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^'^)^'^ FIRST REPORT

OF THE

WELLCOME RESEARCH LABORATORIES /K.U:fei^

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AT THE

GORDON MEMORIAL COLLEGE
KHARTOUM

BY
THE DIRECTOR

ANDREW BALFOUR, M.D., B.Sc, M.R.C.P. Edin., D.P.H. Camb.

Fellow of the Eoyal Institute of Public Health, Member of the

Epidemiological Society, Medical Officer of Health,

Khartoum, and Sanitary Adviser to the

Sudan Civil Medical Department

Department of Education, Sudan Government,

Khartoum,
1904

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THE GORDON MEMORIAL COLLEGE

KHARTOUM

Patron :
H.M. THE KING

President :
The Right Hon. Loiid Kitchjcner of Khartoum, G.C.B., K.C.M.G., etc.

Hun. Treasurer :
The Right Hon. Loud Hillingdon

Hon. Secretary :
Alfred Spalding Harvey, Esq., 67, Lombard Street, London, E.G.

Committee and Trustees :
The Right Hon. Lord Kitchener of Khartoum, G.C.B., K.C.M.G., etc.

Sir F. Reginald Wingate, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., etc. (ex officio), Governor-
General of the Suclau

Samuel Hope Morley, Esq. (ex officio), Go\'eruor of tlie Bank of England

The Right Hon. Earl Cromer, G.C.B., G.C.M.G., K.C.S.L, etc.

The Right Hon. Lord Rothschild

The Right Hon. Lord Revelstoke

The Right Hon. Lord Hillingdon

The Right Hon. Sir Ernest Cassel, K.C.M.G. i

Hugh Colin Smith, Esq.

Hon. Solicitor :
Henry Turton Norton, Esq.

Hon. Auditors .'
Messrs. Gerard Van de Linde & Ron

Director of Education in the Sudan, and Principal of the College:

Mr. James Curkie

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Introduction

The Research Laboratories of the Gordon College, the equipment of which foi-med
the generous gifti of Mr. Henry S. Wellcome to the Sudan Government, are intended
to serve the following purposes : —

a. To promote technical education.

li. To promote the study, bacteriologically and physiologically, of tropical

disorders, especially the infective diseases of both man and beast peculiar Functions
to the Sudan, and to render assistance to the officers of health, and to the °'^''"' . .

' " Laboratories

clinics of the civil and military hospitals.

c. To aid experimental in\'estigations in poisoning cases by the detection and

experimental determination of toxic agents, particidarly the obscui'e
potent substances employed by the natives.

d. To cany out such chemical and bacteriological tests in connection Avith

water, food stuffs, and health and sanitary matters as may be found desirable.

e. To undertake the testing and assaying of agi'icultural, mineral and other

substances of practical interest in the industrial development of the Sudan.

The foUo-\ving report, embracing the period between Feb. 1st, 1903, and
Feb. 1st, 1904, mil indicate in what measure and AX'ith what success the laboi-atories
have been concerned -with these divers subjects during the first few months of their
existence, and it may be said at once that practically every branch of them has
claimed attention to a greater or less extent.

Having been appointed Director, and having spent some time in London
discussing matters "with j\Ir. Wellcome, and inspecting the equipment pro\ided, which
was in every way excellent, I finally aiTived in Cairo on Dec. 24th, 1902, where
acting on advice received from Mr. Cun-ie, Dij-ector of Education for the Sudan
and Principal of the Gordon College, I remained for a period of nearly three
weeks, during whicli time I had an opportunity of visiting the laboratories and
hospitals and making myself acquainted with the prevalent types of disease and the
special laboratory methods employed in hot climates. I was given every facility
and help by members of the staff of the Kasr-El-Aini School of Medicine and the
Egyptian Sanitary Department. Opportunity was also afforded one to become Laboratory
acquainted mth the future basis of supplies for the laboratories and to make
enquiries about an assistant. Mv. John Newlove was subsequently appointed to the
post. Khartoxun was reached on Jan. 22nd, 1903, and it was found that everything
connected -with the laboratories was in a very backward condition. The rooms were
not nearly ready, much of the equipment had yet to annve, and some of the
furniture and fittings had been damao;ed in transit. It had been considered better
to do very little until the Director was on the spot, probably the wisest com*se under
the circumstances, though it rendered delay inevitable. Through the courtesy of
Mr. Currie a room was provided for work while the laboratories were being got

Kitchen find General Work Room, Wellcome Research Laboratories, Khartoum

3 ficte riot epical Laboratory, Weilcomc Research Laboratories. Khartoum

INTRODUCTION 9

ready, and considering everything it was not so veiy long before they were
completed. Material for examination in the shape of diseased dura plants and
pathological specimens were sent in thus early, and the laboratory work may be said
to date fi-om February 1st, 1903. Mr. Newlove arrived and took uji his duties on
April 1st, by which time the rooms were nearing completion and the nucleus oi a
museum had been formed.

The laboratories, as at present constituted, consist of a suite of five rooms, i.e., a
kitchen for the preparation of culture media and for the general rough work,
separate bacteriological and chemical rooms, a chamber specially prepared as a ,

photographic dark room and cold storage room, and a museum room. Adjoining
these are the Director's office and the Economic and General Museum, with Avhich
the laboratories are associated.

The whole department is situated on the second floor in the east wing of the
Gordon College. The rooms, though they unfortunately face the east, are large and
commodious, well lighted, and supphed with water fi'om a special well, and with gas
generated fi'om an acetylene plant. The woodwork and fittings are executed in
English oak and Indian teak, which had been pre^'iously baked at a high temperature
for several months to season them suitably for the Sudan climate. It is gratifying
to be able to repoi*t that aU the wood thus treated has passed through the ordeal of
a Khartoum summer very satisfactorily. The state of the walls, especially those
of the bacteriological room, leaves something to be desired, and there has been
considerable delay and annoyance owing to the lack of skiUed laboui-, the distance
fi'om supplies, and the difficulties of transport ; but when all is said and done the
laboratories have fared none so badly and have received much kind aid from many
government officials, both in Khartoum and Cairo.

The museum of the laboratories has progressed steadily since its formation. It
is i^rimarily de^•oted to the collection and exliibition of specimens and photographs Museum

. . of the

shelving the diseases of man and animals met with in the Sudan, and maps indicating laboratories
their respective distribution. It now contains over a score of mounted specimens
illustrative of human pathologv and tropical diseases — those of mycetoma, so
prevalent in the Sudan, may be specially mentioned, several of veterinary interest,
a smaU collection of skulls, and what promises to be a very fine and complete set of
photographs iUusti-ative of the native diseases of the Sudan, taken by Mr. Tui-stig,
Omdurman, for Dr. J. B. Christopherson and kindly presented by the latter.
j\Ir. Newlove, Avho is responsible for most of the photogi-aphs illustrating the Report,
has also secured similar recoi'ds as opportunity offered. In addition to these exhibits
a collection has been made of the remedies indigenous to, or used in, the Sudan by the
native races. Over a hundred different drugs have been obtained fi-om various parts,
some of considerable interest, and to facilitate the study of those of vegetable origin
and of poisonous plants employed in the Sudan a plot of ground has been enclosed Formation of a
and what may be; called a "therapeutic garden " has been started. This garden is |^^'^j\'^p*""'"
fed from the laboratory well and contains a water-tight cement tank into which the
laboratories' waste-water is conducted. Thus, if necessary, the latter can be

Chemical Laboratory, Welleome Research Laboratories. Khartoum

Museum of the Wellcome Research Laboratories. Khartoum

INTRODUCTION 1 1

disinfected aud so all danger of fouling the soil, and tlu'oiigh it tlie ^vaters
of the Blue Nile obviated.

The laboi'atories' museum is mueli indebted to those wlio have been good Museum of the
enough to send it specimens. The chief contributors have been Dr. Christopherson
of the Civil Hosjiital, Omdui'man, Lt.-Colonel Griffith, P.V.O., Major Bray, I'rincipai
the late Captain McArdle, who took much intei'est in the work, and -^vhose
untimely death i^i greatly to be deplored, Captains Rivers, Cummins, and Ensor
of the Egyptian Medical Corps, aud Sadek Effendi and Nagib Shedid Effendi, of
the same service. Mr. and Mrs. Broun, members of the Musemn Board, have
also from time to time presented specimens of drugs and poisonous plants.

It is a great pleasure to be able to report that in several instances the
medical officers in Khartoum have availed themselves of the facilities presented
by the laboratories, and have worked in them to some extent. Captain Ensor,
especially, has devoted much of his spare time to blood examinations and other
research. One is only too pleased to welcome such visitors, and place the
laboratory resources at their disposal ; and they have responded by permitting
one access to clinical material under their charge, aud fui-nishing notes and
general information of great value.

Ha\ing been appointed a member of the Museum Board, it devolved on me
to get the General and Economic Museum room ready for occupation, and the
first specimens collected and mounted. To this work Mv. Newlove devoted
himself with his accustomed energy. In this museum, but associated ■with the Economic
laboratories' work, are various specimens of diseased dura, a collection of mos- ^i"^^^"'"
quitoes including microscopical preparations of the three genera most coimnon in
Khartoum, examples of injurious insects such as those which destroy the melon
plant, and the aphides, so destructive to the dura crop. In conti'ast to these
latter are the beneficial lady-birds (CoccineUidaj), found along with tlie Aphides.
Specimens of two sj^ecies t)f tse-tse fly, one of which occurs in the Sudan, are
also exhil:)ited, as arc a few snakes, scorpions, locusts, and samples of ore.

