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Ard. is | Haethy t) telat Dy Lied 0) Be O spe det by Pog Het eet be ty Vopr eetbeate gs Weinethg bebe hg oO theme le dotnet © yopins bathe re ber ag att ages ere er sor Ty “ eirori veh ao Mahe A t oF) al) one uh 4 " tt hetauane ech hy bet eNe td te pisdeee tetera tote ty ‘ A ag dy BP IRA, ae pated “ioe ia ant 4 akan peherny relta he pots hes9¢ , Sieqaers ea dad tehed yt Met : praeey gstetety Va age’ hentia! ti heaae de 4 1 tad? tna ‘ 59 Mi it? stee ns yn! ‘ ee Seon { lat eagttee rae io read : eowelyd sa Piss = ras ia oly hands as 448 af ze: ea Pe er ieay) BAY ag 3y-)" és¢ Node i rAd veh eat a Mayosut a ee eK bite Oe theese wpb be. Baits late oy ”f y, fet ates, Tie ying caus tek iva rates sited ate Tee rue * Rerpterorer ter. OL dlig st ete ss Ch gee ie ety Tce eh ad 2 ee etd te ebaeead: peteay Pose Doe be ote aredegeu dy orden te wig! \o dew ae Piste le cop d tote eee Piel erat etise © omen batet ee eh ok ete aa Te by stabs ypew red cows Pasig ner er eet os ek tpt ee! ae A sae Die tekeeesine bee let nee, wel eet anny ae sidney @ 9 ote Wt Fo hiy gt gt they rebels three cores at ey i 13 heey wer iy oF ryan apie wre b Peet way pw dae dias i bbs Pathe Piet tt eet te er Teresina Sganaray RAE RD SE eo OTe Ce Ro er Peentcre oe creel. Tre fr rye Breathe phew . eT ran frat it 4 heer ee Pees rence eros eieh tthe tS eeke: 4 Darna ens ele tee mu nad sau sat erg bot sOusye pus Stung te Le Bets ote kee eter tye nee Sweetie wees cated i FY 4 bee ba Ta mrTOre tt Pree er er 35 Aw bevad tt 4 antes te Gentil at y ay rut cape heaps yeeeyt Ot a wales ~ Sprvevetr Tir) veh 44 Wy aa ae a (on MY Vise 1s Soe kane - re oH vo - dee \« ; ten Per ee Gr ee sph ett lagi le ee, we ete " ar eee were 0 Tes er gees oourtale seyean aif yi eie ptt 0 dee de any eee whale t ncn } ee evew iy Weta e Wim op Cebaew by PTO wD ete OF ey - ee eo aiiaudereatal omy where, te BBE Serta ae eee 8G pd tate on vues a ge phe ba Ted wi wrenus dt w ‘ Pm enqaee To Tipe tes w viehOsese, eer ee ee ee eee PNET OREN TaN eee biting amen tes er EEO State web gua Pry odes Heed BOUT poe e td aey Vee ete OV ged OF Cet RUBE Rt Tory “ Ok UE te wtie Oe ee PU eee OM kp edte etn OF coger ast Arend " ht os fete pan tatiay Be dude ig etetn tate righ ¢ . oth aan (piere 8 batt ace? tony Swi tr beers some ‘ taeda bese Ore er ee ee eRe ert on wie ; : einem ara tone Fev vetinba ast: ot | aa ae tem hitesaeterei sae ‘ . eee ees é, Tal es PY oe ew oe rowte tos apt ins Phew eee sune athe oe! at GA er heme ere ae 4 PTO ee ee Maer Cn een ner oa dalicch A Mitch de Akela Be hohe ol | ip bb be yma 4 Seperate oe ” te tne et Stet —— a ——- e % 4 J ; | se } ia } - ; - ’ : ; } f ¢ i ’ * 4 i if | i - - ( - ( t | ie ei GB ay aa a 5 bee ww ' m DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR. UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. F. V. HAYDEN, U.S. GEOLOGIST-IN-CHARGE, QL |) [c2 c = J-7 FIRST ANNUAL REPORT OF THE : UNITED STATES sae ENLOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION FOR PE YRAR Sts RELATING TO THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN LOCUST AND THE BEST METHODS OF PREVENTING ITS INJURIES AND OF GUARDING AGAINST ITS INVASIONS, IN PURSUANCE OF AN APPROPRIA- TION MADE BY CONGRESS FOR THIS PURPOSE. WITH MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS, WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1878. aioe 4 27. es* Report of the Ae CORCMBIA Ving FEM Rae G Me _pv or ma sy ENS SARE = esa — Legend — Permanat Region or Native Breeding p= Grounds, where the species 1a always found in greater or less abundance. FH Subpermanent Region, which the Species frequently Invades, im which t car per- petarate Thself tor several years, but from oe it in time disappears. Timpurary Region, or that oly period. toca ected and thom which the Species geuerdly disappears within w year: the evtrene northern portion partahes more. however, of the Subpermanent Character. » of Flight trom Permanent Regtan. Slight tron Temporary Region. ns au 107° oo oe oS F a - ‘ i " 10S" 108° S | tas H ae) itary in 1 Fm Flac SMMAKED, PLAIN” oo 8 S Decatui 105° Tt | SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION. BREEDING GROUNDS == On) —— AND. REGION PERIODICALLY VISITED BY THE (CALOPTENUS SPRETUS). 10" Prepared by the U.S. ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. 187Z souk MCSMIGRATION, PERMANENT £° SUBPERMANENT FD _| 2 THROWER | | a | Ps 4 : ait ; et) ert a s) dard ¢ ub 3 3 . oS Ba \\S% ae tk TABLE OF CONTENTS. Van ¢ Page. Ree ee AUN ODD UAT. coc ne pcm esecwn eecnce cocceu cewced cannes vackibs D4 PUTER ReOp eee OD MLL PAT cc... ccccee eenecs ME Sarak olde eeewdactande wad outs XI re Ta aR he Merial ip eo 2s eM ec ciende, cine acewana ofaGnSelé xv PCR OME Mea MrIME NERS ere sf lcs wcgdas fase ewadedeeces se bose Sgtn scctes toes 1 Creation and organization of the Commission, 1—Division of labor, 1—Cir- culars sent out, 2-6—Area over which eggs were laid in 1876, 6—Outlook in spring in more Southern States, 7—Letter to Governor Anthony, of Kan- sas, on the condition of things in May, 8-10—State of things in Minnesota in spring, 11—Outlook in Nebraska in June, 13—Second meeting of the Commission, 14—Outlook in Iowa in June, 15—Visit to Colorado, Utah, and Montana in June, 17—Visit to Colorado in July, 17-20—Third meet- ing of the Commission, 21—Trip to the Pacific Coast, 21—Trip to British America, 22—List of chapters, LTE er and synopsis of chapters, 24— 29—Prospects for 1877, 29. CHAPTER I. CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE: CHARACTERS OF THE SPECIES........--- 1S Families of the Orthoptera, 32—Locust vs. Grasshopper, 33—Generic nomen- clature, 37—Generic diagnosis, 40—Species of the genus Caloptenus, 42— Full definition of Caloptenus spretus and of its nearest congeners, 43-52. CHAPTER II. CURONGLOGICAL, HISTORY OF) LOCUST INJURIES ; 22-4 0 ccctienes eoeeoe see ose ces 53 Compared with locust ravages in the Eastern Hemisphere, 53—Ipjury in the Northwest early in the present century, 54—Brief reviews from 1820 to 1877, 54-56—Locust history in Texas, 57-62—in Indian Territory, 63—in Arkansas, 64—in Missouri, 64-68—in Kansas, 68-74—in Nebraska, 74-77— in Iowa, 77-80—in Minnesota, 80-87—in Dakota, 88-92—in Montana, 92- 96—in Idaho, 96—in Wyoming, 97—in Colorado, 99-102—in Utah, 102-104 —in New Mexico and Arizona, 105—in Nevada, 105—in Oregon and Wash- ington Territory, 106—in British North peers 108-112—Tabular view of locust years, 113. CHAPTER III. PLARIMVSY OMMVOSSHS ss ence sstind cs eco oh Foss sus tot teste od. eel cells 114 Difficulty of obtaining reliable data, 114 stinece in Kansas, 115—in Minnesota, 116—in Missouri, 117—Loss in Kansas, Nebraska, Iowa, and Missouri in 1874, a ee to different crops, 120—Loss to Missouri in 1875, 121—Total loss during the years 1874-1877, $200,000,000, 122. Il IV TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER IV. AGRICULTURAL BEARING. OF ‘THE LOCUST PROBLEM...-.0-- scceeaa-cwie- oe soeee ’ Drawback to the settling of the West, 124—What is likely to be the effect in the future, 125—Modification and settlement of the Western plains, 129—Crops which suffer most, and those which suffer least, 130—Small grains not affected by invading swarms, 128 —Need of judgment in plant- Ing, 129: CHAPTER V. PERMANENT BREEDING-GROUNDS OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN LOCUST. .---.-.... Permanent breeding-grounds, 131—Definition of the permanent region, 133— Its character and extent, 134—The Rocky Mountain locust a sub-boreal insect, 135—The Sub-permanent region, 136—The Temporary region, 136. CHAPTER VI. GEOGRAPHICAL, DISTRIBUDION <0 oe 06 <5)22 een oe meine ee So ee eee Eastern limits of spread, 137—Northern limits, 139 Western limita, 140— Southern limits, 141—Sub-permanent region, 142. CHAPTER VII. MIGRATIONS onc me 8a ooo Sineh ce ine peewee ee ee eer os Sx - Classification of flights, 143—Invading swarms, 143—Returning swarms, 143—Loceal flights, 143—Height at which swarms move, 144—Effect of change of wind and weather on flights, 145—Flight at night, 147—Migra- tions previous to 1877 east of the Rocky Mountain plateau, 148—Direction of invading swarms prior to 1877, 149—Direction of flight in 1876, 151— Migrations within the permanent region, 153-158—in Montana, 153—in Wyoming, 156—in Colorado, 157—in Eastern Idaho and Utah, 158—in the lower Snake Valley, 158—Return migrations from the temporary region previous to 1877, 159-162—Return migrations in 1877, 162-165—Local flights in 1877, 165—Record of flights for July 3 and July 20, 1877, 165- 169—Summary of flights by States, 170-174—Southward flights in 1877, 175—Movements in different directions at one time, 176—Destination of - return swarms, 177. CHAPTER VIII. HABITS AND: NATURAL HISTOR <<, cnccise ce Ss o8S,, >? ‘ toh RPh ty ge UA ay ne ad - , : q > «2 b 2 ; ‘ ’ ‘ » ‘ et \ % 7 +5 a . 5 ~ “ A ‘ ‘ 4 & ‘ iX . r - = . NOMENCLATURE. oa CHA PLE HI. CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE—CHARACTERS OF THE SPECIES. The great damage done in the West during the past few years by ‘‘ crasshoppers” has caused these insects to be more closely observed than formerly, and the members of the Commission are from time to time re- ceiving specimens from persons both east and west inquiring whether they are the much-dreaded species. We have therefore concluded to give a brief outline of the classification of the family to which this species belongs, and of the characters by which the group and species may be distinguished from other groups and species which are closely allied. When the popular name of a group of insects or other animals, that is generally accepted, corresponds somewhat closely in its application to the scientific division, it is not difficult to convey to the general reader a correct idea of the position and characters of a given species by refer- ence to and comparison with well-known species of that group. Un- fortunately, in the present instance, not only is the opportunity for refer- ence to well-known species wanting, but the popular names applied to species and groups are so confused and erroneous that their use is caleu- lated to convey incorrect ideas to unscientific readers. Even the name locust as formerly, and yet very generally, applied in this country is incorrectly used, referring to an insect not even belonging to the same order as the locusts of oriental countries. The “ seventeen-year locust” of North America is, in fact, not a locust: in the true sense, but a species of Cicada, or harvest-fly, belonging to the order Hemiptera, which contains only insects with a mouth prolonged into a horny, jointed tube formed for sucking the juices of the plants or animals on which they feed. On the contrary, the locusts of the Old World, to which the term was originally and correctly applied, are species of migratory grasshoppers belonging to the order Orthoptera, and are furnished with strong biting jaws or mandibles. There are other very material differences between the two, but these will suffice to show that they are quite distinct. The very common name “ grasshopper” has likewise been unfortunate in its use and application not only in a popular sense, but even by scientists, referring at one time to the true locusts or to the various Species of the family to which they belong, and at another to species of a different family, which includes katydids. In fact, the term as gener- ally used applies to most of the species of two different families of Or- thoptera. In order, therefore, to convey a correct idea of the destructive 32 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. Species now under consideration we are necessarily compelled to fall - back upon the scientific arrangement and characters of the family, sub- divisions, and species. Commencing with the order, we will give briefly the characters of the various divisions and subdivisions leading to the genus Caloptenus, to which the Rocky Mountain locust belongs, omitting those divisions and groups not represented in the United States, and referring only to those characters which are most easily recognized, and which apply specially to our acridian fauna. The Order ORTHOPTERA is distinguished from the other orders of the insect class chiefly by the following characters: Mouth furnished with - mandibles or strong biting jaws; wings four (occasionally wanting), upper pair coriaceous or parchment-like and flexible; under pair thin and membranous, folding lengthwise only in plaits like a fan; trans- formations incomplete, being active in all stages after hatching from the ess. sol Although not as extensive as some other orders, it contains a large number of species which differ very materially in appearance and charac- ters, and are generally known in this country by the common names earwigs, cockroaches, devil’s-horses, walking-sticks, grasshoppers, and crickets. Each of these names, except the next to the last, represents a distinct family of the order, thus: ar wiGsioy. Js 2 2a i, NS hes ERE. A aid 7 -Family 1. Forficulida. Cockroaches (OL es A A Uo Wad, sess eee Family 2. Blattide. Devril’sthormesay. Wk: of? lee ase ae Family 3. Mantide. Walking-sticks..... DBA a, Ee es Family 4. Phasmide. VENI DEO ee, aaa, See Family 5. Aeridide. Ser aes ee ee somes tat Family 6. Locustide. Crickets! ene tien teeeds ded aaelitetian Jee oe Family 7. Gryllide. As will be seen from this list, there is no confusion between the scien- tific and common names until we reach *‘ grasshoppers,” among which our insect belongs. Other names, it is true, are sometimes applied to. insects of the previous families, but with the exception of ‘‘ earwig” they correspond in their application with the family limits as here given. As before stated, the term “ grasshopper” is applied to insects of two families—Acridide and Locustide; but notwithstanding this difficulty | in using the popular name, the insects which compose the family are easily distinguished from each other by prominent characters. Locustide includes those species usually found on the grass, bushes, and trees, which have very long, thread-like antenna, generally longer than the body of the insect ; the tarsi or feet are four-jointed ; the female is furnished at the tip of the abdomen with an exserted ovipositor, usually more or less curved and sword-shaped; and the upper wings of the male are furnished, at the base, with a peculiar arrangement of the nerves, with which, by rubbing them together, they produce sharp, shrill notes. To this family belong the true grasshoppers, the katydids, and LOCUST VS. GRASSHOPPER. Se _ similar insects; it is true there are other species which strongly resemble and are usually called “ crickets” that belong to this family. Acridide, includes those species which usually reside on the ground, and are distinguished from those of the other families of saltatorial orthoptera by the following characters : The antennze are comparatively short, never exceeding the body in length, and in North American species composed of from twelve to twenty-five joints; the tarsi are apparently three-jointed; the females are furnished at the tip of the abdomen with four short corneous pieces, two of which curve upward and two downward ; the male is without the shrilling organ at the base of the wings found in the Locustide. This family contains the true locusts, such as those of oriental coun- tries and the Rocky Mountain locust; also such so-called grasshoppers as the common red-legged species of the States and those found hop- ping on the ground in open waste fields, along roadsides, &c. There- fore, in speaking hereafter of these species, we shall use the term locust. As the family contains a very large number of species varying consid- erably in form and character, entumologists have endeavored to divide it into sections or subfamilies, by bringing together those minor groups having certain characters in common. ‘The various results of these attempts cannot be introduced here, as this would not only require too much space, but also the introduction of matter of purely scientific in- terest, and of no practical use in this brief review of the classification. These subdivisions vary in number according to the characters selected by the different authors, some. making as many as eleven sub- families, others only two or three. Yet, as a general rule, the difference is not so much in the grouping as in the value attached to the groups, the subfamilies of one author being considered as subordinate divisions by other authors. Without undertaking at this time to decide upon the respective mer- . its of these several arrangements, we have selected for present purposes that which makes but three subfamilies, as it appears to be the simplest and most easily understood by general readers. In our descriptions of these subdivisions we shall confine ourselves to those represented in the | orthopteral fauna of that portion of North America north of Mexico, and so far as possible select such characters only as are necessary to distin- guish these divisions from each other. The first subfamily, Proscopine, contains only exotic species, and may therefore be omitted from further consideration. | The second subfamily, Acridine, is distinguished by having the pro- notum in the form of a shield, which covers the prothorax and extends backward at farthest only a short distance upon the base of the abdo- men, never reaching more than half way to the tip, and seldom half this ‘distance; the prosternum or front breast is drawn up, that is, it is not in the same plane as the rest of the sternum or breast; it is spined, 3G 34 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. tubercled, or smooth, but never advanced upon the mouth in the form of a, muffler; elytra or upper wings, when preseut, always as long as the wings; tarsi with pads between the claws. The third subfamily, Tettigine, is characterized by having the prono- tum, in the form of a shield, extending backward nearly or quite to the tip of the abdomen, and sometimes even beyond it; the prosternum in the same plane as the rest of the sternum, and advanced upon the mouth in the form of a muffler; elytra when present usually shorter than the wings, and placed at the sides of the body; tarsi without pads between the claws. ; The two latter families are represented in the United States, but the great body of our locusts belong to the Acridine, the species of Tettigine being comparatively few, quite smail, and seldom noticed by unscientific observers. As the Caloptenus spretus and all other migra- tory locusts belong to Acridine, we shall limit our further consideration to this subfamily. It contains several subordinate groups, but the charac- ters by which these are distinguished from each other are not so appar- ent and uniform as those separating the subfamilies, nor is it necessary _ for us in this general report to attempt an explanation of these differ- ences. Perhaps we may as well state here that no arrangement we have seen can be considered satisfactory. The form of the head and antenne, formerly selected as characters, are too indefinite to meet the demands of science, while those adopted by Stal in his most recent arrangement can scarcely be considered of sufficient value or importance to render them more satisfactory; they also fail to separate forms which we think ought not be brought together. To bring togetber the long conical head, ensiform antenne, and elongate body of Truzalis with the round head, filiform antenne, and massive bodies of some of the heavier Oedipode, and to separate such forms as Pachytylus migratorius and Acridium pere- _grinum, cannot be justified simply because of the presence or absence of a little prosternal spine or transverse pronotal sulcus. The difficulty arises from the fact that the Truxalide gradually separate into the two branches represented in part by the Acridw and Oedipode, the transition from the former to the two latter being so gradual that it is almost im- possible to mark the dividing line. But any system which fails to recog- nize the Truxalid group and yet separates the two latter is defective and | unsatisfactory. Therefore, for want of a better arrangement, we adopt for the present the following, although aware that it is defective, but it enables us to eliminate the Truxalid group, which is the only use we wish to make of it at this time. : A. The head conical or pyramidal; the face very oblique, or sloped _ under toward the breast; the antenne usually, though not always, enlarged at the base; hind legs comparatively slender. Truxalint. CHARACTERS OF MIGRATORY LOCUSTS. 35 A A. Head more or less ovoid or subglobular; face perpendicular or nearly so, never very oblique, though often somewhat arcuate below; anteune filiform, subdepressed or clavate, and not en- larged at the base; hind legs generally robust and very distinctly enlarged at the base. a. Prosternum or front breast armed with a spine or tubercle. Acridint. aa. Presternum unarmed........- HS ee wah ay tatiana Oedipodini. Although at least one species of Ocdipodini is migratory in the Old World, and a species in North America (Camnula pellucida Sceudd.) be- longing to the same group was formerly supposed to be the migratory locust of California, vet at present our observations are confined to Acridini, which contains the destructive locust of the West. This limits us to those species found in the United States which have the head more or lees subglobular or ovoid, and the front breast armed with a spine. The latter character is easily recognized by any one, as the spine may be seen by examining the under side of the neck; it usually stands out like a little blunt thorn, very distinct. If this is wanting, the observer may know without further observation that his specimen does not belong to the migratory species of our country. If it has the spine, and the head is not conical or pyramidal, then he must refer to the characters hereafter given of the genera and species. We have now reached the genera, which cannot be fully discussed at present, as this would require, if properly done, a revision of the Calop- teni and Pezotettigi, and an examination of all our native species. We will, therefore, simply mention the more important genera of the group represented in the United States, calling attention to a few of the more prominent characters by which Caloptenus is separated from those genera most closely allied to it. We will also make use of localities, habits, &e., wherever they will assist the general reader in any way in determining whether or not a given specimen belongs to Caloptenus. The following genera of Acridit which are mentioned by North eae ean authors may be omitted from further consideration for the reasons given below: Bit Tropidacris, Dictyophorus, Rhomalea, Ommatolampis, Platyphyma, Dactylotum, and Chrumacris. The first contains only gigantic species, and if represented at all in the United States, it is only by a single species occasionally found along the southwestern border of Texas. Rhomalea may be considered as a synonym of Dictyaphorus, which is represented by but two subtropical species, which are large, with brightly colored under-wings, chiefly red; while those of our Calopteni are transparent. Ommatolampis has been superseded by Mr. Scudder’s new genus Hes- perotettiz. 386 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. Platyphyma and Chromacris have probably been introduced by mis- take. Dactylotum has been introduced into our nomenclature for the recep- tion of a very short-winged and brightly-colored species—Pezotettix picta Thos. This leaves only the following genera as necessary to be considered : Acridium, Caloptenus, Hesperotettix and Pezotettix. As Hesperotettiz contains, so far as we are aware, but three species, easily distinguished from Caloptenus spretus by the following characters and facts, it may also be excluded: One is short-winged, green, and found only in the Eastern Middle States; another somewhat common in the West is green, with reddish bands around the femora; the other has so far been found only in Arizona; it is yellow, thickly dotted over with black, and the antenne annulated with alternate colors. There is a difference of opinion in reference to the characters of the genera Caloptenus and Pezotettix; Protessor Stal, of Sweden, maintain- ing that if properly limited Caloptenus does not embrace any of our species. He places C. femur-rubrum, and consequently the closely allied species, in Pezotetttx. Without attempting to discuss the question so far as if relates to the proper characters, we have concluded, for reasons which will be mentioned further on, to retain the name Caloptenus and to use the genus in the sense understood by American and most Euro- pean authors. Although the chief distinction between this genus and Pezotettixz, as adopted in this country, the difference in the length of the wings, cannot be considered satisfactory, yet, as it will answer present purposes, we will avail ourselves of it in order to eliminate the group from consideration. Acridium, so far as rep in the United States, may be characterized as follows: Vertex but slightly inclined, angularly expanded in front of the eyes; antennal grooves profound aii extending downward to the clypeus; eyes elongate-elliptical. Pronotum somewhat compressed on the sides, depth usually considerably more than the width, moderately but dis- tinctly expanding behind the last sulcus (very slightly in rubiginosum) ; lateral carinz obsolete on the anterior lobes, the sides rounding up somewhat as the sides of an arch to the median carina; the dorsum of — the posterior lobe more flattened, with the lateral carine subdistincet ; the lower margin of the lateral lobes straight, the posterior lateral angle slightly obtuse, varying from about 100° to 110°; posterior margin ob- tuse-angled and rounded at the tip. Elytra and wings, with one ex- ception, considerably longer than theabdomen, and in the exception pass it slightly. Abdomen elongate, rather slender; that of the male not en- larged at the tip; the last segment of the male subconical and dis- tinetly notched at the tip, usually with a square notch; cerci of the male flat, usually broad, oblong, and straight. Prosternal spine,robust, subeylindrical, blunt, and approximating the margin of the mesoster- num. The spines of the posterior tibiz always have at least the basal GENERIC NOMENCLATURE. 37 portion pale, either yellowish or white, even when the tibiz are black. Posterior femora long, reaching to the tip of the abdomen, moderately robust, the outer face flat. The species, with one exception, are large, the females exceeding two inches in length; the exception, rubiginosum, is rare in the West, and so far has not been found west of the Mississippi. We have omitted A. Jrontalis Thos., as it does not properly belong to this genus, having been placed here by the author provisionally. As it is green, there is no danger of its being confounded with C. spretus. To this genus be- longs A. americanum, a large reddish-brown species, marked on the outer wings with cellular quadrate fuscous spots, which often does con- siderable injury to crops in the sections south of the latitude of Saint Louis, which is nearly its northern limit. In 1875 and 1876, and evenin 1877, it was seen migrating in considerable numbers, causing much alarm, as those who saw them supposed they were veritable Rocky Mountain locusts. Such flights were observed in Southeast Indiana, Scuthwest Ohio, Southern Illinois, and Georgia. These flights are very limited in extent, reaching at farthest but a mile or two. Their large size, coloring, generic characters, and southern habitats will readily distingush them from the C. spretus. We may remark here that one of the most destructive migratory species of Southwestern Asia and Northern Africa (Acridium peregrinum) is not only congenerie with this species, but so closely resembles it that ordinary observation would scarcely detect the differences between the two. As before stated, the characters by which the genus brats is dis- tinguished are not satisfactory, and undoubtedly require revision, but in this country the abbreviation or want of wings has generally been adopted as a leading character, which, whether well-chosen or not, is sufficient to distinguish its species from C. spretus, which answers our present purpose. This limits us to the genus Caloptenus, and the species | belonging to it which are found north of Mexico. As before intimated, Dr. Stal, of Sweden, in his recent work on Orthoptera (Recensio Orthopterorum), has so modified the characters of Caloptenus (if we admit his Calliptenus as a synonym) and Peczotettix, that none of our species which have heretofore been placed in the former can be retained, some, as C. femur-rubrum, C. spretus, and closely allied species being referred to a subdivision of the latter genus named by the author Melanoplus. He emends the Calliptamus of Serville to Calliptenus. i If this change is followed, it will add to the confusion of the nomen- clature of this group, inflicting on it a host of synonyms where they are already too numerous. If the rule in relation priority require this change, then we might be disposed to submit to it and adopt it, other- wise we prefer to retain those names which by long usage and general acceptance have been woven into all of our entomological and other writings where the insects of this group are mentioned. Let us then - 38 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. examine this point for a moment, using what Mr. Thomas has stated in his article on Orthoptera in Lieutenant Wheeler’s report of his explora- tions as a basis. . Dr. Stal holds that we have no Calopteni in North America, most of the species which have usually been placed in that genus being refer- able to Pezotettir. In his diagnosis of these genera the chief distine- tions given are as follows: In Calliptenus the elytra are destitute of the intercalate vein; the posterior femora broad and distinctly serrateabove; the posterior sulcus in the middle or before the middle. In Pezotettix the elytra are usually abbreviated or rudimentary, and furnished with an intercalate vein; the upper margin of the posterior femora entire and unarmed; posterior sulcus of the pronotum some- times situated behind the middle. The genus was established by Serville in 1831, in his article entitled ‘Revue Methodique des Insectes de Vordre des Orthoptéres,” vol. 22, Annales des Sciences Naturelles, with the following as its distinguishing characters : Calliptamus (xad2oc uxrauar). Posterior legs longer than the body, robust, and salta- ‘torial. Abdomen tirm, neither inflated nor vesicular. Anterior extremity of the pros- ternum not covering the mouth, the latter [prosternum] having a rather robust, straight, and obtuse point [spine]. A pad (rather small) between the tarsal claws. Antenne filiform, composed of more than twenty cylindric rather indistinct joints. Head vertical, without frontal projection, or having one that is but slightly prominent, and obtuse anteriorly. The middle carinew of the face with a space between them ; sometimes but slightly prominent inferiorly. Ocellus distinct. Tibi neither widened or channeled above; lower three-fourths of the upper side with two rows of closely- set spines; first joint of the tarsi elongated. Eyes oval. Pronotum distinetly tricar- inate above; lateral carine as prominent as the median one; its transverse stria slightly distinct. Posterior margin more orlessrounded. Elytra and wiugs of ordinary length. Legs robust. in this genus he included the following species: 1. C. sanguinipes, from South America. 2. C. italicus, from Africa and Europe. 3. C. morio, from Africa, Switzerland, and Pyrenees. It is evident the author did not base his diagnosis chiefly on C. italicus, as some of the characters used are made prominent because of their greater prominence in one of the other of the three species. Afterward, in 1839, in his Histoire des Orthoptéres, the same author removed C.morio to Gidipoda, as it was in fact no Acridian; he also returned C. sanguinipes to Acridium. He also gave a new diagnosis of the genus, as follows: Posterior legs robust, much shorter than in the preceding genus (Acridium) ; femora short, much enlarged, very strongly channeled below; tibiz short, stout, having on the lower three-fourths of the upper side two rows of spines, the basal ones very short ; the under side of the femora and upper side of the tibiz fringed with fine hairs; the terminal spines (or spurs) large, curved. Tarsi straight, furnished with a little pad between the claws; the first joint of the posterior as long as the two last united. SUBGENERIC CHARACTERS. 39 Head large; anterior face vertical; with four distinct carine; front a little flattened between the eyes, and also strongly suleate. Antenn shost, filiform, multiarticulate ; joints indistinct, cylindrical. Pronotum short, shagreened, or almost smooth: its disk flat; transverse incisions feeble; dorsal carina distinct, lateral more or less prominent ; the posterior border sloped slightly obliquely on the sides; median point somewhat salient. Prosternum furnished in the middle with a strong spine, somewhat enlarged, and very obtuse at the apex. Elytra short, not passing the abdomen, generally equal to itin length. Wings short, not quite the length of the elytra. Eyes large, oblong, slightly prominent. Palpi short; joints cylindrical. Breast large, flat. Abdomen en- larged, strongly unicarinate above; terminal pieces of the female short, as are also the appendages (cerci). Subanal plate of the male somewhat triangular, pointed, and entire at the tip; elevated or straight; appendages of this sex more or less long ; some- times setaceous and curved; in others larger, horny, curved inwards, and truncate at the tip. - Here he divides the genus into two sections, as follows: First. Abdominal appendages of the male sometimes setaceous, a little curved as the horn of anox. Subanal plate of the male rather short, elevated. Pronotum sha- greencd ; its posterior median point somewhat prominent. Second. Abdominal appendages of the male very large, corneous, bent interiorly en cuiller at the extremity, where it is subtruncate. Subanal plate of the male almost ’ straight. C. italicus is placed in the latter division. The removal of the two species mentioned above left C. ttalicus as the only original representative of his genus. But in the mean time Bur- meister redescribes the genns, and changes the name to Caloptenus, in- cluding in it as describad and understood by him not only ztalicus, but also the American species femur-rubrum, femoratus, and bivittatus, be- sides a nnmber of other exotic species. This author in his Handbuch der Entomologie (1838) describes the genus as follows, giving Calliptamus of Serville as asynonym: A more compressed and yet in general more pleasing structure of the body betrays the members of this genus. Moreover, its head stands entirely vertical, has no no- ticably prominent apex, and the two median frontal carine are united into a flat bulge, which, in the neighborhood of the lower ocellus, is obsolete. The margins of the vertex in front of the eyes are rather sharp, and the part between them is notice- ably depressed (suleate). Thestrong mouth parts (mandibles) are distinguished, on closer examination, by several pointed teeth on the inner margin. The pronotum has distinctly marked lateral borders (or caring), and a sometimes distinctly, sometimes less prominent median line (carina); the posterior margin is more or less salient; and the last of the transverse impressed lines cuts the median carina abont its middle. The prosternum has an obtuse vertical spine: the flat meso- and metasternum are broad. Wings and elytra without distinctive characters. Hind femora thick, strongly com- pressed, with prominent carina above; as long as the abdomen. The male in this genus is especially distinguished by the great development of its genitalia, which causes a spherical thickening of the apex of the abdomen. The terminal ventral plate is, moreover, sometimes large, and envelopes the apex, and sometimes no longer than usual ; in the latter case the cerci are very large and curved inward. In this C. femoratus, “from Carolina,” appears to be his type; C. Jemur-rubrum being placed next, and C. ttalicus third. 40 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. Attention is called to the fact that neither of the authors mentioned. alludes to the serratures on the posterior femora, or want of the inter- calate vein of the elytra. Serville evidently intended, by some of the characters given in his first description of the genus, to distinguish it from Pneumora, belonging to a wholly different group; his pronatal characters are also inapplicaple to most of the species which have usually been placed in the genus. Omitting these, nothing remains in his diag- nosis but what is applicable to a number of other genera. Taking these facts into consideration, we are forced to consider the Caloptenus of Burmeister, although given but as an emendation of Ser- ville’s Calliptamus, asreally a newgenus. This being the case, C. femur- rubrum must be retained as the type, unless femoratus is considered a good species. It is also worthy of remark that Seville’s genus does not appear to have been adopted or used by any other author previous to the publica- . tion of Burmeister’s Handbuch. On the contrary, Brulle (Hist. Nat., 1835); O. G. Costa (Fauna di Napoli, 1836), and Hahn (Icon. Orthop., 1835), retain italicus in Acridium. . The character of Caloptenus and Pezotettix, as given by H. Fischer, — (Orthoptera Europea, 1853) were evidently intended to embrace only — Kuropean species, and although we infer from his remarks that he wouid include our species of Calopteni in the former genus, yet the characters render it very doubtful where they would fall. Therefore, while we admit that the group stood sadly in need of re- vision at the time Stal entered upon the work, yet we do not think the facts warrant him in dropping the generic name Caloptenus or in remov- ing femur-rubrum therefrom, hence we cannot follow him in this change. This is, perhaps, not a proper place to discuss a question of this kind, but we have considered it necessary to say this much in ex- ann of our reasons for differing with so distinguished an entomol- ogist in his special field as Dr. Stal. Under the circumstances it is perhaps best that we should define the genus as we understand it, or at least give the characters which the North American species have in common which we include in Caloptenus. These are as follows: : CALOPTENUS, Gen. char. Head subglobular, front vertical, or nearly so. Eyes ovoid, sometimes almost sub- orbicular, but usually the length is to the breadth as three to two, and the front side is more or less straightened; usually the upper canthus is more or less angular, but some- times it is rounded so as to obliterate the angle; generally rounder and more promi- nent in the male than in the female; separated above by a little less than their width. Vertex narrow between the eyes, the width at this point being a little less than the width of the eye; usually though not always sulcate, the suleus or groove shallow; expanding slightly, abruptly, and angularly immediately in front of the eyes; deflexed (15° to 40°), and generaily rounded in front. Frontal costa usually quite prominent, about as broad as the vertex between the eyes; sides parallel ; flat, or shallowly sulcate, DIAGNOSIS OF THE GENUS CALOPTENUS. AL reaching to or nearly to the clypeus. Pronotom subquadrate, that is to say, a cross section (in the middle) will present a quadrate figure or parallelogram with the upper corners slightly rounded; the sides are nearly perpendicular; the disk or dorsal sur- face is very nearly flat, with a little thread-like, median carina, usually distinct on the posterior lobe, but sometimes obliterated on the middle and anterior lobes; the lateral carinz are obtuse, but distinctly marked as the angle where ths disk and sides meet ; on the posterior lobe they sometimes appear as true carinz, though not prominent or sharp; the lower margin of the sides is nearly straight, sometimes projecting a little in the middle, where the triangular corner piece connects ; the posterior lateral margin varies somewhat; in some species it forms a distinct entering angle at the shoulder or lateral carina, in others it continues to the tip in an almost straight line; the three transverse incisions are distinct and situated close together, the posterior one being a little behind the middle and always cutting the middle carina; all three sever the lateral carinz, but the anterior one ends at the upper margin of the sides with a slight and short. curve forward; the posterior and middle ones extend down the sides well toward the lower margin, and most generally about midway down the posterior sends out at right angles a branch sulcus which often crosses the intermediate space to the middle one; there is also a fourth sulcus extending down the sides close to the anterior margin; the posterior sulcus and usually the middle one make a short curve forward immediately at the median earina; the posterior margin is obtuse-angled, rounded at the tip; the posterior lobe is usually finely punctured, while the middle and anterior lobes have a velvety or felty appearance. The elytra and wings extend to or beyond the tip of the abdomen; the former are narrow (except in C. bivittatus); the latter transparent in all our species ; sometimes a very slight greenish-yellow or a bluish tinge is observed, the nerves usually more or less dark. The abdomen is usually subcylindrical, presenting no distinct keel above; that of the male enlarged at the tip and curved upward; the cerci are usually flat, rounded at the tip, and curved up but some are straight and others tapering. The last abdominal segment, which curves upward like the prow of a boat, is some- times truncate above, sometimes with a slight angular notch.. Posterior femora ro- bust, much enlarged near the base, the external face more or less convex, in the female never longer and generally shorter than the abdomen; in the male the reveres is the rule. Pads between the claws large, reaching a maximum size in some of the species. Most of our species have the upper portion of the inner face of the posterior ‘thighs marked with three oblique dark bands (the one at the base often indistinct). There is generally a dark stripe on the side running back from the eye to the last transverse sulcus of the pronotum; it is often interrupted, broken, or partially obliterated, but is seldom wholly wanting in those species any way closely allied to C. spretus or C. femur-rubrum. The antenne are filiform and slender, reaching their maxi- mum length in the male of C. differentialis, where they sometimes attain the middle of the body. The prosternal spine is usually stout and conical, quadrangular at the base, and generally slightly transverse; in one or two species it approximates the mesoster- num, but this is not usual. Our species vary in length from 6-10 to 24 inches. The genus as thus characterized is represented in the territory em- braced in our observations by a number of species, several of which are so closely allied to C. spretus that it is difficult for any but an expe- rienced entomologist to determine to which a specimen belongs. We think it more than likely that future investigations will show that several of the species which have been described as distinct are but varieties of other closely-allied species. The following list contains all the species found in the United States 42 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. 1 which have been described up to the present time, except a few men-— tioned by older authors, which have not been identified in recent vears: C. femur-rubrum, Deg. C. robusius, Scudd. C. Yarrowit, Thos. spretus, Thos. Turnbullii, Thos. regalis, Dodge. atlanis, Riley. floridanus, Thos. fasciatus, Scudd. repletus, Walk. angustipennis, Dodge. _helluo, Seudd. bilituratis, Walk. plumbum, Dodge. devorator, Scudd. — punctulatus, Uhler. bivittatus, Say. ponderosus, Scudd. lurida, Dodge. differentialis, Thos. flavolineatus, Thos. minor, Seudd. griseus, Thos. Keelerii, Thos. gracilipes, Scudd. scriptus, Walk. — wolucris, Dodge. deletor, Scudd. occidentalis, Thos. Although this list of species is somewhat large, it will be necessary to call attention to but few of them, as the larger number can easily be disposed of by reference to locality or a single character. C. spretus, or Rocky Mountain locust, as will hereafter be more fully shown, is a comparatively small species, the body seldom exceeding one inch and a quarter in length, slender, the elytra or upper wings longer than the body, of a pale brownish color, with small squarish darker spots arranged along the middle line; body some shade of brown, never distinctly green or bright yellow, and without pale or yellow stripes along the back. By referring to locality, we may oivannes the following species: C. floridanus and Keelerti. So far only found in Florida. C. griseus. With spots scattered over the elytra; rare, and hitherto dis- covered only in Ohio. C. bivittatus. A widely-dispersed species, much larger than spretus, with two yellow or pale stripes along the back. C. differentialis. Our largest species belonging to the genus, one and a - half to two inches long, without spots on the elytra.. CO. Turnbullii. Dull yellowish-brown, with two broad yellow stripes; wings scarcely as long as the abdomen. C. repletus and scriptus. Hitherto found only in northwest part of Wash- ington Territory. The following species are local in the places mentioned, and are dis- _ tinguished by having the last abdominal segment of the male rounded or squarely truncate at the tip, whereas that of spretus is notched : C. plumbum, Nebraska; tip of male abdomen rounded. C. ponderosus, Texas; tip of male abdomen rounded. C. robustus, Texas; tip of male abdomen rounded. C. devorator, Texas; tip of the male abdomen truncate. C. deletor, Texas; tip of the male abdomen rounded. CO. glaucipes, Texas; tip of the male abdomen acuminate but rounded. C. fasciatus, Texas and Nebraska; tip of the male abdomen rounded. OC. minor, Nebraska; very small; tip of the male abdomen tuberculate. C. lurida, Nebraska; last ventral segment of the male entire. SPECIES OF THE GENUS CALOPTENUS. 43 C. volucris, Nebraska; terminal segment of the male abdomen pointed at the tip; elytra unspotted. Some of these are doubtless good species and may be found to be more widely distributed than our present knowledge would indicate. Some of them are most probably local offshoots or varieties of femur-rubrum. C. heliuo is from Texas; the female only has been observed, and has the spots on the elytra scattered throughout. C. regalis has been observed at only one locality in Nebraska, is very distinct, being marked to a greater or less degree with bluish and white; disk of the elytra white, and veins of the wings white; hind tibia bright blue, with a white annulus near the knee. C. Yarrowi is known only by a single female, probably from Arizona, but possibly from Nevada; elytra brown, with oblong yellow spots along the disk, scarcely as long as the abdomen. C. flavolineatus, from Southern California, is evidently very closely allied to spretus, and in all probability is but a southwest or Pacific coast variety of it. It is distingtished from that species by being some- what fleshier, shorter wings, and its bright yellow lines. The last ventral segment of the male is very slightly notched. C. angustipennis has been observed only in Nebraska, and is evidently a local variety of C. atlanis ; in fact, the characters given Said justify its being designated as a variety. C. punctulatus, found in New England, 1s probably nee more han a sectional variety of femur-rubrum. C. occidentalis, found west from Minnesota to Colorado, although possess- ing distinctive characters, is probably nothing more than an offshoot from femur-rubrum, not like atlanis in the direction of spretus. C. bilituratus, Washington Territory, has been observed at but one or two points. This leaves but three species, femur. rubrum, spretus, and atlanis, which require special mention in this connection, as they are the only ones generally distributed which are so closely ten to each other as to render it difficult to distinguish them. Caloptenus spretus, Thomas. Asevery fact relating to the history and habits of this species is either of economic or scientific interest, we give here a brief history of its no- menclature. | About 1860, Mr. Thomas, then residing in Southern Illinois, sent some Specimens of Orthoptera collected in that locality to Mr. P. R. Uhler, of Baltimore, Md., for determination; among those returned was one marked Acridium spretis, with a note stating that it was new. In a paper written by Mr. Thomas on “ Insects injurious to vegetation in Illinois,” in 1862, but not published until 1865 (Trans. Il. St. Agi. Soc., V), he describes a species of locust under the name A. spretis Uhler, as follows: | General color a dark, brownish purple, with dusky points and lighter rays. Head brown, with dusky points; antennew reddish yellow. Thorax an ashy brown, with a 44 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. velvety luster on the anterior half, the latter balf punctured ; the lower edges, at the sides, paler—sometimes pale red, at others almost white. Elytra extending about half over the abdomen (or not exceeding two-thirds), marked along their internal margins with a light, reddish-brown ray ; external margin dusky; a few dusky dots along the internal margins. Wings not quite as long as the elytra; transparent, pale yellowish on the disk, tinged with red at the base (in recent specimens). Posterior thighs crossed by two black bands, and black at the knees; intermediate spaces pale yellow—often almost white. Length of female, one inch and three-eighths; of the male, slightly over an inch. This species is quite common here along the road-side and among low weeds and grass. ; Immediately after this, in the same paper, follows a brief description of femur-rubrum, showing that he then considered the two species as dis- tinct. But there is evidently some mistake in his description; although it agrees in part with the characters of spretus, part of the description cannot possibly apply to that species. The original specimens were destroyed soon after the paper alluded to was written, and Mr. Thomas. is unable at present to explain the error, and knows of no species in Southern Illinois to which the description will apply throughout. It is more than probable that there was some confusion of specimens at the time the description was written. It is possible that one or more of the three specimens ‘a. b. ¢.” (Walker’s Cat. Dermap. Salt.) of the British Museum are from the collection made by Mr. Thomas at that time. In the “ Practical Entomologist” (October, 1866), Mr. Walsh notices this species somewhat at length under the name of Caloptenus spretus, quot- ing Mr. Uhler as authority, but gives no further description than a com- parison of the length of the wings with those of C. femur-rubrum. In Mr. Scudder’s **Catalogue of the Orthoptera of North America,” published in 1868, it is mentioned under the name -Acridium spretum Uhler. ) | No description of the species having been published previous to the appearance of the “ Snyopsis of the Acrididz of North America,” Mr. Thomas described it as follows: Very much like C. femur-rubrum, Burm., the principal difference being in the length of the elytra and wings, a notch at the tip of the last ( ¢) ventral segment. Posterior lobe of the pronotum slightly expanding; median somewhat distinct. Elytra and wings pass the abdomen about one-third their length. The last ( g ) ventral segment, which is turned up almost vertically, is somewhat tapering and is notched at the apex, which distinguishes it from the femur-rubrum ; the notch is small, but is distinct. Pros- ternal spine, robust, subcylindrical, transverse. Migratory. Color.—Scarcely distinct from the C. femur-rubrum. The occiput and disk of the pro- notum generally reddish-brown ; the posterior lobe somewhat paler than the anterior and middle. Spots as in femur-rubrum, arranged in a line along the middle of the ely- tra; these are a little larger and more abundant toward the apex. . The head and tho- rax are sometimes a very dark olive-brown, at others reddish-brown and even brown- ish-yellow, the color deepening withage. The wings are pellucid, nerves dusky toward the apex ;: when flying high and against the sun their wings look like large snow-flakes. Dimensions.— @ Length (to tip of abdomen) 1 to 1.2 inches; elytra as long as the body ; posterior femora, 9.55 inch ; pesterior tibiz,0.5 inch. ¢ Length, 0.85 to 1 inch; elytra, 0.9 to 1.05 inch. . DESCRIPTIONS OF CALOPTENUS SPRETUS. 45 This must, therefore, be accepted as the first description of the spe- cies. In the Report of the Geological Survey of the Territories for 1871 (published in 1872), he described the pupz as follows: General color, yellow (sometimes varied to light-brown, and at others a pale pea- green), with a large proportion of black spots and stripes, also a few white dots and lines; labrum and lower part of the face, mostly black; upper part of the face, the vertex and cheeks yellow (or the prevailing color); a row of black dots on each mar- gin of the broad, suleate, frontal costa; occiput with two lateral and one median dot- ted lines of black; a broad line of deep black starts behind each eye and crosses over the entire length of the pronotum, widening and bowing upward near the middle of the pronotum ; the immature, somewhat fan-shaped elytra [wing-pads] are black, with a white dot on the disk near the base, from which proceed about ten or twelve white rays, the dorsal or upper margiu yellow ; dorsal and lateral portions of the abdomen varied with white and black; a triangular black dot on each side of each segment; _ tip and venter yellowish. In his ‘Seventh Annual Report” (1875), Mr. Riley gives the follow- ing additional characters of the perfect insect from living specimens, also the following descriptions of the larva and pupa: Regarding coloration, as with femur-rubrum, it is quite variable, and the dead spec- imens convey a very imperfect idea of the living colors, which are thus given in my notes taken in the field. The more common specimens are yellowish-white beneath ; glaucous across the breast and about mouth-parts; pale bluish-glaucous, often with shades of purple, on the sides of the head and thorax and.on the front of the face; - olive-brown on the top of the head and thorax; pale beneath, more or less bluish above, and marked with black, especially toward base, on the abdomen. The front wings have the ground-color pale grayish-yellow inclining to green, and their spots and veins brown; the hind wings, except a yellowish or brownish shade at apex and along the front edge, and a green tint at base, are transparent and colorless, with the veins brown. The front and middle legs are yellowish. The hind legs have the thighs striped with pale glaucous and reddish on the outside and upper half of inside, with four broad black or dusky marks on the upper edge, the terminal one extending be- neath around the knee. The shanks are coral-red with black spines; the feet some- what paler with black claws; antennez, pale yellow; palpi, tipped with black. In the dead specimens all these colors become mere dingy and yellow. Palpi and front legs in some specimens tinged with red or blue; the hind tibiz sometimes yellowish instead of red, especially in the middle. Larva.—W hen newly hatched the larva is of auniform pale gray without distinctive marks. It soon becomes mottled with the characteristic marks, however. After the first molt the hind thighs are conspicuously marked on the upper outside with a Jongi- tudinal black line; the thorax is dark with the median dorsal carina and two distinct lateral strips pale yellow, the black extending on the head behind the eyes. The sides of the thorax then become more yellow with each molt, the black on tke hind thighs less pronounced, and the face almost always black. The occiput and abdomen above are mottled with brown, the former marked with a fine median, and two broader anteriorly converging pale lines, the latter with two rather broken lateral lines of the same color. Pupa.—The pupa is characterized by its paler, more yellow color, bringing more strongly into relief the black on the upper part of the thorax and behind the eyes; by the spotted nature of the face, especially along the 1idges, by the isolation of the black subdorsal mark on the two anterior lobes of prothorax, and by the large size of the wing-pads which, visible from the first molt, and increasing with each subsequent molt, are now dark, with a distinct pale discal spot, and pale veins and borders. The hind shanks incline to bluish rather than red, as in the mature insect. 46 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. The following somewhat full description of the perfect insect is given from a comparison of a large number of specimens from different sections: Female.—The face nearly perpendicular, sloping under, toward the breast very slightly ; afew of the specimens reared in confinement form a somewhat marked ex- ception to this character, sloping under (by measurement) 36° from perpendicular, while a deflexion of 15° appears to be the extreme of those collected. Vertex between the eyes same width as the frontal costa just above the central ocellus, and distinctly less than the shortest diameter of the eyes; the fastigium, or portion of the vertex in front of the eyes, more or less distinctly channeled, and deflexed at an angle of about 40° from horizontal. Eyes nearly straight in front from the upper to the lower can- thus, about semicircular behind. Antenne quite slender, and rather short, reaching only toor but slightly beyond the tip of the pronotum. Pronotum short, the anterior portion scarcely as broad as the head ; sides of the an- terior lobes parallel, the posterior lobe expanding somewhat rapidly posteriorly; the median carina threadlike, but always distinct on the posterior lobe, usually obsolete ‘on the anterior lobes; lateral carinze obtuse but distinct on the posterior lobe, usually so on the middle lobe but becoming obsolete toward the front; posterior lateral mar- gin perpendicular from the humeral angle one-third its length then curves forward to the posterior lateral angle which is obtuse and rounded; the (entering) humeral angle is sharply defined, and in this respect appears to differ from C. femur-rubrum and C. atlanis; the apex is obtuse, angled (about 100°) rounded at the point; posterior lobe minutely and shallowly punctured throughout, anterior lobes smooth with few or no punctures except along the lower margin of the sides. Elytra and wings extend- ing beyond the tip of the abdomen from one-fourth to one-third their length (see meas- urements given below); the elytra are of nearly uniform width throughout, slightly curving upward at the apex, the thin portion (that part in which the branch nerves curve upward) occupying about two-fifths of the length; wings a little shorter than the elytra, very thin and delicate; nerves and nervules very slender. Abdomen, and in fact the whole insect, rather more slender than usual in this genus, but this appear- ance is partly due to the elongated wings s cerci very small, triangular or tooth-shaped, not extending across the segment on which they rest; the valves of the ovipositor quite prominent, especially the upper pair which are more than usually exerted, sharp at the tips, and deeply excavated above. The posterior femora usually extend about to the tip of the abdomen, and are rather slender in comparison with some = spe- cies of the genus. Color.—Reddish-brown with fuscous spots. Head and the pronotum back to the. posterior sulcus reddish-brown varying in depth in individuals; the face is sometimes of a lighter and brighter red than the pronotum, sometimes darker assuming a dark purplish hue; the posterior lobe of the pronotum is generally a pale, olive brown, its lighter color contrasting somewhat distinetly with the darker shades of the anterior portion ; some individuals exhibit much lighter colors than here described, varying from a very dark brown to adull yellow. Specimens which have but recently entered ' the perfect state often show on the posterior lobe traces of the dark longitudinal lines seen inthe pupa. The dark line on the side of the head and pronotum usually so con- spicuous in the closely allied species is generally obliterated in this species by the dark brown color, but it usually appears distinctly in specimens which have been immersed for some time in alcohol, and is also manifest in the pale individuals, but is broken up by pale spaces and lines. The eyes are shining black. Elytra ash-brown, more or less tinged with reddish-brown at the base and fading toward the apex; in the disk er middle field, commencing near the base, where this field comes to a point, is an irregular row of fuscous dots, usually single to where the thin portion com- mences, now and then a double dot appearing; from this point to the apex they de- crease in size and distinctness and spread over the entire width; as a general rule the MEASUREMENTS OF CALOPTENUS SPRETUS.. AT inner field (posterior marginal area) is marked with a few fuscous dots; in some indi- viduals one or two quite distinct are seen, in others they are very minute and dim, and not unfrequently they are entirely wanting. Wings transparent, with a very slight yellowish tinge at the base ; nerves and nervules of the costal area and apical portion black, rest pale. The abdomen is generally glossy brown with the posterior margins of the segments pale; venter yellowish or pale brown; sternum pale brown or dull yellow. Anteriorand middle legs usually more or less rufous but varying from reddish-brown to pale honey-yellow. Posterior femora with the disk reddish-brown, sometimes showing dim outlines of oblique bands; the inner face and lower carina yellowish, the latter usually tinged with red; the upper carina and upper portion of the inner face yellowish, marked with three large black spots or partial bands, one at the base, the other two equally spaced in the middle portion ; apex or knee black or with a black crescent each side. The posterior tibi~ vary in color from a bright coral red to pale yellow, and in some cases to bluish. Measurements (these are given below). Male.—Differs from the female as follows: Is somewhat smaller, the average differ- ence in the length of tne body being shown by the measurements given below; the wings are nearly or quite as long as in the female; it is also somewhat slenderer, but these differences are too slight and variable to be of any value as characteristics ; the abdomen is enlarged or widened posteriorly and curved upward at the apex; the last ventral segment being elongated, rounded and narrowed upward like the prow of a boat, and at the tip is distinctly notched, the lobes somewhat tubercular in form; this part of the apical segment is covered with minute scattering hairs. This notch forms one of the chief characteristics of the species, at least the most important one in dis- tinguishing it from femur-rubrum. The super anal plate, or triangular piece above the anal opening, is sharply bicarinate longitudinally ; the tooth-like appendages at the base, above, are narrow and slender. The cerci.are somewhat longer than the width of the preceding segment, are broad and flat throughout, the width equalling two-thirds the length; not suddenly narrowed or constricted, moderately curved upward and in- ward; roundly narrowed and depressed near the apex. The prosternal spine (in both sexes) is sub-quadrate and large at the base but distinctly transverse, robust and de- cidedly conical, gradually lessening to a blunt point. Measurements of the female (from Riley’s Seventh Report). E gs | Be Ee 2 go] Beye ee oO (3) ~~ an Ro ® PH = 33 33 ae =& or 3% oe A qa ae qu Ele qi a= wc a On CH ry ong s oe ony Ss os Ss ad . og . Pals 3 a As os . aie — eos sos eog = aos oS Reuse oon of eS a oS LOS ERS Saar! a 5 LES a fos aes Beers ae Boe Aes aos E LH ni 4 E 4 5 a. Inch. Inch Inch. Inch Inch Inch Inch Inch 1.25 0. 28 0.15 0 13 1. 48 0. 38 0. 15 0. 23 il, Be 0. 33 -0.18 0.15 1. 28 0. 38 0.15 0. 23 1. 28 0. 40 0. 23 0.17 1. 30 0. 36 0.13 0. 23 1.34 0. 30 0. 12 0.18 1. 29 0. 36 0. 12 0. 24 1. 38 - 0. 40 0. 22 0.18 1. 30 0. 42 0.18 0. 24 1. 29 0. 24 0. 06 0.18 1 33 (6) 0. 04 0. 24 1. 33 0. 28 0. 19 0 19 1.35 0. 32 0.08 0. 24 1. 44 0. 38 0. 19 0. 19 1.33 0. 39 0.15 0. 24 1535) 0. 39 0. 19 ore 1. 30 0. 42 0.18 0. 24 1, 38 0, 43 0.2 0. 20 13o 0. 43 0.19 0. 24 1. 24 0. 33 0.13 0. 20 1. 26 0. 30 0. 06 0. 24 1. 25 0. 32 0. 12 0. 20 1. 38 0. 40 0.16 0. 24 1.15 0. 33 0.13 0.29 1. 33 0. 36 0.12 0. 24 1.35 0. 42 0. 20 0. 22 1. 24 Oros 0. 08 0. 25 1. 28 0. 40 0.18 0. 22 1. 29 0. 38 0. 13 0. 25 1. 30 0. 40 0.18 0. 22 1. 435 C. 43 0.18 0. 25 1. 33 . 0. 43 0. 20 0. 23 1.50 0. 43 0.18 0. 25 1. 29 0. 28 0. 05 0. 23 16333) 0. 33 0. 08 0. 25 igath 0. 33 0. 10 0. 23 1. 30 0. 43 0.18 0. 25 1.16 0. 36 0.13 0. 23 ; 0. 03 0. 25 48 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. Measurements of the female—Continued. g as BS Bs 2 ak ae Sd ad 2 Eo bs ae Be Bo eo. sts og So ole = 8 Og ae 2 a= os a = ey ae ea ‘ c= ay a2 og Pi oa ee Org rs Pn 2°? aS 23S a8o of age a3q ag om of 8 THES cn. rar eh 8 raya ao 8 a a= BRS Bog sae Bos Aas ood E ra) 4 H = 4 ra] - Inch. Inch. Inch Inch. Inch Inch. Inch. Inch. 1.25 0. 30 0. 04 0. 26 2 ib Sts) 0. 42 0. 13 0. 29 1.30 0. 35 0. 09 0. 26 1.35 0. 42 0. 13 0. 29 1, 28 0. 32 0. 06 0. 26 1. 36 0. 39 0. 10 0. 29 1. 34 0. 30 0. 04 0. 26 1729 ~ 0.38 0. 09 0. 29 1. 36 0. 34 0. 08 0. 26 1. 38 0. 43 0. 14 0. 29 is 5) 0. 38 0.12 0. 26 1. 28 0. 38 0 09 0. 29 1. 45 0. 52 0. 16 0. 26 1.33 0. 39 0. 10 0. 29 1.45 0. 44 0. 18 0. 26 1. 36 0. 34 0. 04 0. 30 io 0. 30 0. 04 0. 26 1. 45 0. 43 0. 13 0. 30 1. 39 0. 45 0.18 0. 27 1. 38 0. 33 0. 03 0. 30 1.52 0. 40 0. 13 0. 27 1.39 0. 40 0. 10 0. 30 1. 26 0. 36 0. 09 0. 27 1. 38 0. 39 0. 08 0.31 1. 2k 0. 40 0. 13 OF27 i, 29 0.35 0. OF 0. 31 1. 28 0. 35 0. 08 0. 27 1. 38 _ 0.35 0. 03 0. 32 1. 33 0. 33 0. 06 0. 27 1. 42 0. 48 0. 16 0. 32 1. 33 0. 35 0. 08 ann 1. 30 0. 40 0. 18 0. 32 1. 28 0. 35 0. 03 0. 27 1. 43 0. 38 0. 06 0. 32 1,2 0. 39 0. 12 0. 27 1.25 0. 35 0. 03 0. 32 1. 38 0. 42 0.15 0. 27 1. 46 0. 44 0.12 0. 32 1. 30 0. 40 0.13 0. 27 1.33 0. 36 0. 04 _ 0.32 1. 23 0. 35 0. 08 0.27 1. 24 0. 36 0. 03 0. 33 1. 43 0. 30 0. 02 0.28 1.34 0. 45 0.12 0. 33 129 0. 36 0.028 0.2 1.35 0. 43 0. 10 0. 33 1. 28 0. 38 0. 10 0. 28 1:35 0. 45 0. 10 0. 35 1.30 0. 36 0. 08 - 0. 28 1. 32 0. 38 0. 03 0. 35 1.35 0. 43 0.15 0. 28 1.33 0. 33 0.03 0. 35 1. 30 0. 43 0.15 0. 28 1. 43 0. 45 0. 10 0. 35 1. 33 0. 38 0. 10 0. 28 1,33 0. 42 0. 04 0. 38 1.38 0. 42 0. 13 0. 29 1.53 0. 49 0. 10 0. 39 1.15 0. 38 0. 09 0. 29 Later measurements of the female. Length to tip of elytra. Length to tip of elytra. Jowa specimens :.)- 42 ace). eeepc sce 1,23 >| Montana specimens “c.=- cesses ee eee eee 1. 20 1.15 1, 25 1.27 1.31 1. 08(2) ——_ 1. 38 AVerage. .. jc. o00c0c> ene neeeee eee 1,2 1. 30 = 1.20 1. 25 1. 26 155. || Colorado speci 1.34 197 olorado specimens .....------.---------- eet Nat “ 1.21 58 hae ae 1. 22 J. 32 1.21 1, 24 akote IM6NS.5. .-= -4c2 eee 1.23 1.90 Dakota specimens cae 1.21 ls ile 1.15 1. 30 1.29 1. 30 1, 22 a rae eee pd Oope oO Gam ooSssoscmoosar 1. 23 PAST ETAO. ction at baci ater ior ees 1,24 a sss Sdshe Specimens .2 2c. n268 as cpm o's sedeccietets 1. 40 1. 35 1,22 || Specimens reared by Miss Middleton from 1, 34 eggs from Minnesota ......-...--------- 1. 32 1. 29 1. 20 =e 1.18 PAV CLARO. c/sisigaaissaabeceteccsees soccer 1. 32 = AVOTRZO - <2. cc ec eee ccc vewsen=cnennn 1.23 MEASUREMENTS OF CALOPTENUS SPRETUS. 49 Measurements of the male (Riley’s Seventh Report). £ « D 2 ag a8 aay 4 ur) 2 Re 3 2 3 i=) A i= io] 2 ey & jay On SH Rae Gy ort on oe aS. eis ee, or o Bd org a= org oc res a's a8 ae a8 2 a's geaq | San aoe me | HES | See | See || B | Bee | wee | Ges B aos Sas Roc 8 gas SAS sac - A A 4 4 I 4 rl Inch. Inch Inch Inch. Inch. Inch. Inch Inch. 1. 24 0. 25 0. 05 0. 20 1, 35 0. 34 0. 03 0. 31 1.20 0. 28 0. 08 0. 20 1. 30 0. 34 0. 03 0.31 1.29 0.28 © 0. 08 0. 20 1. 33 0. 33 0. 02 0. 31 1.18 0. 33 0. 12 0. 21 1. 25 0. 34 0. 03 0. 31 1. 26 0. 25 0. 03 0. 22 1, 32 0. 34 0. 03 0. 31 1. 22 0. 29 0. 06 0, 23 1. 30 0. 34 0. 03 9. 31 1.10 0. 29 0.05 0. 24 1,18 0. 34 0. 02 0. 32 1. 33 0. 29 0. 04 0. 25 1, 38 0. 40 0. C8 0. 32 1.33 0. 35 0. 09 0. 20 1, 38 0. 42 0. 09 0. 33 1, 24 0. 29 0. 03 0. 26 1. 40 0. 38 0. 05 0. 33 1. 29 0. 35 0. 08 0. 27 1, 28 0. 38 0. 05 0. 33 1. 30 0. 32 0. 05 0. 27 1.30 0. 35 0. 02 0. 33 1.30 0. 35 0. 08 0. 27 1, 24 0. 38 0. 04 0. 34 1, 28 0. 35 0. 08 0. 27 1.30 0. 38 0. 03 0. 35 1. 29 0. 32 0. 05 0. 27 1, 40 0. 38 0. 03 0.35 1. 24 0. 30 0.03 0. 27 1.33 0.35 0. 00 0. 35 1.19 0. 33 0. 06 0. 27 1, 33 0. 38 0. 03 0. 35 1. 28 0. 36 0. 09 0. 27 1.35 0. 38 0. 02 0. 36 1. 28 0. 30 0. 02 , 028 1. 34 0. 38 0. 02 0. 36 1, 24 60.38 0. 09 0. 29 1. 29 0. 38 0. 02 0. 36 1.35 0. 39 0. 10 0. 29 1. 33 0. 35 0. 02 0. 37 1.23 0. 38 0. 09 0. 29 1. 36 0. 43 0. 06 0. 37 1.35 0. 35 0. 05 0. 30 1. 38 0. 34 0. 05 0. 39 1,35 0. 40 0. 10 0. 30 1. 33 0. 36 0. 03 0. 39 Later measurements of the male. ' Length to tip of elytra. Length to tip of elytra. 1 MOWAISPECIMOENS ek << secs oncisacetecnccacee 1.20 || Colorado specimens ..-.-..-.........-..--- est . 23 1. 40 1.15 1. 28 1.17 1.25 1. 26 ——— 1.18 AV OTRO CO! Siecstiete cael ecules cacao 1.31 ‘Ll. 19 ——————— 1.18 | 1. 28 AVEIAZ© ..------nn-ne bboooossnosdcos 1. 205 “wan |, Dakotarspecimonss). 5.6\6.cm.-cesace= sce, Pel f3) i Montana Specimens ..-........++.s-0.+--- 1, 21 oe 21 : a AIVEra ee Mico eee ees omceme saa ens __ 1-20, ASH EVIEIES) AOS ee 1.24 a Mea HOIGPECMMONS) sarees once ain a ama aie on 1. 28 1.2€ || Reared by Miss Middleton from eggs....- 1.19 1.21 1, 24 PARA ONS ics oie ations Salar pee le 1.26 AVCTAS6 sig Segoe sie San ye soba P25 | The species most closely allied to spretus is the C. atlantis, Riley, which the author describes in his seventh report, as follows: Length to tip of abdomen 0.70-0.85 inch; to tip of elosed wings, 0.92-1.05 inches. At once distinguished from femur-rubrum by the notched character of the anal ab- dominal joint in the male, and by the shorter, less tapering cerci; also by the greater relative length of the wings, which extend, on an average, nearly one-third their length beyond the tip of the abdomen in the dried specimens; also by the larger and 4G | 50 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. more distinct spots on the wings, in all which characters it much more closely resem- bles spretus than femur-rubrum. From spretus, again, it is at once distinguished by the smaller size, the more distinct separation of the dark mark running from the eyes on the prothorax, and of the pale line from the base of wings to hind thigh; and also by — the anal joint in the male, tapering more suddenly, and by the two lobes forming the notch being less marked. From both species it is dist:uguished not only by itssmaller size but by the deeper, more livid color of the dark parts, and the paler yellow of the light parts; the colors thus more strongly contrasting. * * * Just as the typical femur-rubrum is at once distinguished from the typical spretus by the characters indicated, so atlanis, though structurally nearer to spretus, is ‘distinguished from it at a glance by its much smaller size and darker, more marbled coloring. The contrast is all the greater in the living specimens of spretus that at all -approach it in these respects. ; Measurements of the male.—Length to the tip of the elytra, 0.97, 0.95, 0.98, 0.95, ‘0.96, 0.84, 1.05, 0.93. C. femur-rubrum, De G. This species is also closely allied to spretus and atlanis, and as it has ‘often been described, we will here simply refer to the differences between it and the former of these two (spretus). Female.—The only very marked difference between the females is the shorter wings of this species, yet there are other slight variations observable when a large number of specimens are compared, such as the following: The eyes in femur-rubrum are slightly more prominent; the head, pronotum, and sides of the thorax are usually some shade of olive-bro-vn, varying from pale to almost black; the black line behind the eyes is quite broad, seldom broken up, and is distinct in the darkest specimens. The humeral (entering) angles of the posterior margin of the pronotum are more rounded and not so sharply defined as in spretus ; the median carina is usually more distinct on the anterior lobes, while the lateral carinal are rather more obtuse and not so well de- fined ; the punctures on the posterior lobe are more distinct. The wings extend but slightly beyond the extremity of the abdomen (see measurements below). In this species and atlanis, the intercalate vein is present in the elytra (notwithstanding the assertion of Stal to the contrary), dimly and imperfectly it is true, but it can be clearly «seen for more than half the length of its course; in spretus itis wanting, its place being ‘marked by the line of union between the two rows of ceJls. The fuscous spots or dots are not so conspicuous or widely spread over the apient portion of the elytra and the elytra are narrower and straighter. As a very general rule, the upper half of the en face or disk of the posterior femora is black or brown, the lower margin and lower half of the inner face bright coral-red ; when these colors are well defined, there is a yellow space or stripe between the red and black; but these markings are subject to considerable variation, the red _ sometimes being entirely wanting, the external face dark, and the lower margin yel- low; sometimes the dark is replaced by a pale olive. The tibiz are most generally bright red, but this character is not without its exceptions. Usually there is a pale ray extending from the base of the wings to the posterior coxa, but is occasionally wanting in dark specimens and is generally absent in spretus. The prosternal spine is not so distinctly quadrate at base as in spretus, transverse, flattened behind, and not regularly conical, but more uniform in size to the broadly-rounded and very blunt apex. Male.—The most constant difference between the species is found in the form of the ‘last ventral segment of the male; in femur-rubrum this segment, although strongly curved upward as in spretus, is not so distinctly narrowed toward the end but rounded, and instead of being notched at the tip is squarely truncate, presenting a sharp, hori- zontal, and almo t semicircular margin. Below the tip on the posterior face of the © MEASUREMENTS OF CALOPTENUS FEMUR-RUBRUM. 51 segment is a rather large transverse gash-like indentation. The cerci are about the same length as those of the male spretus and about the same width at the base, but are nar- rowed from the middle to the tip to about halfthe width at the base. The little tooth- like appendages at the base of the super-anal plate are elongate and slender, as in spretus and are sinuate. Measurements of the female (Riley's Seventh report). S. ae aS oe ee ag as oe we 2 a & or ta s 2 w & Pe Ok et iS} & Oe Sy ° w A ao asa | 223 aig ad 48q | 223 438 = > bo See tomes ie Dea ast as Sy Yor a5 5 oe op Moe aS eS 8 gas Eek Go's 3 8.23 Aas RSs a) 4 4 a) 4 4 =) 4 Inch. Inch Inch Inch. Inch. Inch. Inch Inch 1. 22 0.13 0.15 0. 00 1. 66 0. 10 0. 03 0. O7 1.15 0. 13 0.15 0. 00 1. 09 0. 10 0. 03 0. 07 1.05 0. 04 0. 05 0. OL 1,13 0. 10 0. 03 0. O07 1.08 0. 09 0. 10 0. 01 a [Ba is 0. 10 0. 03 0. 07 1, 20 0.13 0.14 0. 01 1.15 0. 08 0. 00 0. 08 1S 0. 03 0. 03: 0. OL 1 0. 08 0. 00 0. 08 1.03 0. 04 0. 04 0. O1 1.14 0.15 0. 06 0. 09 1.10 0. 06 0. 05 0. OL 1.18 0. 09 0. 00 0. 09 1. 06 0. 03 0. 02 0. 01 1.10 0.13 0. 04 0. 09 1. 06 0. 03 0. 02 0. 01 1.16 0. 12 0. 03 0. 09 1.08 0. 03 0. 02 0. 01 1.19 0. 23 0. 12 0. 11 1.08 0. 04 0. 03 0. G2 1.15 0. 14 0. 03 0.11 1.05 0. 03 0. 62 0. 02 1.13 0.12 0. 00 0.12 1. 69 0. 06 0. 04 0. 02 0.95 0. 03 0. 03 0. 00 1.15 0. 14 0.12 0. 02 1. 05 0. 04 0. 03 0. 01 1. 04 0. 02 0. 00 0. 02 1,00 0. 03 0. 02 0. O1 1.08 0. 02 0. 00 0. 02 1. 03 0. 04 0. 03 ¢. 01 1. 04 0. 03 0. 00 0. 03 1. 03 0. 04 0. 03 0. OL 1.09 0. 08 0.05 0. 03 1. 03 0.05 0. 03 0. 02 1. 03 0. 03 0. 00 0. 03 0. 98 0. 02 0. 00 0. 02 1. 08 0. 12 0. 09 0. 03 1.08 0. 05 0. 03 0. 02 1.04 0. 03 0. 00 0. 03 0.97 0. 02 ~ 0.00 0. 02 1.10 0. 06 0. 03 0. 03 1. 06 0. 10 0. 08 0. 02 1.13 0. 14 0.10 0. 04 1. 03 0. 04 0. 02 0. 02 118 0. 08 0. 04 0. 04 0. 94 0. 02 0. 00 0. 02 1.08 0. 04 0. CO 0. 04 1.05 0. 08 0. 05 0. 03 14, 118} 0. 09 0. 65 0. 04 1. 10 0. 09 0. 06 0. 03 118 0.12 0. C8 0. 04 1. 02 0. 03 0. 06 0. 03 Pots 0. 09 0.05 0. 04 1.04 0. 05 0. 02 0. 03 115 0.13 0. 08 0. 05 1.10 0. 03 0. 04 0. 04 1.09 0. 08 0. 03 0. 05 0. 95 0. 09 0.05 0. 04 1.15 0. 13 0. 08 0, 05 0. 99 0. 08 0. 04 0. 04 1.19 0. 15 0. 10 0. 05 1X05 0. 08 0. 04 0. 04 1.19 0.14 0. 09 0. 05 1.08 0. 09 0. 05 0. 04 1.04 0. 05 0. 00 0. 05 1. 08 0. 10 0. C6 0. 04 1.19 0.14 0.08 0. 06 1. 09 0. 08 0 03 0. 05 1.15 0. 14 0 08 0. 06 0. 99 0. 05 0. C0 0. 05 L1s 0. 08 0. 02 0. 06 1. 04 0. 05 0. 09 0. 05 1.18 0.14 0. 08 0. 06 1.05 0. 06 0. C0 0. 06 1.13 0. 09 0. 03 0. 06 1. 12 0.12 0. 05 0. 07 1.13 0. 09 0. 02 0. 07 1.05 0. 08 0. 00 0. 08 A few additional measurements of last year’s specimens: Female—1.21, 1.23. Male—1.05, 0.94, 1.02, 1.05, 1.07, 1.07. In addition to the characters mentioned in the original description of C. atlanis, we would call attention to the following differences between it and spretus on the one side and femur-rubrum on the other. Female—As compared with the female of spretus the wings are shorter, extending less and sometimes beyond the tip of the abdomen, not differing greatly, in this respect, from femur-rubrum; the elytra are narrower, curved upward very slightly at the apex, very few spots or dots on the apical portion, and these minute and dim. The inner field is almost always immaculate, the posterior half of the intercalate 52 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. vein apparent. ‘ The wings pellucid, but when living have next the base a bluish-white tinge; a larger portion of the nerves and nervules dark. The black stripe on the side of the head and pronotum nearly always apparent, even in the darkest individuals; head and anterior lobes of the pronotum with the velvety appearance, so marked in spretus, but here dark or olive brown, without the reddish cast so common in that species; the pale, oblique, metathoracic ray usually apparent, but often obliterated. _ There are no reliable characters by which to distinguish it from the female of femur-rubrum; the posterior lobe of the pronotum is usually less conspicuously punctured, agreeing in this respect with spretus. _ Male.—Differs from spretus in being smaller, pronotum rather more constricted and subcylindrical; eyes more rounded and prominent; the notch at the tip of the last ventral segment less distinct, sometimes al- most obliterated; more of the nerves of the wings dark. From the male of femur-rubrum it differs in usually having longer wings; in some individuals they are as long, proportionably, as in any specimen of spretus; in others, little or no longer than in femur-rubrum; in the more slender form, and smaller size; in having the apical seg- ment of the abdomen narrowed and notched at the tip; in having the cerci broad throughout, and shaped as in spretus; in having the tooth- like appendages at the base of the super-anal plate shortened and broad- ened, and with a longer union at their base. It is evident from these characters that atlanis is an osculant species (or variety) intermediate between spretus and femur-rubrum, partaking largely of the characters of each, and, in a few respects, differing from both. The female approaches very near femur-rubrum, scarcely show- ing varietal differences from the female of that species, while on the other hand the male approaches much nearer spretus than it does femur- rubrum, as shown by the character of the terminal segment, the form of the cerci, and the length of the wings. The local species heretofore mentioned, which belong to this restricted group are, in all probability, offshoots from spretus or femur-rubrum, the particular direction of the variation depending upon the peculiar condition of the locality. The popular names of these species are as follows: C. femur-rubrum has generally been and is still known as the “ Red- legged locust” or, which is better, the ‘Common Red-legged locust.” C. atlanis was first described from the New England States, but as the species is not confined to the Atlantic slope, and the term Atlantic might convey a wrong idea, we have concluded to call it the ‘ Lesser locust,” in reference to its smaller size. ? C. spretus is known by several popular names, as ‘The Hopper,” ‘¢ Army grasshopper,” ‘“‘ Red-legged locust,” ‘‘ Mormon locust,” ‘“* West- ern locust,” ‘Hateful grasshopper,” and “ Rocky-Mountain locust.” The last name, which Mr. Riley suggested as the most appropriate, is now generally adopted, and has been accepted by the Commission. re or PAST HISTORY GF THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN LOCUST. 53 CHAR TE Rw kl. CHRONOLOGICAL HISTORY. The history of the American or Rocky Mountain locust is in nearly all respects parallel with that of the locust of the Old World. It breeds over a large continental area, and periodically, in seasons of extreme drought and other favoring meteorological conditions, migrates in im- mense hordes for several hundred miles beyond its usual habitat. Unlike the locust of the Eastern Hemisphere, our species naturally affects the cooler and more elevated portions of the temperate zone in the New World, though its southern limits extend at times into the hot and dry plains of the Great Basin. Vitfui and periodical in its visits to the older, settled portions ofthe West, the history of the Rocky Mountain locustis difficult to trace beyond a period of about thirteen years. Previous to the year 1864 it has been rarely referred to by travelers in the West, and after examining the reports of the government expeditions and the works of Lewis and Clark, Pike, Irving, and others, we find little or no mention. made of it. It is a ques- tion in our mind whether in some regions it may not have increased in numbers since the Far West has been partially settled, particularly in those regions where irrigation has been practiced, as in Utah and Colo- rado and in the western edge of the Mississippi Valley, as in Nebraska, Kansas, Iowa, and Minnesota; but this is entirely uncertain, and it is more reasonable to suppose that as the Western Territories become more thickly settled the numbers of locusts will become diminished. In treating of the history of locust invasions, we will first consider the subject in a very general way, and then state the facts more concisely, arranged according to separate States and Territories; and, thirdly, present a summary of the subject in a tabular view. The latter is cal- culated to send a chill to the agricultural heart when one sees how dense the figures are from 1864 until 1877, and to lead one to infer that the evil is waxing greater and greater as the years go on. This may be due, however, to the greater extent of the country settled and to the fact that the population is growing denser and denser. However that may be, we shall deal with facts and not with theories, and would remind the reader that in a number of the years there recorded large harvests resulted, the injury done by locusts being local and only con- fined to a portion of the season, while in 1877 the largest wheat harvest ever grown was safely harvested. Leaving out of account the locust visitations in the Atlantic and Pacific States, which were made by different species from the Rocky Mountain locust, the first authentic statement is to be found in Neill’s i 54 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. History of Minnesota, wherein it is stated that in 1818 and 1819 vast hordes of grasshoppers appeared in Minnesota, eating everything in their course, in some cases the ground being covered three or four inches thick. In the same years they were destructive in the Red River country in Manitoba. In 1820, or the succeeding year, they ravaged the western counties of Missouri, and Riley! suggests that the 1820 swarms may have also ravaged Kansas and the neighboring regions northward. In 1842, locusts appeared in Minnesota and Wyoming; in 1845, in Texas ; in 1846 and 1847, in the limits of what is now Wyoming; and in 1849, in Texas, and possibly in Minnesota. In Utah they have appeared from 1851 until 1877, except only the years 1873 and 1874, and a glance at the table shows that this Territory is liable to suffer annually more or less, especially in the northern portion. Vast swarms of locusts were seen in Idaho in 1852, as well as in Utah, while Dakota was visited, or had native swarms, in 1853. The year 1854 was a year for locusts in Texas, Kansas, and Utah, and 1855, notable for locust ravages on the Pacific coast, was not a bad year east, Texas only having been invaded, although A. S. Taylor states that they abounded on the immense grassy prairies lying on the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains, a statement supported by no facts, so far as we can learn. | In the year 1856, however, Vee prevailed in Texas, Kansas, Iowa, Minnesota, ee Wyoming and Utah, and in the succeeding year - they committed extensive ravages in Manitoba, and the States men- tioned as suffering in 1856, with the addition of Nebraska. The States of Texas and Nebraska received slight injury from the progeny of those that migrated thither the previous two years. In 1860, the region about Topeka, Kans., was visited by what must have nets a limited and rather local swarm. _ The year 1861 witnessed the presence of locusts in Nebraska, Mon- tana, and Utah, but the accounts are scanty. press and Utah sustained losses from locusts in 1862, but in 1863 they occurred not only in those Territories, but also in Dakota and Minnesota. But the most decided increase in the numbers of locusts was felt in 1864, a year of general visitation in Utah, Montana, Dakota, Colorado, portions of New Mexico, and east of the plains in Nebraska, Iowa, Min- nesota, as well as Manitoba, and there were resulting swarms, in most cases the progeny of those which came in 1864, in Iowa, Minnesota, Dakota, and Manitoba, while Montana, Colorado, and Northern New Mexico had swarms of their own. 3 A notable locust year was 1866, and, as Riley states, the injury com- mitted was sufficiently great and wide-spread to attract national attene 1Seventh, Eighth, and Ninth Reports on the Noxious, Beneficial and otherInsects of Missouri. By C. V. Riley, State Entomologist, 1875-’77._ The following history is largely taken from these reports, sometimes word for word. 5 oe ell | Sr CHRONOLOGICAL HISTORY, 1867-1873. 