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U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
BUREAU OF ENTOMOLOGY—-BULLETIN No. 70.
L.O. HOWARD, Entomologist and Chief of Bureau.
REPORT OF THE MEETING
OF
INSPECTORS OF APIARIES,
SAN ANTONIO, TEX., NOVEMBER 12, 1906.
ISSUED JUNE 17, 1907.
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WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
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BUREAU OF ENTOMOLOGY.
L. O. Howarpb, Entomologist and Chief of Bureau.
C. L. Maruatr, Entomologist and Acting Chief in absence of Chief.
R. S. Cuirton, Chief Clerk. ©
F. H. CHITTENDEN, in charge of breeding experiments.
A. D. HOPKINS, in charge of forest insect investigations.
W. D. HUNTER, in charge of cotton boll weevil investigations.
F. M. WEBSTER, in Charge of cereal and forage-plant insect investigations.
A. L. QUAINTANCE, in charge of deciduous-fruit insect investigations.
D. M. RoGers, in charge of gipsy and brown-tail moth work.
A. W. Morricy, engaged in white fly investigations.
Kh. S. G. Titus, in charge of gipsy moth laboratory.
Cord GILLIss, engaged in silk investigations.
R. P. Currtiz, assistant in charge of editorial work. E
MABEL CoLcorp, librarian.
APICULTURAL INVESTIGATIONS.
F. PHILLIpes, in charge.
Fr. Waiter, erpert in bacteriology.
M. RANKIN, in charge of apicultural station, Chico, Cal.
G. Fox, assistant in apiary.
N. Gates, collaborator, Worcester, Mass.
JESSIE KE. MARKS, apicultural clerk.
2
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.
U.S. DrerartMENT oF AGRICULTURE.
Bureau or Enromonocy.
Washington, D. C., March 18, 1907.
Sir: I have the honor to transmit the manuscript of the proceed-
ings of a meeting of inspectors of apiaries held in San Antonio, Tex.,
ss
oe
November 12, 1906. The meeting together and conference of the per-
sons interested in the eradication of the diseases which are such a
drawback to apiculture can not fail to bring out many points of
importance. In such a meeting the subject is presented in a way
which is not possible in articles written for journals devoted to bee
keeping or for publication in other forms. There is no organization
of inspectors and no funds are available by which these proceedings
may be published, and since this meeting was to a large extent the
result of the efforts of members of the Bureau of Entomology, and
since these men took such an active part in the meeting, it would seen
fitting that the proceedings be issued as a publication of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture. I therefore recommend that this manuscript
be published as Bulletin No. 70 of this Bureau.
Respectfully,
: L. O. Howarp,
Entomologist and Chief of Bureau.
Hon. James Witson,
Secretary of Agriculture.
PREPAGE:
The meeting of inspectors of apiaries was held on the Monday fol-
lowing the close of the National Bee Keepers’ Association convention.
November 12, 1906, at San Antonio, Tex., as a result of a call issued
by Mr. N. E. France, inspector of apiaries for Wisconsin, Mr. W. Z.
Hutchinson, inspector of apiaries for Michigan, and the writer.
The object of this meeting was to get together for consultation the
men interested in the eradication and control of bee diseases. The
closer cooperation of these men in their work can result only in good
to apiculture and is greatly to be desired. Inspectors are chosen
from among the practical bee men of the county or State, and the
majority of them are familiar with their work on entering the service.
They also accumulate a vast amount of information concerning dis-
eases, most of which never reaches the bee journals or gains publicity
in any way.
BACTERIOLOGY OF BEE DISEASES. La
hese ipinnis: then, constitute an invisible flora, which we can see only:
by the use of a microscope of very high magnifying power. The
_ morphology, or the structure, including form and size, is principally
_ of two types, rod-shaped or cylindrical and round or spherical. The
size of bacteria varies. Those which are rod-shaped usually measure
from 1 to 3-6 microns in length and from one-half to 1 micron in
diameter. A micron is the unit of measure for very small objects
and is equivalent to 95499 of an inch. For example, if a single bac-
terium of the rod form measures 2 microns, it would take 12.500
placed end to end to measure 1 inch in length. The spherical bacteria
or cocci have about the same diameter as the rod-shaped ones.
Bacteria grow or multiply after a manner called fission; that is,
after increasing in size they become constricted in the middle, which
constriction finally severs the rod completely, and we then have two
_ bacteria where there was but one before. Under favorable conditions
for growth, each bacterium divides by fission every twenty minutes,
or, in other words, gives rise to three generations in one hour. Such
being their marvelous rate of increase, a little calculation will demon-
strate that countless millions may be formed in a short time under
favorable conditions, which are proper temperature, moisture, food
in correct proportions, and the absence of much light. The tempera-
ture most favorable for the growth of a species of bacteria which is
able to produce a diseased condition in animals is approximately the
temperature of the animal which is affected by such species. Mois-
ture is universally necessary. The food must not be too concentrated.
Light inhibits the growth of bacteria. Direct sunlight is bacteri-
cidal; that is, it kills bacteria.
Many species produce spores when the conditions are not favorable
for the multiplication of bacteria. These are small bodies formed in
the bacteria (probably never more than one in a single bacterium)
which are somewhat comparable to the grain in wheat and corn.
These spores constitute a resting stage and usually also a very resist-
ant stage, for high temperature and strong disinfectant solutions are
necessary to kill them. It is these spores which probably make the
control of the bee diseases more difficult. When the spores again gain
access to a suitable “ soil,” for example, the body of an animal, they
germinate and a new growth takes place as before.
Many species of bacteria have the power to move when they are in
a liquid medium, while others do not. This ability to move is due to
long, slender processes, which we call flagella, extending from the
body of the bacterium.
THE DISTRIBUTION OF BACTERIA.
Bacteria are very widely distributed. Everyone is familiar with
the very wide distribution of the higher members of the plant king-
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12 MEETING OF INSPECTORS OF APIARIES.
dom, as the trees, shrubs, flowers, and grasses, and we may for con-
venience refer to these plants as the visible flora. There is also an
invisible flora, made up of the plants we can not see except with the
aid of the miscrope. ‘This flora includes the very minute plants
referred to as bacteria, and also the yeasts and some fungi. The dis-
tinct species of plants which belong to the invisible flora outnumber
by far those which are visible to the naked eye. These microscopic
plants are found upon the surface of the animal body and along the
digestive tract; they are found in the soil, in the food we eat, and in
the water and milk we drink, but are not found within the normal
tissues of animals and higher plants.
HOW BACTERIA ARE STUDIED.
The morphology or structure of bacteria is studied with the aid of
a microscope of high magnification. Since the number of distinct
species of bacteria is so extremely large, and since the shapes assumed
by them are so few, it is obvious that many different kinds must look
alike under the microscope. This is a pomt of considerable value in
connection with bee-disease work, since in some cases attempts have
been made by the use of the microscope alone to determine what
species of bacteria was causing certain diseased conditions. With
our present knowledge it is not possible to make a positive diagnosis
of these diseases with the microscope alone. With the microscope we
are able to determine usually only the genus to which any bacterium
belongs. If we are trying to identify Bacillus alvei, for example, we
are able with the microscope alone to say only that it is a Bacillus,
since it is seen to be a straight rod. Some other means is necessary to
determine the species (a/vez) to which it belongs. For this purpose
we use artificial media or “* soils” in which pure cultures of the bac-
teria are inoculated or planted.