The year's work, of which a record is here given, has conclusively proved
that it would be a great advantage to increase the small staff by the appoint-
ment of a chemist. At present the staff consists only of the Director, a laboratory
assistant, and two Sudanese, one a small boy. Considering the Avork which has ^"'''
to be done, and might be done, and the size of the country which these
laboratories serve, it is essential that such an addition should be made. His
Excellency the Governor-General, Avho has taken a deep interest in the
laboratories and all that pei'tains to them, has been approached upon this subject,
and, thanks to his prompt recognition of the need for such an official, permission increSl\>f°'
has now been obtained and a chemist well versed in agricultural, economic and ^'^f
toxicological work will shortly be appointed. Another post which might well
be filled is that of collector, a trained observer Avhose duty it would be to
traverse the country and collect blood fihns, biting and injurious insects, parasites,
photographs of pathological conditions amongst the natives, drugs, poisons, and

General and Economic Museum, looking North

Gcnerul und Economic Museum, looking South

INTRODUCTION 13

indeed anything having a bearing on tropical medicine in the Sudan. Such vaiue of a
work, properly conducted, might be invaluable and lead to many interesting
discoveries. Although a museum memorandum has been freely circulated
throughout the Sudan, it has met with little response, save fr'om Suakin, which,
thanks to Major Borton, has responded nobly. For aU that, if officials were
made to realise the value of such a collection there is reason to believe they
would be able and willing to aid in the scheme. It is, perhaps, too much to
expect that a collector will be found, but it is well to draw attention to the
great services such a member of the staff might perform, and how he might
aid in the pursuit of knowledge. •

The laboratories are in communication with the London and Liverpool Schools
of Tropical Medicine, and one of their functions shoidd be, as far as possible, to
provide these great centres with material for teachino; iDurposes. They have also '^°"'==-

^ o o L L J pondence

been asked to aid the Cancer Research Fund in its enquiries, and have ah'eady done
so to the best of their ability. The United States Department of Agriculture has
been ajiproached and has most kindly consented to send its valuable publications
for the use of the libraiy, a gift of great importance considering the prevalence of
fungus diseases and insect pests in the Sudan, and the vast experience that
Department has in combating such conditions. The library itself is well stocked
and is supphed with a selection of necessary scientific journals and periodicals.
The authorities of the Natural History Department of the British Museum have
been good enough to present it wth several of their valuable publications.

To Mr. James Cunie, Director of Education and Principal of the College,
and to the members of his staff, I would express my indebtedness for much
kind aid, advice and encouragement, freely rendered me on all occasions.

Thanks to Mr. Wellcome's munificence the laboratories are admirably equipped.
That they filled a want has, I think, been demonstrated by what they have been
called upon to do in the past year, and there is every reason to expect that their
sphere of usefulness -will steadily increase. That they may be fuUy equipped
to undertake all that is demanded of them, and at the same time endeavour to
justify their title, must be the aim and object of those responsible for the work.

' Mr. Wellcome has recently mtimated his willingness to provide a collector.

u

Mosquito Wouk in Khartoum and in tiik Anglo-Eovi'tian

Sudan generally

Prevalence
of Mosquitoes
ill Khartoum

Before reaching Khartoum one had been iufornu'd by certain residents that
the town contained wry few mosquitoes, that those of the mahiria-carrying
genera grouped under the sub-family Anophehna were unknown and that malaria
did not occur. It was speedily apparent that such was not the case. Before
any measui-es were taken against them, mosquitoes bred in their tens of thousands
in Khartoiun, the family Anophclina was represented by one genus and species
to a considerable extent, though limited as to locality, and malaria was and is
present, though whether it is frequently acquired in Khartoiun itself is another
question and one moi'e difficult to answer.

By far the commonest mosquito in the town and neighbourhood is the
Cidex fatigans (Wied.), so widely distributed throughout the tropics. The female
of this insect has for some time been known to be capable of conveying the
parasite of the disease, filariasis, from the sick to the sound. Of this disease
elephantiasis is a form and elephantiasis occurs in the Sudan. Further, the
recent laborious researches of Dr. Graham, of Bep-out,' seem to have conclu-
sively proved that this mosquito is the transgressor in the case of dengue or
dandy fever, foi'ming the intermediate host for the protozoon of that disease,
cuiex fatigans, One first encouutcred the Oulex fatigans in the Grand Hotel, where this species
was very numerous and annoying, and the cause of many complaints by residents.
The reason of its presence was not far to seek. The hotel possessed a well, the
well water possessed egg-boats, larvae, and pupas in abundance and those in
charge possessed no knowledge of the life-history of the mosquito. This well
was in no way jaeculiar, for subsequent researches showed that more than half
the wells throughout the length and breadth of Khartoum, and there are in the
town over 600 wells, formed breeding places for the ubit^uitous Culex.

This mosquito is voracious, nocturnal in its habits, and distinctly annoying,
but in a place like Khartoum is unlikely to be the cause of much transference
of disease, save in the presence of an epidemic of dengue, which, if Dr. Graham
be ccn-rect, it would spread wholesale. The dry climate of Khartoum is scarcely
suited for filariasis, nor if Bastian's hypothesis" be correct, and the Filaria
perstans be proved to be a Tylenchus and associated with the cultivation of the
banana, is that parasite likely to occui* to any extent, for banana plants are few
and far between, and the fruit is not used in these parts. But, then again,
Khartoum is a centre, and natives are continually coming and going and passing
through it, while steamers constantly reach it from the humid and typically
tropical regions of the Southern Sudan. Herein lies a danger, and, as a matter
of fact. Dr. Christopherson has reported one case of elephantiasis from Omdurmau
and I have seen a second under the care of Major Bray in Khartomn.

a filaria-
carrier

Mosquitoes
and disease

' Journal of Tropical Medicine, 1/2/03

'Lancet, 30/1/04

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MOSQl'ITO WORK IN KHARTOUM, ETC.

F(n- all that, the presence of Culex fatigans Avas not felt to be very alamiing,
Imt it was a diiferent matter when Pyretophorus costalis was encountered. This
spi'cies i)f the Anoplielina has been proved to be both a tilaria and malaria
carrier, and though it did nut exist in great numbers had yet to be seriously
reckoned witli, even although Khartoum and its neighbourhood cannot be called
a malarious district. 'Phis is simply because the Anoi^helines cannot find many
suitable spots .wherein to breed — the result of a small and limited rainfall, the
compai'atix'e alisence of vegetation and the power of the sun's rays as an evaporating
Pyretophonis agi'iit. Still, as loug as Pi/retoplioi'us coatalis pei-sists in Khartoum there will bo a
malaria can ier rislv of malaria being spread from jierson to person. As already stated birds
of i)assage ai'e common in the town, and many of these come directly from the
malaria-ridden reaches of the Blue and White Niles, while a greater number hail
from Egypt, where malaria certainly occurs. In the bloods of diflerent patients in
Khartoum I have found all three forms of the malaria parasite, i.e., quartan, benign
tertian, and sub-tertian or malignant. The two latter forms are the most common,
and the small ringed form and crescent forms are frequent in patients coming fi-om
up the White Nile. Now Khartoum is a garrison town, and probalily the majority
of the Sudanese soldiers at least have served or lived in malarious districts and have
acquired the parasite. The same is true of their Egyptian comrades-in-arms, who
are exceedingly susceptible to infection and suffer severely. I believe that one reason
\\'\\x there has not been more malaria in Khartoum is to be found in the fact
that the military hospital is at present situated far fi'om the breeding grounds of the
.Vnopheline, Avhicli woidd have to cross a bare stretch of wind-swept desert, over a
quarter of a mile in breadth, to reach those who might transfer to it the protozoon.
Nor must it be forgotten that many members of the crews of the steamers
plving on both Niles harbour ci'escents in their bloods, and are constantly exposed to
infection during their journeys in the south. It is not infi'equent for several
membei-s of a steamer's company to an'ive in Khartoum prostrated by fever, and
such jjatients may well prove centres of distribution.

Pyretophorus costalis is the only representative of the Anoplielina which has
been discovered in Khartoum, but a third genus of mosquito occui-s which in point
of numbers comes midway between ('iile.v fatirinns and Pyretophorus costalis, being
uothiug like so common as the former but considerably in excess of the latter. This
is a Stei/oniyia, species fasciata, Avhich in the western hemisphere has been proved
beyond all doubt to be the active agent in the dissemination of yellow fever. Here
the geiTn of that disease does not, so far, exist to be transferred by it, but the
Stegomyia is the most troublesome insect of the three, being exceedingly hvely and
biting viciously even in the heat of the day. As Avill be shewn Stegomyia also
breeds in Khartoum, though not to any great extent. Its prevalence is, I believe, to
be attributed to the presence of so many steamers on the Blue Nile for Stegomyia
fasciata, as has often been jiointed out, is an excellent traveller. Along "with Culex
fatigans it has been found breeding in large numbers in the bilge-water, tank-water,
and engine-room-water of the river steamers.

Stegomyia
fasciata, the
yellow fever
mosquito

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MOSQUITO WOHK IX KIIAUTOrM, ETC.

Rarer forms

Formation of

Moscjuilo

Hrigadc

Hreeding
places

These arc not the only varieties of ni()S(;[uit() to be encountered in Khartoum.
A large species of Culex closely resembling, if not identical with Culex concolor
(probably (\ tigripex) exists, l)ut it is rare. \\ least one otiiei- species of Stegomyia
is to be found besides StC(/omijia fasciata and its variety form " iiio-squito" Avhile
Culonel Stanton, the ]Mudir, sent me a very large femak- moscpiito which I found to
bcldug to the genus Mucidus, and which Mr. Theobald, to whom I am much
indebteil for help freely rendered, declared to be a variety of his Mucidus africnnus}
I have recently found Tlieohaldid sjKif/iipaljns breeding in barrel watei- at
Khartoujn North. Sufficient has been said to show that it was necessary to
take steps for destroying these insects, and especially the Anophelines. Colonel
Talbot, lI.E., being mui'h interested in the matter it was not long before one was
asked to send to the Senior Medical Officer, Khartoum, a statement regarding the
formation of a mosquito brigade, and one was subsequently requested to take
complete charge of the woi-k. I Avas very glad to do so, as it gave me an
opportunity of studying the mosquitoes and their breeding places, of collecting
specimens and of carrying out a few experiments. A small mosquito brigade was
therefore formed on the lines suggested by Major Ronald Ross." Two intelligent
natives were obtained fi^om Colonel Stanton, the Mudir, and quickly trained to
recognise mosquitoes, their eggs, larvfe and pupa\ and to distinguish the culicidai
from other insects. Mr. Newlove, the laboratory assistant, who by this time had also
become familiar with all the stages of the mosquito, was placed in charge of these
men, his knowledge of Arabic being most usefid, and here I Avould pay a well
deserved triliute to the energy and zeal he displayed in what was often hot and
tiresome Avork. The necessary equipment was provided by Captain Rivers, E.M.C.,
the acting S.M.O. at that time, and it was decided to attack the mos(|uitoes chiefly
in the larval stage. This was the more easily accomplished owing to the nature of
their breeding places.

These may be classed as follows : —

1. Wells; by far the most numerous and most largely infected (see page 17).

2. Sakia pits, both along the river bank and in certain gardens (see page 15).

8. Garden tanks, practically confined to the rixci- front (see page 17).

4. Bath-waste ])its.

.5. Permanent garden pools, practically onl\' found in the Palace Gnrdeiis

(see i^age 17).
(i. Zeers (native water filters) (see page 15).
7. River pools, i.e., pools left in the banks by the falling Nile (seepage 19).