55 tion. ‘The insects swarmed over the Northwest and did great damage in Kansas, Nebraska, and Northeastern Texas, and invaded the western counties of Missouri very much as they did in 1874. They came, how- ever, about a month later than in that year. They were often so thick that trains were seriously delayed on account of the immense numbers crushedonthetrack.” Iowa, Minnesota, Colorado, and Utah also suffered. While in 1867 local damage was done in the spring by the young of the swarms of the previous year, late in the summer new swarms flew across the plains from the West and Northwest and invaded the border States; in fact, the same States suffered as in 1866, as will be seen by a glance at the tabular view. In 1868 and 1869, local injuries ensued from the ravages of the un- fledged locusts early in the season, and reports from Montana, Idaho, Dakota, Colorado, and Utah show that there was some trouble in those Territories. The year 1870 was a season of comparative immunity from locust in- vasions, though Iowa and Minnesota received some swarms, and the insects were observed in Dakota, Idaho, Wyoming, and Utah. Kansas received slight injury from these pests in 1872, as well as Minnesota, Dakota, Montana, Colorado, and Utah, but it was not marked. In 1873, the hosts gathered for a fresh onslaught upon the agricultu- ral region bordering the great plains. The invasion of 1873, says Riley. was pretty general over a Strip of country running from the northern parts of Colorado and southern parts of Wyoming, through Nebraska and Dakota, to the southwestern counties of Minnesota, and northwest- ern counties of Iowa, the injury being most felt in the last two more thickly settled States. ‘*The insects poured in upon this country during the summer and laid their eggs in all the more eastern portions reached. The cry of distress that went up from the afflicted people of Minnesota in the fall of that year is still fresh in mind, and the pioneers of Western Iowa, in addition to the locust devastations, suffered severe damage from a terrific tornado.” By far the most disastrous locust year, however, was 1874, as the more thickly settled portions of the Mississippi Valley west of the ninety-fourth meridian were invaded by dense and most destructive swarms. The States of Colorado, Nebraska, and Kansas were overrun, while portions of Wyoming, Dakota, Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, New Mexico, Indian Ter- ritory, and Texas were ravaged by swarms from the northwest, as they were abundant that year in Montana and in British America. The loss to these States and Territories was estimated at not much less than $50,000,000. Much of the loss this year resulted from the progeny of the invaders of 1873, which early in the season devoured the crops of the region where they hatched, and eventually spread to the southeast. Kansas suffered, perhaps, more heavily than any other State. This, like most other locust-years, was one of long-continued drought, and in Missouri the evil was complicated by the ravages of the chinch-bug. 56 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. The next year (1875) the young hatched in immense numbers over an area variously estimated at from 250 to 350 miles from north to south and from 200 to 270 miles from east to west, embracing portions of Nebraska, Kansas, and Missouri. “The tract in which the injury done by the destructive enemy was worst was confined to the two western tiers of counties in Missouri, and the four tiers of counties in Kansas, bounded by the Missouri River on the east. The greatest damage ex- tended over a strip 25 miles each side of the Missouri River, from Omaha to Kansas City, and then extended south to the southwestern limit of Missouri. About three-quarters of a million of people were, to a greater or less extent, made sufferers. The experience of different localities was not equal or uniform. Contiguous farms sometimes presented the con- trast of abundance and utter want, according to the caprices of the invaders, or according as they hatched in localities favorable to the laying of the eggs. This fact gave rise to contradictory reports, each particular locality generalizing from its own experience. The fact is, however, that over the region described there was a very general devas- tation, involving the destruction of three-fourths of all field and garden crops. While the injury was greatest in the area defined above, the insects hatched in more or less injurious numbers from Texas to British America; the prevalence of the insects in Manitoba being such that in many parts little or no cultivation was attempted.” (Riley.) Missouri had never before been visited by a calamity so appaling and ~ so disastrous in its results as the locust ravages of 1875, and detailed returns of the damage done in this State showed a loss of over $15,000,000. (Riley.) In 1876 no trouble was experienced in the spring, there being in the border States little damage done by the young, except in portions of Minnesota and Colorado, and it was hoped that no further losses would ensue this year. But locusts bred. in great quantities in Montana, and in British America, north of this Territory, and in Wyoming, Dakota and Colorado, this being a year of unusual drought in those Territories, and in August and the autumn following, immense swarms swept over the plains, falling upon the larger part of Kansas and Nebraska, the west- ern half of Iowa, and some of the western counties in Missouri, and reaching into the Indian Territory, Texas and the northwest corner of Arkansas. Besides this, local swarms hatching in Minnesota early in the year flew south and southwest into Iowa and Nebraska, and they . laid eggs in August. The spring of 1877 opened with dismal prospects all over the States east of the plains, as well as in Colorado. Happily it was a spring in which there was an unusual rain-fall in April, May, and June, the coun- try along the Missouri being flooded in places. The weather was also exceptionally cool; and this condition of things extended over Colorado, Northern Utah, Wyoming, Central Montana, and British America. In consequence of this season of wet and cold, the young grasshoppers ae oe ee oe ee ae | mee ee ee a 7 LOCUST RECORD IN TEXAS. 5T died in immense numbers wherever they hatched, and comparatively few lived to acquire wings. South of the parallel of 40° they flew, late in May and early in. June, in a general northwest and northerly course; and from Minnesota and Iowa many took flight to Dakota and Montana, whence their progenitors came, and others remairing behind flew about irregularly in the States of Minnesota and Iowa. The outlook for 1878 is excellent; but still there may be light swarms from the northwest if the season is favorable. We wil! now give a more detailed history of locust invasions in the different States and Territories. THE LOCUST IN TEXAS. The list of locust-years in Texas is rather a formidable one. The earliest year recorded is 1845. 1845.—We have accounts from various sources of their swarming in Texas this year. (Riley’s seventh report.) 1847.—Mr. 8S. J. P. McDowell states that locusts made their appear- ance in Caldwell County October 1, 1847, and remained during the fall, but did little damage. The county officials of Caldwell County have kept in their county records a diary of the appearance of the grass- hoppers in that county since their first appearance, in 1847. 1849.—Riley states, also, that there are various accounts of locusts in Texas this year. 1854.—About ten or fifteen miles, as near as we can calculate, from Fort Belknap, April 25, 1854, locusts were observed by the members of Captain (now General) Pope’s expedition, as it is stated that “‘ the whole section of country is covered over with grasshoppers in countless — myriads. They were very troublesome, and at night they completely filled our tents. They appear to be going south; and if they do so, in- creasing in strength and numbers, an incalculable amount of injury will be inflicted on the farmer. The day was remarkably warm.” (J. H. Byrne’s Diary of Capt. John Pope’s Expedition, Pacific Railroad Sur- véys, vol. ii, Appendix A, p. 87.) 1855.—Mr. Taylor, in his article in the Smithsonian Report for 1858, states that locusts this year infested ‘ those portions of the State of Texas which resemble in physical characteristics Utah and California.” We have, however, been unable to obtain any corroborative data, ex- cept the statement of Mr. Reveschon; but the fact that he states that ‘they were in Texas in the following year is confirmatory of his state- ment. 1856.—Locusts are said to have existed in Texas in small numbers this year. (Taylor.) Mr. Reveschon writes that “I came into this [Dallas] county in February, 1856. The fall previous a great number of grasshoppers made their appearance,” and destroyed a field of thirty acres. 1857.—November 6, locusts appeared in Caldwell County, coming 58 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. from the west, destroying turnips, &c. As we have full information given below regarding the hatching of locusts in Texas, there is good reason to believe that swarms visited the region where the eggs were hatching in 1858 in the previous year more extensively than any pub- lished accounts state. | 1858.—The following facts regarding the ravages of locusts in Western Texas, in 1858, are taken from the Gonzales Inquirer for 1858. The young locusts began to hatch “by the million,” January 16, and by the middle of March they had done extensive damage to the wheat and garden crops. March 27, on the San Marcos and Guadalupe Rivers, and on the Sandies, they did greatdamageto the corn crops and gardens.” They seem to have collected together, and are moving in a southward direction, sweeping everything in their route. As yet, they are not more than half grown, and can only travel by the leaping system, their wings not having grown out. Large flocks of birds are not only devour- ing them, but it is said they are actually devouring each other. After doing great damage, April 21-May 8 they flew in a northeast or north- ward course. By May 8, they had mostly disappeared, and almost wholly so by the 15th. So complete and so general has been the de- struction that all the farmers will be compelled to replant. In the spring of 1858, they destroyed our growing crops and took their flight north from 10th to 16th of April. (D. A. Todd, Austin, Tex.) In Cald- well County the young began to disappear about April 20. 1866.—Locusts appeared in the northwest part of Collins County about the Ist of September, destroyed all the wheat that had come up, and then passed on to the southwest. They had nearly disappeared in October. (Monthly Report Ag. Dept., 1866, p. 441.) _ 1867.—The young hatched in threatening numbers, but a cold snap during the first week in May destroyed them. Nearly a dozen counties were invaded in the autumn. In Dallas County the locust first appeared October 17, theair being filled with them. ‘They appeared to becoming from the west and traveling east.” In October they also appeared in Fannin, Red River, Bell, Coryell, Lavaca, Burleson, Fayette, Aus- tin, and Lampasas Counties, appearing in the latter county” in im- mense numbers about the first of October, and completely destroyed the autumn and winter gardens, and injured the stock-range materially. They continued with us until the 20th, when they moved on their jour- ney in a southeasterly direction. In Lavaca County they deposited their eggs “by the million.” In Coryell County, central Texas, they appeared October 12, “‘coming in vast quantities from the north,” and proved very destructive to grain and garden produce. Mr. Affleck, of Brenham, states that locusts appeared there in the first week of Novem- ber, ‘‘ but were announced toward the northwest of us as being on the way some weeks before.” They were busy about the first of December depositing their eggs. They appeared at Union Hill, five miles to the west of Mr. Affleck’s farm, for a week before appearing at the latter LOCUST HISTORY IN TEXAS, 1868-1873. 59 place, and were two weeks longer in reaching Brenham, seven and a half miles to the south by east. (Riley’s seventh report.) 1868.—The young hatched out in the spring, but were destroyed by the heavy rains. Mr. Affleck states that they began to hatch early in February, and by the 28th of March began to move in bands in or near Brenham, Glenblyth Valley, and injure gardens. By April 23, vast numbers of locusts went off. ‘*Some of them got off by flight, but the bulk kept on on foot toward the northwest, followed and preyed upon by hundreds of black hawks, or rather buzzards—I think the Falco har- lant.” No swarms of “emigrant” locusts arrived from the Northwest in the autumn. Two observers, however, at Calvert, agree in stating that locusts appeared there in the autumn of 1867 and 1868. There are no records of the appearance of locusts after this until about the year 1872 or 1873. 1872?—That locusts probably invaded Texas during 1872, and each year following until 1876, will be seen by the following extracts from reports from United States weather signal observers, forwarded by the Chief Signal-Officer, United States Army, at the Beas of the Com- mission : ‘They visited this section in 1876, and for five or or six years previ- ous.” . (Ei. G. Prince, irvodenmdabdre ): ‘“ Visited every year twice since about four or five years.” (J.C. Rickli, Mason, Tex., June 13, 1877.) ‘‘ Of late, for flitee or four years, they came to Western Texas ev ery year. They arrived in the latter part of September, during October, and kept coming till November, till the first frost put a stop to their wanderings.” (J.C. Rickli, Mason, Tex., July 12, 1877.) These data may refer to 1872, but we leave the matter in doubt until more exact information is received. The following statement, however, tends to show that there was an invasion in 1872, as locusts are reported | as existing in small numbers in the spring of 1873. If these were not native species, thea there must have been a slight invasion of C. spretus in 1872. ‘““This section was visited by small numbers of these insects in the spring and autumn of 1873 and 1875, and from October 1 to 15, 18[7]6. None the present year.” (William Norrington, United States Signal Service, Uvalde, Tex.) 1873.— In September, 1873 [no specified date], there appeared at this place, suddenly, immense swarms of locusts, coming from a north- erly direction. The direction of their flight followed the Rio Grande River for about thirty miles in its course to the Gulf. For about five days the multitudes kept traveling over this place, descending to the ground at sundown and remaining below until shortly after sunrise the next morning, when all would rise in a body and resume their flight. The weather during this visitation was very dry and sultry, and the prevailing wind northerly; the damage done immense. ‘These locusts 60 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. left an immense amount of eggs behind, which, at the beginning of spring—. e., the latter part of January in this section—began to hatch. Then it was discovered that the eggs had been laid over a tract of country nearly two miles wide, having the Rio Grande River for its center, and following its course out to what distance I am unable to ascertain.” (Frederick Belford, United States Signal Service, Eagle Pass.) 1874.—Mr. Belford continues his statement regarding the progeny of the locusts which invaded Texas in 1873: ‘‘The wingless insects were harmless in the early stages of their growth, but as their development proceeded, the work of devastation began. In the first part of May, 1874, they began to move—not flying, but crawling. The fact has been observed that the movements of these swarms of young locusts were in exactly the opposite direction to which their progenitors had traveled. They seemed to retrace the steps of their ancestors. Those hatched on this side of the Rio Grande River moved north toward the settlements, and on their way everything in the shape of vegetation was totally consumed. Those hatched on the Mexican side of the Rio Grande (they extended a mile and a half on each side of the river) took a direction west of north, and the work of devastation was equally great in the parts of Mexico they passed over. I am assured on good authority that when leaving this section they were-too young to fly, and their march was carried on by crawling and hopping. Toward the latter part of May, 1874, all had left, and planting was begun. Now, these young locusts, before leaving, had deposited eggs, but the eggs of the young ones are not very plentiful and sparsely distributed. The people of this section, while this occurs, do not mind it much, as the damage done by this not very numerous offspring is never considerable.” . At Denison they arrived in September, 1874. (United States Signal Office.) September 14, 1874, locusts appeared in Dallas County, but, according to Mr. Boll, were not one-tenth as abundant as in 1876; still they destroyed all the young vegetation, and injured the fall wheat to some extent. ‘All this month they laid countless millions of eggs, about as many as in 1867. Attheend of this month most had disappeared traveling in a southern or eastern direction. (G. Reveschon.) | 1875.—It seems by the extract from Mr. Belford’s statement, that the young hatched this year from eggs laid in the late autumn of 1874 did but little injury to crops. He adds, ‘‘In September, 1875, another large swarm of locusts made its appearance, coming from the same direction, i. €., north, but their numbers were not as formidable as those of the previous year. These insects deposited their eggs, which were hatched the ensuing spring, 7. é., latter part of January, 1876. The numbers of the young ones coming forth was comparatively insignificant, and having in their turn deposited their eggs, they left about the first half of May, 1876, in a northerly direction. (I. Belford, Kagle Pass, United States CHRONOLOGY: TEXAS, 1876. 61 Signal Office.) At Denison, locusts arrived in September, 1874, remain- ing until June, 1875. (W. A. Massey, United States Signal Office.) Uvalde was visited by small numbers of locusts in the spring (young) and autumn of 1873 and 1875, and from October 1 to 15, 1876. Laredo was visited in 1875 and 1876, appearing each year about the beginning of November. (United States Signal Office.) 1876.—Swarms of locusts reached Texas from the north and west, about the middle of September, and from that time forth till winter were flying very geverally over the State, reaching eventually latitude 29°, or, more definitely, to the Gulf all the way from the Sabine River to Austin. Their course was almost due south, and their injury confined to succn- lent vegetables, shrubs, and fruit-trees, the orange and cotton saffering more particularly. At Austin the cars for about ten days were so much | obstructed on the Texas Central Railroad line as to necessitate their stopping occasionally to clear the track of the grasshoppers. Eggs were laid throughout the territory overrun, and the young hatched in large quantities during the mild weather of February, but those which hatched near the Gulf had up to the date of March 5 been destroyed by heavy cold rains that occurred the latter part of February. (Riley’s ninth report.) The invading swarms began to arrive late in August, and continued to come for six weeks, and the course of their flight was gen- erally due south; others state that they came from the northwest. From reports received from the Office of the Chief Signal-Officer, United States Army, we extract the following statements: ‘In the fall of 1876, they went down to Eastern Texas, as well as to the western part of the State. Everything in the line of vegetables was destroyed, fruit-trees and grape-vines damaged more or less. Small winter grain is preferred to grass, and mostly destroyed.” At Dallas, they first arrived Septem- ber 20, from the northwest; the swarm was estimated to be 2,000 feet high, and from forty to sixty miles wide. (J. Boll.) ‘The area invaded by the grasshoppers in Texas, in the fall of 1876, was embraced between longitude 96° and 99° (west from Greenwich, or 19° and 22/ west from Washington). It extended entirely across the State, from Red River on the north to the Gulf of Mexico on the south, covering six degrees of longitude, or an area about 200 miles in width by 360 in length, or 72,000 square miles; this belt extends through the center of the State from north to south, between parallel lines, with somewhat irregular edges, determined by the course of the wind at different times during their ‘march to the sea.’ By reference to. the map of Texas, it will be seen that the best agricultural portion of the State was covered by them.” 1877. The spring was mild in Texas, and the young hatched the lat- ter part of January, in February, and the last ones in March. From March 1 to 10, at Mason, they did the most mischief, and began to fly away by the 10th of May, but a good many remained until the 15th. “It is said this pest grows worse and worse every year, and will event- ually ruin the farmers if something is not done to check them. After 62 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. fighting with the climate, poor soil, late frosts, and heavy droughts, they have still to fight the grasshoppers in this arid section of country. Twice a year, in the spring and fall, the growth of vegetation is checked by them to a fearful extent.” (J.C. Rickli, Mason, Tex., United States Signal Service.) At Corsicana, eggs were announced to be hatching the 5th of Feb- ruary, but most numerously about the 20th of February, and on the smooth, barren sandy spots. The young insects acquired wings the first of May and commenced migrating aS soon as winged, and were most numerous from the 9th to 12th of May, and disappeared about the 20th. of May. Wheat suffered most; corn least. Fruit and vegetables were greatly injured. The injury will not exceed 10 percent. (J. W. Smith, United States Signal Service.) This account is confirmed by other United States observers in different parts of the State. At Pilot Point, the United States signal-observer states: ‘“‘On the last of April and first of May, clouds of locusts alighted, flying from the south with, a brisk south wind, and staid over night and one day, eating large fields of wheat and corn, and then, rising, resumed their northward flight”; and again under date of May 25, ‘‘Clouds of them are flying northward at the present time, and most all have left this portion of the country. * * * Since the hoppers have left, the vegetation has come out again and the farmers are hard at work replanting their fields, and as far as I can understand, the crops will prove favorable this season, con- sidering the damage done.” A slight invasion took place in the autumn of this year, as may be seen by the following extract from the report of J.C. Rickli, United States signal-observer at Mason: “ Uctober 30, 1877. High tempera- . _ ture, with wind veering to northwest and north, increasing in velocity to 32 miles per hour and bringing the first Rocky Mountain locusts in their swarms at4 p.m. They pursued their southern = and did not deposit any eggs in this section.” ““On the 3d of October, 1877, in the afternoon, myriads of grasshop- pers were seen passing over this station about two or three hundred feet high, coming from the north and going south ; wind was from north- west and four miles an hour; temperature 72°, fair weather. Their flignt continued the 4th, but there were more of them apparently. None were observed on the 5th; wind from south, 4 miles an hour, and cloudy ; temperature about 620. On the 6th, they resumed their jour- ney, going south, though in small numbers. Temperature about 75°; fair weather; wind from southeast, four miles an hour. During their flight none came down. (KE. G. Prince, ine United States Signal Service.) A correspondent at Headsville, Robinson County, states that “about the last of August, immense numbers passed over our county, but high up in air.” From Helotes, Bexar County, we learn that, “on September 28, 29, and 30, swarms passed over this county, but, so far CHRONOLOGY: INDIAN TERRITORY. 63 as I can understand, none have laid eggs, or even lighted on the ground.” 3 The United States signal-observer, C. A. Smith, Galveston, sends the following facts regarding the presence of locusts in that portion of Texas, principally copied from the Galveston Daily News. Hatching began January 25, but the young appeared most numerously between February 15 and March 1, and by the 10th of that month they were observed bopping in bands in almost every instance northward. In Gronzales County they were seen flying northward about April 15, becoming fledged about April 5, and in other counties about the 20th to 25th. In Austin County, on April 30th, ‘‘ the heavens were clouded with them, going north, the wind being south.” In other counties they migrated northward ; for example, in I‘alls County there were “ millions passing over, flying northward, about May 2. They disappeared in dif- ferent counties from May 5 to 16. No eggs were deposited during the present year. ‘“‘The damages were at first reported as severe, from nearly all of the central counties of the State, but many of the devastated grain-fields en- tirely recovered after the departure of the insects.” Mr. Smith concludes “that the damage to the grain crops in the sixty-four counties visited cannot exceed 5 per cent. Gardens everywhere appear to have suf- ferred to a much greater extent than the grain crops. They are reported as having been entirely destroyed in a large number of cases, and were badly damaged wherever visited. He estimates $790,350 as the approx- imate damage to gardens. | THE LOCUST IN INDIAN TERRITORY. While it is most probable that Indian Territory was visited in nearly the Same years as Texas and Missouri, the records are very meager. In 1874 portions were visited according to the reports of the Agricultural Department. In 1875 locusts hatched out in large numbers early in the spring. The signal-service observer at Fort Gibson reports that there were three distinct swarms seen about the 1st of May, which seemed to originate from eggs laid the previous year. During the month of May they de- parted in a generally north and west direction. A dispatch from Fort Gibson, dated June 1, states that “millions of locusts flew westerly. The Grand, Verdigris, and Arkansas Rivers were covered with the dead hoppers that failed to fly across at the start.” In 1876, at Fort Gibson, they appeared September 16 to 28. (United States Signal Service.) Mr. Riley states that “they were thick over most of the Territory, passing southward, from the middle of Sep!ember, and many of them remaining through the season.” Locusts were not observed at Fort Sill, either in 1876 or 1877. (United States Signal Office.) Fort Gibson was not visited by locusts during the summer of 1877, but from April 13 to May 1, the young hatched out in great numbers, but C4 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. died from the effects of ‘‘ the long-continued cold rains occurring shortly after the eggs began to hatch.” ‘No young locusts were seen after the — 14th of May. None of the locusts arrived at maturity, neither were any seen off their hatching-grounds.” (United States Signal Office.) THE LOCUST IN ARKANSAS. The first recorded instance of locusts extending into this State was, according to Mr. Riley, in 1876. They overran the extreme north- west corner of the State, and were particularly injurious in Ben- ton County, the damage being mostly confined to this county and the region south of it, the insects not extending east to Carroll County. ‘They made their advent from the 7th to the 15th of October, coming with the wind from the northwest and flying south and southwest, until they struck the base of Boston Mountain. As in our own [Mis- souri] southeast counties, wheat was greatly injured by them, and eggs were laid up to the time winter set in.” (Riley’s ninth repeee ) In 1877, Arkansas was again visited, but to what extent is unknown. The only data at hand are the following statements from correspondents: At Bentonville, Benton County, ‘‘ A few passed over the last days of Sep- tember, and a very few alighted in some localities.” Again it is stated that ‘‘fresh swarms passed over from the northwest, but none settled.” At Carrollton, Carroll County, no swarms were noticed during the pres- ent year, though they passed over in the autumn of 1876. .THE LOCUST IN MISSOURI. The history of the invasion of this State by the Rocky Mountain locust has been so fully set forth by Mr. B. D.-Walsh, in his Illinois report, avd by Mr. Riley, in his seventh, eighth, and ninth annual re- ports on the injurious insects of Missouri, that the following account is simply a brief abstract of their statements, the portions quoted being in most cases taken from Mr. Riley’s report. 1820 or 1821.—In one of these years, it is uncertain whiehe Western Missouri was visited by locusts. ‘They came in the autumn by millions, devouring every green thing, but too late to do much harm. They literally filled the earth with their eggs, and then died. The next spring they hatched out, but did but little harm, and when full-fledged — left for parts unknown. Other districts of country have been visited by them, but, so far as I could learn, they have done but little harm after the first year. (Prairie Farmer, June 15, 1867.) This statement is corroborated by the following: ‘‘A Missouri paper publishes a state- ment by an old settler, that great numbers of grasshoppers appeared in September, 1820, doing much damage. The next spring they hatched out, destroying the cotton, flax, hemp, wheat, and tobacco crops; but the corn escaped uninjured. About the middle of June they all disap- peared, flying off in a southeast direction. (Western Rural, 1867.) 1866.—The next recorded invasion took place in 1866, when the west- CHRONOLOGY: MISSOURI, 1867-1874. 65 ern counties of Missouri were overrun much as in 1874. ‘They came, however, about a month later than in 1874. They were often so thick that trains were seriously delayed on account of the immense numbers crushed on the track.” (Walsh’s Illinois Report.) Innumerable eggs were deposited in the autumn. | 1867.—Serious damage was done by the young locusts in the spring, particularly about Saint Joseph and Oregon. By the middle of July they had nearly all left the State. A fresh, though less extensive inva- sion, swept over Nebraska and portions of Kansas and the western borders of Iowa and Minnesota, or, in Walsh’s words, “‘ the main body descended through Nebraska upon Iowa, instead of through Kansas upon Missouri,” but the extreme northwest corner of Missouri was over- run by the swarms, which were said to have come from the Rocky Mountains. 1868.—Considerable injury was done by locusts this year in the fol- lowing counties: Andrew, Cedar, Clinton, Daviess, Gentry, Jackson, Nodaway. There was, however, no fresh invasion from the west. 1869.—Early in the season of this year locusts troubled the western borders of Missouri. “They hatched out in countless numbers from the 20th to 24th of March in Holt County. In Andrew County the young, where the ground was smooth and hard, as ‘sod’ or prairie that was plowed in the previous June, and not afterward plowed, de- stroyed most of the wheat. * * * Our own stock was bad enough, but on the 18th of June we received a large addition of flying ones from the south, which in some places took half of the corn, although they left on the 23d of June, staying less than five days. They came with a strong south wind, and while here the north wind blew, and if they were disturbed they would work a little south; but on the 23d, at ll a.m.,, the south wind blew and they rose simultaneously and most of them left us; but our original stock not being able to fy remained. There are no records of the presence of locusts in Missouri in 1870, 1871, 1872, or 1873. 1874.—The locust visitation of this year was the most calamitous to Missouri, as to the nsighboring States, of any yet recorded. A map of the area overrun this year, as compared with 1866, is given in Mr. Riley’s seventh report. He states that the general direction from which they came was from the northwest. They reached Holt County on the 8th of August, and all the counties on the same line, north and south, from Worth to McDonald, were reached during the latter part of the same month. They then continued to make short flights, and finally reached their extreme eastern limit toward the last of Septem- ber. They flew no farther east than in 1866, except in the northern part of the State, and only visited the western fourth or fifth of the State. The swarms appeared during early August, and in most of the counties invaded, the locusts stayed till frost, 7. ¢., from their first ap- pearance till frost swarms came and left,so that there were most always 5G 66 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. some of them about. The injury in Missouri was comparatively slight compared with that done in 1874 in Kansas. 1875.—“ Serious and distressing,” says Mr. Riley, ‘‘as were the ravages of this insect in 1874, when the winged swarms overswept several of the Western States, and poured into our western counties in the fall, the injury and suffering that ensued were as naught in Missouri compared to what resulted from the unfledged myriads that hatched out in the spring of 1875.” The spring was propitious to tke young, few adverse causes tending to reduce their number being in operation. ‘‘The winter of 187475, though commencing late, was severe, steady, and protracted till toward the first of May, when spring suddenly came upon usin full force. There was no very variable weather in the earlier months; whereas such weather did occur in 1867.” Besides this the Summer seasons of 1873 and 1874 were dry and hot. The worst injury was done in the two western tiers of Missouri. ‘The greatest damage extended over a strip twenty-five miles each side of the Missouri River, from Omaha to Kansas City, and then ee south to the south- western limit of Missouri.” ‘« Harly in May the reports from the locust district of the State were very conflicting ; the insects were confined to within short radii of their hatching-grounds. The season was propitious, and where the insects did not occur, everything promised well. Asthe month drew more and more to a close, the insects extended the area of destruction and the alarm became general. By the end of the month the non-timbered portions of the middle western counties were as bare as in winter. Here and there patches of Amarantus blitum and a few jagged stalks of milkweed (Asclepias) served to relieve the monotony. An occasional _ out-field or low piece of prairie would also remain green ; but with these exceptions one might travel for days by buggy and find everything eaten off, even to underbrush in. the woods. The suffering was great and the people well-nigh disheartened. Cattle and stock of all kinds, ex- cepthogs and poultry, were driven away to the more favored counties, and relief committees were organized. Many families left the State under the influence of the temporary panic and the unnecessary forebodings and exaggerated statement of the pessimists. Chronic loafers and idlers even made some trouble and threatened to seize the goods and property of the well-to-do. Relief work was, however, carried on energetically, and with few exceptions no violence occurred. Early in June the insects began to leave; the farmers began replanting with a will. As the month advanced the prospects brightened, and by the 4th of July the whole country presented a green and thrifty appearance again. The greatest damage occurred in the counties bordering on the Missouri. River to Liberty, and thence southward; and Bates, Buchanan, Barton, Clay, Cass, Clinton, Henry, Jackson, Jobnson, Lafayette, Platte, Saint Clair, and Vernon suffered most. The other counties in the dis- trict invaded in 1874, and especially those along the eastern borders of CHRONOLOGY: MISSOURI, 1875, 1876. 67 that district, suffered less. In some of these,as the extreme north- west counties, the reason may be found in the fact that the winged in- Sects of 1874 did not stay long enough to lay excessive numbers of eggs; while in those along the eastern border the reason is to be found in the fact that the winged swarms when they reached this limit were weakened aud decimated ; they were the straggling remains of a vast army.” 1876.—The counties ravaged by the young insects in 1875, had Splendid crops in 1876. Fresh armies of locusts in the early autumn from the north and northwest, swept over the western border of the State. It should be noted that a great drought prevailed in the North- west, which favored their multiplication as in other locust years, the drought and heat being the exciting cause of the undue iucrease of lo- custs and other insect pests. ‘“‘The middle western counties which suffered most in 1875 (7. e., the portion of the State in which the winged insects reached the farthest east in 1874, and laid most eggs) were not overrun in 1876, and will not suffer in 1877. Such are the counties of Platte, Clay, Cass, Lafayette, Johnson, Henry, Pet*is, Bates, and Benton. In these counties the farm- ers have little or nothing to fear, except as they may receive a few strag- gling and comparatively harmless bevies of the winged locusts next June and July, from the neighboring country. The counties that were overrun and will suffer are, first, Atchison and Holt, and the western half of Nodaway, and Andrew in the extreme northwest corner; sec- ond, McDonald, Barry, Jasper, Lawrence, Barton, Dade, Newton, Cedar, Vernon, more particularly in the southwest half; Polk, in the northwest third; Hickory in the southwest third; Saint Clair in scattering places, and Christian and Greene in the extreme border. ‘‘The locusts came into all these counties last Fall, very generally ate off the Fall wheat, and filled the ground with their eggs, in most parts quite thickly. As elsewhere they continued laying until overtaken by frost. : ‘¢ Bates, according to one correspondent, also received a few of the in- sects in the western half; while a few stragglers are also reported in Harrison, and even in Gentry, Henry, and Cass; but it is evident that in these cases they were not in sufficient numbers to do harm or to cause any forebodings in the spring. They came into the northwest corner from the north and northwest, early in September,’ and were to some extent prevented from reaching beyond the points indicated, by south winds. “They entered the southwest counties from the southwest nearly a month later, invading Newton and McDonald by September 23, and reaching the middle of Barry by the 1st of October, and Cedar by the middle of the month. It is quite clear that the eastern limit of the swarms which came from the north and northwest was receding west- 2 According to Signal Service reports, some were seen in Nodaway County much earlier. 68 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. ward after they reached Northwest Missouri; and that Southwest Mis- souri, Southeast Kansas, and Northwest Arkansas, would have escaped had it not been for west and southwest winds that brought back insects which had reached south of these points. ‘“‘The dates of arrival of these insects are nearly a month later than in 1874, and in this respect the 1876 invasion more nearly resembles that of 1866. It was also less immediately disastrous than that of 1874, and most of the crops were either garnered or beyond injury, and the principal damage was to the Fall wheat, which, as already stated, was - eaten down, and in most cases effectually destroyed, at a time, too, when it was generally too late to do anything more than to let the ground lie over to plant in corn in the spring.”—(Riley’s Ninth Report.) 1877.—Although the prospect of injury from young locusts was threatening, yet, as in Kansas and Nebraska, the young soon after hatching perished in large numbers, so that little injury was experienced and the crops were unusually large. No locusts arrived in the State from the Rocky Mountains. The swarms of fledged locusts which sur- vived the cold, wet weather were light in the State, and did no mischief, and, so far as known, laid no eggs. The following statement will give some idea of the distribution and movements of the local swarms: ‘“‘The insects were leaving Jasper and adjacent southwest counties where they had hatched, the latter part of May and early in Juns, that part of the State being vacated by the middle of June, and the course being north and northwest. ‘They left the northwest counties toward the end of June and during the first week of July, the direction being northwest, except on June 30, when some stragglers were blown back from the northwest over nodiway County.” August 14, large numbers passed over Oregon, Holt Gout flying southwest; about the 20th, a few passed over Flag Springs, Andrew County, Soin the northeast; at Pickering, Nodaway County, during the third week in September large swarms were observed flying from the northwest to the southeast, but none were known to alight. In Atchi- son County large swarms from the north passed over in August and September, and a few dropped down, but no eggs were deposited. THE LOCUST IN KANSAS. We have fuller information regarding the ravages of locusts in this State than in Nebraska, probably from the fact that the State was set- tled earlier and has a much larger population, and suffered more from the hordes of invading locusts.° 3 1846.—There are no records of locusts in Kansas in 1846, and I quote the following statement doubt- ful whether the grasshoppers referred to were local species or emigrants from the west. ‘As we pro- eeeded on our journey, we heard the confused hum of thousands of grasshoppers, now and then broken by the chirping of the cricket. These insects are found in great abundance, and obtain greater size than any I have seen elsewhere.”’—(Notes of a Military Reconnaissance from Fort Leavenworth, in Missouri to San Diego, Cal., by W. H. Emory, p. 392. The insects were observed July 2, 1846, in the" Kansas River Valley.) CHRONOLOGY: KANSAS, 1854-1866. 69 1854.—Locusts visited Kansas, but how extensively is not known; the swarm arrived in the autumn.—(T. C. Wells.) 1855.—The eggs laid the previous autumn hatched in the spring of 1855, “‘ and if I remember aright one of our old farmers who was then living on the south side of the Kansas River told me that his wheat was all destroyed by them. Ido not remember seeing any myself that year. It was dry in the spring, but after about the middle of May we had fre- quent and very heavy showers all through the season.”—(T. C. Wells.) 1856—57.—“ In the autumns of 1856 and 1857 the wheat and corn leaves were eaten off around the outside of fields, I suppose by Calop- tenus spretus, though I never noticed them in great numbers so as to attract particular attention until 1860.”—(T. C. Wells.) 1860.—That locusts appeared in Kansas this year is affirmed by Mr. T. C. Wells, who remarks, ‘*‘ What I have said about them in 1860, and from then to the present time, I know to be true from my personal observation, with the single exception of 1864.”—(T. C. Wells, Manhat- tan, Kansas.) 1864.—“ I was East that [this] year, but am told by those that were here that it was very dry, and that the locusts were here.”—(T. C. Wells.) . 1866.—The first record of any invasion we are aware of refers to this year, though it is not improbable that a portion of the State, at least, was overrun in 1820 or 1821, and, possibly, in 1846, but there are no records to that effect extant. In August and September, 1-10, 1866, swarms of locusts arrived. In August they made their appearance in the frontier settlements of Kan- sas and Nebraska, and later, early in September, destroyed every green thing in tracts in the eastern part of the State. On the Nemaha River (which, however, lies mostly in Nebraska) and is in the eastern limits of ‘the State, they arrived in clouds “ glittering in the sunlight like huge flakes of snow,” and destroyed the late corn and the winter wheat, and began at once laying their eggs, so that the ground was fairly honey- combed by their egg-cells. September 1. At Council Grove ‘‘a tremendous shower of grass-hop- pers came from the south, completely filling the air as high as one could see, and looking like a driving snow-storm”; they eat every green thing. In Allen County they appeared September 11; ‘they almost darken the sun in their flight”; they eat everything ect including winter wheat. ‘In Brown County they covered a tract twelve miles in width, and consumed pretty much everything green. Trees were stripped of their leaves, and corn-fields literally stripped to the stalk. * * * In Northwestern Kansas they filled the air so as to obscure the sun. They have been traced for a distance of two hundred miles above Fort Kearney. In Marysville the grasshoppers in that section eat every green thing. The Leavenworth papers reported that a vast army of grass- hoppers reached Lawrence from the west. They had cleaned out Topeka, 70 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. the capital, of garden vegetables, grass, and clover, and left the ground — as if burned with fire. Corn is eaten to the roots. About Lawrence, though very numerous, yet coming so late they did not do essential damage, but deposited their eggs. In Douglas County they made their appearance by the billion. The prevailing winds in the State during August and September were westerly, and the season was dry and hot.— (Practical Entomologist, ii, 3-4.) . 1867.—The locusts this year, according to B. D. Walsh, “ took a rather more northerly course, the main body descending through Nebraska upon Lowa, instead of through Kansas upon Missouri. Stillin both years there were flying columns of the enemy, that deviated a little from the general line of march either to the right or to the left. For, as will be seen hereafter, some of the more northerly parts of Kansas and the ex- treme northwest corner of Missouri were invaded by the army of 1867; and as I have sbown in the Practical Entomologist, the southern parts of Nebraska were very generally invaded by the army of 1866.” Nearly as last year, the invasions occurred from August 25 to September 30, and the locusts came from the northwest.—(Walsh’s First Illinois Rep.) 1868.—Locusts, which hatched in the spring, devastated the State, locally, and the region west of Fort Riley was ravaged in the autumn, but whether by foreign swarms or those native to the State is not stated. August 7, locusts appeared in Riley County, flying from the northwest apparently, as a southeast wind prevented their leaving on the 8th. It is possible that the swarms came from Iowa and Minnesota, rather than from the west. In the early part of August they attracted attention in Kansas and during the preceding month in Iowa and Minnesota. (American Entomologist, i, 74.) From this fact we infer that the inva- sions were local and from the north. - 1869.—For two years, apparently, the progeny of those which over- run the State in 1866~67 remained and did some damage. In 1869 the young hatched out in Saline, Lyon, and Brown Counties, but left as soon as they acquired wings, namely,-about the middle of June. They were destructive east of Nemaha County, but no extended damage was done in the State generally, and none were seen in 1870 and 1871. 1872.—This year “foreign” locusts did some harm in parts of Kansas. At Beloit they appeared in the last week in August and devoured every- thing green.—(Riley’s Seventh Report.) 1873.—While Nebraska and the country to the north was generally overrun in 1873, there is no record of their appearance in Kansas. 1874.—This was the worst locust year in Kansas, the State, like its neighbors north and south, suffering extremely. Mr. Riley in his seventh report says the locusts swept over the State “‘in overwhelming hordes from the plains of Colorado on the west, and the fields of Nebraska on the north, in many instances clearing off all traces of vegetation in a few hours.” The corn crop was ruined by them. They appeared in every county, so far as the records show, except Clarke, Comanche, — aa, =, 8 eee ee ee a a ee CHRONOLOGY: KANSAS, 1875. tt Gove, Doniphan, Graham, Greenwood, Harper, Hodgeman, Kiowa, Neosho, Ness, Pratt, Sumner, Stafford, Trego, and Wallace, which are more or less unorganized and uninhabited, so that no records were ob- tained, though they were overrun like the rest according to Mr. A. Gray, secretary of the Board of Agriculture. The suffering was great, thirty counties reporting 1,842 families, aggregating 9,154 persons, reduced to destitution, and immigration to the State was checked, and relief societies throughout the country were formed to aid them. About the 15th—25th of July, the locusts appeared in Northern and Northwestern Kansas, and continued to be destructive till at least the end of August, and laid their eggs inthe autumn. During this year the greatest damage was from northwest to southeast, being lightest along the eastern half of the State, which the winged insects reached. too late to do very serious injury; but the greatest bulk of the eggs were laid as the locusts approached the eastern limits of the State.—(Riley’s Eighth Report.) 1875.—In this year the damage done was by the young locusts, which hatched in enormous numbers in the eastern part of the State, so that, as Mr. Riley states, “in 1875 the tables were turned; the eastern portion of the State suffered, and the western counties were little troubled.” He also states that “the ravages of the young locusts were confined to a district of about 150 miles in length and 50 miles in breadth, at the widest, along the eastern border. The counties of Don- iphan, Brown, Atchison, Jefferson, Leavenworth, Douglass, Labette, Johnson, Miami, Franklin, Linn, Bates, and Bourbon, suffered more or less severely.” The locusts hatched out mostly in April and early May, and became fledged May 28 to June 15, and then all flew in a general northwest direction. (Riley’s eighth report.) The writer passed over the ravaged region along the Kansas Pacific Railroad just after the locusts had taken flight and witnessed the bare fields, desolated towns and general ruin they left behind along this part of the country. They flew out of the State, and there were no invasions from the north or west that year, and no damage done after the middle of July. Still, owing to the fear of disaster, there was said to be a heavy emigration of farmers from the State. ms 1876.—There were fresh invasions from the north and northwest from late in July until early in September. ‘‘ Karly in September the swarms thickened, and the wind blowing almost a gale from the west and north- west for two or three days subsequently, the insects during that time swept down in darkening clouds over the greater portion of the State from the 98th meridian to beyond the 95th. (Riley’s ninth report.) Prof. F. H. Snow, October 4, 1876, made the following statement : I came through Kansas from Colorado (Denver) on the 5th and 6th September. Ca- loptenus spretus at that time extended about 100 miles east of the mountains, last of which point no trace of it was to be seen during the daylight on the 5th. Next morning we struck locusts in small numbers at Brookville (Saline County), 180 miles west of Kan- sas City; in full force at Salina, 12 miles farther east; and found the east front of this f 72 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. line 4 miles west of Abilene, in Dickinson County, and about 150 miles west of Kansas City. Observing «nd inquiring at the stations in this 30-mile belt, linvariably learned that the flight of the locust was from the north and not from the west, as two years ago (in 1874). Four weeks have now passed and the locust has not yet reached Lawrence, its east- ern line being about 20 miles west of Lawrence, only about 100 miles farther east than it was four weeks ago. ‘This eastern line extends across the State from north to south, the entire State west of this line having been visited. In many places the pest has come in immense numbers, while in many other places there has been but a light sprinkling. Little damage has been done thus far, almost none at all in comparison with two years ago, it being so late in the season that the crops of this year were secure. The fall-wheat, however, has been very generally eaten down, but has come up again when drilled after the departure of the hordes which remain but a few days in a place. Wheat sown broadcast has been generally killed, having been eaten down to the kernel. The great danger to be feared now is the spring-hatching of the eggs which have been deposited in varying abundance in the eastern part of the region visited. It is agreed on all hands that the present visitation is far less numerous than two years ago. The locusts are everywhere reported to be heavily parasitized by the red mite and the Tachina fly. Can it be that these hordes are the “‘spring hatch” from Iowa, Minnesota, and Wyoming? While in the South Park in July, I found great numbers of young spretus along the streams from the mountain-sides. When on the summit of Pike’s Peak, July 28 and 29, the winged results were flying due east as high up in the air as the eye could reach. They did not descend upon us at Manitou until the 12th of August. (Packard’s report in Hayden’s Survey, 1875.) At Abilene locusts were observed August 24 and 25 going in a southwest course, with the wind moderate from the northeast. ‘ Sep- tember 2, 3, and 4 vast swarms flew north; September 6 vast swarms going northwest, the wind strong from the southeast. September 7, at about 11 o’clock, the advance guard reached Abilene going due east, with a strong gale, flying very low. They began falling at once, and kept gradually changing their course until 1 p. m., when they went due north and ceased flying at 2 p.m. The ground was alive with them, and some of the citizens smoked them out of their gardens success- fully. A thunder-storm reached us at 6 p.m., and the rain fell in tor- rents until midnight. September 8 the locusts seemed more active after the previous night’s flood than was expected, as we supposed that they were all drowned in the torrents of water that fell, and by 11 a. m. the air was full of locusts flying so low that clouds of them could be seen at a great distance in every direction. I have not seen such quan- tities in six years’ observation. On the 9th and 10th, after a rainy night, the locusts in innumerable quantities left in a very strong cold north wind. Afterward a few flew northward and westward, but the bulk passed to the southward, and no flights were observed after the 26th, when the direction was due south.”—(W. T. Davidson.) Mr. Gaumer states that the invading swarms in the autumn deposited their e~gs in almost every available place throughout all the counties of southeastern Kansas. 1877.—Although much trouble was expected from the young locusts this year, yet owing to the exceptionally wet and cold spring and early summer, the young died soon after hatching, and did little local injury. CHRONOLOGY: KANSAS, 1877. 13 No invasions from the Rocky Mountains occurred, and only local swarms after July 8 passed to and fro over the State, avide few or no eggs, and whatever apprehensions were felt in the early spring the result shows that an unusually large wheat-crop was raised. To enter a little more in detail: Throughout the locust area of the State south of the Kansas Pacific Railroad—which area includes most of the region bounded on the east by a line running from a little west of Lawrence toward Fort Scott, and on the west by another passing up through Hutchinson and Ellsworth—the eggs were laid in 1876 in suffi- cient quantities to have given birth to locusts enough to have eaten every- thing green by the time they attained full growth, under conditions favorable tothem. Many of the eggs were destroyed by the Anthomyia egg-parasite, and the other enemies described in Mr. Riley’s Reports. Some of them hatched in the fall, and many more during the warm weather of the latter part of January and fore part of February. The insects thus hatched perished. The bulk of the eggs hatched during the last week of March and the early part of April. The young insects were very thick then; they commenced to do injury and begat general fear. The farmers for the most part fought them with energy. Then followed, from the middle of April on, a period of cold and wet weather; the young rapidly weakened and were from all quarters reported as disappearing. The continued cold after the principal hatching, had the effect to kill many that were just hatching or moulting. The heavy rains also washed many away into the streams, and in some instances on soils which contain sand and lime, and which are liable to crack when dry, the rains doubtless covered up and killed such as were shel- tering in such fissures. Still, considerable numbers became fledged, and local swarms were passing through and over the State, through the summer; while light swarms flew into the State from the south and north. For example: A small swarm passed over the western partof the State May 17 and 19, inanorthand northeast direction. Other flights, all going northwest, passed over Labette County May 23, and over.Norton and Ellis Counties in the same directicn from the 21st to the 23d. An extensive swarm passed over the western counties May 26 and 27, flying north. Light swarms passed northwest at intervals from this time on until the main exodus from the State. This occurred on June 12, 13, and 14, and was very general, the insects flying due north. From the 15th to the 20th, the locusts were leaving in scattered nnmbers whenever favorable weather bia hte and after the 20th few remained, save in exceptional .calities where hatching was greatly delayed from local causes. After this date the following observations were made by Mr. Gaumer, at Lawrence: At 1 p.m. June 16, the first winged locusts were seen flying over the Wakarusa. They were very high in the air. The wind at the time was blowing at the rate of about fifteen miles per hour, from a direction a little east of south, and the locusts were flying with the wind. The sky was nearly clear and weather warm. June 18, they again began to fly, at 11.45 a.m. The wind was south-southwest, and blowing at the rate of about forty miles per hour. They increased in number until 74 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. 2.35 p. m., when there were a great many flying, as high as could be seen with the na- ked eye. At 3.30 many of them were quite low, and a few were seen to drop down, and they continued to fall until4.30 p.m. At 5 p.m. they ceased to fly, and there was about one locust to every square rod. They flew very swiftly, and in a north northeast direction. June 19, I again visited the country round about Chanute. Found the locusts had neatly all disappeared. Those which had hatched previous to my frst visit had all died in a few days afterward. The eggs were not all hatched, for in front of Mr. Ashby’s house we dug up good eggs which had been deposited in a hard, sandy soil, and were overlaid with a deposit of sand about one inch ae from an adjoining field. Most of them were spoiled. At Parsons, June 20, I found the locusts molting the last time, and many of them already had their wings. Some were flying, but notin any considerable numbers. Few had come to maturity. At Chetopa they nearly all had wings, and had been leaving for two days. Several large swarms were seen feeding upon dog-fennel, but newhere did they injure the corn or wheat. N Seer. all the gardens in the eastern portion of the city were eaten up. Locusts were observed flying over Lawrence in a northerly and northwesterly direc- tion, every clear day, until July 10. The heaviest flight of the season was southward on the 20th of July. Light swarms continued to fly about ia various portions of the State until October, flying southward and southwesterly. THE LOCUST IN NEBRASKA. While only the western half of Minnesota and the western third of Jowa are liable to invasion, the entire State of Nebraska has been more or less invaded, different portions, however, suffering in different years. 1857.—There must have been a locust invasion in this year in West- ern Nebraska, for the young appeared in 1858 as may be seen by reading the subjoined paragraph. 1858.—‘‘In the spring of 1858, as soon as grass was three inches high, near the creek and through the valleys, we found them. * * * They ate my corn which was four or five inches high, also turnips, grass, &c., (and I believe onions) but their ravages were not great. * * * I heard that they were bad on the Missouri River that season, 400 miles northeast of Laramie, the direction the wind took them. And the next season I heard of them in Minnesota.” (W. M. Hinman.) 1861.—*“ Also yesterday, at 12 o’clock, I discovered them very thick and high up, traveling with the wind to the northwest for one anda half hours, when there were no more to be seen. We have had two or three days of hard southeast wind, and probably these were successive | grasshoppers from Texas or the Cherokee country.” (W.M. Hinman in a letter to the Smithsonian Institution, dated June 10, 1861). 1864.—This is the first year, as yet known, in which Nebraska suffered. According to Governor Furnas, fenrehern. Nebraska was overrun By. locusts this year. 1866.—Late in August swarms crossed the State (especially the south- ern half) from the west, extending nearly or quite to the Missouri River, devouring everything about Fort Kearney, and Nebraska City, and the CHRONOLOGY: NEBRASKA, 1867-1875. 15 other frontier settlements. That the invasion was widespread is evi- denced by the widespread abundance of the young the following spring. 1867.—This was also a notable locust year, the whole State being more or less afflicted, the young being abundant and destructive in the spring, and in the summer fresh swarms coming from the northwest. From Walsh’s First Illinois Report, we learn that in May, about Omaha, the young hatched out by the million, from eggs which were ‘deposited over the whole face of the country, from the lower part of Cass County, clear through the southern part of Kansas.” Early in June a storm in the country south of the Platte, rid that region of the young, the work of destruction having been farther carried on by black birds, plover and other birds. Late in August, and in the autumn, there were heavy in- vasions from the northwest in the Missouri Valley. 1868.—The young hatched from eggs laid in the previous summer; _ hatched out in large numbers all over the State, many hatched late in May, but throughont the spring millions were killed by heavy rains and some few by birds. (Bruner). Nevertheless, extensive damage was done by them. 1869.—Although there are no records at hand regarding locust inva- sions this year, yet as the insects occurred in abundance in Iowa and Kansas, they must have been more or less destructive in Nebraska. 1873.—After an interval of four years, swarms of locusts appear from the west and northwest and overrun Nebraska as well as the adjoining States. In Adams County a considerable flight of locusts passed north- wardly May 19th or 20th, remained till the 25th or 26th, when they rose and flew north, doing but little injury. In the autumn a number of swarms passed southward, but did slight mischief. 1874.—This was the most calamitous locust year in Nebraska, as well as throughout the West, beyond the 94th meridian. Not only did the young locusts hatch in great numbers, but also swarms of unusual extent. swept over the State and proved more destructive than at any year pre- vious or succeeding. It is to be observed that this was an exceptionally dry and hot summer, locusts always abounding in dry springs and sum- mers. The entire State from a point about thirty miles from the Missouri River, west, was more or less devastated, the extreme western portion entirely so. (Governor Furnas). Swarms arrived on or about July 21, remaining about ten days, time enough for them to devour the corn crop and deposit their eggs by the million. 1875.—-The locusts hatched remarkably late (about May 20th from eggs | laid in the previous summer, principally in the district immediately bor- dering on the Missouri: River, and a comparatively small area suffered | from the attacks of the young. ‘“ The populous and highly cultivated | counties of Nemaha, Richardson, and Otoe were most severely ravaged. | Before these locusts acquired their wings, swarms from the south in a | northward direction over the State, cause some trouble and anxiety in the following counties: Saunders, Washington, Douglas, Buffalo, Pawnee, > 76 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. Clay, and Barton. The loss, however, to the State at large did not amount to five per cent.” (Riley’s eighth report.) 1876.—Another invasion of the State in August of this year, resulted in the northeast counties in the loss of one-half of the corn crop, while the western half of the State, particularly in the valleys of the Elkhorn, Platte, and Republican Rivers, suffered a good deal. Eggs were laid over the eastern part of the State, but less extensively.in the western portion. (Riley’s ninth report). By some good observers, the invasion of 1876 was considered as calamitous as that of 1874, and itis to be noted that the summer of 1876 was extremely hot and dry, the prevail- ing winds south and hot, much asin 1874. The year ended with bad prospects for 1877, the ground all over the State being well seeded with locust-eggs. 1877.—The early and late spring and early summer being unusually wet and cold, multitudes of the young locusts were killed, lying upon the surface of the ground so thick that they could in places be picked up in handfuls. Happily, owing to these favorable meteorological causes so unlike those of the previous year and 1874, the amount of damage done was comparatively slight and an unusually large wheat and corn crop was raised raised in this State as well as throughout the Mississippi Valley States. Owing to the same cause in the northwest, and the fact that few eggs were laid in the larger portions of Montana, Dakota, and Wyoming, as well as in British America, there was no invasion of locusts late in the summer, from the Rocky Mountain region, leaving excellent prospects for an immunity from their attacks in 1878. Light swarms moved into or across the State from the south in en and local Swarms were observed in August. _ The following statements received from our correspondents will give an idea of these local flights: . Asmall flight passed over Franklin County, as early as May 17, flying northwest, and another over Butler County, May 19, flying north. A heavy swarm passed over Agallala and adjacent counties, during May 26, 27, and 28, the direction being northwest. They were seen sparsely flying in the same direction on various occasions until the mid- dle of June, when extensive flights were again reported, especially over Butler and Platte counties. During the latter part of June and first part of July the insects were rising and leaving ‘every day when the weather was favorable, or the wind from the south or southeast. On and after August 6, they began at Geneva, Platte County, to “‘go south and south west in swarms, which continued daily, whenever the wind | was favorable, for over a month. They showed no disposition to alight, except when compelled to do so by opposing winds.” At Salem, “fresh Swarms were seen to pass over this point on the 8th and 9th of August, and light swarms continued to fly as late as the 25th of August.” At Steele, Jefferson County, from the 13th to the 23d of September a good many locusts passed over, mostly from the northeast. At Pleasant Hill, Saline County, “large swarms passed over from the northeast, undoubtedly from Northwestern Iowa, Southern Minnesota, and South- CHRONOLOGY: IOWA, 1833-18C5. 17 eastern Dakota, and settled in places here. They avoided cornfields, settling in small grain and grass. They appeared to be in a feeble, degenerate condition, always leaving the next morning, eating nothing, appearing to come down to rest. They departed in a southwesterly direction.” At Nebo, ‘after our own crop left, swarms were flying over us for many days from the northeast.” At Dewitt, Saline County, “fresh swarms from the northeast passed over, and some few settled, but went off again in a few days, except a few stragglers that remained until October1; no eggs were laid.” At Omaha swarms were observed in the air. THE LOCUST IN IOWA. This State has probably been afflicted in nearly the same years as Minnesota; the locusts never extending, however, more than a little beyond the western half of the State. . 1833.—The authority for a locust invasion this year is the following extract from a letter from Mr. A. Strong, of Pocahontas, lowa, to Mr. Whitman: ‘In regard to the grasshopper raid of 1833, there was no white settlement here then, but there is a part of a tribe of Indians liv- ing near the center of this State, and they used to hunt through here, and in some of their visits here in 1866, their chief, Johnny Green, who was a very old man, told the people here that thirty-three years before that the grasshoppers came so thick that the grass was all eaten off, and there was no grass for their ponies; and the ground looked black, as if there had been a prairie fire. He also said that there had been no more grasshoppers till 1866, when he was speaking. This chief was a very intelligent man, and was about one-half white; but the Indians are very liable to exaggerate; I have forgotten the name of the tribe of Indians, but think they were the Winnebagoes or Pottawattomies.”* . 1856.—In Western and Northwestern Lowa, their ravages this year were inconsiderable (Riley’s seventh report). They came in August from the north and flew south. Eggs hatched in great numbers in the spring, but no damage was done by the young in 1857. (A. H. Gleason, Little Sioux, Harrison County.) 1857.—The general locust invasion which swept this year over the Northwest, also reached as far east as Central Iowa. (Riley’s seventh report.) Ida, Adams, Pottawattamie (Council Bluffs) Counties were visited. (Whitman.) 1864—65.— Some damage was done in 1864 about Sioux City. Eggs were laid which hatched out in 1865; the young doing considerable mischief. | 1865.—The Saint Paul Press for June 21, 1865, is authority for the following statement: ‘General Sully, in a private letter from Sioux City, gives the following account of the grasshopper plague which is 4Col. W, Thompson, of Bismarck, told us th at in 1850, at Council Bluffs, grasshoppers ate up a corn- field late in July or early in August; the corn belonged to the Mormons. The species may have been, and probably was, Caloptenus femur-rubrum, the common red-legged locust. 78 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. ~ desolating the region of country he has traversed. He says: ‘The only thing spoken of about here is the grasshoppers. They are awful; ~ they have actually eaten holes in my wagon-covers, and in the ’paulins that cover my stores. A soldier on his way here lay down to sleep in the middle of the day on the prairie. The troops had been marching all night. His comrades noticed him covered with grasshoppers, and woke him. His throat and wrist were bleeding from the bite of these insects. This is no fiction’” 1866.—“ In regard to the raids here, the one in 1866 did not extend but about fifteen miles east and fifteen miles south of here, while the next raid went a little farther east and south; till the last one went over a large part of the northwest portion of Iowa.” (A. Strong.) 1867.—Young, unfledged locusts made sad ravages upon the crops of Southwestern Iowa. Later in the season there was a general invasion of the State, the swarms arriving at Fort Dodge September 10, in Clark County about October 5. ‘So far as we have been able to learn they did not appear beyond the eastern boundaries of Polk and Marion Counties in 1867.” (Iowa Homestead.) “Grasshoppers came here from the southwest on the 10th September, 1867, and deposited eggs shortly afterward. The young hatched in the May and June following, taking the garden vegetables as fast as they could find them; oats and wheat also suffered severely.”> “A swarm of grasshoppers swept from Fort Benton to Missouri, reaching as far east as the Des Moines River. I have read of them as being at Denver, Colo., at the western terminus of the Kansas branch of the Pacific Railroad.”® Mr. Whitman writes us that upon inquiry he finds ‘‘ that the visit of 1867 was very extensive in that State” (lowa). He adds that Ida, Carroll, Greene, Sac, Webster, _ Adams, Guthrie, Pocahontas, Orange, Woodbury, Pottawattamie, Page, Hamilton, Calhoun, Adair, Audubon, and Plymouth Counties were vis- ited this year. - 1868.—Locusts visited Page County August 7 and 8 in “fearful num- bers”; they also visited Boone, Buena Vista, Woodbury. — 1870~72.—*‘In 1870 Algona was visited, and in 1871 the progeny hatched by myriads till after the Ist of June, and left about the 1st of July.” (Riley’s seventh report.) ‘‘In the seasons of 1871 and 1872 they flew over, but few alighted; no damage was done.” (H. J. Newell, Athol, Sioux County.) | 1873.—The northwestern counties of Iowa were swept by swarms of locusts. (Riley). Harrison County was visited and some destruction done; they deposited eggs, which hatched out April and May of the next year. Athol, Sioux County, was visited by a heavy swarm from the south in June, which did much damage; the insects deposited eggs. (H. J. Newell.) 3 - 1874.—Much of the injury done in Iowa this year resulted from the 5 Oscar J. Strong, Rolfe, Pocahontas County, Iowa, in Western Farmer, February, 1869. €S. Morrill, Onawa, Iowa. (Iowa Homestead, November, 1867.) CHRONOLOGY: IOWA, 1874-1877. 19 attacks of the progeny of the 1873 swarms. I'resh swarms came, how- ever, in 1874, and the western counties of Algona, Calhoun, Cherokee, Clay, Dickinson, Emmett, Harrison, Humboldt, Jasper, Kossuth, Lyon, O’Brien, Osceola, Palo Alto, Pocahontas, Plymouth, Sioux, Winnebago, and Woodbury, suffered more or less. As the drought was less severe than in other parts of the country, and thecrops good, the distress in the ravaged counties was easily relieved. (Riley’s seventh report). “In 1874 the young ’hoppers destroyed gardens and injured other crops. Heavy swarms also came from the north in the latter part of July or the first of August, doing great damage.” (A.J. Newell, Athol.) 1875.—Few locusts hatched in the spring of this year in Iowa, but about the 10th of June until the middle of July, swarms flew in from the south over the western counties, ‘‘many of which alighted and re- mained one or two days, committing depredations in corn-fields, gardens, and nurseries. Rye, wheat, and oats were also damaged to some extent. From the counties of Mills, Fremont, and Council Bluffs a loss of twenty- five percent. wasreported. (Riley’s eighth report.) At Athol Mr. New- ell reports that ‘‘ a swarm passed over from the north; a few alighted; but no damage was done to speak of.” 1876.—As in a few of the southwest counties in Minnesota, so in adjoining parts of Northwest Iowa, and notably in Osceola and Dickin- son Counties, the young insects hatched out from eggs laid in 1875, but by the middle of June they had disappeared without doing much harm, or, in some cases, moved off in a northwest direction. About the 1st of August, the northwestern counties of this State were visited by heavy swarms. ‘‘ They appeared to cross the State line from Dakota and Min- nesota at almost exactly the same date for Emmett, Dickinson, Osceola, Lyon, Sioux, and Plymouth Counties, and from here they swept at once out into the counties lying eastward and a little to the south.” The most eastern point reached was in the middle of the State, and the line ~ retreats westward from Story County both north and south. (Riley’s ninth report.) ‘In summing up their coming here, I will say that from the year 1856 there has not been a year but that swarms have been seen passing over from the northeast, north, and northwest, but, with the exceptions of the years when they were exceptionally abundant (1856, 1867, 1874, and 1876), they have never deposited their eggs to any great amount.” (Whitman.) They laid eggs at Ames. (Bessey.) 1877.—In the spring of this year the young hatched out in the follow- ing counties: Lyon, Ida, Carroll, Greene, Sac, Hancock, Webster, Madi- son, Guthrie, Wright, Pocahontas, Boone, Buena Vista, Winnebago, Sioux, Woodbury, Pottawattamie, Page, Hamilton, Worth, Calhoun, Adair, and Plymouth, but the cold wet weather killed them, and little destruction was done except in Pottawattamie County. (Letter from Mr. Whitman.) There were no invasions this year from the northwest. The first return flight reported over this State was on June 14. It was dense and toward the north. The next day the wind way pretty 80 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. strong from the north, and the locusts were checked and ceased to fly ; but on the two following days, the wind blowing from the south again, they continued to pass over. From this time on till the first week in August they were leaving the State, the direction being uniformly north- west. As soon as they became winged, myriads flew over Webster City, apparently going southward. At Athol, Sioux County, our correspond- ent reports that “after the departure of the young locusts, swarms from the north-northeast and northwest passed over July 15, 16, 20, 27, 28, and 31, August 1, 6, 7, 8,9, 21, and 22.” At Council Bluffs “fresh swarms passed over from the north, but did no damage and laid no eggs.” At Des Moines, ‘‘fresh swarms came from the north and northwest in Au- gust, but did little damage.” Locusts passed over Sae City in great gies during August, going south- southeast and southwest, but none alighted. (Whitman.) THE LOCUST IN MINNESOTA.’ Besides those years in which the region now comprised within the State of Minnesota has been scourged in common with other States and Territories, there are various statements, allusions, and traditions to be collected, which go to show that the Northwest has been repeatedly visited by the locust in years previous or additional to those in which such occurrences have been historically recorded. Some of these tra- ditions are probably of no vaiue, whatever their intrinsic probability may be.. Among these are the traditions, said to be derived from the Indians, that the locusts had formerly taken possession of the country and held it for seventeen years; also that they had, in times past, con- sumed the vegetation as far east as Stillwater (though this may per- haps refer to the year 1856). Setting all these aside, the statement made by Capt. Jonathan Carver (in his “Narrative” of the year 1766), that large swarms of locusts ‘“‘infest these parts and the interior colonies and oftentimes do much mischief,” shows that such occurrences were repeated. It is difficult to say what regions are denoted by ‘“ these parts”; but his usual application of the word “ interior” is to the regions from the great lakes westward. The visitations of locusts in Lord Selkirk’s Red River colony in 1818 — can hardly be said to concern Minnesota, as but a small portion of that colony lay within what are now the borders of Minnesota; but it is not improbable that the wilderness to the northwest was overrun in those years. 1830 and 1842.—Still further allusions may be found in the follow- ing extract from a letter of Rev. J. A. Gilfillan, missionary at the White Earth Indian agency, to the Minnesota grasshopper commis- sion, 1875: ‘¢My informant, Michel Villebrun (a Missouri River half-breed, resid- ing at the agency, now seventy years old, whom I consider a reliabip 7 Prepared for the Commission by Mr. Allen Whitman, Assistant to the Commission. CHRONOLOGY: MINNESOTA, 1830-1857. 81 man), went to Fort Garry forty-five years ago (1830), and saw there for the first time quantities of grasshoppers. They thickly covered both sides of the river for some distance back, and the river was covered with dead ones. Twelve years after the above-mentioned date (in 1842) he came down from Fort Garry to Saint Paul; there were then none at Fort Garry and but few at Saint Paul, but the prairies between these two points were full of them. He came by the way of the Minnesota River.” Still another reference is found in a letter to the New York Tribune, dated June 9, 1857, from Medicine Lodge, Hennepin County, Minnesota, and signed “J. H.H.” ‘About six years ago, as I am informed bya Frenchman who lived at Red River at that time, they (the grasshoppers) destroyed the crops so that the infant colony did not save their seed, but were obliged to live by hunting and fishing.” 1849.—Such statements as these it is, of course, no longer possible to _ verify, but that there is nothing intrinsically impossible, or even im- probable, about them may be seen from the following letter from Mr. J. W. Burdick, of Willmar, Minn., an old resident in the Northwest, since 1856. As his letter refers to localities and dates about which it is now difficult to collect or recall facts, I quote it nearly in full, giving the different portions of it under the years to which they refer. | WILLMAR, MINN., September 29, 1877. ALLEN WHITMAN, Esq., Saint Paul, Minn.: Yours of September 25 is at hand. In reply I would say that I have no personal knowledge of the grasshoppers visiting Minnesota prior tou A. D. 1856; but was in- formed by Indian traders and frontiersmen that they had made their appearance in vast numbers along the prairie regions west of the big woods about A. D. 1849, and, as far back as any trace could be made, always making their appearance in seasons of great drought; but as there were no cultivated lands previous to 1856 in all this vast region, their depredations were confined to the natural herbage of the country. The year 1855 is sometimes included among the locust years of the State of Minnesota. I know of no other authority ® for it than the state- ment on page 203 of the Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, 1858. ‘Every Western man remembers the visitation of grasshoppers in 1855 and 1856 in Kansas, Nebraska, and Mennesota Territories which caused such injuries to the crops of the In- dians.” But the press of the State for that year (1855), so far as [ have been able to learn, contains no allusion whatever to grasshoppers, except in California and Utah. If there were any locust invasions in Minnesota, all the State papers to which I have been able to have access have totally failed to record it. | In 1856—’57.—On the other hand, the State press for the summer and autumn of 1856 is full of notices of invading swarms of locusts, while numerous letters and replies to the circulars of the entomological com- mission confirm the fact that it was not till 1856 that the invaders reached at least the cultivated portions of the State, and principally the region lying along the Upper Mississippi. 8 We may add that Col. G. W. Sweet stated to us in Bismarck that locusts arrived at harvest time in Saint Cloud, Minnesota, in 1855. They hatched out in 1856. 6G 82 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. They reached the Chippewa Agency at Gall Lake (now in the south- ern part of Cass County) on the 27th of July, and had arrived at Otter Tail Lake (Otter Tail County) several days before. Their arrival at Sauk Rapids (Benton County) is noted in a letter to the Saint Paul Weekly Minnesotian, and dated August 23, 1856. They reached Monti- cello (Wright County) on the 13-16 of August, and the western part of Hennepin County in the same month. In the latter part of the month they reached Carver County, and still later in the season ex- tended to Saint Anthony and nearly to Saint Paul. In the following spring the young were also found at Shakopee, Scott County, in parts of McLeod County, and along the Upper Minnesota River, and of course all these points also must have been visited in 1856. It is highly prob- able that the whole region west of the big woods was swept over in 1856. The letter of Mr. Burdick, referred to above, goes on to say: ‘“‘In 1856 they deposited their eggs in all the high, sandy hills, and in what prairie was broken by the settlers, along the Crow and Minnesota Rivers, which, owing to a very late spring in 18957, did not hatch until the month of June, when the excessive rains seemed to destroy all the local hatch; but about the middle of July of that year swarms came from the west and swept everything in the shape of grain and vegeta- bles west of the big woods, and then disappeared just as they have now, no one knows whither.” This fact of the arrival of swarms from the west and northwest is different from what occurred in the more easterly por- tion of the locust region. Resulting-swarms of 1857.