The media in common use are bouillon and sugar-free bouillon.
gelatin, agar, and sugar-free bouillon to which has been added small
amounts of various sugars known in chemistry as glucose, lactose,
saccharose, maltose, and levulose. In addition to these media, use is
made of potato, milk, and milk to which litmus has been added, so
that the reaction—whether acid, alkaline, or neutral—may be noted.
The bouillon is prepared trom beef juice to which some peptone and
salt are added. Sugar-free bouillon is similar, except that the muscle
sugar has been removed. Gelatin is made from pure sheets of gel-
atin somewhat similar to that used in cooking, to which bouillon is
added. The bouillon affords the food for the bacteria or other small
plants, while the gelatin keeps the medium solid at ordinary tempera-
tures. Agar-agar (or simply agar) is the dried stem of a certain sea-
weed which lquefies on heating; to this is added bouillon, as in the
THE BACTERIOLOGY OF BEE DISEASES. 13
case of gelatin, which solution congeals, as does gelatin, on cooling.
The milk used is cow’s milk with the butter-fat removed. Before
using, all these media are sterilized by heat to kill all bacteria or fungi
which might be present.
Having prepared these soils in this way, before the inoculation of
them the bacteria must be obtained in pure culture. By pure culture
is meant the growth of one species only in a medium. Such a cul-
ture is obtained by diluting a small quantity of the material, e. &.,
decayed larvee, containing the bacteria with a relatively large amount
of liquefied agar, and then pouring it into a shallow sterile glass
box (Petri dish). In this way we get only a few bacteria scat-
tered throughout a thin layer of the medium. Each bacterium then
begins to grow, and after a few hours it has produced a large num-
ber, which, being massed together, we are able to see with the naked
eye. This mass of bacteria, having been produced from one individ-
ual, constitutes a colony, and such a colony can contain but one spe-
cies, therefore we speak of it as pure. Pure cultures are then made
by inoculations from such a colony. The next step is to identfy this
species which we now have isolated from all other species. To do
this we inoculate a few or all of the differential media mentioned
above. After inoculating and growing the bacteria in these different
media or soils at about the body temperature for a day or longer we
observe the effect upon the various media produced by the growth of
the bacteria and the appearance of the growth in or upon these media.
All these phenomena and appearances we speak of as cultural char-
acters. Having obtained in this way the cultural characters of a spe-
cies of bacteria, we are able to classify it by comparing these cultural
characters with the cultural characters of known species.
To illustrate this, let us take for example Bacillus coli communis,
found normally in the intestine of man and many animals, including
the intestine of the adult bee, Bacillus alvei, found in European
foul brood, and Bacillus larve, found in American foul brood.
Bacillus coli communis by its growth in bouillon causes the latter to
become heavily clouded; Bacillus alvei makes it feebly clouded;
while Bacillus larvew does not grow at all in this soil and the bouillon
remains clear. In gelatin Bacillus coli communis grows very well
and does not liquefy the medium by its growth; Bacillus alvei grows
very slowly and only feebly and liquefies the gelatin; while Bacillus
larve does not grow at all in this medium. When Bacillus coli com-
munis is planted on potato it produces a brownish growth; Bacillus
alvei on this medium produces a lemon-yellow growth, and Bacil-
lus larvew fails to show any growth. When Bacillus coli communis
is planted in milk there follows a rapid souring of the milk and a
firm coagulation of the casein; Bacillus alvei produces a soft coagu-
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14 MEETING OF INSPECTORS OF “APIARIES.. ibe
aa +
lum which is followed by a slow digestion or liquefaction of the
casein; Bacillus larve does not grow in milk. In litmus milk, —
Bacillus coli communis produces a large amount of acid, which is
indicated by the change of the litmus to the red color; Bacillus alvei
produces no marked change in reaction, and Bacillus larve does
not grow in this medium. In the bouillons to which the sugars,
glucose, lactose, saccharose, etc., have been added, there is produced
by the growth of Bacillus coli communis, gas, and a large amount of
acid; Bacillus alvei does not produce gas and only a small amount
of acid by its growth in the media containing SHEA while Bacillus
larve does not grow when planted in fies “sous:” 509 oshatt
speak later of a medium upon which Bacillus larvw will grow.)
It is by these differences which we observe in the growth upon the
rarious media and the effect produced upon the different media by
the growth of the bacteria that we are able to determine one species
of bacteria from another.
THE RESULTS OF THE ACTIVITY CF BACTERIA.
In the consideration of this question it is convenient to divide the
bacterial flora into two groups—nonpathogenic, or those which do not
produce disease, and pathogenic, or those which do produce disease.
Some of the nonpathogenic bacteria are economically very important
as scavengers. The bodies of dead animals and plants are largely
brought to decay by them. The flavors of butter, cheese, and wines
are thought to be improved by the growth of bacteria or other micro-
organisms—the fungi and the yeasts. Others of these micro-organ-
isms ruin the food, causing the souring of milk, the spoiling of fruit,
etc. Many diseases in man and animals are known, to be caused by
bacteria, as tuberculosis, diphtheria, glanders, and anthrax.
I wish now to speak briefly of how bacteriology has been used in
the study of bee diseases, and to summarize the results which have
been obtained. For a more detailed account you are referred to a
bulletin issued by the Bureau of Entomology of the United States
Department of Agriculture—Technical Series, No. 14, * The Bacteria
of the Apiary, with Special Reference to Bee Diseases,” issued
November 6, 1906.
From what has been said one would naturally infer that in every
aplary, whether diseased or not, there are en the hives, combs, and
bees a large number of bacteria that are perfectly harmless. If one
is trying to find in a diseased apiary the species of bacteria which is
the probable cause of the trouble, what is the method of procedure ?
Suppose there were two herds of cattle on adjoining farms and the
cattle on one farm were dying while those on the other remained well.
If it were suspected that some plant which the cattle were eating wasthe
THE BACTERIOLOGY OF BEE DISEASES. 15
‘eause of death, naturally the plant would be selected which wa«
found on the farm where the animals were sick and which was not
found on the farm where the animals remained well. This is
exactly the kind of reasoning used when we are looking for the
bacteria which are causing the diseases among bees. This neces-
; sitates, as you see, the study of all the bacteria which are present in
; any aplary, whether diseased or not, as well as those in diseased
_ aplaries.
At the time we began the work on bee diseases, in June, 1902, the
disorders which were ‘ausing the greatest trouble were known to
bee keepers as black brood, foul brood, pickle brood, and paralysis.
After the study of a large number of samples of brood affected by
disease which was being called black brood and the finding of
Bacillus alvet in all of them, it is very clear that this disease is
the same as that investigated by Cheyne in 1885 and called by him
“foul brood;” he first described Bacillus alvei. * Black brood” was
a name given by Dr. William R. Howard, of Fort Worth, Tex., to a
disease which he thought existed in New York State, and he described
as its cause Bacillus milii. After a careful search in New York State
for a disease containing Bacillus milii we were unable to find it, and
there seems to be no ground for the description of a new disease.
What has been called black brood by Doctor Howard is obviously the
type of foul brood which we now distinguish as European foul brood.