5. Steamer holds, tanks, water-closet cisterns and engine rooms, also the

holds of Avood and other barges (see page 19).

9. Chance Avater collections as in old "sandals "or barges draAvn uj) on the

river bank, and fi'om which speedy evaporation was prevented
(see page 19).

' Theobald. "Monograph of the Culicidse"

' Ross. " Mosquito Brigades "

20 MOSQUri'o WOUK IN KHARTOUM, ETC.

Foi'tunately, in Kh!irtt)uni we have not to dciil A\'itli any swamps, ditches,
permanent pools in the streets or near the houses, empty cans, old bottles, broken
crockery or other receptacles containing -water for any length of time ; at lejist,
there were none such last yeai*. It is possi])le tliat they might have to be
considered during a very wet summer, but the rainfall of 1903 was trifling. As
a result the laboui-s of the brigade have been limited, and the small staff has so
fai- sufficed, ^lajor Ross ' recommends refined peti'oleum or eucalyptus oil for
the "training" of well waters, but, after careful enquiry it was deemed better
to employ crude petrolcmn, not only because it was cheaper, ])ut because com-
paratively little of the well water is used for drinking pm-poses, the nati\-e
portion of the population prefemng to use water direct fi'om the Blue Nile.
Use of Latter]}', as a considerable quantity of the refined petrolemn had been stocked,

petroleum

a

mixture of crude and refined has been employed. The former appears to be
the more efficacious, as it forms a denser fihn and one Avhich lasts lonejer. The
well water in Khartoum is for the most part reserved for washing, cooking, and
the use of animals. It -was evident that the oiling of the wells would entail
some hardship on their owners, but the above fact shows, what indeed proved
to be the case, that it could be done Avithout producing any great outcry. The
user of an infected and oiled well generally managed to easily satisfy his wants
from a neighboui'ing uninfected and untreated water supply.

Crude petroleum, as stated, is very effectual if properly applied, and,
moreover, makes the water so unsightly that none would touch it, and thus
there was little risk of any poisoning fi-om water so treated. As a matter of
fact, no such accident has been I'eported, and the plan adopted was as follows : —

The men constituting the brigade began every morning to visit system-
atically all the water collections in the to>\ai, beginning on the river front and
working backwards day by day till the whole toAvn had been explored. They
Avere provided with wide-mouthed bottles for taking samples, and instructed how
best to proceed. A cup-shaped apparatus of fine Avire gauze Avas also employed,
but the bottles were foimd quite as efficient, especially when the men were made
to take three or four samples fi-om different parts of the surface of every Avell

Mosquito J.11-T1 T

Brigade work Avatcr Avliere the first dip proA'ed negative. In the case of other Avater collections
Durham's larva coUectiug spoon and tin,- recently introduced, have been found
to ansAver admirably. In the afternoons, under the charge of Mr. NeAvlove, the
men again Aveiit their rounds, the water collections Avere re-inspected, and any
found to be infected were thoroughly oiled. In the case of Avells, observations
shoAved that in the great majority Ave had to deal Avith a surface area of from
12 to 13 square feet. Roughly speaking, about one pint of the crude petroleum
was employed per well. This amount was probably in excess of that actually
required, but by using it a reUable fihn Avas obtained. Syringes, though good
in the case of pools, Avere no use for wells, and it was found best to simply
pour the oil straight down upon the water, which, as a rule, was found at a

' Ross. " Mosquito Brigades " ' Journal of Tropical Medicine, 1/10/03

MOSQUITO WORK IN KHARTOUM, ETC. 21

depth of from 25 to 30 feet. The Sheiks of the various districts had orders to
see that such " trained " water was not disturbed for forty-eight hours, after
Avhich time the users were allowed to remove the oil and take the water. This
length of time amply sufficed, aU the larvaj and pupa? present being killed as
shown by repeated investigations.

As a matter of fact the real lethal period was probaljly from about four to six
hours, or even less, but it was deemed advisable to let the oil remain for a time as it
has been shown that although mosquito eggs may be laid on such oiled waters they
will not undero;o further development.' It was of coui'se impossible to make cooperation

^ ^ ■*■ ^ ^ ^ of military

absolutely certain that these instructions were always faithfully obeyed, but in the and town
great majority of cases the people did as they were told, and any that were
refractory were at once reported to the S.M.O., Captain Cummins, who straightway
informed the Mudir, and the offenders were promptly brought to their senses.
Captain Cunm^iins, indeed, rendered great assistance in the work from an
administrative standpoint, and was at all times ready to aid and advise. More
recently efforts have been directed to the closing of all unused wells, while,
wherever possible, covers have been fixed on those in use and jDumps introduced.
Special methods were required in special places. In the Palace Gardens pools had to
be cleared of reeds and water-weeds, and in some instances were abolished ;
Mr. Sillitoe, the head gardener, very kindly assisting the brigade as much as possible.

Fish taken from the Blue Nile were tried both in wells and pools. In the closing and

■*■ covering

former they speedily died, the water being too hard for them, but in pools containing of weiis
river water they proved a success, though after causing the larvae to disappear they
too often disappeared themselves, owing to the depredations of natives or aquatic
birds. AVhei'ever possible zeers (native water filters) were inspected, and a notice
both in English and Arabic was posted in the Sudan Gazette, the official
government organ, drawing attention to the role of these earthenware jars as
breeding places, and emphasizing the importance of ha^'ing them emptied and
cleaned at least twice in the week. iVt an early period the steamers were found to
be largely infected, especially Avith the larva^ of Stegoniyia fasciafa, and to a less
extent by those of Culex fatigans. Anophelines, either as lai-vse or imagines, have
never been met with ; but up-coimtiy, as mil be noted later, the adults are
frequently to be seen on board, and may remain as passengers for a considerable
period. At first it was decided to use lime for the steamer bilges, but this w\as said, Treatment of

_ . Steamers

eiToneously I believe, to act upon iron and to be unsuitable. Consequently crude
petroleum was recommended, though not so good nor so easily applied. Along
with this the periodical emptying of the bilge and fmnigatiou with the sulphm*
squibs described by Colonel Giles - were ad\dsed, the latter to get rid of the adult
insects. Unfortunately in the case of the steamers familiarity had evidently bred
contempt, for, at first, despite the co-operation of the Director of the Steamei-s and
Boats Department, little energy was displayed by the engineers in charge,
and the preventive measures were largely ignored, and in some instances even

> St. George Gray. Jimrnal of Tropical Medicine, 15/10/03 = Giles. " Handbook of Gnats or Mosquitoes "

22

MOSQUITO WORK IN KHARTOUM, ETC.

ridiculed. This was the more to be regi'etted as there is no doubt that mosquitoes
can be banished from all rlie steamers if a little care and troulsle were taken.
Mr. Beadnell, of the Geological Survey, carried out these sim})le methods on the
s.s. " Nubia," and practically cleared her of mosiiuitoes, so that for the first time he
was able to sleep below in comfort. A gi'eat impi'ovement also resulted in the case
of the gunboat " Zaiir," in wliich I went to Dueim and found to be simply
swarming with adult Culices and their lar\-te, while these measures absolutely
prevented any mosquitoes breeding out on board the s.s. " Amka " during a period of
nearly two months, the greater part of which was passed in regions swarming with
these winged pests. Latterly, I am glad to say, the engineers have been imjjressed
with the necessity of doing all in their poAver to aid the brigade. This is the
more necessary as it is easy for the steamers to infect the town and thus spoil much
of the work done and render it futile. I am certain that this has occuiTcd in many
instances for reasons which wiU be stated.

The men of the brigade also paid some attention to the killing and captui'ing
of adult mosquitoes, but without much success, as most of the Culices live in the
wells and are not easily obtained, while it was impossible for the men to go
round and catch mosquitoes in Mohammedan households. A good many Ano-
phelines and Stegomyia were, however, captured, and in the case of the former
I made an effort by dissecting the females to detemiine the proportion harbouring
the zygotes of the malarial parasite. As Daniels ' has pointed out, this method
is only of value when the mosquitoes are selected fi'om different houses and
places in equal proportion owing to the great variations which occur in this
jDroportion in adjoining houses and at different times. iVs he says, the niunber
of infected mosquitoes is the real test, and the number of Anophelines that bite
a man ])er liour is also required. Consequently, such examinations as were
performed ptissessed little value, and, indeed, it soon became difficult to secure
material, chiefly because, as the result of the lirigade work, Anophelines became a
rarity. It was a case of kiUing the geese wliich laid the necessary, if not the
golden, eggs. Of greater importance was the preservation of specimens of
captured eggs, larva, and pupa3 of aU the genera found, as these pi'oved valuable
object lessons to officers and others proceeding up-country. Several have thus
learned for the first time to recognise the appearance of the water-stages of the
mosquito. Mr. Cross, of the s.s. " Gordon Pasha," made a point of bringing back
specimens from his trips up the White Nile.

On the whole, Khartoum may be said to have had a moderate " endemic
index." There were not a vast number of malaria-canying mosquitoes, but thei'e
were many people who harboured the malarial parasite and m;iny more suscep-
tible to infection.

Tlie results of the work of the bi'igade are interesting and instinictive in
several directions. In the first place they have shown the distribution of eacli
of the three main genera.

' Daniels, " Laboratory Studies in Tropical Medicine "

o
Z

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5 S^ - - '^

= 11 ^

3 8^ ..^

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t^ o

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feTI

24

MOSQIITO WDUK IX KIIAUTOUM, ETC.

Distribution
of genera
in Khartcjuni

Reinfection by
steamer bred
mosquitoes

Mosquito
Maps

Ava-s fouud to be liniitod.
reudered necessary by the

Cnlex fatujanf is ubi(jiiitt)us, but is chiefly, as has long been known, a domestic
variety. It is the wi'll mosquito par excellence, and consequently is found all
over Khartoum, from the steamers back to the cemetery and Gordon's old
ramparts, and from the British barracks in the east to the Zoological Gardens
in the Avest. It also loves river pot)ls, garden tanks, and bath-Avaste pits, and
Avill breed in almost any kind of dirty Avater, even in that streaked Avith oil,
as found in steamer engine rooms.

Pi/retophorus contalis, on the other hand, is not domestic, and its range

It chiefly occurred in the various Avater collections
rrigation of the Palace Gardens. It Avas found in
those Avhich Avere not stocked Avith fish, and especially in valve pits and shaUoA^--,
reedy pools. It seemed indiffei-ent to the presence of frogs. This mosquito has
also been found in garden tanks along the river fi'ont, in the pools left by the
falling Nile, in the sakia pits of the Gordon Gardens, and in a fcAv, a Aery fcAV,
Avells. It Avas pi-esent in considerable nmnbers in the Palace Gardens, and
infested tlie neighbouring houses, but it does not appear to fly far fi'om the
shelter of vegetation, nor has it ever been found breeding on board steamers at
Khartomn, partly because it is someAvhat fastidious in its tastes, and prefei*s
natm'al collections, and partly because the larva? require plenty of light.