—The records of the hatching swarms of 1857 are still more numerous. The hatching is reported from about the end of May onward, and the young insects were found to be numerous in the Upper Mississippi Valley and about Shakopee. Their vicinity to Saint Paul is noted in the Saint Paul Advertiser (of July 4), where they ‘are reported on farms near Lake Como, “thick in spots and making their mark on vegetation.” In June, the Shakopee Advocate says: “The recent cool, wet weather has been a serious check upon the grass- hoppers. It is said that bushels of dead grasshoppers may be seen in masses on the prairies.” The Saint Paul Advertiser of July 4 states: ‘It is only in the eastern part of the Northern Mississippi Valley, in | Benton and Sherburne Counties, that they manifest a settled determi- nation to clear out every green thing—where they appear in such masses as to crackie beneath the feet of persons walking over the prairies.” Toward the middle of July the notices of migrations begin, appar- ently somewhat later than in later years. July 17, the Saint Paul Daily Pioneer and Democrat quotes the Mon- ticello Times in regard to migrations to the south and soutbeast. Au- ‘gust 1, the Sauk Rapids Frontiersman states that they have nearly all left that vicinity. ‘‘For several days of last week and on Sunday they were high in the air, like a snow-storm. They went south and south- east; did not deposit their eggs here.” CHRONOLOGY: MINNESOTA, 1856. 83 Late in July, 1856, invading swarms came from the northwest into the Upper Mississippi Valley, and gradually spread along the river dur- ing the season, much the same as they had done in the past summer, and reaching nearly the same limits. The injury was, of course, felt most severely along the Mississippi and the cultivated region adjacent, but the locusts are said to have appeared along the Minnesota River, in the Yellow Medicine country, and at various points in the northwestern part of the State. Itis probable that the northwestern part of the State was swept over by migrating swarms during the summer, much the same as in the present year. 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CHAP? E Bit: STATISTICS OF LOSSES. The subject of this chapter is so intimately connected with that of the following that it may in fact be considered a part of it; for noth- ing can be presented which will show in a stronger light the blight- ing effect of locust visitations upon the agriculture of the West than the immense loss these cause. But in order to present the subject in as clear a light as possible, it has been thought best by the commission to devote a special chapter to it. As will be seen by an inspection of the figures here given, the losses experienced in the border States have been very heavy; indeed, we should not be using too strong language if we were to say they are startling. Although we were satisfied from pre- vious examination of the subject that they were large, we have been somewhat surprised at the figures which a careful collation of the statis- tics bring out. Large as the figures show the direct loss to the crops to be, they fall far short of representing the entire loss occasioned by the locusts. The check to business, improvements, and the various indus- trial enterprises; the effect these visitations have of stopping immigra- tion and driving away capital, bring upon these new States a greater loss than that sustained by the crops. A full statement of the subject should therefore include all the losses occasioned by these things, but this can scarcely be reduced to figures or ascertained in dollars and cents; hence our only method of conveying a correct idea in reference thereto is to introduce statements from those who have had experience in the locust-ravaged districts during such visitations. ~ On account of the great difficulty of obtaining reliable data, where no special arrangement has been made for this purpose—as is generally the case—it is impossible to do more than make an approximate estimate of the actual loss sustained; still we believe what we here give may be relied upon as probably as nearly correct as statistics in reference to crops and agricultural products usually are. In Minnesota some at- tempts have been made to gather statistics in reference to the portion and value of the crops destroyed in that State since 1873; but with this exception we are not aware that any effort has been made in any of the visited States or Territories to obtain such statistics. We have, therefore, within our reach but two methods by which we may arrive at an approximately correct estimate of these losses. First by combining the local estimates of the loss so far as they have been given, and using the per cent. thus obtained as a basis of calculation. But the result of such a caleulation would after all be but little better than a guess and of no real value. Instead, therefore, of attempting to ascertain the aggregate by this method, we will present the statements of STATISTICS OF LOSSES. T¥5 local observers showing the ravages of the locusts in their respective sections, which will convey a more vivid and clear idea of the suffering and distress occasioned by these calamitous visitations than can possi- bly be obtained from a mere inspection of statistics and figures. The estimate of the losses will be made by the second method, which consists in comparing the yield of a locust year with that of a year when there was no locust visitation, as, for example, 1874 with 1875, and eliminating as far as possible all losses occasioned by other causes. Most of our readers will remember very distinctly the reports of des- titution and suffering in the border States in 1874, occasioned by the destruction of the crops in these States by the grasshoppers. It was felt to be a national calamity, which called for assistance from the be- nevolent and sympathizing throughout our country. So great, in fact, was the calamity and so urgent the necessity for some action that the legislatures of some of these States were convened in extra session for the purpose of providing some means of relief. Although it is now apparent that much that was unwise and deroga- tory to the best interests of these States was done by overzealous workers, and that the methods of affording relief were in many cases not the best, yet the universal feeling that relief was needed is evidence of the severe loss sustained by the people in the locust-visited area. The following extract from the Third Annual Report of the State Board of Agriculture in Kansas will give some idea of the immediate effect of the locust-visitation in that State in 1874: _ About the 25th of July, one of those periodic calamitous visitations, to which the trans-Mississippi States are liable once in from eight to ten years, made its appearance in Northern and Northwestern Kansas, the grasshopper or locust. The air was filled and the fields and trees were completely covered with these voracious trespassers. At one time the total destruction of every green thing seemed imminent. Their course was in a southerly and southeasterly direction, and before the close of August the swarming hosts were enveloping the whole State. The visitation was so sudden that the people of the State became panic-stricken. In the western counties, where immi- gration for the last two years had been very heavy, and where the chief dependence was corn, potatoes, and garden vegetables, the calamity fell with terrible force. Starv- ation or emigration seemed inevitable unless aid should be furnished. At this critical period the State board of agriculture undertook to collect correct data relating to the effects of the prevailing drought and devastation of crops by locusts and chinch-bugs. In the mean time Governor Osborne had issued his proclamation convening the legis- lature in extra session on the 15th day of September. The following replies to the circular sent out by the board of agri- culture to the different counties will give an idea of the destruction of crops by the locusts: Barton County.—“‘ Grasshoppers appeared July 26 and destroyed all the corn snd garden vegetables, together with the present year’s growth of fruit trees of all kinds.” Brown County.—“ Appeared August 15; stripped the corn and nearly destroyed the ear; took all the foliage from fruit trees, and seriously damaged the fruit.” Clay County.—“ Made their appearance in different portions of the ccunty from the 25th to the 30th of July. Nearly all green crops were destroyed; fifty per cent. of the fruit crop ruined.” Cloud County.—The most terrible calamity that has ever befallen Northwestern Kan- 116 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. sas has just swept over us like the devouring locust of Palestine. The land was as tho garden of Eden be‘ore them, and behind them a desolate wilderness. Decatur Couniy.—“ or aes destroyed the corn crop and drought the wheat, oats, barley, and potatoes.” Ellis County.—*‘ Destroyed everything growing except the grasses.” Ellsworth County.— Destroyed corn and everything green except sorghum and broom corn.” Edwards County.—“ Crops entirely destroyed, not one bushel of vegetables or grain being saved for man or beast.” Harvey County.—‘“‘ Nearly total destruction of corn and vegetables.” Jefferson County.—“ Destroyed all corn, fodder, and vegetables; late corn entirely and early corn to a considerable extent. Fruit trees stripped and fruit badly damaged.” Jewell County.— Destroyed all crops not mature, except sorghum.” Lincoln County.— Destroyed corn and vegetables.” Lyon County.—“ Destroyed all green crops and vegetation.” Marion County.—“ Destroyed nearly all the corn and vegetables.” McPherson County.—“ Nearly a total destruction of corn and vegetables.” Mitchell County.—“ Entire corn crop and vegetables destroyed.” Morris County.— Corn nearly ruined ; vegetables entirely so; fruit and shade trees badly damaged.” Norton County.—“ Crops entirely destroyed. ‘i Osborne County.—“ Corn crop a also vegetables, hedges, and young fruit and forest trees.” Ottawa County.—‘ Entirely destroying the corn crop, vegetables, and fruit.” Pawnee County.‘ Total destruction of crops.” Reno County.—‘ General destruction of late crop.s” Republic County.—“ Corn crop and vegetables totally destroyed, and fruit trees seriously damaged.” Riley County.‘ Destroyed nearly everything green.” Russell County.—“ Completely devastated the country.” Rush County.“ We have nothing left but our teams, which we will have to sell or starve unless we receive aid.” Shawnee County.—“ Destroyed nearly everything they were capable of accion " Smith Cownty.—‘ Entirely destroyed corn and nearly all kinds of vegetation.” ' Wabaunsee County.—‘‘All the corn destroyed except some of the earliest which had ripened; vegetables, fruit trees, and this year’s growth of trees were also destroyed.” Washington County.—“‘Almost entire destruction of corn crop, vegetables, and fruits.” We have no such complete returns from counties in the other Western States and Territories as from Kansas, but in a large part of Nebraska, Minnesota, Dakota, and the northwestern section of lowa, the destruc- tion of crops in 1874 was about the same as Kansas. Gov. C. K. Davis, of Minnesota, writing to the Secretary of War, says: “The locusts have devoured every kind of crop in the northwestern part of Minne- sota. (They did the same thing last year, inthe same area.) Many thousands are now suff-ring for food, and I am using every public and private source to send immediate supplies of food.” The commissioner of statistics of the same State, in his report for 1874, says that the locusts destroyed more than 50 per cent. of the crops in the following counties: Brown, Clay, Cottonwood, Jackson, Lac qui Parle, Lincoln, Lyon, Martin, Murray, Nobles, Redwood, Renville, Rock, Watonwan, and Yellow Medicine. The following quotations from the correspondence given in Professor DAMAGE IN MISSOURI IN 1875. Ti? Riley’s eighth report as State entomologist of Missouri present a some- what vivid picture of the ravages of the locusts in that State in 1875: “Tn Saint Joseph the grasshoppers are reported as the sands of the sea, and sweep- ing everything before them.” Aitchison County.—“ The locusts are taking everything green as fast as it appears. above the ground in this part of the county.” Bates County.—“ It is actually alarming and distressing to see all our crops and pas- tures eaten off until they are as bare as in midwinter.” ‘“ The grasshoppers have de- stroyed the country.” “There is scarcely a green thing left in the country. All of our crops are destroyed.” Buchanan County.—“I think by the time the hoppers leave here they will have de- voured everything green. The crops are about all destroyed now, together with the pastures and meadows. The country would present the appearance of winter were it not for the foliage of the timber. The leaves are all stripped off the hazel bushes.” Cass County.—** Those persons at a distance and out of range of the plague can have but a faint idea of our situation, nor can they comprehend the fearful ravages made by these pests. They have already eaten up the wheat and oats, and are taking the corn that is planted as fast as it appears above the ground. Our gardens and meadows have been totally despoiled, and our once beautiful flower-flecked prairies now look as desolate and barren as the desert. Our stock will either have to be sent off or starve, as there is nothing for them to eat. The influence of the plague is being severely felt in our cities and towns by all classes. Business is becoming stagnated, work of all kinds is on' the decline, and gloom and despondency fill almost every heart.” Clinton County.—“ All the meadows, both clover and timothy are absolutely destroyed, and nothing but frequent and heavy rains will save the blue grass. The devastation is much heavier and more universal on the west and south sides of the county. The hazel and undergrowth are leafless as in winter; all the small fruits of every descrip- tion are destroyed.” Gentry County.—They ate all the wheat that was on high land, also, oats and corn; all garden vegetables and a great portion of the fruit. Imagine every green thing on the face of the earth eaten entirely up, the meadows and blue grass pastures as bare of vegetation as the center of a State road that is traveled a great deal, and you can probably form some idea of our condition at the time. . Henry County.—“ The locusts have already destroyed a large portion of the crops in sections of this county, and still continue their work of devastation. The western and northern part is almost a desert, there being scarcely a vestige of anything green remaining to be seen.” Jackson County.— Pastures have been stripped of foliage, oat, and wheat fields have been swept, gardens are bare of any growing vegetable, and the corn-fields are alike destitute of any indications that anything has been planted. The small fruits are irrevocably gone, and the larger fruits are now becoming a prey to their devouring powers. Theyswarm into the houses, hopping and climbing in every place that is not absolutely closed against them.” Saint Clair County.‘ The grasshoppers have eaten up all the flax, all the wheat, and corn, and now are attacking everything green even grass, and three weeks hence will witness a country as barren as the grim deserts of Africa.” We could multiply quotations and extracts from various sources, and from our own correspondence the past season, but these will suffice to convey an idea of the terrible havoc this insect scourge inflicts upon the farmers of a district which it invades in full force. We give them for this purpose as no amount of statistics and figures would ever couvey a correct idea of the sufferings of a locust-ravaged pioneer settlement. 118 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. The statements from our own correspondents will be found in Ap- pendix 20. . In order to arrive at something like a correct estimate of the absolute loss to crops by locust ravages we have concluded to take the chief crop—corn—in the four States, Kansas, Nebraska, Missouri, and Iowa, in the years 1874 and 1875, the first a locust year, the second a full crop year, as a basis. We select these States because they are known to have suffered severely in 1874, and for the reason that the statistics of their crops are given in the annual reports of the Department of Agri- culture without any special reference to the point now under considera- tion and hence are free from any suspicion of a disposition to exaggerate © the losses. Loss on the corn crop wv Kansas, Nebraska, Iowa, and Missouri in 1874, as shown by reference to the statistical tables in the reports of the Agri- cultural Department for 1874 and 1875. Although it is true, as a general rule, that in these western States each year’s crop shows an increase over that of the previous year on account of the increased acreage, yet in this case, a comparison of the crop of 1874 with that of 1875 will not lead us into any great error on this account, as the severe shock received by agriculture in these States in 1874 could not easily be ovecome in a single season, moreover, con- siderable loss was also occasioned by the locusts in 1875; in fact, the wheat crop of 1874 was fully equal to that of 1875, because the former was generally harvested before the locusts arrived, while the latter was seriously injured by the young insects. We are fully aware of the fact that 1874 was a very dry year and _that crops throughout the whole country suffered very materially from this cause, and that on this account the difference between the crop of 1874 and 1875 cannot all be attributed to the locusts, in those States visited by them. But, as will be seen by the statistics which follow, we have endeavored to eliminate from the estimate the proportion of the loss attributable to the dry season. To do this correctly we have had to make a special case of Illinois from the fact that it has been shown by estimates from two entirely different sets of data that the loss on corn in this State in 1874 by the chinch-bug was, at least, equal to 32 per cent. of the crop of 1875. Departments’ estimate of the corn-crops of 1874 and 1875. 1874. | 1875. Bushels. Bushels. LO ARES Sea ee eee ene ns ond ic! eek os et a oer bo oe “115, 720, 000 160, 000, 000 IMISSOUT ee 2 = ey cis Se ek SEES LS Sete be ee ee ee ee Rabeer ae yas 46, 04%, 000 122, 000, 000 Li) eS ee re ear en epee eae 2 hoe Ses eS pe ee, wee 16, 065, 000 76, 700, COO IVGUERS Ka 2202 Bee anita iach oe ce cin pS Se oe se CeO ee ee tee Saenres 3, 500, 000 28, 000, 000 RGUMNG. Semele is Sieniee ios ac cieie dace ee CoE Ee eae eee ee eee 181, 334, 000 392, 700, 0.0 181, 334, 000 A geregate.Josson.cornin these Statas..2:.. 62. .eces st een ee Seen aban |Sectto bounce pees 211, 365, 000 LOSS TO THE CORN CROP. 119 Taking the crop of 1875 as a basis this shows a loss of 53.8 per cent. occasioned by locusts and drought. If we now take the loss on this crop in all the other States (except Illinois) as representing the per cent. of loss occasioned by the dry weather, and deduct this per cent. from the per cent. of loss in the above named Western States, we may fairly consider the remainder as that caused by the locusts. - The total crop of corn in the United States in 1874 and 1875, as given by the department reports, were as follows: 1874. | 1875. | Bushels. Bushets. TOPE RSYRRRRE IER AB es dt Uk ae sa SE eR a On et Se ae 250, 148, 500 1, 321, 069, 000 Deduct crops of the States mentioned and Illinois -..--....--.....-.--- 314, 913, 000 | 672, 700, 000 Aggregate of the other States ...--------ece--ceceeeee eeceecececeeeee 535, 235, 500 648, 369, 000 539, 235, 500 Aerreeate lesson corn in all the other States - 2-2... -- 26.0.2. east s| ese ne en nceee ens 113; 133, , 500 Taking the crop of 1875 as a basis, this shows a loss of 17.4 per cent. Deducting this from the 53.8 per cent. loss in the Western States named it gives 36.4 per cent. as the portion lost, which is attributable to the locust visitation in 1874. Taking 36.4 per cent. of 392,700,090 bushels, the total corn crop of these States in 1875, it gives 142,942,800 bushels as the aggregate loss by the locusts. Estimating this at 28 cents per bushels, the average price for these Western States, as given in the re- port for 1875, aud we have a money loss of 40,023,984 dollars, or in round numbers, forty millions of dollars on the corn-crop alone in a single year in four Western States. Lest this may be considered as an unfair method of arriving at the correct loss, as it does not take into consideration the difference in acre- age, let us see what it amounts to by this method. , The total acreage in corn in these four States in 1874, according to the department report for that year, was 8,721,076, the average yield of corn per acre in these States in 1875 was 37.9 bushels, in 1874 it was 16.4 - bushels, showing a difference of 21.5 bushels per acre. The proportion of loss by the locusts was 36.4 per cent. out of 53.8 per cent. or about G8 per cent. of the whole loss. A loss of 21.5 bushels per acre on 8,721,076 acres gives an aggregate of 187,503,134 bushels; 68 per cent. of this is 127,502,133 bushels. At 28 cents this gives a money loss of 35,600,597 dollars, the two results differing only about 11 per cent. | Minnesota and Texas are omitted from these estimates because this crop was fully as large in these States in 1874 as in 1875, and the loss in the former in 1875 from locusts and cold season was greater than in 1874. The loss on wheat_in 1874 was generally less than in 1875 as it was mostly harvested when the locusts arrived in the former year, and suf- fered from the young in the latter. This to a large extent was also the 120 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. case with other small grains. The loss on the potato crop, however, was heavy as appears from the following exhibit taken from the same reports beretofore referred to: Crop of 1874. | Crop of 1875. Loss. Bushels. Bushels. Bushets. TOW! s5 dsb akis ccedecined Soc et pe cess bebe ee teeeeeee 4, 806, 600 8, 700, 000 3, 894, 000 MISSOUTI bose = cece ee eae es obi eileen eee elas bien serene 2, 022, 000 6, 300, 000 4, 278, 000 EGE BORER O OE RO SORE e CCE orb SS OReCE On emeancd soc ; 1, 116, 000 4, 480, 000 3, 364, 000 INebraska sfa:sss eet eee teen e ee ce ac cee sce - 275, 000 1, 950, 000 1, 675, 000 ASSTORALE. vere casmcekee te cemiaca came sae aeeeE 8, 219, 000 21, 430, 000 13, 211, 000 The loss in those States as shown by these figures amounts to 13,211,000 bushels, worth according to the average price in this section in 1875 (27 cents), $3,556,970 ; 68 per cent. of which is $2,418,739. In Minnesota the difference in the potato crops of the two years was a little over 2,000,000, of bushels. The loss sustained by the destruction of gardens, which suffer more perhaps in proportion to their value than anything else, when aggre- gated amounts to a much larger sum than would be supposed. As bear- ing upon this point and sustaining this view, we present the following ingenious method of arriving at the loss by the destruction of gardens in the locust-visited counties in Texas in 1877, as given by Serg. C. A. Smith, Signal-Service officer at Galveston : From the preceding, which I take as fair examples of the remaining devastated coun- ties, I conclude that the damage to the grain crops in the 64 counties visited cannot ex- ceed 5 per cent. Gardens everywhere appear to have suffered to a much greater extent than the grain crops. They were reported as having been entirely destroyed in a large - number of cases, and were badly damaged wherever visited. Assuming that a large percentage recovered from the ravages of the insects as in the case of the grain, I will estimate 25 per cent. as totally lost. Taking the population of the 64 counties for the year 1870 as a basis, and dividing it by five to get the approximate number of families, and we have for the latter 84,304; assuming that one-half of these families have gardens worth $75 each, that an average of 25 per cent. were destroyed, and we have $790,350 as the approximate damage to gardens. Extend this method of estimating this item of loss to all the other States and Territories visited by the locusts in 1874 or 1877, and it will readily be seen that the aggregate amount is very far from being an insignifi- cant sum; nor can we consider the calculation an exaggerated one. Applying the same method of calculation to the visited portion of Missouri, Iowa, Minnesota, Dakota, Nebraska, and Kansas, and includ- ing that for Texas, we have a loss on gardens alone in 1877 of a little over $4,000,000. Let us suppose that the loss on other crops (except potateden gardens, orchards, stock that died from want of food, &c., amounted to but one- half the loss on the corn crop; this would be, taking the lower estimate on corn as heretofore given, something over $11,800,000. 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[pc vevial stow walacewavl sadoeellcae dey ecenecte tie | meer Ns preter LBP. i, CL0Gs SN | SOL | 78) — | GOS | AS Bee eg [rcteresctersteses- oun el Cae Ga ee eer ae IMO UUy atone | aUreaelO a |) USE | AUN | 6°20 8 | eG ere || ge lenge: | eapo ween emesis e ee ete ls | ee ee ee ees eer el Lecro| ane |p crore IWOHPe MANNE ie Dime | 6G. | UGGS | kNeal Re Up y ee lente ba aac eK Yeo ae all ecb ltwtoe clo cde. nde cds lewis | een oa eee I €& £198 | MN | G08 6 ‘TL OOLr | N | #°E8 PSE Siem ciseseisis «mists => SUB aie es oc wel alee | cee |e cedex IRENE eee et ip cme oe eae a Re ee hal aie 0) an pe ARC 9°% PLES | AAS 6S rie rsa sess seen =) KRNTO OTT, ba ye fe Be ame et gel iietoaet a iia ae aia eae ee lUP all Ae Ne |) Pe G =" | Se0oulh ONE I aey GIT eee eee *PLET ror) a c Ce ee ee ee ee Se aes OUR SaeetA occ ef alot eee Ae af aes alle crcl moe Malet ae alee cle |) SBR 9°9 TLOF | MA | 6°EL ie | Cn eerie miner '52)201510 0 oo. eae ee ee eee pe dh Ae ae aes Meier RCRD sIMNNEIN “1a LOL 8hE9 | MS ! L'LG 1 + a a 198 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. €8CE i) €8 | G°36 | &°89. OfLE M | 6°€6 | F°SOT! LS OOF as c6 | 1°SOll 8&8 ‘MOPOIG 19JOULO TION L, *toyoOIg 1dJaMO MII, S| | | ee | ee eee Ses SLOT BS toqgaogt “0 ‘Gg ‘Us,buyso 4 “W'S °Q USOC IVNOIS AMINO FHL 10 AOAC ‘INAWLNVAIAC UV AL MN t TS een | nee a | See eee at GOs ee |e OS, ereee fb MA GL | §'38 | T19 fomeeA li te FO |p bee Geos Reman Ne 09 69 | LTS “SO ro) ° ) 8 ae) ae] bg b> & ® : ; Sie ae | ee ees | PUREE Pe a etonee, A eeey g Sa |B |EBY| BS g | PR) es| cal cea oo | eS ct @ 3} QO le) 5 ° ~ = ay “DUAL ‘9injv1edni97 Alqjuott uvoyy “Zine ‘eu x GhGT | S| L°Lg 6h 6666 | § 8P 19 L9EG | UN | € "SE 6 ‘EL Aesbat SUSU | Saeco (Oh SOI) 49 LOT re) s 4 ) B = © SF Es) B ca d © o | S85 & fs rom ee || ae S| ela eo | 8 B ms Qu se 8 S| "put. “AT WOU UvOTT ‘ouspy ‘Aqt9 ostog 806 LGo9 | MN | 6 TL OF becT | MN | G'TE ¢9 LELO S| SS | Teo b GG Shas | AN | TCG € ‘92 619 | MN | 6°89 € “9 COTS | AAN | T ‘f% Gh 6c89 S € 69 T ‘89 Ich | MN | 2L°63 6 “¢9 T98¢ | AAN | 2°29 LG 169 | MN | TGP L ‘9S LrIL | HS | 4°S9 8 ‘9S 906¢ | MN eb 9 ‘8P LGGY | MAN | 6°€L 1 ‘Es 61GP | MAAN | 6°@S ab ercL | AAN | 9 ‘08 £8 [TPS | MN | €°SL L€é coco | S €8 bLT cece | AS | 6'FL 6°26 Tec9 | S | SL (AS ae ‘SO 99 hod fe) Sanu 70 hod ° fae] ae) Ze) le] ne] mar) 29) | eel ag | © Sac ipogee | ahah lie Bs sg Bg) ete |B | ag] 2 | es Bey oest i a ¢ et te ES aes @ S oy © g S on e 2 Dee | SSE |e Bi Be - levee ens ab at e B a B ® B ms = ® 5 i yi =! a & (ap) ete (qr) bete "pul “AT qjuOU Woy *puULAL ‘ATMO UST "qe10 ‘AITO ofe'yT 9189 ‘Itq ‘vuiquieg Sencen|oe weeao-|-sceeeenel|eseeeee-| eee seeserseeeeee 1040990 P Sciuey' |b agraphila ce game eles ees | werereesss - TGqumoydeg weocce-|cemoss|-s eeeat o|seeesee-f}seone e@cocceas io ee denon Vy eomcae | scene |-s oe aees|-sescese-|-seeeeseae raieraseratete eSNG Soe aie eee |e ae eee eins sisi Soros | elemintete Stats Star ai a nO UTNE Sadabel|i cen e-|- ce emaecne (see eoee een ee ee se eee s eo eene ACI sesee-|eseen-|-seeeeces seer eses Pie aa Oi 5 saueos leeccae| addon ane one sees sees eee eeeeee es TTR TL eeheiciee! ie mersises se = al ap ea POSS Oe eneees ATUNIQOT Ssicinicis A clsicce slo sie e SSes\|e ah miata’ faite enetene ene Aces “LLST ‘BOUT 70 dog 0 Srl om ee lke a B| ¢| & | & nw © ae ko Eo eee 8 a S} S56 © © aq | Boe Eh a F = Ez g p | eg] & ‘ora “pul AA. “ATYZUOUL WRIT ‘qUOT ‘WOJWOT 910.7 ‘ponuyju0j—'aP ‘pum fo uoyoanp buypvadid ‘ipypruny aaynjoe puv aunjouadmay hpyzuow ay Bugnoys yuawsanig WINDS AND MEAN TEMPERATURE FROM 1872 TO 1877. 199 Synopsis of the monthly mean temperature and prevailing winds in the locust area, 1872-1877, from the preceding data, as furnished by the Chief Signal Officer United States Army. —— May. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1875. 1876. 1877. ro) Ss) a) ra) 0) } Station. eS = 5 cE 5 = ‘ » ~ »~ ~~» ~ ~ 3 3 3 = 3 3 I mH aI ~ H ~ fob) [2] vo oO Oo o a 2 ry 2 rev es : : : : : : = ~ 4 = + : ~ A = 5 =| E =| E a E =| E A E =| E Davenport, Iowa. .-....-.-. 61.5 | NW | 59.6 | NEE | 64.5 | SW | 60.9 KE 62.4 | SW | 62.2 E LETS TAT AON Dail ge 5 SE a ee ele |e as eee, Od ee ee ee 56. 1 Ss 56 SE | 56.9 Ss Breckenridge, Minn...... 53 SE | 52 SE | 60.2 | SE | 56 SE | 56.3] SE | 584] SE Cheyenne, Wyo.....----- 52 N 490 OT 1S We! SONGulmoWs al) od.-deliee We ONG W 50.8 Ss Woenverv Colo 222 .o25-52.2 Die de Ne eiooyo) |) Neal Gil 9 S 60. 2 Ss Bide ol gall en nea) Ss arene INAS Ee cine |laeiace'|\. abies (lees 2- |e See ol Madde [Pesan e 65.4) N | 64.5) E | 62.7 S) HornGibson, Ind. Tes 252i io... | yes... 67. 6 1) 73} E 7.6] SE | 69.6 | SE | 68.2} Si Hort Sully; Dalk.-2...---- 58.3 | NW | 54.5 KE 63.2 | SE | 60.1 | NW | 61.7 | SE | 58.6 | SEH Keoknke Towae. «ées-ce~. 6255) |W) G5 iE 67.2 Ss 62.9 | SE | 63.9 ) 62.3 | SE Leavenworth, Kans...... 65.6 | SW | 63 Ss 67.3 Ss 65. 8 Ss 65.5 Ss 63.8 Ss) Monnet ahOe NODES a2" <-AEee. ae [ecthecs (eects | ccee's odkoad [eons 61.3 | SE | 59.6 | SE | 57:9] SE Omaha; Nebr... --2-=--- 61 SSE | 59 N 66. 6 S 63.2 | SE | 63.6 S 60.7 | SE Saint baw) Minn. 2.52. ao le GNWei | psu) N 62.2 | N 58.8 | SE | 59.2 | SE | 62 SE Santa Fé, N. Mex........ 58.1] N. | 56 SW} 59.8 | B® | 59)2)) SW | 55.9 | SW 54.4 | SW GOSS 0 eS ea eee (ee 34.2) NE | 62.1)_2S | 61.2) NW 616] SE | 588) SH Fort Benton, Mont....... da.1 | SW | 52.4 BY 15922 TBH sia La IA. MSR REUN GS) OF tS Sea eee Pembina Wake: —. 2 oe s6 | sckss. ly secs. 52.4] SE | 55.3 | NW] 53.3] SE | 546] NW | 56.8] SE PIU ORO MUN ain s meen cee Ie ca. Ail ea cicit Perea es 61.6 | NE | 60.1 | NE | 56.9 | NW] 56.7 | NW IRD SE CHP 2 sas adie SS ce oleae ee ot | ee aes ea Se SS ee ees eee |e | Be ee Se ee WERE. AVE Scat GaB ee oo 4 BAe aee [Spee Se cieel | Si crcemel (eee len aes ee ey ee ie OMEGA Deter | eS ULI SPE es is eee ee a | eee SSG ON Flats Sty Seal Ose Ne fee. oper. see June. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1875. 1876. 1877 o es) d © So) ) Station. 5 = = = a 5 ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 3 = oS 3 3 3 = 4 i a i = vs o (cD) oO oO 0) on a a =F a = q =| | S| | S| + a ee . | hee | pauines : Seed gee ese) a | Se Bal geile Pele [ates shows) an == Vg m= EI Ng VO => = >| i = Davenport, Iowa..-...--. 73.2 | SW | 77.9| SW | 73.2 | SW | 626 | NW | 69.4 | SW | 69.2 | SW PSINTHARC Ke) acme eae oo eee SON Nee ee ee MMe oe 61.4| W | 60.9| E 59 NW Breckenridge, Minn...... 65 SE | 69.5] SE | 65.9 | SE | 69.8] SE | 63.1 | NW/ 538.9 | NW Cheyenne, Wyo..-..-.----- SIS: |) ail | O95. | awe |lGosOrk We | 63.57 |) aWeGOSShle NVe 59 Ss DenverjColo..cssts- so: 2. 67.3 Ss 63. 9 S$ 70 Ss 70. 4 NS) 65.9 Ss 65.1 Ss LOE © Ci 8 STS ie a ee ee eee a ee ee 15.4| S: | 7E2s Se | 70:6 | .SE Fort Gibson, Ind. T....--}. ps | eee 70.6 | SE } 78.6] SE | 77.9 SH ionOnl po NWiee edos.o Ss Fort Sully, Dak... -.=<--- 70.3 | SE | 74.2} SE | 70.2] SE | 66 SE | 68.1 | NW | 63.6 | NW iReokuk wows op gos2=5.- hos 2 Ss 77.9 | SE | 76.9} SW | 71.4 | SE | 70.1] NW] 71.7 | SW Leavenworth, Kans...... ioe) |b SWe | 15,5 Ss 17.4 Ss 76.7 Ss Thley NS) 71.9 Ss EV NAIA TE) Arte DARE) OL beta OC en en a ae Sn Doe 69.9 | SE | 67.9| N | 66.2] S Omak, Nebrats.... 2.2... 72.7 | SSE |. 74. 4 Ss oe Ss lest SS) 63. 6 N 69. 1 N Saint Paul, Minn ........ 67.9 | SE | 73 SE | 68.7} SE | 63.6 | SE | 66.3 | NW] 63.7 | NW Santa Fé, N. Mex.....-.. 66.9 | SW | 65.6 N | 69.3 | SW | 67.9') SW | 66 SW | 66.6 | SW Wanktony Walken eey seercealseteceli, tcc. 72.6} S | 70.7} SE | 66.1] SE | 65.7} NW] 65 SE Fort Benton, Mont-...... 63.7 | SW | 64.1 | SW | 63 SW | 62 W | 63.8 | W._ |------|--=--- Pembin, Dak None amor sae | emo se cil irae 66.1 | NW | 64.4] SE | 59.2] SE | 60.5 | NW] 55.7 | NW Salltvibakey Git ssce see eee eee Coerots (Goce bee |r a's - 68.1 | NE | 69.1 | NE | 69.9 | NE | 65.9 | NW IORI CH yee. Seiciz cass Saal tt ccl beseiecie | eee eal MMR EIEN TRI 1 (lt [i et a a ae a (ae Ke PGT, ATIZ 2 eee ae ane eee eet SO ole ot. ok eee eee ede YS THEO (ad ORS ol |e el ers a8 Colorado pring see ee tee ame talenctids [aennks 6819) |: 1S 6729") S| 64 Nie eceswelvaceee 200 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. Synopsis of the monthly mean temperature and winds in the locust area, §c.—Continued. July. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1875. 1876. 1877. Oo Oo od <0) o (<2) Station. = = = E FB : 3 8 = = a e S o o @ o 5 i=) os Pa: i= i a S| | =| g S| | 2 eS) See Ses a ee a) ees Bol Sale We) Bt Sle ee Davenport, Iowa-....---- 76.3 | NW | 75.6 |} SW | 78 SW | 74 E | 75.9 | SW | 75.3 | SW Bismarck Dales [eek Je Soe eho he al Seabee alls See totih | Ger ee oat) nin GR ee 69.3 | NE } 70.3 | NW | 70.9 Ss Breckenridge, Minn...-...- 67.1 | SE | 67.6] SE | 70.2 Ss 67.7 | N 70.9} SE | 69.5] SE Cheyenne, Wyo.......--. 64.5 | W | 69.7/-W | 7.8] S | 64 S |72.3008 aeons Denver, Colo. .22.224.54- 69. 3 Ss (hey NS) 76. 1 Ss 68. 1 S 76. 4 Ss 73.8 Ss Dodge City, Kans o2.ses | eed tae ea ase neil geeeeetereer allaaseee 75.5 | NE | 79.6} SE | 77.5] S Fort Gibson, Ind. T.....-|......}.----. GOK |) SE Wesed | SIR 20 Ves aiask Bo /-@8ho as Fort Sully, Dak.......-... 73.5] SE | 74.3) SE | 79.2) SE | 73.9} SE | 75.6 | SE | 74.9 | NW Keokuk, Iowa ..--..----- 73.6 | NW | 76.3 | SE | 80.5] SW | 76.3] SW | 76.5] E | 76.7 | NW Leavenworth, Kans...... 78.4) SE | 77.5| S | 82.8 S | 77.6 S) 72.9 S |76.3] S North: Platte: Nels soci a2 acl eee a Snes al oaecel eine inane 7255) | NE) 76.39" Sila eiere Ss Omaha, Nebr .-.....--.-- V7 SE | 75.7 Ss 80 SSW | 74.4] SHE | 75.1 Ss 76 ) Saint Paul, Minn ........ 71.2 Ss 71 SE 4070) SIE e73e8) | INV) | aes eee (2G | 3S) Santa Fé, N. Mex ......-- 67.6 | NE | 71 SE | 71.1] E | 65.2) SW | 69.2] E | 68.6) SW Wankton# Dak to cena sear site noee 74.7 Ss 72.2] SW | 71.8 | SE | 73.3 S) 73.4 | SH Fort Benton, Mont.....-.- 61.4) SW | 69.8); SW] 7.1] W | 74.5 | W | 68.6 | W |......]...... Rembina Daler. somes at ee an ol eens 65.2 | NW | 69.9 | NW | 64.9 | SW | 67.4 | NW | 62.1 S Alt Make Cit yes sees alaece ails alee tos|eoe ee. 738.2] NW] 74.7) N 76.9 | NW | 73.2 | NW BOSC Cb y's sees stack Se places Fete i) 5 o 0 ire 24 16 14 | 4 Jo OE Tee a Le peed oy Ee | aes a Ee 3 5 5 Q il 3 25 rh 17 23 6 4 4 2 4 11 4) 15 9 4 Senveh S726 ee ER) ea eae |e A 3 9 3 {i 4 5 14 10 tz 26 6 iL 13 8 1 5 2) 12 19 10 208 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. Table of wind frequency, or number of times each wind was observed, §:c.—Continued. Station. Date. N. PNW.) W.. | Sew.|, S.7]) S14 SBN eI Calne (16) Omaha, Nebr..-----.------- May, 1874| 18 q 4 Ac dN 5. th ais Saal tae 13 5|/ 7 | 12 1 Be | 19° "|" 58 6 2 16 samey 8 3 7 | 99 | 10 7 1 ake 4 June, 1874| 9 | 16 en By eat he 9 3 1 5 Bl has el pa il a ide = ie 3 3 15 6| 22 | 15 3 5 | 33 9 0 4 9 July, 1874 | 13 1 0 | a7 | 27 8 4 5 8 5 | 16 9 2 Che Pan We Oia a: 2 8 19 Ble 8: lime | “5. es | Ae 9 6 8 Aug.,1874| 16 3 1 ql 19-1 35 2 9 21 5| 18 | 10 3 a | Loa | vie 7 3 7 6| 12 4 0 Bi |0s4 | 88 2 2 12 Sept.,1874 | 20 9 2 Gius| 1956 | ot 1 3 10 5 | eal dats 3 9 ||-96°| 13 4 2 5 6 | 207 | ag. | ao 2 Fai?) 40 8 3 16 (17) Pembina, Dak.......2...-=s; || May, 1874 1 38 0 Q 0 23 1 24 4 ak Span oe 5 3 5 | 33 4 4 10 64 it | eis q r 9 | 13 7 9 18 June,1874| 0 | 22 0 7 0 | 31 ripe ee 12 Bel eon. | eee 7 6 sl as 2 5 8 6 a) | non 7 8 7 | 12 1 | 12 10 July, 1874] 0 | 37 2 6 1 | 35 0 6 8 5| 14 | 16 @ leat as. ene 2 5; 9 6 bes az 9 5 | a4 | 13 9 3 17 Aug.,1874| 0 | 24 0 8 0 | 36 0 6 i9 5 | AS. | ais 5 ; BF a 4 6 12 6 hg | bas 8 1/17 | 23 2 0 19 Sept.,1874; 0 | 27 0 | 13 0 | 32 0 2 16 5 ates | bide | nae Fam Tl 9 5 6 15 6 leit, | 94} bie | as ae 5 7 6 3 (18) Pike’s Peak, Colo ..........- May, 1874 | 17 14 25 12 13 4 4 2 2 | 5 | Sele id | aag | Ragen ane 0 0 3 0 6) tas 6 | tay | on 2 2 2 | 44 0 June, 1874] 2 G) "| satel aoe g 4 1 0 0 hd el bleeoe | eae 5 0 0 5 1 6| 15 | 22 | 22 | 46 3 2 1 7 2 July, 1874 | - 7 5 7 | 93 | 17 6 8 | 19 1 5 | 92 |-17-| 92. | 42 3 2 0 | 14 1 Bela iG ade! wie a6 edhe =] 4 | 16 1 Aug.,1874] 3 @. | 17 | 38 |. 20 4 6 3 1 5 | 126 || on 1 | 33 0 1 meen 0 ele 3 4. |- 3a |, 37 4 2 1 16 0 Sept.,1874| 18 | 13 | 17 | 20 4 3 ol ara 0 - BAO pandas ts 1 19 2 1 0 | a1 q Bh ae die | oad | cay 3 1 0 4 1 (19) Sal Lake City, Utah....... | May, 1874 | 13 | il 6 Wel 16 | 12 3 liegt’ 6 : 5| 2 g 9 9 Eee ie ee OT (Fudd oT 14 Gila, Wa 89 an lan 9 9 27 June, 1874| 7 | 18 1 ay dt tes lla ay 7 | 22 4 Blea als a6 a A 5 @ |. 19 |) a5 6 6| 13 9 2 1 9 a | 19-1 14 21 July, 1874} 5 | 33 il 4 9 \s it 7 | 14 1S B Mot eta 2 8 7 | 1B 6? Paige 4 Al ais! as 7 2 Bole da 6 6 16 Aug.,1874| 5 8 0 7.1 10 | a7 4 ae 21 Be Vay wheat rae Ful ro) 4 4 | 27 5 . Salt eA BIG 5 0. |) 40) ier 8 7 8 Sept.,1874| 7 | 26 1 0 5 1 ap 3d ag 92 Salceao is 3 igs 9 7 |) ag q Bh bie 3 2 6 as 9 3 8 1 (20) Santa Fé, N. Mex.....- --- May, 1874; 6 | 10 Boy, Aye AD al ote alate 3 7 ews 4 6 or | 44 9 | 12 5 6 65610 5 | 20 gs | 16 | 12 | 10 6 June, 1874 | 7 1 1 | 16 87) a9" | i 6 8 he ee ee a ks ee Be Wie ped 6 4 Gis | 8 5149 |) i5-t 10.) aoeemeate 17 July, 1874 | 15 3 ) e113 | 19 |: 19 7 7 5| 17 6 isa elhahs i ae hr oon es 9 7 11 Bates 7 3 | 13 | 12 | 14 | 26 | 10 3 Aug.,1874| 17 | 10 Mell AG 6. | a4 ohare 7 q Bly 6) | 10 53 1°96 | 12 | a1) aoe 5 6| 12 6 Bol A 8. | 16.) tome 9 Sept.,1e74} 4 4 ull dd g.| 42 "| soe 5 Be 7 4 | 17 9 luor 7 7 5 | 10 Git esol oA J 9 | 12 | 20 | 10 8 INFLUENCE OF WIND ON MIGRATIONS. 209 Table of wind frequency, or number of times each wind was observed, §:c.—Continued. Station. (21) Saint Louis, Mo............ (22) Saint Paul, Minn...... Spee (23) Virginia City, Mont........ (24) Yankton, Dak Date. May, 1874 5 6 June, 1874 5 6 July, 1874 5 6 Aug., 1874 5 6 Sept., 1874 5 6 May, 1874 5 6 June, 1874 5) 6 July, 1874 5 6 Aug , 1874 9) 6 Sept., 1874 5 6 May, 1874 5 6 June, 1874 5 6 July, 1874 5 6 Aug., 1874 i) 6 Sept., 1874 5 6 May, 1874 5) 6 June, 1874 5 6 July, 1874 5 6 Aug., 1874 5 6 Sept., 1874 5 6 SS es ae SS iene e _ Om WAM DEEUIMOANAI1CID CHONWRH UR HOH OCOMWRAA N.W.| W 12 2 10 9 5) 6 5 5 - il 10 12 4 8 9 14 5 8 a 5 10 9 4 8 6 4 19 ) 13 3 12 7 1 6 13 9) 9 6 11 12 22 il 19 6 18 7 11 2 9 3 17 5 1l 9 16 5) 14 6 22 6 11 7 il 18 5) 13 16 10 8 13 6 21 6 11 28 8 i 11 4 7 3 117 ss) 14 6 14 10 14 4 12 13 € 22 3 9 5 15 7 15 Yu 30 ss) 10 4 il 3 7 2 10 1 17 2 9 i 20 2 15 6 31 6 SoWwaily Se s.x,| KE. | N.E.|Calm. i vy OVI DONODO aAlUOMOWOO Pm a? wo Wale ROOD Ld eH HS CO He O1 OD CT 9309 DAI IE CO — - re PR OO CTH AIO WHI O RDO vo — = ee we -1WO OOO = RDO SD Ura? Tr CI UID fh et i rr rm O11 WI O1O © mT HBO OLD WD CS _ bot tet Se AMIOAMNAIWOOOCMUWD MOMRDADD fe — AIH OT 2 CO OD re ON OT OT He OO 4 OF 2 CO OWNWWUAIUAWWNWUrH AO _ a bt i So 12 ———- e i OD 5 OVO be OV rm GOO Ft 9 OO ONS 0 mON RP WORE OOF OWRD iy bo cea WWD U1 be 9B OT CO a ws In studying the preceding table we must bear in mind, on the one hand, the charac- teristics peculiar to each wind and each portion of our country; and, on the other, the Of these latter, I apprehend that the important needs and pcculiarities of the locust. points accord with the following three hypotheses: _ 1. During the unfledged state the locust is killed by too low temperature or much rain.. Now, the strong winds tend to scatter the insects further in the direction toward which they blow, and the cold and wet winds kill off the insects, preventing their in- crease on the side toward which they blow; the result is an apparent migration,.which is simply an excess in the spreading of the insects by the strong winds. 2. A moist atmosphere, or one of rather high “relative humidity,” prevents the wings © 144 210 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. - of the locust from properly drying after his fourth molt, but a clear, sunny day not only promotes this, but, if accompanied by a dry atmosphere, there is produced a rapid evaporation, a nervous irritating dryness and stiffness, or some other state that stimu- lates the locust to take recourse to flight. Once on the wing, however, he is borne by the prevailing wind. The migration thus initiated by the dryness of the wind is con- trolled by the strength of the wind, while it seems due to the volition of an intelligent animal in search of distant green pastures in the lower lands to the southward. The dry winds of the West are generally the N., NW., and W. 3. Conversely, the locusts hatched in noise lowlands find their molting stages re- tarded, and the full-fledged insect being uncomfortable with his partially-stiffened limbs and wings, takes to flight as a relief, and is again borne along by the wind; but it is now a moist wind that is bearing him onward. : The moist winds in the lower States (Missouri, &c.) are from the SW., S., and SE.; and as these are also largely prevalent, they produce the appearance of a return mi- gration. The enfeebled condition of these lowland-born insects is apparently made up for by the greater frequency and strength of the winds; but only a few, and these, of - course, the strongest, ever regain the Rocky Mountain peed grounds. It is, then, the relative humidity of the air that determines whether the locust will fly or not, Its nature is adapted to a certain range of atmospheric moisture; air drier or damper than this is uncomfortable to it. These hypothetical views find some support in the following table, in which I have given, for each of our three epochs in locust-life, the year during which favorable and unfavorable winds were specially frequent at each locality, and by which, therefore, a judgment can be formed as to whether the years in question were any of them likely ‘to be on the whole favorable to a grasshopper invasion. The conclusions are, of course, qualitative only and not quantitative, on account of the want of numerical data for the relative humidity, &c. , i 2 . > 211 FOR LOCUST MIGRATIONS. FAVORABLE WINDS 9, 'C, ‘LET "MS:S: as CL8T SeNere aC Nae line tat Bt Sane is, «| ee ae = eae 9, ‘CLET ‘A: aS: Ss 9, “G, ‘PLEI SI CEES) (EC Ol item at Sakae etfs R=" lg eee Tae ke oe Sate, in| ia eS 9. °8. PLEL ‘AS? SS? MS Sait Se ee pS RAE ie weak jt CL8T SINS Ota rk eo Be arte aaa Py ne et. 9, ‘CG, ‘PLB TOS) ae RAS Rs PO er Be eal | aes Cale 5 eee pe CG, ‘LET PANN CaceN iss ERANTIG 29) a ie = ea ee ae 2 ae a ae 9, ‘C, ‘FLET “aS? AAS eee eae sie e . eben eT CLET "Mt MAN? N 9. ‘GL8T. “"N henge ch Ae eg see eR a ge 9, ‘Cc, ‘PL8T ‘AS? S+: AS 9180 PUN Nas AAG INC SINT I Fete tetas pilin |e ea Me Sie ae 9, ‘G, ‘PL8T "MS? S$: as 9L8T 'S? MS 9, ‘GL8T “MA? MAN ar LAO, Be Seen || a ee Ge 9. ‘S, “PLT “MS*S* Us 9, ‘PL8T "S$: AS 9. ‘FLSL "M * ALN CPR APE hae ee LS pa ee ae 9, ‘CS, ‘PL8T "MS:S:* Us PLAT “AS: S 9L8T PIRNINE SING WE SE BE anil CE, SENS a 9, ‘G, ‘PLBI ‘HW? AS: CLET ‘aS OLAT UNINC) fem |e Sa aC meek or ee ee 9, “C181 ‘AS? S CLET AS OL8T "Mt MN? N Cc, FL8T “MN? N 9, ‘SG, ‘PLT “aS:$S 9, “CL8T ‘a? dss 9L8T “Mt MN? N CLst "N 9LE8T a:S 7 ae aaa SSE n||y See Oy ey ee gras 9, ‘GLET. “MAAN AA GLaT “M+ MN PL8T ‘a?S ee Ccinan’ Ce ee ee 9, “3. ‘FLEE PASISCEINE TG ONG tae bse Ta ie a i ee ae 9, ¢, ‘PLET ‘a: as:s Cc, PLET ‘aS 9, ‘SLOT “ALAN ON Sy eae eee cae i ae EE BS ape PLIT aS) G. ‘FL8T ‘a: as QL8T eV eae ANGI Nts 1 to cae Ry nae Fi: Seah RN meee 9. °S, ‘PL8T ‘aS: MN? N 1, “PLAT “aS :S 9L3T “AL: MN? N 1 Set ones 1 alae a” Loe eee 9, ‘C, ‘FLET "MN *? S$: aS is res eee tak || cee oy alare 9L8T "AA NT G, PL8T "MN * ON O81 ET SEIS nS Tae Ge slate ae a ee 9, ‘G, ‘PL8T “MN? N * ON FL8T “MN: AN CLaT ‘aS mii Se Fecal emg late cr kee 9. ‘PLET "MN? N x. wae tee pee | aR ae 5 9181 "MS:S: aS cee aE OE | Cae a 9, ‘PL8T "MA! MN pane oe 5 Cameeeelle eer ie eee 9. ‘S. ‘PLE ‘a? AS*S aamahy, oF ay ae ore le cae Pe pee 9. GS, PL8T "Mt MAN aoe fe gia ees eregrs ein ee CL8I "MS? M oe RIE aE let Rear cp aa sa ice 9. ‘GS, ‘LET “MN? AA? AAS Gc. FLET “MN: N* ON GL8T “MS = AL “ACIN *SPMTAL “AVIN “SPUTA I n Ueppeeennn | adn yeromre AM pnboaar aMLMeeED ul jyaonbor iT JOM IO plop ur quonbor.7T Aap 10 wade A\ ur «guonboig |ueMolquioar,y| ur guenDoagy | mae 0[qu.0ar,y "CT UCVIOATTU() “O[QEIOAB iT ~ *8}SNOO| PULTAOT JO UOTVAISIPL . ‘BYSNOOT purvydn Jo moryeasipy “S °G a “suorv.ru 48n90) 0} a)QvLoanfun Lo a1Qnuoamf hpjwonbruf aan spuynr yorym uy 8uvox ‘SJSNOOT Poopopun jo Suipvords veers’ SMoO'T JALeS Tees WOsqT SD +2007 WV FONT IOATO(T “--“soutidg opeLopog "TOTRIG YUYyOoy, oubnqnuqg q10dusavcy VY BUC OVI YON "===" " (FQ IOMMOIAVO'T AVID os poy ounesoyy AITO OFV'T IWS Trot ese ss" -EggoIg BT sor eros ss TNed JUTeES see" OO plaGaooIET ogy ue x Teche a Copenceys @ ese AOS UO tn, dee SL OL ELAS KG verse AQT VIOTSIL A ueeeee’* TOJUST FLOW a ees TINOSSITT AXOJLIIOT, UVIPUT wee OOIXOTT AVON ‘wesces=* ONBIOTOD steal 1/3) | ‘soee"°* BYSBIGON "<2 sec°* HERUG YY seerees-Sarolod AA nage Sis eee 261 [077 2" * TISTOOST AA “ili Se e,OsouULpL shoo 3-5=>- SORE POISON cho (cft9 €0)) AV ‘9419 212 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. CHAPTER VELe HABITS AND NATURAL HISTORY. Numerous original observations on the habits and natural history, on the transformations and on the enemies of the Rocky Mountain locust, - have been recorded in Mr. Riley’s last three entomological reports to the State of Missouri, in our second bulletin, which was largely prepared therefrom, and in his ‘‘ Locust Plague in the United States,” as well as in other publications. In this and some of the succeeding chapters we shall have frequent occasion to use these facts, and prefer to do so as far as possible in the language in which they were originally recorded; but to avoid repeated reference to the same works, we shall simply use quotation marks, and the reader will understand that where other authority is not given, passages in quotation marks are from said wri- ~ tings. We do this the more readily that the’ Missouri reports are with difficulty obtained, and have had but a very limited circulation outside the State. | 3 In treating of the habits of this insect we must needs do so from our own as well as the general experience; and since this has been almost entirely in the Mississippi Valley, the facts and generalizations that — follow should be understood as applying more particularly to this region. We shall also have frequent occasion to use the terms Permanent, Sub- permanent, and Temporary regions, that have already been explained (pp. 131-6), and are set forthin map 1. In treating of the habits and natural history of this insect, one thing has more particularly impressed us, viz, the difficulty of making absolute statements that will cover all seasons and all localities. The insect is so variable in its habits, and the con- ditions of climate and plant-growth are so different in different parts of the country affected, that what applies in one year or to one section will not apply in all years or to all sections. Hence the necessity of the regional classification just referred to, and the difficulty of laying down rules that have not exceptions. DESTRUCTIVE POWER OF LOCUSTS. No one who has not witnessed the ravaging power of locusts can fully conceive of or appreciate it. The organization and habit of the typical locust admirably fit it for ravenous work. Muscular, gregarious, with powerful jaws, and ample digestive and reproductive systems; strong of wing and assisted in flight by numerous air-sacs that buoy—all these traits conspire to make it the terrible engine of destruction which history shows it to have been under conditions favorable to its excessive mul- tiplication. Insignificant individually but mighty collectively, locusts DESTRUCTIVE POWER OF LOCUSTS. 2b fall upon a country like a plague ora blight. The farmer plows and plants. He cultivates in hope, watching his growing grain, in graceful, wave-like motion wafted to and fro by the warm summer winds. The preen begins to golden; the harvest is at hand. Joy lightens his labor as the fruit of past toil is about to be realized. The day breaks with a smiling sun that sends his ripening rays through laden orchards and promising fields. Kine and stock of every sort are sleek with plenty, and all the earth seems glad. The day grows. Suddenly the sun’s face is darkened, and clouds obscure the sky. The joy of the morn gives way toominous fear. The day closes, and ravenous locust-swarms have ‘fallen upon the land. The morrow comes, and, ah! what a change it brings! The fertile land of promise and plenty has become a desolate waste, and old Sol, even at his brightest, shines sadly through an atmos- phere alive with myriads of glittering insects. The suffering in the country invaded in 1874, and the dreadful desolation the following spring, are sufficiently fresh in the minds of Western farmers, while the details given in Chapter III convey a fair idea of the magnitude of the loss in- flicted. Falling upon a cornfield, the insects convert in a few hours the green and promising acres into a desolate stretch of bare, spindling stalks and stubs. ‘Covering each hill by hundreds; scrambling from row to row like a lot of young famished pigs let out to their trough; insignifi- cant individually, but mighty collectively, they sweep clean a field quicker than would a whole herd of hungry steers. Imagine hundreds of square miles covered with such a ravenous horde, and one can get some realization of the picture presented in many parts of the country west of the Mississippi during years of locust invasion. ‘‘ Their flight may be likened to an immense snow-storn, extending : from the grourd to a height at which our visual organs perceive them only as minute, darting scintillations, leaving the imagination to picture them indefinite distances beyond. ‘When on the highest peaks of the Snowy Range, fourteen or fifteen thousand feet above the sea, I have seen them filling the air as much higher as they could be distinguished with a good field-glass.’*" It is a vast cloud of a:.imated specks, glittering against the sun. On the horizon they often appear as a dust tornado, riding upon the wind like an ominous hail storm, eddying and whirling about like the wild, dead leaves in an autumn storm, and finally sweeping up to and past you, with a power that is irresistible. They move mainly with the wind, and when there is no wind they whirl about in the air like swarming bees. If a passing swarm suddenly meets with a change in the atmosphere, ‘such as the approach of a thunder-storm or gale of wind, they come down precipitately, seeming to fold their wings, and fall by the force of gravity, thousands being killed by the fall, if it is upon stone or other hard surface.” *° 27 Wm. N. Byers, Am. Entomologist, 1,p. 9 28 Wm. N. Byers, Hayden’s Geol. Surv. Ps e70 , P. 282. 214 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. An idea of the vast numbers that will sometimes descend to the ground may be formed by the following occurrence related to us by an intelligent and reliable eye-witness, Col. H. McAllister, of Colorado Springs, Colo.: In 1875, early inAugust, a swarm suddenly came down atthat place. The insects came with the wind, and alightedinarain. The ground wasliterally covered two and three inches deep, and glittered “as anew dollar” with the active multitude. In rising, the next day, by a common impulse, their wings would get entangled and they would drop to the ground again ina matted mass. “In alighting, they circle in myriads about you, beating against everything animate or inanimate; driving into open doors and windows; heaping about your feet and around your buildings; their jaws constantly ali work biting and testing all things in seeking what they can devour. In the midst of the incessant buzz- and noise which such a flight produces, in face of the unavoidable de- struction everywhere going an, one is bewildered and awed at the col- lective power of the ravaging host, which calls to mind so ——— the plagues of Egypt. ‘‘The noise their myriad jaws make when engaged in their work of destruction can be realized by.any one who has ‘fought’ a prairie fire, or heard the flames passing along before a brisk wind, the low ecrack- ling and rasping—the general effect of the two sounds is very much the same. Southey, in his Thalaba,” most graphically pict this noise produced by the flight and approach of locusts: Onward they come, a dark, continuous cloud . Of congregated myriads numberless, The rushing of whose wings was as the sound Of a broad river, headlong in its course Plunged from a mountain summit, or the roar Of a wild ocean in the autumn storm, : Shattering its billows on ashore of rocks! ‘Nothing, however, can surpass the prophet Joel’s account of the ap- pearance and ravages of these insects. Omitting the figurative parts, it is accurate and graphic beyond measure: “*A day of darkness and of gloominess, a day of clouds and of thick darkness, as the morning spread upon the mountains; a great people and a strong; there hath not been ever the like, neither shall be any more after it, even to the years of many generations. A fire devoureth before them; and behind them a flame burneth; the land is as the gar- den of Eden before them, and behind them a desolate wilderness ; yea, and nothing shall escape them. The appearance of them is as the ap- pearance of horses; and as horsemen, so shall they run. Like the noise of chariots on the tops of mountains shall they leap, like the noise of a flame of fire that devoureth the stubble, as a strong people set in battle array. Before their face the people shall be much pained; all faces Shall gather blackness. They shall run like mighty men; they shall climb the wall like men of war; and they shall march every one on his 21., 169, RATE AT WHICH LOCUST SWARMS MOVE. are ways, and they shall not break their ranks. * 2 * They shall run to and fro in the city; they shall run upon the wall; they shall climb up upon the houses ; they shall enter in at the windows like a thief.’ ” Persons in the East have often smiled incredulously at our statements that the locusts often impeded the trainson the western railroads. Yet such was by no means an infrequent occurrence in 1874 and 1875—the insects passing over the track, or basking thereon so numerously that the oil from their crushed bodies reduced the traction so as to actually stop the train, especially on an up-grade. While the destruction of crops by the winged insects is often sudden and complete, the unfledged insects still more effectually, though more slowly, denude a country of vegetation, sometimes rendering the ground as bare and desolate in midsummer as it is in the Mississippi Valley in midwinter. The little creatures are often so thick, soon after hatching, that they blacken everything, and their hopping, as one passes through a field or piece of prairie, gives the impression, at a short distance, as suggested by Mr. Whitman, of heat flickering in the air. The migratory habit and great destructive power belong essentially to the Rocky Mountain locust. As will appear from the two concluding chapters of this work, there are three or four very destructive and migratory species of locusts in Europe and Asia. There are also several other species which some- times become very destructive, and still more rarely migrate from place to place in this country. Yet the Rocky Mountain locust is essentially the migratory and destructive species of, North America, as none other compares with it in the vastness of its movements or the injury which it inflicts. RATE AT WHICH LOCUST SWARMS MOVE. The rate of migration of the winged insects will depend entirely on circamstances. The history of the past four years shows conclusively that the rate of progress of invading swarms from the permanent breed. ing-places will average about 20 miles a day. It is, however, exceed. ingly irregular, and greatly dependent on the velocity of the wind. Bad weather may impede, or adverse winds divert flight. “One noticeable feature of the invasions is the greater rapidity with which the insects spread in the earlier part of the season, while in full- est vigor, and the reduction in the average rate of progress the farther east and south they extend. The length of their stay depends much upon circumstances. Early in the summer, when they first begin to pour down on the more fertile country, they seldom remain more than two or three days; whereas, later in the season, they stay much longer. In speaking of the advent and departure of these insects, I use relative _ language ouly. The first comers, when—after having devoured every- thing palatable—they take wing away, almost always leave a scattering rear-guard behind, and are generally followed by new swarms; and a 216 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. .country once visited presents for weeks the spectacle of the insects gradually rising in the air between the hours of 9 or 10 a.m. and 3 p. m., and being carried away by the wind, while others are ga sicetk dropping.” In short, the rate of spread is greatest during the first ten or fifteen days of their winged existence, or before the females become occupied with egg-laying. The invading insects are then passing the extensive plaius and thinly-settled regions of the Northwest, where there is little inducement for them to halt, and the rate at such times, with strong and favorable wind, may reach a maximum of from two to three hundred miles a day. | The rate of spread of departing swarms from the temporary region is, as may be gathered from Chapter VII, very much.the same. Itis most rapid and direct early in the season when the insects first begin to leave more southern latitudes, and becomes more slack and inconstant as summer advances. Extended flight does not take place till four or five ane after the first insects become winged. For the first two or three days the newly- winged individuals mingle with the larve and pups, eating ravenously and making short flights of a few yards or rods, as if to try their wings, recalling fully the habit of native, non-migratory species. Then for a while they rise one by one higher in the air and float along with the wind, and finally, when weather and wind are favorable, all that are strong and mature enough rise as with a common impulse during the warmer morning hours and move off vigorously in one direction till they are soon out of sight. ‘‘ They begin to rise when the dew has evaporated, and generally descend again toward evening. A swarm passing over a country yet infested with the mature insects, constantly receives accretions from these, and is, consequently, always more dense in the afternoon than in the forenoon. In rising, the insects generally face the wind, and itis doubtful if they could ascend to any great height without doing so.” The velocity of flight which, for many reasons, is quite distinct from the general movement understood by “rate of spread” or ‘‘migration,” is naturally greater and, will average about 10 miles an hour. It is also. greatly dependent on the wind. Mr. 8S. 8S. Clevenger, of New Auburn, Minn., gives the average rate at 15 miles for that locality (App, 22); while the reports of other correspondents (App. 13) give the range from 4 to 40 miles, the more common rates mentioned being 12, 15, and 20 miles per hour. Mr. Brown Lusted, of Winnepeg, Manitoba, tells us that in 1867, when he was traveling from Saint Cloud, Minn., to Mani- toba, the locusts were moving in the same direction, at from 30 to 35 miles a day. Professor Aughey’s observations for 1877 (App. 8) give the rate per hour at 4 miles and upward; but he has himself expressed to us the belief that his estimates are somewhat low. We have our- selves never witnessed them flying so slowly as 4 miles per hour, which DIRECTION; TIME OF APPEARANCE OF INVADING SWARMS. 217 must be considered the minimum rate where there is no impediment. When tacking against the wind, they may move not more than one wile,” while the maximum rate, in a strong wind, may reach as high as 50 miles or more per hour. DIRECTION OF INVADING SWARMS. While there may be, during an invasion, local flights in all possible directions (except, perhaps, due west), the general movement east of the mountains is conspicuously toward the south and svutheast. The more local and irregular flights are generally made for food, but the more extended, southward movements are in obedience to other laws, discussed in the preceding chapter, and also on p. 250. West of the main Rocky Mountain range the rule of flight appears to be from the higher plains and plateaus, where the insect normally breeds, to the lower and more fertile valleys; and the greater irregularity of the pre- vailing winds and more broken nature of the country preclude the same regularity in directions of flight that, on the whole, prevails east of the range. TIME OF APPEARANCE OF INVADING SWARMS. “Tn endeavoring to deduce general conclusions respecting the time of year that the 1874 swarms reached different parts of the country, great difficulty was experienced in sifting those accounts which referred to the progeny of the 1875 invasion, and those which hatched within the insect’s native range, and came from the extreme Northwest. The same was true of the fresh 1876 swarms, and those which hatched in Minne- sota.” As a rule, the insects which hatch in the temporary region acquire wings, and leave before the fresh swarms from the mountain region appear. In the more northern regions, as in Minnesota and Manitoba westward, the insects hatched on the ground acquire wings the latter part of June and in July. The period is earlier as we go south, until in Southern Texas they are able to fly in April. The time of appearance of invading swarms from the permanent region is in inverse ratio, 2. é., earlier to the north and later to the south. Thus, while on the confines of the permanent region it is almost impossible to distinguish between the insects which hatch there and the fresh swarms from the Northwest, the difference becomes more and more marked toward the south and east. ‘In 1874, swarms appeared during June in Southern Dakota; during July in Colorado, Nebraska, and Minnesota; during the latter part of this month in Jowa and Western Kansas. During August they came into Southeast Kansas and Missouri; and by the middle of October they reached Dailas, in Texas. In 1876 they came later.” 30Mr. D. F. Weymouth, of Lyon, Marshall County, Minn., records their going West in 1865, in ‘‘the teeth of a strong wind, making scarcely a mile an hour.” See also p. 160, ante, 218 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. FLIGHT AT NIGHT. ‘“‘It is the very general experience throughout the country subject to invasion that the winged insects rise as soon as the sun begins to dis- sipate the dew, and that they come down again toward evening as the sun’s rays lose their power. It is a question, therefore, whether they ever continue flying during the night, and one which future investiga- tion will doubtless settle. Iam of the opinion that during the warmer midsummer and early fall season, when the insects are departing from their northwest hatching-grounds, they must not infrequently continue flight from necessity ; for the descent of a swarm borne along ina strong current of air, at an altitude of over a mile above the earth, will depend more on some change in strength or direction of the cuent than on any other condition of the atmosphere.” : The experience we have been able to Pare during the year on this point is confirmatory of the views expressed in the above passage, and in addition to the evidence brought forward in Cees VII (p. 147) we may cite the following facts : Two years ago the locusts were seen to rise about sundown, three miles north of this place, and to alight in Oak Township, this county. In August, 1874, Messrs. H. Lamb and L. Conger were at work on the steeple of the Methodist Church, in this town. Looking toward the sky they observed immense swarms of locusts going southwest for three consecutive days. They continued to pass up to6 p.m., when the men left work, and none were heard of as alighting short of Mitchell and Smith Counties, in Kansas. The weather was dry, clear, and windy. The parties do not remember the exact days of the month, as they made no notes, but they are reliable, intelligent men.—(W. R. Follett, Malvern, Iowa, July 15, 1877.) In one case, where the ’hoppers were very numerous, a person burnt a straw stack at night, and in the morning bushels of dead ones were found in and around it; per- haps they were drawn to it as the moth to a candle.—(W. J. Newell, Athol, Sioux County, lowa, July 2, 1877.) I never knew the insects to travel in sight during the night. They cannot, or will not, move in a heavy damp atmosphere. But that they remain in the atmosphere dur- ing the night seems almost certain, probably at a great height. There must be a period from the time the winged insects take flight until the time they commence de- positing eggs when they remain for days and nights very high in the atmosphere out of sight. This seems evident from the fact. that when they first commence flying, and until they are all gone, they rise in immense swarms during the early part of the day, but seldom many come down again.—(E. Snyder, Atchison, Kans., June 26, 1877.) Mr. G. G. Hay, of Saint Andrews, Manitoba, informed us while stay- ing with him that in traveling, in 1868, to Saint Paul, he noticed on one occasion that as soon as the sun was up the air was filled with locusts, though those which had descended the previous day did not rise for several hours afterward on account of the heavy dew. Mr. N. V. Me- Dowell, of Worthington, Minn. (App. 17), states it as his experience that they fly all night with favorable wind. We were also informed at the conference of governers, in 1876, by a reporter of the Omaha Herald, whose name we have forgotten, that in order to test this question he had sent up a kite at night, covered on one side with tar, and that when HEIGHT OF FLIGHT: HABITS AT NIGHT. 219 it was brought down it was literally covered with locusts. The most convincing experience, however, is that of Professor Aughey’s, given in Chapter VII. In camping on the Bow River, in August, 1866, the wind, which was blowing from the northwest, suddenly changed to north soon after midnight, and locusts were heard pattering on his tent, and the insects were found thick the next oper where none had been seen the day before. Singularly enough we get no Si aeaiaion from European writers on the question of flight at night. That locusts are capable of long-sustained flight is evident from the well-authenticated instances of their being observed at sea hundreds of miles from land. One of the most striking instances is that recorded by Master KE. G. Wiswell, of the Harrisburg. When this vessel, November 2, 1865, was in latitude 25° 28’ north, longitude 41° 33’ west, on her way from Bordeaux to New Orleans, the nearest land being about 1,200 miles, she was boarded during a heavy rain-storm by large numbers of locusts that filled the air and covered the sails. The specimens were subse- quently determined to be the European Acridium perigrinum by Mr. 8. H. Scudder, who records the facts. HEIGHT OF FLIGHT. This subject has already been considered in Chapter VII (p. 144). There is no doubt whatever that the insects often move over a coun- try entirely above the reach of human vision. In ordinary flights we observe only the lower individuals, and in looking toward the sun we may always observe others, farther and farther away, until the glitter- ing specks are lost to sight. In cloudy weather they are not noticeable unless very dense, so as to darken the atmosphere, until within about 1 000 feet ; yet it is well known that they fly at times nearly, if not full, two miles above ground, as they have been seen flying toward the plains as high above the highest peaks of the Rocky Mountains as a good tele- scope would resoive them. GENERAL HABITS AT NIGHT. Regarding the general habits of the species at night, a glance at the- experience obtained in answer to our circulars (App. 17) is sufficient to show that it differs widely and is cften contradictory. This is not surprising, as so much in the habits and ways of our locust depends on conditions of the weather, season, &c. We have had an extensive ex- perience both with the unfledged and full-fledged insects, and the result of it is that, as a rule, the young insects are quiet. at night, either hid- ing under some shelter upon the ground, or roosting away from the ground. The former is more apt to be the case in cold, the latter in wet weather. In cool weather even the mature insects do not feed at night, but when the weather is warm and dry these are often as ravenous dur- 220 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. ing the night as during the day. Gerstaecker remarks of the European migratoria that it feeds most at night. As the insects advance in age the roosting habit becomes greater, and for a few days after getting wings the mature insects delight to gather away from the ground, especially on trees. INTERVAL BETWEEN ACQUIRING FULL WINGS AND EGG-LAYING. This will of course vary according to surrounding conditions,and may be said to average from two to four weeks. Exact data are with great difficulty obtained, since it is always impossible to know the exact age of winged insects when captured, and the species is not easily reared from the immature states in confinement, especially east of its naturai range. Mr. Whitman, who at Saint Paul, Minn., is just within its range, has made the only exact experiment that bears on this point, and gives it in the following words, in his special report for 1876: On the 25th of June I shut up in wire-gauze cages nine pups of the Rocky Mount- ain locusts. The bottoms of the cages were filled with earth packed hard, and the insects appeared to thrive in confinement. By the 2d of July they had all become perfect insects. By the 8th of July they commenced coupling, and were seen repeat- ing the act for several days. On the 15th and 16th, two of the females went through the form of depositing eggs, and I marked the place of deposit on the edge of the cage. The coupling was repeated again as before, until the 3d cf August. At that date the coupling ended, and the locusts becaine almost- SECTS, and were seen to eat very rarely afterward. The following facts from notes eee by us on other species common around Saint Louis, will also throw light on the subject. In two in- stances where the eggs were obtained from the same individuals that were observed to go through the last molt, the interval varied from about one to three weeks in species of the. same genus; while in the others, which are approximately correct, it varies from one to six weeks. Caloptenus atlanis, Riley:—Mature insects first noticed July 12. Eggs deposited July 18. C. femur-rubrum, Burm.—Bbecame winged August 29. Eggs laid October 3. C. rida, Dodge.—First winged insects captured August 25. Eggs deposited Septem- ber 17. C. bivittatus, (Say.)—First winged insects noticed July 7. Eggs deposited August 31. C. differentialis, Thom.—First winged specimens obtained July 19. Eggs laid Septem- ber 9. Pezotettix viola, Thom.—Mature insects first noticed August 18. Eggs laid by same specimens on the 24th of August. P. wnicolor, Thomas.—Attained maturity about the 1st of September. Eggs laid by same specimens on the 24th same month. Chrysochraon viridis, Scudder.—Mature insects first noticed July 7. Eggs deposited August 20. Tragocephala viridifasciata, Gédze.—Mature insects captured May 2. Eggs deposited June 11. CEdipoda carolina, (Linn.)—Mature insects captured July 12. Eggs deposited August 6 O. sulphurea, Burm.—Mature insects captured September 19. Eggs deposited Septem- ber 28. O. phenicoptera, Germ.—Mature insects captured June 20. Beggs deposited July 13. “ont ie lala eal Goa tasr ° SEXUAL HABITS OF LOCUSTS. oat Eucoptolophus sordida, Burm.—Mature insects first noticed September 19. Eggs depos ited September 24. E. costalis, Scudd.—Mature insects first noticed September 20. Eggs laid Septem- ber 24. Acridium americanum (Drury.)—-Mature insects captured June 14. Eggs deposited June 24, SEXUAL HABITS. There are various questions coming under this head that have a scien- tific bearing, but do not materially concern the farmer. We shall treat them very briefly. The love-season may be said to commence just as soon.as all the parts of the full-winged individuals have become hardened and perfected and to endure till near death. Nevertheless, the most active and ardent period occurs during the first two or three weeks after maturity, and it is during this period, also, that the migrating in- stinct is most developed. Livery one who has closely observed these insects 1s aware that they are salacious in habit. We have often noticed (in Caloptenus differentialis, C. femur-rubrum, and C. atlanis) a pair in our vivaria that were in copula at evening still together the following morning, and in some instances till toward noon, thus showing that coition may last from 12 to 18 hours. It also ordinarily takes place in a very few days after maturity. The following notes by Mr. Packard bear on this point: SaLEM, Mass., July 31.—A couple of C. bivittatus found in copula was put in confine- ment, and penained united from 10.45 a. m. until 5.30 p. m. » When I went away. The next morning at 8.30 they were separate. On the same day two pairs were taken in copula and thus remained in confinement from 11.45 a. m. until 5.30 p. m., when I went away. Another pair remained in confinement in copula from 10.30 till 1 p. m. The female frequently moves about and feeds during the act, but the male, which either rides upon her or hangs more or less at the side, remains motionless unless at the approach of another male, when he moves the hind legs and goes through the fiddling process. We have known the males to perish in the act, and late in the season, when the last locusts were overtaken by a severe frost or snow-storm which de- stroyed them, we have seen many of them perish in pairs. That coition is frequently repeated there can also be no doubt, as this is the general experience regarding European species; and we have known females which had already oviposited to receive the male again. It is also quite common for the male to wait on the female while she is in the act of ovipositing. That the locusts are polyandrous there can be just as little doubt; for though actual observation is wanting, it is not uncommon to find the Same female attended by other males, ayer while vet coupled. Korte, who made very zareful observations on the Euro- pean migratoria in confinement, records* that one female coupled, be- tween August 26 and September 11, with six different males, and laid # Die Strich-, Zeg-, oder Wanderheushrecke, yom Eie an beobachtet. Berlin, 1829. 222 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. eggs on September 12. She then coupled again several times, and laid ‘a second time September 17. Under similar conditions she laid alto- gether at six different periods before dying. WHERE THE EGGS ARE LAID. ‘The eggs may be laid in almost any kind of soil, but by preference they are laid in bare, sandy places, especially on high, dry ground, which is tolerably compact and not loose. It is often stated that they are not laid in meadows and pastures, and that hard road-tracks are preferred ; in truth, however, meadows, and pastures, where the grass is closely grazed, are much used for ovipositing by the female, while on well-traveled roads she seldom gets time to fulfill the act without being disturbed. Thus a well-traveled road may present the appearance of being perfectly honey-combed with holes, when an examination will show that most of them are unfinished and contain no eggs; whereas a field covered with grass-stubble may show no signs of such holes and yet abound with eggs.” In fact, wherever holes are noticed, it may generally be taken for granted that they contain no eggs, for the mother covers well the hole when she has time to properly complete her task. ‘‘ Furthermore, the insects are more readily noticed at their work along roads and road-sides than in fields, a fact which has also had something to do in forming the popular impression. Newly-plowed land is not liked; it presents too loose a surface; but newly-broken sward is often filled with eggs. Moist or wet ground is generally avoided for the pur- pose under consideration.” We have noticed that in the Permanent breeding-region, wherever the vegetation is scant the females show a decided preference for the shaded base of shrubby plants, among the roots of which they like to place their eggs; whereas in the Temporary region, where the vegetation is generally so much ranker, exposed situations, or those comparatively bare of vegetation, are preferred. The experience of 1876 proved very conclusively, aiso, that they are instinctively guided toward cultivated fields, where the young will find good pasturage; for the eggs were noticeably thickest, and hatched most numerously in 1877 in cultivated areas. In the Cypress Hills region of British America, as Mr. J. G. Kittson informs us, the high lands and protected slopes of the hills are preferred. The soil of the mountain-region, where the insects perma- nently breed, is mostly of a compact, scantily-covered, gravelly nature, and the notion that they lay most in pure sand is aa erroneous one. Sandy soil that is compact, especially when having a south or east exposure, is much chosen, but in loose and shifting sand the eggs would perish. In 1876, it was generally remarked that the insects were more indifferent than usual in ovipositing, and that eggs were much more frequently laid in low, and even wet, land than in former years. The mass seldom reaches more than an inch below the surface, except where some vegetable root has been followed down and devoured, and MODE. OF EGG-LAYING. 223 ‘the insect leaves her eggs before emerging; in this way the mass is sometimes placed a foot below the surface. In abnormal vr unhealthy conditions, the eggs may be laid in exposed places without any hole, in which case they doubtless never give birth to young. In other cases, the female will fill her hole almost entirely with the sebific matter. Nor are the eggs invariably laid in the ground, for while we know of no ex- ceptions to this normal position in spretus, yet Mr. Boll informs us that around Dallas, Tex., in 1876, the eggs of differentialis were very numer- ously placed under the bark of elm and hackberry logs that had been felled on low land. We have also received from A. W. Hoffmeister, of Fort Madison, Iowa, the eggs of a species of Stenobothrus, and the young that hatched from them, the eggs having been thrust into holes made by Some carpeuter-bee in a fence-post; while Chidealtis conspersa habitually bores in dead wood. MANNER IN WHICH THE EGGS ARE LAID. “The female, when about to lay her eggs, forces a hole in the ground by means of the two pairs of horny valves which open and shut at the tip of her abdomen, and which, from their peculiar structure, are admirably fitted for the purpose. (See Fig. 2, where b, c, show the @“¥aSS structure of one of each = of the upper and lower valves.) With the valves SY$ closed she pushes the tips 3 into the ground, and by a series of muscular efforts aud the continued opening and shutting of the valves 3 she drills a hele, until in a ic. 1: Rocky Mounram Locusr.—a, a, a, female in differ- 3 d ent positions, ovipcsiting; b,egg-pod exiracted from ground, few minutes (the time Vary- with the end broken open; c,a few eggs lying loose on the 2 : ground; d,e, show the earth partially removed, to illustrate ing with the nature of the an egg-mass already in place, and one being placed; f, shows soil) nearly the whole ab- where such a mass has been covered up. (After Riley.) domen is buried. The abdomen stretches to its utmost for this purpose, especially at the middle, and the hole is generally a little curved, and always more or less oblique (Fig. 1, d). Now, with 3 hind legs hoisted straight above the back, and the shanks hugging more or less closely the thighs, she commences ovipositing.” When the hole is once drilled there exudes from the tip of the body a frothy, mucous matter, which fills up reuse tei t a? the bottom of the hole, and bathes the horny valves. Bye Ae Oat aa. This is the sebific fluid which is secreted by the sebific showing horny valves. or cement gland described with the other anatomical aig details given in Chapter IX. By repeatedly extricating and studying 224 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. Specimens in every possible stage of oviposition, we have been able to ascertain the exact method by which the egg-mass is formed. The pro- cess has never been accurately described by other writers, and the general impression—upon which figures like those of Gerstacker’s” are founded— is that the eggs are extruded from between the distended hooks or valves. If we could manage to watch a female from the time the bot- tom of her hole is moistened by the sebific fluid, we should see the valves all brought together, when an egg would. pass down the oviduct (Fig. 3, j) along the ventral side, and, guided by a little finger-like style - (the gubernaculum ovi, g), ‘* pass in between the horny valves (which are admirably constructed, not only for drilling but for holding and conducting the egg to its appropriate place), and issue at their tips amid the mucous fluid already spoken of. Then follows a period of convulsions, during which more mucous material is elaborated, antil the whole end of the body is bathed in it, when another egg passes down and is placed in position. These alternate processes continue until the fullcomplement of eggs arein place, the numberranging from 20to 35, butaveraging about 28. The mucous mat- Fic. 3.—OVIPOSITION 4 s : ° or Rocky Mountain ter binds all the eggs ina mass, and when the last is laid, Locust. (After Riley.) S : : the mother devotes sometime fo filling up the somewhat narrower neck of the burrow with a compact and cellulose mass of the same material, which, though light and easily penetrated, is more or less impervious to water, and forms a very excellent protection (Fig. —, d).” When fresh the mass is soft and moist, but it soon acquires a baa. con- sistency. ‘‘ During the operation the female is very intent on her ae and may be gently approached without becoming alarmed, though when sud- denly disturbed she makes great efforts to get away, and extricates her abdomen in the course of a few secon, the time depending on the depth reached.” The legs are almost always hoisted straight above the back during the process, as shown in the figure (Fig. 1), with the shanks hugging more or less closely the thighs. Sometimes, however, especially when the abdomen is fully buried, the ends of the hind feet may rest firmly on the ground, as has been observed by Mr. Packard in the case of femur- rubrum. ‘‘The time required for drilling the hole and completing the pod will vary according to the season and the temperature. During the latter part of October or early in November, 1876, when there was frost at night and the insects did not rouse from their chilled inactivity until 9 — o’clock a. m., the females scarce had time to complete the process during the four or five warmer hours of the day ; but with higher temperature not more than from two to three hours would be required.” 