In the decaying larve and dried scales found in the cells in the
disease which was receiving the name of foul brood there were seen
by the use of the microscope a very large number of the spores of bac-
teria, and in the larve in the early stage of the disease there were
observed bacteria in the rod form. When these spores were planted
upon the media or soils which have been explained earlier in this
paper, they would not grow. It became necessary, then, to devise a
soil in which the growth could be obtained. After a number of un-
successful attempts, a medium or soil was made from healthy bee
larve in which the spores would germinate and the bacteria would
grow. By astudy of this species, which was found in the dead larve
of this disease and: which was not found in the healthy apiary, it was
evident that it was not Bacillus alvei, and, since Bacillus alvei is not
present at all, we know that this disease is not the foul brood which
Cheyne had reported in his work in 1885. Since it is not this type of
foul brood, what could it be? By carefully reviewing all the work
which had been done by others, the conclusion was inevitable that this
diseased condition had not been described properly from a bacterial
standpoint as a disease separate and distinct from the foul brood of
Cheyne, but that the mistake had been made for a long time of calling
_
«
two different and distinct diseases which affected the brood of bee:
by one name. This condition was reported to the New York State
Be oe | Se Bed ee wih tere tas
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16 MEETING OF INSPECTORS OF APIARIES.
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department of agriculture in a report to that department made in
January, 1903, and another in January, 1904. In the latter report
this condition, for want of definite information, was referred to as
*X brood” and the bacillus as Bacillus XY. At the suggestion of
Dr. E. F. Phillips, of the Bureau of Entomology, United States
Department of Agriculture, it was thought best for very good rea-
sons to retain the neme foul brood in the name of each disease and
add a qualifying word to designate the difference between the two _
diseases. “ European ” is added to foul brood to designate the disease
which Cheyne studied in England (Europe) in 1885, and “American ”
is added to the foul brood which was first studied in the United States |
(America). We distinguish, then, European foul brood and Ameri-
can foul brood. Both of these diseases of the brood of bees seem to
be found in Europe as well as America. It must therefore be remem-
bered that these names do not put any stigma on either country.
Europe or America, but, on the contrary, Europe is thereby given
the credit of having first studied the European foul brood and
America for having first studied American foul brood.
In a study of the so-called * pickle brood ~ we are unable to sug-
gest from a bacteriological standpoint any cause for the disease. A
study has been made of the bacteria found upon the healthy adult bee
and those found in the intestine and also the bacteria found upon and
within the adult bees suffering with palsy or paralysis, but so far no
suggestion can be made from a bacteriological standpoint as to the
cause of this disorder of the adult bee. =
To conclude, I shall read, with your permission, the summary of
the work reported in the bulletin referred to above.¢
SUMMARY TO PART I.
The results of the study of the bacteria found normally in the apiary may be
briefly summarized as follows:
(1) The temperature of the hive approximates that of warm-blooded animals.
(2) Upon adult bees and upon the comb there occurs quite constantly a species
of bacteria which we refer to in this »aper as Bacillus A, and which, it is
helieved, is the organism that some workers have confused with Bacillus alvei
which is universally present in Eurepean foul broad. :
(3) There cecurs very constantly in the pollen and intestine of adult bees a
species here referred to as Bacillus B.
(4) From the combs Bacterium cyaneus, Saccharomyces roseus, and a Micro-
coccus referred to here as JWicrococeus C, have been isolated and studied.
(5) Honey from a healthy hive is, as a rule, sterile.
(6) The normal larve are, as a rule. sterile.
(7) There is an anaérobe found quite constantly in the intestine of the
healthy honey bee. It is referred to in this paper as Bacterium D.
(S) From the intestine there have been isolated and studied the following
micro-organisms: PBeacillus cloace., Racillus coli communis. Bacillus cholera suis.
a'Technical Series, No. 14, Bur. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agric.
a, ie. ; .
_ THE BACTERIOLOGY OF BEE DISEASES. 17
+
an 1 two referred to as Bacillus EB, and Saccharomyces F. Others less frequently
present have been isolated, but not studied.
(9) In two samples of brood with unknown disease there was found a species
of yeast plant here referred to as Saccharomyces G.
SUMMARY TO PART II.
Following is a brief summary of the results of the present investigation of bee
_ diseases :
(1) There are a number of diseased conditions which affect the apiary.
(2) The disease which seems to cause the most rapid loss to the apiarist is
- Buropean foul brood, in which is found Bacillus alvei—tirst isolated, studied,
and named by Cheshire and Cheyne in 1885.
(3) The distribution of Bacillus alvei in the infected hive is as follows:
(a) The greatest number of infecting germs are found in the bodies of dead
> jarve. '
: (b) The pollen stored in the cells of the foui-brood combs contains many of
these infecting organisms.
(c) The honey stored in brood combs infected with this disease has been
found to contain a few bacilli of this species.
(d) The surface of combs, frames, and hives may be contaminated.
(e) The wings, head, legs, thorax, abdomen, and intestinal contents of adult
bees were found to be contaminated with Bacillus alvei.
(f) Bacillus alvei may appear in cultures made from the ovary of queens
from European foul-brood colonies, but the presence of this species suggests
contamination from the body of the queen while the cultures are being made
and has no special significance.
. (4) The disease which seems to be most widespread in the United States we
~ have called American foul brood, and the organism which has been found con-
- stantly present in the disease we have called Bacillus larvae. This disorder
was thought by many in this country and other countries as well to be the foul
brood described by Cheshire and Cheyne, but such is not the case.
(5) From the nature of American foul brood it is thought that the organism
has a similar distribution to that of Bacillus alvei.
(6) It appears that European foul brood was erroneously called “ New York
bee disease ” or “ black brood” by Dr. William R. Howard in 1900.
(7) There is a diseased condition affecting the brood of bees which is being
called by the bee keepers “ pickle brood.” No conclusion can be drawn from
the investigation so far as to the cause of the disease.
(8) Aspergillus pollinis, ascribed by Dr. William R. Howard as the cause of
pickle brood, has not been found in this investigation and is not believed by the
author to have any etiological relation to the so-called “pickle brood.”
(9) Palsy or paralysis is a diseased condition of the adult bees. No con-
clusion can yet be drawn as to its cause.
(10) Formaldehyde gas as ordinarily used in the apiaries is insuflicient to
insure complete disinfection,
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CONCLUSIONS.
In a paragraph the author wishes, if possible, to present the status of the bee
‘black brood”
‘
diseases in this country. It should be remembered, firstly, that
“an now be dropped from our vocabulary, and probably does not exist ;-secondly,
ihat the term “ foul brood” was being applied to two distinct diseases. One of
these diseases we now refer to as European foul brood, because it first received
30547—No. 70—07 M
2
18 MEETING OF INSPECTORS OF APIARIES.
a scientific study from a European investigator. We refer to the other disease ~
as American foul brood, because it was first studied scientifically in America. —
There is one more disorder in the brood of bees which has attracted considerable
auttention—the so-called “ pickle brood.” There are, then, these three principal
diseases: European foul brood, American foul brood, and the so-called “ pickle
brood.”
Doctor Priniies. We surely have all been glad to listen to Doctor
White in his most interesting account of his work. It will be well at
this time to ask him any questions concerning this work which may
have come to mind. Before opening this subject for discussion J
wish to say that after this discussion I shall take up in detail the
works which Doctor White has criticized. Consequently, if you have
no objection, we will hold over until later any discussion of these
papers. |
Mr. C. P. Dapant. As I understand it, there exist these two bacilli
(Bacillus alvei and Bacillus larve) and also Bacillus mesentericus
vulgatus. Have you samples of all three of the bacilli?
Doctor Wuire. Yes, sir; that (pointing to slides) is Bacillus lar-
ve, that (showing cultures) is the Bacillus alvei, and the next, Baci!-
lus mesentericus. There are a number of varieties of Bacillus mesen-
tericus, and vulgatus is one of them.
SYMPTOMS OF BEE DISEASES.
Mr. Dapant. Will you please give us a description of the two dis-
eases—that is, of the conditions arising when Bacillus larve and
Bacillus alvei are present in the combs?