Stegoiiiyia fasciata again, is the great steamer mosquito, and has not been found
to breed much in Khartoum itself. It is to be remembered, hoAvever, that the larvffi
of this genus differ someAvhat in habits from those of the other genera. They are
more Avorm-like, hug the bottom and come only infi-equently to the surface,
consequently they may have been more often missed. It has been found breeding
in the zeers and a feAv other Avater collections, but very rarely in the AveUs.
Further, and this is interesting, it seemed to be almost AvhoUy confined to Avhat may
be called the front belt of the toAvn, the river zone, and hence my belief that it Avas
very largely an unAvelcome gift from the steamers. Certain Avells, opposite Avhich
steamers Avcre accustomed to lie up, for example at the post office, (see page 19)
constantly became reinfected Avith Culex after they had been treated and fi'eed, and
these also I believe came from the boats. Indeed it has been found much easier
to keep the south part of the toAvn free than that Avhich borders the Blue Nile.

The accompanying maps shoAV the respectiA'c distribution, and also exhibit
another point, the effect of the treatment.

Map No. 1 represents the condition of the A'arious Avater collections as found
during the first complete round of the toA\Ti made in iVugust and the first jiart of
September, 1903.

Map Nt). 2 sheAvs the same collections and any neAv ones Avhich may have been
discovered or been formed (for ncAV Avells are constantly being sunk), after the
necessary oilings. Different marks have been devised to explain different conditions
so that the improvement Avhich has resulted may be seen at a glance. The second
maji brings us doAvn to the end of the sunnner (October 31st) and the summer
Avork, thus excluding any fallacies Avhich niight arise from altered climatic

9p

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Influence of

meteorological

conditions

Statistics

26 MOSQUITO WORK IN KHARTOUM, ETC.

conditions. I append the average maximum and minimum temperatures, and
the average wind velocity recorded dui-ing August, September and October, these
]>eing the meteorological factors likely to affect the mosquitoes in the work of
propagating themselves.

,„„„ Average niaximiim Average miuimum Wind velocity iu

in °C. iu ''C. miles per hour.

August 37-45 24-25 2-7

September . . 38-5 20-88 2-10

October .... 38-51 22-82 1-98

It wiU be seen that the weather conditions differed very slightly in September
and October.

The work was steadily continued during November and December, and a
record of the conditions found during January is exhibited in Map Xo. 3. This
map is drawn up on sUghtly different hues, as it was deemed inadvisable to
repeatedly spot aU the uninfected water collections previously shoAvn. Only new
water collections and infected places are marked. It Avill be noticed that dui-ing
this month pools began to make their appearance on the river's bank and on a
sandbank which had foi'med and stretched out into the main stream. Such pools,
provided they were large enough, were speedily occupied, despite the fact that they
were often exposed to the strong north wind.

The meteorological conditions prevalent dui'ing the last two months of 1903

and the first month of 1904 are here stated : —

■.nno Average maximum Average minimum Wind velocity in

^■^^ in "C. in °C. miles per hour

November .... 37-28 20-89 1-48

December 35 18-01 1-75

1904

January 31-5 16-3 1-82

I do not think these conditions influenced the mosquitoes to any marked
extent.

The general figures work out as follows : —

During Aug. During Oct. d^^.^^„ j^n
and part of after treatment. aft'o,-

Sept. before Several treatment

treatment destroyed

Total water coUections 670 664 689

Total infected 324 163 102

Percentage infected 50 24-5 14-8

Harbouring Culex (total Culex) . . 321 161 lOO

„ Culex and iVnophelina 12 2 1

„ AnopheUna alone .... 2 1 1

„ Culex and Stegomyia 10 0

„ Stegomyia alone .... 1 1 1

Total Anophelina 14 3 2

Total Stegomyia 2 1 1

SEBalfl'Ql-

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28

MOSQUITO WORK IN KHARTOUM, ETC.

Extent of

moscjuito

destruction

Future
operations

As regards the second table it is to be noted that it was found impossible,
despite eveiy endeavour, to visit eleven Avater collections by the time the statistics
were made up, o-\ving to the fact that the houses containing them were closed,
and the oAvni-rs alisent. There were over thirty such cases, but by the kind
help of the Mudir, to ■whom also my thanks are due for supplying the blank
plans, the difficulty was overcome save in these eleven instances. In order to
complete the table I have counted six of them as hai'bouring Culex, which is
certainly a very fair propoi-tion, judging from what was found elsewhere under
parallel conditions. All these houses were in what may be called the "Culex"
part of the town. Similarly, in Map No. 3, six unvisited wells are charted, and
three of these were considered as being infected. The above figures can only be
regarded as being approximately coiTect, and as only applying to the special
times at which the examinations were made. The conditions were constantly
altering, as the mosquitoes were driven fi'om well to well, and at the time of
writing the state of the town is better than the last figures indicate.' Still, these
statistics serve to show that very considerable progress has been made. For the
sake of argument, let us suppose that the average number of larvae and pupa?
in an infected water was one thousand. This is by no means an absurd figure,
indeed, I believe it to err on the small side, but even so, taking the first and
third tables, a total destruction of 222,000 mosquitoes is indicated, granting that,
if left alone, all the lai'vaa and pupa3 would have reached maturity. Nor does
this represent in any way the eggs which were checked in their de\-elopment.

Again, say half of the above were females capable of laying from 200 to 400
eggs apiece, a moderate computation, and it will be apparent that the ranks of the
Avinged host have undergone enormous depletion. Tliis is further CAadenced by
the fact that latterly the infected wells have been found to harbour much smaller
numbers of larvae than was the case at fii*st, and by the experiences of residents and
visitors. I admit that such statistics as the above savour of guess work, but thev
approach the truth, and that trutli is instructive and encouraging. I should think
that there are few mosquito-ridden towns which could be so completely cleared
as Khartoum, Avhere, as will be evident, the conditions are somewhat specialised.
Such a happy result could, however, only be obtained by inci-easing the staff of
workers, by constant vigilance, more frequent inspections, and bringing Khartoum
North into the field of operations. Colonel Penton, the P.M.O. of the Sudan, has now
agi-eed to this being done, so even better results may be looked for in the immediate
future, especially as the steamers are to receive special attention. The Manager
of the Sudan Development and Exploration Com])any has signified his willing-
ness to co-operate in the work of clearing the steamers. Of coui'se if the old
type of well were abolished and driven or tube wells substituted, the mosquito
would find it \-ery difficvdt to thrive at all in Khartoum, but such a radical and
expensive cure would be neither necessary nor justifiable.

At the time when the Blue Nile was at its highest a considerable tract of land
to the south-west of the town was submerged by the danuned u]) \\aters ol the
' In February tbe percentage infected was 10'4, in March only 9'5. Anophelina had disappeared

Value of
localising wells

MOSQUITO WORK IN KHARTOUM, ETC. 29

White Nile. The pools so formed, were however shallow, soon dried up, and at no
time were mosquitoes found breeding in them.

A point worth mentioning is that the labours of the brigade have served to
locate every weU in Khartoum, a matter of great importance in the event of any
extensive outbreak of cholera or enteric fever. The original number of wells sent
me by the Mudir, and obtained fi'om information fui'nished by the local sheiks,
fell far short of the actual count.

Certain water insects which prey on the larvffi have been found, but none are
so voracious as to yield hopes that they may be turned to practical account.

More may possibly be exjDected fi-om the discovery in the United States of a new
sporozoon parasite' of the Anophelina, and of a larval round worm, Againoineriiiis
culicis (Stiles)'" which is said to render the female mosquito barren and induce Parasites of

^ ' -*■ the mosquito

disease in the insect. As has often been said, what is wanted is a thoroughly
good larvicide, non-volatile, harmless to vegetation, non-poisonous, simple in
apphcation, easily soluble, readily diffusible, not obnoxious to the eyes or nose
and at the same time cheap. The nearest approach to this is a weU-kno'svn
proprietary preparation made fi'om anilin dyes and used successfully in the case of
rice fields.

Having at one time found that chrysoidine, the hydrochloride of di-amido-azo-
benzene (C12 H,, N4 HCl), a yeUow anilin colour, was most deadly to fish in very
dilute solutions, it seemed worth while to experiment with it upon larvaj and pupag.
It was found that a solution of 1 in 30,000 was efficient both as regards Anopheles
and Culex larvae, the foi'nier being the less resistant. The amount, however,
required for pi'actical purposes would be too expensive, and the solution has Action of

,1 . 1, 1 chrysoidine, an

rather a strong yellow colour. aniiin dye

The following are the details of the few experiments performed. As far as

possible the water in which the larvaj and pupae were found was employed : —

No. Strength of Solution. Eesult. Temp, of Water.

1 1 in 1,000,000 Some advanced larvaj of Culex fatigaiis 28-5°C

dead within 72 hours. Pupte formed
and hatched out. Some alive after 4
days. AU dead in 5 days.

2 1 in 100,000 Half the larva3 of Cidex fatigans dead Do.

within 48 hours. Several living after
72 hours.

3 1 in 75,000 Some larvaj of Culex fatigans alive after Do.

72 hours. Discontinued.

4 1 in 50,000 Half the larvaj (young) dead in 24 hours. Do.

not in 10 hours. AU dead -within 31
hours.
5a 1 in 50,000 KiUed the larv® of Pyretophonif! costalis Do.

within 24 hours, but not those of
Culex fatigans.

' Johnson. Journal of Medical Research. Vol. yii., 1902. No. 2, p. 213. '' Lancet, 1/8/03

30

MOSQUITO WoKK IN KIIAKTOUM, ETC.

Regulations for
the prevention
of malaria
generally

A ' ' mosquito
plant"

No. Strength of Solution,
r>h 1 iu 50,000

(iil

1 ill ;io,uoo

(ib 1 in oO,UOO

8

1 iu 10,000?
some suspended

matter.
1 iu 1,000?
much deposit.

Result. Temp, of Water.

Liirxie of Pyi-etophorufi costalis all alive 28-5'^C

after 48 liours. A few alive after 72

liours and after 90 liours. Pupa^ formed.

Discontinued.
Culex fatiyans. Nearly all the lar\ii? Do.

dead •\vithin 40 hours. Some alive

after 72 hours. All dead -within

4 days.
Larvie and pupa; of Ciilcr futiyniis and Do.