32 Die Wanderheuschrecke, Berlin, 1876, Taf. I], Fig. 4: ARRANGEMENT OF THE EGG-MASS. 225 We have been for weeks with the insects where they were so thickly Ovipositing that the light, clay-yellow ground would be darkened by them, and have laid on a closely-grazed sward for hours with specimens in the act all around, and have repeatedly verified all that we have here described. PHILCSOPHY OF THE EGG-MASS. ‘To the casual observer, the eggs of our locust appear to be thrust indiscriminately into the hole made for their reception. A more careful study of the egg-mass, or egg-pod, will show, however, that the female took great pains to arrange them, not only so as to eeonomize as much space as possible, consistent with the form of each egg, but so as to best facilitate the escape of the young locust ; for if, from whatever cause, the upper eggs should fail to hatch, or should hatch later than the lower ones, the former would offer an impediment to the exit of the young in their endeavors to escape from these last, were there no provision against such a possibility. The eggs are, indeed, most carefully placed side by side in four rows, each row gener- ally containing seven. They oblique a little crosswise of the cylinder (Fig. 4, a). The posterior or narrow end, which issues first from the 1S ASS Ka SUR = ae) ~ noon YN nat ‘ 5 : Fic. 4: EGG-Mass oF RocKyY Mountain Locust—a, from oviduct, 1S thickened, and the side, within burtow; 6b, from beneath; c, irom above, generally shows two pale °™"#ed. (After Riley.) rings around the darker tip (Fig. 4, 0). This is pushed close against the bottom of the burrow, which, being cylindrical, does not permit the outer or two side rows to be pushed quite so far down as the two inner rows, and for the very same reason the upper or head ends of the outer rows are necessarily kent to the same extent over the inner rows, the eggs when laid being somewhat soft and plastic. There is, consequently, an irregular channel along the top of the mass (Fig. 4, ce), which is filled only with the same frothy matter that surrounds each egg, which matter occupies all the other space in the burrow not occupied by the eggs. The whole plan is seen at once by a reference to the accompanying figure, which represents, enlarged, a side view of the mass within the burrow (a), and a bottom (b) and top (c) view of the same, with the earth which adheres to it removed.” This same quadrilinear arrangement of the eggs occurs, also. in the egg-mass of the Red-legged and Lesser locusts, and in most of the spe- cies of medium size which we have studied, including several different genera. Yet it is by no means constant in the same genus, since, as we shall see in Chapter XI, the eggsof Caloptenus differentialis (P|. IV, Fig. 1) are irregularly arranged. This irregular arrangement also occurs in 154 226 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. the eggs of Gdipoda phanecoptera and Acridium Americanum, and in these species the cement which binds the eggs together is more copious than in the others.* In one narrow-bodied species (Hucoptolophus sord- idus) the eggs are arranged in but three rows. Even in the pods of those species which have the eggs irregularly arranged the head ends. point either mostly outward (differentialis) or inward (Americanum), so that the young locusts may either push out at the sides or through a central space. . _ The length of the neck, or that portion containing no eggs, varies not only in different species but in different masses of the same species. DOES THE FEMALE LAY MORE THAN ONE EGG-MASS? This is a question often asked, but which the average farmer has no means of definitely answering. ‘It is the rule with insects, particularly with the large number of injurious species belonging to the Lepidoptera, that the eggs in the ovaries develop almost simultaneously, and that when oviposition once commences it is continued uninterruptedly until the supply of eggs is exhausted. Yet there are many notable excep- tions to the rule among injurious species, as in the cases of the common Plum-curculio and the Colorado potato-beetle, which oviposit at stated — or irregular intervals during several weeks, or even months. The Rocky Mountain locust belongs to this last category, and the most casual ex- amination of the ovaries in a female, taken in the act of ovipositing, will show that, besides thé batch of fully-formed eggs then and there being laid, there are other sets, diminishing in size, which are to be laid at fature periods. This, I repeat, can be determined by any one who will _ take the trouble to carefully examine a few females when laying. But just how often or how many eggs each one lays is more difficult to de- termine. With spretus I have been able to make comparatively few experiments; but on three different occasions I obtained two pods from single females, laid at intervals of eighteen, twenty-one, and twenty-six days, respectively. I have, however, made extended experiments with its close congeners, femur-rubrum and atlanis, and in two cases, with the former, have obtained four different pods from one female, the lay- ing covering periods of fifty-eight and sixty-two days, and the total number of eggs laid being 96 in the one case and 110 in the other. A number of both species laid three times, but most of them—owing, per- haps, to their being confined—laid but twice.” Yersin concludes, referring to the European migratoria, that eggs are laid thrice, at intervals of about a month, while Kriinitz, Keferstein, and Stoikowitsch * also declare that they are laid in three different masses. Professor Whitman, in his 1876 experiments, had a female “8 The species occurring around Saint Louis in the eggs of whic we have noticed the same quadri- linear arrangement.as in thos) of spretus, ere, asice from thosealready mentioned Caloptenus b:vittatus, Pezotetiiz violt, P. unicolor, Chrysocraon viridis, Tragoccphala viridifasciata, Gidipoda carolina, Gi. sul- Surea, and Eucoptolophus costalis. 34 See Koppen, p. 36. INTERVAL BETWEEN DIFFERENT EGG-LAYINGS. 227 which laid about the middle of July, and died September 9, without lay- ing again, though eggs were found in the ovaries at death. The time between the first and second laying, observed by Korte, was six days. Mr. Aughey (App. 8), from experiments made in 1876, found the interval still shorter, ranging from two to three days; but he requests us to add that other experiments, not recorded, showed a much longer interval between the periods, extending in some cases to twenty days. It would thus appear that there is the greatest diversity in the time intervening between the periods of egg-laying, and that the number of egg-masses formed by one individual is by no means constant. It is natural to sup- pose that there will be great difference in individual prolificacy, and we are also of the opinion that there is great difference in this respect in different generations—those that hatch in the Permanent region being more prolific than those which hatch in the Temporary region. This Opinion is not only warranted by the general experience of farmers, but also by experiment. Ascompared with those of 1876, the autumn flights of 1877 were for the most part intestate, and it was very generally noticed that they laid no eggs. (App.12.) There is, 48 we have seen in the preceding chapter, the best of reasons for believing that these flights were not from the Permanent region, but consisted mainly of insects that had bred in the Temporary region. It is well known that the reproductive organs are easily affected by any sudden change of climatic conditions which animals may be sub- jected to, and that sterility is one of the most frequent consequences of such change. It was upon this general rule that the late B. D. Walsh, knowing nothing of the return migration, based the theory that the Rocky Mountain locust could never thrive in the temporary region, but would become intestate and perish there. In 1876 we had measurable success in getting spretus to lay eggs in confinement. In 1877, though we made far more strenuous efforts with the insects that hatched in Texas and Kansas, yet we signally failed. Of many thousands which we hatched in Saint Louis and endeavored to rear under the most favor- able circumstances in vivaria containing growing grain, most of them died in from three to eight days from hatching. We succeeded in bring- ing a few through the third and two through the fourth molt. At Carbondale, Lll., from Minnesota eggs, Mr. Thomas had better luck, and reared several to the winged condition. We repeatedly dispatched liv- ing specimens both of the pupz and the mature insects from Texas, Kansas, and Iowa, to our office-clerk, Mr. Th. Pergande, Saint Louis; but with no more favorable results, as he entirely failed to obtain eggs, and the females, when dead, were found, upon examination, to contain none. This want of fecundity, though not universal, was quite general with the insects of 1877, and is in keeping with the general experience as to the sickly and degenerate nature of the brood. It is quite manifest, therefore, that in answering the question we have just asked we can doso only in a general and qualified manner. The num- 228 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. ber of eggs produced by a well-developed locust will range from 100 to 150, if we consider species generally. We have counted 171 in one mass of Caloptenus differentialis ; from 120 to 130 in those of Gidipoda phane- coptera, and about 120 in that of Acridium Americanum. The great probability is that the eggs of such species are all laid at once. In spe- cies like spretus, which rarely lay more than 30 eggs in one mass, it were natural to infer that different layings take place, even did the facts at hand not prove such to be the case. In 1876 the insects were pushing continuously southward from the middle of August till the end of Oc- tober, and during most of this time they were laying eggs. In fact, throughout the country invaded, from Minnesota to South Texas, they continued laying till frost, and we know from examinations that many of them perished before all the ova had been disposed of. Stragglers were even noticed in Texas as late as December. To sum up the inquiry, we would give it as our belief that the laying season normally extends from six to eight weeks; that it may be short- ened or lengthened by conditions of weather and climate; that fecun- dity is materially affected by the same conditions; that the average number of egg-masses formed is three; and that the average interval between the periods of laying by the same female is two weeks. THE HATCHING PROCESS. All that pertains to embryology proper will be found in Chapter IX, and we shall make here but a brief reference to the character of the : egg in order to more clearly illus- trate the process of hatching. ‘*‘Care- fully examined, the egg-shellis found to consist of two layers. The outer layer, which is thin, semi-opaque, and gives the pale, cream-yellow ful sf Se A | ae 4 : any, ‘4 color, is seen by aid of a high mag- Lay nifying power to be densely, minute- fica lv, and shallowly pitted; or, to use TER still more exact language, the whole surface is netted with minute and more or less irregular, hexagonal ridges (Fig. 5, a, b). It is a mere covering of excreted matter, sim- ilar in nature to the mucous or sebific fluid already described, which binds the eggs together. The inner layer (or chorion) is thicker, of a is 5.—Boo or Rocky Mountars Locust.—a, deeper yellow, and perfectly smooth. | very highly magnified; ¢, the inner chell,just be. It is also translucent, so that, as gt a the hatching period approaches, the form and members of the embryon may be distinctly discerned through PROCESS OF HATCHING. | 229 it. ‘The outer covering is easily ruptured, and is rendered all the more fragile by freezing ; but the inner covering is so tough that a very strong pressure between one’s thumb and finger is required to burst it. How, then, will the embryon, which fills it so compactly that there is scarcely room for motion, succeed in escaping from such a prison? The rigid shell of the bird’s egg is easily cracked by the beak of its tenant; the hatching caterpillar, curled within its egg-shell, has room enough to move its jaws and eat its way out; the egg-coverings of many inseets are so delicate and frail that the mere swelling of the embryon affords means of escape; those of others are so constructed that a door flies open, or a lid lifts by a spring, whenever pressure is brought to bear; in some two halves open, as in the shell of a musele; whilst in a host of others the embryon is furnished with a special structure called the egg-burster, the office of which is to cut or rupture the shell, and thus afford means of escape. But cur young locust is deprived of all such contrivances, and must have another mode of exit from its tough and sub-elastic prison. Nature accomplishes the same end in many differ- ent ways. She is rich incontrivances. The same warmth and moisture which promote the development of the living embryon also weaken the inanimate shell, by a process analogous to decomposition, and by a gen- eral expansion consequent upon the swelling of the embryon within. Thus, the eggs when about to hatch are much more plump and some- what larger and more transparent than they were when laid. At last, by the muscular efforts of the nascent locust, and the swelling of its several parts, especially about the head and mouth, the shell gives way, generally splitting along the anterior ventral part. The whole process may, in fact, be likened to the germination of a hard-covered seed, when planted in moist ground, and, precisely as in this latter case, there is _ in some loose soils a certain heaving of the ground from the united swell- ing of the locust eggs. All the eggs in a given mass burst very nearly at ene and the same time, and in that event the lowermost individuals ‘await the escape of those in front of them, which first push their way out through the neck of the burrrow (Fig. 4, d) provided by the parent. ‘They all escape, one after the other, through one small bole, which in the field is scarcely noticeable. Such is the usual mode of hatching; but when the young from the lower eggs hatch first, or when the upper eges perish and leave the lower ones sound—as is not unfrequently the case—the exit is nevertheless easily made along the channel already described (Fig. 4, ¢).”* When once the shell is ruptured the nascent larva soon succeeds, by a series of undulating movements, in working free therefrom and making its way to the light in the manner just described. Once on the surface of the ground it rests for a few minutes, generally lying on the side. Its members are still limp and directed backward, and it is yet enveloped 35¥For fuller details respecting the mode of the escape of the nascent locust from the egg, the reader is referred to Chapter IX. 23() REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. in a very delicate film or pellicle (amnion, see Chap. IX), which must be cast off before the little creature can move with alacrity. i By continuance of similar contracting and expanding movements which freed the animal from the earth, this film in a very short time splits along the middle of the back near the head (strictly the prothorax), and is then worked off behind, and finaliy kicked from the hind feet in a little white crumpled pellet, that has justly been likened by some of our correspondents to a diminutive mushroom. These little pellets in- variably lie close around the hole in the ground from which the young locusts issued. The pellicle begins to split, under ordinary conditions of warmth, within a minute from the time the locust is fairly out of the ground, and is shed in from one to five minutes, according to cireum- stances. Pale and colorless when first freed from this pellicle, the full- born locust is nevertheless at once capable of considerable activity, and in the course of an hour assumes its natural dark gray coloring. Mr. Packard observed (Report to Dr. Hayden, 1877, p. 634) that specimens which hatched at 11 a. m. began to turn dark at 3 p. m., thus showing that the time may vary; but numerous close observations which we have made on single individuals show that an hour seldom passes after the amnion is thrown off before the gray color is acquired. ‘Krom tbis account of the hatching process, we can readily under- stand why the female in ovipositing prefers compact or hard soil to that which is loose. The harder and less yielding the walls of the burrow, the easier will the young locust crowd its way out. ‘Though the covering which envelops the little animal when first it issues from the egg is quite delicate, it nevertheless, in the struggles of birth, undoubtedly affords much protection, and it is an interesting fact that while, as we have just seén, it is shed within a few minutes of the time when the animal reaches the free air, it is seldom shed if, from one cause or other, there is failure to escape from the soil, even though the young locust may be struggling for days to effect an escape. ‘“‘ While yet enveloped in this pellicle, the animal possesses great forcing and pushing power, and if the soil be not too compact, will frequently force a direct passage through the same to the surface, as indicated at the dotted lines, Fig.4 e. But if the soil is at all compressed it can make little or no headway, except through the appropriate channel (a). While crowding its way out the antenne and four front legs are held in much the same position as within the egg, the hind legs being generally stretched. Eut the members bend in every conceivable way, and where several are endeavoring to work through any particular passage, the amount of squeezing and crowding they will endure is something re- markable. Yet if by chance the protecting pellicle is worked off before issuing from the ground, the animal loses all power of further forcing its way out. The instinctive tendency to push upward is also remark- able. In glass tubes, in which I have had the eggs hatching in order to watch the young, these last would always turn their heads and push CONDITION OF SOIL MOST FAVORABLE TO HATCHING. 231 toward the bottom whenever the tubes were turned mouth downward ; while in tin boxes, where the eggs were placed at different depths in the ground, the young never descended, even when they were unable to ascend on account of the compactness of the soil above.” WHERE AND UNDER WHAT CONDITIONS OF SOIL THE YOUNG HATCH MOST FREELY. As may be gathered from a series of experiments recorded in Chapter XIII, the eggs will hatch under the most varied conditions. As a rule, the soils and locations preferred by the female in ovipositing will be those in which the young will most freely hatch, viz, compact and sandy or gravelly knolls and hillsides, with a south or southeast exposure. The experience of 1877 (App. 18) shows also that hatching takes place very freely in late-mown meadows or prairies, or grazed pastures, where the exposure of the ground permits ready oviposition, and the warmth of the sun. In dry, well-drained, and compact soils of a light nature the eggs are much better preserved than in heavy clays and loams, where they are more subject to mold and rot. The experience of 1877 is rather misleading on this point, and indicates the necessity of gener- alizing, not from the experience of one, but of many years. The insects were most numerous, and seemed to hatch most numerously in the low lands and in sheltered situations along river-courses. The facts are that in such situations those which did hatch survived in-larger proportions than did those which hatched in more exposed places, because the former were better protected from the cold rains and storms of spring. TIME OF HATCHING. Here, again, we cannot take the experience of any one year as a guide; but find the necessity of generalizing from all past experience. In much of the locust area there prevailed such late warm weather in the autumn of 1876 that considerable numbers of the young hatched prematurely, and such is very generally the case. We had also some unseasonably warm weather in January and February, 1877, during which large num- bers hatched. These all subsequently perished. During the latter part of March and early in April the hatching was general, but there followed a period of cold, rainy weather, which checked the hatching and destroyed a large number of the insects that had hatched. May and June were characterized by abundant rains and storms, alternating with warm, sunny weather, causing the hatching to Le irregular, and in some cases quite retarded. It would not be incorrect, therefore, to say (App. 18) that in one and the same neighborhood the hatching com- menced on the Ist of February, and did not cease till the end of June, thus covering a period of five months. Yet this is exceptional, and it has been much more regular and the period more restricted in previous years. Those eggs which are laid earliest the previous year will also hatch 232 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. earliest (App. 1), and since, as we have already seen (ante p. 228) the egg- laying covers an average period of six or eight weeks in the same locality, and lasts generally till frost, it follows that the eggs pass the winter in every state of development—some with the fiuids clearand limpid; others with the embryo fully formed and ready at the first approach of spring to hatch. ‘This we found also to be actually the case, for many hun- dreds of egg-masses examined during the winter of 1876-77, from divers parts of the infested region, showed every state of development. In the same locality hatching will take place—ceteris paribus—first on light dry soils and on south and southeast exposures; latest on low, moist, and shaded or tenacious ground. We see, therefore, that the hatching will not alone vary according to temperature and the earliness or lateness of the spring, but that it is quite variable under the same conditions. In every instance there will be a few hatching when the first hatched in the same locality are getting wings, and we give it as a general rule that the bulk of the eggs hatch out in the different latitudes about as follows : _ In Texas, from the middle to the last of March. In the southern portions of Missouri and ESOOREG) about the second week in April. In the northern parts of Missouri and Kansas and the southern sec- tions of Iowa and Nebraska, the latter part of April and first of May. In Minnesota and Dakota, the usual time of hatching ranges from early in May in the southern portions to the third week in the northern extremity. In Montana and Manitoba, from the middle of ea to the first of June. In short, the bulk of the insects hatch in ordinary seasons about the middle of March in latitude 35°, and continue to hatch most numer- ously about four days later with each degree of latitude north, until along the forty-ninth parallel the same scenes are repeated that occurred in Southern Texas seven or eight weeks before. From a number of experiments which we have made on the eggs we conclude that, with a constant temperature of 85° F., with favorable conditions of soil, the eggs will hatch in from four to five weeks after they are laid, and in a temperature of 75° I*. in about six weeks. Mr. Tiley has ta the eggs of Caloptenus atlanis (laid in July) hatched in from three to four weeks ; those of zragocephala viridifasciata (laid in June) in three weeks; and thoseof Acridium Americanum (laid in July) in rather more than a month. WABITS OF THE YOUNG OR UNFLEDGED LOCUSTS IN THE TEMPORARY REGION. ‘The habits of the young insects as they occur in the temporary region, and particularly in the country south of the forty-fourth parallel and east of the one hundredth meridian, are as follows: Although possessed HABITS OF YOUNG LOCUSTS IN TEMPORARY REGION. 233 of remarkably active powers from the moment they leave the egg, yet so long as provision suffices for them on their hatcbhing-grounds the young remain almost stationary and create but little apprehension. As soon, however, as the supply of food in these situations is exhausted, they commence to migrate, frequently in a body a mile wide, devouring, as they advance, all the grass, grain, and garden-truck in their path. The migrating propensity is not developed until after the first molt, and “Ss.cften not till after the second or third. Up to that time they are con- 7 tent to huddle in warm places, and live, for the most part, on weeds, and especially on the common Dog-fennel or May-weed (Maruta) where it is present. ‘The young locusts display gregarious instincts from the start, and ~ congregate in immense numbers in warm and sunny places. They thus often blacken the sides of houses or the sides of hills. They remain thus huddled together during cold, damp weather. When not traveling, and when food is abundant, or during bad, rainy weather, they are fond of congregating on fences, buildings, trees, or anything removed from the moist ground. They also prefer to get into such positions to un- dergo their different molts. In fields they collect at night or during cold, damp weather, under any rubbish that may be at hand, and may be enticed under straw, hay, &c., scattered on the ground. Old prairie- grass affords good shelter, and where a wheat-field is surrounded with unburned prairie, they will es for shelter along the borders of this last.” It is more particularly while they are yet small, or in ae are de- scribed in Chapter X as the first, second, and third stages, that the young locusts hide at night, and, tana saieaenniells weather, at day also. in windy weather they are fond of gathering and secreting under any shel- ter, or in crevices and inequalities of the soil. At such times farmers too often conclude that the pests have perished and vanished; but a few hours of pleasant, sunny weather will bring the insects to sight again and dispel the delusion. When very vigorous and numerous they grad- _ ually move across a field of small grain and cut it off clean to the ground as they go, appearing to constantly feed. But when diseased or sickly,, as in 1877, they gather in bare and sunny spots and huddle and bask without feeding. The very cold, wet weather that is prejudicial to them is beneficial to the grain, and under such circumstances it generally grows so rank and rapidly that they make little impression upon it. It is when they are abundant and vigorous enough to bare the ground of vegetation, and this principally after they are half-grown, that the habit of migrating in large bodies is developed. In 1877 scarcely any disposition to migrate was shown, and this was in strong contrast with what occurred in 1875. In a year like this last, when they are vigorous and abundant, their power for injury increases with their growth. “At first devouring the vegetation in particular fields and patches in tke vicivity of their birthplaces, they gradually widen the area of their 234 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. devastation, until at last, if very numerous, they devour every green thing over extensive districts. Whenever they have thus devasted a country they are forced to feed upon one another, and perish in immense numbers from debility and starvation. Whenever timber is accessible they collect in it, and after cleaning out the underbrush, feed upon the dead leaves and bark. (Polygonum convolvulus, L.), which is very common in Minnesota, where it is often called wild buckwheat, is so universally preferred by the locusts that some farmers Lave thought seriously of cultivating it around their fields as a lure, to draw the insects off from the cultivated crops and thus facilitate the killing of the pests. Among the wild plants least liked may be mentioned Cocklebur, Helianthus, and Purslane, but more particularly the milkweeds (Asclepias) and the Dogbane (Apocynum). An occasional Salvia trichostemmoides and Vernonia noveeboracensis were also left untouched in the general ruin by the young insects in Missouri in 1875. But the plant of all others that is exempt from the attacks of these ravenous ereatures is a low, creeping glossy-leaved herb for some time known to botanists as the Amarantus blitum and supposed to have been introduced from Hurope. Mr. Sereno Watson has, however, lately described it by the name of A. ( Pyxidium) blitoides,® and it is common and indigenous to the valleys and plains of the interior from Mexico to Northern Nevada. Itis fast spreading eastward. Mr. Riley found this plant unmolested in Missouri ‘even where the insects were so hard pushed for food that they were feeding on each other and on dead leaves, the bark of trees, lint of fences, &c., and where they were so thick hiding amid its leaves that fifty to a hinnaeeet occurred to the square foot.” The dislike these insects show for leguminous plants is well known, and a crop of peas will eften succeed where they abound, when all lke iS ruined. This is the case alike in Texas and British oe for Mr. J. G. Kittson, of Fort Walsh, N. W. T., writes of his experience in 1877: ‘¢ Peas are the last pencils the iaciat will touch. In Swan River the Mounted Police garden had a large patch of peas in rows, and only the ‘outer three rows were damaged, and this was only when the insect had attained its full growth and there was nothing else to feed them.” Mr.. G. M. Dawson has wisely suggested that this dislike may afford an ex- planation, on Darwinian grounds, of the prevalence of such plants on the Northwestern plains. To sum up, where the insects are abundant, the prairie-grass, the wild weeds mentioned as disliked, and the leaves of most of the forest-trees - generaily remain green; but the little Amarantus is the only plant which we’have so far found proof against the insects under all circum- stances. A marked preference is always shown for plants that are un- healthy or wilted, and a dislike for those in low, wet, or marshy places. In concluding these notes on the food-habits of locusts, we will briefly refer to a rather prevalent belief that the newly hatched-lccusts live for many daysondew. The belief has originated independently in different ‘parts of the world, is mentioned by Anacreon and Hesiod, and perpet- uated by later poets. It is doubtless due to the facts that, if the weather be cool, the young insects huddle together and can live for ©. Spey. | iProe, Am. «dic. SeadetAeteyoVals GIy lp 273.) sd nl ene ALARM CAUSED BY HARMLESS LOCUSTS. 255 several days without feeding; that the nibbling and fretting of these young is hardly noticeable ; and that, as we have abundantly proved the past summer, these insects are fond of drinking at all stages of growth. UNNECESSARY ALARM OFTEN CAUSED BY COMPARATIVELY HARMLESS LOCUSTS. During years of locust trouble the sense of apprehension is always keen; and many harmless species are looked upon with suspicion by those especially who live beyond the limit of = the range of the migratory species, and have no personal acquaintance with it. The large, short-winged locust herewith figured is not in- frequently supposed to have some connection with the destructive spretus. It is the Brachy- peplus magnus of entomologists, and may be popularly called the Clumsy Locust. Itis one of our largest and clumsiest species, incapable of flight, and never doing serious injury. Itis common on the plains of Western Kansas and Colorado, and has been found in West Missouri. It is prettily marked, as in Fig. 8, and occurs & in two distinct varieties, one in which a bright yellowish-green prevails, and the other in which fleshy tints and pale brown predomi- nate. There can be no connection between its appearance and that of spretus. Reports are frequent during the mild weather & of winter that ‘‘the grasshoppers have appear- a ed,” and during very mild weather, such as we Fig. 8.—THE had in the winter of 1876-77, the young of the (After Riley.) Rocky Mountain locust do sometimes prematurely hatch; but in the great majority of cases the reports of the appearance of this pest in winter _ are based upon mistaken identity. Wehave repeatediy had specimens of these young locusts sent to us under the impression by the sender that they were the genuine spretus. One of the most common of the locusts which-thus give rise to erroneous impressions is the Green-striped locust ( Tragocephala viridifasciata), a very common species, ranging from Maine to Florida, and from the Atlantic to Nebraska. It passes the winter in the immature condition, sheltering in meadows and in tufts of grass, and becoming active whenever the weather is mild. It is some- times found in winter in the early larva stages, but more often in the pupa state, and becomes fledged toward the end of April.: “It differs generically from the Rocky Mountain locust, which hiber- pates in the deg state. This Green-striped locust, as its name implies, has, when mature, a broad green stripe on the front wing, and by its narrower, humped and keeled thorax or fore-body (Fig. 41), may at once Neeley j fm PuVirirverrtn eee A) ies aire eS eR EEN ; iy Tilia ‘ SUN AD) Wh TO. Zs A CLumsy Locust. é 256 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. be distinguished from the dreaded Rocky Mountain pest. Like so many other species of its family, it occurs in two well-marked varieties, one in which, in addition to the stripe on the front wings, the whole body and hind thighs, above, are pea- green; the other, in which Fic. 9.—GREEN-STRIPED Locust:—a, larva ; b, perfect insect. this color gives way to pale- ee ee brown. In both varicties the hind wings are smoky, with the basal third greenish.” Different species of the genus Stenobothrus are also quite often mis- taken for spretus in winter and early spring. They are tolerably common 3 in the Western country where spretus oc- curs, and they hibernate in the partly-grown condition. We figure the young and winged form of a species (S. maculipennis, Scudd.) that in the unwinged state was quite generally supposed to be the young of spretus in Minnesota, last February. “The species of the genus Tettix also SIS a, maLUEO Peete acuLEN- hibernate in the half-grown and sometimes see ser in the full-grown condition, and are fre- quently supposed to be the young of spretus. These insects are very active, and are at once distinguished by the small head, great breadth across the middle of the prothorax, which extends to a tapering point to or beyond the tip of the abdomen; by the front of the breast forming a projection like a stock-cravat, into which to receive the lower part of the head, and by the short, rudimentary, sceale-like front wings. They fly with a buzzing noise like a flesh-fly. Our most common species (Tettix granulata, Scud- der, Fig. 11) may be called the Granulated Grouse-locast. Like the other species, it is very variable in color and orna- mentation, the prevailing hue being dark-brown beneath and Fic.11.— paler above. A well-marked variety has a small, pale spot on Cre! the radimentary front wings, and a larger conspicuous one on one top of the hind thighs.” Even insects belonging to a different order are not infrequently the cause of unnecessary alarm. In the spring of 1875 the meadows were reported as being destroyed around Champaign and Jacksonville, Ill., by what was supposed to be the young of spretus, but which proved upon examination by competent persons to be little Jassoid leaf-hop- pers, allied to the common grape-leaf hoppers—insects belonging to a different order (Hemiptera) from that which includes the locusts (Or- thoptera). They were, indeed, grass-hoppers, inthe sense of hopping about among the grass, but they were not the so-called grasshoppers (locusts) ANATOMY AND EMBRYOLOGY. 257 that at the time were proving such a plague in parts of Kansas and Missouri. In February, 1876, the wheat and oats fields in parts of Texas were being badly damaged by small insects that were similarly supposed to be young locusts, but which, in reality, were also leaf-hoppers; two species, more particularly the Diedrocephala flavicephala, Fitch, and a Jas- sus allied to immicus, Say, being Ses CHAPTER IX. ANATOMY AND EMBRYOLOGY. In order to properly understand the habits and physiology of the lo- cust, in connection especially with its great voracity, powers of flight, and the injury it receives from its internal and external parasites— questions of so much importance in studying its natural history and re- lations to agriculture—it has been thought that a brief general account of its external and internal anatomy, as. well as the minute anatomy of the digestive system, would be of considerable practical value. EXTERNAL ANATOMY. On making a superficial examination of the locust, any one will soon perceive that its body consists of an external crust, or thick, hard in- tegument, protecting the soft parts or viscera within. This integument will be seen to be at intervals segmented or jointed, the segments more or less like rings, which in turn are subdivided into pieces. These seg- ments or rings are most simple and easily comprehended in the abdomen or hind bgdy, which is composed of 10 of them. The body is composed of 17 of these segments, variously modified and more or less imperfect and difficult to make out, especially at each extremity of the body, namely, in the head and at the end of the abdomen. These 17 segments, more- _ over, are grouped into 3 regions, 4 composing the head, 3 the thorax, and 10 the hind body, or abdomen. On examining the abdomen, it will be found that the rings are quite perfect, and that each segment may be divided into an upper (tergal), a lateral (pleural), and an under (ster- nal) portion, or are (Fig. 12, A). These parts are respectively called tergite, pleurite, and sternite, while the upper region of the body is called the tergum, the lateral the plewrum, and the ventral or under portion the sternum. As these parts are less complicated in the abdomen, we will first de- scribe this region of the body, and then describe the more complex thorax and head. The abdomen is a little over half as long as the body, the tergum extending far down on the side and merging into the pleurum without any suture or seam. The pleurum is indicated by the row of spiracles, which will be noticed further on. The sternum forms the 17 G@ 258 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. ventral side of the abdomen, and meets the pleurum on the side of the body. In the female(Fig. 12, B), the abdomen tapers somewhat toward the end of the body, to which are appended the two pairs of stout, hooked spines, forming the ovipositor (Fig.12,Byr,7’). The anus is situated above the maa? = & Zz oo Wor ! ow ve ~Texgite Spuradle “Sberibe: ~—Stergite FIG. 12.—EXTERNAL ANATOMY OF CALOPTENUS SPRETUS: the head and thorax dis- jointed. (Drawn by J. S. Kingsley.) upper and larger pair, and the external opening of the oviduct, which is situated. between the smaller and lower pair of spines, and is bounded on the ventral side by a movable triangular acute flap, the egg-guide (ig.12, Be,g,and Fig.14). Above the opening of the oviduct and between ‘the two pairs of spines forming the ovipositor is a sharp fork (the furcula supra-vulvalis), which is really the third pair of blades of the ovipositor, and well developed in the bee. At the time of egg-laying, the abdomen may be lengthened nearly twice its usual proportions. EXTERNAL ANATOMY OF THE LOCUST. Zoo The end of the male abdomen is blunt, ending (in our Rocky Mountain species) in a turned-up, notched tip. Immediately in front of the notch ; is a convex piece or flap, free anteriorly and at- tached posteriorly and on 4 the sides to the ridge form- 35 ing the upper edge of the / 10th sternite. When about to unite sexually, the tip of the abdomen is de- pressed, the hood is drawn backward, uncovering the chitinous penis. (This hood may be called velum penis.) In front of the hood is the Supra-anal plate with lat- eral processes, which may be called infra-anal flaps (or uro-patagia, Fig. 12, up), concealed by the cerci. At the base of the supra-anal plate, which is broad and shield-shaped, and pointed in front, isthe fork or supra- anal furcula (furcula supra- analis, Fig. 12, f). The thorax, as seen in Fig. 12, consists of three segments, called the pro- thorax, mesothorax, and metathorax, or fore, mid- dle, and hind thoracicrings. They each bear a pair of legs, and the two hinder, each a pair of wings. The upper portion (tergum) of the middle and hind seg- ments, owing to the pres- ence of wings and the neces- sity of freedom of move- ment to the muscles of flight, are divided or dif- ferentiated into two pieces, the scutwm and scutellum* (Fig. 12), the former the larger, extending across the back, and the scutellum a o-\-Meellus Head Prothorax Yemuacr--\ - Femur (Dissected and drawn by J. S. Kingsley.) Metathorax MNesokhorax Fig. 13.— MALE CALOPTENUS SPRETUS. Abdomen 41There are in many insects, as in many Lepidoptera and Hymenoptera and some Neuroptera, four tergal pieces, i. e., prescutum, scutum, scutellum, and postscutcllum, the first and fourth pieces being usually very small and often obsolete. 260 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. smaller, central, shield-like piece. The protergum, or what is usually in the books called the prothorax, represents either the scutum or both scutum and scutellum, the two not being differentiated. The fore wings are long and narrow, and thicker than the hinder, which are broad, thin, and membranous, and most active in flight, and folded up like a fan when at rest and tucked away out of sight under the fore wings, which act as wing-covers. Turning now to the side of the body under the insertion of the wing (Fig. 13), we see that the side of each of the middle and hind thoracic rings is composed of two pieces, the anterior, episternum, resting on the sternum, with the epimerum behind it ; these pieces are vertically high and narrow, and to them the leg is inserted by three pieces, called re- spectively coxa, trochantine, and trochanter (see Fig. 13), the latter form- ing a true joint of the leg. — The legs consist of five well-marked joints, the femur (thigh), tibia (shank), and tarsus (foot), consisting in the locust of three joints, the third bearing two large claws with a pad between them. The hind legs, es- pecially the femur and tibia, are very large, adapted for hopping. The sternum is broad and large in the middle and hind thorax, but small and obscurely limited in the prothorax, with a large conical Ee: jection between the legs. _ The head is mainly, in theadult locust, cémposed of asingle piece called the epicranium (Figs. 13 and 134, E), and which carries the eyes, ocelli, or simple eyes (Fig. 134, e), and antenne. While there are in reality four primary segments in the head of all winged insects, corresponding to the four pairs of ap- pendages in the head, the posterior three segments after early embryonic life in the locust become obso- lete, and are mainly represented by their appendages and small portions to which the appendages are at- tached. The epicranium represents the antennal seg- ment, and most of the piece represents the tergum of Fic. 133.—Front view of the head of C. spretus.—E, epicran- ium; C, eclypeus; L, labrum; o o, ocelli; e, eye; a, antenna; md, mandible; mz, portion of maxilla uncovered by the labrum; p, max- illary palpus; p’, labial palpus. (Kingsley del.) loose flap, which covers the jaws when they are at rest. per lip or labrum (Fig. 18). the segment. The antenne, or feelers, are inserted in front of the eyes, and between them is the anterior ocellus, or simple eye, while the two posterior ocelli are © situated above the insertion of the antennz. In front of the epicrapium is the clypeus (Fig. 13), a piece nearly twice as broad as long. To the clypeus is attached a This is the up- There are three pairs of mouth-appendages: first, the true jaws or mandibles (Fig. 12), which are single-jointed, and are broad, short, solid, with a toothed cutting and grinding edge, ‘adapted for biting. The mandibles are situated on each side of the mouth-opening. Behind the mandibles are the maxille (Fig. 12), which are divided into three lobes, the inner armed with teeth or spines, the INTERNAL ANATOMY OF THE LOCUST. 261 middle lobe unarmed and spatula-shaped, while the outer forms a five- jointed feeler called the mazillary palpus. The maxille are accessory jaws and probably serve to hold and arrange the food to be ground by the true jaws. The floor of the mouth is formed by the labiwm (Figs. 12 and 13), which in reality is composed of two second maxillz, soldered together in the middle, the two halves being drawn separately in Fig 12. Within the mouth, and situated upon the labium, is the tongue (lingua), which, as observed in C. femur-rubrum, is a large, membran- ous, partly hollow expansion of the base of the labrum; it is some- what pyriform, slightly keeled above, and covered with fine, stiff hairs, which, under a one-fifth lens, are seen to be long, rough, chitinous spines, with one or two slight points or tubercles on the side. These. stiff hairs probably serve to retain the food in the mouth, and are, appa- rently, of the same structure as the teeth in the proventriculus. The base of the tongue is narrow, and extends back to near the pharynx (or entrance to the gullet), there being on the floor of the mouth, behind the tongue, two oblique slight ridges, covered with stiff, golden hairs, like those on the tongue. INTERNAL ANATOMY. The esophagus (Fig. 14, @) is short and curved, continuous with the roof of the mouth. There are several longitudinal irregular folds on the inner surface. It terminates in the center of the head, directly under the supra-cesophageal ganglia, the end being indicated by several small conical valves closing the passage, thus preventing the regurgitation of the food. ; The cesophagus is succeeded by the crop (ingluvies). It dilates rapidly in the head, and again enlarges before passing out of the head, and at the point of first expansion or enlargement there begins a circular or oblique series of folds, armed with a single or two alternating rows of simple spine-like teeth. Just after the crop leaves the head the ruge or folds become longitudinal, the teeth arranged in rows, each row . formed of groups of from three to six teeth, which point backwards ‘so as to push the food into the stemach. In alcoholic specimens the folds of the crop and esophagus are deep blood-red, while the muscular por- tion is flesh-colored. It is in the crop that the “ molasses” thrown out by the locust originates, as we have found the fluid in opening the crop of living specimens, and it consists of partially digested food. The crop terminates a little behind the insertion of the middle pair of legs. The proventriculus is very small in the locust, easily overlooked in dissection, while in the green grasshoppers it is large and armed with sharp teeth. It forms a neck or constriction between the crop and true stomach. It may be studied by laying the alimentary canal open with a pair of fine scissors, and is then seen to be armed with six flat folds, suddenly terminating posteriorly, where the true stomach (chyle-stomach, 262 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. ventriculus) begins. The chyle-stomach is about one-half as thick as the crop, when the latter is distended with food, and is of nearly the same diameter throughout, being GosRESR : # e° ete much paler than the reddish = — & : foes Sa crop, and of a flesh-color. Bact 5 CS wo < SSE 2 EES] From the anterior end arise ~~ ~~ Oe ° ° BES sleioen Z six large gastric ceca, the ante- i JS uw. = . . ee ° Boe. es rior division surrounding the Seb ras $> : é : S is om BS a5 posterior third of the crop Mis i) a- 2 eye ~Be et) aS long, pea-shaped, whitish, and SS BER aS containing a whitish, emul- Saee re ya uaa : GSES RSS Sion-like fluid. When dis- & aoe - ‘ 44558 0 tended, they touch each other. 22 wa < y] a2o 3% Soe == geese Each cecum sends back a artes se Ce: 2 coer pO eee posterior division, separated lig he is} : zs haws Eee S58 Z by a slight constriction from Sel aa e the anterior division; they are BM<,526 ? a. ee S&Aa38ea peaeere long and slender, and rest or ~S yy hy : 5 gs Sea float freely in the body-cavity, . ESiots while the anterior divisions’ =e ee : oo55 554 are bound down to the digest- peek see ive canal. These cxea are as 25 soR : ° o> ees dilatations of the true chyle- SSB SEES Spots oe stomach, and probably serve ef o ete to present a larger surface WSrkyp HSB ° Boa. aE from which the chyle may i oS ®@ th . : ° ae 2 ge Se escape into. the body-cavity ae S oat Melee 5: ZEA SB. and mix with the blood, there .£0ner ; Re pea 8 on being in insects no lacteal ves- iso}, $ oe . . Pree EeS sels or lymphatic system. me ou) ae cf ° ° . . ° s 1eeuses Within the anterior division FS cx aS = are from 8 to 10 longitudinal ES 3s 3 folds. (In a living transpar- moa ote = ° So Bees ent dipterous larva, probably mes egee, one of the Mycetophilide found O71, ae 8 living in flower-pots, we have Becaeg a z 8 itis pong es Ss observed the digested food aporPl eas ; “Was ee: S oscillating back and forth a ©) = e535 Bo. rE & from the stomach into the two e% $8 aE & large, long, simple ezca. The @ Sse =) 2. stomach was filled with food, and it appeared as if the chyle were passing into the ceca.) - The stomach ends at the posterior edge of the fourth abdominal seg- ment in a slight constriction, at which point (pyloric end) the urinary tubes (vasa urinaria, Fig. 14, wr) arise. These are arranged in 10 groups a INTERNAL ANATOMY OF THE LOCUST. 260 of about 15 tubes, so that there are about 150 tubes in all; at their inser- tion the tubes radiate from the center, and thereis a well-marked space on the circumference of the canal between the groups of the tubes. - These vessels are very long; when stretched out about as long as the body, but are usually much convoluted and wound around the alimentary canal, a few reaching as far as the head. ‘These are excretory organs, and cor- respond to the kidneys of the vertebrate animals. The terminal por- tions of a few only of these tubes are represented in Fig. 14.” The intestine (ileum) lies in the fifth and sixth abdominal segments ; it gradually diminishes in thickness, and while the surface of the chyle- stomach is smooth, with fine longitudinal muscular fibers, the surface of the intestine has about 12 or 15 large longitudinal ridges, with a few smaller ones. Behind the intestines is the colon, which is smaller than the intestine proper, and makes a partial twist. Itssurfaceis smooth. The colon sud- denly expands into the rectwm, with 6 large rectal glands on the outside, held in place by 6 muscular bands attached anteriorly to the hinder end of thecolon. In cross-section through the middle of the mass of glands they are seen to be hollow, their cavities independent of that of the rec- tum, though there is an intimate communication between the two. The nature of these glands is unknown. They are lined with epithelial cells and are secretory in their function, and, as Clun observes, they probably compensate for the want of epithelial secretory cells in the living of the rectum. The rectum turns up toward its end, and the anus is situated just below the supra-anal plate in the male, while in the female it is placed between the supra-anal plate and the upper pair of spines of the ovipositor. * In closing our account of the digestive canal, we should briefly describe the salivary glands (Fig. 14, sal.) These are rather difficult to find, as they lie on the floor of the thorax and are partly covered by muscles and various tissues. The two ducts may be found passing back from under the infra-cesophageal ganglion, and pass straight backward, ending just in front of the insertion of the third pair of legs, and dividing into.no large branches. A small lateral twig with scattered follicles lies in the _ prothorax on the outside of the main duct. Behind this is a second mass of follicles like a bunch of grapes attached to two small twigs, one on each side. There is a third large assemblage of follicles lying on each side of the second thoracic ganglion, under the metascutum. The two main ducts, according to Mr. Burgess’s observations, as seen in his drawing (Fig. 14), unite just before opening into the base of the mouth near the tongue. Our observations were made on Caloptenus femur- rubrum, as were those of Mr. Burgess. The salivary glands are much simpler and smaller in the locusts than in any other family of Orthop- tera. 42 We are indebted to Mr. E. Burgess, of Boston, Mass., for the drawing of Fig. 14, made expressly for, and free of expense to, the Commission. 264 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. Having described in a very general way the digestive canal of the locust, we may state in a summary way the functions of the different divisions of the tract, following the conclusions of Prof. F. Plateau.“ The food after being cut up by the jaws is acted upon while in the crop by the salivary fluid, which is alkaline, and possesses the property, as in vertebrates, of rapidly transforming the starchy elements of the food into soluble and assimilable glucose. The digestive action carried on in the crop (ingluvies) then, in a vegetable-feeding insect like the locust, results in the conversion of the starchy matters into glucose or sugar. This process goes on very slowly. When digestion in the crop has ended, the matters submitted to an energetic pressure by the walls of the crop, which make peristaltic contractions, filter gradually through the short small gizzard (proventriculus), directed by the furrows and chitinous pro- jections lining it. The apparatus of teeth does not triturate the food, which has been sufficiently comminuted by the jaws. This is proved by the fact, says Plateau, that the parcels of food are of the same form and size aS those in the crop, before passing through the gizzard. The six large lateral pouches (ceca) emptying into the commencement of the stomach (ventriculus) are true glands, which secrete an alkaline fluid, probably aiding in digestion. In the stomach (ventriculus) the portion of the food which has resisted the action of the crop is submitted to the action of a neutral or alkaline liquid, never acid, secreted by special local glands or by the lining epithelium. Jn the ileum and colon active absorption of the liquid portion of the food takes place, and the intes- tine proper (ileum and colon) is thus the seat of the secondary digestive. phenomena. The reaction of the secretion is neutral or alkaline. The rectum is the stercoral reservoir. It may be empty or fall of liquids, - but never contains any gas. The liquid products secreted by the uri- nary tubes are here accumulated, and in certain circumstances here deposit the calculi or crystals of oxalic, uric, or phosphatic acid. In- sects, says Plateau, have no special vessel to carry off the chyle, such as the lacteals or lymphatics of vertebrates ; the products of digestion, viz, salts in solution, peptones, sugar in solution, and emulsionized greasy matters, pass through the fine coatings of the digestive canal by osmosis, and mingle outside of this canal with the currents of blood which pass along the ventral and lateral parts of the body. Into the pyloric end of the stomach empty the urinary tubes, their t secretions passing into the intestine. These are organs exclusively depuratory and urinary, relieving the body of the waste products. The liquid which they secrete contains urea (?), uric acid, and urates in abundance, hippuric acid (?}, chloride of sodium, phosphates, carbonate of lime, oxalate of lime in quantity, leucine, and coloring matters. - The nervous system.—As observed in Caloptenus spretus, C. femur- 43 Recherches sur les Phénoménes de la Digestion chez les Insectes. Bruxelles, 1874. , " : baie oe NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE LOCUST. 265 rubrum, and OC. bivittatus, the nervous system does not vary at all, at least so as to afford any specific characters. The following general AJIouW ‘uMOUyUN | °U} Way oY) visues [euvs oso) JO WOVE MOLT S 5 Lar | sgiei2 o- Smee = a P| ae o : waa 2 | oe _ =) ee oO Ot4 ePeRroas = r=) 55 SBEEDRHSS6 a 2°82 20 ors bar} 2a “So S=oarH qh BRS areal On RSeecas Tego ke™ BOO 2 © ° Te) Sobea_y cf i) =o SF44580 5 ofoe eao.o f Wd mSag aot eacerges AA =) Z a“ = DR BeorRaca Bee a4 o e =~ m a 50932 nates 2s @ e850 cs oS noss SEgP ESS 45 WPS o¢ oB RSOoo8 Qa2okses - coc © o oS Bower See a=-og, 2S "os ae jg ~— oe S'S LS SRST ae B= tue, aa as <— ee es SE Cag =} © = 4 0) OALOU OT}dO OSIV[ OY YO Sutptos SY OY} UL Surtpuo ‘vows jeyovua1oys oY} SV IZ SB OZ OPIS TOVO TO OALOU Tosivl, Vv puy ‘ a ‘doo oy} JO opis Jopun o% uo (sd) vI[sueS OMY puv susvydosM oY} oAOGV 91njve Sz ‘mOT[suvs orvydoo-orpou oY4 WITA OAIOU v Aq poyoouMOD ‘Apoq Sa UIVUL OA OY Aq pojxuosoidod ouv VI[Saes puV oO [VUlWOpge oay ‘e-T Svipsuvs ofor.0yy ‘g ‘2 ‘LT fuo1psuL ein 1v][990 uv puv ‘8040 oY} 04 ( \ eee. th) si oat asia eek SS = account of the nervous cord is based on that of the Rocky Mountain locust, while, in work- ing out the minor points, such as the nerves of the end of the abdomen and the sympathetic (vagus) nerves and ganglia, specimens of CO. femur-rubrum were used. The nervous system of the locust, as of other insects, con- sists of a series of nerve-centers, or so-called brains (ganglia), which are connected by two cords (commissures), the two cords in certain parts of the body in some insects united into one. There are in the locust 10 ganglia, 2 in the head, 3 in the thorax, and 5 in the abdomen. The first ganglion is rather larger than the others, and is called the brain. Itiscompressed from be- fore and behind, being quite deep, while the other ganglia are more or less lens-shaped and flattened vertically. The brain rests upon the cesophagus,, whence its name, supra-cesoph- ageal ganglion. From the brain arise the large, short, optic nerves (Fig. 14, not lettered, but represented by the circle behind the brain, sp; Fig. 15, op), which go to the compound eyes, and from the front arise the three slender filaments which are sent to the three ocelli (Fig. 14, oc). From immediately in front, low down, arise the antennal nerves (Fig. 14, at). The infra-cesophageal (i7), as its name implies, lies under the cesopha- gus at the base of the head, under a bridge of chitine, and directly behind the tongue. It is connected with the supra-cesophageal ganglion by two commissures passing up each side of thecesophagus. I*rom the f 266 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. under side of the infra-sophageal ganglion arise three pairs of nerves, which are distributed to the mandibles, maxille, and labium. The man- dibular nerves project forward and arise from the anterior part of the ganglion, near the origin of the supra-csophageal commissures, while the maxillary and labial nerves are directed downward into those organs. The first thoracic ganglion is considerably larger than the infra-cesoph- - ageal, and lies on the floor of the body opposite the insertion of the fore legs, and under the center of the protergum. Thesecond thoracic gang- lion is larger than the first, and lies a little behind the insertion of the middle pair of legs, in the mesothoracic segment. It sends off a pair of large nerves to the hind legs, the nerves arising a little in advance of the middle of the ganglion. Five pairs of small nerves are distributed (two to the organs of hearing) to parts, &c. lying in the base of the ab- domen. Other nerves are distributed from the two thoracic ganglia to the muscles of flight and walking. Of the five abdominal ganglia the first is small and white, while those anterior to it are red; it is situated in the third abdominal segment. The second abdominal ganglion lies in the fifth abdominal segment. The third abdominal ganglion lies in the seventh segment, the fourth in the eighth segment, and the fifth in the ninth segment. The fourth and fifth are near together, and the fifth is considerably larger than the fourth, while the commissures connecting them are much thicker than in the rest of the abdomen, those between the second thoracic and first abdominal ganglia being very small. (The remaining description is drawn up from dissections of C. femur-rubrum.) ‘The last or fifth abdominal ganglion sends off a lateral nerve (Fig. 14, thrown off just above the letters sb), which is distributed to the sebific gland and bursa copulatrix. .From the posterior edge of the ganglion four nerves are distributed to the muscles of each spine of the ovi- positor in the female, and small nerves are distributed to the large air- sacs. There is considerable variation in the distribution and number of these nerves. The ganglion lies. directly over the point of junction of the two ovarian ducts which unite to form the common oviduct, and it partly covers the sebific (or sebaceous) gland. | The sympathetic ganglia are three in number; one situated just behind the supra-cesophageal ganglion (Vig. 15, as), resting on the cesophagus, and two others situated each side of the crop, low down. Tach of the two posterior ganglia is supplied by a nerve from the anterior ganglion. Two nerves pass under the crop connecting the posterior ganglia, and from each posterior ganglion a nerve is sent backward to the end of the proventriculus. A pair of nerves pass under the csophagus from each side of the anterior sympathetic ganglion, and another pair pass down- ward to a round white body, whose nature is unknown (Fig. 15, w). The heart.—This organ (Tig. 14) is imperfectly understood in the locust, and, indeed, in the Orthoptera generally. So far as we could discover, | the heart is a long tube, lying in the abdomen, dilating at six places along its course, and ending in a conical point near the end of the ab- a ee ae ted RESPIRATORY SYSTEM OF THE LOCUST. 267 domen; it is held in place by fine muscular bands, as usual; it was not traced beyond the base of the abdomen. The trachec and dilated air-sacs or respiratory organs.—AS the air-tubes and air-sacs are intimately associated with the great powers of flight possessed by the locust, particular attention has been given to their topo- graphical anatomy. The following description is based on a study of living specimens of Caloptenus femur-rubrum and Cidipoda sordida, as they had to be conducted in the laboratory at the close of the field-work in the West. All insects breathe by means of a complicated system of air-tubes ramifying throughout the body, the air entering through a row of spir- acles, or air-holes, or breathing-holes (stigmata), in the sides of the body. There are, as a rule, in locusts two pairs of thoracic and eight pairs of abdominal spiracles. The first thoracic pair (ig. 16) is situated on the membrane connecting the prothorax and mesothorax, and is covered by the hinder edge of the protergum (usually called prothorax). The second spiracle is situated on the posterior edge of the mesothorax. There are eight abdominal spiracles, the first one situated just in front of the auditory sac or tympanum (see lig. 13), and the remaining seven are small openings along the side of the abdomen, as indicated in Fig. 16. From these spiracles air-tubes pass in a short distance and con- * nect on each side of the body with the spiracular trachea (Vig. 17, 8, Fig. . 16,8), as we may call it. These spiracular trachez begin at the posterior spiracle, and extend forward into the mesothorax, there subdividing into | several branches. Branches from them pass to the two main ventral trachee (Fig. 16, V), and to the two main dorsal trachee (Fig. 17, D, Fig. 16, D). The main tracheal system in the abdomen, then, consists of six tubes, three on a side, extending along the abdomen. The pair of ven- tral trachez extend along the under side of the digestive canal; the dor- sal trachez rest on the digestive canal. These six tubes are connected by anastomosing trachez, and, with their numerous subdivisions and minute twigs and the system of dilated trachee or air-sacs, an intricate net-work of trachee is formed. .The system of thoracic air-tubes is quite independent of the abdomi- nal system, and not so easy to make out. The tubes arising from the two thoracic stigmata are not very well marked; they, however, send two well-marked trachez into the head (Figs. 17, c, 16, ec), which subdivide into the ocular dilated air-tube (Figs. 17, 0 c, 16, 0 c) and a number of air- sacs in the front of the head. The series of large abdominal air-sacs, of which there are five pairs (Fig. 17,3-7), arise independently of the main trachee directly from branches originating from the spiracles, as seen in Fig.16. They are large and easily found by raising the integument of the back. There is a large pair in the mesothorax (lig. 17, 2), and two enormous sacs in the prothorax (Fig. 17, 1), sometimes extending as far back as the anterior. edge of the mesothorax. All these sacs are superficial, lying next to the 268 REPORT J--------- = heart ----+-- | = Fic. 17. Fie. 16. Fic. 16.—SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF AIR-TUBES (TRACHEH) AND AIR-SACS.—Side view of the body. Vv, main ventral trachea (only one of the two shown) ; §, left stigmatal trachea, connecting by vertical branches with D, the left main dorsal trachea; c, left cephalic trachea; oc, ocular dilated trachea. From the first, second, third, and fourth spiracles arise the first four abdominal air-sacs, which are suc- ceeded by the plexus of three pairs of dilated trachez, I, II, III, in Fig. 17. Numerous air-sacs and echen are represented in the head and thorax. The two thoracic spiracles are represented, but not -ttered. Fic. 17.—D, left dorsal tracnea; S, left stigmatal trachea; J, II, III, first, second, and third pairs of abdominal dilated trachez, forming a plexus behind the ovaries ; 1, pair of enormous thoracic air- sacs; 2, pair of smaller air-sacs; 3-7, abdominal air-sacs; oc, ocular dilated trachea and air-sacs; ¢, cophalic trachea. The relations of the heart to the dorsal trachee are indicated. (Drawn by Emerton from dissections by Packard.) AIR-SACS TIIAT ASSIST FLIGHT. 269 hypodermis or inner layer of the integument, while the smaller ones are, ‘in many cases, buried among the muscles. Between the first and sec- ond thoracic sacs'is a pair of small ones with numerous others still smaller. From the dorsal trachez arise series of minute subcutaneous air-sacs. Besides these ordinary air-sacs there is in the end of the ab- domen, behind the ovaries, a plexus of six dilated air-sacs (Figs.16 and 17, I, II, [11), which are long, spindle-shaped, and are easily detected in dissecting. Behind them, in the extreme end of the abdomen, are three pairs of small rounded air-sacs, and there is a complicated system of dilated tracheze among the muscles of the ovipositor. Between the six gastric czca are six dilated air-tubes. The system of dilated trachez and air-sacs in the head is rather com- plicated, and the following description is based on vivi-dissections of Caloptenus femur-rubrum and Gidipoda sordida. Of the air-sacs there is a median one (not represented in the figures) in the posterior edge of the head, and buried between the muscles and resting directly on the crop. Between the eyes are two large sacs (seen in Fig. 17), arising from the main cephalic trachex; these air-sacs connect with an unpaired median transverse sac. Under the eyes are four sacs connected together by tracheze, and in fact this whole region contains a large num- ber of subcutaneous air-sacs. The main cephalic trachez subdivide, and send two brancbes around the eye under the cornea (Figs. 16 and 17, oe, ocular tracheze), and from these ocular trachez are sent off numerous subcutaneous sacs. On the vertex between the eyes and insertion of © the antenne are nine sacs of unequal size, one median, one being larger than the eight others. There is also a pair of sacs on the extreme ver- tex and two pairs behind the eyes; a little in front of the antennez are four well-marked median round sacs, and two much smaller ones. Along the front edge of the clypeus is a large transverse dilated trachea, from which four trachez, two on each side, the external ones the small- est, pass down to the front edge of the labrum, and send off a number of small spherical sacs, so that in the labrum alone there are about 16 air-sacs. We have found 53 air-sacs in all in the head of the locust. The lateral region between the base of the jaws and the vertex is quite - free from air-sacs, as we have not detected more than four or five quite small ones. In the legs (described from CG. sordida) two trachez pass down each side of the femora, sending off at quite regular intervals numerous much- branching transverse twigs; ,there is one large and a very small trachea in the tibia, and the main one extends to the extremity of the last tarsal joint. There are four slender air-sacs at the base of the femora. Mode of breathing.—By holding the Red-legged locust in our hand we observed the mode of breathing. During this act the portion of the side of the body between the stigmata and the pleurum (Fig. 12, A) contracts and expands; the contraction of this region causes the spiracles to open. The general movement is caused by the sternal ae 270 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. moving much more decidedly than the tergal portion of the abdomen. When the pleural portion of the abdomen is forced out, the soft pleural membranous region under the fore and hind wings contracts, as does the tympanum and the membranous portions at the base of the hind legs. When the tergum or dorsal portion of the abdomen falls, and the pleurum contracts, the spiracles open; their opening is nearly but not always exactly co-ordinated with the contractions of the pleurum, but asaruletheyare. There were 65 contractions in a minute in a locust which had been held between the fingers about ten minutes. It was noticed that when the abdomen expanded the air-sacs in the first abdominal ring contracted. This would indicate that the air rushes into the spir- acles during the contraction of the abdomen, and that the air-sacs are not refilled until the spiracles are closed; thus the air in the air-sacs is ‘perhaps constantly changing.“ The locust an aéronaut.—It is evident that the enormous powers of flight possessed by the locust, especially its faculty of sailing for many hours in the air, is due to the presence of these air-sacs, which float it up in the atmospheric sea. Other insects with a powerful flight, as the bees and flies, have well-developed air-sacs, but they are less numer- ous. In a grasshopper (Truxalis), as figured by Marcel de Serres, the air-sacs are aS numerous as in the normal Acrydii, but they are more developed in the locust family (Acra yay than in the soe grass-hoppers (Locustarie). It will be seen that, once having taken flight, the locust can buoy itself up in the air, constantly filling and refilling its internal buoys or balloons without any muscular exertion, and thus be borne along by favorable winds to its destination. It is evident that the process of — ~ respiration can be best carried on in clear, sunny weather, and that when the sun sets, or the weather is cloudy and damp, its powers of ne are lessened, owing to the diminished power of respiration. The male reproductive system.—As observed in C. spretus and more care- fully in C. femur-rubrum, each testis is closely united to the other, so as to form a single mass of tubular glands, arranged vertico-obliquely, and interpenetrated by simple and dilated tracheze. The mass rests on the intestines, andeis situated in the third, fourth, and fifth abdominal segments. The anterior end of the testicular mass is rounded and held in place by a broad, thin band, one on each side; two similar bands are situated a little behind the middle of the mass. From the under side, and a little in advance of the middle of the mass, two straight small ducts, as long as the testicular mass, pass obliquely to the sides of the body, at. the posterior end of the seventh segment of the abdomen; these are the vasa deferentia. Each vas deferens with its mate forms a convoluted mass of tubes, comprising 20 folded bundles (epididymis of Dufour), and two single, long, convoluted tubes, the _vesiculee seminales. 441¢ was noticed in a species of Gryllus or cricket (G. neglectus?) that there are no air-sacs, but dilated trachez somewhat like those in Caloptenus. Itis evident that in those Orthoptera which do not take long flights there is no need of air-sacs. They are most developed in those insects which fly most. vad THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM. 271 In C. femur-rubrum, the epididymis forms a longer, slenderer bundle than in C. spretus or C. bivittatus. The vesicule seminales are lodged in the 6th and 7th segments of the abdomen. The two vesicule unite over the fifth abdominal ganglion and form a thick, very short duct (ductus ejaculatorius), which passes into a large spherical muscular mass (preputium), behind which is the large intromittent organ (penis), which forms a short chitinous cylinder, com- plicated in structure, and differing considerably in the four common species of Caloptenus (C. spretus, atlanis, femur-rubrum, and bivittatus), and afiording excellent specific characters. The penis can be seen in place without dissection by drawing back the orbicular convex piece called the velum penis. The penis is armed with hooks and projections. The organ and its armature are much alike in C. spretus and C. atlanis ; 0. femur-rubrum differs from both, while in C. bivitiatus it is like that of C. atlanis. | The female reproductive system.—The ovaries (Fig. 14, ov) form a large. ‘mass, just before oviposition, distending the abdomen somewhat, and crowding the intestine a little out of place. The ovaries consist of two masses of tubes, each mass tied to the other by slight bands, with air- sacs and trachee ramifying among them. There are from 17 to 22 tubes arranged in two rows in each ovary in Caloptenus femur-rubrum ; in one C. spretus we counted 50 tubes in each ovary, making 100 in all. Each tube averages about 8 millimeters in length, and contains about 10 rudi- mentary eggs, besides the nearly ripe ones (though only from thirty to one hundred eggs are laid). These tubes lie along the intestine and extend into the prothorax. They communicate, though not freely, there being apparently a thin membrane opposed to the free passage of the eggs, with the common ovarian duct, which is greatly prolonged, enter- ing into a long, somewhat twisted, slender tube, which connects with its fellow, and serves to hold the two ovaries together. The two tubes pass down on each side of the intestine, and unite to form the oviduct, which lies on the floor of the abdomen. Itisaslong asaripeegg. Above the opening of the duct, and directly communicating with it, is the bursa copu- latrix, a capacious pouch lined within with several narrow, longitudinal, chitinous bands. Behind the bursa copulatriz lies, partly resting under the fifth abdominal ganglion, the sebific or colleterial gland (Fig. 14, sb), which is flattened, pear-shaped, a little over half as long as a ripe egg. From the under side, a little in advance of the middle, arises the sebific duct (Fig. 14), which, after making three tight coils next to the ganglion, passes back and empties into the upper side of the bursa copulatriz, dilating slightly before its junction with the latter. The sebific gland secretes a cepious supply of a sticky fluid, which is poured out as the eggs pass out of the oviduct, and agglutinates the eggs into a mass, forming a thin coating around each egg, which from mutual pressure of the eggs causes the tough coating to be pitted hexagonally. The above . description will apply to C. spretus, C. femur-rubrum, and C. bivittatus, the parts within not differing specifically. 272 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. The external parts consist of the ovipositor (Fig. 12, B, and Fig. 14), which is formed of two pairs of spines (rhabdites) adapted for boring into the earth, and the egg-guide (Figs. 12 and 14, eg), a triangular flap, guarding the under side of the opening of the oviduct. Orguns of special sense.—It is difficult to explain many of the actions of our migratory locust, from the fact that it is hard for us to appreci- ate the mental powers, instincts, and general intelligence of insects. That they have sufficient intellectual powers to enable them to main- tain their existence may be regarded as an axiom. But insects differ much in intelligence and also in the degree of perfection of the organs of sense. The intelligence of insects depends, of course, largely on the development of the organs of special sense. The sense of sight must be well developed in the locust, there being two large, well-developed compound eyes, and three simple ones (ocelli) situated between the former, supplied with nerves of special sense. The antenne are, in the locust, organs of touch. The palpi are not only organs of touch, but probably, as in some other insects, are en- dowed with the sense of taste, enabling the locust to discriminate between the different. kinds of food, and select that best adapted to suit its wants. It is possible that the labial nerves send branches of special sense to the tongue, but this is a subject meinen has not been worked out as regards the Acrydi. The ears are well developed in the locust, and we know that the sense of hearing must be delicate, not only from the fact that a loud alarum with kettles and pans affects them, but the movements of persons walk- ing through the grass invariably disturb them. Besides this, they pro- duce a fiddling or stridulating sound by rubbing their hind legs against - their folded wing-covers, and this noise is a sexual sound, heard and appreciated by individuals of the other sex. Any insect which pro- duces a sound must be supposed to have ears to hear. the sound pro- duced by others of its species. | | The ears (or auditory sacs) of the locust are situated, one on each side, on the basal joint of the abdomen, just behind the first abdominal spira- cle (Fig. 13). The apparatus consists of a tense membrane, the tympanum surrounded by a horny ring. ‘On the internal surface of this membrane are two horny processes, to which is attached an extremely delicate vesicle filled with a transparent fluid, and representing a membranous labyrinth. This vesicle is in connection with an auditory nerve, which arises from the third thoracic ganglion, forms a ganglion upon the tympanum, and terminates in the immediate neighborhood of the labyrinth by a collec- tion of cuneiform, staff-like bodies, with very finely-pointed extremities (primitive nerve-fibres?), which are surrounded by loosely aggregated ganglionic globules.”—(Siebold’s Anatomy of the Invertebrates.) The following account of the histology of the digestive system of the locust is appended. It has been prepared by Dr. Charles Seema Minot, of Basten, Mass. THE MINUTE ANATOMY OF THE LOCUST. 273 EPORT ON THE FINE ANATOMY OF THE LOCUST. By CHARLES SEDGWICK MINOT. Most attention has been directed to the structure of the digestive and reproductive organs. As the nature of the work required the use of fresh materials from living specimens, and as I was unable to secure in Boston living locusts from the Rocky Mountains, I have been obliged to make my observations upon the New England species, Caloptenus Semur-rubrum. This, however, was a matter of little importance, for the interior structure of the Eastern species is almost the same as that of the Rocky Mountains, so that an anatomical description of the one ap- plies almost word for word to the other. The investigation has been supplemented by some comparison with other insects in order to determine, as far as the time at my disposal allowed, in what points the structure of the locust is peculiar. I must first remark that every digestive canal in quadrupeds and snails, as well as insects, consists of four physiologically distinct parts. In the first place are found the organs for the mechanical seizure of the food and swallowing, the jaws, mouth, and cwsophagus. They serve to Seize the food, often to tear it up mechanically, and to transport it to the interior of the body where it is to be digested. In the locust these organs form a very complex system. In the second place comes the stomach and parts where the digestive juices, properly so- called, are secreted. In this portion the chemical nature of the food is altered, rendering the mass suitable for absorption, which takes place in the third part of the digestive canal. The second and third parts are often not separated from one another, but we find in the wall of the in- testine the organs of absorption and the digestive glands lying along: side one another. J inally, in the fourth part, which is usually the termi- nal end of the tract, the effete and indigestible masses are accumulated and are finally expelled, being of no further use in the economy of the animal. This terminal portion is usually called the rectum, the Latin word for straight. This term was originally applied to man, in whom this portion of the intestine is straight. Since then it has been em. ployed for the analogous parts in animals, and often serves to designate a structure which is very far from being straight. The rectum is well nigh invariably supplied with muscles, by means of which it accom- plishes the act of expulsion of the feces. We will now proceed to describe the peculiarities of these four divi- sions in the locust. We begin by an account of the general course of the digestive tract from the mouth to the anus. The digestive canal begins in the head with the cavity of the mouth, bounded inferiorly by the jaws and other appendages, and above by the buccal plates; it extends upward and forward from one-fifth to one- fourth of the way through the head. Its walls are black, in this respect entirely different from the rest of the canal. 18 G ve 7 es oe cH 274 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. The cesophagus is distinctly marked off from the buccal cavity, though the direct continuation of it. The csophagus runs at first up- ward and forward, and then, making an elbow, continues upward and backward until it attains the middle of the upper half of the head, just above and bebind the brain, or supra-cesophageal ganglion, where it gradually widens both its transverse and vertical diameters to form the crop, where the digestion proper begins, according to Professor Felix Plateau. The crop is marked off anteriorly by a slight constriction. The walls of the cesophagus, and, indeed, of the whole digestive canal as far as the ventricle, are of a brownish-red color, and thrown up into folds covered by a hard chitinous layer, and armed with projecting spines and processes. In the cesophagus the ridges run nearly longi- tudinally, and are not so high nor so well marked as in the crop. The crop is that part of the intestinal canal which extends back- ward from the csophagus through the three thoracic segments. It consists of two parts. The anterior, larger, and horizontal division lies — in the posterior portion of the head and in the prothorax. Its diameter is especially variable, for its walls are capable of great distension. When filled with food its diameter becomes greater than any other part of the digestive tract; when empty, on the other hand, it contracts, and may become of less size than the ventricle. The posterior portion of the crop has hardly more than half the diameter of the front division ; it tapers slightly backwards, as it descends through the two hinder seg- ments of the thorax, and terminates in the rudimentary proven- triculus (Kaumagen), which can be recognized by the six large folds or chitinous teeth. In the grasshoppers this organ is very much reduced in size, and appears, rather, merely as the terminal portion of the crop - than as an independent structure. It is interesting to note this analogy, because in most other members of the order of Orthoptera the Kawma- gen is very large, distinct, and of a very complicated structure.” The anterior division of the crop is characterized by transverse ridges, the crests of which are covered by very hard chitine, which is thrown up into short, stout, and sharp spines that point backward. The office of the spines is evidently to aid the passage of the food down the diges- tive canal, and to prevent its regurgitation. The ridges are all trans- verse, but the anterior ones are wider than the others. Each ridge ex- tends only one-third or one-half of the way around the crop, and finally they incline from above backward, while the posterior ridges are longer, nar- rower, and more nearly vertical in their course. At the point where the second division of the crop begins, there intervenes between the two parts a space in which the ridges are very irregular, running straight for very short distances only, and forming numerous sharp angles. In this manner the direction of the ridges from being transverse becomes first slightly, then very irregular, until they finally become longitudinal, which direction is characteristic for the posterior division of the crop. 45See American Naturatist, July. 1877, and Dr. Wilde’s Untersuchungen iiber den Kaumagen der Orthopteren. Archiv fiir Naturgeschichte, 1877,. Heft 1, p. 135. THE MINUTE ANATOMY OF THE LOCUST. 