Doctor Wuirer. I should like to ask Doctor Phillips to answer that
question.
Doctor Puinures. I shall simply quote from Doctor White’s bulle-
tin. There was issued from the Bureau of Entomology some time
ago a small circular, Circular No. 79, entitled “ The Brood Diseases
of Bees,” and in this circular was included a description of the two
diseases which Doctor White has been studying. Doctor White was
kind enough to quote in his bulletin from Circular No. 79. and I shall
read the descriptions.
AMERICAN FOUL BROOD.
American foul brood (often called simply “foul brood”) is distributed
through all parts of the United States, and from the symptoms published in
European journals and texts one is led to believe that it is also the prevalent
brood disease in Europe. Although it is found in almost all sections of the
United States, there are many localities entirely free from disease of any kind.
The adult bees of an infected colony are usually rather inactive and do little
toward cleaning out infected material. When the larvee are first affected, they
turn to a light chocolate color, and in the advanced stages of decay they become
darker, resembling roasted coffee in color. Usually the larvie are attacked at
about the time of capping, and most of the cells containing infected larvee are
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 19
“4” ft -
capped. As decay proceeds, these cappings become sunken and perforated, and,
“as the healthy brood emerges, the comb shows the scattered cells containing
arve which have died of disease, still capped. The most noticeable charac-
teristic of this infection is the fact that when a small stick is inserted in a
q larva which has died of the disease, and slowly removed, the broken-down
tissues adhere to it and will often stretch out for several inches before break-
ing. When the larva dries, it forms a tightly adhering scale of very dark-brown
color, which can best be observed when the comb is held so that a bright light
strikes the lower side wall. Decaying larvie which have died of this disense
have a very characteristic odor, which resembles a poor quality of glue. This
disease seldom attacks drone or queen larvee. It appears to be much more
virulent in the western part of the United States than in the Kast.
EUROPEAN FOUL BROOD.
European foul brood (often called “ black brood”) is not nearly as widespread
in the United States as is American foul brood, but in certain parts of the coun-
try it has caused enormous losses. It is steadily on the increase and is con-
stantly being reported from new localities. It is therefore desirable that bee
keepers be on the watch for it.
Adult bees in infected colonies are not very active, but do succeed in cleaning
out some of the dried scales. This disease attacks larvie earlier than does
American foul brood, and a comparatively small percentage of the diseased
brood is ever capped. The diseased larve which are capped over have sunken
and perforated cappings. The larvee when first attacked show a small yellow
spot on the body near the head and move uneasily in the cell. When death
occurs, they turn yellow, then brown, and finally almost black. Decaying larvie
which have died of this disease do not usually stretch out in a long thread when
a small stick is inserted and slowly removed. Occasionally there is a very
slight * ropiness,” but this is never very marked. The thoroughly dried larvie
form irregular scales which are not strongly adherent to the lower side wall of
the cell. There is very little odor from decaying larvee which have died from
this disease, and when an odor is noticeable it is not the “ glue-pot ’’ odor of the
American foul brood, but more nearly resembles that of soured dead brood.
This disease attacks drone and queen larvze very soon after the colony is in-
fected. It is as a rule much more infectious than American foul brood and
spreads more rapidly. On the other hand, it sometimes happens that the disease
will disappear of its own accord, a thing which the author never knew to occur
in a genuine case of American foul brood. European foul brood is most destruc-
tive during the spring aud early summer, often almost disappearing in late
snmmer and autumn.
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.
Mr. France (Wisconsin). When I was with Doctor Phillips and
Inspector Hutchinson in Michigan studying the difference between
American and European foul brood, it occurred to me that it was
possible to bring together at this time specimens of diseased brood
from different localities. In my own city (Platteville, Wis.) I found
samples of diseased comb and had reserved them for this meeting, but
unfortunately three of the four samples in my possession contained
moth larve, and it was impossible to tell anything about the disease.
The only one that I still have is now in my grip.
Mr. Dapantr. Where were those samples from ¢
. ay = a
2() MEETING OF INSPECTORS OF ‘APIARIES
Mr. France. From Michigan. a
Doctor Puitires. Our first accurate knowledge of European foul
brood in the United States was the epidemic in New York State, and —
most bee keepers still look on the disease as still being confined to that
State. However, European foul brood is now found in New York,
Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Jersey, Pennsylvania,
Ohio, West Virginia, Michigan, Indiana, and Illinois. Reports have
been received at the Bureau of Entomology from all those States.
The disease is rapidly going west.
COMPARISON OF DISEASES.
Mr. Wittiam Arcuiry (Texas). Which of the two diseases is con-
sidered worse, the American or the European foul brood ?
Doctor Prius. That is a point which was simply suggested in
the descriptions just read. European foul brood spreads more rap-
idly than the other, but at the same time it will at times absolutely
disappear of its own accord, which is something that the American
foul brood seems not to do. We have these two ce bins over against
each other, and I should as soon try to eradicate one disease as the
other. As far as loss is concerned there seems to be very little differ-
ence.
Mr. J. Q. Surru. (Ilhnois). How many specimens have been sent to
the Bureau of Entomology from Illinois ?
Doctor Puitures. Two, I believe.
Mr. Smiru. I was in correspondence with some or the persons havy-
ing this disease among their bees, and I advised them to send samples
to you.
INFECTION IN HONEY.
Mr. R. A. HoreKkamp (Missouri). Have the bacteria of both dis-
eases been found in honey from infected hives ?
Doctor Wuitr. We believe that the infecting agent may be present
in honey in each case, since the experience of the bee keeper has been
that the infection of a healthy colony has followed the feeding of
honey from hives affected by either disease.
INFECTION OF LARV.
Mr. A. H. Anprerson (Utah). How does the larva become infected ?
Doctor Puimurps. The manner by which this is brought about is not
all entirely certain, but the facts would tend to show that it is through
feeding on infected material.
Doctor Wuirr. It would appear that internally the contamination
is caused by being carried by worker bees. As they move over the
combs and clean out the cells they come in contact with contaminated |
material. On any part of the body one can find Bacillus alvei; so 1
shall leave it to you, as you are more conversant with bees.
ee ag ee
INFECTION CARRIED TO FLOWERS. 21
Doctor Primus. The bacteria in a diseased colony are present
everywhere. They are found all over the adult bees, on the queens, on
the outside of the comb, and every place else. They do not, however,
_ grow in honey; they quickly go from the rod condition to the spore
condition and remain in the latter condition indefinitely when in
honey. According to the statement just made, it would seem that a
bee from an infected hive would always carry disease. The fact 1s,
however, that if the bees have been away from this infection for
some time they will not transmit the disease. Give them a new clean
hive with no food, so that all the honey is used up from the inside
of the body. The infection from the outside does not seem to spread
the disease if no brood is reared for a few days.
Mr. Suiru. I believe that the reason why the bee loses the infection
is because a certain time elapses before the comb is drawn out and
young larye are present which are large enough to become infected.
But I know this fact: If you shake bees from a diseased colony onto |
combs that contain healthy larve, you might as well leave the larve,
for disease at once appears. I have tried that.
BACTERIA IN QUEENS.
Mr. Dapanr. In either case have the bodies of queens been in-
spected /
Doctor Wurrr. The bodies of queens have been inspected, and while
- the internal organs contained these organisms, the ovaries seldom do,
and where Bacillus alvei is found in the ovary, or in our cultures
made from the ovary, they occur very seldom, and the probability is
that they get there through contamination in making the cultures
rather than from being found in the ovary itself. The ovaries are
very small and one must work with instruments that are sufficiently
large to handle. It is almost impossible to take cultures from the
ovary and not get contamination from the outside.