Pyrctojihorufi costalis. \ ery sluggish

in 20 lioui-s. Some dead. Some ali\'e

at the eud of 24 hours. AU dead

except oue larva and one pupa of

Culex fatigans within 44 hours. All

dead in about 50 hours.
Killed larva; of Culex fatujans within Do.

18 hours, nut in 5 liours.

Do.

Killed advanced larvas of Culex fatigann
in 25 minutes.

All the larvas and pupa; kiUed were stained a bright yellow. The solutions
soon altei-ed a little in strength OAving to evaporation, and, as will be seen, the
results were somewhat indefinite.

Mosquito work has not, however, been confined to Khartoum. At the
request of the S.M.O. Khartoum one drew up a set of simj)le regulations, ■\\ath
reference to the prevention of malaria, for the use of outlpng stations. It Avas
on the hnes of Major Ross's recommendations, and in addition, care was taken
to include those measures rendered necessary by the disco\ery, made by those '
who \\ix\Q worked ^vitli forest mosquitoes, of breeding places in pitcher plants
and holloAv trees holding Avater.

From Kassala, Captain Ensor reports a great improvement both as regards
mosquitoes and other noxious and annoying insects Avliich pass their lar\-al stages
in water. In this connection, it is interesting to note that the ShiUuks have a
so-called " mosquito plant." They dry the leaves and lay them inside the roofs
of their huts. The myth of the basil,- if not that of the neem, has been
exploded, so that probably this precautionary measure is of no value. I have
not been able to obtain a specimen of the plant.

Mr. Cross brought the laboratories specimens of ^lansonia uniformis from
Renk, and Dr. Cliristopherson sent certain mosquitoes he collected up the Blue
Nile. Unfortunately, these had not been mounted and were much damaged. The fact

' Lntz. Cent. f. Bakt., &c. Bd. xzziii., No. 4, Jan. 1903. Leicester. Journal of Tropical Medicine, 15/9/03
' Prout's Experiments. Tlu Times, London, 27 7/03

32 MOSQUITO WORK IN KHARTOUM, ETC.

thiit His Excellency the Governor-General kindly gave me permission to join a
party proceeding up both the Blue Nile and the White Nile and its tributaries
Mosquitoes of gave me an opportunity of collecting mosquitoes in these parts during the months
of November and December. There was little opportunity of catching moscpiitoes
on shore save at certain places. This rather interfered with the work as far as
the Blue Nile was concerned, but on the White Nile and triljutarics where the
steamer often tied up for the night and at times was stuck fast in the Sudd,
the mosquitoes boarded hei- in liundreds, and collection was an easy, though not
a comfortable, pursuit.'

The accompanying map, for which I am indebted to the Director of Intelli-
gence, War Office, shows the places where observations were made, and has the
names of the different genera met with recorded on it. It is intended specially
to show where the sub-family Anophelina and its genera flourish in greatest
abundance, but also exhibits the great prevalence of the filaria-carrier ]\Iansonia
uniformis. The accompanying tables contain the names uf the different genera
and species encountered^.

Blue Nile — November, 1903

Khartoum Culex fatigans.

No swamp. A few pools in Culex tigripes.

river bank. Stegomyia fasciata and var. mosquito.

Pyretophorus costalis.
Mucidus afi'icanus.

Khartoum North Culex fatigans.

Stegomyia fasciata var. mosquito.
Theobaldia spathipalpis.
Between Wad Medani and Sennar . . Culex fatigans.

No swam^js. Bush country. Mansonia uniformis (dark varietv).

Ta3niorhynchus tenax.

Sennar Mansonia uniformis.

Culex pallidocephala.

South of Sennar Mansonia uniformis.

Forest country. Swampy in Culex fatigans.

parts. Tieniorhynchus aui'ites.

Senga Culex viridis.

River pools. Swamps dried Pyretophorus costalis.
up. Mansonia unifonnis.

Roseires Culex fatigans.

River pools. Forest country. Mansonia uniformis.

Pyretophorus costalis.
Cellia pharoensis.

' I would here express my thanks to Mr. and Lady Fitzgerald, Miss Leigh Hunt, and Mrs. Balfour, for
their kind help in the collection of specimens. ' J'i'rfe special article by Mr. F. V. Theobald

mosquito

White

Dueim

No swamps.
South of Goz-abu-Guma

SwamjDs.
Jebelein

Swamps.

Renk

]\Iucli swampy land.
Jebel Akmet Aga

Swamps along river bank.
Kodok, late Fashoda

Much swampy land.

Lower Sobat

Few swamps,
country.

Open grass

WORK IN KHARTOUM, ETC.

Nile — December, 190?)
Culex fatigans.

Myzorhynchus paludis.

. . Ta>niorhynchus tenax.

Maiisonin unifonnis.

Ciilex fatigans.

Mansonia uniformis.

Pyi'etophorus costalis.
. . Mansonia uniformis.

Myzomyia nili.
. . Mansonia, uniformis.

Myzorhynchus paludis.

TcEniorhynchus tenax.

Culex fatigans.

Culex \'iridis.

Sobat

Tasniorhynchus tenax.
Uranota^nia sp. ?
Culex viridis.
Culex fatigans.

33

Middle Sobat

Bush country. River banks
swampy.

Myzomyia funesta (subumbrosa).
^lansonia uniformis.
Culex fatigans.
Myzomyia nili.
Uranotsenia cajruleocephala.
Myzorhynchus paludis.
Tamiorhynchus tenax.
Pyi'etophorus costalis.
Anopheles wellcomei.
Culex dentatus ?
Mansonia uniformis.
Culex viridis.

Baro (first 100 miles)
River banks high. Grass and Anopheles wellcomei.
open country. Some river Culex fatigans.
pools. Tffiniorhynchus tenax.

Mansonia uniformis.
Cellia pharoensis.
Culex viridis.

u

MOSQriT() W(11}K IX KIIARTdl'M, VTC.

Tlie wholo coimti'v full of swamps
Much sudd ill the I'ivov.

PiBOK (first (1(1 mill's)

Myzorhynrlius p;ihulis.
Mansonia uniformis.
Culex vii'idis.
Ta^niorhviiflius teuax.
Uranota'uia ))alf( )uri.
Stegomyia fasciata.
Myzomyia funesta.
Tamiorliynchus cristatus.
Uranota^nia domestica ?
Culex fatigans.
AnoiDheles ■vvellcomei.
Etorleptiomyia mediolineata.

Bahr-El-Jebel, North . . . .
Swamps and papp'us sudd.

Bahr-ei.-Jebel

Mimomyia splendens.

Form with clubbed and peculiar palpi.

(New genus ? and neAV species.)
Mansonia uniformis.
Uranota;nia cajruleocephala.
Mimomyia uniformis.
T»niorhynchus aurites.

(New genus and new species.)

Lake No Mansonia uniformis.

Swamps on all sides. Sudd. Tamiorhynchus annetii.

Bahr-El-Jebel, North

Swampy river banks. No
real sudd.
Kenissa (south of Shambe)

River banks swampy. Forest
land.

Bor

River banks very swampy.
Open couiitrv bcvniid.

Mansonia uniformis.
Mimomyia uniformis.
Uranotania caM'uleocephala.
Mansonia uniformis, 2 types.
Culex fatigans.
Ta?niorhynchus tenax.
Myzomyia funesta.
Var. umbrosa.

„ subumbrosa.
Myzomyia nili.
Culex viridis.
Pvretophorus costalis.
Mansonia iniiformis.
Anopheles wellcomei.
Myzorhynchus paludis.
Myzomyia n. sp. ?
Uranota^nia cieruleoccpliahi.
Culex cmnminsii ?

MOSQUITO WORK IX KHARTOUM, ETC. 35

Lado Mansonia uniform is.

River laanks high. SAvampy Culex viridis.

island. Bush country be- Culex fatigans.
yond. Myzorhyuchus iDahidis.

Mimomyia uniformis.
Myzomyia ?
It Avill l)e seen tliat several genera previously unrecorded fr(jm this part of
Africa have been found, such as ]\Iucidus, Tasniorhynclius, Tlieobaldia, L rauuta;iiia
and Mimomyia,' while several entirely new genera and species have been secured.^ and'spede?

The White Nile, as might have been expected, was f(iund to harbour many
more Anophelines, than the Blue Nile, though the Blue Nile furnishes a good
many fever cases in the summer months. M>/~orhyiic/ius paludis was very common
on the Pibor, where Uranotajniaj Avere also in large numbers, and were very
vicious. (Jn tlie Bahr-El-Jebel Myzoniijid faitesta, in both its varieties, Avas a
frequent visitor in the evenings. This mosquito was found to remain on board Permanence of

£ ' 11 • 1* 1 • 1 £ 1 1 r ' 11 • Anophelines

tor several days at a time, lying pcraii in the iolds oi curtains and hangings, on steamers
in mats and carpets bestowed in heaps, and finding special sanctuaries on the
under surfaces of tables.

The steamer on Avhicli the captures were made Avas prevented becoming a
breeding ground, and so any fallacy which might have arisen from this source
of infection, Avas obviated. Mr. Young, the engineer, rendered every assistance
in his poAver.

Mansonia unifurmls is, hoAvever, par excellence, the mosquito of these parts
of the Niles, i.e., the Blue Nile from AVad ^ledani to Roseires, and the White
Nile from Renk to Gondokoro, including the Sobat River and Lake No. In the
light of this fact it AA^ould be Avell to ascertain if iilariasis is common in these
regions. It was on this blood-loA-ing insect that a small red tick looking like a
tiny preser\'ed cherry AA'as first found. This tick AA'as aftenvards discoA-ered on ihemo^qu'to
Myzorhynchus paludis, and on se\'eral other species. It does not seem to affect
the mosquito in any way, and Avas usually attached to the thorax or abdomen.
I haA'e also once seen Avhat seems to be a green tick. So far, there has not
been time to study these parasites more fully, but specimens haA-e been sent to
Mr. Theobald.

In connection AAath preventiA^e methods to be adopted at stations in the
SAvamp regions of the White Nile, one Avould strongly advocate the introduction
of sun-floAver cultiA'ation. xVpart from its Avater-absorbing cai^acities the sun-HoAver sun-Hower

• 1 1 1 1 M n 1 • cultivation

is of great value as an economic product, the oil, seeds, and filire all being advocated
useful. It has been successfully cultivated in the previously malarial stretches of
the Mississipi valley, and is knoAvn to groAV Avell and rapidly in the Sudan.

As far as the application of culicifuges goes I have found a mixture of
equal parts of citronella oil and absolute alcohol, the most effective preparation,
and one pleasant to employ.