275 The ridges all terminate just in front of the six large ridges or teeth which mark the proventriculus. Dr. von Basch, in his treatise on the digestive tract of the Eastern cockroach (Blatta orientalis),“° considers the whole series of divisions above mentioned to form collectively the anterior segment of the digest- ive organs. This view is, however, prcbably erroneous, for reasons that need not be detailed here. Professor Plateau has already shown that active digestion begins in the crop. The mouth and csophagus can alone be considered merely as organs for the mechanical seizure and preparation of the food. The blades of grass upon which the grass- hopper feeds are cut up into small oblong pieces, which are further di- vided in their passage through the esophagus. But the chemical pro- cesses of digestion begin even in the mouth, for the salivary glands have their openings there, and their secretion has the power, according to both Basch and Plateau, of converting into sugar the starch which green plants always contain so abundantly. It will thus be seen that, strictly speaking, there is no part of the digestive canal which serves solely to masticate the food, but it is nevertheless proper to call the ceso- phagus and mouth the organs for the mechanical preparation of the food, for their walls do not, as far as we know, contribute at all to the ata, juices. Far different is the case with the crop, which performs a double func- tion, for not only does it continue the mechanical division of the food, but it also mixes it with an alkaline brown secretion, which it is sup- posed is poured out by the glandular walls of the crop itself. At any rate, the chemical changes in the food which render it suitable for ab- sorption go on mainly in the crop, and not in the ventricle proper. The function of the proventricle (Kaumagen) is stated by F. Plateau, and I think correctly, to have been misinterpreted by earlier writers, inasmuch as it is not an organ of mastication, but really only a filter and sort of valve, which allows the food to strain through when it has been sufficiently triturated. The next division of the intestine is the stomach, or ventricle, which has very delicate glandular walls. The true structure has not been fully recognized by previous writers. It lies ventrally in the first to the fifth abdominal segment; it is nearly cylindricai, being somewhat enlarged anteriorly to receive the opening of the proventricle and to connect with the diverticula. In a median section, only one of these diverticula, or blind pouches, appears, though there are several others which lie on either side of the stomach. The shape and general anatomy of these appendices have been described in detail by Dr. Packard. I will here remark that they are decidedly different in their structure from the ven- tricle itself, and they prepare, according to Prof. Felix Plateau, an alkaline secretion. In transverse sections of the pouches, there appear 46 Sitzungsberichte der Wiener Akademie, xxxiii (1858), p. 234. 47 Mémoires de Académie des Sciences, des Lettres et des Beaux-Arts de Belgique, tome xti, 1875, 2m mémo:re, = bagi. oT ti 276 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. projecting folds, formed by delicate epithelial cells; the folds resemble somewhat those that are found in the ceca of sharks, for instance. The lining membrane of the ventricle is formed by eylindrical eells, which form little glands, separated from one another by walls of con- nective tissue, in a manner the details of which are reserved for my final report. The posterior limit of the stomach is marked by very pe- culiar structures, which, to my knowledge, have never before been described. They are particularly interesting because they present pe- culiarities which are not otherwise united in one organ. They are folds which project forward, twelve in number, and encircling the cavity of the intestine. When I first discovered them, I thought that I must by some mistake have examined, not the intestine, but the terminal por- tion of the digestive tract, where somewhat similar organs are found, and have long been known under the name of rectal glands (Rectal- driisen). The intestinal folds are sharply limited, each with a convex border anteriorly, while posteriorly they gradually fade out. They are covered by large cylindrical cells, which in some cases are completely filed with pigment granules. These singular folds are found in the same position in Caloptenus spretus and C. femur-rubrum as in Gidipoda sordida, and their character is essentially the same in the three species. I anticipate that they will be found to occur in the grasshoppers and locusts generally, and perhaps even in many other insects. Behind the folds, the intestine still continues straight onward in its ecurse for about three segments. The histological character of this portion is singular, inasmuch as the epithelial cells which form its lining are of various sizes, some of them being large and others small, those of the same size forming longitudinal bands and slight folds. Next follows ~ the colon, which ascends backward in a nearly straight line. Its lining membrane is thrown up into irregular folds, and has a brownish color. There is, however, no cuticula, as in the crop. These folds probably serve mainly as a filter, and to retain the food until the digestible part is absorbed. The whole of the digestive tract between the proventaele and the rectum, that is to say, the ventricle, diverticula, intestine, and colon together, completes the process of digestion, and carries on that of absorption. In what manner this absorption is accomplished is still unknown. The rectum is nearly straight and horizontal in its course, except terminally, where it turns upward to form the dorsaily placed anus. It varies in size according to the amount of matter accumulated init. Itis especially characterized by the presence of six broad, longitudinal folds, and by the marked development of its muscular walls. In it the last traces of moisture in the digested masses are apparently absorbed, after which the ball is expelled through the vent. The rectum represents the fourth and last of the physiological divisions of the digestive tract. The composition of the walls of the intestinal canal is essentially upon EMBRYOLOGY OF THE LOCUST. 277 one plan throughout. The lining membrane is a layer of epithelial cells, which are of various forms, characteristic for each division of the canal. This layer may or may not have an interior cuticula or thin homogene- ous coat secreted by the cells. In all the front part of the canal, the cuticula is thick and resistant, and serves to form the hard ridges and spines in the esophagus, crop, and proventricle. In the stomach, the cuticula is very thin and delicate, and I think, but am not sure, that it is there pierced by numerous minute pores, through which pass fine cilia. In the diverticula, the cuticula is somewhat more developed. On the intestinal folds, it is armed with very numerous and very delicate spines. Outside of the layer of epithelial cells there comes first, at least in some parts, a very thin basement membrane, next to which follows the layer of connective tissue, and finally the muscles, which form a circular and a longitudinal coat, both of which are unequally and variously de- veloped in the different segments of the tract. The muscular and the connective layer are permeated by innumerable fine air-tubes, or trachez. The trachez themselves present the same histological peculiarities as those of other insects, and as I have described in my article on the trachee of the water-beetle (Hydrophilus) of Europe, published in the Archives de Physiologie in January, 1876. Externally there is a layer of flat epithelial cells, which secrete the spiral threads and inner chitinous coats. My observations have also extended to’other parts of the body, par- ticularly to the genital system, and I shall be able in my final report to communicate many new observations on these organs. It does not seem to me, however, desirable to enter further into details at present, as if would be difficult to give any satisfactory account without the aid of figures. I have been able to trace some of the principal stages of development of the eggs and spermatozoa, but must reserve the discus- sion of them until later. EMBRYOLOGY OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN LOCUST. It was hoped that we should be able to give quite a full summary of the principal changes in the life of the locust before leaving the egg, but it has been found impracticable to do this. We therefore present the following description of the egg, and of. the embryo just before hatching, taken, with some corrections and omissions, from Mr. Packard’s Report on the Rocky Mountain Locust. | The egg is curved, cylindrical, 0.21 inch (54 millimeters) in length, more pointed at the posterior than the anterior end. The posterior end is contracted just before the extreme tip, which is smooth, ‘the more or less regular pits in the crust which covers the chorion, or egg-shell, being here obsolete. We have been unable to discover any micropyle, or pas- sage for the spermatozoa. The posterior end points downward in the egg-mass, so that the exit of the young locust from the anterior end is 48 Report on the Rocky Mountain Locust and other Insects, &c.,, loc. cit. 278 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. thus rendered easier. The chorion is the egg-shell, and is a dense, rather thick, horny membrane. It is covered by a hard crust secreted by the Sebific gland. This crust is pitted hexagonally. The ripe embryo is pro tected within the egg by two membranes. The outer is the serous mem- brane, and is of the form of and lies next to the chorion, while the inner is the amnion, and envelops the body and each separate limb. While this membrane in most insects is structureless, we have found that in the locust it is composed of convex cells, the membrane seen in outline being rough, like the cornea of an insect’s eye. Although we have not seen the larva actually burst its way out of the egg in more than two instances, yet on the examination of between fifteen and twenty deserted egg-shells, we have, without an exception, noticed in them one, more usually two, slits extending from the head end to the middle of the egg. The egg-shell is without doubt burst open by the pufiing- out or expansion of the membrane connecting the head and protho- rax, just as the common house-fly, or flesh-fly, bursts off the end of its pupa-case by the puffing-out of the front of the head. In one case, we saw a large piece of the egg-shell (chorion) fly off from in front of the face while the face of the embryo puffed slightly out, and in another instance the whole anterior end of the shell came off. In the locust, we have observed, as will be seen farther on, that the amnion is ruptured by the forcible expansion of the membrane behind the head, the larve before walking lying on their backs or sides and forcing this membrane out- ward. This action probably begins before the shell is burst, and seems aluply sufficient to, burst the chorion and serous membrane. The outer crust deposited from the sebific gland is fragile and easily broken and peeled off by rubbing the egg between the fingers, leaving the chorion ~ beneath. The pressure thus exerted must be a lateral one, and suffi- cient to rupture the dense chorion. - On removing the living embryo from the egg-shell (Fig. 18), it is found that it lies with the legs folded on the side of the body, the fore and middle pairs folded directly across the thorax, while the hind pair are laid . along each side of theabdomen. The antenne lie on the face, each side of the clypeus and labrum, or upper lip. The eyes are dark reddish, and the head, limbs, and cross-lines on the back of the body are reddish mixed with yellow. Beneath, the body and legs are white. By putting the eggs in alcohol, the shell becomes more transparent, so Fic. 18—Embryo locust that the head, eyes, limbs, and reddish portions of neon om (After the body become visible. Length of embryo at ; time of hatching, 0.21 inch. Described from living specimens received from Mr. S. D. Payne, Kasota, Le Sueur County, Minnesota, March 1, 1877. Hither during the night of the 13th or early in the morning of the 14th of March, nearly all the larve (the eggs hav- METAMORPHOSES OF THE LOCUST. 279 ing been kept in a warm room) hatched at the same time. The egg- shell * bursts open at the head end, when the larva, soon after extricating itself from the egg, casts off a thin pellicle (the amnion, or Faltenblatt), as we have seen in the larve of the flea, currant saw-fly, and other insects. Before the skin is cast, the locust is almost motionless, and by slight move- ments of the body in about five minutes draws itself out of the amnion. The process of extrication is as follows: While the larvalies nearly motion- less it puffs out the thin, loose skin connecting the back of the head with the front edge of the prothorax. The distension of this part probably ruptures the skin, which slips over the head, the body meanwhile curving over until the skin is drawn back from the head; when the latter is thrown back, the larva withdraws its antenne and legs, and the skin is in a few seconds pushed back to near the end of the abdomen; finally, its hind tarsi are drawn out of the skin, and in a moment or two more the young locust frees itself and walks actively off, sometimes, however, with the cast skin adhering to the end of the abdomen. Before the molting of the amnion, the body and legs are soft and flabby; immediately after, the young locust walks firmly on its legs, and even hops with agility. As we have shown on p. 229, in describing the later stages of the hatching process, the amnion is not shed till the young animal reaches the surface. CHAPTER. X. METAMORPHOSES. THE SIX STAGES OF GROWTH. Wehave already seen (p. 237) that the Rocky Mountain locust requires on an average, about seven weeks, from the time of hatching, to attain full growth. Belonging to an Order in which the transformations are incomplete, the young locust differs but little in gen- eral structure from its parent. The most striking differences are the want of wings, and the less flattened, narrower prothorax, which rises from the sides more in the Fic. 19.—Rocxy Mountaw Locust.—a, shape of a roof. The abdomen is also a, newly-hatched larve; 0b, full-grown 3 larva; c, pupa. (After Riley.) more roof-shaped. The perfect winged 49 Mr. Riley is of the opinion (see his ‘‘ Locust Plague in the United States’’) that in cases where there is requisite heat to insure development, but insufticient moisture to weaken the egg-shell, the terminal spines of the hind tibiz and the tips of the mandibles may assist in rupturing the shell. To use his own words: ‘Ordinarily all these parts are sheathed in the delicate pellicle (amnion). But just in proportion as the hatching is retarded for want of moisture, after the embryon is once fully developed, in that proportion the jaws and spines harden; and it would seem that by the muscular contractions and expansions of hatching, which bring the ventral parts with great pressure against the shell, there might be slight friction of the horny points which would wear through the delicate amnion and facili- tate the rupture of the shell.” He was led to this opinion by having a number of eggs hatch where they had been kept perfectly dry for three months, and by noticing in many cases a transverse rupture at the points in contact with the horny parts mentioned. Ordinarily this action of the spines and jaws does not take place, since the spines at the hatching period are soft, and it cannot be considered as at all proved, even in the exceptional instances stated. 280 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. form is gradually assumed through a series of five molts, at the first four of which the wing-pads become more and more apparent, and at the last of which, from the pupa (Fig. 19, c) to the perfect state, the thorax be- comes flattened, full wings are acquired, and the insect ceases to grow, except as the female abdomen becomes gravid and heavy with eggs. Yet with each molt, aside from the colorational changes, certain minute and less striking structural changes invariably take place, by observing which we may always know the comparative age and the particular stage of growth of any individual. These stages are well illustrated in Plate I, and we will briefly indicate the more minute structural differ- ences in each: | First stage (Pl. I, Fig. 1).—This, which may be called the first larval stage, is charac- terized by the speckled gray coloring, the proportionally large head, and by the anten- ne, which are short and thick, having from 12 to 13 joints, never more; the last number the most frequent, and joints 4, 5, 6, and last shorter than the others. The meso- and ‘ metanotum are subequal ia length and together nearly as long as the pronotum. Aver- age length 4.3m™™, Second stage (Pl. I, Fig. 2).—With the first molt, the general color darkens; the black marks intensify and the face becomes pitchy-black. There is often a conspicuous pale stripe along the middle of the ridged back. The antenne are 16-jointed, the 6th, 7th, 8th, and 9th joints of the preceding stage dividing toward base. ‘The pronotum ex- © tends more or less over the mesonotum, so as to be longer than this last and the. metanotum together, and the lower edges of these two are full and rounded, giving the first indication of wing-pads. This may be called the second larval stage. Average length 6.8™™, Third stage (Pl. I, Fig. 3).—With the second molt we get the third larval stage, in which the pale and dark colors still more strongly contrast and the face becomes still more pitchy. The pronotum entirely covers the mesonotum and not unfrequently a part of the metanotum ; while the lower edges of these are subacutely produced into. true wing-pads, the front one but slightly narrower than the hind one. The antennz are still 16-jointed but with the joints more equal in length. This may be termed the third larval stage. Average length 9™™, Fourth stage (Pl. I, Fig. 4).—With the third molt the pronotum, instead of having a straight transverse border, is much produced behind and now entirely covers and hides the other notal joints. The wing-pads, instead of extending downward, are turned up, ~ so that their upper ends meet on the narrow back ; the hind pair triangular, with a pale disc, and partly overlapping the front pair, which are narrower and longer but do not extend so far; the bases of both being hidden by the pronzotum., Antenne with 19 or 20 subequal joints. Average length 14™™, This may be known as the first pupal stage. Fifth stage (Pl. I, Fig. 5).—With the fourth molt the pronotum is stil! more produced behind, and the wing-pads, though retaining the same positions, are as long as the pronotum, the front pair more hidden by the hind pair but extending nearly as far. The antennez have 22 joints. Average length 17™™, This is the true or second pupal stage. y Sixth stage (Pl. I, Fig. 6).—The perfect winged insect, defined in Chapter I. The an- tenn have from 23 to 26 joints, those of the 9 generally one more than those of the g. European authors differ as to whether there are three, four, or five moits in the European migratory species; but we have watched spre- tus from the egg to the imago, and thousands of mounted and alcoholic specimens of all ages show the stages enumerated. The transition from the second to the third, however, is sometimes not very marked, and it is not improbable that, as is the case with many other insects, the num- ber of molts may vary according to the amount of nutrition and rapidity of development. ! | The sexual characters are not well marked, and the sexes are conse- quently with difficulty distinguished, in the first three stages. In the 25 SE 59 See Koppen, ‘‘ Ueber die Heuschrecken in Sudrussland,” 1862, pp. 22, 23. THE PROCESS OF MOLTING DESCRIBED. 281 first pupal stage the differences become apparent, and in the true pupa the parts are sufficiently well formed to permit coition, which, as we have had evidence, exceptionally takes place thus prematurely. In giving measurements of the different stages we have taken as hear as possible the period of growth between each stage. The depth of coloring varies greatly in the immature stages, and the pale medio- dorsal line, so conspicuous on some of the larve, is entirely wanting in others. The ground-color after the first stage varies from pale-yellowish- gray, the common and typical color, to orange-brown, and even black, and from pale yellow to pure green. A marked green variety (var. virt- dis Riley) occurs, in which the normal pale yellowish-gray parts are bright green, the green being first distinctly noticeable in the third lar- val stage and enduring to maturity. We have never seen this green variety among the fresh arrivals from the mountain regions, but it is conspicuous among its brown companions when hatching in the Tempo- rary region, and constitutes ordinarily about one in a thousand, though sometimes a much larger proportion, of the progeny of invading swarms. THE PROCESS OF MOLTING. Like all creatures which suffer exuviation or the shedding of skin, our locust quits feeding for a while and remains quiet during the pro- cess. The first three or larval skins are almost invariably shed on or near the ground, the young insects congregating under grass in little hollows or depressions, or under any shelter that offers for the purpose. The cast-off exuviz are often very abundant in such sheltered places, and are not infrequently mistaken for dead locusts. The last two or pupal molts, on the contrary, more often take place above ground, the insects at these stages of growth preferring to fasten to some elevated object. Immediately after each molt the whole body is soft and color- less, as it was immediately after hatching. In order to illustrate the interesting process of molting, we will trace an individual through the last molt—from the pupa to the winged in- sect—as it is the most difficult and, on account of the larger size of the animal, most easily watched. The other molts are very similar in mode of execution. — ‘¢ When about to acquire wings the pupa crawls up some post, weed, grass-Stalk, or other object, and clutches such object securely with the hind feet, which are drawn up under the body. Indoing so the favorite position is with the head downward, though this is by no means essen- tial. Remaining motionless in this position for several hours, with antenne drawn down over the face, and the whole aspect betokening helplessness, the thorax, especially between the wing-pads, is noticed to swell. Presently the skin along this swollen portion splits right along the middle of the head and thorax, starting by a transverse, curved suture between the eyes, and ending at the base of the abdomen. 282 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. ‘‘Let us now imagine that we are watching one from the momentof this splitting, and when it presents the appearance of Fig. 20, a. As soon as the skin is split, the soft and white fore body and head swell and gradually extrude more and more by a series of muscular contortions; the new head slowly emerges from the old skin, which, with its empty eyes, is worked back beneath, and the new feelers and legs are being drawn from their casings and the future wings from their sheaths. At the end of six or seven minutes our locast—no longer pupa and not yet N ig YZ \ Me s a} < (3¢ = S 2 ==, S) SS X a~ <= XN Z ‘ ; f ~~ 4 Psi, Wa ARES 3 CS Ais h oa. >) f: Wet (3 Hye ARS i) ‘ a h =i i ak i g' /* Sa) Pit iz, BWP etl 1 i hae | ‘ \ q i i i t - 0 RY NS Fic. 20.—Rocky MountTAIN Locust.—Process of acquiring wings; a, pupa with skin just split on the back; b, the imago extruding; ¢, the imago nearly out; d, the imago with wings expanded; e, the imago with all parts perfect. (After Riley.) imago—looks as in Fig. 20, b, the four front pupa-legs being generally detached and the insect hanging by the hooks of the hind feet, which were anchored while yet it had that command over them which it has now lost. The receding skin is transparent and loosened, especially from the extremities. In six or seven minutes more of arduous labor—of | swelling and contracting—with an occasional brief respite, the antennz and the four front legs are freed, and the fulled and crimped wings extricated. The soft front legs rapidly stiffen, and, holding to its sup- port as well as may be with these, the nascent locust employs whatever muscular force it is capable of to draw out the end of the abdomen and its long hind legs (Fig. 20, ¢). This in afew more minutes it finally does and with gait as unsteady as that of a new-dropped colt, it turns round and clambers up the side of the shrunken, cast-off skin, and there rests while the wings expand and every part of the body hardens and gains strength—the crooked limbs straightening and the wings unfolding and expanding like the petals of some pale flower. The front wings are at first rolled longitudinally to a point, and as they expand and unroll, the hind wings, which are tucked and gathered along the veins, at first curl over them. In ten or fifteen minutes from the time of extrication these wings are fully expanded and hang down like dampened rags (Fig. 20, d). From this point on the broad hind wings begin to fold up like fans beneath the narrower front ones, and in another ten minutes they have assumed the normal attitude of rest. Meanwhile the pale colors which always belong to the insect while molting have been gradually giving way to the natural tints, and at this stage our new- fledged locust presents DIFFERENCES IN EARLY STAGES OF ALLIED LOCUSTS. 283 an aspect fresh and bright (Fig. 20, e). If now we examine the cast-off ’ skin, we shall find every part entire with the exception of the rupture which originally took place op the back; and it would puzzle one who had not witnessed the operation to divine how the now stiff hind shanks of the mature inseet had been extricated from the bent skeleton left behind. They were in fact drawn over the bent knee-joint, so that during the process they were doubled throughout their length. They were as supple at the time as an oil-soaked string, and for some time after extrication tuey show the effects of this severe bending by their curved appearance. “The molting, from the bursting of the pupa-skin to the full adjust- ment of the wings and straightening of the legs of the perfect insect, occupies less than three-quarters of an hour, and sometimes but half an hour. It takes place most frequently during the warmer part of the morning, and within an hour after the wings are once in position the parts have become sufficiently. dry and stiffened to enable the insect to move about with ease; and in another hour, with appetite sharpened by long fast, it joins its voracious comrades and tries its new jaws. The molting period, especially the last, is a very critical one, and during the helplessness that belongs to it the unfortunate locust falls a prey to many enemies which otherwise would not molest it, and not infrequently to the voracity of the more active individuals of its own species.” DIFFERENCES IN THE IMMATURE STAGES BETWEEN THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN, THE LESSER, AND THE RED-LEGGED LOCUSTS. The imaginal differences which characterize these three common and allied species, so often confounded with each other, have been given in Chapter I. In this connection, we will indicate those differences which will permit the separation of the three species in the earlier or immature stages. Spretus, though palest when mature, has the most black in the immature stages, and its black face is quite characteristic. One who has great familiarity with these three species in life can distinguish them at any stage (they all three go through the same number of molts), and can even distinguish between the exuviz, those of spretus being darkest, those of atlanis most gray and uniformily speckled, and those of femur- rubrum palest, with the black streaks more strongly contrasting. Spretus.—In the first stage, spretus has a decidedly ferocious look, the head being pro- portionally larger than in the other species. The colors are brown, gray, and dull white, the general tint being light gray, and the insect presenting a mottled and speckled appearance. Of the dark dots and marks, the most conspicuous and presistent ‘(for some specimens are much darker than others) are, one behind the eyes, a subquadrate one on the side of the metathorax, a crescent streak on the sides of the swollen end of the hind femora, and two spots on the bulbous base of the hind tibiz. In the second stage the face, with very rare exceptiors, is pitchy black, the top of the head showing the three characteristic rows of transverse black marks on a rust- brown ground, the outer rows curving around the eyes, and the middle one broadest, and divided by a narrow medial pale line; the rust-brown color continues, with more irregular black marks, on the prothorax, narrowing toward its middle; on each side of it the anterior part of the prothorax is black, relieved below by a conspicuous, arched pale line, and this again with a more or less distinct dark lateral mark beneath. The 284 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. cheeks are mottled with rust-brown and edged behind with yellow; the head beneath and palpi, except a black rim around tips, are pale yellowish. The other colors are - much asin the matureinsects. With each succeeding stage the broad and pale streaks of prothorax intensify, and as soon as the hind wing-pads are turned up over the front pair, viz, in the fourth stage, the pale spot at thé base, which becomes so conspicuous in the pupa, is visible. The black face after the first molt is quite characteristic, and often endures to the pupa state. (See Pl. I.) Atlanis.—Aside from its smaller size, throughout its growth, this species may be dis- tinguished as follows: Jn the first stage it is more uniformly and distinctly dotted with black, the legs being strongly dotted and banded, and the hind thighs being darker and showing much more distinctly the pale transverse streaks. In the second stage, the color is more livid or rosy, with a more strongly contrasting yellow venter. In the subsequent stages, these colorational differences still prevail, and the face is not black as in spretus; the pale spot on the hind wing-pads is less conspicuous in the fourth stage, and the pupa is distinguished not only by its smaller size and different color, but by the narrower, more obsolete black marks of the prothorax and by the wing-pads being considerably shorter and smaller, the hind pair livid, with only rarely a touch of black at base, and with the pale spot subobsolete. The pale streaks on the outside of the hind thighs are always conspicuous. It presents, in fact, a marked con- trast to the pupa of spretus. Atlanis invariably has a pale face—yellow or greenish, speckled with gray-brown; and, just as invariably, the outside of the hind thighs more mottled with pale oblique streaks through the black. (See Pl. III.) Femur-rubrum.—In size, intermediate between the other two, this species is never- theless easily distinguished from either. In the first stage, the spots of body and bands of legs are subobsolete, and the hind thighs have no transverse streaks. In the subsequent stages, it is distinguished by the generally paler and greener hue; by the black being more solid and intense and contrasting more with the pale colors; by the wing-pads having no pale spot (or very rarely a faint indication of it), and by the outer black mark on hind thighs showing no pale streaks. The face is pale through- out and less speckled than in ailanis, and the upper white mark running from the side of the prothorax is more conspicuous on the head behind the eyes than in the other species. (See Pl. II.) : CHA? TER ia - IN VERTEBRATE ENEMIES. THEIR VALUE. The good offices of the larger vertebrate animals, in assisting man to overcome the devastations of the Rocky Mountain locust, will be set forth in the succeeding chapter. Under the present head we shall con- fine our attention to those smaller animals, belonging principally to its own Class, which, though often invisible or scarcely perceptible, yet carry on their good work most effectually. It is a law in nature that every animal necessarily meets with checks of one kind or another to its undue ~ multiplication. Even the slowest-breeding species would soon overrun all habitable parts of the globe to the exclusion of others, were the coun- teracting influences—the struggle between species for supremacy—that keep it within bounds, by any possible means removed ; while the more prolific species would do so in an almost incredibly short space of time. Most plant-feeding insects are so prolific that, unchecked, they would very soon annihilate the particular plants upon which they feed, and we find them beset with many checks, not the least important of which are their insect parasites and devourers. Let the plant-feeder once become unduly multiplied, and these, its natural enemies, invariably multiply in increasing proportion, until, in their turn, they get the upper hand, and INSECT ENEMIES OF THE ‘LOCUST. 285 bring about a natural balance. It is because of the great fecundity of insects, whether phytophagous or carnivorous, that there often occur such comparatively sudden changes from excess to scarcity. A particu- lar plant-feeder will swarm to an alarming and injurious extent one year, and be scarcely heard of the next. The locust shares with other species in this particular. A period of excess is sure to be followed by a period of scarcity, due largely to the increase of its natural enemies. This was very fully illustrated last year; for on all sides the abundance of these natural enemies was observed. Not to speak now of birds and other larger enemies, it was matter of common remark in Minnesota that in many localities where the locust eggs were laid in unusually great num- bers, the hatching the following spring was nothing like so extensive as was anticipated, on account of the destruction occasioned by grubs, mites, &c. From every State and Territory where eggs were thickly deposited, similar experience has been obtained. The locusts, after hatching, were attacked to an unusual extent by the various enemies to be presently enumerated, while careful observers in British America had already noticed, in 1876, that the locusts which occurred there were so loaded with parasites that they died without laying eggs; and the immunity from locust injury enjoyed there in 1877 is attributed largely to this cause. It has been our privilege to watch quite closely the working of these more minute locust enemies during the past few years, and their useful- ness is altogether underrated, for the simple reason that their work too often goes on hidden and unobserved. Considering the great abundance in which they sometimes occur, and their great assistance in keeping our Rocky Mountain locust in check, it is surprising how little is said of or attributed to insect enemies of the European migratory locusts by European writers. Gerstacker, speaking of migratoria, says that it has no insect enemy worthy of mention, and cites only field crickets, a large locust (Locusta viridissima, L.), a Mantis, and the hair-worms. Képpen adds ants and a ground-beetle (Calosoma); but it is plain that neither . of these late writers have had much personal experience in the matter. The invertebrate enemies of our locust may, to facilitate reference, be divided into, 1st, those which affect the eggs; 2d, those which affect the active locust. ANIMALS THAT DESTROY THE EGGS. The Anthomyia Egg-parasite (Anthomyia angustifrons, Meigen, Fig. 21).—This is, perhaps, the most common and wide-spreail of all the different egg-enemies, and in the fall of 1876 it destroyed on an average about ten per cent. of the eggs in Missouri, Kansas, and Nebraska, and in some localities a much larger percentage. It was clso quite common in Iowa and Minnesota, and, as we learned during the past year, occurs in Colorado and Texas. It is doubtless this species which our corre- spondents in many cases refer to by the general term of “grubs,” *“‘white 286 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. worms,” &c., as the cause of the non-hatching of eggs (App. 18), and the following extracts have reference to the work of the same: Recently a white worm or maggot has been discovered in the locust eggs laid in this vicinity, and so general are the grubs that we really look for a great diminution in next year’s locust crop. About the time the ’hoppers began laying eggs we had a hard, soaking rain, and since then we have had several more— the last this morning. By this time the ground is well soaked with water and the eggs were and are laid in earth that is quite moist. It is about two weeks since the "hoppers first reached Man- _ kato; they have laid many eggs, and already this worm or maggot has developed and seems to be on the increase, being found in the egg cells, where it sucks or destroys the egy. Some cells that I have opened have had two and three worms in them.—[J. C. Wise, Mankato, Minn., August 20, 1876. On the 9th I sent you a box of locust-egg parasites, and to-day I will send you some more of different sorts or different stages of development, or both. I find them more plentiful to-day than before. The ground seems to be full of them, from five to twenty of the small white worms in a single cell, one generally, though sometimes two, of the large white ones inacell.- The reddish-colored ones, I suppose, are in a different stage of development, though the same parasite. In every cell in which I have found any of those sent you, the eggs were nearly or quite destroyed. But there is another and a far more destructive enemy, viz, the hot sun, which is hatching them out by the million, though the parasites may continue their work after it ceases to operate. I shall be happy to do all I can to aid you in your investigations.—[C. E. Treadwell, Rockport, Atchison County, October 16, 1876. Yesterday we discovered on a warm southern exposure that our locust eggs were hatching out maggots. We break open the cocoons, and the eggs on exposure to the sun for afew moments crawl away a worm. In warm places along the hedges the earth is alive with them. Is this a new development of the locust question? It would seem to be a confirmation of the theory you promulgated, as I understood it at the time. I secured a few of the perfect cocoons, which I inclose for your examina- tion. We suppose these will do as the others do upon exposure to the sun. The people here are quite excited over the matter, hoping it may be a solution of the problem for next year, at least, and have deputed me to lay the matter before you. Any information you can give us in regard to this, our latest, development will be thankfully received and acknowledged.—[S. M. Pratt, M. D., Hiawatha, Brown County, Kansas, October 30, 1876. Various reports have been circulated in regard to the destruction of the eggs of the Rocky Mountain locust (Caloptenus spretus) by a worm. I am happy to state that these reports were substantiated yesterday by Mr. McLockhead, of Deer Creek, Kana- waka, twelve miles west of this city, who brought me a box of earth in which the eggs of the “hopper” had been abundantly deposited. To-day a similar box was secured from W. B. Barnett, esy., of Hiawatha, Brown County. In both of these in- stances a large proportion of the eggs have been destroyed by a small, white larva. Many of the egg-cases, which ordinarily each contain from twenty to thirty eggs, had —————— a ee CU a at ee) eee Fr - * THE ANTHOMYIA EGG-PARASITE. 287 no eggs in them, but were full of these worms or larvz, each one of which took the place of an egg which it had destroyed. Some of the egg-cases contained only two or three larve with more than twenty sound eggs.—[Prof. F. H. Snow, in Lawrence (Kansas) Journal, November 1, 1876. I have just returned from quite an extensive trip to the Upper Minnesota. I send by mail a few larve and pup2, in two little paste-board boxes, of Anthomyia, I pre- sume. I found them thick in a strip of rich, black soil, where the hatching was sud- denly arrested by a heavy rain on the 20th; and as the ground was low, the water stood there for several hours. On digging, I found plenty of cases where the ’hoppers had emerged from the shell (but not from the skin), and had stopped there, apparently, without strength to go any farther; but on digging them up and letting them stand in the sun for a few minutes, they came out all right. The larve that I send were very thick in these nests, sometimes half a dozen in one nest, and had eaten many of them out clean.—[ Allen Whitman, Saint Paul, Minnesota, May 30, 1877. Large numbers of the flies and of the worms were reported in differ- ent parts of Kansas last spring by our special assistants, and we never dug for five minutes among the locust eggs, anywhere in our travels during the month of May, without finding this parasite in various stages of development: Yet previous to 1876 no such enemy of these eggs had ever been recorded. : ‘This good little friend, which simultaneously prevailed over so large an extent of country, is a small white maggot (Fig. 21, c) of the same general form of the common meat maggots or ‘ gentles,’ but measuring, when full grown and extended, not quite one-fourth of an inch in length. | The head, with some of the anterior joints of the body, tapers and is retractile, and the jaws consist of two small hooks joined to a V-shaped, black, horny piece, which, as it is retracted or extended, plays beneath the transparent skin. The hind or tail-end is squarely docked off, and contains two smal! yellowish-brown, eye-like spots, which are the prin- cipal spiracles or breathing pores. | ‘¢ These small maggots are found in the locust-egg-pods, either singly or in varying numbers, there sometimes being a dozen packed together in the same pod. They exhaust the juices of the eggs, and leave noth- _ ing but the dry and discolored shells; and where they are not numer- ous enough to destroy all the eggs in the pod, their work, in breaking open a few, often causes all the others to rot.” When full grown, this maggot contracts into a stiff, cylindrical puparium, rounded at both ends, and of various shades of brown in color (Hig. 21, b). Within this hardened case the true pupa is formed, and ‘‘in the course of a week in warm weather, and longer as the weather is colder, there issues a small, grayish, two-winged fly (Fig. 21, a), about one-fourth of an inch long, the wings expanding about one-half of an inch, and in general appearance resembling a diminutive house-fly, ex- cept that the body is more slender and more tapering behind, and the wings relatively more ample. More carefully examined, the body is seen to be of an ash-gray color, tinged with rust-yellow, and beset with stiff, bristle-like hairs, those on the thorax stoutest, and those on the abdomen smaller but more uniformly distributed. The wings are faintly : 288 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. . smoky and iridescent. There are three dusky longitudinal stripes on. the thorax, most distinct anteriorly, and another along the middle of the abdomen, most distinct in the male, which also differs from the female in the larger eyes, which meet much more closely on the top of the head than in the female, and in the face being whiter.” , The species passes the winter mostly in the pupa state, though doubtless also to some extent in the per- fect state. It may be found in all stages of growth during the autumn montbs until just before winter sets in, and again during the spring months. “The flies of this genus are character- ized by the shortness of the antenne, and by the attenuated abdomen. The charac- . ters given to it are, however, by no means larva, by pupa, de te righ (Atta uniform, and as the species generally bear Curtis.) a very close resemblance to.each other, and there have been a large number described in Europe (many of them very imperfectly), it becomes almost an impossibility to properly determine them. As the sexes often differ materially, it is also, except where they are reared from the larva, difficult to connect them; and as the colors often become sordid and dull in the cabinet, many of the described species have no real existence.” The flies frequent flowers, and often congregate aa play in swarms in the air. Their eggs are white, smooth, oval, about 0.04 inch long, and are dropped near the food of the larva. In ine larva state, these insects mostly feed on leguminous plants, and the carnivorous habit is excep- tional. The species affecting the Cabbage, the Onion, the Radish, &c., have received different names, as brassicce, ceparum, raphani, &c., but it is doubtful whether they are all good species. The egg-feeding species under consideration was originally described by Mr. Riley as a variety (calopteni) of A. radicum, L.; but through the kindness of Mr. R. H. Meade, of Bradford, England, who has paid especial attention to the genus, and who has examined specimens we sent him, we learn that if is the A. angustifrons of Meigen.*! Compared with A. radicum (Fig. 22) | the epistoma is less prominent, the abdomen narrower and not so dis- tinctly marked with black along the middle and, transversely, at the sutures; while the male has, along the whole length of the inner or anterior sides of the hind tibiz, a characteristic row of fine, rigid hairs, of even length, like a fine comb. - ANTHOMYIA ANGUSTIFRONS, Meigen.—£gg.—Oval, smooth, white, 0.04 inch long. Larva.—Skin unarmed, 0.24 inch long when extended, of the normal form, the man- ‘dibular hooks black, quite conspicuous, and diverging at base. Prothoracic spiracles elongate. Anal spiracles minute, yellowish- -brown, “with the 8 fleshy surrounding tubercles, small. 51It is the Aricia fuscipes, Zett., and belongs to the subgenus Chortophila, Macquart. GROUND-BEETLES THAT ATTACK LOCUST-EGGS. 289 Pupa.—Pale-brown, rounded at.each end, with the prothoracic spiracles and lips ante- riorly, and the anal spiracles and lower tubercles posteriorly, showing as minute points. Imago, 2.—Average expanse 0.48 inch. General color ash-gray with a ferruginous hue, especially above, and a more or less intense metallic reflection. Face with white reflections below; eyes smooth. brown, encircled by the ground color, and this behind and on forehead bordered by a brown line; 2 similar lines at back of head from upper corners of eyes and approaching to neck; forehead dusky-brown, becoming bright yellowish-red toward base of antennze, and the brown forking at right angles around occiput. Trophi and autennz black, the style simple and somewhat longer than the whole antennsz. Thorax with three dusky longitudinal lines, obsolete behind; legs black, with cinereous hue beneath; wings faintly smoky, with brown-black veins, the discal cross-vein straight and transverse, the outer one bent and more oblique ;. balancers crumpled, yellowish. Abdomen with faint dusky medio-dorsal spots, broad: at base, tapering and obsolescing toward end of each joint. In the g, aside from the larger eyes, stronger bristles, and narrower, less tapering abdomen with its additional joint—all characteristic of the sex—the face is whiter, and the medio-dorsal dark mark of abdomen continuous, and the hind tibize are armed on the inner side with a pectinate series of fine hairs. Described from 25 specimens of both sexes, reared from locust-egg-feeding larve. The Common Flesh-fly (Sarcophaga carnaria, L.).—The red-tailed. variety (sarracenic) of this ubiquitous insect, described and figured further on as preying on the locust, also attacksits eggs. Itis a larger maggot than the preceding, and contracts to a darker. pupa, which is not similarly rounded at each ené, but has the hind end truncate, and the front end tapering. It sucks the eggs, as does the Anthomyia larva, but the parent fly is probably attracted principally to those which are addled or injured, as the pods in which we have found it have very generally been in a fluid state of decay. Ground-beetles and their larve.—That many ground-beetles (Cara- bide) feed upon the eggs as well as upon the locusts there can be no doubt whatever, though few instances have been observed. One species, however, the Agonoderes dorsalis,” Lec. (Fig. 23), has been observed to settle in swarms in fields containing locust-eggs, and to busy itself devour- ing them. The following letter from Mr. W. Robertson, of Claytonville, Kans., under date of April 28, 1877, refers to this little beetle, which will be easily recognized from the figure, the colors being yellowish-brown and black: On Sunday afternoon, April 15, the air was laden with those beetles; they came with a warm northwest wind, and I observed that they disappeared under the surface as. soon as they fell. S joing ae ee na tie A few days afterward I went into a field that was plowed last fall for wheat, and abandoned because of the immense number of eggs it contained. I scratched a handful of earth to search for eggs, and found more than a dozen of these little beetles. I examined this field very closely, but found no beetles where I found no eggs. I also examined other fields and found the same result. I went to that same field again to-day, and found only very few eggs, and those few broken and half consumed. I could scarcely find a whole cocoon; the beetles are only where the eggs are, and in walking over the ground you rarely see one. HARPALUS (?) LARVA.—While few of the perfect ground-beetles have been observed preying on locust-eggs, two larve were quite commonly 52Supposed to be the Carabus comma of Fabr. 19 G 290 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. found at oe work in 1876. One of these (Fig. 24, a) is evidently the larva of some species of Harpalus, and proba- bly of H. herbivagus Say, which is quite common in the locust regions. It was described in 1876.% It is an active creature, with powerful head and jaws, which, together with the prothorax, are light brown, the rest of the body being pale, and gradually tapering to the end, which is furnished with a stout anal proleg and two 4-jointed annendages. We have failed in our efforts to rear this larva to the perfect state, and can 4 give but a more detailed description of it for the scientific reader. Color, yellowish - white; prothorax and head highly polished yellowisa - brown; the jaws darker. Head broad, depressed, and rugose in - Tedd — eens Q Are ae eee front; jaws broad, robust, dark, and with but on Locust Eces.—a, larva from above; », One Strong middle tooth; antennz 5-jointed, head, from beneath; ¢,leg—enlarged. (After joints 4 and 5 scarcely equaling 3 in length; max- Riley.) ille elongate, subcylindrical, with a 4-jointed outer and a 2-jointed inner palpus; mentum elongate, its base s»ldered with the lower head; labrum also elongate and with 2-jointed palpi; all trophi armed with stiff hair. Prothoracic joint swollen, wider than head, twice as long as succeeding joint, horny, avd with a darker anterior border, limited by a transverse stria posteriorly, . and marked with fine longitudinal striz. Legs, except coxe, dark brown and thickly beset with short, spinous “pristles of the same color. Abdoinen tapering to end, with no horny plates, but each joint with two transverse rows of stiff yellowish hairs, the posterior rows strongest. Stigmata lateral, pale, the first pair on an anterior mesothoracie fold. Anal ‘proleg stout, the cerci 4-jointed (join:s 3 and 4 small and imperfectly separsted) and reaching’ but little beyond it; eyes small, dark, and just behind base of antenne. Length of largest specimens 0.58 inch. Many specimens feeding on eggs of Caloptenus spretus. THE Eae-FEEDING AMARA (Amara obesa Say *).—Another larva of about the same size, and belonging to the same family as the preceding, was also found, in 1876, prey- ing on the Genter eggs. It may easily be distinguished from the other by a series of broad, smoky or dark brown, - horny plates along the back, and by somewhat paler horny pieces along the sides and be- neath (Fig. 25,a). The pro- thorax is narrower, and the body bulges at the middle; the legs are pale, and the anal cerci are quite short. Fic. 25.—AMARA OBESA.—a, larva; d, under side of one a This plated larva was again its middle joints; e, its head ‘peneath; f, its leg; g, ifs anal cerci and proleg trom side; b, pupa; ¢, beetle. (After Riley.) found in large numbers, in — "63 9th Mo. Ent. Rep., p. 97, 1876. See, also, Packard’s Rep. to Dr. Hayden, 1877, p. 662. 54 Belongs to Zimmermann’s subgenus Celia. He considers it the same as the European patricia Dej., but Chaudoir insists taht it is different. GROUND-BEETLES THAT ATTACK LOCUST-EGGS. 291 1877, preying on the locust eggs, especially in Minnesota; and the fol- lowing letters from Mr. Seth H. Kenney, of Morriston, Rice County, Minnesota, through whose kindness we have been able to study all its transformations, have reference to it: I herewith send you some grubs, such as have eaten large quantities of grasshopper eggs, and have extended all over our farms in this vicinity. Ihave found them eating the eggs, and where the eggs were laid most plentifully there the grubs are the thick- est. I send you by mail two boxes, one full of soil, and quite a quantity of eggs and live grubs of all sizes, and some that have evidently begun to change into the beetle. The ground is dug and thrown to the surface by these grubs; and I send some of the soil as they throw it up, because it is singular. How they could become so plentiful, unless the eggs that make them are laid with the locust eggs, it is difficult to conceive. —[ May 12, 1877. The ground where these beetles occur is full of holes, from 4 to 6 inches deep, and just large enough to admit them. Now, I find no pellets near these holes, and I there- fore conclude that the beetles do not make the pellets, but that the grubs do. I kept some beetles in a glass vessel with some grass over Sabbath, and when I examined them they had fought and devoured each other, until only one and the fragments of three were left.—[ June 11, 1877. The eggs must be laid during the summer months, and the lJarve which we have found of various sizes, but principally full grown, as late as November, must often hibernate and feed for awhile again in spring. In this, however, there will be found no regularity, and some of the more advanced larve doubtless produce beetles in the autumn, as the beetles of the genus are often found hibernating. The pupa (Fig. 25, b) is formed in a simple cavity in the ground, and lasts in midsummer from two to three weeks before changing to the beetle. Authors differ as to the food-habits of the beetles of this genus, some believing these are phytophagous, others that they are carnivorous. The facts here recorded leave no doubt as to the carnivorous propensities of the species in question, and they are in accordance with the general habits of the family. It by no means follows, however, that the beetles may not at the same time be plant-feeders also, for we have good author- ity that a species (Zabrus gibbus, Fabr.), belonging to an allied genus, is at times quite injurious to wheat, while Mr. Zimmermann,” in a valuable memoir on the genus, shows that they feed upon the pith and stems of graminee and on succulent roots as well as on soft insects. Indeed, the two habits are much more often combined than entomologists generally admit. - The beetles of the genus generally hide during the day under stones, clods, grass, &c. The habit of the larve, noticed by Mr. Kenney, of throwing up little pellets of earth, is quite curious, and we can only ac- count for it by the soil being unusually wet and adhering to different parts of the body, from which, in being detached, it gets rolled by the jaws into the pellets mentioned, which are irregular in shape and aver- age about 1.5™™” in diameter. AMARA OBESA.—Larva.—Color dull whitish; heaviest and widest about the middle of the body, tapering rather suddenly from joint 10; head, and prothorax above, gam- & Rey. Ent. de Silbermann, II, p. 189. 292 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. boge-yellow. Joints 2-12 each with a dorsal transverse corneous plate of a somewkat deeper brownish-yellow ; a medial impressed line on all the joints, and two distinct impressions each side of ‘it on all the plates; a lateral substigmatal series-of ovoid tubercular plates, and 7 ventral ones, on each abdominal joint, arranged as in Fig. 25, d, varying in size so aseither to be well separated or contiguous, those on joints 11 and. 12 coalescing. Head flattened, depressed ; mandibles moderately stout, with a small middle tooth; antennez not reaching beyond mandibles, 4-jointed, the 3d bent inward, the 4th outward ; maxilla with 2d joint slightly shorter than the basal, with tapering 4 jointed outer and 2-jointed inner palpi; mentum short; labium faintly bilobed, ‘the terminal joint black; the palpi 2-jointed, the terminal joint small and bent inward ; inside of 2d maxillary joint and tip of labium armed with setz. Prothoracic joint : rounded, faintly striate at front and hind borders ; legs pale, with an X-shaped black mark at outside of cox, which are stout ; trochanter very short from above; tarsus distinctly 2-clawed, and nearly as long as tibia ; ; stigmata pale, lateral, the first pair on a fold on the front "edge of the mesothorax ; anal proleg horizontal, rather obliquely truncate beneath, not much longer than joint 12, the cerci not reaching beyond it, and faintly triarticulate, with the tip black. Average length, 14™™, Pupa.—Unarmed, long, with the tips of tarsi broadly and distinctly bifid. Described from many locust-egg-feeding specimens. Other Carabid larve no doubt prey upon these eggs, since we have Fic. 26.—HARpPALUS? LARVA.—B, under side of head ; h, i, j, under side of different joints of body. (After Riley.) discovered two species, distinct from either of the above, feeding on the eggs of other ne Si locusts. We introduce the figure of alarger Grounp-nerrLe.—a,anterior tarsus a ; 4 and notched tibia; b, beetle. (After Species (Fig. 26), and its probable parent, the Riley.) Pennsylvania Ground-beetle (Harpalus pennsylvanicus De Geer, Vig. 27). Blister-beetle larvee —Of all the different insects that feed on the eggs of our locust, these, though not the most common or effective in checking locust increase, are nevertheless the most interesting; first, because of the singular changes which they go through; secondly, because their larval habits remained so long unknown, notwithstanding the frequency with which the beetles themselves recur in great numbers on different plants. The habit of feeding on locust eggs in the larva state, though suspected by Mr. Riley in 1876, was‘first demonstrated by lim in 1877. These blister-beetles are all elongate in form, and possess _ the property, in common with the Spanish-fly of the shops, of drawing blisters on the human flesh. Many of the species show great partiality to the Potato, and were for a long time considered the most formidable enemies of this esculent. The Striped blister-beetle (Fig. 30; Pl. IV, Fig. 10) is familiar to most farmers, in the more Southern States especially, and swarms at times on potato and tomato vines. The Ash-gray blister- beetle (Fig. 31, a) ranges farther north, and attacks (besides the Potato) the Honey-locust, various kinds of beans, lucerne, apple-trees, beets, &c. The Margined blister-beetle (Pl. IV, Fig. 11), aside from attacking potato and tomato vines, is often injurious to the egg plant, the Ken- tucky coffee-tree (Gymnocladus canadensis), spinach, and other ‘garden LARVAL HABITS OF BLISTER-BEETLES. 293 plants. The Black blister-beetle (Hpicauta pennsylvanica De Geer) is another common species, occurring late in the summer and in autumn on various wild plants, as Solidago, Lupatorium, &e. All these beetles lay eggs in the ground in the vicinity of locust-eggs, and their young, at first slender, with long legs, and active, eat into the locust-egg mass (Pl. IV, Fig. 1, 2). Here they remain until they have devoured all or nearly all the locust-eggs, having changed, meanwhile, into clumsy, short-legged grubs (PI. IV, Fig. 5). Now forsaking the remnants of the egg-mass, the grub penetrates the earth near by and changes to the coarctate larva (PI. LV, Fig. 8), then to the pupa (PI. LV, Tig. 9), and finally to the perfect beetle. In a paper published last November in the Transactions of the Acad- emy of Science of Saint Louis (vol. ili, pp. 544-565), Mr. Riley gave an extended account of the transformations and habits of some of these blis- ter-beetles, together with the natural history of certain other genera in the same family, in order to show, by way of comparison, the differences in habit that are coupled with similarity of development. Though written more particularly for the entomologist, we shall reproduce the larger part of the paper as appropriate in this connection, adding a few facts, in brackets, ascertained since its publication; and omitting the detailed descriptions, which the scientific reader will find in the original paper. In addition to the species mentioned in this paper we have, since its publication, found the triungulin of the Black Blister-beetle (Epicauta pennsylvanica) in the egg-mass of spretus, and have received, in the cara- bidoid stage, the larva of some other species from Mr. S. H. Scudder, taken ten years ago at Sudbury, Vt, in the egg-clusters of another locust (Chloéaltis conspersa, Harr.), a species which oviposits in dead wood that is rather soft, and sufficiently moist, drilling therein a cylindrical hole for the purpose, packing the eggs in the sawdust resulting, and cap- ping the mass with a “black glutinous secretion, excessively hard, smooth, and shiny.”*> The fact that such eggs are also attacked by blister-beetle larvz indicates how general the locust-egg-feeding habit is in such larve. ON THE LARVAL CHARACTERS AND HABITS OF THE BLISTER-BEETLES BELONGING TO THE GENERA Macrobasis LEc. AND Epicauta FABR., WITH REMARKS ON OTHER SPECIES OF THE FAMILY MELoIiDz. {From the Transactions of the Ac. Sc. of St. Louis, vol. iii.] The larval habits of the European Cantharis of commerce, as also those of its con- geners in our own country and in other parts of the world, have hitherto remained a mystery, notwithstanding the frequency with which the beetles occur, their great abundance at times, and their commercial value and interest. The same remark holds true of the allied genera Macrobasis, Epicauta, and Henous, the species of which have the same valuable vesicatory properties as Cantharis. Some of these species are very com- ®6 A full account of the nidification of this species will be found in Mr. Scudder’s ‘‘ Distribution of Insects in New Hampshire.” Final Rep. Geology of N. H., 1874, p. 372. 294 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. mon in the United States and quite injurious to vegetation, swarming at times on po- tato-vines, beans, clematis, and other plants. Their great numbers and destructive habits make it all the more remarkable that so little has hitherto been discovered of their early life. Harris, who evidently had hatched the first larva of the Ash-gray blister-beetle (Macrobasis unicolor Kirby), says: ‘‘The larve are slender, somewhat flattened grubs, of a yellowish color, banded, with black, with a smal! reddish head and six legs. These grubs are very active in their motions, and appear to live upon fine roots in the ground; but I have not been able to keep them till they arrived at maturity, and therefore know nothing further of their history.” (“ Insects injurious to Vegetation”, p. 138.) Latreille, according to Westwood, states that the larve live be- neath the ground, feeding on the roots of vegetables (Introduction, vol. i, p. 301), but the statement is evidently founded on conjecture. Ratzeburg, who well describes the method of oviposition of the European Cantharis vesicatoria, and roughly figures the first larva (forst Insecten, I1, Col. Taf. ii, fig. 27 B), believed that it was a plant-feeder in the immature state. Olivier describes what is possibly the second larva, as a soft, yellowish-white, 13-jointed grub, with short, filiform antennzx, and short, corneous, thoracic legs—“‘ living in earth” (Traité Elém., etc., M. Girard, Col., p. 618); but his account is very loose, and may apply to any number of other coleopterous larve. Au- douin, who studied the Cantharides intently, making them the subject of his thesis in his medical examination, was obliged to confess that absolutely nothing was known of their larval history. This is about all we learn from the older writers, and the opinion was general among them that, like their parents, the blister-beetle larveze in question were vegetable feeders ; and Mr. William Saunders, of London, Ont., in a paper on the same subject, read at the 1876 meeting of the American Pharmaceutical Society, could add nothing more definite. In 1874, Laboulbéne mentioned the fact (Ann. Soc. Ent. de France, 1874, lxxxiii), that some one (name not given) had seen the European Cantharis vesicatoria issuing from ground in the neighborhood of which there were wasps (guépes—no specific reference given), and rashly concludes that the former were parasitic on these. Still more re- cently, M. J. Lichtenstsin, of Montpellier, France, has endeavored to discover the lar- val habits of this species. He has succeeded, by furnishing. the larve of C. vesicatoria with artificial nourishment composed of the filled stomachs of honey-making bees, and especially of Ceratina, in tracing the development from the triungulin to the coarctate larva, which last differs from those of the other species considered by me, in freeing itself entirely from the second larva skin. He has thus established the fact that Can- tharis agrees with the other species of the family in its hyper-metamorphosis; but its natural habits remain as much as ever a mystery, though the indications are that it develops in the nests of some bee. These facts, as well as analogy, pointed to a para- sitic life and partly carnivorous, partly mellivorous diet for our own allied species, since the life-history of two genera in the family, viz, Melcé Linn. and Sitaris Latr. has been fully traced. Indeed the young of all vesicants belonging to the Meloida, so far as anything has yet been known of them, develop in the cells of honey-making bees, first devouring the ege of the bee, and then appropriating the honey and bee-bread stored up by the same. They all are remarkable, in individual development, for pass- ing through seven distinct stages, viz, the egg, the first larva or triungulin, the sec- ond larva, the coarctate larva or pseudopupa, the third larva, the true pupa, and the imago. History or MELO#. The history of Meloé may be briefly summed up as follows :—The newly hatched or first larva (now generally called triungulin) was first mentioned in 1700 by the Holland entomologist Geedart, who hatched it from the egg. Frisch and Réaumur both .mis- took it for a louse peculiar to bees and flies. DeGeer, who also obtained it from the egg, mentions it in 1775 as a parasite of Hymenoptera. Linnzus called what is evidently the same thing, Pediculus apis; Kirby in 1802 described it as Pediculus melitie, and Dufour in 1828 named it Triungulinus andrenetarum. Newport in 1845 (Trans. Linn. Soc., : va LIFE-HISTORY OF THE OIL-BEETLE. 295° vol. xx, p. 297) first rightly concluded that it was carried into the nests of bees, and described, in addition, the full-grown larva from exuvial characters, and the coarctate larva and pupa which he found in the cells of Anthophora retusa. He failed, however, to fill the gap between the first and full-grown larva; and this Fabre first inferentially did in 1858 (Ann. d. Se. Nat., Zool., t. ix, p. 265) by tracing the analogous stages of Sitaris. | The female Meloé is very prolific. She lays at three or four different intervals, in loose irregular masses in the ground, and may produce from three to four thousand eggs. These are soft, whitish, cylindrical, and rounded at each end. They give birth to the triungulins, which, a few days after hatching—the number depending on the temperature—run actively about and climb on to Composite, Ranunculaceous, and other flowers, from which they attach themselves to bees and flies that visit the flowers. Fastening alike to many hairy Diptera and to Hymenoptera which can be of little or no service to them, many are doomed to perish, and only the few fortunate ones are carried to the proper cells of some Anthophora. Once in the cell, the triungulin falls upon the bee-egg, which it soon exhausts. A molt then takes place and the second larva is produced. Clumsy and with locomotive power reduced to a minimum,this second larva devours the thickened honey stored up for the bee-larva. It then changes to the pseudo- pupa with the skin of the sec- ond larva only partially shed , then to a third larva within the partially rent pseudo - pupal skin, and finally to the true pupa andimago. These differ- ent changes of form are known by the name of hypermeta- morphoses, the term first given them by Fabre to distinguish Fic. 23.—MELoE.—a, first larva; b, claws; c, antenna; d, max- them from the normal changes illary palpus; e, labial palpus; 7, mandible; g, an abdominal from larva to pupa and imago, joint; h, imago, 2 ; i, antennaof ¢. (After Riley.) experienced by insects generally. The triungulin or first larva (Fig. 28, a) is character- ized by a prominent labrum, very stout thighs, unarmed shanks, three broad and sub- spatulate tarsal claws, feeble and reduced trophi, untoothed jaws, 3-jointed antenne” ending in a long seta, and four anal setz, the two inner ones longest. When the abdo- men is shrunken the general aspect is very much that of Pediculus, and it is hardly surprising that some of the early describers so determined it. HISTORY OF SITARIS. The history of Sitaris is also well known and agrees very closely with that of Meloé. Its first larva was figured many years ago by Westwood (Introduction, &c., Fig. 34, 5) 57 My figure isfrom specimens affecting the mature honey-bee at San Diego, Cal. Itcorresponds very closely with Newport’s original figure and description of that of the European W. cicatricosus, and he- longs doubtless to one of our Pacific coast species, probably If. barbarus, Lec. Itis2"™. long. The head is produced in front, with a strong labrum, beyond which the smooth jaws do rot reach; the an- tenn are 3-jointed, and simiiar to those of cicatricosus; the mouth-parts are diminutive, the maxillary palpus 3-jointed, the 3d joint longer than the others together and tipped with a few short, weak points; the labial palpus is two-jointed; the cox are armed with a few very strong spines; the femora are very stout and faintly imbricated; the tibize are unarmed, and the tarsal claws subspatulate, the middle one pale, 4 longer and twice as broad as the two outer ones, which are dark, articulate, close together, and curve slightly ontward. The first pair of stigmata are distinct:y dorsal and on the mesothoracic joint. The dorsal hind border of the abdomina! joints is armed with 8 spinous hairs, the 4 intermediate ones only half as long as the others. Newport is evidently wrong in considering the jaws articulate in themselves, while Candéze is wrong in describing the antenn@ as 5-jointed (Mém. dela Soc. Roy. des Sc. , viii, p. 530, Liége, 1853). Packard’s figure of what is in all nrobability M. angustico'lis Say, fails to in- dicate the characteristic mesothoracic spiracles, and probably makes the two outer anal setz too short— these aval appendices being in reality nothing more than prolonged spinons hairs, such as ocenr on the other joints. Lhe form of the abdomen varies, contracting somewhat with age. Newport remarks on the similarity of the triungulins of Meloé violaceus, M. prosc>rabeus, and WM. cicatricosus being so great that he could discover no differences. Jndging from figures sent me by M. Lichtenstein, very slight differences occur in the relative length of the antennal joints, and none other. f 296 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. from specimens obtained from Audouin, who found the female Sitaris in the cells of Anthophora inclosed in its thin pseudo-pupal and second larval skins, which Audouin erroneously took to be the pellicle of the devoured bee-larva. But the complete life history of the genus was first given by Fabre in 1857 (Ann. d. Se. Nat., Zool., t. vii, p. 299; t. ix, p. 265), who studied the ‘S. humeralis Fabr., while that of S. colletis V.-M. has been more recently given by M. Valery-Mayet, of Montpellier, France (Ann. Soc. Ent. de I'r, 1875, p: 65), from whom I have specimens in all stages. The former species in- fests the nests of Anthophora, the latter those of Colletes. In the former the newly hatched larvee hybernate in huddled masses in the galleries of the bee; in the latter they hybernate in the bee-cell, slowly feeding while the temperature permits; but such differences doubtless depend on the relative earliness in the autumn that the eggs are laid. The first larva or triungulin (Fig. 29, a) agrees very much in the head, tarsal — and general characters, with that of Meloé, but differs in several im- portant particulars, and especially in having a pair of pre-anal spin- rerets, from which is secreted a serous sticky fluid, which aids the animal in holding firmly to the bee that is to carry it into the nest. A pre-anal pair of claspers also assists in this work.® The hypermetamorphoses are very similar to those of Meloé The riungulin, after absorbin Fic. 29.—Siranis.—a, first larva; g, anal spinnerets and y = z eee clasps of same; b, second larva; ¢, pseudo-pupa; f, third larva; contents of the bee-egg, molts, and o Paes ea mAaze, 7. (Atter V-Mayet.) thereafter floats upon and devours the honey—the pseudo-pupa, third larva, and true pupa all forming in due time within the second larval skin. The female does not feed, and on account of her heavy abdo- men travels but a short distance from the bee-burrows where she developed. HISTORY OF HORNIA. While the natural history of none of our North American species of Meloé has been . traced or recorded, they will, beyond all doubt, be-found to agree with their European congeners in their partial parasitism on mason-bees. In examining the cells of Antho- phora abrupta® Say, I have so far failed to discover that Meloé is parasitic upon that spe- cies, but Meloé is, in reality, very rare around Saint Louis. I have, however, found on four different occasions in the Fall, within the sealed cells of the bee mentioned, a very interesting and anomalous Meloid ( Hornia minutipennis, Riley), which may be taken to represent the typical partial parasitism of the family in the United States. There is a tendency in the family to wing-reduction, but in no hitherto described species is the reduction carried to such extremes as in this (Pl. IV, Fig. 13), both sexes having the elytra as rudimentary as in the 9 of tue well-known European glow-worm (Lampyris noctiluca). Another characteristic feature is its simple tarsal claws, which, together with the rudimentary wings and the heavy body, show it to be a degradational form. Anthophora abrupta, its host, builds mostly in steeply-inclined or perpendicular clay banks, and, in addition, extends a tube of clay from the entrance. The burrow has usually two branches which decline about an inch from the surface of the bank, and 6 or 8 cells are arranged end to end. By means of saliva the inside of the cell is ren- 58The small size (about 1™™ long) and the hairless and spineless nature of this larva contrast strongly with the other triungulins considered in this paper. ‘The tarsal claws are somewhat narrower than in Meloé, and unicolorous. insects that nourish on a limited amount of food and possess no power to secure more, the blister-beetles vary greatly in individual size in the same species, and the larve -have the power of accommodating their life to circumstances, and of assuming the coarctate larval form earlier or later according to the size of the egg-mass which they infest. I have had some interesting illustrations of this in my experiments with them. In an average sized egg-pod of the Differential Locust, how- ever, there are more than enough eggs to nourish the largest specimen of L. viitata, and a few are usually left untouched. The period of growth, from the first feeding to the coarctate larva, averages, as will be gathered from the foregoing, about a month; yet in the month of September, out- doors, under screens where I have had the Differential Locust oviposit for the experi- ment, I have known the full larval growth of vittata to occupy but 24 days. As this species occurs in the beetle state as early as June in the latitude of Saint Louis and as late as October, there are possibly two annual generations here and farther south. LARVAL HABITS OF MACROBASIS AND HENOUS. The characteristics of the triungulins of the blister-beetles, represented by Epicauta and Henous, are remarkably similar, and point to unity of habit.67 The same holds true of the characters of the second, coarctate, and third larva, and of the pupa of Epicauta and Macrobasis. They are precisely alike; so that, while appreciable differences may be found in the triungulins, it is doubtful whether the subsequent developmental stages will indicate specific or even generic differences in species of similar size in these three genera. : That the eggs of Epicauta may exceptionally hibernate is possible, but, from their delicate nature, improbable. That the triungulins frequently do so there can be no doubt, especially in species like the Black Blister-beetle, which is found on the flowers of Solidago, Eupatorium, &c., till the end of October, and continues laying till frost. I have, at the present time (November 5), many of these last that are quietly huddled together, and, with winter temperature, will doubtless remain so; while others have worked in between the locust-eggs, there evidently to remain without feeding till Spring opens. I have also found as many as five triungulins of this species curled up in the deep red mucous matter that surrounds the eggs of Eidipoda phanecoptera, all numb and torpid, and evidently hibernating. RESUME. From the foregoing history of our commoner blister-beetles, it is clear that while they pass through the curious hypermetamorphoses so characteristic of the family, avd have many other features in common, yet Epicauta and Macrobasis differ in many important respects from Meloé and Sitaris, the only genera hitherto fully known bio- logically. To resume what is known of the larval habits of the family, we have: Ist. The small, smooth, unarmed, tapering triungulin of the prolific Sitaris, with the thoracic joints subequal, with strong articulating tarsal claws on the stout-thighed but spineless legs, and, in addition, a caudal spinning apparatus. The mandibles scarcely extend beyond the labrum; the creature seeks the light, and is admirably adapted to adhering to bees but not to burrowing in the ground. The second larva is mellivorous, and the transformations from the coarctate larval stage all take place within the unrent larval skin. We have— 2d. The more spinous and larger triungulin of the still more prolific Weloé, with long caudal setz, but otherwise closely resembling that of Sitaris in the femoral, tarsal, and trophial characters, in the subequal thoracic joints, in the unarmed tibix, and in the instinctive love of light and fondness for fastening to bees. The second larva is also mellivorous, but the later transformations take place in the rent and partly shed skins of the second and coarctate larve. We have— 66 An insect is not properly parasitic that simply feeds on eggs, but the term is permissible and even necessary to characterize and distinguish those species which develop within and are confined to a locust egg pod from the predaceous species that are not confined but pass from one pod to another. 6? The slight differences between some of the species are pointed out in the original descriptions. 302 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. 3d. The larger and much more spinous triungulins of the less prolific Epicauta, Macroba- sis, and Henous; with unequal thoracic joints, powerful mandibles and maxille, shortened labrum, slender femora, well-armed tibie, slender, spine-like, less perfect tarsal claws, — combined with an instinctive love of darkness and tendency to burrow and hide in the ground. The second larva takes the same food as the first ; its skin is almost entirely cast from the coarctate larva, while the subsequent changes are independent and entirely free of the shell of this last. WHAT IS KNOWN OF THE LARVAL HABITS OF OTHER MELOID GENERA. Mylabris, Fabr. (nec. Geoff.), according to V.-Mayet, is much less prolific than any Meioids so far observed. The egg is 25 mm. long and 3} as wide, with a tolerably thick shell, and the embryo more fully bent within it. The triungulin has many of the characters of Zpicauia, judging from the publishe d description (Ann. Soc. Ent. de Fr., 1875, p. exevi), which is, however, not sufficiently detailed as to the trophi. I doubt not that the genus will be found to infest locust-eggs. Horia, Fabr., from what little is known of it, would seem to have a similar partial parasitism to Weloé, but on Carpenter bees. 5 ; Tetraonyx, Latr., was found by Guérin-Meneville in places frequented by bumble- ; bees. : The eggs of Apalus, Fabr., as well as its triungulin, are said to resemble those of Meloé. Zonitis, Fabr., is known to develop in the cells of Osmia and Anthidium, and to have a coarctate larva much like that of Sitaris. Soldier-beetle larvee.—The larva of the Two-lined Soldier-beetle ( Telephorus bilineatus, Say, Fig. 33,a) was found by Mr. J.I. Salter, of Saint Cloud, Minn., devouring the eggs, though by no means so common as the blister-beetle larvee. This larva was first described, in 1871, by Mr. Packard; and its carnivorous habit first made / known the same year by Mr. Riley, who found < that it preyed upon the common apple-worm. ‘Fic. 33.— TWwo-LIxED SOLDIER” a ee a two The beetle has brown-black wing-covers, and bee.le. (After Riley.) ’ ” a reddish-yellow head and thorax; the latter having two short, black longitudinal marks. It is found early in spring on various fruit-trees, upon which it doubtless feeds, as Mr. Packard records its feeding on the newly ex- panded leaves of the birch. The larva is of a rich vel- vety-brown color and will doubtiess prey on many soft-bodied insects. Mr. N. Coleman, of Bloomfield, Ct., sent us specimens, in the spring of 1876, taken, under Tic. 34.—Head of larva cf Two-lined Soldier-Beetle, greatly peculiar circumstances, in a enlarged; uw, upper; b, under side. (After Packard.) well, where they must have been feeding upon small animals in the crevices between the bricks, from CEE LARVA THAT FEED ON LOCUST-EGGS. 303 which they occasionally fell into the water and instinctively adhered to the bucket. We quote his account: In the latter part of November, 1875, I found an occasional larva on the bucket of water as I drew it from the well. At first I thought they were caterpillars; but the more [ studied the less I could make any decision. One or two at atime were drawn up occasionally till Christmas—that day I drew up forty or fifty at once. I supposed - I had secured all, but where they kept themselves I could not imagine; for a few days before I lost the bucket, and had to fish for it a long time. January 17 I drew up several larve, and a few days after two or three more came up. On January 25, 28, and 31, one or two were drawn up each day. February 2 I drew up two quite small ones; and on the 13th a few moro of the large onescame up. March 6, some more of the full grown; March 7, some about half grown; March 31, some more larve; April 1, some more still; April 5, do. The well was fidzén over quite hard several times during the winter; in March the water came up to within three feet of the top. iy what are they? How have they lived, and where, during the winter? I tried several times to keep some of them in a vessel of water, but they all died within a few days each time. Please let me hear from you as soon as convenient, as I am quite curious to know what they are. TELEPHORUS BILINEATUS, Say.—Larva (Fig. 33, a).—Body 12-jointed, joint 1 longest, 4 shortest, the rest of about equal length ; flattened ; tapering slightly at each end ; velvety ; of arich deep brown above, pale ‘below ; ; intersections deep and broadening from sides to middle of dorsum; two deep longitudiual lateral furrows, and two, less deep, ventral ones; medio- dorsal pale line continuous on the thoracic joints but show- ‘ing only on the sutures of the rest; joints 2 and 3 each with a large sunken suboval brown spot each side of dorsnm; these spots with a pale center; in a line with these on all the abdominal joints but ‘last, is a more or less distinct, slightly sunken, pale line, and still another parallel with it further out on the side. Between these pale lines, on every joint but the last, is a slightly elevated, dark, bead-like tubercle which might readily be taken for spiracles ; but these last, which are dark and quite small, are placed on the anterior edgeof the first eight abdominal joints, in the upper lateral furrow, and between the first two thoracic joints—there being nine pair in all; anal joint with a moderate proleg. Legs rather short, pilose, the tarsus terminating ina prominent and sharp claw. A paleanal pseudopod. Head flattened, divided super tiorly a little beyond the middle by a transverse suture, the basal portion of an opaque, velvety, sooty- black; the anterior portion polished, forming three well-defined lobes, with the ante- rior edge irregularly broken ; eyes prominent, placed laterally immediately before the occipital suture ; antenne inserted in a deep socket, 2-jointed, the second four times as long as first, and bearing a small subjoint at tip; labrum not visible [Packard describes it as “ broad and “perfectly Square in front, with a median notch dividing the edgs into two slight lobes.” As Walsh describes that of Chauliognathus as being retractile, it is probably retracted in my specimens, which are alcoholic]; mandibles falcate, with a strong tooth a little beyond the middle of the inner edge; beneath, the anterior edge is deeply and semi-circularly cut out; mentum extending between maxille for two-tirds their length; mavxille Jarge, projecting beyond labinm, espe- cially on the inside, where they seem to be produced into _ aslight point; maxillary palpi 3-jointed, the second twice as long as the first, the third rudimentary ; labium small, formed of a basal quadrate piece and two palpigerous pieces that are soldered together; labial palpi 2-jointed, the second rudimentary. —[ Fourth "Mo. Lint. Rep. Asilid larvzee.