* BLACK BROOD.”
Mr. H. H. Roor (Ohio). I thought I understood Doctor White to
say that the disease called black brood has not been found in New
York.
Doctor Prinuirs. What Doctor White said was that there is no such
thing as black brood. The name black brood was a blunder,
INFECTION CARRIED TO FLOWERS.
Mr. Smirn. Then if, as you say, the contamination is always
present on the adult bees from diseased colonies, why is it not pos-
sible to carry it to the blossoms and leave it on the pollen, so that the
next bee visiting the same flower would carry germs to its hive?
Doctor Pritups. It is, of course, possible, but highly improbable.
22 MEETING OF INSPECTORS OF APIARIES.
VITALITY OF SPORES.
Mr. France. As to the duration of this bacillus in the spore form,
how long can it remain in honey and still have vitality to grow under
proper conditions ?
Doctor Puitures. I have never determined any limit. It is known
that very old honey from an infected hive will transmit disease to a
colony.
Mr. France. In my State (Wisconsin) we had an experience bear-
ing on this point where combs contained American foul brood. The
bees had died, leaving the combs containing dead dried-up larvee, and
the owner, anxious to start in bees again, put the hives away in the
granary, and four years afterwards hived bees on them and American.
foul brood started anew. |
Mr. D. H. CocesHatt (N. Y.). When honey was shipped from
Cuba several years ago and scattered all over the United States, if
it was left where bees from this country could get to it, the disease
was certainly scattered broadcast.
PUBLICATIONS ON BEE DISEASES.
Doctor Puruuips. I desire at this time to announce the publication
of three pamphlets on bee diseases issued by the Bureau of Ento-
mology. Circular No. 79, “* The Brood Diseases of Bees,” was issued
three or four weeks ago. I have just this morning received copies
of a paper by Doctor White, Technical Series, No. 14, entitled, * The
Bacteria of the Apiary, with Special Reference to Bee Diseases.”
This was issued on November 6, and was received here this morning.
T have also a pamphlet here from the Bureau of Entomology con-
taining all the laws in force relative to bee-disease inspection. This
is a reprint from Bulletin No. 61, “The Laws in Force Against
Injurious Insects and Foul Brood in the United States.” H a ee Se
28 - MEETING OF INSPECTORS OF APTAR
tained in a journal to which few bee keepers can have access. Iti
as follows:
On August 11th, 1SS4, Mr. Cheshire brought to me a piece of comb containing
larvie affected with foul brood, with which I performed the following experi-
ments: Selecting cells which were closed, but which Mr. Cheshire thought con-
tained diseased laryze, I brushed them over with a watery solution of bichloride
of mercury (1: 1000) to destroy the organisms on the outside. With several
forceps, that had been heated and allowed to cool, the covering of the cell was
picked off so as to display the diseased larvee. These larvze were dead, of a
vellowish color, and almost liquid, and on examination afterwards their juices
were found to contain numerous moving bacilli. By means of a heated platinum
wire, tubes of meat infusion rendered solid by gelatin (10 per cent), or by
Japanese isinglass, were inoculated from several of these larve and kept at a
suitable temperature. Development of bacilli, microscopically similar to those
seen in the juices of the larvie, occurred. The characteristics of this develop-
ment will be presently described. Further, in the tubes, kept at the body
temperature, there was not only a development of bacilli oe also of spores.
Thgee bacilli, as seen in the larval juices, measure about -,; inch in length and
spso0 inch in breadth. They are rounded or slightly tapering at their ends and
often have a clear space near one end. In the juices of the larvze during life ~
they apparently do not produce spores, although after death spores abound.
In the cultivation in the peptonized meat infusion, rendered solid by agar-agar.
the bacilli vary epee a in size, their average length being -,1,5 inch, some be-
ing as small as ;5}55 inch and others as large as =;4, inch. When they have at-
tained the latter size, division of the rod seems to bee, They are always somaya
pointed at their ends.- Their average breadth is 35455 inch, varying from ;;4;5; to
1
25000"
ai spores are largish oval bodies, averaging in length +5355 inch (yar from
rstos tO zohoa Inch), and in breadth 5545, inch (varying from 5z},5, to 35}, inch).
In the agar-agar material the spores are generally arranged side by side in
long rows, and in old cultivations only a few bacilli can be seen, some forming
spores, some without any indication of spores. “That these small bacilli can
produce such large spores seems at the first glance at a microscopical specimen
almost inconceivable, but I have been able to trace on the one hand the develop-
ment of the spores in the rods, and on the other the sprouting of the spores into
adult bacilli. This can be done in the following very simple manner:
Take a number of glass slides, each having a moderate-sized cell hollowed
Gut in its middle; clean it and pass through a Bunsen flame several times to
destroy any bacteria on its surface. With a brush apply a little vaseline around
the depression, and then place the slide under a glass shade to keep it from —
the dust. Clean a number of cover glasses, purify them in the flame, and place
them on a pure glass plate beneath another shade. With a fine, pure pipette
put a small drop of sterilized cultivating fluid (meat infusion with peptone) on
the center of each of these cover glasses; then with a fine platinum wire inocu-
late each of the drops with the spores, or with nonspore-bearing bacilli; rapidly
invert them over the cell, press down the cover glass so as to diffuse the
vaseline around its edge, and place the slides in an iné¢ubator kept at the
temperature of the body. These slides are removed at different intervals of
time, and as soon as each is, taken out the cover glass is turned over and the,
avop of fluid rapidly dried. The specimen can then be stained, mounted in
Canada balsam, and studied at leisure. This method seems to me to be much
more satisfactory than the observation of the organisms swimming about in
as In order to study the growth of the spores, I used a cultivation on the agar-
agar cultivating material which had been kept at the temperature of the body
_ for fourteen days, and which consisted almost entirely of spores, though a few
bacilli were present. As the result of several experiments, | have got a series
=
+ eS
of preparations which have been taken at various times (15 minutes, 80 imin-
utes, 40 minutes, 1 hour, 14 hours, 1 hour 50 minutes, 2 hours, 2 hours 20
minutes, 2 hours 50 minutes, 2 hours 55 minutes, 8 hours 20 minutes, 4 hours
20 minutes, 5 hours, 5 hours 35 minutes, 5 hours 40 minutes, and 7 hours 50
minutes), and the course of. events is shown in Plate X.c) The bacilli
stain with various anilin dyes—best, I think, with methyl-violet; but the
spores resemble the spores of other bacteria in not taking on the stain. The
cover glasses on which tke organisms are dried are passed three times through
the gas flame and floated on the surface of a fairly strong watery solution of
methyl-violet for one or two hours. They are then washed in water, and
afterwards laid in weak acetic acid (1 per cent) till no more stain comes out.
They are again washed in water, allowed to dry at the ordinary temperatttre,
and mounted in Canada balsam. . ae 5
where a few cases have existed for years without any perceptible
increase. I know of one instance where an apiary was entirely
destroyed by the disease in one season. Whether our climatic con-
ditions have anything to do with’the matter I do not know, but it
is a fact that foul brood as it exists here is of a very erratic nature,
Furthermore, it is dangerous, and a relentless war should be waged
against it until it is exterminated.
A paper entitled “ The appointment of inspectors,” by Fred A.