* Theobald. Monograph of the Culicidse, Vol. iii. " Vide special report by Mr. F. V. Theobald

36 MOSQUITO WiiKK IN KII AUTOUM, KTC.

The sudd as Daiiii'ls' luis su^igL'stwl tliut liii'va' prutected 1)}' lli)atiiig sudd may l)i.' ciiri'icd

mosquito loiig (listaiK't's, Hiid that new genera and species may in this way reach Egypt,
distribution rj^.j^^^^ j.|._.^ ^^.ij.|^ ^^f ^,^j^ liypothesis may well lie ti'iu'. hut as regards the second,

I wiuil<l pniiir out thar little, if any, sudd tinds its way even su far north as
KhaiTuum. Floating islands of sudd are rarely encountered north of Dueim on
the Wliire Xik'. Thev get caught by the reedy ri\-cr banks and the low islands,
and ai'c ar all times liable to be broken up and dispersed by the jjaddle floats
of steamers. As a matter of fact, the distribution of mosiiuitoes indicated on the
map is, on the whole, an argument adverse to the ingenious theory of this able
obser\'er.

' Laboratory Studies in Tropical Medicine, 1903

38

l^iTixd ANii Noxious Insects otiiku than Mosquitoes

The tsetse

lly

()

In this ciiiiiicctidii nnv discovery has to be chnniick'tl. It was made l)y
Lt.-(.V>l(iiiel (Jritiith, D.S.O., to Avhom the laboratories suppHed a small eutoiudltigic-d
t)iitlit prior to his jouruey up the White Nile. He brought back specimens of
\ari(nis insects, and amongst them Glossina morsitans, a species of tse-tse fly,
which he captured on the Pongo River, in the Bahr-El-fihazal province, when
niai'ching fi'um W'au to Dem Zobeir. He repoi'ted that the fly occinTc<l in great
niunbers. This tse-tse is the carrier of the trypanosome of nagana so fatal t
horses, donkeys, and certain other domestic animals, and had not pre\iously been
reported nearly so far north in these regions, having been encountered near
Runbek by the Pcthericks' in 1.S69. This has hitherto constituted its most
northerly record. 1 Iduked for, and made careful enquiries about, the tse-tse
flies throughout the Nile journey made on the " Amka," but I saw nothing either
of Glossina morsitans or G. palpalis. The only inft)rmatiun c)btained was that a fly
belt existed about lU miles west of Shambe on the White Nile, and that horses
and donkeys passing thi'ough it suffered fi'om sickness. My authority was the
very intehigent Egyptian officer in charge of the post. As it is very essential
to define correctly the localities in the Sudan which are infested by the fly, and
as ^Ir. Austen, the Dipterologist of the British ^luseum was anxious to obtain
specimens and information, the laboratories forwarded an entomc^logical outfit to
the British Medical Officer in the Bahr-El-Ghazal Pro\'ince with full instructions,
a request for notes and sjjecimens, and asking him to make enquiries amongst
officials and natives. It is thus hoped to obtain reliable accounts and jilenty vi
Biting Diptera n^jtei-i;,] A Complete collection of all the biting flies of the Sudan is much to
be desired. Sand flies and owl midges are connnon in Khartoimi and more
annoying than mosquitoes, while specimens have been secm-ed of the seroot flies
of the Nile. These include species of the genera Talianus and Pangonia, which
are very numerous, and whose bites are severe. Mr. Theobald identified amongst
the Tabanids, Glossina, etc., brought him by Lt.-Col. Griffith, D.S.O., Tabiinus
dorsovittus (Walker) from Kodok, a Stomoxys sp ? and Glossina morsitans horn, the
Pongo which were quite typical. Vide Second Report on Economic Zoology,
]). 11.') (Biting horse flies in Central Africa), F. V. Theobald.

The Hijjpoboscida^,'- so anno^^ng to horses and camels, are represented in
Khartomn as are se\Tral other genera, specimens of which have been secured
but not yet identified. Dr. Craig of the Egyptian Survey kindly pi'esented a
small insect collection made on the White Nile.

' " Travels in Central Africa," &c., quoted in Austen's Monograph of the tse-tse flies. (Nat. Hist. Brit. Mus.)

° The species on the camel is ffippobosca camelina L., tlint on the horse H. equina Linn. The dog in Egypt
is attacked by //. Caiiis Leach. Probably If. Muculntn L. also occurs on cattle and horses.

C. Beard

BLISTER BEETLES OF THE SUDAN

L. II.. III. Mylabns liquida Er.
IV. Mylabris ligata Chevr.

It appears as far as can be judged that the specimens figured at I.. II.. & III. are all merely varieties of
the same species. The difference in shape is due to the specimens being somewhat damaged. (F.V.T.)

BITING AND NOXIOUS INSECTS OTHES THAN MOSQUITOES 39

At Roseires, in Novemljer, I found numerous specimens of beetles belonging
to the Cantharidaj, genus Mylabris. Captain Ensor reports them as being common Blister beetles
in the Kassala district, where they are called " Fasseea." Captain Rivers states that
they occur in great numbers in Kordofan. Probably several other species exist.
Samples of similar vesicating insects from South iVfrica have appeared on the
London market, and yielded fi'om r09 to 1-02 per cent, of cantharidin.* Mylabris
bifasciata of the Cape of Good Hope was found by Braithwaite^ to be
extremely rich in cantharidin. It is quite possible that these beetles may be of
some economic value. The subject seems worthy of further investigation.

[These beetles are figured on Plate A, and a note regarding them is appended
to the plate.— F. V. T.]

Digpeneatory of the United States ' P.. J. Tr. xviii. 24C

Smut of dura, probably Ustilago panicifrumentacei. Solitary seed grain
infected.

*Smut of dura. Ustilago Reilianaj

Smut of dukhn. Pencillaria spicata (Swartz) frcm Scnnar. i Smut of dura, probably Ustilago panici-milmcei. Head of gram wholly destroyed.

FUNGUS DISEASE IN SUDAN MILLET

41

Insects and Vegetable Parasites Injurious to Crops

The first work undertaken in the laboratories related to this subject, a most
important one in the Sudan, and was concerned mth the damage done by the
so-called " Asal " (Honey) fly, which has been foxmd to be a large and new Aphides

..■''■' ^ The "Asal '■«)

species of Aphis. In 1902 it was very destructive to the dura crop {Sorghum
vuhjare) in Kassala, Sennar and the Bahr-el-Ghazal. Last summer, (1903), it
was not so much in evidence, but the infection of most of the dura gro-nni
in Khartomn gave one an opportunity of studying it on the spot, especially in the
Zoological Gardens. I do not think that this latter Aphis is the same species
as that found on samples sent from Kassala and Sennar. These were very dry and
shrivelled, and only a few good specimens were secured. They seemed to be
larger than the Khartoum Aphides and had red eyes, whereas those of the

Khartoiun species wei^e black. The
eggs were also different. In Khar-
tomn there was not nearly so copious
a secretion of honey-dew, though
the leaves were rendered sticky.
Differences were also noted in shape.
The life history of the Aphides is
very complicated, oAving to the
ciu'ious alternation of generations,
and unless one be an economic
entomologist it is not easy to trace
out the various stages and recognise
the sexes in the winged and wingless
forms. Possibly one stage of the
insect's hfe is spent on the melon
l)lant. I have had melon plants sent The melon
from Rufaa on the Blue Nile with ^^ '^
the leaves covered by the Aphis
secretion, Avhich often retained the
shape of the excreting cornicles and
presented a beautiful appearance
when viewed through a magnifs'ing
lens. These leaves were completely
blighted and the melon crop was
ruined. It is, however, probable that this Aphis is yet another species, (for
one thing the larva^ are very large), and that the others confine their
attentions to the dui'a. They certainly do much damage, sucking out the sap

Leaf of Sorghum vulgare, intt-stL-d by the Aphis sorghi.

42

INSECTS AND VEGETABLE PARASITES INJURIOUS TO CROPS

Scale insects

Difiiculty of
combating liie
aphides in
the Sudan

\alue of
lady Bird
beetles

of the leaves, hindoriiig the ])lant respirations by their secretion, and destroying
the young ears of grain -whik' they are yet soft. It is easy to recognise an infected
plant fi-om the shiny stickiness on the leaves, the deposit on the groimd, sometimes
veiy copious, and the vast number of pale larva; and so-called plant-lice. The
acacia arabica, (sant tree), is liable to be attacked by a scale insect which forms
little white balls (ni the twigs. Specimens of this and of all the Aphides have
been sent to Mr. Theobald. The acacia insects were given me by Mi-s. Broun,
the Honorary Secretary of the Museum Board. Slie had collected them on the
White Nile."

The Aphis has formed the subject of sevei'al reports to the Secretary General,
but it is evident that in a comitry like the Sudan it is very difficult to employ
suitable preventive methods. No doubt petroleum, naphthalene and (piassia waslies
and sprays are effective, but they have to be properly and judiciously applied,
and in many cases spraying apparatus would be required. Burning of infected
grain would be beneficial, the planting of the castor-oil plant round the fields is said
to be useful, and something might be accomplished by merely squirting Avater
through a hose on the plants and thus washing off the insects, but the outlook
is scarcely hopeful in this direction. The question of the utility of lady-bird
beetles, (Coccinellidi«), which along with their Larvae feed greedily on the Aphides,
is an important one. Mr. Brovin noticed a lady-bird l)usy on infected plants in the
Bahr-El-Ghazal. I found fragments of lady-birds in the dui-a specimens fi-om
Kassala and Sennar, and discovered the following species present in large numbers
on the "Asal" dui-a in Khartoum. Mr. Theobald kindly identified them
f ( )r me as —

Cliilomenes vicina, Muls.

CoccineUa. ll-jniDctata.

Specimens of these were secured and mounted and entomologists in South
Africa were commnniciited with, as American lady-birds have been introduced
there to combat Scale Insects and Aphides.

The information obtained has been sent to the Secretary General, and it is
probal)le that in the Coccinellidie, either those which are indigenous or species which
may be imported, we have the best means of attacking the fly. At the same time
it must be confe.ssed that the reports received are none too encouraging. The
Aphides are themselves hable at times to invasion by a fungus {Entoiaojihtora
aphidis), which destroys them wholesale. It seems worth while considering if tliis
could not be utilised, but the whole question is really one for a skilled entomologist.
It Avill no (lou])t receive due attention from the official recently appointed for the
purpose by Lord Cromer. Meanwhile information has been fm-nished with regard
to approjiriate washes and how they are best employed, and here again I would
express my indebtedness to ^Ir. Theobald, to the Agricultural Bureau at \\'ashington,
U.S.A., and to the South Eastern Agricultural College at Wye, Kent, England.