—We have on several occasions found a large Dipterous larva (Fig. 35, ¢) prey- ing upon the eggs of our locust, which larva we recognized as that of Hrax Bastardii which we had reared in previous years. A specimen of 4o.35—ERaxBastarvu.—a, fly, the same species received from Minnesota, where ™ P&P ® larva. (Atter Riley.) it was also found preying upon locust-eggs, was kept for some time by Miss Emma A. Smith, of Peoria. We have, also, a larger larva of the same family, and, doubtless, that of some true Asilus, which was found 304 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. at the same work. The Asilid-flies have been justly styled the hawks of the insect world. They pounce upon many kinds of insects, and as we shall presently see, are very fond of locusts. Their larval habits are but imperfectly known, but so far as known they are said by most authors to be vegetarian, Harris having reared the Silky Asilus (Asilus sericeus, Say) from larvee feeding on the roots of rhubarb. The egg-feeding habit here recorded would show that the carnivorous habit of the mature flies belongs likewise, in some species at least, to their larve. Erax Bastarpi.—Larva.—(See Fig. 35, c.) Length 1.05inches. Only twelve joints, the three anterior and the three posterior ones tapering gradually, the rest of equal width ; slightly depressed ; translucent yellowish-white ; the chitinous covering tolerably firm, however; a swollen lateral rid ge; tworufous dorsal spiracles on joint 1, “and two similar ones on joint 11. Head dark brown, very retractile, pointed, (livided at tip into two mandibulate points, and having two unguilorm appendages; anal segment with two de- pressed longitudinal lines above, ridged on anterior edge, and with a central depressed line below. It makes use of its head in crawling. Pupa (Fig. 35, b).—Stout, honey-yellow; the leg and wing-sheaths soldered together though separated from the abdomen ; eyes large and dark ; head with two large brown spines in front, and a lateral set of three rather smaller ones; thorax with two small thin rounded dorsal projections, and a set of two small lateral spines just behind the head; abdomen, with each segment ridg d in the middle and furnished on this ridge with a ring of brown blunt thorns sloping backward ; anal segment with a few rather stouter spines.—[ Second Mo. Ent. Rep. Click-beetle Larve:—We have discovered three distinct larvae of this oe preying upon the locust eggs. One of these (Fig. 36, a) is by far the most common, and was found mitt the same habit on several occasions by Mr. A. N. Godfrey, ~ of Manhattan, Kans. These larvee are popularly ‘known as wire-worms, and there are many Gif- ferent species, some of which are well known to be grievous pests to the farmer, by destroying the roots of various cultivated plants. We have, REG eben oa tele er _ however, long known that some species were feeds on locust-eggs; 6, head carnivorous,@ and the egg-feeding habit of the from above; d str aes oe three in question is contirmatory evidence. We other species with the same. habit. (After Riley.) have failed to rear any of them to the perfect state, and they do not accord with any described species that have been determined.® Fig.36, a, shows the more common species, with (0b, 2 its head and anal joint; d, e, the anal joints of the other two. Ichneumonid (?) [anaes Next to the Anthomyiaegg-parasitein im- portance is a much larger, more sluggish, yellowish grub (Fig. 37, a), measuring about half an inch when extended, which is found within or beneath the loc ust eggs, lying in a curved position, the body being bent so that the head and tail nearly touch each other. It is a smooth grub, 68 Mr. Riley has reared Hemirhipus fascicularis (Fabr. ) from larve preying on those of Cyllene pictus (Drury); Hlater luctuosus Lec. from larve that fed on those of Dendroides canadensis Latr., and Cucu- jus clavipes, Fabr. He has also bred Melanotus communis Gyll. from a Black oak badly infested with Chrysobothris femorata. © The larva of Llater luctuosusis dark brown, with the anal joint punctate, diminishing to a point; and terminating in a sharp thorn. That whica Fitch considers Melanotus communis has three blunt denta- tions and four longitudinal impressions on the anal joint, somewhat as in Fig. 36,¢. ‘That which he be- lieves to be Agriotes truncatus Melsh. (the A. obesus of Harris, and described in full by Dr. G. H. Horn in Can. Ent. vol.iv, Fig. 4,as A mancus Say), has'a smooth, rather pointed anal joint, with two con- spicuovs dorsal spots. “That of Hemirhipus fascicularis is bread, with a narrow, upturned anal joint, having a few rounded thorns and two terminal sharper and larger ones. That of Ludius attenuatus has a perfectly smooth and polished anal joint. INSECTS THAT FEED ON LOCUST-EGGS. 305 with a very small, brown, flattened head, with the joints near the head swollen, and the hind end tapering, and with deep, translucent sutures beneath the joints, which sutures show certain venous marks and mottlings, especially along the middle of the back, it exhausts the eggs, and leaves noth. ing but the shrunken and discolored shells.” This parasite has been found in Min- nesota, Iowa, Kansas, and Missouri, and in 1876 destroyed about one per cent. of the eggs. The following let- Ic. 37.—Unperermyep_xcc-ParasiTz : OF ROCKY MOUNTAIN LOCUST. ters refer to it: The other day, as I was strolling through the fields, I stopped to examine some eggs. I found the ground in spots quite full of white grubs, worms or maggots, whatever they may be called. Many of them were in the egg-pods, busy at work. I collected a few, and sent to you in a small vial by mail for your examination. The ground was high and dry where found._[S. D. Payne, Kasota, Le Sueur County, Minn., Septem- ber 28, 1876. . I think the Silky Mite has done good service in destroying eggs in one or two coun- ties, particularly Nobles. But we are getting, in addition, continual newspaper reports of white grubs destroying the eggs. I started out to see for myself, and have found a number, which I send you.—[A. Whitman, Saint Paul, Minn., September 7, 1876. Though we have endeavored to rear quite a number of them to the perfect state, we have met with no success. The characters of the grub show it to be Hymenopterous, and probably of the family Ichneumon- ide. It hibernates in various stages of growth, and we have found the larva unchanged throughout spring and early summer, and have kept a few alive from the fall of 1876 to September, 1877, all dying in the end unchanged and without spinning a cocoon. The larva of Pimpla instigator is said by Motchulsky to prey on the eggs of European locusts. ICHNEUMONID (?) Larva.—Average length, 0.50 inch. Body curved, glabrous, tapering posteriorly, swollen anteriorly. Color opaque whitish, with translucent yellowish mot- tlings,and some venous marks at sutures, especially along medio-dorsum. Sutures deep. A lateral row of swellings. Head small, flattened, dark brown, in five pieces, consisting above o¢ a frontal ovoid piece and two lateral pieces of somewhat similar form, and each bearing near tip a minute, two-jointed palpus; beneath of two broad, subtriangular jaws, having forward and lateral motion, and each, also, bearing near the center, in a depression, a two-jointed feeler. A spiracle each side in a fold between joints 2 and 3, and another on each side of the penultimate joint, 12. None otherwise perceptible. Miscellaneous Species.—In addition to the foregoing insects that attack the eggs, different species of ants have been reported to do so to some extent. We have also found certain Myriapods, and espe- cially a species of Mecistocephalus within the egg-mass, and have wit- nessed the common White Grub (larva of Lachnosterna fusca) actually feeding upon the eggs, thus giving another conclusive proof that an essential vegetabie feeder will exceptionally take to soft animal food. Mr. 8S. H. Seudder (Proce. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. xii, p. 99) has re- corded the rearing of a Chalcid-fly (Fig. 38) from the eggs‘of the Carolina locust; and we have received from R. B. Potts, Worthington, Minn., an 20 G 306 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. | egg-mass of our Rocky Mountain locust, every egg of which contained a Chalcid pupa. These pupze were too dry to permit of rearing the imago, but they were probably of the same a black, deeply pitted fly (Fig. 38, a), about 5™™ long, belonging to the subfamily Hury- tomides. It does not fully correspond with any of the genera defined by Westwood, Walker, or Snellen Van Vollenhoven. We hesitate to found a new genus on a single Fic. 38—CaLoprenozia ovivora.— sex, but in order to christen the insect, we a, female; b, her antenna. (After dae ae any Riley.) subjoin a brief definition: CALOPTENOBIA, nov. gen.— 2, body elongate; strongly rugoso-punctate. Head as broad as thorax; ocelli barely distinguishable, widely apart; antennze 12-jointed (scape -++ 11), the scape nearly as long as the flagellum, which is curved, slightly clavate, with joints 3, 4,5, shortest, the others subequal, the terminal one faintly divided. Thorax elongate; collare narrow; prescutum large and swollen; scutellum small and rounded behind ; metanotum concave behind, with the sides dilated and forming almost a qua- drangle. Pedicil short and stout. Abdomen flattened, fusiform, 6-jointed ; joint 2 exca- vated anteriorly, joint 3 as long as 1 and 2 tegether, the terminal joint very small and indistinctly separated. Wings not reaching to tip of abdomen when closed ; hind pair with a fringe of sparse cilia on inner border. ¢ unknown. C. ovivora, n. sp.— , color pitchy black, with sparse gray pubescence. Legs, scape, and basal joint of flagellum honey-yellow. Wings hyaline. Head and thorax broadly and confluently rugoso-punctate. Abdomen longitudinally striate. Length 5™™, Four specimens from eggs of Gdipoda Carolina. cc Finally, the Locust Mite, which we shall now consider, is, in the mature state, one of the most effective destroyers of the locust eggs. ANIMALS THAT PREY UPON THE LOCUST AFTER IT IS BORN. Red mites.—There are at least two species of red mites, and prob- ‘ably more, that attack the Rocky Mountain locust, the most common of which is— | ‘THE Locust MITE (Trombidium locustarum Riley).—One of the most interesting as well as one of the most important of our locust enemies is what we may popularly eall the ‘“‘ Locust mite.” It forms a true link between those articulates which prey on the eggs and those which prey on the locusts, since it combines both traits. Referred to in previous writings under the name of the Silky mite, its natural history was first fully made out by Mr. Riley during the past summer. It differs so much in infancy and maturity that it has been referred to distinct genera, and was always known under two different names. During either period it proves a bitter enemy to the locust. In the mature form it lives in the ground, feeding upon all sorts of soft animal and decom- posing vegetable matter. When the locust fills the ground with its eggs this mite flourishes upon the abundance of food which these afford, sometimes teeming to such an extent as to give the ground a scarlet hue. How numerous and. how beneficial to man this mite may be as a destroyer both of the locust and its eggs is well illustrated by the state- ments of correspondents in the appendices (App. 18) where it is so fre- species as that reared by Mr. Scudder. Itis RED MITES AS LOCUST ENEMIES. 307 quently referred to as the ‘‘red mite,” the “little red bug,” &c., as well as by the following extracts: The course of the locusts was brought to a sudden halt by the operation of some parasite, appearing in the shape of small red mites, which attach themselves to the body, under the wings, where they suck the carcass to a dry shell; the dead bodies of the grasshoppers almost covering some plants, where they have taken hold of a leaf or stalk, and clasped it, with a dead embrace ; many others fall to the ground to die, too weak to rise again. In a half day’s examination, where they were very thick, we failed to find more than two grasshoppers. not so attacked, and this was not local : for a distance of thirty miles across the country they were found similarly affected.—[Edi- torial correspondence of the Prairie Farmer, August 21, 1869. A discovery has been made of greatinterest. A smallred bug or spider, about the size of a small kernel of wheat, is found in great numbers, creeping into the holes to the grasshopper eggs and eating the contents of the eggs voraciously. Great numbers were found in the act of eating the eggs, with empty egg-shells in the same nest. The extent of the little friends is not limited, but they have been seen in many locali- ties in different directionsin this place. Mr. J. D. Johnston, Antrim, proved conclu- sively that these red bugs are making sure work among the eggs.—[ Madelia (Minn.) Times, 1874. Last evening, when we reached Worthington from Lake Shetek, there was quite an excitement in Worthington, owing to the fact that the citizens were generally con- vinced that a red parasite was destroying the grasshopper eggs. I examined the mat- ter carefully myself, and became convinced that the destruction of the eggs in that immediate vicinity was well assured; but I determined not to write you and excite any hope until a further and more complete examination could be had. We therefore furnished our Bohemian friends with a bottle of the eggs and their pests, and the com- mission left in high spirits. We postponed further investigation until this morning, when I left and prosecuted the examination with vigor. The farmers in the vicinity knew nothing of these signs of deliverance until the visitors from Worthington reached them, and I feel safe in saying to you that in a circle of ten miles from Worthington there will scarcely be an egg left by to-morrow night. I send you a bottle herewith containing the cones and the parasites. We could scarcely find a cone or sack, except as they were indicated by the parasite on the surface ; and each cone, which was not entirely destroyed, had from five to fifty of the red laborers at work upon the eggs. We found scores of cells with no eggs left, except the shells. * - * I stopped for fifteen minutes one and a half miles west of Wilder, where Section-Foreman Smith took me to that portion of his farm where eggs were deposited. We could find none by general digging, but wherever we found, as we frequently did, the red parasite on the surface, we found the cone beneath, with the parasite at work consuming the eggs. % " * Iam aware that two years ago this parasite was found working upon the eggs at Madelia and other places, but here we have the remedy almost as soon as the eggs are laid, while in the former instances the parasite was only discovered ‘in the spring.—[ Letter from Ex-Governor Stephen Miller, written from Windom, Minn., Au- gust 15, 1876. We send herewith a box of grasshopper eggs, together with the “silky mite,” of which so much has been said. You can see a sample of the work they are doing. They are over the ground and in it wherever eggs have been laid. They suck the eggs, leay- ing the bare.shell. We have talked with farmers from all parts of the county, and they all tell the same story—not a cell to be found that is not partially or wholly de- stroyed. We have personally inspected them in more than twenty different places, and are satisfied that in this county the eggs of the festive g. h.area “total wreck.” Allow us to suggest that you call for a report from every county in the State that has been infested by them.—[Letter to Pioneer Press and Tribune, from Bae & Gruelle, Worth- ington, Nobles County, Minnesota, August 16, 1876. I send, inclosed in a circular tin box, mailed with this, some dirt containing grass- 308 REPORT UNITED STATES. ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. hoppers’ eggs, and also the red mite or spider that sucks them, as you will perceive on ‘examination. I trust they will be received in good order. I send them at the request — of A. Whitman, of Saint Paul, of this State, with whom I am corresponding some- times on this grasshopper matter.—[{Letter from R. B. Potts, U. 8S. N., Worthington, Minn., August 18, 1876. We have received a copy of the Yankton Press and Dakotaian, of April 25, contain- ing an article calling attention to the fact that a parasitic insect is devouring the eggs of the locusts all over Southern Dakota. The insect is described as a “‘ little red bug,” and also as the same parasite which is found on the bodies of fully-grown and migrating locusts. Thisis evidently a mistake, the two being entirely different insects in habits and appearance. The “little red bug” is knownas the “silky mite,” and is described in Riley’s Seventh Report under the name of Trombidium sericeum. Its habit of eating the eggs of the locust was reported as early as 1874. It is also described in Riley’s Ninth Report, which has just been issued. In the locality mentioned it is so numerous that scarcely a sac of eggs has escaped, and farmers are very much encouraged concerning their crops.—[ Country Gentleman, May 10, 1877. 45 , During the fall of 1876 reports were received from various quarters, especially the southwestern counties, denoting the presence of the Silky mite in great numbers, while various larvz were discovered at work upon the eggs almost everywhere. The Silky mite was found to be still more numerous-in the spring, sometimes so thick as to redden the ground, and in localities where it had not been seen in the autumn. Of replies to the inquiry of the Entomological Commission, ‘‘ proportion of eggs that failed to hatch, and probable cause of failure,” nine out of thirteen (in Minnesota) express the opinion that a large percentage (one-half or more) failed to hatch, and the cause generally assigned is the Silky mite. Testimony on this point can apply with exactness to only such little cases as come under each man’s particalar notice, but the replies, taken with similar reports, denote that considerable quantities of the eggs were destroyed before hatching.—[Allen Whitman, Saint Paul, August, 1877. In conversing with a gentleman this evening, he says: ‘‘ What grasshoppers remain- ing here are now being destroyed by a bug, a small, ‘red bug,’ which are now upon their wings sapping the life out of them. They are about the size of a came bug.”— [E. D. Barton, Sarcoxie, Mo., July 12, 1877. _ The warm spell has hatched out a great number of the little silky 1 ee In fact, many farmers tell here that the ground is red with them in places.—[A. Whitman, Saint Paul, Minn., April 17, 1877. A reliable man from the next county to this (Emmett) informed me that his garden soil was red with the little insect often spoken of, and that they were going for the eggs with a vengeance.—[ John Walker, Emmettsburg, Iowa, April 17, 1877. I have found many red parasites on the locusts, larger ones on those in the pupa state than on those that had more fally developed wings. Have found no internal parasites.—[G. M. Houston, Harrisonville, Mo., June 8, 1875. The red parasite seems to feed more upon hes indurated mucous sac inclosing the eggs than upon the eggs themselves; yet, I think, where the covering is destroyed, the eggs, in most instances, do not hatch. The red parasite is the first to attack the young. by depositing its ergs [young mistaken for eggs] upon them. I have seen so many of these upon young locusts that they sucked all the vitality out of them.—[J.G. McGrue, Audubon, Minn., June 20, 1877. There is some insect that appears to deposit small red eggs, from one to a dozen or more, under the wings of the grasshoppers. I have seen them in large masses, and have found them on those with their wings just starting. I find, also, that at least. nine-tenths of the full-fledged ones have them, and that they are dying all the time in great numbers in consequence.—[G. Z. Craig, Diamond City, Jasper County, Missouri. In spring, the female lays: between 300 and 400 minute spherical, orange-red eggs in the ground (Fig. 39, a). They are usually from one a . . ee : — pumnepeiinnen me ae - TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE LOCUST MITE. 309 to two inches beneath the surface and ina slightly agglutinated mass, which, however, easily becomes scattered upon disturbance of the soil. From these eggs, in due time, there hatch little orange mites (Fig. 39, b), which differ from the parent in having but six legs. The six-legged form belongs to Latreille’s genus Astoma, erected when naturalists had no suspicion that it was purely a larval form. The specific name locus- tarum was first proposed for it by B. D. Walsh,® but Dr. Le Baron afterward gave it the name of Atoma gryllaria,” in connection with a detailed description. 24 Active when they first hatch and impelled by instinct, these little six- a 7 OE Fic. 39.—TROMBIDIUM LOCUSTARUM.—a, female with her batch of eggs (after Emerton) ; 6, newly hatched larva—natural size indicated by the dot within the circle; c,egg; d, e, vacated egg-shells (after Riley). legged specks crawl upon the locusts and fasten to them, mostly at the base of the wings or along their principal veins, just as a tick fastens to a dog ora sheep, ortoman. Thus attached to their victim, they suck = nil =a i Fic. 40 —TROMBIDIUM LOCUSTARUM.—a, mature larva when about to leave the wing of a locust; b, pupa; c, male adult when just from the pupa; d, female—the natural sizes indicated to the right; e, palpal claw and thumb; /, pedal claws; g, one of the barbed hairs; h, the striations on the larval skin (After Riley.) © its juices and swell until the legs become invisible. It is in this condi- tion (Fig. 40, a) that they are most often noticed, presenting to the ordi- 7 Practical Entomologist, i, p. 126. {Le Baron’s Second Illinois Ent. Report, 1872, p. 156. The author employs the term Atoma, which, though at first employed by Latreille, is corrected to Astoma in his Genera Crustaceorum et Insect- orum, i, p. 162 (1806). 310 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. _ nary observer the appearance of a bright red oblong-ovoid body grow- ing from the wing. They are so firmly attached by the mouth, so immovable, and with the legs so short and hidden, that persons unfa- miliar with their true nature might easily mistake them for some natural growth or excrescence. That they are often so numerous as to weaken and kill their victim, reports, as well as our own experience, clearly prove. Professor Aughey, of Nebraska, has observed that these red — mites increase on the locusts immediately after a rain, and it is not im- probable that they hatch more freely or move more freely in wet weather, though the true explanation of the facts observed may also be found in the repose of the locusts during such weather, and the greater ease with which the mites consequently crawl upon them. They are most numer- ous on the winged locusts, though also found upon the young, unfledged insects, especially the pupe. In due time, these swollen bodies let go their hold and drop to the ground, where, clumsily and with difficulty, they crawl under the first shelter afforded by some bit of loose earth, or a stone. Here they re- main quiet for two or three weeks, gradually swelling and changing form. During this change, the pupa state is assumed, but not by shedding any skin, as do true insects in going through their transformations. New legs, feelers, and mouth-parts form under the old skin, which, with its now useless legs, distends so as barely to cover the new parts, which are all appressed to the body very much as in the pupa of a beetle (Fig. 40, b). Finally both the distended larval skin and the new one that incases the pupa burst, and release a creature quiet different from the former Astoma—in fact, none other than the 8-legged Trombidium (Fig. 40, c). We thus see that from the time this mite hatches, through all its growth “and changes, but one molt takes place. The mature form passes the winter in the ground, and is active whenever the tempersaeer is a few degrees above freezing-point. Only two species of the genus Trombidiwm have been described in America, viz: scabrum Say, and sericeum Say.” The descriptions in both cases are brief, and lacking in structural details and in measurements. The locust mite under consideration has been hitherto referred to sert- ceum, but the characteristic polished anal plate precludes the reference, and we define it under the name of locustarum. Since the time when it was established by Fabricius, evidently on the characters of the Euro- pean T. holosericeum, the genus Trombidium has been greatly modified by different authors. The species have been variously arranged according to relative length of legs, position of eyes, divisions of the body, &ce. As restricted at present, the genus is thus characterized: Abdomen swollen, especially in front, where it is broadest; cephalo-thorax small and narrow, with two eyes, superior and barely raised; legs 7-jointed, palpate, with two minute terminal hooks, the front pair longest, the two front pairs widely separated from the two hind pairs; mandibles un- 72 Journ. Ac. Nat. Sc. Phil. ii, 1821, p. 70. — me SY cs ee RL 8 \ LIFE-HISTORY OF THE LOCUST MITE. 311 guiculate ; palpi large, free, the penultimate joint strongly ungulate, and the terminal joint forming a movable thumb upon it. Larva 6-legged, parasitic ; defined under the generic names Astoma, Leptus, Lepostomus, and Ocypete. Many species have been described in Europe, but the one in question differs from all of them as given by Gervais.” TROMBIDIUM LOCUSTARUM Riley.—Egg 0.12™™ in diameter, spherical, fullof gran- ulations, pale orange-red in color, becoming more pointed at one end before hatching (Fig. 39, d), the shell splitting across and the severed sides rolling toward each other when vacated (Fig. 39, e). Larva.—When newly hatched, pale’ orange-red, 0.14™™ long, ovoid, the body with but three transverse sutures, one anteriorly, one between first and second, and another between second and third pair of legs; dorsum with several transverse rows of about six piliferous points; head somewhat narrowed, showing four minute swellings, each giving rise to a rather long hair; mouth-parts small and indistinct, with a dusky, granular spot at their base; legs 6-jointed, inclusive of fixed coxal piece, the third joint longest, hind pair somewhat longer than the others, all tipped with two well- developed claws, those on front pair the longest; what appears to be a rudimentary subcutaneous fourth pair; no anal sete. Full-grown larva.—1.6™™ long, with the whole body greatly distended and elongated, the elongation being principally from the posterior dorsal portion, so as to bring to view four hairs at the end; body showing two principal transverse constrictions, one about the middle, the other above it, while the whole surface is finely and trans- versely striate Pupa.—17™™ long, one-half as broad. Either pale yellow or orange-red, polished, swollen and rounded anteriorly, more tapering posteriorly, the dorsum well arched; two transverse impressions, at first noticeable but subsequently obliterated; palpi and legs formed under the larval skin, their ends finally projecting from it and more or less free; traces of the shriveled larval legs widely separated. Adult.—When first from pupa the color is orange-red, with a distinct transverse con- - striction about the middle, and a deep transverse impression in the broad fore part. The species is characterized by the palpal claw consisting of one large hook, with a second smaller one originating from its middle, and three stout spines from near its base, and by the thumb being of uniform diameter, armed with rather long hairs ter- minally, and reaching to or very little beyond its tip; also by a sunken polished plate at the end of the body dorsally ; the plate but sparsely covered with hairs, elongate, square in front and broadening behind. The legs have the terminal hooks very short and blunt, the front pair is longest, the second shortest. Hairs of body barbed, slightly curved and attenuated. The scissor-like mandibles are faintly toothed within. With age the color intensifies to scarlet, but the legs, palpi,and ventral surface are always more pale and silvery than the superior part of the body. The male is smaller than the female, has more intense color, relatively somewhat longer legs, with the body more pointed behind and more deeply constricted; the anal plate more narrow; ventrally his body is more distinctly constricted toward tip, and more deeply impressed longitudinally; also with the genital impression more distinct. His body becomes more creased and impressed with Age, while that of the female becomes broader and more smooth and swollen. Average length of female when full-grown about 3 milli- meters; male about 2 millimeters. W de-spread. We have it from Manitoba, Texas, various Eastern States, and from California. In all the egg-masses we have examined, the number of eggs ranged between 300 and 400, the mass being irregularly globose, and the eggs but loosely adhering to each other. We have not been able to ascertain the exact length of time required for the full development of the larva after attachment, but it is brief, and seldom exceeds a fortnight, while the final transformation, after detachment, occupies but three or four days. Though the motion of the swollen and deteched larva is slow, the legs move about with considerable rapidity; yet in the gradual change to pupa they shrink and are partially drawn in. Since De Geer’s time it has been known that some of the octopod mites are hex- 73Suites 4 Buffon. Aptéres. 1844. 312 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. apods in their early life, and there can be no doubt but that all the Trombidide have hexapod larve. In addition-to the locust mite above described, we have found another larval form attacking the mature C. spretus. It is at once distinguished from the larva of locustarum by the more prominent head, by the longer, more slender legs, which are 7-jointed, the joints increasing in length to the penultimate, which is longest, and by the hairs, whether on the body, legs, or palpi, being long, tapering, and barbed. It is possibly the larva of a large species, which we have called Trombidium giganteum, distinguished by the following characters: TROMBIDIUM GIGANTEUM Riley.—Adult 8 mm. to 9 mm. long; pyri- form, somewhat flattened ; no pronounced constrictions, but various dorsal irregularities; usually about five pairs of circular depressions connected by transverse ones on anterior two-thirds, and a triangular series poste- riorly. Barbed hairs long and tapering, but very dense and even. Color deep scarlet, the legs concolorous; eyes dark. Characterized by the Fic. 41. — penultimate palpal joint forming a single claw with a prominent notch, TROMBIDIUM while the terminal thumb is large, extending one-third its length beyond aoa lega, the claw, clavate, and with the inner side of its broad end flattened; the , pedal claws; 2 : : : aie ! b, labial claw Claw, as well as the thumb, having sparse hairs; terminal joint of legs and thumb. squarely docked, with the claws reaching but little beyond the side. (After Riley.) Living in the ground. Nine specimens examined. We have also reared to the perfect state the well-known Astoma para- site that attacks the common house-fly (Musca domestica) in this country, and will add a description of it by way of comparison, as it may also be found to attack locusts. The larva (Fig. 42) has the same mode of transformation as T. locustarum, but is much more active after detachment, while the gradual shrinking and withdrawal of the larval legs during the transformation to pupa is much more easiiy ioeinine ee: observed. The species is distinguished from 7. locustarum fale) (After ~ by the following characters: TROMBIDIUM MUSCARUM Riley.—Larva distinguished from that of T. locustarum by the greater relative length of legs, and by the hairs on the body being transverse sutures, of which there are four. Transverse striations noticeable soon after attachment. Full-grown larva also more active. Pupa.—More rounded behind. Adult.—Average length 1.2 mm.; color bright and pale scarlet; 7 PS rn. legs very pale and with the terminal joint fusiform and the claws Pilani: «a, la. Much longer than in T. locustarum, and more nearly as found in the bial claws and thumb; larva; body rounded, very little narrower behind, with no impres- b, pedalclaws; c, barbed sions or other marks. Barbed hairs of body sparse, short, blunt, tuberculoushair. (Af and tuberculous, giving a beautifully echinulate appearance under per aley:) the microscope. Genital depression circular; penultimate palpal joint ending in two small, equal, blunt claws, the thumb being very small, tuberculous and not reaching its tip. No marked sexual differences. Many specimens examined. The mode of growth of these mites may be more clearly illustrated by a brief reference to a common red water-mite (Hydrachna belostome Riley) which we have studied. The mites of the typical genus Hydrachna care, in reality, the aquatic representatives of Trombidium, and have a precisely similar mode of development. We have not had the eggs, but in Europe they ure known to be laid in spring in holes in soft- stemmed aquatic plants. much longer and more-conspicuous; also by the more distinct Maries me * ee ee eee ’ ' 4 LIFE-HISTORY OF THE LOCUST MITE. PY RS er The young larva (Fig. 44, b,), like that of Trombidium, is pale red, hexa- podous, and with the legs 6-jointed, including the coxal joint. It has the mouth-parts retracted, and is characterized by two dark eye-spots ante- Fic. 44.—HYDRACHNA BELOSTOMZ.—D, newly hatched larva; a, larva soon after = becoming fixed; c, mature larva with pupa forming within; d, adult; e, its pedal claws; jf, palpal claws of larva. (After Riley.) riorly, and by the swollen second joint of the palpi showing at each anterior corner. Moving about in the water, these young larve fasten, often in very large numbers, to different aquatic insects. Water- bugs of the family Belostomida are particularly subject to attack, and especially Zaitha fluminea (Say), upon a single specimen of which we have sometimes counted over 500. They are able to fasten to the bug by means of several sharp hooks at the end of the palpi. Once fixed, the head and mouth-parts stretch until they become separated by a neck from the main body, the transparent skin of which rapidly swells and elon- gates so as to form a bag, with the more solid, dark red parts visible an- teriorly (Fig. 44, a). The maxille penetrate and extend beneath the chitinous covering of the host, until they form a long, pointed thread. The legs curl up, become useless, and are more or less withdrawn, and the larva gradually passes to the pupa state within this bag, which be- comes moreand more swollen and rounded posteriorly, and finally bursts to release the adult mite. This bag-like larva was looked upon as an egg by many old authors, and was made the type of the genus Achlysia by Audouin. The adult swims actively about in the water, but before -attaining maturity fixes to some plant, and undergoes another molt without material change of form. HYDRACHNA BELOSTOMZ Riley.—Larva.—Hexopodous. LElliptic-ovoid. Pale red, with two dusky eye-spots. Legs 6-jointed, including cox; terminal joint longest; claws very small. Surface closely and evenly studded with minute points. Palpi drawn beneath the head, with the second joint greatly swollen, and showing like an eye at each anterior side of the body; the three terminal joints indistinctly separated, and each armed with a sharp hook. Becoming elongate and more or less pyriform, with a distinct neck when fixed. Pupa formed within the bag-like body of larva. Adult.—Average length when first from pupal.5d mm.; globular; color dark blood- brown ; body smooth; legs with but few hairs, terminal joint truncate and with two very minute claws; palpal claws very small and the thumb no longer.’ Ground-beetles.—We have seen that in the larva state several of these insects attack locust-eggs. The perfect beetles are among the 74—Perthostoma aurantiaca Leidy. 314 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. most active pursuers and devourers of the locust itself. The beetles of this family (Carabide) are essentially predaceous, and most of the larger species doubtless feed upon locusts when (“Sane F * they get opportunity. . cu The species which we Se, have most often found | © at the work are the , }. Fiery Calosoma (Calo- soma calidum, Fig. 45, b) and the Elongate Ground-beetle (Past- ¥e.46—Pasmacuus Etoy- GATus. (After Riley.) Fic. 45.—CALOSOMA CALID UM.—a, fi larva; b, beetle. (After Riley.) machus elongatus, Fi g. 46). In ditches, where the young had collected, we have also found at- tacking them, Calosoma externum Say, C. scrutator (Iabr.), C. wilcoxt Lec., Harpalus caliginosus (Fabr.), H. pennsylvanicus (De Geer), and Llaphrus ruscarius Say. Mr. H. A. Brous also found Pasimachus punctula- tus preying on them in western Kansas. Tiger-beetles.—These are swift-running and flying beetles (Cicindelide) with predaceous habits, their larve living within cylindrical holes, and entrapping any un- : wary insects that may Fic. 47.—Harpatus chance to come within reach ap re ea of their formidable jaws. These larvee are characterized by the large and flattened head, and by having two tuber- cles on the back of the ninth joint, each tubercle ending in two recurved hooks, which fie. 48.—CICINDELA ‘support the creature in any part of its bur- ; a. row. Various species® in the perfect state are known Grease. to attack the Rocky Mountain locust; and Mr. J. K. ™*™ Moore, of Saint Peter, Minn., sent us last summer the Cicindela re- panda (Fig. 48) with the remnants of various specimens which it had partly devoured. One would scarcely sup- pose, however,that the stationary larve of these beetles could succeed in entrapping /V~eery’ such an active creature as our locust. Yet at “Fic. 50. —CicinDELA sPLENDIDA.—a, larva; b, head Omaha, Nebr., last of same enlarged; c, beetle (Emerton, del.) ; Fic. 51.—Cicrs- June, we found that of vera vuteazis. the young locusts which were collecting on the steep clay banks 75 Mr. Brous found the following species preying on spretus in Western Kansas in 1876: Cicindda pulchra Say; C. scutellaris Say; O. 6-guttata Fabr.; C. fulgida Say; C. vulgaris Say; O. cireumpicta *_af.; O. formosa Say ; O-punctulata Fabr. ree at, i-y MOA ais eae fr 5 “4 } ’ TIGER-BEETLES THAT ATTACK LOCUSTS. 315 that abound there quite a number fell victims to the larve of the Splendid Tiger-beetle (Cicindela splendida Hentz), the burrows of which are abundant in such situations. In the course of two hours’ digging we found 19 young locusts that had been dragged to the bottom of the burrows of this species, and were then and there being devoured. ‘We introduce a figure of this larva (Fig. 50) and of the beetle, which is a brilliant species, the wing-covers being of a bur- nished coppery color, with green reflections, and the rest of the body either metallic blue or green. One of the most interesting species of this family that preys upon the locust in Western Kansas is the elegant insect (Amblychila cylin- driformis Say), which we herewith illustrate (Fig. 52) and which may be called the Cylindrical Tiger-beetle. It is of a tolerably uniform deep chestnut-brown color, and till quite recently was Fic. 52. -AMBLYCHILA cyLnppr. COMSidered a great rarity; indeed, the facile none. princeps among beetles. Unlike the typical members of its family, this beetle is nocturnal and rather slow in its movements. Mr. 8. W. Williston, of Yale, who captured large numbers last summer, wrote us from Monument, Wallace COREY, Kans., May 17, as follows, regarding its habits: 7 I have collected the beetle for several seasons, and have watched its habits. These are almost precisely the same as in Omus. Their movements are much more sluggish than Tetracha or Cicindela. They rarely destroy living insects of any kind, but feed mostly upon effect matter, dead insects, and such live ones as they can capture. They cannot run as fast as the slowest Cicindela, and pay no attention to a collector till his fingers touch them. Prof. F. H. Snow, of Lawrence, Kans., who made some observations for us last summer in the western part of his State, and who also suc- ceeded in capturing many specimens, gives the following more complete , account, in a paper read before the Kansas Academy of Science: I was disappointed to find these insects apparently devoid of that intensely ferocious nature which had been ascribed to them bysensational writers for the Eastern press, and which would be suggested by its position at the head of a ravenous family, the Cincindelide, or Tiger-beetles. I have watched them night after night coming forth from their hiding-places soon after sundown and beginning their night-long search for food. I am satisfied that their sense of sight must be exceedingly deficient, as they never discover their prey from a distance, however slight, and never capture it unless stumbling upon it as if by accident. When, however, they do thus stumble upon an unfortunate caterpillar, grasshopper, or other suitable article of food, a very acute sense of touch, chiefly concentrated in their long and constantly vibrating antenne, enables them to seize upon and firmly holdit with their powerful mandibles, while with their maxillz, or secondary jaws, they withdraw the life-juices and soft tissues of their struggling victim. They also manifest the imperfection of their vision by mak- ing no attempt to escape from their human captors, allowing themselves to be picked up asif entirely blind. They are slow in their movements, walking about with great deliberation over their favorite hunting-grounds, the sloping clay banks. The only 316 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. approach to rapidity of movement observed during the summer Was in the case of a single individual suddenly surprised by the morning sun while at a distance from a suitable hiding-place which he was making frantic exertions to discover. In a brief paper contributed to this Academy by Mr. H. A. Brous, at our last annual meeting, it was stated that Amblychile live in holes which they construct for them- selves. My own observations do not corroborate this statement. On the other hand, I found them invariably coming forth at night from holes made by other animals, most especially from the intricately winding burrows of the kangaroo rat (Dipodomys phil- lippii), by which the clay banks are often completely honey-combed. In these bur- rows they take refuge from the direct rays of the sun in the daytime, in company with other nocturnal genera—Eleodes, Pasimachus, &c. These latter insects undoubtedly furnish many a midday meal for Amblychile, which are not to be supposed to pass the entire day in sleep. On one occasion I had an opportunity of watching two of them in a large abandoned badger’s hole. They were wide awake, and walking about with vibrating antenne, as if in search of food. I have also kept several living specimens in confinement, and have carefully watched them for several weeks, but never discov- ered any disposition to make excavations for themselves, though they would gladly take possession of holes made for them in the earth at the bottom of the cage. In regard to food, no living insect seems to come amiss to them. They seem to be especially fond of all sorts of Orthopterous and Lepidopterous larve. They will attack and devour the huge wingless locusts (Brachypeplus) and sword-bearers (Ensicaudes). I have seen them in the act of conquering and devouring the large Prionus of the plains (P. fissicornis), and in two instances have seen them eating one another, apparently with the keenest relish. In confinement they will thrive upon full-grown maple- worms (Dryocampa rubicunda var. alba), the caterpillars of the Handmaid Moth (Da- tana ministra), and almost every other insect pest of the orchard and garden. We have oanveves kept a living specimen, sent us by Professor Snow, in a vivarium all through the past autumn and winter. It showed an admirable capacity for burrowing, and doubtless ex- cavates its own burrows where those of other animals are not at hand to occupy. Our speci- men devoured at first at the rate of two locusts a day, but subse- quently became much less raven- ous. It ate at night when the generally remained quiet and hidden in its burrow during the day. The larva (Fig. 53) of this spe- cies lives in a large cylindrical hole, from one to three feet deep, Fic. 53.—AMBLYCHILA CYLINDRIFORMIS.—a@, larva, lat- made in dry clay ey banks; y and “eral view; 6, same, dorsal view; c, head, prothorax, c = and mesothorax; d, antenna; e, head beneath; Jf, men- Mr. E. W. Guild, in a letter to tum and maxilla ; g, leg; h, “hook- bearing hump of joint 8. (After Horn.) Dr. G. H. Horn, of Philadelphia, thus describes its habits: The burrows are found in all gradations of surface, from a perfect level to a nearly vertical face, but are in greatest numbers in slopes of about 30°. They are very notice- — locusts were least active, and © > ee pares oe LOCUST ENEMIES: ASILUS-FLIES; DIGGER-WASPS. 317 able from their large size and occurrence in clusters. Dry clayey banks are preferred and all the burrows I have examined enter atright angles to the surface of the soil, and remain straight for three-fourths of their length, then gradually curving. Itis not un- usual to see the larve after sundown, or earlier if the day be cloudy. They are, how- ever, very shy, and I know of but one specimen being taken without considerable digging. A fuil description of this larva by Dr. Horn will appear in vol. vii of the Transactions of the American Entomological Society, and we present the accompanying figure thereof, with its several parts enlarged, from an advance plate kindly farnished by the author. This larva had pre- viously been mentioned (Ann. Lye. iv, 1845, p. 143) by Dr. LeConte as that of Pasimachus. Asilus-flies.—We have already referred to these flies (p. 303), the larve of some of which prey upon the eggs of the locust. The perfect flies are very fond of the young locusts, pouncing upon and seizing them, and then flying off to some spot where, unmolested, they can suck the juices of their victim. Mr. Lawrence Bruner, of Omaha, Nebr., who has had good opportunity of observing, says that the larger species live almost entirely on locusts during Fic. 54.—PRocTOCANTHUS MILBERTI. (After the months of June, July, and August. J | Most of the larger species™ doubtless have this habit, and one of the most common and ferocious in which we have observed it is the Proctocanthus milbertt™ Macq. (Fig. 54), and popularly called the Missouri Bee-killer, on account of its habit of de- stroying beesin the Southwest. These insects fly with a buzzing noise, and have a sutiiciently powerful beak to produce quite a severe sting on the human hand. Digger-wasps.—These insects by means of their powerful jaws Fic. 55.—LARRADA SEMIRUFA.— Female. (Emer Fic. 56—LARRADA SEMIRUFA.—Female, grasping a ton del.) young locust. (Emerton del) 76 Mr. Brous found the following species feeding on spretus: Stenopogon consanguineus Loew, a species with pale yellowish hairs on head and thorax, yellowish-brown wings, and pale rufous legs and abdo- men ; Promachus apivora F.:tch; Evraz bastardii (Fig. 29); several allied species of raz, and a species of Tolmerus. 7 The Asilus missouriensis Riley, 2d Mo. Ent. Rep. p. 122. 318 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. and spinous legs burrow with great rapidity in the ground, where they form a sort of nest; provision it with some kind of prey which they have stung and paralyzed; lay an egg thereunder, and cover up the hole—the larva when it hatches feeding upon the stored foodthus pro- vided by the parent. Several species have long been known to capture locusts and green grasshoppers. We noticed a small black species (Priononyx atrata, St. Farg.) that is quite common in Co- lorado, pursuing and capturing the pupa of C. spretus, and Mr. Packard caught a still smaller Species (Larrada semirufa, Cress., Figs. 55, 56), with black head and thorax and reddish abdomen, whileit was in the act of carrying a spretus larva. One of our handsomest species (Sphea ichneumonea U.., Fig. 57), with golden pubescence on head and thorax and with the legs and basal half of abdomen rust- red, has been closely observed by Mr. Packard, and we copy the fol- lowing account of its habits from his Guide to the Study of Insects (p. 167): ; In the last week of July, and during August and early in September, we noticed nearly a dozen of these wasps busily engaged in digging their holes ina gravelly walk. In previous seasons they were more numerous, burrowing into grassy banks near the waik. ‘The holes were four to six inches deep. In beginning the hole, the wasp ‘dragged away with its teeth a stone one-half as large as itself to a distance of eight - inches from the hole, while it pushed away others withits head. In beginning its burrow it used its large and powerful jaws almest entirely, digging into the depth of an inch in five minutes, completing its hole in about half an hour. After having in- serted its head into the hole, where it loosened the earth with its jaws and threw it out of the hole with its jaws and fore legs,it would retreat backward and push the dirt still farther back from the mouth of the cell with ‘its hind legs.’ In cases where the farther progress of the work was stopped by a stone too large for the wasp to re- move or dig around, it would abandon it and begin anew hole. Just as soon as it reached the required depth, the wasp flew a few feet to an adjoining bank, and falling upon an Orchelimum vulgare or O. gracile (two common grass-green catydid-like grass- hoppers, about an inch long), stung and paralyzed it instantly, bore it to its nest, and was out of sight ina moment, and while in the bottom of its hole must have deposited its egg in its victim. Reappearing, it began to draw the sand back into the hole, scratching it in quite briskly by means of its spiny fore tarsi, while standing on its two hind pairs of legs. It thus threw in half an inch of dirt upon the grasshopper and then flew off. In this way one Sphex will make two or three such holes in one ‘afternoon. The walk was hard and composed of a coarse sea-gravel, and the rapidity with which the wasp worked her way in with tooth and nail was marvelous. Fic. 57.—SPHEX ICHNEUMONEA. (After Emerton.) A steel-blue species (Chlorion ceruleum Drury, Fig. 58), though ordi- narily using spiders, also employs locusts; and the following extract from TACHINA-FLIES AS LOCUST ENEMIES. 319 a letter from Mr. William H. Edwards, of Coalburgh, W. Va., gives an interesting instance of this insect losing its way and being puzzled: I was greatly entertained one day at seeing this steel-blue dirt-digger ride a locust up and down the walk of my garden in search of its hole, which it had missed by 20 feet, the hole being in fact in a walk parallel and sim- ilar to the one it was on, but 20 feet away. The wasp would ride up and down, stop, turn back, or drop the *hopper and run about; then mount its prey again, until it found out its mistake by getting atdast on to the proper walk. Mr. A. N. Godfrey, one of our assistants, observed this wasp sting a pupa of spretus and bury it, and upon digging up the pupa found the wasp egg at the juncture of the hind femur with the body. Species of the a genus Scolia are also known to have this me. 58—Cutorton ceruteum. (Af- same habit. vig Tachina-flies.—The animals so far treated of as attacking the locust either devour it bodily, suck its juices, or are parasitic upon it externally. There remain those which prey upon it internally, and which in time exhaust and kill it. The most common of these are the larve of certain flies belonging to the genus Tavhina—gray-colored, two- winged flies, having very much the general appearance of the common house-fly, though usually somewhat larger. | ‘These Tachina-tlies firmly fasten their eges—which a are oval, white, and opaque, and quite tough—to those parts of the body not easily reached by the jaws and legs of their victim, and thus prevent the egg from being detached. The slow-flying locusts are attacked while flying, and it is quite amusing to watch the frantic efforts which one of them, haunted by a Tachina-fly, will make toevade its enemy. The fly buzzes around, waiting her opportunity, and when the ' Fic. 59.—YELLOW-TAILED TACHI- , ; 5 NA-FLY. (After Riley.) locust jumps or flies, darts at it and attempts to attach her egg under the wing or on theneck. The attempt frequently fails, but she perseveres until she usually accomplishes her object. With those locusts which fly readily, she has even greater difficulty; but though the locust tacks suddenly in all directions in its efforts to avoid - her, she cireles close around it and generally succeeds in accomplishing her purpose, either while the locust is yet on the wing, or, more often, just as it alights from a flight or a hop. The young maggots hatching from these eggs eat into the body of the locust, and after rioting on the fatty parts of the body—leaving the more vital parts untouched—they issue and burrow in the ground, where they contract to brown, egg-like puparia, from which the fly issues either the same season or not till the following spring. A locust infested with this parasite is more lan- 320 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. guid than it otherwise would be; yet it seldom dies till the maggots have left. Often in pulling off the wings of such as were hopping about, the bodies have presented the appearance of a mere shell filled with maggots; and so efficient is this parasite that the ground in parts of the Western States is often covered with the Rocky Mountain locust dead and dying from this cause. ‘¢ Mr. Byers, in speaking of the locusts hatching in Colorado in 1865, says: ‘That upon attaining about half their full size, they were attacked by a fly, which, stinging them in the back between the roots of the wings, deposited one or more eggs, which produced a large white maggot. The worm subsisted upon the grasshopper, finally causing its death, when it cut its way out and entered the earth. In this way probably half were destroyed, often covering the ground, and filling the furrows in plowed fields with their carcasses. The remainder, when their wings were sufficiently developed, took to flight, moving southeast, and we lost trace of them on the great plains.’ ‘¢Mr.S. E. Wilber, of Greeley, Colo., has published an account of what is evidently the same fly.” In this aeeaeee after showing how persist- . ently the fly pursues the locust—leaving it no rest, and so effectually weakening whole swarms as to render them harmless—he expresses the opinion that the constant importunities and annoyances of this fly are the cause of locust migrations.’ We have already expressed our belief that at times they may prove one of the immediate causes. Persons who have not lived in the West, where the locust has pre- vailed, can form no idea of the great abundance of these Tachina_flies. We found them buzzing about so numerously in the mountain regions last summer as to prove a positive nuisance to travelers, and every locust as it attempted to fly was pursued by several. It was also very generally conceded, especially in Colorado, that one of the principal reasons why the locusts did so little damage in 1877 was because they were so generally infested with Tachina maggots. We found the same state of things wherever we went in the Northwest, and in 1875 in parts" of Manitoba, as we were credibly informed by Mr. W. F. Luxton and others, they so effectually killed off the young locusts that none matured to fly off. In Minnesota they were so numerous as to follow the locusts - in vast swarms. Mr. J. I. Salter, of Stearns County, having communi- cated the fact of vast clouds of flies passing over Todd County, we wrote to ascertain the kind, and received the following account: As to the flies, they were the fly described in your bulletin as the Tachina-fly. Some two or three weeks before the final flight of the ’hoppers I noticed thousands of those flies on my timothy and clover meadow, where the locusts were in great numbers, and noticed that these seemed to be in fear, restless, and uneasy. I found, by watching, that they. had cause to be, for no sooner would one take wing, or even hop, but it — would be attacked by those flies. Finally, the locusts rose en masse and left, and shortly after (I have now forgotten how soon) the flies left in a cloud or swarm, nearly all. I saw the locusts leave; also the flies. Then about the last flights of locusts, going | 78 Popular Science Monthly, iv, p. 745. WORK OF TACHINA-FLIES. B24 southeast, or shortly after, I saw at two different times, on different days, flights of what I believed, and still believe, were the same flies before spoken of. My neighbor, Donald McIntosh, also saw one, if not more, swarms of the flies, apparently following the locusts. In every instance they took the same course as the locusts. In warm weather, these flies multiply very rapidly, undergoing all their transformations in the course of a fortnight from leaving the egg; but in the cooler seasons the pupal development under ground is much slower, and the winter is generally passed in the puparium, though we have known the larve to remain in the ground unchanged all through the winter. The following extracts, principally from our correspondence, refer to: these Tachina-flies, and very well indicate the effectual work they some- times perform: Also, I will say that the grasshoppers, which a month since seriously threatened to. devour every green thing, have met with a mortal foe and been slain by millions. (Don’t think “ millions” too large a word.) Very few have taken to “ themselves wings and flown away,” as heretofore, but lie dead in the fields they lately ravaged. A small fly pierces them and deposits an egg while on the wing (or on the jump), and, like Herod of old, “‘ they are eaten of worms and give up the ghost.”—[Jos. C. Shattuck, Greeley, ’ Colo., July 14, 1873. ; It seems that the grasshoppers that are so destructive to vegetation in many places in the central portion of the continent are likely to find an enemy which threatens their rapid destruction. The Deer Lodge Independent says that a fly has made its appear- ance, closely resembling the common house-fly, but much larger, and of a gray, mot- tled color, which deposits its eggs under the wings of the grasshopper. The egg is inclosed in a glutinous substance, which secures it in its position until the worm is matured [embryon developed]. It then penetrates the body of the grasshopper, which speedily dies. The worm then burrows in the ground, and at the end of seventeen days comes forth a fly, ready to again commence the work of destruction. Mr.William Walker, of Dempsey Creek, informs the Iadependent that twice during the past sum- mer the grasshoppers threatened to destroy his crops, but the flies killed them so rapidly that they did him but little damage. As the grasshoppers were killed before depositing their eggs, it is generally believed that this plague. is ended in the Deer Lodge Valley.—[ Published in several Montana papers in the summer of 1874. A great many of the locusts seemed to be punctured on the back, and on pulling their heads off after death (many were found dead) from one to three ordinary-looking mag- gots would be found. Many farmers fear it might be an introduction of a new plague. May not this gentleman with his little gimlet in time prove the destroyer of the hate-. ful loeust ?—[R. P. C. Wilson, Platte City, Mo. ; I saw a’hopper kicking about asif he could hardly move; I pulled him to pieces and found that he contained a footless grub half an inch in length. In a short time more were procured, placed in a covered tumbler, where, in a little more than two weeks,, the grubs changed to Tachina-flies, very much resembling the common house-flies. * * * When we remember what an enormous number of eggs (fly-blows) a fly will lay, and that each, in about a month, will be a perfect fly, it is seen that it would take but a few generations to clean out an army of grasshoppers.—[Oscar J. Strong, Rolfe, Pocahontas County, Iowa, in Western Farmer, February, 1869. Two years ago there was a fly that stung the locust when about half-grown, and killed large numbers. The fly laid an egg that soon developed into a maggot that ate out the inside of the locust, leaving only ashell. I gathered some of the maggots while they were within the locust, and put them in a glass. In about four days they went into the pupa state, looking something like a kernel of rye, but a little more plump, 216 322 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. and in about ten days they hatched out into a fly about the size and appearance of the ~ house-fly.—[C. O. Perkins, Oswego, Labette County, Kansas, June, 1877. Very many have been killed by a large maggot, apparently the larva of a Sarco- phaga carnaria. The maggot is about one-feurth of an inch in length. They seem to attack the locusts at or near the time of the last molt, though sometimes the pups are attacked. The locusts, when affected, become torpid, and hop with difficulty. When these are examined, one or more maggots are found at work in the thorax. After the locust is killed, the maggots continue at work until every particle of the viscera is con- sumed, leaving only the empty skeleton remaining. One dead locust was found to con- tain eight of the fully-grown maggots.—[ A. N. Godfrey, June, 1877. Myriads of locusts were destroyed by cold, heavy rains, and by a small fly producing: maggotsin them. Flies of this kind very numerous.—[James Moore, Bastrop, Tex., May 8, 1877. Upon examination of the young ’hoppera we find several very small-looking worms, which seem to develop with the ’hopper, and when it (the ’hopper) gets a little older this worm seems to have increased in size so much until we find them eating their pas- sage out of the ’hopper, after which the ’hopper dies in a very short time. When it comes out it looks something like a maggot from a dead carcass. We find from three to six of these worms in a ’hopper, and, as before stated, the ’hopper very soon dies after this worm is out, and it was the -immense number of the dead ’hoppers on the _ prairies that led to the discovery of the phenomena described. It being an entire new feature here makes us somewhat interested, especially as we hear the report of dead *hoppers from various portions of the State. Some time after leaving the ’hoppers, this maggot (or whatever it may be) burrows into the. ground, and this is as far as we know anything of it at present; when it goes into the ground it has attained a size of about one-quarter of an inch in length and very thick in proportion, and somewhat ribbed as it contracts and expands in moving. My object in writing you is to get your opinion as to what this werm may turn to, as some here think it will produce more “hoppers, others think some kind of a fly. There is one thing certain, if they keep on at the present rate of destruction the ’hoppers will be a scarce animal in a _ couple of weeks. We shall be pleased to have a reply from you on this subject, as it may benefit a suffering community.—[A. W. Risien, Groesbeck, Tex., April 25, 1877. Some time since “ Will,” our special correspondent, gave our readers an account of the wonderful destruction of grasshoppers by the Tachina-fly in the Bitter Root coun- try. We notice that his statements of the investigation.are corroborated by Professor Riley in his new book. But his investigations went still further than Professor Riley’s. He estimated these flies produce from 70 to 100 maggots each. These maggots, after devouring the ’hopper, burrow into the-earth, but the question is not yet settled as to when the fly issues from it. Professor Riley says: ‘‘They issue and burrow in the ground, where they contract to a brown, egg-like pupa, from which the fly issues, either inthe same season or not until the following spring.” Mr. J. L. Humble, of Bitter Root, who is aiding us in the investigation, writes under date of August 21: “Agreeably to promise, I write to inform you of the results of my experiments with the grasshopper and his natural enemy—the fly. I saw flies sting a number of ’hop- pers (6), aud caught them and put them under a glass vase. In twenty-four hours from the time they were stung, the worm had entered the body of the grasshopper ; and in twelve hours more (doubtless the ’hopper thought it an age), the grasshopper . yielded the last spark of vitality to the uncompromising greed of his internal foe.” Now, if these flies destroy from 70 to 100 ’hoppers during their lifetime, killing the ’*hopper in 36 hours from the time the eggs are laid, and a new fly issues therefrom, we have grounds for a hope that: the plague may eventually be destroyed, or so greatly diminished that the ravages will not be felt.—[ Rocky Mountain Husbandman, Diamond City, Montana, September 6, 1877. There are a few left now, but they seem very weak, and many I find dead; and on examining them find a worm which eats the inside of the ’hopper and Te only a shell. —[Stephen penley Agenda, Kans., July 12, 1877. ——————————————————— FLESH-FLIES THAT ATTACK LOCUSTS. 323 In 1869 large numbers of the grasshoppers were destroyed by a parasite eating their vitals. It comes from an egg deposited by a blackish fly. Many have died from the same cause this year.—[ Jas. S. Cantwell, Smithfield, Cache County, Utah. On the 24th ultimo I first noticed that the ’hoppers were getting wings, and now four-fifths of them are winged. A great number of them are dying from the effects of a grub or maggot which devours the inside of the hopper, leaving but little more than the shell.—[ W. J. Newell, Athol, Iowa, July 2, 1877. There are doubtless many different species of these Tachina-flies that attack our locusts, but by far the most common is the Anonymous Tachina-fly (T. anonyma Riley), which attacks also a large number of other insects.“ The Yellow-tailed Tachina-fy (Hzorista flavicauda Riley, Fig. 59), which more particularly attacks the army-worm, will serve to illustrate these insects. Flesh-flies.—These flies also attack the locust. They greatly resem- ble the preceding in general appearance, but may be distinguished by | the style of the antenne being hairy instead of smooth. Judg- ing from the accounts of corre- spondents, and the well-known _ habit of breeding in dead and de- composing animal matter which these flies possess, they are most attracted to those locusts that are feeble or already dead, and are fond of laying their eggs on speci- mens which have just molted, and are yet pale, soft, and helpless. \ iz Fic. 60.—SARCOPHAGA CARNARIA; greatly enlarged. Fic. 61.—SARCOPHAGA CARNARIA—pupa- (After Emerton.) rium; greatly enlarged. (After Emerton.) These flies lay elongate and delicate eggs, which hatch very quickly. They sometimes hatch, in fact, within the oviduct, so that the fly gives birth to living larve. These are distinguished from those of the Tachina- flies by being more concave and truncated at the posterior end (see Fig. 62,b). The Tachina larva is rounded posteriorly, with a small spi- racular cavity, easily closed, and having a smooth rim; it contracts to a pupa, which is quite uniformly rounded at each end. The Sarcophaga larva is more truncate behind, with fleshy warts on the rim of the spi- racular cavity, and with a more tapering head ; it contracts to a pupa, which is also truncate behind, and more tapering in front, where the prothoracic spiracles show as they never do in Tachina. 79 See Mo. Ent. Repts. 4, p. 129; 5, p. 133. . 324 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. The species most commonly infesting our locust is the common Flesh- fly (Sarcophaga carnaria L.),a wide-spread species and general scavenger, common alike to Europe, America, and Australia, and probably to other | quarters of the globe. Its larve infest different kinds of locusts and the common Mantis;* and they generally leave nothing but the bare shell of their victim. They develop very rapidly; and, like the Tachina mag- gots, burrow in the ground to go through their transformations. The accompanying figure of a variety (sarracenie Riley), which feeds on the dead insects caught in those curious traps, the Trumpet-leaves (genus Sar- racenia), will serve to illustrate these transformations. Another species that attacks the Rocky Mountain locust is the Calli- . phora erythrocephala, Meig., also very Fic. 62. _SARCOPHAGA carNnaria var. sarra- COMMON and wide spread, and easily CENIZ.—d, larva; b, pupa; ¢, fly, the hairlines distinguished from the preceding by its showing average ‘natural lengths : d, enlarged head and first joint of larva, showing curved blue eolor. The toKowing extractsrefer hooks, lower lip (g) and prothoracic spiracles ; e, end of body of same, showing stigmata (f) to these flies: and prolegs and vent; h, tarsal claws of fly, with protecting pads; i, antenna of same—en- A certain blue or green fly has been more larged. (After Riley.) j : : : largely instrumental in destroying the insects than any other cause, so far as known. They operated by depositing an egg or eggs about the junction of the thorax with the abdomen, which produced a worm that destroyed life in a short time. They were most active about the time of the second molting. A few specimens of the flies (found dead) are forwarded. I also saw a small spider destroy one, but cannot say whether many were killed in that way.— [ Daniel Parker, Calvert, Tex., April 26, 1877. During the summer I oured that many of the large yellow grasshoppers: (Caloptenus differentialis) were infested by the maggot of a species of fly very nearly resembling, if not identical with, the common Flesh-fly (Sarcophaga carnaria). Many of the grass- hoppers were almost completely eaten out when found, retaining just sufficient strength to hop feebly ever the ground. I estimate that this particular species of grasshopper was diminished in numbers at least one-tenth, possibly one-eighth, by these new friends. It is to be hoped that these new parasites will increase rapidly. Professor C. V. Riley informs me that the Migratory Locust (Caloptenus spretus) is also infested by a similar one. Thus far, however, I have failed to detect any in the sae: col- lected in this vicinity.—[Professor C. E. Bessey, Ames, Iowa. As the young locusts began marching, swarms of green and blue flies made their appearance, and seemed to accompany them. I soon found numbers of young locusts dead with maggots in them, and supposed the flies were following them to blow those accidentally killed, but during the second molt I discovered the locusts were very tender and helpless, and I observed these flies watching them and alighting on them as they came out of their casts. Catching one which I had observed attacked by the fly, I found half a dozen live maggots busily engaged eating his entrails. By patient watching, I found that those attacked by the fly would die in from five to ten minutes; and the maggots, after finishing them, would disappear in the ground, and I suppose, jn the course of time, comes out a new fly.—[ W. L. Coleman, Calvert, Tex., April 24, 1877. Ichneumon-flies.—It is an interesting fact that not a single Ichneu- mon-fly is positively known to attack our locust, nor has one ever been found 8° Locust Plague, ete., p. 136. | NO ICHNEUMON-FLIES ATTACK LOCUSTS. 325 to attack any of the different locusts or grasshoppers that occur in the country. We have sought diligently for evidence of the occurrence in locusts of any of these essentially parasitic insects. By Ichneumon- flies we intend, not those of the genus Ichneumon alone, but any belong- ing to the great family Ichneuwmonide. They are known to attack plant- feeding species of all Orders except the Half-winged bugs (Heteroptera) and the Straight-winged insects (Orthoptera), to which last the locust belongs. Westwood, St. Fargeau, Brullé, and other authors who have | paid especial attention to these Ichneumon-flies, all concur in excepting the Orthoptera from their attacks. Von Motschulsky speaks of having | found a species (Proctotrupes brevipennis, Latr.) of an allied family near | Italian locusts, and infers, without proof whatever, its possible parasit- | ism thereon; but, of the latest and most reliable Kuropean authorities, | Gerstiicker and Képpen, the former states explicitly that no Ichneumon is known to attack the European locust, while the latter knows of none, and refers only to rumors of the occurrence of bee-like insects that sting | the locust, and which rumors doubtless have reference to Digger-wasps or Tachina-flies. Again, Mr. Thomas Bath,® in treating of the injuries | of locusts in Australia, one species of which (given as Gidipoda musica, : Fabr.) in size and general appearance is not unlike our spretus, figures an Ichneumon-fly (given as Bracon capitata) stinging a locust, and cer- tain maggots, supposed to be the larvz of the same, taken from a locust. But the former is imaginary, unreal, and evidently not. from actual ob- servation, while the latter are evidently the larvee, not of an Ichneumon, but of some Dipterous (doubtless Tachina) fly. Coming to our own country, Mr. Brous, in 1876, sent us two Ichneumons—a Campoplex and Pimpla notanda, Cresson—noticed flying about locusts, but without evidence of their stinging these; and Professor Aughey has sent us a female Lampronota brunnea, Cresson, which he believes to have bred from winged specimens of spretus in August, 1874. But his notes lack in absolute certainty, and he himself has on that account refrained from referring to the supposed fact; while the long ovipositor and well-known habit of some species of the genus of preying on wood-boring Coleop- terous larve, to reach which the ovipositor is admirably adapted, strengthen the uncertainty, and render further corroborative evidence necessary before we can say that any Ichneumon. fly actually preys on the Rocky Mountain locust. Reports from farmers, of Ichneumon-flies attacking locusts, are not uncommon, because this term is often erroneously applied to any para- ~ site, and especially to the Tachina-flies and the Anthomyia egg-parasite, already treated of. Some writers have even sought to justify its appli- cation to this last species, on the ground that the term “ichneumon” means an egg-feeder; unaware of the fact that it has a definite meaning in entomology, and that, while originally applied by Aristotle to an Egyp- 81“ Notes on Observations made during the Late Locust Plague.” Report of the Secretary for Agri- culture, Melbourne, 1873. 326 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. tian animal (Herpestes ichneumon, L.) that hunts for and feeds on croco- dile eggs, it was also applied, both by Pliny and Aristotle, to a wasp that hunts spiders and caterpillars, for which reason Linnzus appropri- ately used it to designate the parasitic family we have been consider- ing. Hair-worms.—Of all the different enemies of our locust, these long, thread-like worms are the most curious and remarkable. Occurring in all parts of the world, and mentioned even by Aristotle, they are by no means rare. We have on several occasions ob- tained specimens from spretus, and a number of our correspondents have re- ported the locusts affected by them. Ha Mr. I. G. McGrue, of Audubon, Minn., . Fic. 63.—Ham-worms.—a, anterior ex. .eVen asserts that in that part of the tremity of the female Variable Gordius (G. country the hair-worms destroyed as varius); 6, the same of the male; c, anterior extremity of the Linear Gordius (G. line- ; a ; aris); d, side view of the posterior extrem- many locusts, in 1875, as did any other ity of the male of the same species; e, an- i it terior extremity of the Robust Gordius (G. SA 2uL The locust infested with one robustus) from Kansas; J, postenorextten of these worms may be recognized by jting the genital pore (after Leidy). its pale and sickly look, and especially by the want of color on the hind thighs. The worms are not infrequently found within the young and unfledged locusts, but far more often noticed within or issuing from the winged individuals. Ordinarily there is but one worm, but as many as five have been found, within a single locust. If we carefully detach the head of a full-grown locust infested with one of these parasites, just before it would naturally issue, we shall find the coiled ends thereof protruding from the thorax, and the rest of the animal coiled up longitudinally around the intestines and among the viscera, the muscular, secretory, and reproductive organs of the locust being much wasted, and the worm so closely pressed against or coiled around them as to almost completely occupy the whole inside of the poor locust, from the head to the anus, through which last the parasite eventually issues. . . These hair-worms are not only very frequently found in different locusts, grasshoppers, katydids, and crickets, but Professor Leidy even has one from a cockroach. They likewise occur in many other insects and smaller animals, as beetles, moths and butterflies, bees, two-winged flies, spiders; and snails.* As a rule, the worms forsake Lepidoptera while these are in the larva state, or, more rarely, in the pupa state; whereas they generally issue from Coleoptera and Orthoptera only after these have acquired the perfect state. They belong to two different genera, Gordius and Mermis, differing more in internal structure than in 82Siebold (Ent. Zeit., Stettin, ix, 1848, pp. 295-300; xi, 1850, pp. 332-336) gives a list of Articulates found intested with hair-worms up to that time, from which it appears that insectsof all Orders except Neuroptera are attacked, while even mites are probably infested. Woy, iene Dae INSECTS INFESTED WITH HAIR-WORMS. 327 external appearance. The. commoner species of the former genus are brown, while those of the latter are white or pale yellow. In reality, some of those which are pale while within their host become dark after issuance, and the color alone has no generic value. We need hardly allude here to the popular belief that these worms are animated horse- hairs. Despite the ready explo- sion of the fallacy by naturalists, the superstition is yet very prev- alent, and we have several other- wise intelligent correspondents who persist in the popular faith. The development of these Entozoa is, indeed, so obscure and difficult to trace that their life-history is yet enshrouded in some degree of Fic. 64.—Hair-worms.—g, posterior, tri-lobed mystery, a fact which has no little extremity of the female Variable Gordius; h, the to do with the perpetuity of the same, with the lobes more divergent, and exhibit- ing the extrusion of the cord of eggs; 7, posterior ; = bi-lobed extremity of the male Variable Govind, pop ular delusion. So far as PFES seen on the ventral surface, and exbibiting the gen- i ital pore; k, dorsal view of the same; J, posterior ent knowledge permits, let us bi-lobed extremity of the male Long-lobed Gordius, ; 7 j ife-hi seen on the veniral surface, and exhibitiug the gen- glance at this curious life history i ital pore; mm, the same in the male of the Linear j 7. nN Gordius; , portion of the fringe of the latter, In the American Entomolog ist and highly maguified ; 0, egg of the Variable Gordius, Botanist for May, 1870 Prof. containing a fully developed embryo highly magni- E f ok a fied. (After Leidy.) Joseph Leidy, of Philadelphia, published what was then known of these worms, and we quote here some of his remarks. We are also indebted to Professor Leidy for a critical examination and determination of the specimens we have studied. An interesting fact is worthy of mention here, as it may be more than mere coincidence: it is that all the Orthoptera infested with these parasites that have come under Mr. Riley’s notice (9 in number) are females. The Hair-worm is, however, a distinct animal, having no further relationship with a horse-hair than in its general likeness, which is by no means an exact one. When ip following specimens of hair-worms have been found infesting locusts, grasshoppers, katydids, and crickets: Gordius seta, Miller (aquaticus of other authors).—T wo specimens (¢ @) from a 9 Phylloptera oblen- gifolia (De Geer). The ¢ has the dark annulus and pale truncated end, and also the anal bifid char- acters of G. varius Leidy; but the 2 has not the trifid anal characters of that species, and approaches robustus. Color light coffee-brown. Length of ¢ & inches; diameter 0.8 mm.: length of 9 103 inches; diameter 0.9mm. One ¢ froma 9 Orchelimum glaberrimum; one Q also from a 2 Caloptenus spretus. All the above in Mr. Riley’s cabinet. Specimens of the sams from water often show a transverse capi- tal carina in the 9, and a dark lengitudinal line the whole length of body. Mr. Packard hasa ¢ taken from Gryllus neqlectus, and has observed two specimens of what was apparently the same species in Caloptenus bivittatus. 2 Gordius robustus, Leidy.—A ¢ from 2 Anabrus purpurascens Uhler; in Mr. Riley’s cabinet. Length 113 inches; diameter09mm. Very similar to ¢ of preceding species, though the transverse strie are more distinct. Diesing refers it to aquaticus, and it doubtless is specifically the same. Packard re- cords a 2 from Stenopelmata fasciata, Thomas, taken at Wahsatch, Utah, and Leidy records a 2 from Orchelimum gracile. Mermis albicans.—Two specimens from 2 Caloptenus spretus, one 17 the other 11 inches long; diam- eter 0.6mm. Anterior end quite tapering: neither capital nor anal charact. = = ON THE USEFULNESS OF BIRDS. 343 from 60. At this rate five young birds would eat about 300 insects each day, or about 9,000 a month for each month, exclusive of the parents. There have been widely dif- ferent estimates as to the number of insects that old birds eat, but it ought not to be difficult to approximate the quantity. Only a small part of the contents of a bird’s stomach is entire enough to be distinguished and counted. If the balance is composed as largely of insects, which is more than probable, then the whole pumber eaten dur- _ing a day by an insectivorous bird must be near 200. I reached the same conclusion by actual tests. In the fall of 1874 I bought two Bartramian plovers from some boys who had trapped them, and kept them for a week in a cage before they were set free. I fed them locusts and other insects, which I counted for four days with the following result: ; Rite Rites Pekar de eee latin eal A ote he wanes i adad Hood oel- leek ecaiclewss 277 Vici od fk ot) anatase shea GELS Semlonas JaisK qscm ces RGnitaclsswledcie 452 Bile BPM i Set ope teeth to: anbhels. be Getlece ch eigtie nese be wali eaee de 448 RRR Sxrepel a ee eae Jaen s icine aaite ans webads eG nwendsdecnid. duke see 439 bared cpt igre etd apccicin ales yacniate e's Kis soataitadin dia bin cidwaebelics 1, 616 Average per day .--.-..