.W. Waite, E. R., F.L.8., The Australian Museum, Sydney, N.S.W. Walcott, H. R., F.G.S., Public Library, Swanston-street, Melbourne, V. Walker, J. T., Waltham Buildings, Bond-street, Sydney, N.S.W. (Life Member). Walker, Mrs. Wm., ‘‘ Manitou,’’ Lansdowne-crescent, Hobart, T. Walker, Robt., F.R.G.S., F.R.Hist.S., F.S.A., ‘‘ Fairholme,’? Camber- well, Melbourne, V. Walker, W., Victorian Railways Offices, Spencer-street, Melbourne, V. Walker, Wm., ‘‘ Manitou,’’ Lansdowne-crescent, Hobart, T. BB2 404 * LIST OF MEMBERS. Walters, 8., Engineer-in-Chief’s Office, Victoria-square, Adelaide, S.A. Walton, T. U., B.Sc., F.I.C., F.C.S., Colonial Sugar Co. Ltd., O’Connell street, Sydney, N.S W. Ward, J. W., 1 Union-lane, George-street, Sydney, N.S. W. Wark, W., A.M.Inst.C.E., The Ridge, Kurrajong Heights, N.S.W. Warren, John, Block 1, Broken Hill, N.S. W. Wasley, Mrs. J. 8., ‘‘ Wendouree,” Fairholme-grove, Camberwell, Mel- bourne, V. . Watson, Hon. J., M.L.C - *slanworth,”’ Darling Point, Sydney, N.S.W. Watson, John, ‘‘ Malver. stouse,’’ Brunswick-road East, Melbourne, V. Watson, Miss, ‘‘ Malvern House,” Brunswick-road East, Melbourne, V. Watson, Mrs. J., ‘*‘ Malvern House,’’ Brunswick-road East, Melbourne, V. Watt, Walter C., J.P., 1 Bent-street, Sydney, N.S. W. Webster, John, Hokianga, N.Z. Weekes, Miss Alice, 7 Washington-street, Toorak, Melbourne, V. Weekes, Miss Clara, ‘‘ Lock House,” Williams-road, Toorak, Melbourne, V. Weekes, Miss Edith, ‘‘ Lock House,” Williams-road, Toorak, Melbourne, V. Weetman, Sidney, Commissioner of Crown Lands, Christchurch, N.Z. Welch, William, Palmerston North, Wellington, N.Z. White, E. J., F.R.A.S., Observatory House, South Yarra, Melbourne, V. White, Miss E. A., Observatory House, South Yarra, Melbourne, V. White, Miss H. F. M., Observatory House, South Yarra, Melbourne, V. White, Miss R. E. J., Observatory House, South Yarra, Melbourne, V. White, Mrs. EK. J., Observatory House, South Yarra, Melbourne, V. White, Rev. J. S., M.A., LL.D., Sinvleton, N.S. W. Whyte, Miss, Presbyterian Ladies’ College, Concord, Sydney, N.S. W. Wiesener, T. F , 334 George-street, Svdney, N.S.W. Wilkinson, W. P., 360 Swanston street, Melbourne, Y. Wilkinson, Wm. Cleland, South Preston, V. Willsallen, T. P., ‘‘Gunnible,’’ Gunnedah, N.S.W. Wilson, Miss, Park Terrace, Royal Park, Melbourne, V. Wilson, Miss, 51 Holden-street, Ashfield, Sydney, N.S.W. Wilson, Mrs. J. B, Park Terrace, Royal Park, Melbourne, V. Wilson, Prof. J. T., M.B., Ch.M., The University, Sydney, N.S.W. Wilson, Wm., Nansori Mill, Fiji. Winnecke, Chas., L.S., Eagle Chambers, Pirie-street, Adelaide, 8. A. Wisewould, Frank, 93 William-street, Melbourne, V. Wolskel, A. ‘*‘ Ingleside,” Glenferrie-road, Kew, Melbourne, V. Wood, P. Moore, ‘‘ Redcliffe,’ Liverpool-road, Ashfield, Sydney, N.S.W. Woodroffe, T. H., Chief Mechanical Engineer, Victorian Railways Depart- ment, Melbourne, V. Woolnough, W. G., B.Sc., Brooklyn-street, Burwood, Sydney, N.S.W. Woolrych, F. B. W., ‘‘ Verner.” Grosvenor-street, Croydon, Sydney,N.S. W. Wright, A. J., F.R.G.S., F.R.Col Inst., ‘‘ Orchardton,” Mathoura-road, Toorak, Melbourne, V. Wright, Frederick, Old Exchange, Pirie-street, Adelaide, S.A. Wrixon, The Hon. Sir H. J., K.C.M.G., M.A., ‘‘ Raheen,” Studley Park- road, Kew, Melbourne, V. Wyatt, W. F., St. Paul’s Cathedral Buildings, Melbourne, V. Yeates, H., 298 Little Collins-street, Melbourne, V. Young, J. A., Adelaide, S.A. Young, Mrs. L. M., Dendam-road, Tyabb, V. McCarron, Bird and Co., Printers, 479 Collins-street, Melbourne. fy rte ye a Se ae. ad ae eet oe. ares) Mar eiy et =i Senditoead> esses ee aa een AAT ms Wee ito . Sy var =e weer oe wy Sex oe —— a? Peek oder na wae Raat 3 5 Pw & ~ : Sea Se % “2 ’ ef. . ne gar : ; I Rie ee EUR LT REN Taket aor on Se Fie SRO y AR ea PA Ne AL eta Paid EBoved x pars in AM wae” Veen Cana hdd ae ee et Sh YI oe tN r et endl