Plate B

THE MELON BUG
(Aspongopus viduatus Fabr.)

a 4 b. Two forms of the adult : c S d, Two stages of the larvm. Dried and old specimens are somewhat darker
The hnes at the side show natural size. (F.V.T.)

INSECTS AND VEGETABLE PARASITES INJURIOUS TO CROPS 43

Dura has also been found to be the victim of numerous other diseases. Fungus

., 11*11 xl diseases of

Mr. and Mrs. Broun disco\-ered the larvae of a noctuid moth which bores up the ^u^a
stems, and a fungus, Hehninthosporium sorghi which, however, only causes the leaves
to wilt. One has met with four forms of Smut, (Ustilaginous fungus), a variety of
Puccinia, and what is apparently a baciUary disease — at least a large baciUus was
present in a grain head from Sennar, which presented quite a peculiar aspect
and showed no sign of insect or fungus infection. Klein, Houston, Potter and
others, have drawn attention to the presence and significance of the Schizomycetes
in cereals and tubere.

The proper preventive measures for smut and other fungi have been detailed
in several reports. The dura in the Dongola district is said to harbour some kind
of Avire-worm or slug, while that in Sennar is stated to be occasionally eaten by a
large species of fly.'

A plant bug or Hemipteron, Aspongopus viduatus (Fabricius), has caused The melon
much damage to the melon crop, and specimens of wmged adults and wingless larvaj treatment
have been preserved and are figured in this Report. (Plate B, a to d.)

In this instance the preventive methods are simple and consist merely in
shaking the bugs into pans of paraffin or tar early in the year when they first make
their appearance. The gravid females that have wintered are thus destroyed, and
so the hosts to which they give rise prevented from appearing. Land that has been
infected with these bugs should have all the fitter burned in the hibernating season,
and an badly infected plants should be pulled up and burned (Theobald).- These
precautionary measui'es, it seems to me, nfight very weU be adopted and much loss
averted.

The ' Dura ' Aphis or ' Asal Fly '

[Aphis sorghi. nov. sp.)
(Plate C.)

By Fred. V. Theobald, M.A.

The foUowiug are the structural details of the destructive Dura Aphis Avhich is •
causing such havoc in the Sudan. The species is new, and I have named it after
the plant it attacks. The details are slioAvn on Plate C.
Winged viviparous female.

Expanse of icings 5*0 to 5"5 mm.
Length of body 1"5 to 1*8 mm.

Head (Fig. 4) broAvn, with a pale green fine behind across its whole length, with
three processes projecting forward, one median and one at the base of each antenna ;
antenna; brown, the two basal segments green, the third green basaUy, basal segment

' This probably does not refer to a true fly (Dipteron). P. V. T.

= Second Report on Economic Zoology, p. 117, 1904. F. V. Theobald.

44

INSECTS AND VK(;|; TAIil.E I'AliASl IKS IN.Illtll lUS T(» CUOl'S

dusky on tlic inside ; nut qiiitu as long as the l)ud}', coinposcil of (i sfgiuents, the two
btusal cues thick and short, the three following of nearly ecjual length, the apical one

as long as the t^vo ])receding, anntilated
and notched near its base (Fig. 5).
Prouotuni green ; mesonotmn green
around the edges, bro^vn in the middle ;
nietanotuni greeuish-broAvn. Abdomen
dark green above, pale at the sides and
Ijelow, with two brown spots on the sides
of each segment. Cornicles (Fig. 1)
short, thick, almost uniformly cylindrical,
truncated, the sides slightly crenulated.
Legs greenish, tliin, of moderate length,
tibias especially hind jxiir Avith fine bristles
arising from minute papiUge, edges of
the tibiaj especially towards the apex
crenulated. Venation typical {vide figtire
13).

Aphis sorghi or Asal fly. Winged viviparous female.
Posterior wings not shewn.

Apterous invipnrou.'i female.

Length of body TO to 1'5 mm.

Lenijtii of antemue U'8 to I'O mm.

Antenna? (Fig. 11) Avith four or five segments, the two basal ones normal, the
third long and with a constriction apicaUy making the quasi-fifth segment ; not quite
as long as the body. Head (Fig. 10)
showing the frontal lobes indistinctly, the
central one Avith a median groove and a
lateral cm'ved bristle on each side. Legs
short and thick, the hind tibia? Avith
prominent lateral bristles. Rostnun short
and thick reaching to nearly lialfAvay
betAveen the bases of the first and second
pairs of legs ; cornicles cylindrical, broA\'n.
Eyes black.

Pupa. Tlie three cephalic processes
very small ; the antenna; ( Fig. 8) con-
siderably shoi'ter than the body, of fiA^e
segments the two basal ones as in the
Avinged female, the third rathei- long, the
fourth about half the length of the third,
the fifth as in Avinged viviparous female. Legs thick as in the apterous female,
the hind tibiae rather SAVollen apically and Avith jialc l)ristles; cornicles (Fig. 3)
as in the apterous female, rather shorter than in the Avinged female. Eyes black.

Larva. Cornicles shorter and more cone-shaped with truncated cii-cular ajiex.

.Aphis sorglii.'i Nearly mature apterou-s female.

Plate C

THE DURA APHIS OR ASAL FLY
(Aphis sorghi. nov. spec) and Lady Bird Enemies

I. Cornicle of winged viviparous ? ; 2. Ovum; 3, Cornicle of pupa ? : 4. Head of winged vivip. ? : 5. Antenna of winged
vivip. ? : 6. Apex of leg of ? ; 7, Larval antenna (advanced): 8. Antenna of pupa; 9, Head of larva; 10. Head of apterous
vivip. ? ; 11. Antennae of apterous vivip. ? ; 12. Antenna of larva; 13. Wing of viviparous ? ; M, ChiloiiicHes vicina.

Muls; 15. Coccinella undecimpunctata

INSECTS AND VEGETABLE PARASITES INJUKIOUS TO CROPS 45

Om. Oblong oval, somewhat pointed at one end ; yellow, Avith smooth shiny
shell (Fig. 2).

LengtJt. 0*8 mm.

Observafioiis. Tliis species infests to a serious extent the ' dura " in the Sudan
{vide Dr. Balfour's Report). It is also kno^vn as the ' Asal ' Fly. It produces a
cojjious flow of honey dew ; this and the quantity of black excreta passed out by
the aphides smother the leaves and heads to such an extent that the plants die off.
I cannot detect any specimens that might be o\'iparous females or males. Tlie
descriptions are draAvn up from spirit specimens. The general ground colour of the
Aphis is green. Another species (sent me by Mrs. Broun), undoubtedly exists. It
came from Kassala, but in too damaged a state to describe. My thanks are due to
the U. S. Department of Agriculture for help in this matter.

Natural Enemies. Two Ladv Bird Beetles feed both in their larval and adult Beneficial

Lady Bird

stages on this pest namely Coccinella undecimpunctata, the 11 -spotted Lady Bird Beeties
and the Three-lined Lady Bird — Chilomenes vicina Muls.' (Plate C, Figs. 14 & 15.)

The 11 -SPOTTED Lady Bird (Coccinella undecimpunctata) has a black head
with two yeUoAv spots, the clypeus black with yellow hair ; the prothorax black
with a creamy area on each side, broadest in fi'ont ; scuteUum black. Eljrtra
yellowish red with ele\'en black spots when closed, the first row of three spots, the
large median one being half on each elytron and two curved rows of foiu- spots.
Prouotum and elytra densely, finely and closely pujictate. The legs are black
and hairy.

Length 4*5 to 5 mm.

The Three-lined Lady Bird (Chilomenes vicina. Muls^ has a creamy yellow
head and clypeus and black eyes, deeply indented in the prothorax. Prothorax creamy
yellow with a black band behind and a l)lack central area connected by a narrow
stalk -with it, a few dark con\ergiug streaks beliind the black eyes. Scutellum
small and black. Elytra pale ochreous-yeUow Avitli a thick black median fine,
formed by the jimction of a black line on each edge of the elytra, and a black
curved line on each eh-tron on its outer half, between which and the narroAv black
edge are numerous minute black specks. Legs pale yellowisli to ochreous. The
whole sui'face of the pronotum and el}'ira very faintly and minutely punctate.

Length 3'8 to 4'3 mm.

A species of Bassus has been sent -witli the material, the species of this genus
live on Syi'phus flies and are tlms injurious as the Syrphus flies feed on ^Vphis
dui'ing their larval stage, and help the Lady Birds to keep doA\^n these pests.

' Second Report on Economic Zoology, p. 121, 1904. F. V. Theobald

46

CyANOGENEiSIS in SoKLillUM VULGAKE

Hydrocyanic
acid in dura

.Sennar

Albara

Reports on

poisonous

dura

Gezira

Reverting to tlie sulyect nf (lura, inentioii must be made of auothiT matter
relatiiiji!; to it which has chiimed atteutioii. This is the ])reseiice of hydrocyaiiie acid
in (hini used as fodder, and tlie fataUty resulting amongst animals fed on sueli dura.
Attention was directed to the subject by reading accounts of the discovery by
Dunstan and Henry' of a glucoside, "dhurriu," contaiued in tlie young plants
of the sdrghnm, which on decom])ositiou in the presence of water yields free
hydrocyanic acid. THis is said to explain the numerous cases of sudden death
occurring among cattle fed on immature sorghum. The anah'tical work of
Briinnich - on the same subject, and the obser\ations of Dr. Maxwell, and
Veterinary-Inspector Quinnel ' in Australia, shoAv how important it is, and accord-
ingly, through the medium of the Secretary General one collected as much
inforjnation as could be gathei'cd from xarious parts of the Sudan, and proceeded
to examine some specimens of dura in which no difficulty was experienced in
detecting the poisonous acid. The answers to the enquiries are interesting, and may
\vith advantage be briefly stated here.