---- Sd a: DE eet Gewsiatopiepealdemm suciotcisolk ocx 404 Siveta rn eaeblep tn iste! - ie sg ll dec) wasnatds one colette. baud. Ba8y 202 I was compelled to go away or else the experiment would have been continued longer. About one-fourth of the insects were locusts, and the balance were flies, ants, beetles, &c. I gave them whatever insects the boys that I had hired gathered for me. On the tirst day I failed to get all that they would have eaten, but afterward they had all that they wanted. My impression, however, is that they ate less than they would have done if they had been at liberty. But, lest there might be some mistake, and to avoid all possibility of error on the wrong side, we will base our calculations on an estimate of 150 insects each day for a mature plover. At this rate 20 old plov- ers would eat 3,000 insects each day, or 90,000 a month. And suppose, further, that thess 20 plovers had ten nests, which averaged four young ones each. At 60 insects each day for each young plover, the 40 would consume 2,400 every 24 hours, or 72,000 amonth. The 20 plovers and their progeny, together, would consume 162,000 insects each month. At this same rate 1,000 plovers and their young would consume in one month 8,100,000 insects. That many locusts removed in one year from a farm of 160 acres would probably render it capable of producing crops even when these insects are doing their worst. As there are many birds that eat more insects than do the plov- ers, as well as many that eat less, 150 insects a day is probably a fair average for all insectivorous birds. Here we meet with still other topics of misapprehension on the part of the general public. It is as to the abundance of insects and their prolific character. Many can- not understand how there can be enough insects to feed birds that devour them at this rate. But it is well known among all naturalists that the lower forms of life are mar- velous for the number of species and of individuals and for their fecundity. When I first came to Nebraska, in December, 1864, there were many species of birds far more abundant than they have been during recent years. I never saw the black- birds so abundant as they were during 1865 over Eastern Nebraska. As I stated under the head of Bremer’s Blackbird, vast numbers of them were poisoned around the corn- fields in spring and fall during these years, so that often piles of them could be seen at once that had been gathered together. It was done under the mistaken notion that the blackbirds were damaging the crops, especially the corn. Great numbers of birds of other species were destroyed at the same time. A single grain of corn soaked in strychnine would suffice to killa bird. For several years previous to my coming this practice had been going on. In asingle autumn, in Dakota County alone, not less than 30,000 birds must have been destroyed in this way. Supposing that each of these birds 344 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION, averaged eating 150 insects each day, we then have the enormous number of 135,000,000 of insects saved in this one county in one month that ought to have been destroyed through the influence of birds. When we reflect, further, that many of these birds were migratory, and that they helped to keep down the increase of insects in distant regions, the harm that their destruction has done is beyond calculation. The killing of such birds is no local loss; itis a national, a continental loss. Besides, this destrue- tion of birds was not confined to one county; it extended to most of the counties in Northeastern Nebraska alone, and to some in Northwestern Iowa at least. This disturbance of the balance of nature must therefore affect crops sooner or later in the whole Missouri River region, in British America, and in Mexico. And the sub- ject of the protection of insectiverous birds must, or ought, sooner or later, to become not only national, but international. Many of these migratory insectivorous birds breed in British America, and winter along our Southern border or in Mexico. Their destruction, therefore, affects the welfare of three nations; for it can be seen from the data given and the calculations made how important their work must be during the month that they pass through the United States in spring and fall. In addition to the destructive agency of poison to which I have just adverted, it is better known how man, for purposes of gain, to fill his-table and so-called pleasure, has been destroying countless numbers of birds. If a bird could be used to appease hunger, that has been made an excuse for killing it. Prairie-chickens, quail, plover, curlews, and snipe have been especial sufferers from this source. The two former were, a few years ago, trapped, shot, and carried eastward by the car-load. Trapping is now, fortunately, made illegal, but up to the present year it was still lawful to hunt chickens and quail with dogs from July to January. Hunting these birds with dogs was, in my judgment, fully as fatal to them as trapping. It was comparatively easy for a man with atrained dog to shoot from fifty to two hundred chickens in a day in August, before the young were full grown and before they had become suspicious. During the winter of 1877 a law was enacted forbidding the killing of prairie-chickens and quail and most of our insectivorous birds, but unfortunately there is yet no public sentiment sufficient to enforce it everywhere. As the law now stands on the statute- book, it prevents that wholesale capture of birds for shipment that once prevailed. Vast numbers, however, are yet secretly hunted through the instrumentality of dogs and guns. It is no longer done openly, and the birds obtained can no longer be pub- licly exposed to sale, and the probabilities are that they are now about holding their own. Some of the so-called sporting-men deny that there has been a great destruc- tion of birds by this means. The following, however, are a few of the public notices of hunts that have taken place: | [From Omaha Republican of September 8, 1865.] On the 6th Captain Hoagland’s party bagged 422 prairie-chickens, 4 quails, 6 hawks, 1 duck, 4 snipe, and 1 rabbit; total, 462. Captain Kenredy’s party bagged 287 prairie- chickens, 2 quails, 8 hawks, 15 ducks, 6 sn:pe, and one rabbit; total, 353. Excluding the two rabbits, the total number for one day by these two parties was 813 birds. [From Omaha Herald of September 10, 1866.] A. Hoagland, esq., of Omaha, killed in one day 192 prairie-chickens. In the Herald of September and October, in the years 1867, 1868, and 1869, and down to the present time, there have been notices of the destruction which these hunting er sporting clubs have caused among insectivorous birds. A few years ago prairie-chickens and quail, as well as snipe, wild geese, and ducks were exposed for sale during half a year in nearly all the butcher-shops of the State, The following note from Bohannon Brcthers indicates the quantity sold by them: Deak Sir: In answer to your inquiry, let us observe that we did not keep a very accurate account of the prairie-chickens sold by us; but during 1874 and 1875 it must have averaged at least 18 a day for seven months in a year.—[ Bohannon Brothers, Lin- coln, Nebr., November 2, 1877. Now, this is one of ten firms in Lincoln engaged in the meat:business, and all were, during these days, engaged in selling prairie-chickens, quail, &c., to a greater or less ON THE USEFULNESS OF BIRDS. 345 degree. Probably few sold more, and the greater number of them sold less, than the above firm, but 12 would probably be a fair average for all. This would make 120 prairie-chickens and quail sold per day, or 18,000 for 150 days. Those that were captured by the sporting-men of the town and not taken to the butcher-shops I do not include in this estimate. It is safe to conclude that half this number were captured and consumed in the country; and this would make the whole number from this source 27,000. But even this is not all. In fall and winter vast numbers were formerly. shipped to Eastern markets, and are still from some sections of the West. The following statement of S. P. Benadom, who was formerly engaged in shipping prairie-chickens, will give some idea of the enormous numbers that were formerly captured for this purpose: DEAR Sir: In answer to your inquiry I have only this to say: During the winter of 1875 I was engaged in shipping prairie-chickens, quail, and other game to the Eastern cities, principally Boston and New York. I was only shipping about six weeks, and during that time I sent off 19,000 prairie-chickens and 18,700 quail. About one-half of these were caught in Lancaster County. I cannot tell how many other parties, who were engaged in the same business, shipped...But I am. satisfied the destruction of - these birds ought to be stopped, because 1 know that they destroy grasshoppers. ‘The contents of their stomachs show that.—[S. P. Benadom, Lincoln, Nebr., November 5, 1877. . The following I have received from Richardson County: DEAR Str: * * * The number of chickens (prairie) shipped from this place in 1874 was 2,400 and of quail 900. In 1875 there were shipped of prairie-chickens 1,800 and of quail 1,200. What the larger towns of the county sent off I do not know; but those shipped are a small part of those killed.—[S. M. Willebert, P. M., Humboldt, Richardson County, Nebr., December 7, 1877. — ~ DEAR SiR: * * * From the best information that I have been able to gather on - the subject, there were about 6,000 prairie-chickens and 2,500 quail shipped from this point in the year 1874, and perhaps half as many in 1875. The figures are mere ap-. proximations, and I give them as such, as entire accuracy is now impossible.—[ Isham Reavis, Falls City, Nebr., November 20, 1877. The above, from Hon. Isham Reavis, shows the large number shipped from Falls City. The estimates that I have received from Rulo, another large town on the same railroad in this county, are only guesses. One guess made them 6,000 and another 3,000, but taking the last figure we can be sure that there were shipped from the three towns of this county in 1874 not less than 11,400 prairie-chickens and 4,400 quail, be- sides what were consumed at home. The following is the estimate from Johnson County, Nebraska, forwarded by Hon. C. A. Holmes, a regent of the State university : DEAR Sir: I have made some inquiry concerning the number of prairie-chickens shipped out of our county. There were shipped from Tecumseh by one firm 6,500 _ prairie-chickens during the winter of 1874—75. and about 3,500 from Sterling during the same time. Total, 10,000 from our county. During the same time some quail were shipped, but not such large numbers, probably about 6,000. But this is an esti- mate. The number of chickens is ascertained from parties who know. I knew a great many chickens were shipped, but had no idea that so many were sent away. In addition to the number shipped you can easily say that at least 2,000: more were consumed in the county, as people generally lived on game that winter.— [C. A. Holmes, Tecumseh, Nebr., November 10, 1877. : Str: In answer to yours of September 30, let me say that I find it impossible to ascer- tain the number of prairie-chickens shipped from this county in 1874. When I was in town last week I, made some inquiries, and the estimates ranged from 4,000 to 10,000 and about half that number of quail. For 1875 there were nearly as many. But, judg- ing from the number that I knew were caught, there must have been not less than 20,000 prairie-chickens destroyed in 1874 in this county alone.—[James E. Bulden, Pawnee City, Nebr., November 1, 1877. There were vast numbers of prairie-chickens also shipped from Cass and Sarpy Counties in these years, but I have not been able, after the most diligent efforts, to obtain esti- mates that can be depended on. For Cass they vary from 6,000 to 15,000, and for Sarpy from 5,000 to 11,000, . The same can be said of Douglas, Washington, and Burt Counties, 346 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. One estimate of the number shipped from Dakota County for the year 1874 made the number 7,000,and another 10,000; but wherever I have prosecuted my inquiries in 30 counties of the State the testimony was unanimous that the number of prairie-chick- ens and quail that were trapped and shipped was simply enormous. And for these 30 counties the average for each county, counting in those that were consumed at home, must have been at least 10,000 prairie-chickens and 5,000 quail. This is a very low estimate, but it is best in these calculations to under rather than to over estimate numbers. Now, it is well to look at the enormous number of insects that these two species of birds might have destroyed had they been permitted to live. Number destroyed in each of thirty counties. Prairie-chickens, Quail. 10, C00 5, 000 30 30 Destroyed in 30 counties. ...... Le ghoiae gids 300, 000 150, 000 150 ~ 150 Insects destroyed in one day, at 150 insects to each chicken and quail -.......-s4# 25044 elomsbusl at 45, 000, 000 22, 500, 000 30 30 Insects destroyed in one month..... SRI, GUS LSE 1, 350, 000, 000 675, 000, 000 6 6 Insects destroyed in six months.........--...-- -- 8,100,000, 000: 4, 050, 000, 000 4, 050, 000, 000 Total number of insects denierenis insix months 12,150,000, 000 It should be observed here that the counties embraced in the above caloatation cover only the eastern one-third of the State; and Isubmit whether, if this calculation were extended into the remainder of the State, Kansas, Missouri, and Iowa, it would not account for a large portion of the insect-ravages that interfered with the prosperity of those regions. This calculation should be compared with that made on a previous page concerning the good work of other insectivorous birds, in order to understand the damage done by destroying the natural enemies of insects. Many of the devotees of bird shooting maintain that such an increase of birds as is contemplated i in order to so limit the development of insect-life as to preserve all forms of vegetation from their ravages, would in the end be destructive to our crops. There would not, they claim, be sufficient insects to feed them, and in their absence they would necessarily attack our grain and corn fields. In reference to this it may be observed that it is doubtful whether there are any well anthenticated cases where birds have to any extent been injurious to wheat or corn fields, with the exception of the crows. The blackbirds that were condemned for openiug ears cf corn were really after the grubs that were destroying it. The prairie-chickens and quails that are captured in wheat-stubbles and corn-fields are found to have more insects than grains in their stomachs. The only exception to this rule that has come under my observa- tion has been where sometimes prairie-chickens and quail have been shot on wheat and straw stacks, and in corn-fields in winter. But the grain that is lost in straw at threshing-time would be lost at any rate, and the quantity that can be stolen from the outside of a stack in winter is small at best; and the number of farmers who postpone husking their corn till winter or spring is becoming smaller each year. The greater part of the thrashing throughout the west is also now done in the fall. Generally our granivorous birds only take what is left after the agriculturists have gathered what they could. What the birds take would have been lost at any rate. There is still another beneficent work that these birds that are partly granivorous in winter accomplish for agriculture, a work for which they have never received ON THE USEFULNESS OF BIRDS. 347 eredit, and which from its very nature it is impossible accurately to estimate. They destroy countless numbers of noxious seeds. The difficulty of keeping cultivated lands elean of weeds is proverbial, and the difficulty, it is claimed, is becoming greater each year. Cannot this difficulty be traced to the same cause, in part, as the increase of insects injurious to vegetation? Let any one examine the stomachs of quails and prairie-chickens in winter and note the character of the seeds that constitute their food, and it will be found that a large per cent. are composed of kinds that aze inju- rious to agriculture. The following I have particularly noted : LINCOLN, NEBR., February, 1874.—Four prairie-chickens were examined. The con- tents of the first were 1 grain of corn, 5 grains of wheat, 38 seeds of polygonums (mostly P. amphibium), 7 seeds of cassia, and 13 of sun-flowers, and 17 that I failed to jdentify. The contents of the second were 14 seeds of polygonums, 31 sun-flowers, 3 cassia, 11 verbenas (wild), 4 euphorbias, and 13 wild-rose seeds. The contents of the third were 13 seeds of the cassia, 29 of wild roses, 12 seeds of polygonums, 2 grains of wheat, 1 grain of barley, and 34 that I could not identify. The fourth chicken had in its stomach 15 seeds of the gentians, 33 of rag-weeds, 3 of wild roses, 4 of euphorbias, and 29 minute seeds that I could not identify. Of the eight quail that I examined during the same month, only one had a few grains of wheat in its stomach. All the rest were filled with grass-seed and the seeds of weeds, principally the latter. Those that I examined in the winter of 1875 gave the same average results. Now, in view of these facts, which could be multiplied to any extent, the assertion that a great increase of our insectivorous birds would be damaging to any products of the land cannot be sustained. But even supposing that some damage was done to crops of cereals, corn, fruits, and the gardens by the occasionally grain and fruit eating birds, would it not ba better to suffer a little loss from them than the destruction of whole crops from insects? A. S. Packard, jr., estimates that the loss from locusts in a single year in the Western States amounted to $45,000,000, and from all kinds of insects: $200,000,000. Now, if birds could be produced in sufficient numbers to save one-half of this loss or $100,000,000 a year, would it not be better to share one-fourth of this sum with the birds if this were necessary. But it is deubtful whether the birds would need even this comparative small amount to be expended on them. All'the facts at our command indicate that the proposed increase would demand the sacrifice of a very small fraction of the products of the land. Only when the birds do a tithe of the damage that is now being done by insects, and not till then, should permission be given for their destruction. But even if there were considerations which would justify the killing of partially grain-eating birds (which I do not admit), there are none whatever that can sanction the destruction of those that are wholly insectivorous. Nearly all, for example, that belong to the woodpecker, plover, and snipe families are wholly insectivorous, as well ' as many that belong to other orders. I do not mean to say that every bird without exception should be so protected as to cause its indefinite increase. There may be an occasional exception, but such excep- tions must be rare indeed. Ex-Governor Robert Furnas, of Brownville, Nebr., reports that the Baltimore oriole is exceedingly damaging to the finest grapes; that it plunges its bill into them and thus causes their decay without even eating any, or at least very few. I have not observed this habit myself, but, as he is a close observer and a friend of the birds, he cannot well be mistaken. I hope his experience is exceptional, but, if notgwe probably must leave this beautiful bird outside of the protection of the laws. Unfortunately man often thoughtlessly destroys numberless birds. Sometimes in May and June, and even earlier, when grouse, quail, plover, and other birds are nest- ing, the prairies are burnt off, so as to produce tender grass for cattle later in the sea- son, or for other unknown reasons. In June, 1869, I passed over a small portion of -Wayre County behind a raging prairie-fire. In one hour I found ruined nests of 13 -prairie-chickens, 9 quail, 5 plover, and 3 other nests that I did not recognize. In some seasons many thousands of nests are destroyed in this way. No prairie should be 348 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. burnt off in Nebraska later than the middle of April, or at least the Ist of May, or else some birds are sure to lose their nests or young. Stringent legislation should be in- voked to stop such vandalism. The great majority, however, who indulge in such practices will voluntarily abstain from them without the aid of restraining laws when- ever they understand the harm that it does. Like the human race, birds often suffer a great deal from the conduct of their own kind. Among the birds most hostile to birds are the blue jays. They rob the nests of other birds of their eggs. Wantonly they often kill even the young and throw them out of the nest. The increase of jays is, therefore, incompatible with the general in- crease of insectivorous and other small birds, especially of those that nest on trees and shrubs. It is hard for the naturalist to give up such a dandy among birds, but, as he is only a blackleg in fine clothes, the feathered tribes are healthier and safer without his society. Perhaps no bird causes such wholesale destruction amorg birds as the cowbird. Its © habit of laying its eggs in the nests of other birds, one only in a nest, and leaving them to be hatched out and nourished by the foster parents to the destruction of their own kind merits banishment and death. Unfortunately they are abundant in Nebraska, but as attention is being directed to their bad habits a limit will soon be made to their increase. Even crows and magpies do much less harm to other birds than jays and cowbirds. DAMAGE DONE TO INSECTIVOROUS BIRDS BY BIRDS OF PREY. As will be seen in the part of this paper devoted to an examination of the food of birds, many of the order Rapitores, or birds of prey, feed more on insects, reptiles, and the small mammalia, especially mice, gophers, and ground-squirrels, than they do on birds. - Some indeed never or rarely feed on birds. It is, therefore, a great mistake to destroy such. The following, however, feed principally on birds, and it will be best to shoot them. I mention only those that are common to Nebraska, but what are found here will probably all be found in Iowa and Kansas. _ Those that will carefully examine the stomachs of owls will see that the greater part of them live principally on insects. In Nebraska the white owl (Nyctea scandiaca) de- stroys small and large birds, and should be banished, but the remainder generally are not chargeable with this fault. But the following members of the hawk family are more or less destructive to birds: Cooper’s hawk (Accipiter cooperi), American goshawk (Astur atricapillus), prairie falcon (alco polyagrus), duck-hawk (I. communis), American merlin (I. richardsoni), sparrow-hawk (F. sparverius). This last will be seen to destroy an equal quantity, in bulk, of insects, small mammalia, and birds. The same can be said of the hen-hawk (Buteo borealis). Swainson’s buzzard (Buteo swainsoni) is in many sections looked on as an especial foe to birds; but it is doubtful whether it eats any- thing besides insects, the smaller mammalia, and reptiles. The cases when it captures a bird must be rare. The American rough-legged hawk (Archibuteo lagopus, var. sancti- johannis) also live mostly on other than bird-food, although regarded by many as ~ specially obnoxious. For the sake of having as great a variety as possible of insectiv- orous birds, if for no other reason, it is certainly desirable to preserve all the birds of prey that are not injurious to the feathered tribes. For this purpose it is important for people to learn to distinguish between the useful and the injurious Raptores. It has been suggested that the general economy of rature in the fertilization of plants would be interfered with by a general destruction of insects. But in Nebraska, at least, there are no plants of economic importance that would suffer from such a re- sult. Even the few species of orchids in this Territory would continue to attract in- sects enough to perpetuate their kind. I have observed the Buffalo berry (Sheperdia argophylla) to be fertilized by insects. But where this shrub. is cultivated the stam- inate and pistillate individuals can be placed close enough to be fertilized by the winds. Red clover is not yet grown to any extent, and it is doubtful whether this plant is as dependent on insect agency for its fertilization as some authors have maintained. eid CONSIDERATION OF THE ENGLISH SPARROW. 349 TIE ENGLISH SPARROW. Some persons have advocated the introduction of the Exglish sparrow in order to mitigate our insect plagues. Such a policy, it appears to me, would be highly objec- tionable. The moral qualities, or what is near akin to moral qualities, of the English sparrow are bad. Where I have seen this bird in America it has gracually driven off our small native birds. Around Philadelphia, where it has now monopolized the ground, I last year renewed its acquaintance. I again revisited some of my old haunts where in early life I studied our native birds. I could hardly find a blue bird, a robin, or na- tive sparrow where they were abundant in 1858, 1859, 1860,and 1861. The Knglish sparrow, however, greeted me everywhere. It was the opinion of all that I consulted that it had driven off the native birds. Certainly this, to say the least, is unfortunate. Many kinds of birds not only give more variety, but they certainly destroy ixsects of more species than a single one. If we protect our own native birds, and especially if ‘we cultivate groves of timber where they can find shelter, and banish hunting-dogs, guns, and traps, in a comparatively few years the balance of nature must be so re- stored that insects will rapidly decrease and again reach the normal number that pre- vailed at the first settlement of the country. Besides, it is well known that the Eng- lish sparrow has become partially naturalized in a small section of Nebraska. Some years ago, as I have learned from Ion. J. Sterling Morton, the English sparrows were introduced into Nebraska City, and have multiplied to a considerable extent, but the number of species of insects that they feed on, as has been anticipated, has been found to be small. This of course could have been endured if they were not so hostile to other birds, native to the soil, that do much better. Another fact concerning these sparrows, not well known, is that they are only partly insectivorous; they are more granivorous than insectivorous, and in their native habi- tats they are often destroyed because of their destructive raids on wheat and other grain seeds. They have, therefore, far less claim on our protection and care than our” own far more beautiful and more highly insectivorous birds. It is another illustration of the fact that sometimes we go abroad for that which we have in greater perfection at home. The logic of this paper is not affected if the assertion is true that civilization natur- ally causes an increase of insect life, even though the number of birds :should not be diminished. If this were true, then it could be still legitimately claimed that to offset this increase of insect life increased protection should be given to our birds. Our birds should be made to increase in proportion to the increase of insect life which civiliza- tion produces, if this theory is correct. And the argument for the necessity of increas- ing the number of birds is strengthened by the alleged fact, if fact it be, that the prog- ress of civilization destroys great numbers of the lower and smaller mammalia, such as moles and skunks, that largely or entirely feed on insects. These ought not and - cannot, for other reasons, be voluntarily perpetuated. Birds, however, can be substi- tuted for them with advantage to the beauty, if not to the harmony, of nature. Here, as elsewhere, the slightest apparent causes often change the ordinary economy of nature, and man, who is such an efficient agent of change, must sooner or later use his mental superiority in planning remedies for the ills which his thoughtlessness or criminality has produced. WHAT PUBLIC SENTIMENT NEEDS. Public sentiment is still in need of being corrected on the subject of man’s duty to brute, and especially to bird, life. Unfortunately, a certain portion of the people still justify making birds a mark for trials of skill in the use of fire-arms. At certain seasons of the year a portion of the secular journals contain notices of shooting- matches, where thousands of pigeons are butchered to see who can hit oftenest at short range with a shot-gun. Pigeons are bought for this purpose, and after being brought to the so-called sporting-grounds and kept cooped until the shooter is ready, the poor bird is let go to be riddled with shot, if the marksman is sober and skillful 350 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. enough to hit it. The man who shoots the most on the wing within a certain distance is declared the victor in this noble amusement! No language can express the brutal- izing influence of such exhibitions. They tend to harden and deaden the keenest sen- sibilities, and the men who pass through such experiences, and those who witness them, without moral deterioration, must possess more than ordinary original endowments of character. They too often train the young who witness such sports to look on acts of barbarity without a qualm, and the men who indulge in such practices can rarely exer- cise conscientious scruples against the killing of any kind of birds. In fact, they see no harm in it, and are amazed that any one else should. The faculty to feel and tosee such wrongs, if it ever existed, is, by such practices, slowly but surely eliminated. And when such shooting-matches occur, as they often do, at our county and State fairs, they are supposed to have legal and moral sanction, or at least justification of some sort, and are of course more wide-spread in their influence for evil. When I asked some boys who were watching the pigeon-shooting at the last State fair at Lincoln, Nebr., what they thought of it, they replied that they did not know before that it was wrong to shoot birds. It is true that generally the moral sense of the public revolts at such exhibitions, and that they are tolerated because of the mistaken notion that the managers of fairs must pander to all kinds of tastes in order to make such shows profitable. But the very tolerance of such brutal exhibitions is evidence of a lack of the highest moral standards, or else they would be no more endured than open gam- bling or stealing. The time has certainly come for the higher civilization to eliminate this vestige of barbarism from our institutions. It is always best to do right, and to do right here would be a great step toward securing universal love and protection for our wild birds. _ It is remarkable that in this last quarter of the nineteenth century there should be such large numbers in the most enlightened countries in whom the savage spirit sur- vives. For shooting wild birds, often maiming and crippling them, inflicting on them the acutest torture, is no less cruel and brutal than the cock-fighting of Spain and the bull and other animal contests of imperial Rome. In many respects it is much more cruel. Birds have a very highly organized nervous system, and must be keenly sus- ceptible to pain. Almost everything that they do indicates this. Their quick move- ments, their marvelous aérial evolutions, their attachments, their maternal instincts, their evident enjoyment of the beautiful, and the wonderful powers of song that many possess, all attest their high physical organization and prove the greatness of the cru- elty that would ruthlessly deprive them of life. The surprise is greater when we reflect ‘that some men of education, and in other respects of high character, indulge in the so- called sport of shooting innocent birds. It may be sport, but is it not the sport of a barbarian and the enjoyment of a savage? No doubt future ages will look on the wanton killing of birds in this period with the same surprise and disgust that we feel in reading the stories of the animal contests in the Roman arena. -CHAPTER XII. REMEDIES, AND DEVICES FOR DESTRUCTION. In this chapter we shall treat of the available means to be employed - either for the destruction of the Rocky Mountain locust in one state or another, or for preventing its injuries, The instructions of the former character will apply more especially to what we have termed the Tem- porary region, or that more fertile country subject to occasional visita- tion, but in which the insect is not indigenous; the suggestions of the latter to what we have called the Permanent region. ENCOURAGEMENT OF NATURAL AGENCIES. 351 - During the summer of 1877, we received a number of plans and sugges- tions for the destruction of the locust; some of them direct, others through the Department of the Interior. Many of these were sent by persons having no experience whatever with the insect, and were purely theo- retical or visionary; while others were intended to gratuitously adver- tise some pet patent nostrum. We have taken notice of those only which gave some promise of possible usefulness. Of the machines and devices for destruction submitted to us, we have endeavored, as far as time would permit, to personally examine and test in the field all such as appeared worthy of trial; and, where personal attention could not _ be given, to have such test made by competent parties. We shall illus- trate or describe all which came under our notice that are in any way worthy of consideration. The means to be employed for the destruction of this pest very natu- rally fall into five divisions: 1, encouragement of natural agencies; 2, destruction of the eggs; 3, destruction of the young or unfledged insects ; 4, destruction of the mature or winged insects; 5, preventive measures. | ENCOURAGEMENT OF NATURAL AGENCIES. While little practically can be done by man to further the multiplica- tion of the more minute enemies of the locust enumerated in Chapter XI, much may be done to protect, and to promote the multiplication of, the larger animals treated of in Chapter XII—especially the birds. These should be protected by most stringent laws, firmly carried out, restraining the wanton destruction too often indulged in by sportsmen and others. Some of the States interested in this question have of late years passed good laws for the protection of these feathered friends, but the laws are, unfortunately, too often a dead letter for want of enforcement. One of the most effectual and successful ways of protect- ing and encouraging many of the smaller birds is to offer a reward for hawks. This has been done with very beneficial results in Colorado, and other States would do well to follow her example. DESTRUCTION OF THE EGGS. The destruction of the eggs has been followed, in the older countries of the Hast, since Pliny’s time, and has long been recognized in Europe and Asia as one of the most efficacious means of averting locust injury. These eggs are laid in masses, just beneath the surface of the ground, seldom to a depth of more than an inch; and we have already consid- ered the character of soil and the sites preferred by the females in laying them. In years like 1874 and 1876 we have known favorable locations, for many hundreds of square miles, so thickly supplied with these eggs that scarcely an inch of the soil could be stirred without ex- posing them. Asa rule, the dead bodies of the locusts strewn about the ground in autumn are a good indication of the presence of eggs in such ground, though the eggs may often be abundant without this indi- 352 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. cation. The means to be employed in destroying locust-eggs may be considered under the following divisions: 1. Harrowing; 2. Plowing or spading; 3. Irrigation; 4. Tramping; 5. Collecting. ‘‘ There are many questions respecting the manner in which the eggs of this locust are affected under different conditions, which are of intense practical interest, and which are frequently discussed with no definite result being arrived at, and no positive conclusion drawn. Such are, for instance, the influence of temperature, moisture, and dry- ness upon them; the effects of exposing them to the air, of breaking open the pods, of harrowing or plowing them under at different depths, of tramping upon them. Everything, in short, that may tend to destroy them, or prevent the young locusts hatching, is of vital importance.” With a view of settling some of these questions, and in tke hope of reaching conclusions that might prove valuable, Mr. Riley carried on, at Saint Louis, during the winter of 1876~77, a series of experiments, some of which we shall report, in their proper connection, as they were originally recorded. By reference to the ‘site meteorological table, the exact temper- ature at any of the dates mentioned may be ascertained : Temperature at Saint Louis, Mo., of winter of 1876-77. 1876. Max. | Min. Mean, 1876. - Max. |} Min. |Mean, INowentberd ss -2- 38 ee 41 30. 37. || December 29..--..-. 33. eee 19 10 14 1 Dispel bape Sa 44 35 39 II 30. oceccosacdscmacees Q1 4 15 [eee eh eet EM ge 47 40 44 Shin a pe aivadeia ae ate te 34 17 24 She pss eee ea ee 47 25 34 TEC pISe paneaa enna 36 | 22 | 32 ee 20 on sane Cae e wes 45 31 So. Up anUaeye 8 ooo eee 24 | 13 14 A \ eee, a ee ee 47 32 37 7s gees ye eee fi53. Q1 8 15 pit ee aR By i as i 42 23 35 O2 So awte aot ee eee 26 1l 21 cb tak eee eens Le fs 45 31 36 Mri insgs) 20225 eee 42 19 33 se ee aoe 5L 32 41 Di Szene cebecucee ee 42 29 36 vd ok ae ag RO ee ee 47 31 40 | G2. sth) tet See 43 32 37 7 Penge § A RS 38 30 34 12 SSeaseee eee 35 13 21 (oP ee SE 45 31 39 | Siesta i342 7 SOS ee eh a Set 39 23 oe} ali) EE ey ae 28 1 19 297) -.282,. Bs 1st. 33 27 29 | $062 LS LES. . Sete 35 o1 31 {Ue ee a o7 15 165) a hh eee ee oe = 52 32 40 December. 1-2.-..5.55. 22it 20 4 14 | 2633), LS es 32 14 19 As AEE ae eee o4 5 16 | 930 20.022 kee eee 27 10 99 SS ee eee 929 12 23 pL: Cee te ee 34 22 3L 4 cS epr ee en eee 34 24 30 CS Ay eee 43 93 33 BS. aces ok Se ee an ee ea Fine 165 ee 23 | 9 18 G6. 2 EAS eee ee 47 33 33 Ws. 2.205% « tao eee 40 20 35 y Ait To 2 47 | 31 | 39 | 98) oo ee 46 | 35 42 8. : feta tees eee 40 3 15 4922 2 Sp eetl te see 50 39 45 9. eee 11 —9) i) | ama sae SS 46 21 22 10. 224k SSeS 37 9 31 yi EAE ge eee See PS 37 19 32 tS ec ase Ee 55 28 44 OF cae eae Soe 37 93 2 19° 9..233;.422333 60 36 48 OF) s: HEE CEE Lees Ss 32 10 Qi 13 cee aes eee 50 38 42 Oo ee ee 31 19 26 143 52222 aes 38 18 o7 Sy SSSR. Sadao 48 22 36 15 2 eee. oo ee ee eee 45 12 36 OG Se a can a eee SE 32 39 Hock. Ft So eee 44 4 12 Os ike. 41) ee 50 31 41 i Oy ae ay eee ha Q7 13 20 5 ee Se ee i 57 33 47 $82.52300 N55. ES 22 2 16 OOH 13: oie 5 bee 57 38 49 LSM ieee > 37 18 28 SUS oe oc fou eee 65 48 57 2) Eee SS eee eS Se NE OS 43 Q3 33 ott 4334443. Je 66 53 59 7 fie Sa Ee rary eats 43 23 34 epreeieg ee tn ee 69 50 59 Babys HDs Oe € 20 | 26 EERE RAS tice} 56 | 44 49 ears 24 | 13 | 19 | Paar pea 48 | 35 37 2 SEE a ae 19 11 15 ee cee Se 46 32 39 LE Le eR Eee ee 21 13 18 LE Pee ee oF OL 40 28 33 ri Play Sas sie seta epee Greer 21 13 18 Goce eat o ooe eee 49 34 41 <4 ee ee Oe 24 15 o1 Miia tance t (. sferepe sf 53 38 46 EFFECT OF HARROWING IN AUTUMN. 353 Temperature at Saint Louis, Mo., of winter of 1876~77—Continued. 1877. _ | Max. | Min. | Mean. | 1877. Max. | Min. |Mean. | PE Saco. --- == sacncee 50 33 44 || February = eee ame gees ae - = a a res 5a | Sue} 748 | GREY Pindber hee 2 2) SRNR yg t Bat Lowe | ae | 5a OE ORT SEIN: 43 | 38 37 6 en eee. 52 | 29 | 32 OG EAR rated te Fl enn 36 | 23 | 33 | ee ep ee 50 | 32 43 Ao? RESTS RE TE 44 | 30 | 38 ||Mareh_ 1... 12 5M 47 | 39 43 bes 25. eee 53 | 31 | 44 BGA: so) Se stants 4t | 37 39 Dien ici ise ee 47 | 38 | 40 Set Ae TF 49 | 18 29 |e hehiene ales on Areata 50 | 34 | 42 / Be 32 | 14 26 A wes s aap 66 | 34 | 53 Fe Aone ae ae NG 40 | 26 34 iS ak Bee 58 | 34 | 37 "Lp eT 55 | 30 46 Gi cates ete ae 4g | 27 | 39 nate shee ae See a 57 | 36 47 5 Ee ie 6 | 34 | 51 TR EERIE 55 | 18 23 Oe ba tee ae Bg ¢| 4g) 27 es fe Fae 23 9 18 STE Se See 44 | 33 | 38 | aig a SNe Sa Petal We: 31 1. HARROWING IN THE AUTUMN.—To appreciate fully the effect on the eggs of harrowing in the autumn, it is necessary to understand in what manner they are affected by freezing and thawing, as well as by exposure. Experiments to test the effects of alternately freezing and thawing.—The eggs in the following series of experiments were obtained early in No- vember, at Manhattan, Kans., under similar conditions. They were mostly in a fluid state at the time, and none but good and perfect masses were used. They were all carefully placed in the normal position at the surface of the ground, in boxes that could be easily removed from place - to place. The experiments commenced November 10, 1876, and ended in April, 1877. During November and December the weather was severe, while during January and February it was largely mild and genial for the season. In March again there was much frost. The temperature in the office, into which all the eggs when not exposed were brought, ranged during the day from 65° to 70° F., rarely reach- ing to 75°. During the nightit never dropped below 40°, and averaged about 55°. Experiment 1.—Fifty egg-masses were exposed to frost from November 10 to January 10, and then taken in-doors. In twenty days they commenced hatching, and continued to do so for thirty-eight days thereafter. Experiment 2.—Fifty egg-masses exposed at the same time to frost. Brought in-doors on December 10. On December 31 they commenced hatching numerously, and con- tinued to hatch till the 10th of January, 1877, when the remainder were exposed again. Tke weather being subsequently mild, some hatched on each warm day until the 26.h. ere. hatched thereafter, and upon examination, subsequently, all were found to have hatched. Experiment 3.—Fifty egg-masses exposed at same time. Brought in-docrs December 1. Kept there till the 22d without any of them hatching. Exposed again for three weeks, and then brought in-doors on the 12th of January. They commenced hatching two days thereafter, and continued till the 29th. Subsequent examination showed them all to have hatched. Experiment 4.—One hundred egg-pods exposed at the same time, but alternately brought in-doors and exposed again every fourteer days. Some commenced hatching during the second term in-doors; otheis continued during the warm days of the third exposure, and all had hatched bythe sixth day of the third term in-doors, Experiment 5.—A lot of one hundred egg-masses alternately exposed and brought in- doors every week. During the first four terms of exposure they were continuously frozen, while during the next four the weather was frequently mild enough to permit hatching. They first began to hatch during the fourth term in-doors, and continued to hatch, except during the colder days when exposed, until the seventh term in-doors, during which the last ones escaped. 23 G 354 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. Experiment 6.—Many hundred egg-masses kept outdoors the whole time, first com- menced hatching March 2d, and continued for thirty-eight days thereafter. Experiment 7.—Many hundred pods kept indoors till December 15, and hatching from November 28 up to that time, were then exposed, and continued to hatch whenever the weather permitted, up to April 10. Experiment 8.—A lot of one hundred pods that had been hatching in-doors from Novem- ber 19, were exposed to frost January 15, and brought in-doors again January 28, where pney cated hatching till February 10. Every one was subsequently found to have atched. Experiment 9.—A lot of one hundred under same conditions as in Experiment 8, up to January 28. They were then exposed again and brought in-doors February 16, when they commenced hatching and continued to do so till the 27th. All were found sub- sequently to have hatched. Sees : Two important conclusions are deducible from the above experiments. First: The eggs are far less susceptible to alternate freezing and thaw. ing than most of us, from analogy, have been inclined to believe. Those who have paid attention to the subject know full well that the large proportion of insects that hibernate on orin the ground are more injuri- ously affected by a mild, alternately freezing and thawing winter than by a steadily cold and severe one, and the idea has quite generally pre- vailed that it was the same with regard to our locust-eggs. But, if so, then it is more owing to the mechanical action which, by alternate ex- pansion and contraction of the soil, heaves the pods and exposes them, than to the effects of the varying temperatures. Second: That sus- pended development by frost may continue with impunity for varying periods after the embryon is fully formed and the young insect is on the verge of hatching. Many persons, having in mind the well-known fact that birds’ eggs become addled if incubation ceases before completion, when once commenced, would, from analogy, come to the same conclu- sion with regard to the locust-eggs. But analogy here is an unsafe guide. The eggs of insects hibernate in all stages of embryonic development, and many of them with the larve fully formed and complete within. ~The advanced development of the locust embryo, frequently noticed in the fall, argues nothing but very early hatching as soon as spring opens. Their vitality is unimpaired by frost. . | Experiments to test the effects of exposure to the free air.—The eggs in the following series were obtained at Manhattan, Kans., in November, and all under similar conditions: Experiment 26.—A large number of egg-masses were thoroughly broken up and the. single eggs scattered over the’surface of the ground outdoors early in December. By the 23d ot February all had perished, and most of them had collapsed and shriveled. Experiment 27.—A large number of pods were partly broken up and exposed, as in Experiment 26. On the 10th of March the outer eggs were mostly dead and shrunken, but a few of the protected ones were yet plump, the embryon well advanced and apparently sound. Placed in earth they subsequently hatched. ne Erperiment 28.—A large number of unbroken pods.were exposed under similar con- ditions as in the preceding experiments. By March 10 fuliy three-fourths of the eggs had perished, and by April 1 all had perished. ; Experiment 29.—Fifty egg-masses were kept indoors in an open-mouthed bottle in _ perfectly loose and dry earth from November 6. Fully eight per cent. of the eggs had hatched by December 28, when hatching ceased, and a subsequent examination showed the rest to have shrunken and perished. It is very evident from the above experiments that we can do much more to destroy the eggs by bringing into requisition the universally So —— EFFECTS OF HARROWING IN AUTUMN. 855 utilizable air than we can by the use ef water, which will be presently considered. The breaking up of the mass and exposure of the indi- vidual eggs to the desiccating effects of the atmosphere effectually de- stroys them, and when to this is added the well-known fact that, thus exposed, they are more liable to destruction by their numerous ene- mies, we see at once the importance of this mode of coping with the evil. Harrowing in the autumn, then, or during dry, mild weather in early winter, will prove one of the most effectual modes of destroying the eggs and preventing future injury, wherever it is available. It should be enforced by law, as we shall presently suggest in considering legis- lative action, whenever the soil in any region is known to be abundantly stocked with eggs. A revolving harrow or acultivator will do excellent _ Service in this way, not only in the field, but along roadways and other bare and uncultivated places. The object should be, not to stir deeply but to scarify and pulverize as much as possible the soil to about the depth of an inch. Where the cultivator is used, it would be well to pass aver the ground again with a drag or a brush harrow for this purpose. Some of our correspondents have urged, and with some reason, that wherever land can conveniently be prepared to induce the females to oviposit in it, as by plowing and then rolling when the insects are be- ginning to breed, such preparations should be made. A subsequent har- rowing will be the more easy. In practice, this method will not often be adopted, becanse it will pay only under exceptional circumstances. We give here a few of the views of correspondents on the subject of harrowing expressed during the past year: Harrowing has been tried with success, especially when fowls, swine, &c., have been given access to the ground. In one case. a piece of two acres was entirely freed from the eggs in this way.—[ Robt. Milliken, Emporia, Kans., September 15, 1877. Harrowing the ground in the fall is always beneficial; it brings many of the eggs to the surface, where they are picked up by birds and fow]s and otherwise destroyed.— {E. Snyder, Atchison, Kans., June 26, 1877. The reports of the results of this latter method of destruction are conflicting, varying according to the care expended upon the work, the lateness of the season at which it was done, and the accuracy with which the results were noticed. In cases where new breaking thickly filled with eggs was passed over once or twice with a seeder in November or late in October, a portion of the eggs were left undestroyed, and these, hatching in the spring, the young devoured the grain as fast as it grew. In other cases eggs brought to the surface late in the fall retained their vitality (the young were fully formed in the eggs) during the winter; but afterward, when they had been fully exposed in February and March to alternate heat and cold, without a covering of snow, only a small fraction of them could be hatched. In other cases, where the number of eggs was not excessive, the proportion of eggs left undestroyed after fall harrowing was too small to cause (of themselves) any serious damage in the spring. From all the inquiries that I have been able to make during the season, I am confirmed in the statement made last year, that it is desirable to bring the eggs to the surface at the earliest possible moment after there is any assurance that the laying season is over; in other words, they should be exposed to the sun while their contents are still fluid.——[Mr. Allen Whitman, special assistant. Some eggs were harrowed up during mild weather in winter and greedily devoured by tame fowls. Some egg-masses that were exposed in February mostly hatched.—[G. B. Brown, Guilford, Kans. Harrowing the ground in the fall is good; every egg-mass that is broken or brought to the top is used up. Last fall was an unusually wet one, and great numbers of eggs 356 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. were unearthed by the rains, and I will venture to say that of the egg-masses that were so washed out not one ever has or will hatch. Uncovering the egg-masses in the fall is fatal to them all.—[A. H. Gleason, Little Sioux, Iowa, May 21, 1677. We want to get the young to hatch as soon as possible in the spring, and then go at them with the “’hopper dozer” determinedly and unitedly, and we can destroy them. To that end I believe harrowing is to be reeommended for several reasons; first, many of the eggs are spoiled by the sun and weather; secondly, the birds can get at them better and.devour millions of them; and, thirdly, those that are not destroyed hatch early and can be killed before the vegetation gets too rank, as afterward it is far more difficult to capture them.—[J. I. Salter, Saint Cloud, Minn., June 7, 1877. I have only one instance of harrowing the ground in fall. My nearest neighbor put in a piece of new breaking with rye, first using seeder and then harrow. The result now stands that the rye is good and but few hoppers. The eggs were raked out almost or quite as thickly as the grain sown, and they were much thicker just benea*h the loose top soil. The nature of our soil is a clay loam—yellow-clay subsoil.—[ John Wise, Nebo, Platte County, Nebr., May 5, 1877. 2. PLowine.—Next to harrowing this is one of the most generally available means possessed by the farmer of dealing with locust-eggs, and it is well to fully understand how it may be made most effectual in destroying them. Haperiments to test the effects of burying at different depths, and of press- ing the soil_—The following series of experiments was made with eggs obtained at Manhattan, Kans., early in November, and similar in condi- tion to those in the first series. Large tin cylindrical boxes, made of different depths, and varying from 4 to 8 inches in diameter, were used ; and in order to hasten the result they were kept indoors at the temperature already mentioned. The soil in all the boxes was finely comminuted and kept in uniform and moderately moist condition. It was gently pressed with the fingers, so as to approach in compactness the surface-soil of a well-cultivated garden. In each instance the eggs were placed in the center of the box. A large number of eggs were buried at different depths out-doors where they were under natural con- ditions of soil-pressure and temperature. The soil was a tolerably stiff yellow clay, and was pretty well compacted by many heavy rains, after the frost was thawed out. The results of the outdoor experiments com- port with those made in the boxes. The eggs being placed at every depth from 1 to 18 inches, and each batch covered with a wire screen, the result was accurately determined. All at 1 inch below the surface ‘hatched ; about one-third of those at 2 inches managed to escape, and none from any greater depth. Examined May 12, they had hatched - down to a depth of 12 inches, and worked their way upward, and hori- zontally, seldom extending morethan 1 inch in the former, or more than 2 inches in the latter direction. Most of those at greater depths were at that time unhatched. In looser soil they would doubtless have man- aged to push somewhat farther. Experiment 30.—Ten egg-masses were placed just 1 inch below the surface in the © center of a box four inches in diameter. The young began to appear January 30, when _it was noticed that every one came up at the side of the box, between the earth and the tin, where there was more or less shrinking of the former from the latter. Upon pressing the earth more firmly around the border, the issuing of the young ceased. Upon examining the eggs, March 7, it was found that they had all hatched. A few of the young were still alive, and endeavoring to escape; the rest had died in the effort. They had made no progress upward through the pressed surface, but had pushed horizontally as the looser earth permitted. ‘ EFFECTS OF PLOWING ON THE EGGS. Bb Experiment 31.—From ten egg-masses, placed 2 inches beneath the surface, the young commenced issuing from the sides, as in the preceding experiment, January 31. None issued directly through the surface of the soil, and none issued after the border was pressed more firmly’ to the tin. Subsequent examination showed the soil pene- trated in devious directions, but none of the insects had reached higher than within _ three-quarters of an inch cf the surface. Experiment 32.—Ten egg-masses placed 3 inches below the surface. The young began, January 31, to issue from the sides, as in Experiments 30,31. Upon pressing the ground more firml; around the borders, none afterward issued, and subsequent examination showed that the young had tunneled the earth in tortuous passages to- ward the sides, and perished there, without reaching nearer than within an inch of the surface in the middle of the box. Experiment 33.—Ten egg-masses placed 6 inches below the surface. On February 1 the young commenced to issue, as in the preceding experiments, from the side, and continued to do so till the 4th, when the earth was pressed more closely to the tin. None issued afterward. Subsequent examination showed that some had succeeded in working their way upward through the soil to within 2 inches of the surface; but nit had reached the sides, and there collected and perished between the tin and the soil. Other experiments, made in glass tubes where the movements of the insects could be watched, all produced results similar to those above given; and all point to the conclusion that where the newly-hatched in- sect has not the natural channel of exit (previously described) which was prepared by the mother, it must inevitably perish if the soil be moder- ately compact, unless cracks, fissures, or other channels reaching to the surface are at hand. “The actual experience as to deep plowing ae of the eggs is Some- what conflicting, and in some light, dry soils a good number of them will hatch late if turned under a foot; yet, from our own observations, © and a vast amount of experience gathered together, we recommend it as profitable. If delayed till spring, it should be done just as the young begin to hatch, as it is then most effectual. The plowing will be effectual according as the soil is porous or tenacious, and according as the surface is afterward compressed by harrowing and rolling. From the experiments already recorded, it is obvious that, all other things being equal, a plowing of four to six inches will prove more effectual in spring, if the ground be subsequently harrowed and rolled, than deeper plowing with no subsequent comminution and compression.” The experience prior to 1877 is on record in various publications ; but that of 1877 was most valuabie, because, in many instances, township meetings were held the previous autumn to provide for combined action in the plowing up of roadsides and other public places where eggs had been laid. As may be seen by Mr. Whitman’s report (App. 1), the good effects of plowing the eggs under deeply was very marked in Minne-. sota, wherever the work was thoroughly done. Hven when turned under to a depth of five or six inches, the hatching, if it occurred at all, was too late to cause any fear. ‘“ Eggs plowed under in corn-land were found to be unhatched up to the 21st of June, but when brought to the surface they hatched at once; and, without any question, large numbers of eggs turned under in heavy grounds never hatched at all. At any rate, it ought to be learned from the present year, that with a good growth of wheat, we have nothing to fear from locusts that come strug- gling forth during the month of June.” 358 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. The following experiences of correspondents are worthy of record here: I plowed my orchard in the last days of March, and last week I was plowing some potatoes and I plowed out a good many ’hoppers, and in two or three mirutes they would kick out and jump. I don’t know how long they can live in the ground, but I don’t think they can get out when they are plowed under.—[C. G. Brooks, migg Montgomery County, Kansas, June 16, 1877. The effect of plowing under the eggs quite deeply at any time before hatching, ether in the fall or spring, has been to retard the hatching and give birds and other enemies a better chance to destroy them as they hatched. I think many never see the surface that are turned down with the plow.—[ Robt. Milliken, Emporia, Kans. , September 15, 1877. Deep plowing is here the most effectual way of destroying the eggs.—[J. G. McGrue, © Audubon, Minn., June 20, 1877. I and my brother plowed a piece of land last fall that the “hoppers had laid their eggs in, and not one per cent. hatched out. Time of plowing, September 9; depth of plowing, 6 inches; nature of soil, sandy loam. .—[ Thomas Nixon, Argyle, Sumner County, Kansas, November 5, 1877. The land plowed early last fall by my neighbor, Thomas Benrett, was subsequently filled with eggs. He dragged and sowed it with wheat. It is now full of locusts. Mr. A. Burch, another neighbor, plowed late, and he has no locusts. My brother’s farm was one-half plowed early, the other half late. The former hatched many locusts, the lat- ter none.—[ Seth Kenny, Morristown, Minn., June 9, 1877. We plowed our land before many of the ’hoppers had hatched. It is high, rolling land, with considerable sand,and considerably worn from continued cropping for 19 years. We plowed about 15th of May. The largest hatch of the ’hoppers in any one day was May 27. They continued to hatch in considerable quantities up to June 10. Some few hatched after this date. But the most disagreeable part of it remains to be told. June 21 (the season was late for corn) we commenced to cultivate our corn, and immediately the young ’hoppers came out by millions. We have about twenty- four acres of corn in one field,and in the aggregate they make an “exceeding great army.” Six acres of this corn was on timothy soil, that was very full of eggs.—[ bid., July 2, 1877. Plowing, when properly done,is almost perfect. destruction to the eggs.—[J. W. Bagby, Tabor, Clay County, Kansas, May 10, 1877. So far as I can judge from my own experience and from observation, plowing the eggs under in the spring has destroyed most of them.—[T. C. aes: Manhattan, Kans., June 27, 1877. Plowing under only preserved the eggs to be hatched whenever a favorable oppor- tunity presented.—[E. Snyder, Atchison, Kans., June 26, 1877. _ Yesterday I examined a field closely that had been plowed under in early spring. I found thousands of nests of eggs hatched out and the young ones dead, having been unable to work their way out of the ground. There are many such instances here.— [Sam]. Aughey, Lincoln, Nebr., May 4, 1877. Believing it to be the duty of every good citizen to contribute all the information he may possess in relation to the destruction of the locusts, I will send you the practical experience of an observing farmer in this vicinity. In the spring of 1875, when the grasshopper committed such ravages in Western Msssouri, William R. Hornbuckle relates that he had occasion to break up, for corn, a field that was in clover the year - previous (1874), upon which the locust-eggs were more than usually thick. He plowed deeply the first of April and turned the eggs under so deep that they never hatched, or, if they did hatch, he never saw the locusts afterward. He thinks he plowed some eight or nine inches deep. The use of cultivators never disturbed the eggs. He ex- amined the ground often during the season and found only the old eggs ‘and no *hop- pers. One portion of the clover-field he failed to break until the eggs were hatched. In this the young locusts came so thick as to make the ground black, and while they were yet small he turned them under like the eggs, in the first instance. He saw very few of them afterward.—[Jno. B. Womall, Kansas City, Mo., January 23, 1877. If the eggs are plowed under very deep in the fall, I believe many will fail to hatch or the young will not reach the surface when hatched. They should be thrown under ‘about six inches in sandy, loose soil. Spring plowing has done but little if any good. It only causes them to hatch later in the season.—[A. H. Gleason, Little Sioux, Iowa, May 21, 1877. Deep fall plowing seems to have destroyed many of the eggs. Every piece of break- ing that was not fall-plowed suffered severely ; that which was plowed and harrowed in the fall did not suffer much.—[ W. J. Newell, Athol, lowa, July 2, 1877. a er a | i { ; \ } : } EFFECTS OF IRRIGATION ON THE EGGS. 359 Spring breaking of our lands remained perfectly good till upturned by second plow- irg one month to six weeks later.—[ Jas. Moore, Bastrop, 'Tex., May 8, 1877. Deep plowing retarded hatching. After all others were hatched the deeply plowed land was stirred, which brought on a new crop.—[G. B. Brown, Guilford, Kans. Plowed in October, 1876; sowed to rye in November, on bottom land, but gravelly ; cut the rye second week in July (prematurely) because of drought. As soon as the rye was cut the locust-eggs hatched in large quantities.—[ Experience of M. K. Lever- son, of Leverson’s ranch, Colorado. From all we could learn the eggs were not turned under deeply. 3. IRRIGATION.—This is feasible in much of the country subject to locust ravages, especially in the mountain regions, where, except in ex- ceptionally favorable locations, agriculture can be successfully carried on only by its aid, and where means are already extensively provided for the artificial irrigation of large areas. Where the ground is light and porous, prolonged and excessive moisture will cause most of the eggs to - perish, and irrigation in autumn or in spring may prove beneficial. Yet the following experiments prove that it is by no means as effectual as is generally believed, and as most writers have assumed to be the case. Haperiments to test the influence of moisture upon the eggs.—The follow- ing series of experiments was made with eggs also brought from Man- hattan, Kans. They were dug up in December, and were sound, and much in the same condition as those in the preceding series. The water in all but the last three, or Experiments 23, 24, and 25, was kept in the office at the temperature already stated, and changed only when there was the least tendency to become foul. In the alternate submergence and draining, the eggs were submitted to the most severe hygrometric changes, the warm atmosphere of the room having great drying power. Experiment 10.—Ten egg-masses kept under water in-doors from December 5 to De- cember 26, 1876, the water becoming quite foul. They werethen removed to earth ard kept in a hatching temperature. They commenced hatching January 11, 1877, and continued to d so till February 5—ail taving hatched. Experiment 11.—T wenty egg-masses kept under water in-doors from December 26, 1876, till January 2,1877; then left dry till the 9th; then submerged again till the 16th, when they were drained again. On tke 20th eighteen young hatched, and others continued hatching till the 23d, when they were submerged ¢gain. From the 26th to 30th a few hatcked under water, successfully gettisg rid of the post-natal pellicle, and living for some hours efterward in the water. On the 30th they were drained again, and continued to hatch. On February 6 they were again immersed, and con- tinued t@hatch onthe7th. On the 15th, 22d, 29th, and March 7 they were alternately drained ard immersed ; but none hatched after February 7, and the remainder proved upon examination to have been destroyed, most of them being quite rotten. Experiment 12.—Two egg-masses taken from the lot in experiment 11, on February 7, and placed in moist earth. Every egg subsequently batched. Experiment 13.—Two egg-masses taken from the lot in experiment 11, on February 22, and placed in moist earth. All hatched. . Experiment 14.—Twenty egg-masses alternately immersed and drained every two weeks from December 26 till March 6. None hatched, but three-fourths of the eggs were at this date sound, the embryon full formed ‘and active as soon ag released, but pale, and evidently too feeble to burst the egg-shell. The rest were killed and more or less decomposed. Experiment 15.—Two egg-masses, after immersion for two weeks, were placed in moist earth. They began hatching twenty-two days afterward, and continued to do so for six days. It was subsequently found that only seven out of forty-eight eggs had collapsed and failed to hatch. Experiment 16.—T wo egg-masses immersed for two weeks and drained for two weeks ; then placed in moist earth. Six days afterward they commenced hatching, and con- tinued to do so for two days. Subsequently examined, twenty-eight out of fifty-four eggs had perished. 360 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. Experiment 17.—Two egg-masses alternately immersed, drained, and immersed again every two weeks, were placed in moist earth. They commenced hatching two days afterward, and continued to do so for twelve days. Upon subsequent examination, twenty-three out of fifty-two had perished. Experiment 18.—Twenty egg-masses immersed from December 28, 1876, to January 16, 1877; then drained till February 6; then immersed till February 27; then drained again. On February 3, while dry, they commenced hatching numerously, and a few continued for two days to hatch while immersed. An examination, March 7, showed about half of them still alive, the rest rotten. On March 27 they were drained again, but none subsequently hatched—all having rotted and dried up. Experiment 18a.—Two masses in same conditions as in experiment 18 till February 27 were placed in moist earth and all the eggs hatched March 7-12. Experiment 19.—Twenty egg-masses immersed from December 26, 1876, to January 23,1877; then drained till February 20; then submerged again. They commenced hatching on the 6th of February, and continued two days after the second submerg- ence. On the 7th of March but about 5 per cent. had rotted. On March 20 they were drained again, but none subsequently hatched, except five eggs from two pods at once placed in earth. : Experiment 20.—Two egg-masses immersed for four weeks; then drained for two weeks; then immersed for one week; then placed in moist earth. They commenced hatching seven days afterward, and continued to do so for six days. Subsequently examined, one of the masses was rotten; the eggs in the other had all hatched. Experiment 21.—Twenty egg-masses kept from December 26, 1876, in earth saturated with moisture. On February 23, 1877, they commenced hatching, and continued to do so till March 7, when all were found to have hatched, except one pod, which was rot- ten. Experiment 22.—Twenty egg-masses, alternately placed every five days, from Decem- ber 26, 1876, in earth saturated with moisture and in earth which was very dry. Com- menced hatching February 14, and continued till March 7, when, upon examination, all had hatched, except nine of the pods, which were rotten. Experiment 23.—Twenty egg-masses inimersed and exposed outdoors December 26, 1876. From that time till April 9 the water was frozen and completely thawed at nine different times, the vessel containing them, which was of glass and admitted the sun- light, several.times breaking. The changes were as follows: Frozen till January 10; then thawed till the 12th; then frozen till the 18th; then thawed till the 20th; then frozen till the 26th; then thawed till February 20; then partly frozen till the 22d; then thawed till the 26th; then frozen till the 27th; then thawed till March 5; then frozen till March 10; then thawed till March 15; then frozen till the 16th; then thawed till the 24th; then frozen till the 25th. Examined on the 7th of March, only one pod was found rotten; the others apparently sound. On the 9th of April all with _the exception of twelve eggs were found rotten, the masses having become disin- tegrated and the eggs for the most part lying singly at the bottom. . Experiment 24.—T wo egg-masses under same conditions as in experiment 23 till Feb- ruary 9, when they were brought in-doors and placed in earth. One was dried up on the 16th; the other commenced hatching on the 27th, and when examined on March 7 all the eggs in it were found to have hatched. . Experiment 25.—Two egg-masses under same conditions as in experiment 23 till Feb- ruary 27, when they were placed in earth in-doors. Examized March 7 they were found sound, and near the hatching point. On March 20 they commenced hatching. Experiment 25a.—T wo egg-masses under same conditions as in experiment 23, up to March 6, were then placed in earth in-doors. They commenced hatching March 23, and continued till April 3. Subsequently examined, but eight out of the®* fifty-four eggs were shrunken and dead. Experiment 25b.—T wo egg-masses under same conditions as in experiment 23, up to March 27, were then placed in earth, as above. April 14-20 ten hatched. Subse- quently examined, the rest were found rotten. Experiment 25c.—The twelve eggs remaining April 9 from experiment 23 were placed in uh. Five out of the twelve hatched April 20-26. The rest were subsequently ound rotten. These experiments establish a few facts that were somewhat unex- pected. The insect is a denizen of the high and arid regions of the Northwest, and has often been observed to prefer dry and sunny places, and to avoid wet land, for purposes of ovipositing. The belief that moisture was prejudicial to the eggs has, for these reasons, very gener- ‘ally prevailed. The power which they exhibit of retaining vitality, and of hatching under water or in saturated ground, is, therefore, very re- EFFECTS OF TRAMPING ON THE EGGS. 361 markable—the more so when viewed in connection with the results obtained in the succeeding experiments. That the eggs should hatch after several weeks’ submergence, and that the young insect should even throw off the post-natal pellicle, was, to us, quite a surprise, and argues a most wonderful toughness and tenacity. After they had been dried and soaked for over six weeks, under conditions that approach those of spring, we found a good proportion of the eggs to contain the full-formed and living young, which, though somewhat shrunken, and evidently too weak to have made an exit, were still capable of motion. The water evidently retards hatching. An examination of the submerged eggs that remained unhatched long after others had hatched, which had. been under similar treatment up to a certain time, and then transferred to earth, showed all the parts to be unusually soft and flaccid. Yet, when once life has gone, the egg would seem to rot quicker in the water than in the ground. | The results of experiments 23-25c¢ prove conclusively that water in winter-time, when subject to be frozen, is still less injurious to the eggs. Altogether, these experiments give us very little encouragement as to the use of water as a destructive agent; and we can readily under- stand how eggs may hatch out, as they have been known to do, in marshy soil, or soil too wet for the plow; or even from the bottom of ponds that were overflowed during the winter and spring. While a cer-_ tain proportion of the eggs may be destroyed by alternately soaking and drying the soil at short-repeated intervals, it is next to impossible to do this in practice during the winter season as effectually as it was done in the experiments; and the only case in which water can be profitably used is where the land can be flooded for a few days just at the period when the bulk of the eggs are hatching. 4, TRAMPING.—In pastures or in fields where hogs, cattle, or horses can be confined when the ground is not frozen, many if not most of the locust-eggs will be destroyed by the rooting and tramping. 5. COLLECTING.—The eggs are frequently placed where none of the above means of destroying them can be employed. In such cases they should be collected and destroyed by the inhabitants, and the State should offer some inducement in the way of bounty for such col- lection and destruction. Every bushel of eggs destroyed is equivalent to a hundred acres of corn saved, and when we consider the amount of destruction caused by the young, and that the ground is often known to be filled with eggs; that, in other words, the earth is sown with the seeds of future destruction, it is surprising that more legislation has not been had, looking to their extermination. One of the most rapid ways of collecting the eggs, especially where they are numerous and in light soils, is to slice off about an inch of the soil by trowel or spade, and then cart the egg-laden earth to some shel- tered place where it may be allowed to dry, when it may be sieved so as to separate the eggs and egg-masses from the dirt. The eggs thus col- 362 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. lected may easily be destroyed by burying them in deep pits, providing the ground be packed hard on the surface. In the thickly-settled por- tions of Europe, where labor is abundant and cheap, this method may be adopted with some advantage, but it will scarcely be employed in this country, except as a means of earning a bounty, when, in the more thickly-settled sections, it will prove beneficial and give employment to young people and others who have nothing else to do. DESTRUCTION OF THE YOUNG OR UNFLEDGED LOCUSTS. It is with some degree of pride that we point to the fact that this part of the locust problem is solved. The experience of 1877 has added much to our knowledge of the practical and feasible ways of destroying the young locusts, and has firmly established the fact which we had pre- viously maintained, that, with proper means, effort, and co-operation, the farmer, in the more fertile and settled portions of the country liable to their injury, may successfully cope with them; that, in short, he can protect his crops against them with about as little labor and expense as he must annually employ to protect most of these same crops from weeds. Farmers themselves were surprised at what could be accomplished by well-directed, intelligent effort; and it was the almost universal testi- mony that there need be, in future, no serious fear of the young insects, even-_where little effort has previously been made to destroy the eggs. In the destruction of the young, no methods that will not sweep them away in wholesale fashion have any value for our western farmers, how- ever valuable they may be to the owner of a small flower or truck gar- den. It is for this reason that we have been able to profit so little by European methods, and have had to invent means suitable to our broad western fields and the extensive nature of our farming operations. The best that most European authors can advise is the killing of the insects with flattened implements or brush; while Gerstaécker and other writers devote page after page to prove the superiority over other methods of catching the insects with hand-nets—a method which, while doubtless of some utility in dense German settlements, would prove absolutely futile on our large and scattered prairie-farms and against the excessive numbers of the pests which our farmers have to deal with. While, therefore, we shall mention all available means that have been or may be employed, we shall devote more especial attention to those which are useful in a broad and general way in the field. Experience has shown that the results of any particular measure will vary in different regions, dependent, to some extent, upoa the nature of the soil, the condition of the crops, and the general characteristics of indigenous vegetation. Circumstances may also render some particular " measure available and profitable to one farmer where it would be un- profitable to another. For convenience, the means of accomplishing the desired result may be classified into: 1. Burning. 2. Crushing. 3. Trapping. 4. Catching. 5. Use of destructive agents. | BURNING THE YOUNG LOCUSTS. 363 | 1. BuRNING.—This method is, perhaps, the best in prairie and wheat- | growing regions, which compose the larger part of the area subject to devastation by this locust. In such regions there is usually more or less : old straw or hay which may be scattered over or around the field in | heaps and windrows, and into which the locusts, for some time after they hatch, may be driven and burned. During cold or damp weather they congregate of their own accord under such shelter, when they may be destroyed by burning, without the necessity of previous driving. Much has been said for and against the beneficial results of burning the prairies in the spring. This is chiefly beneficial around cultivated fields | or along the roadsides, from which the locusts may be driven, or from which they will of themselves pass for the shelter the prairie affords. Scarcely any eggs are laid in rank prairie, and the general impression that locusts are slaughtered by myriads in burning extensive areas is an erroneous one, at least in the Temporary region. In burning extensive prairies after the bulk of the locusts hatch, the nests and eggs of many game birds are destroyed; but as the birds themselves escape destruction on the wing, they may and do return and nest again, while, on the contrary, many injurious insects, like the Chinch-bug, for instance, are killed, so that, even leaving the locust | question out of consideration, the burning proves beneficial by extermi- nating other noxious insects, and has some advantages from an agri- cultural point of view. As locusts disperse more and more from their hatching-grounds into the prairie as they develop, burning the grass in spring is beneficial in proportion as it is delayed. Machines for burning have been used in several localities with con- siderable success. Mr. J. Hetzel, of Longmont, Colo., has employed a machine drawn by horses. It is 12 feet long, from 2 to 24 feet wide, made of iron, and set on runners 4 inches high. An open grate on the : top of the runners is filled with pitch-pine wood, a metal sheet covering : the grate to keep the heat directed downward. The grate is generally _ made with a net-work of heavy wire, such as telegraph wire. Twomen and a team can readily burn from 10 to 12 acres a day, and kill two- thirds of the insects, but for this it requires a hot fire. Mr. C. C. Horner gives a more detailed description, in the Colorado Farmer, of a machine of somewhat similar construction : It consists of three runners, made of 2 by 4 scantling, 3 feet in length, to be placed 6 feet apart, making the machine 12 feet wide; runners to be bound together by three | flat straps or bars of iron (the base being 12 feet long). Across the top, bars of iron hold the runners firmly together, and form a frame across which wire can be worked to make a grate to hold fire. The upper part of the runners should be hollowed out so that the grate may slide along within two inches of the ground. A sheet-iron arch should be set over this grate to drive the heat downward. This machine is very light, and can be worked with one horse. Pitch-wood is best adapted to burning, and can be chopped the right length and size and left in piles where most convenient when needed. This machine is intended to be used when the little “hoppers just make their appearance along the edge of the grain, going over the ground once cr twice each day, or as often as necessary to keep them killed off. The scorching does not kill the grain but makes it a few days later. This is certainly the cheapest, as well as the most effectual, manner of getting rid of this pest. | Mee: | at he 364 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. Hand-burners, consisting of any form of pan or grate, or wire sieves, with handle attached, to hold combustible material, will do excellent service in gardens and small inclosures. There is another method by which large numbers of locusts can be burned, consisting merely of a bundle of rags or tow, which, after being attached to long wire or iron rods and saturated with kerosene, can be ignited and carried over the field. This method has been quite satisfactorily used in Colorado. A. stout wire, say forty feet long, is thoroughly enveloped in rags soaked in coal-oil. A small wire is wound around the rags to keep them in place, and the simple device is complete. Two men carry this rope, after setiing fire to the rags, across the field to and fro until the fuel is exhausted, and as it is not necessary to pass over the same ground more than once or twice, a large field of grain can be thus protected during the half hour or so that the rags burn. The effect is that of a miniature prairie fire. Under this head may be mentioned a machine constructed by Mr. Kimball C. Attwood, of Syracuse, N. Y. (patent No. 193,105, dated July 17, 1877), for destroying the insects by sulphur fumes. The machine is too expensive and complicated to come into general use, especially as it is less effectual than some of the simpler ones. The principle of the invention consists in attaching to the axle of the machine a light stove, and connecting the same with a blower or bellows by means of a tube. Surmounting this tube, and close to the stove, is situated the hopper for the reception of the: destroying compound (sulphur), while the lower section of the stove is connected with an escape-pipe having attached thereto a series of flexible tubes, by means of which the fumes of the compound are carried to the ground. Attached by suitable means to the rear of the axle is a horizontal bar, to which is secured the apron or cover designed to prevent the escape of the fumes after bee delivered by the flexible tubes. Other machines have been constructed, having troughs or wire re- ceptacles attached, in which the locusts are deposited and ultimately destroyed by means of sulphur fumes or hot water. Butas these reme- dies are applied by hand, they will be classed under the head of Catch- ing, &e. 2. CRUSHING.—To destroy locusts satisfactorily by this means, can only be advantageously accomplished where the ground is smooth and hard. Where the surface of the ground presents this character, heavy rolling can be successfully employed, especially in the mornings and evenings of the first eight or ten days after the newly-hatched young have made their appearance, as they are generally sluggish during those times, and huddle together until after sunrise. It is also advan- tageously employed during cold weather at any time of day, since the young when the temperature is low seek shelter under clods, &c. In various parts of Europe and Asia, flat, wooden, spade-like implements are extensively used for crushing young locusts. Large brushes, a Dh hs CRUSHING THE YOUNG LOCUSTS. 365 weighted down with stone and drawn by horses, were in some instances used last summer, but with less success than was anticipated. Several machines, most of them patented, were for the first time used during the past year to further the crushing of the young, and while none of them are likely to take the place of the more simple methods of catching, to be presently described, we neverthe- less feel that it devolves upon us to describe some of them. That repre- sented in the accompa- nying illustration was invented by Mr. George B. Drum, of Syracuse, . Nebr. (Patent No. 187,- ” 958, dated February 13, Fic. 67.—THE DruM LOCUST-CRUSHER: Vertical section. 187 7) Tig. 67 is a ver- tical section on line xv. Fig. 68 is a plan view with a part of the top removed, showing the mechanism. To the front of the principal frame A of the vehicle is attached, by a hinge or mova- ble joint, a scraper- frame, B. The front edge of B is carried along or near the ground for the purpose of collecting and start- ing the insects from the gfound. Within the frame B are two rolls, B' B', carrying an end- less apron, B?, of can- vas or other flexible material. On B? are secured one or more strips of wood or metal, B?, the purpose of these strips B® being to keep the canvas straight, and carry the insects forward upon theapron, and prevent their roll- ing out and escaping. The rolls B! and apron B? are driven by a belt from one of the wheels A’ of the vehicle. Upon the frame A is secured a brush, A!, to sweep : the insects ‘and drive . ae them toward the rolls Fic. 68¢-THE DruM LOCUST-CRUSBER: Plan view. C,and also to prevent them from being carried around with the apron B?. Upon the frame A, and imme- diately in the rear of the brush A!, are placed two or more crushing-rolls, Cc C, of wood or metal. These rolls C C run in boxes, connected by the spring ¢ >for the purpose of giving the rolls C C a yielding or elastic pressure upon each other. The rolls C C are driven by gearing from one of the wheels A? of the vehicle, and in such direction that (ill ICMR Aijes ie i: = i ee a! aT , we, ¥~ ee 366 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. — the insects passing over the brush are drawn through the rells C C and killed, falling upon the ground, or if it is desired to collect the insects for any purpose, a bag may be attached to the frame A, by hooks or otherwise, below the rolls C C. Upon the frame A are screWed, by means of springs or elastic connections a, two scrapers, A2, of metal or wood, which, bearing upon the surfaces of the rolls C C,serve to keep them clean and prevent the insects from being carried around them and clogging the machine. To the top of the frame A is secured a light frame or top, E, of wood or metal, covered with the same or with canvas, and having two side-wings, E’ E’, also of canvas. The side-wings. E’ are also secured to the frame of the apron B?, forming with that and with the top E a hopper of entrance to the rolls C C, of large area, to catch the insects and prevent their flying over the machine and escaping. The wings E’ are also attached to the shafts D D, or to the harnesses of the horses, to assist in spreading and enlarg- ing the area of the hopper. The frame A is carried upon two wheels, A? A’, which have projections upon their periphery to give them the necessary driving-power required by the rolls Band C. To each side of the frame A are secured brackets a’, which extend back and are attached to the cuter end of axles of A® A*. Upon the brackets a’ are pivoted shafts D, by means of which horses can be harnessed to the vehicle for the pur- pose of drawing it, the pivots d giving the horses the necessary freedom and independ- ence of motion, and also allowing the side-wings E’ to be drawn out or spread out by the action of the horses. Another is that invented by Mr. Michael H. Simpson, of Boston, Mass. (Patent No. 198,420, dated December 18, 1877. Fig. 69 repre- sents a perspective view of the machine ; Fig. 70 a sectional view of the same as shown in the preceding; and Fig. 71 a sectional view of the same arranged for the removal of the insects. Fic. 69.