Parker, of California, was then read, in which the writer showed
60 MEETING OF INSPECTORS OF APIARIES. —
that the work of the inspector is far from easy. Many bee keepers
criticize the work of the inspector as soon as their apiaries are exam-
ined, and fault is found with inspection and the inspectors. It is the
duty of the bee keeper to uphold the inspector as long as he is doing
honest work for the bee-keeping industry. The salary paid an
inspector is in most cases smaller than the income he could make by
remaining at home and doing the required work in his own apiary,
so that inspection is usually done at a financial loss to the inspector.
Mr. J. M. Rawxry (California). It has been my privilege since
May, 1905, to be in touch with bee-disease work on the Pacific coast.
During this time I have visited many diseased apiaries throughout
the State of California.
Few eastern people have an adequate conception of the bee-keeping
industry in California. It is not an uncommon thing for one man to
own 4,000 colonies of bees. This, of course, puts the business on an
entirely different footing than in the East. In the same way, condi-
tions of disease are also different. The control of American foul
brood among so many colonies becomes a much more difficult proposi-
tion than it is where the bee keeper owns only fifty to seventy-five col-
onies. There seems to be no doubt, also, that the American foul brood
is much more virulent in California than in the East. Whether this
is due to some climatic condition or not, I do not know. I have seen
an aplary showing only shght infection in February become almost
2 total wreck in August. In California, also, the bees fly nearly 300
out of the 365 days in the year, and the honey flow in most parts of
the State is of comparatively short duration. This makes conditions
favorable for more rapid infection than in colder climates where the
bees are confined to their hives during about half of the year.
Under such conditions you can readily see that treating the disease
is difficult. It must be done at exactly the right time and under fav-
orable conditions or the treatment is worse than useless. Some of
the best inspectors in California use the shaking treatment, and all of
them shake twice, as well as disinfect the contaminated hives. There
are some few men who do not believe in treating by this method and
who burn all diseased colonies, only saving hives when these are in
good condition. In counties where bees can be bought for 50 cents
a swarm it may not be a bad plan to destroy all diseased colonies, as
this is certainly an effective treatment if the burning is complete.
A treatment very favorably thought of by some is that of thor-
oughly boiling all diseased material. A large tank is used and the
diseased colonies, after having been sulphured the night before, are
carried to the tank and all the combs thrown in. After all the wax is
melted, the frames are removed from the tank and placed on the fire
under the tank as fuel. This is certainly an effective way. of eradi-
TREATMENT FOR BEE DISEASES. 61
eating the disease and can be recommended more highly than the
burning plan, as by this means the wax is not destroyed.
_ California has the county system of inspection, and probably the
"smallest number of colonies which one inspector has to look after is
30,000. From that number the colonies run up to 150,000 in a single
county.
Doctor Pumums. What Mr. Rankin has just said is in line with
my own observation during the middle of the summer. I visited one
apiary in Ventura County, with Mr. A. G, Edmondson, the inspector
for that county, and he showed me 151 hives. Two years ago this
aplary was in the hands of a competent bee keeper and no disease
was present. Ventura County is so large that the inspector can
cover only one half in one year and the other half the next year.
When we examined the apiary we found 15 healthy colonies and 136
hives in which the bees were dead or nearly so.
TREATMENT FOR BEE DISEASES.
In discussing the methods of treatment, it would be a good plan
to call on each of the inspectors present and get each one to tell what
method he employs. We should hear first from Mr. N. E. France,
inspector from Wisconsin. He is the oldest inspector in the United
States in point of service.
Mr. France. Referring to the paper which was just read, I have
tried some of the methods of using drugs in the apiaries of competent
bee keepers and invariably all these methods are failures in Wis-
consin. The fumigating with formalin seemed for a time to check
the disease, as did also some of the other drugs, but in the end they
all are failures. The one method that has given universal satisfac-
tion we owe ta the oldest inspector in America, Mr. William McEvoy,
of Ontario, and it has often been termed the “ McEvoy method.”
The plan is to remove the bees from the infection and keep them away
long enough to use up whatever infected honey there is in the stomach
of the bee.
I am not satisfied to stop with finding disease in a yard and imme-
diately prescribing treatment. In fact, I seldom, after looking over
the yard and finding the disease, begin to prescribe treatment, for I
feel that we are not yet ready for it. What is the use of treating
when some neighbors might have diseased colonies? Take a wide
circuit; then treat at once all colonies having disease. This has some-
times vexed the bee keepers, for they want me to stay and show them
what to do at once, but I tell them that I see no good in treating
colonies while leaving another source of infection.
I try first to instruct the owner of the bees to be careful in his man-
agement. If, in my judgment. he is one who keeps the apiary clean,
62 MEETING OF INSPECTORS OF APIARIES.
and if I can depend upon him, I sit down and go over the * McEvoy ”
plan with him very carefully, asking him from time to time if he
understands it. If he says that he does, I say: “ Now, I am your
student; tell me what to do. When you can tell me what you are
going to do, I will trust it to you.” In neerly all such cases they have
treated it without my assistance, and cured it. I can not recommend
anything better than the “* McEvoy ” plan.
Doctor Primures. There is just one thing I should wish to add to
that. The treatment of taking bees from the infected combs was
originated in 1769 by Schirach, as nearly as I can find out, and if we
are going back to give credit to the originator of this plan, Mr. Me-
Evoy is not the man to get that credit.
Mr. G. W. Yor (Illinois). Was not the plan original with Mr.
McEvoy ?
Doctor Puruuirs. It was probably original with him, but it was
advocated long before in many European works.
Mr. Smirn. The ground has been thoroughly covered by Mr.
France. Two years ago Mr. France said to me: “Now, Smith, I
have tried almost everything, but I find the ‘ McEvoy’ plan the best. |
My advice is to use the ‘ McEvoy’ treatment, as I have done.” I have —
only had one case this year where I have had to make a second
transfer, and I found that to be due to infection from a neighbor’s
colony that I did not get to treat the first time, but which subsequently
was treated, and the bees were all right. I have no trouble, and I
have great confidence in shaking. I don’t alarm the bees. I shall
give my method. In treating a diseased colony I use an extra hive,
to which the bees are to be transferred, and an additional empty hive.
in which I place the infected frames after the bees are shaken from
them. The last mentioned is covered with a cloth to. prevent other
bees from robbing. First I move the old infected hive back, and in
its place put a clean hive containing clean frames, with strips of
foundation. The frames are lifted from the old hive, shaken in front
of the new hive, and then covered up in the third hive, which is used
to store infected frames. This is all done in the middle of the day.
If there is no honey in the field, the colony should be fed well at
night. }
Mr. J. Q. Stone (Illinois). How do you treat the old hive?
Mr. Smirn. I either burn out the hive, paint it with kerosene oil
and have it burned out, or wash it in strong salt water.
Mr. Frev Murn (Ohio). When you shake the bees, they carry over
honey, do they not?
Mr. Smiru. I set the hive right on the ground. I do not jar the
frames hard enough to jar out the honey.
Mr. Murn. You shake them off during the middle of the day. Is_
it not better along toward evening?
SS
Sealey
ie
ah BE eet
=e. Vag
rao.
SEze Zz...
TREATMENT FOR BEE DISEASES, 63
Mr. Suiru. If you wait till evening you will never get through.
Mr. Mourn. Do you use smoke in that operation /
Mr. Smiru. I use no smoke.
Mr. Murn. How long do you keep the bees on the strips of founda-
tion; do you feed them right away ?
Mr. Smirn. Yes.
Mr. Murn. You don’t believe in starving them at all?
Mr. Smirn. No, because the bees coming from the fields are loaded
with honey.
Mr. Murn. Do I understand that the bees have these bacteria all
over them ¢
Doctor Puiuiips. Yes; they have the contamination on them.
When they are shaken they of course have it all over them, and when
they are shaken off they doubtless take the bacteria with them.
The McEvoy system is the radical treatment of shaking twice, which
the majority of bee keepers do not use.
Mr. Yorx. If I mistake not, Mr. McEvoy recommends the second
shaking.
Doctor Puitiies. He recommends the second shaking after the bees
begin to drop from starvation.
Question. What do you do with the unhatched brood in the infected
hive?
Mr. Smiru. My recommendation is to destroy the whole thing.
EFFECT OF REQUEENING ON DISEASE.
Mr. Dapanr. Has removing the queens any value in treating the
two diseases? Alexander, Simmins, and others have recommended
removing the queens. Is this of any value in either clisease /
Doctor Puinires. As has been stated before to-day, I spent four
weeks last spring with the inspectors of New York State in the field.
Both American foul brood and European foul brood are found in
that State, but practically the same method of treatment is advocated
by the inspectors for both diseases. Colonies found to be cliseased are
shaken according to the method which has been described several
tinies in this meeting.
In order to save any healthy brood which is found in colonies
infected with disease, the sealed brood from several colonies, four
to eight, is piled up in hive bodies above a weak colony which is
diseased. In seven to ten days all the brood which is worth saving
will have emerged and the weak colony will have been changed to one
strong enough to treat. This colony is then treated by the shaking
method as were the others. There is no necessity of waiting more
than ten days, for brood which was unsealed when the brood was first
attacked will scarcely be fed sufficiently to emerge.
In addition to this treatment, the inspectors recommend the in-
64 MEETING OF INSPECTORS OF APIARIES.
troduction of young, vigorous Italian queens from good stock. It
has been shown repeatedly that Italian bees are less liable to disease
than most of the black bees, especially of degenerate stock, as is so
much of the black stock when no attention is paid to improvement.
In a pamphlet issued in 1903 by the inspectors of New York the
introduction of Italian brood was recommended. This is not
advocated as a cure, however, but merely as a means of protecting the
colony against future infection.
Reference has been made to the introduction of Italian queens as a
method of curing disease, and to this method the name of Mr. Alex-
ander is attached. In the article in which Mr. Alexander first
advocated the plan he says, in part:
“Tow to rid your apiary of black brood” (By E. W. Alexander).¢
This cure is on the line of introducing new blood into the apiary, * * #*
Go to every diseased colony you have and build it up either by giving frames
of maturing brood or uniting two or more until you have them fairly strong.
After this, go over every one and remove the queen; then in nine days go over
them again, and be sure to destroy every maturing queen cell or virgin, if any
have hatched. Then go to your breeding queen and take enough of her newly
hatched larvze to rear enough queen cells from to supply each one of your dis-
eased queenless colonies with a ripe queen cell or virgin just hatched., These
are to be introduced tv your diseased colonies on the twentieth day after you
have removed their old queen, and not one hour sooner, for upon this very
point your whole success depends; for your young queen must not commence
to lay until three or four days after the last of the old brood is hatched, or
twenty-seven days from the time you remove the old queen. If you are very
careful about this matter of time between the last of the old brood hatching
and the young queen commencing to lay, you will find the bees will clean out
their breeding combs for this young queen, so that she will fill them with as
fine healthy brood as a hive ever contained. This I have seen in several hun-
dred hives, and have never seen a cell of the disease in a hive after being
treated as above described.
It is not necessary to remove any of the combs or honey from the diseased
colony; neither is it necessary to disinfect anything about the hive. Simply
remove the old queen, and be sure the young queen does not commence to lay
until three or four days after the old brood is all hatched. This treatment
with young Italian queens is a perfect .2re for black brood.
In regard to those old queens that were formerly in your old hives, I think it
best to kill them when you first take them from their colonies—not that the
queen is responsible for the disease, for I am sure she is not; but a young
Italian queen that has been reared from a choice honey-gathering strain is
worth so much more to you that I can not advise saving these old queens.
I have experimented along this line considerably, and found, after the colony
has been without a queen twenty-seven days, as above directed, it will usually
be safe to give them one of these old queens, and the cure will be the same.
Still, there have been exceptions, so I advise killing them at once.
The essential point in the treatment is to allow several days to
elapse after the emergence of the last of the healthy brood before
the queen begins to lay.
@Gleanings in Bee Culture, November 1, 1905.
TREATMENT FOR BEE DISEASES. 65
There are several points in this treatment and its successful appli-
eation by Mr. Alexander which may well claim our attention. In
the first place, the scales formed by the dried larve of European
foul brood are less adhesive than are those formed when American
— foul brood is present. It is therefore easier for the bees to clean
~ out the cells, and in most cases, at any rate, a strong colony would do
this. This is one point, then, in favor of the Alexander treatment
of European foul brood.
Mr. Alexander’s apiary is located in a portion of New York State
(Delanson, Schenectady County) where European foul brood has
been prevalent for several years. It is a matter of common observa-
tion that this disease becomes less virulent in any given locality
within a few years, and it is very probable that this plan might be
successful in Mr Alexander’s apiary and not in localities where the
disease is just appearing. 7 t---- +--+ -e- 17
‘ Mreneniam waropean foul brood... 22... .-.-2-4------------- 16
eM emengl AC IDLO. 12a. oka women hone 15, 50
B, in pollen and intestine of healthy honeybees .-..-....-.---.----- 16
: brandenburgiensis, supposed occurrence in ‘‘foul brood’’......-....-- 53
4 cholere suis, in intestine of healthy honeybee..-.--...----------.----- 16
4 cloacx, in intestine of healthy honeybee ......--.-.---------------- 16
coli communis, PRISTINE A CLOTS Gc 2 one eos s Sn nee ee ee oe ee 13, 14
in intestine of healthy honeybee...-....-.---.-.-..---- 16
Tg SS Se ee 37
fm annmpertine OL nealihy honeybee .--.---./.-.-.----------------- 17
ITI UCTIATOC (CIA =~ 2 25.2 + oa 2 22 net ee eee 13, 14
description by White quoted..-.-.....-.-----.-------------- 52
ag present in American foul brood. .....-..------------------- 17, 50, 52
7 mesentericus ? (See Bacillus A.)
oe SS Sl eer 18
considered by Lambotte cause of ‘foul bro "5 Nakane 53
milii, no such organism found in so-called ‘black BLOC 4 ene 15, 50
subgastric fig, an initestine of healthy honeybee ...-..--.----.-.------ 17
trate tS a eos ete cane ewes snes necee = 50
A ( B. larve), METIE MCAT TOU EOOG 20 = Gs wooe x nec ew cine oe eee noe eee 16, 52