—THE Smmpson LOCUST-CRUSHER: Perspective view. The invention consists, as a whole, in a receptacle for insects, composed of a plat- form adapted to be drawn or propelled along the surface of the ground, and a fl: xible hood or cover located on said plat- ; : form. The receptacle Fic. 70.—THE SIMPSON LOCUST-CRUSHER: Sectional view. thus formed is adapted to be opened at its front, and held open by the draught which moves the apparatus, and to be automatically closed at its front when the apparatus stops; and the receptacle is adapted to be opened at its rear for the removal of the insects after they have been killed by being crushed against the platform. ane In the drawings, A represents the grasshopper catcher or receptacle, which is com- posed of a rigid platform, b, toa i. and a flexikle hood or cover, 9 enka : c loca bhereeres gene BINA pg e frocks dd at its rear side, ZS _ WEES and has draught-ropes ¢ ¢ at- Fic. 71.—THE Simpson LocustT-cRUSHER: Sectional view, when ready tached to its forward side, to remove the insects, said ropes being adapted for attachment to a horse. The platform is, preferably, from five to seven feet long, and ia Z if BAIT al EH A ARR WIE CONE oF PSS mento —— ie MACHINES FOR CRUSHING LOCUSTS. 367 is composed, preferably, of boards, making a tight flooring, and resting on transverse cleats g g, the forward ends of wLich are rounded and rest upon the ground. The for- ward ie of the platform is provided with a downwardly-inclined metallic flange or scoop, hk. - The hood or cover ¢ is composed, preferably, of coarse bagging or other textile or flexible material, and is attached firmly to the ends of the platform, preferably by means of metallic strips 7, which are screwed to the platform, the ends of the cover being interposed between the platform and the strips i. jj represent parallel inclined standards, which are rigidly attached to the front side of the platform, and project upwardly and outwardly therefrom, the standards being, preferably, portions of the strips i, as shown in Fig. 1. k represents a bar, which is somewhat longer than the platform b, and is adapted to slide up and down on the standards j, the bar being provided with slots, through which the standards pass. The forward edge of the hood or cover c is attached in any suitable manner to the bar k, so as to rise and fall with the latter. The bar kis con- yxected to the draught-ropes e by short ropes e’, which pass through orifices in the upper ends of the standards j, and are so arranged that the draught which moves the appa- satus will draw the bar upwardly, so that the receptacle is held open, as shown in Figs. 1 and 2, while the apparatus is in motion. When the draught ceases and the apparatus stops, the bar k falls, and thus automatically closes the receptacle, as shown in Fig.3. I prefer to employ a epring, /, to facilitate the descent of the bar k, this spring being attached at its ends, preferably, to a stationary object near the rear edge of the platform, and to the underside of the hood or cover near the forward edges thereof, as shown in Figs. 2 and 3. This spring, however, may not ba necessary when the bar is sufficiently heavy to descend readily by its own weight. It will be seen from the foregoing that when the apparatus is put in motion the front of the receptacle is automatically opened, and the grasshoppers or other insects on the surface of the field over which it is drawn are gathered or ‘‘ scooped” into the receptacle. I provide the rear side of the receptacle with a rigid frame, m, to which the hood c is attached. This frame incloses a sheet of fine netting, n, which forms a reticulated barrier at the rear of the receptacle, and allows the air to pass freely through the re- ceptacle when it is in motion, but arrests and prevents the escape of the insects. - Another machine that may be mentioned in this connection is that invented by Mr. Charles Hoos, of Arago, Nebr. (Patent No. 187,855, dated February 27, 1877.) In the accompanying illustrations, Fig. 72 4" L SSS © ees ein -—_ 22 er een er eee ee Wa] Bh eee jomre 5 . Hil Fic. 72.—THE Hoos LOCUST-CRUSHER: Top view. represents a top view of the machine; Fig. 73 is a vertical section of the same taken through the line x v7; and Fig. 74 is aside view. The fo:lowing detailed description illustrates the construction and working of the machine: A are the wheels, one of which revolves upon an axle attached to the frame B, and 368 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. the other is rigidly attached to its axle, which revolves in iowa attached to the frame B. To the frame B is attached the platform C, to the front of which are attached a number of guards or fingers, D, which are curved upward, and are designed to enable the machine to pass over obstructions, and to cause the grasshoppers to rise from the ground and fall upon the platform C. The platform C is grooved or rabbeted, as shown in Fig. 73, and is made highest in the center, and declines toward the front and rear, that the grasshoppers may be crushed against the shoulders of said rabbets or grooves by the cross-bars E, attached to the endless belts F. The cross-bars E are rounded off upon their forward corners, so that they may pass over the grooves or rabbets of the platform C. The endless belts F pass over pulleys G, attached to a shaft, H, the journals of which work in bearings i in the forward parts of the side _ boardsof the platform C,and over pulleys I, attached to a shaft, J. The journals of the shaft J revolve in bearin gs in the rear parts of the side boards of the platform C, and to one of said journals is attached a gear-wheel, K, the teeth of which mesh into the teeth of the gear-wheel L, at- tached to the journal of the roller M. To the journal of the roller M is also at- tached a gear-wheel, N, the teeth of which mesh into the teeth of the gear-wheel O, attached to the revolving axle of the Fie. 73.—The ee es “CRUSHER: Vertical wheel A. The teeth of the gear-wheel N also mesh into the teeth of the gear- wheel P, attached to the journal of the Toller Q, placed parallel with the roller M. The rollers M Q are placed at the rear edge of the platform C, so that any grasshop- pers that may not ke killed by the cross-bars F may be crushed by and between the rollers M Q. The journals of the forward roller M revolve in stationary bearings attached to the ae B, and the journals of the rear roller Q revolve in movable bearings, which are held forward by springs, R, so that the said roller Q may adjust itself ac- cording to the number of grasshoppers passing through the machine. To the frame B are scrape off the crushed grasshoppers from the rollers M Q. To one of ————————————— the forward corners of Fic. 74.—THe Hoos Locust-crusHEeR: Side view. the frame B is hinged the end of the draw-bar T, to the forward end of which is hinged the tongue U. The draw-bar T is strengthened against side draught by the brace V, the forward end of which is attached to the for- ward part of the said draw-bar T, and its rear end is attached to the frame B, near its other forward corner. To the draw-bar T is attached a lever, ~ 'W, which extends back into such a position operated by the driver from his seat, to raise and lower the forward edge of the platform C. The lever W may be secured mq in place, when adjusted, by catches at- tached to the frame B, or to the side board of the platform C. Thedraw-bar T is sup- ported by a small caster-wheel, X, at- tached to it. To the other corner of the frame B is attached a guard-board or shield,Y, to pre- vent the grasshoppers from escaping, and to cause them to fall upon the platform C. Z is the driver’s seat, the standard of Fic. 75.—THr HaANsBerry Locust-crusHER: Top which is attached to the frame B, and is view. provided with rests for the driver’s feet: We witnessed the working cf a machine invented by Mr. T. K. Hans- attached scrapers S, to- that it may. be conveniently reached and — MACHINES: FOR CRUSHING LOCUSTS. 369 berry, of Padonia, Kans. (Patent No. 188,359, dated March 13, 1877), intended to crush the insects by means of ee wooden bane It nim | LOM Fic. 76.—THE HANSBERRY CRUSHER: Sectional Fic. 77.—THE HANSBERRY LOCUST-C RUSHER: view. Front view. does not prove very successful, however, except on the very smoothest ground. Fig. 75 is a top view, when mounted on wheels orrunuers; Fig. 77 repre- sents the front. Fig. 76 is a sectional view of the Fie. 7.—Tran Hansperry machine when on runners, with knives or bars at- “S°*"* Side attachment. tached; and Fig. 78 shows the slide attached close to the axle to close the angle formed at the side by the ground and the knives or bars, when the machine is mounted on wheels. The invention consists in the novel construction and arrangement of a system of knives or bars attached by one end on a pivot or hinge so as to hang at an angle from a suitable frame, while their opposite ends drag freely on the ground, accommodating themselves to the inequalities of the surface, and, as the machine moves forward, crushing and destroying the insects (the frame may be mounted on wheels or on run- ners, as shown by Fig. 75 in the accompanying drawing); also, in the slide or cover, Fig. 78, used, when the machine is mounted on wheels, to close the angle between the axle and the ‘knives or bars laterally, and in other details of construction hereinafter claimed. a are the knives or bars, which may be constructed of wood or iron or of any other suitable material. Fig. 75, as already stated, shows the machine ready for operation. A section of the cross-bar i of the frame in front is cut away to show in what manner the knives or bars may be attached to theframe hh. The dotted lines «x «x indicate the place of the runners when the machine is to be operated without wheels. The rods b’ b end with a hook, to which the draught is applied. To each of these hooks a horse is to be attached. The animals’ heads are to be separated by a jockey-stick, so as to causo them to walk a little outside and in front of the line of the wheels or the runner. The animals will thus be separated from 12 to 15 feet, and even 18 feet, according to the width of the machine and its consequent destructive capacity. Each horse will be covered from tle back down to the feet on the outside with a canvas cover to be at- tached to the harness. This canvas will extend to the rear and be connected to the canvas wings ¢ c, as shown in Fig.77 in the drawing. When the horses are covered in this manner and attached to the machine as described the insects will be gathered and forced toward the center between the horses as the machine advances, where they will be caught and crushed by the knives or bars a, or cut to pieces when these bars are armed with steel blades at the ends. The hood or dash d, Fig. 76, is placed at the ex- treme front, above the throat s, after the manner of a dash on a one-horse sleigh, to catch any insect that might attempt to take wing as the machine moves ferward. In attempting to riso they will come in contact with the hood or dash and be thrown to. the ground, where they will be destroyed by the advancing knives or bars. The dash or hood may be made of wood, tin, sheet-iron, or any suitable material—even canvas may be used. To prevent the escape of the grasshopper laterally or at the side through the angle or space formed by the bars and the ground when the machine is mounted on wheels, the slide or cover e, Fig. 78, is employed attached to the axle f with the slot t. The slide or cover may be jointed, as ‘shown in the figure, or in a single piece. By be- ing jointed it will have a single motion up and down, thus accommodating and adjust- ing itself to the inequalities of the ground. The upright parts of the frame h are held in position by cross-pieces 7, and in front is a cross-beam, *%, which support may carry canvas wings ¢ ¢. It will be readily understood that when my device is used without wheels it is sup- ported upon runners or parts h, in which case the slide e is not used, but when used 24 G4 370 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. upon wheels m the slide e fills up the space otherwise occupied by the runners h and prevents the escape of the insect laterally. In the rear of the machine is a pivotal wheel, n, which supports a portion of che weight of the frame and renders the ma- chine easily turned in any direction. . It will be evident that the knives or bars a may be greatly modified or changed in corstruction without departing from the spirit of my invention, as, for instance, they might be armed with steel blades at their bearing on the ground to cut up as well as crush the insects. They might be hinged in groups or in sections. Sufficient weight may be givén to each particular knife or bar by a spring or by loading them. It is be- lieved they should be pivoted, as this will give the heaviest bearing at the point of contact on the ground. As the device is drawn along either on wheels or on runners, as may be most conve- nient, and according to the particular mode of construction, the insects are gathered into ihe space between the horses and between the runners h or the slide e, where they are cruslied und destroyed by the knives cr bars a, the knives or bars also accommo- dating themselves to the configuration of the ground, easily pass'ng over obstructions, and rendering it almost impossible for the insect to escape destruction. The knivesor bars a are held in place by a rod, g, passing through a hole in the ends of each, the rod passing through the sides of the frame h h, in which it is secured by means of suit- able fastening. Mr. Elisha Kenworthy, of Walnut, Iowa, has invented a machine | (Patent No. 186,970, dated December 5, 1876), which can be — placed under this class of machines. Fig. 79 pre- sents a verti- Fic. 79.—THE KENWORTHY LOCUST- . MACHINE: Vertical section. eal section of theinvention and Fig. 80 a plan view of the same. The following: description will ex- plain the parts and operation (Figs. 79, 80): a represents a suitable trough, made of any de- sired length, width, or material, and which has a 2 a ec number of slots made across its bottom, This F16. 80—THE Kenwortuy Locust-ma- trough is designed to be placed across the front of CHES i ae oom the reaper platform, so as to be in line with the pitman, and which has a supporting- wheel, c, on its outer end, to enable it to run smoothly over the ground. Working back and forth in this trough, cperated by the pitman, is the sickle-bar d, which likewise has a number of slcts or holes through it, but wider than the slots in the bottom of the trough. This sickle may be made of one single piece or two hori- zontal pieces, and have cross-bars secured to them, the cross-pieces being beveled on their under sides, and the sides of the slots in the bottom being similarly bev- eled on their under edges. The rear side of the trough is higher than the front, is inclined backward, covered with sheet-metal, and has hinged to it the inclined plat- form e, which is also covered with sheet-metal, so as to cause the grasshoppers to slide down into the trough. This platform is held in position by the spring-rod g, which ~ has its rear end fastened to the top of the brace h, which brace is fastened to the plat- form or some other support. The spring is used to impart a vibratory motion to the platform as the machine is drawn along, so as to shake the hoppers down as fast as they light upon its front. As rapidly as the hoppers fall into the trough they are crushed to death by the rapid reciprocations of the sickle, and then forced out of the bottom of the trough through the openings. . In using my device the cutter-bar or blade is disconnected from its pitman, so that it will no longer operate when the machine is in motion, and then my device, as above described, is placed upon the front edge of the platform, secured in position, and its sickle-bar connected to the pitman. When the mowing or reaping machine is drawn over the ground the motion of the machize causes the bar d to reciprocate back and forth and kill the insects as fast as they fall into the trough. Numerous communications upon this subject have been received, some of which, if not all, are or may have been successful on a small scale. Others, if carried out, and the contrivances built and given a fair trial, might be of especial benefit. } | = ee "a 7 = ‘ MACHINES FOR CRUSHING LOCUSTS. 371 Mr. J.C. Melcher, of O’Quinn, Texas, constructed one which he de- Scribes as follows: It is constructed on' the hand-lawnmower style, mounted on light wheels, a disturb- ing rim 8 or 10 feet long, passing low over the ground to stir the *hoppers up. Just behind the disturber are two sheet-metal rollers, one of which drives an endless band. As soon as the hoppers jump over the disturber, the band catches them and crushes them between the rollers. The rollers, being of sheet-iron, are elastic enough to press uniformly at any given point. A rack of wire web or cloth ascends over the tcp of the machine tu prevent the ’hoppers from escaping. It is operated by two men pushing the machine before them. Mr. John Wise, of Nebo, Platt County, Nebraska, says (in a letter dated May 26, 1877) a good machine can readily be made by having ‘ two revolving rollers mounted on wheels, the rollers to be four or six inches above ground, so arranged, if need be, to be adjusted either higher or lower, the upper to revolve on the top of the lower,” &c. To a contrivance of this sort handles could be attached for pushing; and with the addition of a frame covered with cloth or muslin projecting for- ward and outward. In addition to the preceding contrivances for crushing locusts is one invented by Mr. F. Peteler, of Minneapolis, Minn. Fig. 81 represents a front view, and Fig. 82 a side view, of the same machine. as In a communication from the inventor, dated June 8, 1877, the follow- ing description is given: The machine is intended to be drawn by horses, the drawing representing one to be drawn by ateam. ‘ The frame is mounted upon two wheels. ‘The front is a sheet-iron platform, over which revolves an elevator made of slats, which carry the locusts into boxes, where they pass between rollers, are crushed, and fall to the ground. The sides and top or back are wire screws, the whole forming a scoop 16 feet long (on the bottom 19 feet),8 feet high, the top of which can be lo wered or raised according to the height of the grain or grass.” ; We annex a more detailed description : AA, driving-wheels; B, guiding-whecel; I, setting-lever; d, retaining-post; G, endless carrier; Hh, gearing for elevator and crushing-shaft; I, crushing-rollers ; L, set-screw to spiral spring; /, spiral spring to press rollers together when neces- sary; N, slats on endless chain with sheet-iron projections to hold the locusts; M, drag-chain (or strips of light wood) to stir the locusts. Mr. Peteler believes that, with a single horse machine, 40 or 50 acres can be gone over in a single day, and by changing horses more can be done; but we, unfortunately, had no opportunity to test the practical working of the machine, as, by the time it was perfected, simpler and satisfactory methods were extensively being employed in Minnesota, and’ the inventor did not feel encouraged to manufacture his machine. In- deed, its expense is too great to warrant its manufacture, except to order by clubs of farmers. To use Mr. Peteler’s own words: ‘This machine is intended for local or State authorities to use on uncultivated lands adjoining farms and unsettled prairies, in order to destroy the insects during the entire season; for that purpose there should be il oe =e Al Fic. 81.—THE PETELER LOCUST-CRUSHING MACHINE: Front view. EE MACHINES FOR CRUSHING LOCUSTS. a ih proper organization, with camp outfit, &e., to follow up the swarms, loading the machines on wagons, and battle with the ’hoppers morning and evening, when they are comparatively sluggish. These machines are not designed as temporary contrivances, believing that we shall have the scourge several seasons in some parts of the State, and they should be made strong and durable.” Instead of paying bounties from the State treasury for the locusts, Mr. Peteler would have the State aid the farmers by investing in these machines. “ Fifty thousand dollars advanced to farmers will place, at $40 each, 1,250 one-horse machines / , LO LKOQL PRERRR LELERILOR AERO OREO QEOY LAX BERG re, ee Fic. 82.—THE PETELER MACHINE: Side view. in their hands to keep their grain-fields clear. If they use them only 60 days during the season, and go over only 40 acres per day, destroying but one-half bushel per acre (frequently they would destroy 8 to 10 bushels per acre), they would send 25,000 bushels daily, or 1,500,000 in 60 days, where bad ’hoppers go. That money would be returned to the State in four to six months by the farmers, provided the State and local authorities will do their duty by destroying the pests on unculti- vated lands.” Under this head we may mention the curious suction-fanning machine invented by Mr. J. A. King, of Boulder, Colo., and one of which, pur- chased by Mr. T. C. Henry, of Abilene, Kans., we had the opportunity to fully test. It consists of two large tin tubes (Fig. 83, A A), about 8 inches in diameter, with flattened, expanded, and lipped mouth-pieces (B) running near the ground. This horizontal opening or mouth is about 7 feet long. The tubes connect at the upper extremity with a chamber 374 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. (C), in which is a revolving fan which makes about 1,200 revolutions per minute. The tubes and fan, with the gearing, are placed in a frame (D) 5 by 10 feet, mounted upon two large a wheels (E E). i} \ I | i ; | \ } Fic. 83.—THE KiNG SUCTION-MACHINE: Front view. The air-current made by the revolving fan creates a suction at the mouth, which draws the insects up the tubes and into the chamber. They are then thrown by the fan upon a wire screen, and from thence _ drop into a kind of hopper which conducts them to a bag. The wire screen rapidly chokes up and must be frequently cleaned. Most of the locusts are crushed and mangled by the rapidly revolving fan, so that the screen may be removed entirely and the locusts thrown out behind. This allows a freer draught and causes a greater suction. This machine can be made for about $50, and it works well on smooth ground or in a wheat-field while the wheat is yet short. Itis somewhat difficult to keep the lips close enough to the ground. The principle of the machine is a good one, and we see no reason why some cheaper modification of it should not be quite generally used early in the season, especially in Colorado, where there is so much hard, smooth ground around the cul- tivated fields. The lips might be protected and rendered less liable to bend and get out of order by moving on runners made to extend some distance in front. Finally, a machine which we saw in Colorado, and which was put up by J.S. Flory, of Greeley, Colo., is worthy of mention in this connection; for, while it may be used with coal-tar, it is essentially a catching and ° crushing machine. The Colorado Sun thas speaks of it: The main feature of this invention is a revolving platform of heavy canvas or wire- cloth which runs between two horizontal rollers. Long arms reach forward, which Na i a Eo lm MACHINES FOR CRUSHING LOCUSTS. 375 enn His li oe il li MT Hu i he il i ail | ari My \) bys es S Why) A e——e8 _—2F4 <= IM TAL—'b8 ‘OWT 5 G ON PIG | ANIMOVN-NoILOA ‘tior)é1o0do ut 'MorA 0 ae SEZEZ =F | Wii | ilk i il 376 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. support a revolving reel; from these arms downward extend sheet-iron sides, over the top a canvas covering; all so constructed as to form a large wide mouth, into which the hoppers are driven by the arms of the revolving reel and carried between the two rollers and crushed. Horizontal strips running along the rollers serve to keep the rollers and platform clear of the crushed grasshoppers. The whole machine is sup- ported on two main wheels about the middle, and two smaller ones in front. Extend- ing back is a frame or cross-bar, to which one or two horses may be hitched to push the machine forward, or it may be operated by hand. The front of the platform runs close to the ground, and by bearing down at the rear by the driver, it can easily be lifted over any obstruction that may be in the way. The machine can be raised or lowered in front to suit the crop over which it is run. | ® \ i} : : | Hi villi ay . | | | Hil Gp Lie SLLLLL LA i H iit} H ih LLL LLLLLZL | | i j Fic. 85.—THE FLORY LOCUST-MACHINE: Front view, in operation. This invention will destroy the grasshoppers without the necessity and expense of using oil or tar. The patent, we understand, also covers the combinations of a recep tacle immediately under the rollers, into which the grasshoppers are carried, and into awh yan ——— Fic. 86.—THE Fiory Locust-MACHINE: Side view of frame. which, if need be, water and oil may be kept, and also a long narrow hopper (just over the rollers), into which coal-tar may be put and allowed to run through on to the aiid ns 1 o#«gae METHODS OF TRAPPING LOCUSTS. aia platform, thus making it a self-tarring machine. Either of these combined methods of destroying the ’hoppers may be used as the farmer may choose. The machine is so simple in construction that any ordinary workman can put them up at a compara- tively small price. The machine may be made of any size desired, from a small hand- machine to one a rod or more in width. Fig. 85 represents a front view of this machine when in operation, and Fig. 86 a side view of the frame, of which Messrs. Flory & Co., the manufacturers, send us the following description : The rollers B and C! are 8 feet between the side-pieces. The roller B, forming the axle, is about 16 inches longer than the other. The wheels are 24 inches in diameter, 4 inches thick, made of pieces of 2-inch lumber. Front roller, C, 8 feet between side- pieces, 4 inches in diameter. Front wheels 10 inches in diameter, so set as to let the front roller and platform run within a few inches of the ground. Front wheels should ’ be on movable axles, so as to raise or lower the machine. The platform is made of heavy ducking, endless, and revolves between the two rollers Band C’. A head-block and key at each end is used to drive the roller C! up tight against the axle B. Side- pieces are made of scantling 2 by 6,7 feet in front,9 feet in rear of axle. Arms,G G, 2 by 2,so arranged as to raise or lower the cover, P. Cross-piece in front of roller C diagram 2), set so close as to serve as a cleaner to the platform, also protects the plat- form from rocks, &c. A short apron is attached to this piece extending to the ground. (If necessary, a cleaner-strip may be placed immediately under roller C! (diagram 2).) W are canvas wings, extending forward and outward at an angle for the purpose of driving the grasshoppers in from either side, and, as the machine advances, they jump on to the movable platform and are carried into the rollers B and C! (diagram 2), and crushed. X X are iron rods hanging by ropes from the end of front cross-pieceT.- V V are wires extending from end of iron rods to cross-piece T. To the iron rods and wire the canvas sides are sewed. An apron of canvas hangs from the iron rods X X to sweep the ground. Over the top to the pieces C C a canvas cover is placed, tacked on, extending back to the cross-piece F. The sides are also closed up with canvas. 3 TRAPPING.—This can easily be accomplished, especially when the | locusts are making their way from roads and hedges. The use of nets or seines, or long strips of muslin, calico, or similar materials, con- verging after the manner of quail-nets, have proved very satisfactory. By digging pits or holes three or four feet deep, and then staking the two wings so that they converge toward them, large numbers may be secured in this way after the dew is off the ground, or they may be headed off when marching in a given direction. Much good can be ac- corplished by changing the position of the trap while the locusts are yet small and congregate in isolated or particular patches. Mr. A. N. Moyer, of Wyandotte, Kans., writes March 22, 1877: A street or an alley will cause the locusts to vary a few points from their line of march. So, when approaching the banks of a river, before being able to fly, they will follow the banks seemingly in search of a bridge. At Independence, Mo., they came into town and were led to the public square, which is surrounded by a wall of dressed stone; several wagon-loads were removed in one day. Now, in aiming to capture and destroy them when they are on the march, suppose a portable fence lined with tin or some smocth material be used and placed in the ferm of a V with an opening at the apex and there a receptacle for them be placed or dug, I think immense quantities could be corralled in a day with very little labor. I hive worked on that plan somewhat and know whereof I speak. Then, to assist them, let two men, holding opposite ends of a long piece of canvas or any light material which will bear along stretch, surround and steadily run them into the portable pits. 378 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION A second fact concerning their habits can be utilized. At night, if cool, or at the ‘ap- proach of a shower, they run for shelter; trees always preferred. If on every acre or every five acres a cistern could be dug and some branches placed high above it or a tree placed as if in the center, immense quantities could becaught. I have seen many bushels massed at the foot of a large elm, between the cavities formed by its great roots; they were a writhing mass a foot in depth. Mr. F’. M. Dougan, of Mount Pleasant, Kans., has met with consider- able success with the following mode of ditching: Dig a pit 3 feet deep and from 2 to 7 feet wide, then make a ditch 2 or 3 feet broad and about 2 feet deep, running from the pit toward the point from which the locusts are making their appearance. To gather a broad army of insects, take a plow and run furrows diagonally from the ditch, which must afterward have all loose earth removed withspades. In this way the insects are brought together toward the ditch and finally into the pit. Ditching and trenching properly come under this head; and both plans are very effectual in protecting crops against the inroads of traveling schools of the insects. They were found especially advantageous in much of the ravaged country in 1875, where there was little or no hay or straw to burn. They are the best available means when the crops are advanced, and when most of the other destructive methods so advis- able’ early in the season can no longer be effectually used. Simple ditches, two feet wide and two feet deep, with perpendicular sides, offer effectual barriers to the young insects. They must, however, be kept in order, so that the sides next the fields to be protected are not allowed to wash out or become too hard. They may be kept friable by a brush or rake. | ‘The young locusts tumble into such a ditch and accumulate and die at the bottom in large quantities. In a few days the stench becomes great, and necessitates the covering up of the mass. In order to keep the main ditch open, therefore, it is best to dig pits or deeper side ditches at short intervals, in which the locusts will accumulate and may be buried. If a trench is made around a field about hatching- time, but few locusts will get into that field until they acquire wings, and by that time the principal danger is over, and the insects are fast disappearing. If any should hatch within the inclosure, they are easily driven into the ditches dug in different parts of the field. The direction of the apprehended approach of the insects being known from their hatching locality, ditching one or two sides next to such locality is gen- erally sufficient, and when farmers join they can construct a long ditch which will protect many farms. * * * Where the soil is tenacious and water can be let into the ditches so as to cover the bottom, they may be made shallower and still be effectual. The width and depth of the ditch is important, and as experieuce differed somewhat, I have been at pains to get the experience of a large number of correspondents ad- dressed by circular. Many have successfully used ditches 2 feet deep and J8 inches wide; a few have made them only 18 inches by 18 inches. Those who have used water found 12 inches by 15 inches sufficient, while the larger number used a ditch such as I have recommended, viz, { DITCHING TO TRAP LOCUSTS. 379 2 feet deep by 2 feet wide, with perpendicular sides. Having been the first to recommend proper ditching in this country, I have felt particular interest in its results, and have been in no small degree amused at the fault found with my recommendation by those who, through slovenly, made ditches or other causes, have not been successful in this mode of warfare. It is less effectual against the newly-hatched young, which more easily crawl up a perpendicular bank than the larger ones, and its efficacy will vary with the nature of the soil and other circumstances ; for, in proportion as the soil is loose, and the ditches hence apt to fill up by the action of strong winds, or in proportion as strong winds carry the insects over, ditching will necessarily fail.” ‘‘ Those who, from theory rather than from experience, are skeptical about the efficacy of ditching, urge that the locust, especially in the pupa state, can hop more than two feet. In truth, however, whether when traveling in a given direction of their own accord, or when being driven or disturbed, they very seldom leap that distance, as all who have had experience well know. That, on a pinch, the pupa can leap even farther, is true; but the fact remains that in practice Caloptenus spretus seldom does. So the Chinch-bug, though capable of flight, will yet tumble into a ditch by myriads rather than use its wings. Even the larger winged Acridia and Gdipode tumble into such a ditch, and seldom get out again. I would remark in this connection, also, that a ditch three feet wide, unless correspondingly deep, will be more apt to permit the insects to escape, when once in, than a narrower one. In hopping, the more perpendicular the direction the insects must take, the shorter will be the distance reached. “The efficacy of the ditch depends not so much on the inability of the young locusts to jump or scale it, as on their tendency not to do so. In the bottom of the ditch they soon become demoralized, crippled, and enfeebled by constant effort, and the trampling and crowding upon one another.” From the numerous instances that have come io our knowledge, we give the following to illustrate the benefits derived from proper ditch- ing: Just back of the fair-grounds at Kansas City, Mo., Mr. F. D. Adkins had about three acres in vegetables in 1875. The locusts hatched in large numbers all around the city, but were especially abundant in the immediate vicinity of this truck-garden, and seemed bent upon its destruction. Mr. Adkins, remembering his experience with the same plague in 1867, began active operations in ditching for their destruction in 1875; and though the country for miles around was laid waste, yet this little three-acre field was untouched—a perfect oasis in the desert, at once giving pleasure to the eye, and speaking eloquently of what may be accomplished by a little judgment and perseverance. Of the experiences in 1877 as to the efficacy of ditches, the following are some of the more valuable: . Yours of June 27 was duly received, and, in answer, would say, that up to the pres- ent our ‘“’hopper-ditches” have proved entirely successful, or, at least, to my full 380 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. satisfaction, to wit: We have probably not lost to exceed one acre out of seventy-five planted, including corn, wheat, rye, oats, and potatoes or vegetables, among. which we had planted peas, beans, beets, lettuce, onions, squashes, melons, &e. Our ’hop- pers have been gone now ten or more days, but we are in constant fear that they will drop down upon, us every day, but if they do not we shall have a full crop, so far as *hoppers are concerned. ; Inclosed please find a rough pen-sketch of my farm and surrounding country, showing the water and ’hopper ditches, also the different crops on the place and those of my neighbors, L. J. Apply, A. J. Gillman, and W. D. Cole, who cut ditches around what little wheat they have left unharmed after they saw that my ditches were proving successful, and I am happy to state that they have likewise been as successful as my- self, so far as they took advantage of the ’hoppers, but they did not commence until these had eaten in some distance from the edge of their grain; consequently they were compelled to cut through their grain to head them off. te I first had a ditch cut all around the outside of my place, commencing on the northwest corner and finishing on the southwest corner, at the slough; then I had ditches cut around the garden, truck-patch, and wheat, to protect those from the hoppers hatched on the farm. My ditches were from one and a half to two feet wide, and about as deep as wide, with perpendicular banks or sides, and two post- holes side by side across the bottom of the ditch (with seven-inch post-auger bits) two feet in depth, about once every rod, at first, and afterward, in places where large swarms or herds attacked us, as often, sometimes, as every four feet. Up to the time of the development of the ’hoppers’ wicgs a less number of pits or trap-holes will do, but after that time it is very necessary to have the sink-holes near together, as the ’hoppers will travel but a short distance in the bottom of the ditch before they will attempt to climb the sides unless precipitated into a pit-hole, conse- guently the sink-holes are the most important part of the warfare, the ditch acting as a kind of run-way to the trap or sink-holes. As to the cost of the ditch it must be born in mind that our land is a light sandy loam, and consequently very easy digging, and I was fortunate in hiring most of my Jaborers rather cheaply, from 75 cents to $1 per day and board, and the hands cut from 15 to 20 ruds per day each, making an average of 174 rods per day; but I think they were extra good laborers. — After the ditch was complete, and with sink-holes about one to every rod, I employed a good, responsible laborer for a month to keep the ditch in order and bore new sink- holes as often as the others were filled with ’hoppers, always putting some earth in the holes containing the ’hoppers, covering them to prevent their escape and the disagree- able odor from decomposition. And let. me here remark that, while this last laborer made an average of two hundred and thirty sink-holes per day, two feet deep, he was at times unable to furnish sink-hcles as fast as they were filled with ’hoppers, so that every few days I was obliged to furnish an extra hand to assist in making sink-holes. In regard to the number of bushels of ’hoppers caught, it is difficult to determine, ‘as a part of the holes would be filled full, and others probably not more than three- fourths full. Each hole, if full, would contain at least half a bushel of ’hoppers, Ta alive, and I think more rather than less. The hatching-grounds were all about us, the ground being literally filled with eggs almost everywhere around us, as well as on the farm, 20 acres of which. was breaking. I am quite certain that all the ’hoppers hatched on my farm were in the ditch before they were two weeks old, respectively; and had all of my neighbors commenced ditch- ing as thoroughly as we did and as early in the season (I commenced about the middle of April), 1am quite sure we would have had a good crop ail about the country and with not more than half the labor that it was to us after the ditch was dug; besides we would have had but very few, if any, "hoppers to take wings and fly away. I have demonstrated to my mind that a ditch cut around 160 acres of land before hatching time, supplied with only a limited number of sink-holes, will catch all the *hoppers hatched on said land, besides mapy from the outside, before they are more PROTECTION BY BARRIERS: COAL-OIL. 381 than two weeks old, respectively. ’Hoppers are very uneasy when young, and almost constantly on the move when the weather is fair, and will, as a consequence, reach the ditch at some point soon after they are hatched out. We had but little or no trouble to take care of the ’hoppers until after they were more than half grown and had traveled two or three miles and had collected in large droves; then they came in such numbers that it was sometimes difficult to take care of them. But if my neighbors had provided ditches but a small number of those would have ever reached us. The number of rods of ’hopper-ditch cut on my farm is between 650 and 700 rods, at a cost not to exceed $1 per acre of the entire farm of 120 acres. Through low, wet places, where ditches are impracticable, stock-boards can be set up edgewise and use comnion fence-boards for caps (thus: T), breaking the joints of the stock-boards with the center of the fence-boards, to prevent the stock-boards from falling over. There were times after the weather became warm when, in passing along the ditch, it would remind one of a hive of honey-bees swarming, from the buzzing nose of the ‘“bluebottle” flies, busy among the dead and dying ’hoppers in the sink-holes, and sometimes the stench was so great from decomposing ’hoppers that it was sickening to pass along to the windward ef the ditch.—[J.C. Curryer, Saint James, Minn., July 12, 1877. But people are everywhere coming back to the realization of the fact that the ditch is the best thing of all. At Clearwater they began at least a week earlier than at Monticello, and all turned to ditching with a prospect of saving half a crop.—[ Mr. Allen Whitman, June 16, 1877. Ditching is the most effectual way of fighting the young, but is too expensive in a / new country where many poor men have to fight single-handed.—[J. G. McGrue, Audubon, Becker County, Minn., November 5, 1877. ‘ Farmers living at Brushy Bend dug a ditch over half a mile long, on the north side of afarm. At the bottom of the trench they made holes about five feet apart, making about four hundred and eighty holes in all. Each of these holes will hold about a bushel, and the ’hoppers traveling south from the sand-ridges will fill them quite full in one day. This would seem incredible, but nevertheless that one ditch is destroying about four hundred and eighty bushels of ’hoppers per day.—[ Nebraska Eagle. They can be fought, and fought successfully. Pans with kerosene or coal-tar may be economically used. But ditching is the thing; yes, the very thing. This season, in this county, hundreds of bushels have been destroyed by this method; whole farms, reaching’ hundreds of acres, have been perfectly protected. One of our citizens has taken over one hundred bushels, and this at a time when the insects were not one- third grown.—[A. H. Gleason, Little Sioux, Iowa, June, 1877. From what I have seen, I believe that on the smooth, open prairie, where ditching is properly done, it is one of the best means of protection against the youug ’hop- pers.—[J. I. Salter, Saint Cloud, Minn., June, 1877. Ditching has bsen resorted to and proved satisfactory. Nature of soil, sandy loam; depth of ditch, eighteen inches; width of ditch, two feet.—[Thomas Noxorr: Argyle, Sumner County, Kans., June 5, 1877. Protection by barriers.—Where ditches are not easily made, and where lumber is plentiful, a board fence two feet high and with 3-inch batten nailed to top on side from which the locusts are coming, the edge of it smeared with coal-tar, wil answer as an effectual barrier, and prove useful to protect fields or gardens. Coal-oil_—The use of coal-oil and coal-tar may best be considered in ‘ this connection, as both substances are employed in various ways for trapping and destroying the insects. As we shall presently see, in con- 382 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. | sidering the different available destructive agents, coal-oil is the very best and cheapest that can be used against the locusts. It may be used in any of its cruder forms, and various contrivances have been employed to facilitate its practical application. The main idea embodied in these contrivances is that of a shallow receptacle of any convenient size (vary- ing from.about 3 feet square to about 8 or 10 by 2 or 3 feet), provided with high back and sides, either mounted upon wheels or runners, or carried (by means of suitable handles or supporting-rods) by hand. It the “ pan” is larger than, say, 3 feet square, it is provided with trans- verse partitions which serve to prevent any slopping of the contents (in case water and oil are used), when the device is subjected to any sud- den irregular motion,,such as tipping, or in case of a wheeled pan, when it passes over uneven ground. The wheeled pan is pushed like a wheel- barrow ; the hand-worked pan is carried by long handles at its ends. On pushing or carrying, as the case may be, these pans, supplied with oil, over the infested fields, and manipulating the shafts or handles so as to elevate or depress the front edge of the pan as may be desired, the locusts are startled from their places and spring into the tar or oil, when they are either entangled by the tar and die slowly, or, coming in con- tact with the more active portion of the oil expire almost immediately. In Colorado they use it to good advantage on the water in their irrigat- ing-ditches, and it may be used anywhere in pans or in saturated cloths, stretched on frames, drawn over the field. The method of using it on the irrigating-ditches in Colorado is thus reported by Prof. R. L. Pack- ard: ‘¢It consists essentially in pouring, or, better, dropping coal-tar or coal-oil on the running water with which the irrigating ditches are sup- plied. The method of supplying these ditches with oil is very simple. it is only necessary to sprinkle a few drops of coal-tar on the stream, when the oils contained in the tar are diffused over the surface of the ‘water, and coming in contact with the insects (no matter how many), cause their speedy death. The toxic power of coal-oil upon the insects is very remarkable; a single drop of it floating on the water is capable of causing the death of a large number of insects. A simple and in- genious mode of keeping up a constant supply of the tar to a ditch I saw exemplified upon the farm of Mr. Arnett. A three-quart can is - perforated on the side close to the bottom, a chip loosely fitting the aperture is inserted therein, and the can is then immersed (by a weight if necessary) in the ditch. Three quarts or less of tar, trickling out drop by drop from this slight vent, are sufficient to keep a great length of ditch supplied with coal-oil for thirty-six hours. The precise extent of ditch which may thus be rendered toxic to the locusts cannot, of - course, be exactly stated. It is in fact quite indefinite, for the reason -that the quantity of oil necessary to kill one of the insects is almost in- finitesimal, and for the further reason that a single drop of oil will cover quite a large surface when dropped on water, so that taking these two facts together, it is easy to see that a very small quantity of tar or oil | coca gh 4 - ‘ eS PANS FOR USE OF COAL-OIL. 383 will serve to guard by means of ditches a large tract of territory from the ravages of the young (unwinged) locusts.” The pans that were used in Kansas and Iowa, but principally in the former State, were of very simple construction and very effectual. We give the descriptions of them as they first appeared in Mr. Riley’s Locust Plague in the United States: ‘A good and cheap pan is made of ordinary sheet-iron, 8 feet long, 11 inches wide at the bottom, and turned up afoot bigh at the back and -an inch high at the front. A runner at each end, extending some dis- tance behind, and a cord attached to each front corner, complete the pan, at a cost of about $1.50. (Fig. 87.) Fic. 87.—SMALL COAL-OIL PAN. “We have known from seven to ten bushels of young locusts caught with one such pan in an afternoon. It is easily pulled by two boys, and by running several together in a row, one boy to each outer rope, and one to each contiguous pair, the best work is performed with the least labor. Longer pans, to be drawn by horses, should have transverse partitions (Fig. 88) to avoid spilling the liquid; also more runners. HA ) Fic. €8.—LARGE COAL-OIL PAN. The oil may be used alone so as to just cover the bottom, or on the sur- face of water, and the insects strained through awire ladle. When the insects are very small, one may economize in kerosene by lining the pan with saturated cloth; but this becomes less efficient afterward, and frames of cloth saturated with oil do not equal the pans. Where oil has 384 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. been scarce, some persons have substituted concentrated lye, but when used strong enough to kill, it costs about as much as the oii. The oil- pans can be used only when the crops to be protected are small. ‘¢ Small pans for oil, attached to an obliquing pole or handle, do excel- lent service in gardens.” , Mr. A. A. Price, of Rutland, Humboldt County, Iowa, sends the Com- mission the following description of a coal-oil pan to be drawn on run- ners, and which was used with much success in Northwestern Iowa: Take a common board from 12 to 16 feet in length for the foundation or bed-piece. Make a tin trough 4 inches deep, 6 inches Wide, and as long as required. Divide the trough into partitions by means of strips of tin, so that each partition is a foot long, thus avoiding the spilling of oil.. Back of this place a strip of tin 16 inches wide and as long as the trough. The back must be firmly secured by braces running down to the front edge of the board. Under all this place three wooden runners 3 feet long and shod with iron-for the trough toride on. Fill the pan half full of water and then add asmall quantity of kerosene, sufficient to cover the water. A horse may be hitched to the machine by fastening a rope to the outside runners. * * * The lightness of the machine will allow its being used on any crops. lee = = A machine of this sort was patented by Mr. Lorenzo B. Canfield, of Lp . Syracuse, Nebr. (Pat- ent No. 187,509,dated i : February 20, 1877). ~Sigs ZF ae The following de- ve fies 7 “ll scription and figures will serve to illus- trate his pan more ! fully. Fig. 89 repre- ~~x sents a perspective Fic. 89.— THE CANFIELD Locust PAN: Perspective view. VIEW; Fig. 30a longi- tudinal sectional view on the line 2 a in the preceding. Referring to the parts by let- ters, letters A represené the pans, made of zinc, tin, or any light snitable material, and of any ss 2) Suitable size and depth adapted AN eagiN EDIE 2H URAL SU 6 to )«6the methed of propulsion. a mae eo eee 2 ee For carrying by hand I have oa . Eee 7 found about 2 to 3 feet long, 2 feet wide, and 3 to 4 inches deep a very good size. The sides of the pans may all be perpendicular to the bottom, except the front side, which should be a little inclined, as shown at Figs. 1 and 3, to facilitate Fig. 90.—CANFIELD PAN: Longitudinal section. passing over grass, oats, wheat, and vegetation similar in size. The pans A are placed — in a row, close to each other, and united by bottom straps B, to which they are secured by rivets b. C is a truss, its ends secured to the extreme ends and bottom of the two outer pans A, and its central part secured upon the upper eud of a king-post,c. D Dare handles, one at each end of the series of pans. E is an upwardly-extended back for the pans, and is formed by simply extending the backs of the pans themselves upward, or by attaching a light cloth back to standards e. It will be evident that the series of pans may be extended to any desired length, or that a single pan may be used short enough to sustain its own weight, or made longer and braced, as described, and divided transversely by walls into compartments, which _will prevent the oil running all to one end of the device when such end is lower than the other. In operation the device is carried by the handles D, with the pans near to the ground, and as it is advanced the insects jump up and are received in the advancing pan, or, striking the back E, fall into the petroleum, of which there is one-half inch or more in depth in the pans, where they die, or, jumping therefrom, die on the ground. ele ae et, |e ; fee Oo ‘ Le ? PANS FOR THE USE OF COAL-OIL. 385 This pan was sold in the West at an exorbitant price, $4 being charged for royalty. Wherever we had an opportunity we advised farmers not to use.it, but to construct others such as we have already described, and every bit as good, at far less expense. The principle cannot be patented, for since 1875 similar coal-oil pans, virtual out- | growths of the canvas frames originally employed for the same purpose, have been ** known and used” in Colorado. This fact is sufficient in law to defeat any patent right based upon any application for a patent subsequent to such knowledge and use. The essential features in all the contrivances are, in fact, lL. A plat- form that runs on the ground, on runners or wheels; 2. A canopy at right angles with it; 3. A reservoir at the junction to contain the liquid, Another pan, of which we give asketch (Fig.91),was made by Mr. James | . Se il co I | Mil a | 3 Fic. 91.—THE ADAMS LOCUST-PAN. Adams of Abilene, Kans. It is 10 feet long, 2 feet wide; back (a) 1 foot high ; front (b) about 2 inches high at the inner edge; ends (c) 2 feet high. The front is made of a board 6 inches wide, leaning inward at . an angle of about 45°. A cloth screen is placed on the back part, which prevents the reel from knocking the locusts back over the pan. The whole is made of pine, and costs $8 or $10. The pan is painted within with asphaltum paint, which renders it impervious to water or oil. The pan rests in front upon runners, to which ropes are attached for drawing, and on wheels behind which carry belts to turn the reel. The reel revolves just in front of the pan, causing the locusts to hop, 25 G 386 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. and then knocking them into the pan. A brush of cloth is sometincs fastened to one arm of the reel to brush into the pan any locusts that - may be on the front piece. Several of these pans were used abont Abi- lene, and did good work. ; | A contrivance shown in Fig. 92 was constructed by President John A. Anderson. for use on the Agricultural College farm at Manhattan, Kans. The follewing description is taken from the Industrialist : Yesterday afternoon we had the following.cheap machine built in a couple of hours, which thus far promises to do all the work of either of the oil-r achines : Three pieces of fence-board, 4 feet long and 3 or 4 feet apart, serve as sled-runners. To the frout ends is nailed a fence- board 15 or more feet long: To this, and over the run- -——. ners, three pieces of slats, each 4 feet long, are at- tached by a leather hinge; and inch-and-a-half holes through the back end of these slats receive light standards, the lower ends of which are fastened .to the back ends of the run- ners by a leather hinge. Peg-holesin the upper half A VW. ~. 722M _— of the standards enable : SSS SSS SS — ycu to place the slats at Fic. 92.—ANDERSON COAL-OIL CONTRIVANCE. any desirable angle. On | the back ends of these slats is nailed a strip 15 feet long, parallel with the fence-board and 3 feet from it; and to these is tacked coarse muslin 15 feet in length, which forms an apron or movable screen that can be setat any angle. To the front ends of the outside runners a long piece of fence-wire was attached, and a mule was hitched to the wire, much to the disgust of the mule. A boy can pull the light machine, but mules pull longer than boys do. On trial it worked toa charm; and this morning the ground gone over shows sev- eral dead ’hoppers to the square foot, notwithstanding the fact that they had quickly” ~ jumped off the apron. It should be used against the wind, and promises to be very effective. Any man can make the above in two hours, and it is worth trying. It was found to do very good service, killing the young locusts in considerable numbers. The oil did not evaporate so rapidly as was an- ticipated. One thorough saturation was sufficient for fifteen or twenty minutes, when a little more could be added. If the machine be hauled against the wind, nearly all the locusts which hop will touch the oiled canvas. They generally take several hops upon the canvas before leaving it, thus insuring a thorough saturation with the oil. Aftet hopping from the apron they can take two or three hops upon the ground, then lose all power in their hind legs, stretching them straight out behind, and finally, in one or two minutes after being “ oiled,” they are dead. The Weekly Rocky Mountain News of May 16, 1877, contained the following notice and description of another contrivance: | Mr. Ben Long brought into town yesterday about a half bushel of grasshoppers, weighing 35 pounds, caught in four hours, on half an acre of ground, two and a half miles northeast of Boulder, with his new machine. The machine is composed of two troughs, each 5 feet long, and joined V-shape, the angle being toward the body of the machine. It takes up about 7 feet in width. The troughs are 5 inches wide, an inch high, filled mostly with wat-r and covered with kerosene. Behind the trough is SN Re ltl Br ee - At 4. | } }. THE USE OF COAL-TAR. 387 a wire screen, set in such a shape, that if the ‘hoppers jump against it, they must fall into the trough. It runs so close to the ground that few, if any, of the pests escape below it. Mr. C. L. Watrous, of Des Moines, Iowa, suggests a contrivance of this sort, with the addition of a wing on either side of the trough, ex- tending forward and outward, so as to catch more locusts, that may be upon the ground. He further states that thisis about the only meaus that was employed there for killing them. Mr. G. V. Swearingen, of Sidney, Iowa, under date of June 14, 1877, states : The cheapest, and to my mind the most successful, device or machine is muslin or ducking, 10 feet long, about 2} feet wide, fastened to strips at each edge, stretched at ends and in center or more places with other strips; a piece,18 inches wide at rear, supported by upright strips. Saturate with coal-oil, and have a boy at each end carry- ing it slowly over the ground. : The locusts, in hopping, light on the saturated surface, and are killed by the coal-oil, which appears to me to-be the most destructive to them of anything yet tried. Coal-tar.—This may be used with most of the contrivances just de- scribed for the use of kerosene, and while not equal to the simple kero- sene-pan for speed in trapping and destroying, is yet very useful, espe- cially in the neighborhood of gas-works where the coal-tar can be obtained at nominal cost. It also permits the use of the simplest kind of pan. Enough tar is spread over whatever receptacle may be used to cover well the bottom, and when this becomes sufficiently matted with the young locusts so as no longer to destroy the new comers, another coating is added, and so on until it becomes necessary to remove the whole mass, when it is shoveled from the pan and burned ; or, what is far preferable, wherever there are wet ditches, it may be thrown into these, when the oil contained in it, spreading over the surface of the water, destroys such locusts as may jump into or be driven into such ditches. Where the tar is scarce, as a matter cf economy it will pay to melt the accumulated * mass in iron vessels. By skimming off the dead locusts that rise to the surface, and thinning the residuum with a little coal-oil, it may be used again. The Hon. A. B. Robbins, State senator from Willmar, Minn., deserves credit for having, by an opportune letter in the Saint Paul Pioneer Press and Tribune of May 17, successfully drawn the attention of the people of his State to the advantageous use of coal-tar. It had been applied in one way or another in previous years, not only in Kansas and Colorado, but even Minnesota. The New Ulm (Minn.) Herald of May 28, 1875, had urged its use spread upon sheets of building-paper, and the same recommendation was referred to in full in a report to the geological and natural history survey of Minnesota for 1876. The Farmers’ Union, of Minneapolis, under date of August 8, 1876, in a letter from Greeley, Colo., had de- scribed the use of the same material spread over stout canvas fastened 388 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. to a frame, to be dragged over the ground. It was referred to in the following words in Mr. Riley’s eighth annual report for 1875: Mr. Rufus Clark, of Denver, uses a piece of oi]-cloth 9 to 12 feet long and € feet wide. One side and each end are secured to light wooden strips by common carpet-tacks, and the corners strengthened by braces. The oil-cloth is smeared with coal-tar, purchased at the Denver gas-works for $7.50 per barrel, and the trap is dragged over the ground by two men; a cord about 10 feet long being fastened to the front corners for that pur- pose. The entire expense of the “trap” is about $3.50, and as it is light and easily handled, will be found serviceable on small as wel] as large farms. Zinc, instead of oil-cloth, has also been used for the same purpose. Finally, the same use of it in much the same words was recommended on page 51 of the Report of the Conference of Governors held in Omaha~ in the autumn of 1876, ten thousand copies of. which report were pub- lished ; while it was further recommended in our first Bulletin, distrib- uted in April, 1877. It is somewhat surprising, therefore, that its use should have proved such a novelty, though the fact finds explanation, perhaps, in the simple form of pan recommended by Senator Robbins, and the commendable enterprise which Governor Pillsbury displayed in aiding the farmers to obtain material. The toal-tar plan, when so for- cibly brought to notice, gained favor at once and soon created quite a furore. The following extracts will show what was thought of it, the extent to which it was used, and the effective manner in which Governor Pillsbury assisted the farmers of his State: When, after a brief effort to exterminate the insects, there seemed to be a common inclination to abandon the struggle in despair, a contrivance of sheet-iron and coal- tar was resorted to, with such results as promised a successful issue of a vigorous war- fare upon the pests. Concurrent reports of the successful working of this device con- tinued to reach me from various portions of the afflicted region, and, after much in- quiry and a personal inspection of its operation on the theater of the worst devasta- tion, I deemed it possessed of so much efficiency as to warrant an effort to induce its comprehensive use. I thought this justified both by the practical results to be ex- pected and by the moral effect of a vigorous struggle in self-defense. The emergency not admitting of time for definite arrangements respecting the costs involved, I tele- _ graphed the several counties concerned, offering to furnish immediate supplies, upon an understanding of future reimbursement by them. This offer was promptly ac- cepted, and all available supplies for material having been secured at wholesale sources, a vigorous war of extermination was maintained simultaneously in twenty- nine counties of the State. In three or four of these, comprising the dense center of the destroying swarms, the expedient proved unavailing. In all the rest, and es- pecially wherever protective ditches had been first constructed, a fair degree of success attended these efforts, a vast amount of grain and other products having been by this means unquestionably rescued from destruction. In the prosecution of this enterprise there were employed about 56,000 pounds of sheet-iron and 3,000 barrels of coal-tar, which required a total expenditure of about $10,350. Toward this I applied the un- expended half of the five thousand which the last legislature placed at my disposal for relief purposes, and obtained the remainder upon my personal credit. The coun- ties have made reimbursements as promised to the amount of $3,200, leaving about $4,700 yet to be provided for. As commendable efforts of this character, which aim at~ self-protection, without hope of reward other than that dictated by enlightened policy, are especially deserving of encouragement, I recommend that the State assume the whole expense of the movement, refund the sums which have been paid, and release from their obligations the counties which are in arrears.—[ From Governor Pillsbury’s annual message for 1877. THE USE OF COAL-TAR. 589 Meeker County, Minnesota, summoned the county commissioners and determined to send for 250 barrels of coal-tar and 1,000 sheets of iron. Other counties took similar action, and for a time it was impossible to supply the material fast enough. When tar was wanting, kerosene, molasses, ashes or sand moistened with kerosene, ashes and water, soft soap, or flour and water were used; the latter, when well filled with young locusts, was fed to the hogs. Tar was shipped over the different lines free of freight charge, and the State provided a supply of 1,000 barrels to be distributed wherever it was needed.—[ Mr. Whitman. Since Thursday morning there has been shiped from this city to points in Minne- sota, over the Chicago, Milwaukee and Saint Paul Railroad, over 2,000 barrels of coal- tar and 20 tons of sheet-iron, consigned mostly to the governor of that State. The articles have been sold by Chicago merchants at cost price, while the railroad company has taxed the shippers a merely nominal figure for hauling the freight, as they are the parties who, next to the farmers, expect to be most largely benefited in the end. The coal-tar will be used for the extermination of the young grasshoppers, and the sheet- iron is required for the construction of a machine for the effective utilization of the tar. Thousands of these machines will be built in Minnesota before the end of next week. The machine is simple in its construction. A strip of sheet-iron 12 or 15 feet long is bent up on one edge sufficiently to admit of its passing over lumps of earth. Other strips, from 4 to 6 inches wide, are riveted to the other edge and at each end, forming a kind of scoop. (This is a “scoop” on the other grasshoppers.) A wire is attached to each front corner of the scoop by which it can be drawn ovr the ground. A chain or rope is fastened so that it will drag upon the ground about 18 inches in ad- vance of the machine. This will scare up the grasshoppers. The inside of the scoop is thickly plastered with coal-tar, and the machine is dragged across the field against the wind. Millions of ’hoppers will stick to the tar. When the scoop gets full the driver can either scrape off the insects in a heap and burn Las or blaze them against the bottom of the machine.—[ Chicago Times. Saturday, May 19, our community was much excited over the working of “Robbins’s *hopperdozer,” sent from Willmar, on trial. It has taken like wild-fire, and I venture to say that to-day (May 23) there are over 1,000 of these contrivances in operation, | capturing from two to five bushels per day per pan. It consists of sheet-iron pan 7 to 9 feet long, back and sides turned up 6 inches, and front edge about three-fourths of an inch, drawa by rope attached to wire rings 1} feet from either end; bottom and sides thickly smeared with coal-tar, costing 10 cents per gallon by barrel; pan drawn over the ground very slowly. The efficiency of this simple contrivance is wonderful. One gallon tar is good for a bushel of ’hoppers, when rightly used. Some use two pans, that behind taking what the front passes over. Danilson and Cedar Mills are about the same, if not worse, than this town. Everbody begins to realize the situation.—_[J. M. How- ard, Litchfield, Minn., May 23, 1877. Testimony is pouring in from all sides as to the wonderful success of that cheap little contrivance of sheet-iron and coal-tar invented by Mr. Robbins in sweeping up and destroying the grasshoppers. The people of Meeker County are so delighted and en- courged by the success of the experiments which demonstrate the ease with which, by means of this economical instrument, they can conquer the grasshoppers, that the people of the whole county are organizing to sweep the county clear of the plague. They have appointed a committee to take immediate steps to place these machines or the sheet-iron and coal-tar of which they are constructed, within the reach of every farmer in the county, and the county authorities have taken the responsibility of devoting to that purpose a small sum of about $1,500 in the county treasury. So great a demand, however, had sprung up for these materials, in consequence of the demand for the Rob- bins’s ’hopperdozer, that it was beginning to be difficult to procure them, and the com- mittee therefore came down to Minneapolis and Saint Paul to enlist the efforts of the governor, and he was so well satisfied of the efficacy of the sheet-iron and tar con- trivance that he at once proceeded to make arrangements to furnish at cost all the coal- ; ‘ isi # Pe 390 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. tar and sheet-iron which may be needed, not only in Meeker County, but throughout the State. He telegraphed to Milwaukee and Chicago to secure all the coal-tar that can be had there, and if this supply is not sufficient, arrangements will be promptly made to secure it from other sources. Similar orders were telegraphed for an indefinite supply of sheet-iron, and these materials will now be furnished by the governor either. at Minneapolis or Saint Paul at the rate cf $3 per barrel for coal-tar and 4% cents per pound for sheet-iron, and the railroads will carry it free to any point on their lines. About 250 barrels of coal-tar have been ordered for Meeker County alone, and some five tons of sheet-iron, and it is thought they will require perhaps twice this when they get the whole people to work. The success of the Robbins’s ’hopperdozer has had a wonderful effect, the committee say, in lifting the cloud of despondency which had settled on the brows of the farmers. The discovery that by the expenditure of one or two dollars in smearing a piece or two of sheet-iron with some coal-tar, and dragging it over the ground, they can easily exterminate the enemy that had seemed so formid- able, and that seven cents’ worth of tar will swallow up a bushel of grasshoppers, has put them all in splendid spirits, and they are now going to work with a will, one and all, to clean out the pest. * * * Weare authorized to announce that Governor Pillsbury has made arrangements now deemed adequate to supply any amount of sheet-iron and coal-tar at the bare cost of the materials, and now that it has been demonstrated that the ’hopper can be destroyed and the crops of every farmer saved by this cheap instrument, the public-sp:rited citizens and the official authorities of every county should at once—to-day, before night—set on foot a movement for en- listing the whole body of farmers in the prompt and immediate application of this efficacious remedy for the locust plague.—[Saint Paul Pioneer Press and Tribune. The simple pan so extensively employed, and which was known as the Robbins ’hopperdozer,” is shown in the accompany ing illustration (Fig. 93), the general plan being that of the ordinary road-scraper. Its sim- “aw XS, Fic. 93.—THE ROBBINS COAL-TAR PAN. plicity and durability account for its general use. It was usually drawn by hand, though several pans were frequently bound together and drawn by horses; while, in some instances, certain improvements in the way of mounting on wheels, so as to permit its being pushed from behind, were also adopted. We saw some with a wire screen or cover hinged to the ) back, so that the insects might be secured when the pan was not in ~ motion; but the cover seemed superfluous. We also saw lime and kero- sene mixed so as to form a mortar substituted for the coal-tar. Bennie 7 a a a ERE Pe OE OT yes a eR A se ee 22 A word that came into very gereral use last year among farmers for coal-oil and coal-tar machines, and which (vubtless takes its origin from doze, in reference to the toxic effect of the coal-tar on the locusts. CATCHING OR BAGGING LOCUSTS. 391 Another device was used in Colorado last summer, but is more com- plicated. It consisted of a skeleton cylinder of wood frame-work covered with canvas, the interior of which was to be coated with coal tar. ‘I'he ends were opened and fans were arranged there, so constructed as to throw the locusts into the interior of the cylinder, where they would become entangled in the tar and be poisoned by it. The machine runs on wheels whose axle is the axis of the cylinder. A correspondent of The Kansas Farmer, in the issue of June 6, 1877, describes the following contrivance: I yesterday put together amachine which I do not propose to patent. It is con- structed as follows: I had riveted together two sheets of stove-pipe iron, each 2 by 7 feet, making a surface of 4 by 14 feet. I rolled up the back side about 18 inches high, and held it to its p!ace by nailing to it rounded inch boards. I turned up the front a trifle, and nailed to it a narrow strip of siding tostiffen the machine under the bottom, well back, so that it will balance. I fixed a three-eighths round iron for an axle, and fastened it by driving a staple over it near the ends and into the boards, end pieces. The wheels should be 16 inches in diameter, made of inch boards, three thicknesses nailed together, so that the grain of the wood will cross. I push my machine with a handle made of half-inch iron, a piece 12 feet long, the ends flattened, and fastened to the end board with screws, the rod bent up and made the proper shape, so as to come about to the bottom of a man’s vest when operating the “dozer.” I cover the surface with tar (common), which will burn and is poison to the ’hopper. The machine tilts over the axle and can be made to scrape the ground or raised to pass over grain or ob- structions. The “dozer” is a perfect success, gathers the hoppers almost as clean as a reaper will cut grain; none get away. . One week’s work and four gallons of pitch tar will clean the worst ’hoppered 160-acre farm in Minnesota. At one priming with tar yesterday my man caught in about an hour a half bushel, estimated to make ten bushels when grown. . 4, CATCHING OR BAGGING.—“ There are innumerable mechanical con- trivances for this purpose. The cheapest and most satisfactory are those intended to bag the insects. A frame two feet high and of varying length, according as it is to be drawn by men or horses, with a bag of sheeting tapering behind and ending in a small bag or tube, say one foot in diameter and two or three feet long, with a fine wire door at the end to admit the light and permit the dumping of the insects, will do admirable work. The insects gravitate toward the wire screen, and when the secondary bag is full they may be emptied into a pit dug for the purpose. These bagging-machines will prove most serviceable when grain is too high for the kerosene pans, just described, and they will be rendered more effectual by having runners at distances of about every two feet, extending a foot or so in front of the mouth, so as to more thoroughly disturb the insects, and prevent them from get- ting underneath ; also by having wings of vertical teeth, so as to in- crease the scope with as little resistance to the wind as possible.” Two important facts should always be borne in mind in using these bagging-machines: 1st, that they should always be drawn, as far as possible, against the wind, if this be stirring ; 2d, that in proportion as the insects and the grain are advanced in growth, and the former be- 392 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. come predisposed to roost, in that proportion the machines will prove more serviceable at night. We constructed a machine last summer embodying the features already mentioned, and it answered the purpose very well indeed. We reproduce the following account from the Scientific American: Professor Riley, of the Entomological Commission, perfected last summer a grass- hopper machine, which seems to be just the thing. It is intended to do away with all extra material, like coal-oil, which in the long run is expensive, and to work at all seasons, whether the insects are just hatching or full grown. It is not patented, nor does the Professor intend to patent it, unless it should be found necessary to prevent others from doing so. It was worked at Manhattan, Kans., and gave great satisfac- tion, and was described in the Jndustrialist, the organ of the Kansas State Agricultural College, as follows: (See Fig. 94.) The mechanical department has constructed a new locust exterminator for Professor Riley. The machine operates upon the bagging principle. It is, briefly, a large canvas bag stretched upon a light but strong frame, an: placed upon runners, which extend with curved tips a little in front of the mouth. The canvas is stretched upon the in- side of the frame, thus making the bag smooth and even within. This bag hasa mouth (A) ten feet long and two feet high, and converges backward to a small box or frame, one foot square, with a slide cut-off (D). This box forms the mouth to asecondary bag (B), two and a half feet long and one foot in diameter, which exds in a second frame having two short runners below it. There is a sliding door (E) of wire gauze in the end frame, and the secondary bag is strengthened by a couple of strips cf leather connect- ing the two small frames. The machine is made to ‘*‘take more land” by means of two right- angled triangular wings (C), about six feet long, that hinge to the upright ends of the large frame, in such manner that the rectangle joins the upper corner of the frame. From the lower side of this wing are suspe nded a number of teeth, or beaters, which, swinging loosely, drive the iocusts inward. The machine is handled by means of two ropes hitched to the Guten runners or to the outer and lower side of the mouth of the frame. On smooth ground the och can be easily hauled by two men, but where the grass is tall and thick it pulls harder. The locusts, on hoppirg into the machine, soon reach the small back portion, enter the small bag, and are attracted to the rear end by the light which enters by the gauze door. When a sufficient number are thus cap- tured the machine is stopped, the cut-off is slid down in front of the secondary bag, a hole is dug behind the machine, the bag tipped into it, and the insects buried. A strip of leather closes the slit through “which the cut-off slips, and the main bag is made of dark cloth, while the secondary bag is white, so as by contrast to attract more thoroughly the locusts. The advantages of this machine are that it requires no ) additional expense to run it, as for oil, tar, &c. It will catch the winged locust as well as the young, if operated on cool mornings and evenings, and is adapted to almost all conditions of growing grain. The machine can be made for about $10, and perhaps less. In practice we found it best to draw the ‘machine by hitching to the runners, and to brace the wings at desired angles, according to the strength of the wind, by means of two iron rods, as in the illustration. A net which has dene good service, made by Maj. J. G. Thompson, Cf Garden City, Minn., is made as follows: Two pieces of common batten about 16 feet long were used as frame-work for the mouth of the net, one for the bottom and one for the top. From the end of the bottom piece a wooden shoe of the same material ran back about 6 feet to steady the trap and serve as arunuer. To the rear end of this shoe a similar piece was fastened by a hinge, and ran forward and was fastened to the top piece of the frame, so that the mouth of the trap. would open and shut like a jaw. To hold the mouth open, two short, up- right posts were fastened to the top piece by a hinge, and rested upright upon the bed- piece. The net itself was made of cotton cloth for the bottom, and the top was made of mosquito-netting. The mouth of the net extended 16 feet from one side of the trap to the other, and the net ran back about 6 feet to a point with a hole at the end to let out the insects collected. A boy ten years old can draw one end of this net, and by the use of it Major Thompson saved one piece of wheat. 393 CATCHING OR BAGGING LOCUSTS =i — Oo@LSSSS=—_— ———SS=SSSS= 394 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. Mr. J. C. Elliot, of Sheldon, Iowa, thus describes a machine of his own devising that was much liked in his section: ms Take a strip of fine lumber 1 inch thick, 2 inches wide, and 10 or 12 feet long; about 18 inches from each end mortise in a strip about 2 feet long of the same material as your main piece ; run a strong wire from one end of the main piece over the ends of the two upright pieces and fasten to the opposite ends of the main strip, forming the frame-work to the mouth of your dozer. The wire should be permanently fastened to the top ends of the upright piece to form a brace to keep them always in place. Place the long strip of lumber on the ground so that the etandards stand perpendicular ; take two widths of strong cotton cloth the length of your main strip, sew them to- gether so you will have double width, tack oneside of the cloth to the long wood strip ; this forms the bottom. Take of mosquito-bar enough to form a top to the net, fasten- ing one side to the wire running over the top of the standards; put in such gores of cotton cloth at the ends as you may need to form a complete sack of the cotton cloth and mosquito-bar. = 3 o co) 5 a Ss TA ro} a 2 ia Ss gq 2 a q ia) = Co) iS) ° a a Oo 3 roy 3 =| ma | O|4@ | A |).5 8 | ae ees Maximum temperatures were under BOO cease ¢ aes sees SEE Eee ae OC eee 0 6] . 20 24 26 23 31 7 3 0 Between olO and 590 ees. esses es eSeeee 4 8 8 6 5 5 0 10 3 iL Between 60° and 69° 222... sc scececses 10 9 2 | 1 0 1 0 a 4 6 Between 0ctamui 190 eee meee aoe 5 5 0 0 0 0 0 5 10 9 Retween 80° and 89°...............2.. i 3 0 0 0 0 0 1 11 10 Over 890... aC erastos Sao ais 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 The minimum temperatures were Aprice above 49° as follows ............ 13 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 18 18 Monthly mean temperatures...... 60°. 6 }47°. Q 25°. 9 270.3 189.9 :20°.8 |20°. 4 |46°. 7 |619.6 | 65°. 7 ; | ri i : NORTH PLATTE, NEBRASKA. a a etl a ee tT : Number of days. Hy eB : 5 oO mH 2 Pa 2 5 B PP | E 2 g Anh oe | bone es : = 3 © so | 3s q 5 oA : S = > =) 2 = bet i= P=] 7) SA A 5 es Se < = 5 Maximum temperatures were onder le UO. se See Soe Se ee Bes Sete 0 2 18 16 26 13e eo 7 p) 0 Between 50° and 59° ...>.............. 3 Gi 8 12 | 5 13 By 3 5 0 Between 60° and 69° ........... ean wee 5 g 4 Bo 0 3 4 10 7 5 etsreen POS AUG 99 a) cc cmec wa 10 8 0 OF 0 0 8 7 10 Between 80° and 89° ...............--- 7 6 0 0 | 0 0 0 2 10 8 OWer SOC ie oe cen ae Seeman 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 The minimum temperatures were | . above 49° as follows..........--. 13 0 0 0 | 0 0 0 2 17 18 Monthly mean temperatures...... 62°. 5 /53°. 4 1319.5 1349.0 23°. 6 |32.°4 1279.9 |50°.3 |59°.6 | 679.9 DODGE CITY, KANS. Number of days. H i Pe es Maer dae Spr eda | 2 = g 3 5 = = 2 pS hie} 8 | 8 8 ee ee Si 8 5 ® Be Miarso Ss Sle bo Ej a) } 4 A 5 cr b= < = 5 Maximum temperatures were under DOGO se £6552. Woe 2a eee eee 0 0 g 1 11 4 18 3 0 0 Between 50° and. 590) seuss Sees 2 9 10 8 11 12 7 3 2 0 ietween 60° and 69° ..0..222 enon eee ene 3 8 4 14 8 8 4 6 8 2 Between! 70° and 79° vsads asec eee 7 iit 7 Q 1 5 Q 9 4 8 Between 80° and 89° ..............---. 10 10 1 0 0 0 0 7 15 10 Ovyer's9o. = 2.2. OE pe et ey See 8 a 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 Q 10 The minimum temperatures were above 49° as follows ............ 23 2 0 0 1 0 0 @ 18 24 “ Monthly mean temperatures..... : 68°. 7 156°, 6 139°. 9 |40°. 7 |35°.3 [419.5 [349.7 |56°. 6 [649.5 | 719.2 re a _— ie THERMAL CONSTANTS FOR LOCUST-EGGS. A31 CORSICANA, TEX. Number of days. HH fa 4 2 aes lia. Paes fea Be coee ia ME ta ea a ag an a = a a Pe Str AL) Subtest) Beye pie ae Me AS wns | es ie ae to te | eee ae na fo) A = 5 J A 4 A 5 Maximum temperatures were under RE in inns oe Sein aaa cio he 0 0 1 0 4 2 1 0 0 0 Between 50° and 59° -....-2......e.00- Beer 0 0 6 4 9 3 & 1 0 0 Between 60° and 69° ..........-------- 2 2 14 15 12 12 10 4 2 0 metrween q0o and 192. socce- sneer} a.