— Bacterium cyaneus, m-combs.ot healthy honeybees .-.-.----.--------------<- 16
em wntestine of healthy honeybee. .....----------------s---<+-- 16
I ee Se ie cca ew eee enyee 33
. mycoides, in intestine of healthy honeybee.....------------------- 17
EEN TEETIONODY -. 222-2. nnn ee ene nee renee nee 10-18
: effect of climate on virulence ....-...--.-------------+-ee-0e-- 54, 67
expense of treatment... .-.-.-------------------+-+++++-+++-+---- 70-72
investigation RRM SS a te nis alpina oo ee ed eee tea 22-53
publications of Bureau of Entomology.....-------------------- 22
EPMA irs eo ala do ale o teem eee g ene enh > pe anew eas 61-73
Bees, healthy adult, bacteria found externally .......---.------------------- 16
78 INDEX.
Bertrand, Edwerd, regarding determination of Bacillus alvei by Cowan and
Wimself<. 2.5.0 2.5 a eee ee eS eee ae a
**'Black brood,”’ Bacillus mili not-found 2-3. os eee ee eee
= Huropean foul brood 22 2 ae Ss eee
no such diseaset< 232.2 is eseste eee ee ee
Boiling honey from: diseased colomiese:.2 2-25-25 oa se ee o e eee ee
treatment for bee’ diseases. .2.'s2 2-2-7252 -eeoeseee eee ee ee 60-61
Burning, for destroying bee diseases). . 22. -- = 252s oe. See eee 57, 58, 60
in Tesas2 2222452 eee =e eee 67-69
Garbolic acid, against “pickle brood?” 2 3_te eee ee eee 70
Cheshire, Frank R., description of foul brood quoted ........-...----.--.--- 26-27
Climate, effect on. virulence of bee'diseases -5- 22- -- o e e 54, 67
Combs, of healthy apiary, bacteria found 32> eos eee 16
Cowan, Thomas William, attempted determination of Bacillus alvei with micro-
scope alone :...2 2.22225 22226. oe eee ee ee ee 50-51
Cryptococcus alvearis, formerly considered cause of ‘‘foul brood’’.....-------- 24-25
fer mentum 3 ons Soh coo bo eo Ss Bae Oe ee 24
Drug treatment for bee diseases. (See Medication. )
Bucalyptus‘oil, against /‘"“pickle brood?’ == 3: sss Sa ee 70
Formaldehyde. (See Formalin. )
Formalin, use against bee diseases........-.- ORES ate See eee 58, 62
Foul brood,: American, application of termes 320 = eee 16
Bacillus larux present: = -2— Sos ee 17
can it be detected before cells are broken? .--.....--- 66-67
description quoted from Phillips -.--....-..-...----- 18-19
reosraphical distributions: .— sao 5 2 ee ee 53-54
in @alifonnia 22. hs aoe ae ee 57-61
on’ Pacific coast 2: 3: 22228. ee ee eee eee 57-59
vitality or spores ¢ 3s2 20252 ot oe eee eee eee 22
are both diseases ever found in same colony ?........-...------- 53
comparison of American and European.--..-------------=----- 20
‘European; application of term, 322 == 5 ee ee 16
Bacillus alvet present == ee eee ee 17
description of Philips: quotedias2 52 ae a ee 19
georTaphical distmbudon 522-5 =e eee eget wei ee 19-20
in: New-York State 522 252! 22 sae ee ees eee 55-56
spread through’ infeeted*honey, 22 2224 3 2s- nse eee ee 20, 56
symptoms of two diseases confused by Cheshire..-.-.-.---..--- 26-27
France, N. E., paper, ‘‘The History of Bee Disease Inspection in Wisconsin’? 73-75
Geographical distribution, of American foul brood: 2...) ee ee 53-54
European foul broods = Ss. eee eee 19-20
Harrison, F. C., description of ‘‘ Bacillus alvei’’ (Bacillus A?) quoted ...-..-- 45-48
historical résumé of investigation of bee diseases quoted .... 23-26
Eloney, from healthy hive, usually sterile: 22-2. = 2s ee 16
infection: 5.22 See ee ee Oe ep glee eng Re eee ee 20, 56
Heward, W. R.. work.on: bee, diseases: == 2 8 ese eee eee 15, 50
Ichneumon apiummellificarium, formerly supposed cause of infectious bee disease - 24
Infection, in ovaries of queen bees::. 2.2 2: e202.) eke eee ee 57-58
is It:carnied:to flowers? 22.2075. 2 eae es ee ee eee 21
of jaryse.of honey bees.2: 2.2.22. 225: oe ee ee 20-21
Imspection, of apiaries; in New: York State: 2-25. S2252 4 se. a eee 59-56
Wisconsins<-.) 3262 ee eee eee 73-7)
on. :Paeific copst]..22 ace 2a. ee ee ee (-59
inspectors ‘ol ‘apiaries, appomtment-2- -- 2-3-8 ee ee 59-60, 61-62
organiza hon: 2s 4s22ck oe ee ee ee ee 10, 54
Intestine of healthy honeybee, occurrence of bacteria. ....-..--------------- 16-17
fungl and yeasts a. 525 Js24 se 16-17
Larvee of healthy honeybee, usually sterile: -- 22-222 3. eee A eee 16
honeybees, infection «.2..¢ V1.8 22 See ee eee eee eee 20
Mackenzie, J. J., paper, ‘‘The Foul Brood Bacillus (B. alvei); its Vitality and
Deve lopment,’ ik Coes We aE Se esd r ie Soe gan dees: - 36-42
‘McEvoy”’’ treatment for foul- brood: GISCRSO8 ee ee ee eee 40-41, 61-62
Media for bacteriolopical work 22.2020 2 ee ee eee 12-13
Medication for bee diseases 5.2 se ee ee eee 56, 58, 69
Micrococcus C, in combs of healthy honeybees. =-=-- = 22. see ese eee ee 16
Moore, V. A., investigation of brood diseases of bees..........-..----------- 51-52
.. } =
Lb aa ee INDEX. 79
ieee ar
Seat) Page,
ar phthol beta, for bee diseases... .. {a Sa SS. ee 69
See tavinestment of bee diseases..............-......-..-...-.... 00... 58
New York Bee Disease.” (See ** Black brood.’ )
Object Srameemam OF MMSpectors Of apiaries..-......-....-...-.-...---...---- 9
Suen OL Me peCtors OL ApISTICS -- ~~. ---- oe ee eee ee eee 10
Palsy. (See Paralysis. )
Pan istophyton ovatum, fungus formerly supposed cause of hee disease... .- . -- 24
Paralysis, SMR NPEE IMG TAO os set sono keene. we eee een eee 16
ker, F. A., paper, “‘American Foul Brood on the Pacific Coast’’.......... 57-59
Phillips , K. Rs; descriptions of American and European foul broods quoted... 18-19
paper, ‘The Present Status of the Investigation of Bee Dis-
ae Ne 22-53
. “Pickle eons eee nAcurTial Cause KNOWN ....-...-....-------------.----4- 16
(8 oe el eS le OES om me Sine ws ole 70
domonas fluorescens liquefaciens, in intestine of healthy honeybee. .._.. ~~. 17
| Pabieaton of Bureau of Entomology on bee diseases .............-.------- 22
ar emma Ol Dacteria..2./.....-..-----.-2-.----------------- 2]
’ Rankin, J. M., remarks on bee-disease work in California................-:- 60-61
J Requeening, Bumomeay-tor bee diseases.........-..-..-...-.....-- 56, 57-58, 63-65
, Root, E. R., regarding Cowan’s determination of Bacillus alvei in Ohio. ....-- 50
Saccharom, yces iomeesenuute of healthy honeybee .---..-----.--.----------- 17
fy G, in diseased brood of honey HPL Rte a ke 17
roseus, in combs of healthy [5 COSY SECIS AS, a 16
Spchirach. originator of ‘‘McEyoy”’ treatment for bee diseases ............--- 62
_ Shaking treatment for bee diseases. .......... A CE A ee 56, 57, 58, 60
fin, NSSeGiS |. aE ae Soles ee er 67-69
Rsairocharte opis, supposed occurrence in bee disease. --.--.---...------------- 53
q Stewart, Charles, paper, ‘Apiary Inspection in New York State” ......--.-- 55-56
sr TTS 0 0 61-73
ES? OL ASE. 2 Py 8 SN IS ea ee 70-72
Virulence of bee Pee CUG@UOlgelMAbe neers 2. e- <\-- 22 = 2 --