Colonel Gorringe reported from Sennar that there had been no recent casualties
among animals from this cause, but recalled a considerable loss in horses and cattle
at Kerreri in 1898, from their having been fed on green dura about one foot high.
He states that the natives in his district regard it as harmless Avhen dry, and do not
give it when green till the seed ears are Avell developed. I\Ir. Xeville, from the
Atljara district, furnished much important information, and recorded his opinion
that dura oi normal gro^vth is alisolutelv innocuous to animals in the Sudan. He
also stated that the variety known as Peterita is the most poisonous, and that more
deaths result from animals eating " hantout " and other poisonous gi-asses tliau from
dura. The most fatal t'ondition, he says, and the most common in the Sudan,
is produced when aninials are fed on dura which has been stunted from lack of
rainfall and has then grown rapidly when water was obtainable. Natives, he fiu-ther
states, are well aware of the danger, and belie\e that onlv ruminants suffer and that
donkeys and horses may feed on such dura with impunity. Colonel Stanton,
hoAvever, infoi*med me that on one occasion his horse, although well and hungry, and
though he expected it to feed greedily on some tempting green dura, i-efused to
touch it. Possibly animals of a higher intelligence than cattle may recognise and
avoid the danger. Mr. Xe\ille also enters into a consideration of other ill-effects
produced by dura such as colic and kidney troubles, due to the jjresence of large
(juantities of potassium nitrate in the plants.

Major Dickinson. Gezira, gave evidence which coini-ides with that of Mr.
Xeville, and mentioned fatal cases occurring at Wad Kamleli in 1902. Some

' Phil. Trans. 1901 Scries, B 515, and 1902 Series, A 399 'Journ.il Chemiciil Society, July, 1903

' Injurious effect of sorghum on stock. P.aper Agric. Con., liuecnsland, June, 1902

CYAX(1GENESIS IN SORGHUM VULGARE 47

poisoned Jinimals were sa^'od bv tlie ]irom]it exliibition of natron, folloAved liv sim-
sim (sesame) oil.

Viscount Frankfort, Inspector, Dongola, also spoke of the danger fi-om gi\'ing oongoia
immature dura, and cited the fact that at tlie end of 1901 and the beginning of
1902 there was a great mortality in cattle at Affat Dahbah. They had fed on dura
affected by some species of rust.

Major Borton, from Suakin, had much the same to say as Mr. NeA^lle, and in
addition i-emarked that —

1. If rainfall suddenly ceases after a good start in growth has Ijcen made, suauin

plants have been known to haye poisonous effects.

2. When eaten dry after faihng to mature from want of rain the stalks are

poisonous.

3. When the dura heads have been eaten by locusts the stalks are said to be

poisonous, but animals will rarely touch them.

There seems to be some difference of opinion amongst the various obsen"ers as
to whether dura, Avhich has been poisonous, becomes harmless when thorouglily sun-
dried or aii'-dried.

Briinnich' gives the following as ijrecautionary measures : — Precautionary

o 1 J measures

1. AU fodder plants related to sorghum must be used with discretion, in either

the green or the dried state, and should not be given in large amounts to
animals which have fasted for some time.

2. Sorghum should never be used in a very immature stage of growth, but

only when the seed ears are well developed.

Mr. Neville, as stated, lays stress on the noniiality or othenvise of the crop,
and seems to agree with the native opinion that in the Sudan thoroughly dried dura
is innocuous. The latter statement is borne out by Professor Dunstan's experiments ^
at the Imperial Institute. Sevei'al samples of young gi'een sorglivm vulr/arr
have been examined in the laboratories and the presence of hydrocyanic acid influence of
demonstrated. There is a belief in Australia that the plant is more poisonous when o"n''cyano^''
attacked by insects during a dry season, a statement elicited by Quinnel. I s<-nes's
mentioned this to Mr. Sillitoe, the head gai-dener, when he was collecting aphis-
infected dura for fodder. He lost one animal fed on it, and several others were
seriously iU.

At the same time I made a comparison of two samples of dura of the same
age ; the one normal, the other harbouring aphides. As shoAvn there was certainly
more hydrocyanic acid present in the latter, but no conclusions can be based on

' Journal Chemical Society, July, 1903 - Technical Reports, &c., 1903

48 CYANOGENESIS IN SORGHUM VULGARE

Laboratory ii siiiglc expcriiiKMit. Licbig's process was employed, aiid sulphuric acid was in (>ac]i
cyrntenelis"" c<'^=^e added to the distillation flask as recommended by Briinnich.

1. Affected. Young dura about 10 inches liigh. No seed g;i'ains developed.

('outnincil ■08.') per cent. HCX.

2. Unaffected. Dura slightly younger tlian the above. No seed grains

developed. Contained "014 per cent. HCX.

The investiijation of cyanogenesis in all the fodder j)lants used in the Sudan
and ill certain of the leguniinosa^, is a piece of research a chemist might cany out
with advantage.

49
General Routine Work

The nature of this work may be classed under two main headino;s : — 1. Pathological :
2. Chemical. It bulked so largely that little time was afforded for original
in\-estigations, Init then again some of it was really more or less research work, and
in any case the mere fact that so much had to be done thus early in the laboratories'
career, seems to show that they have fiUed a felt want.

Under each of the above headings is jolaced a list of the examinations and
analyses performed.

1. Pathological

Nature No.

{(i) ]\Ior]iid secretions and exci'etions . . . . 16

{b) Blood 20

(c) Bacteriological apart fi-om {a) . . . . . . 6

((/) Parasites aparlrfrom {a) and (/').. . . . . 5

(e) New growths . . . . . . . . . . 4

( /') Other pathological conditions . . . . . . 3

It may be as well to indicate some of the forms of disease encountered and
included under these figures, and also to deal briefly wth the more common
diseases found in the Sudan. The classification adopted by AVeUman' for the
diseases of Angola is here introduced for the sake of convenience-.

The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan is a huge territory inhabited by many divers races
of men, and possessing several types of climate. One could no moi'e scientifically
compare the diseases found in the neighbourhood of Suakin with those prevalent
in the Khartoum district than one could compare the latter with those occurring
in the Bahr-El-Ghazal. On the Red Sea coast the climate is that of a littoral ; it
is the Northern Sudan climate modified by proximity to the sea. Round about
Khartoum there exists, roughly speaking, a desert climate, somewhat modified by
the presence of the two mighty rivers which unite immediately to the south of
Omdurman. In the Bahr-El-Ghazal we meet with typically tropical conditions
— a moist, liumid atmosphere, a heavy rainfall, an abundant vegetation, many
rivers, and much insect life. Minor differences exist in difterent parts of the
different districts. Elevation above sea-level, as in Kordofan, plays a part, so does
the area of cultivated land, as in the Dongola district, so does the presence
(Kassala district) or absence (Gezira) of much bush country, so does the proximity
to the great water-ways of this part of Africa. The incidence of disease is also
affected by the distribution of population. The Northern Sudan, in addition to
its Arabic and mixed Arabic and negro population, is peopled by British, Greeks,
Italians, Turks, Syrians, Armenians, Egyptians, Copts, Abyssinians, and several

' Journal of Tropical Medicine, 15/2/04
- The following notes appeared in the Jonrnnl of Tropienl Medicine, 15/4/04, and are here reproduced by the kind

permission of the Editors of tliat journal

50 GEXKIJAI, KdlTlXK WoKK

other nationalities. Of these, the Egyptians, the majority of them engaged in
military service, are tlie most numerous. The Southern Sudan is the home of the
negro tribes — the Dinkas, Shilluks, Xuers, Xyuaks, Niam-niams, and many others.
It is hopeless with c.nv present knowledge to proceed to any kind of a classification,
and none will be attemj)ted.

I. — Diseases Appkarixg fimm ax Examination or the Blood

Malaria (native name, A ///»;//« = fever). — All three forms of the malaria
parasite have been seen. The most common have the benign tertian and the
malignant tertian, the latter appearing as small ring forms and crescents. (Quartan
is rare and is probably acquired in Egypt or elsewhere, not in the Sudan. Cases
from up the Niles, and especially from the White Xile, show the small ring and
crescent forms most frequently. Typical ague attacks occur, but are not often
seen. Remittent fevers seem to be the rule in the southern districts. Enlarged
spleens due to malaria are numerous. Captain Cunnnins, E.M.C., found a large
percentage of children in the Bahr-El-Gliazal affected in this \\ay. A high per-
centage of large mononuclear leucoc}i;es is fi-equently found in the blood of
natives, or Egyptian soldiers who have sei'ved up coimtry. \'^ery few cases have
been seen in which such white corpuscles contained pigment. Chronic splenitis
sometimes leads to a very considerable enlargement of the spleen. It will be
interesting to see if the new blood parasite, Leishmania Dotiovani, is to be found
in cases of splenomegaly. ' I'rofessor Ross has suggested to me that it might be
well tn look for it in monkeys.

Filariasu seems to be rare in the Xoi-thern Sudan, although CiiJex fatiiiana
abounded in Khartoum before preventive measui'es were adopted. I have oidy
seen one case of elephantiasis [da el fee/). It was in the leg of a Dinka, but
his blood showed no filaria embryos.

As Mansonia uniformis exists in considerable nvunbers along the banks of
the Blue Xile, south of "Wad ^ledani : in veritable swarms on the AVhite Nile,
south of Abbas Island, and all along the Sobat, Baro and I'ibor Rivers and
the reedy shores of Lake Xo, one would expect to find al)undant evidence of
filarial infection. Gross lesions^ such as lymph scrotum, chylocele, varicose
groin glands, and elephantiasis of the legs are not visible to the passing
traveller even if he looks out for them. I had no opjjortunity of examining
the blood of natives, nor, so far as I know, has anv work been done on this
subject in these regions.

TriipanosomiaMx has not been encountered. Trypanosomes possibly occur
in the blood of uati\es living close to the more tropical parts of tlie AVhite
Xile. Xo trypanosomes were found in the blood of several siluroid fish examined.
GloKKwa palpalis has not been found in the Sudan. Glflf<fiina yiiorsitann occurs
in tlie Bahr-I']l-(iha/.al, and is numerous in some parts.

' It has now been discovered in si single case at Onuiiirmnn by Dr. Slictliold Neave, vide B.M.J. 2SI!>/04

GENERAL IKJUTINE WoKK 51

II. — Diseases Appearing from an Examination of the Faeces

DifHentery [Dorontana) is not very frequently seen. It is probably most
common in young British officers. Slight forms, the so-called dysenteric
diarrhoeas, occur. It seems to be more frequent in the hot Aveather, when there
is a greater change between the day and night temperatures. It is probal>ly
amojbic in type, though it is likely that irritating sand particles and chill ]>lay a
more important part in its production than does the Amoeba coli.

Ankijloatoinia'iiv [Ankylo-'^toiiia). — Common amongst the Egyptian soldiers,
and often very severe. Does not seem to be indigenous in the Sudan.

Ascarifi himbricoides [Tahaan el buttu). — Common, especially amongst
Egyptian soldiers. These fellaheen seem to be very favourite hosts for parasites
of all kinds.

Tcenia [Douda icakeeda). — I have only seen T. .sayinata. Multiple infection

OCCUl'S.

Oxyuris cer/nicidaris ( Wooda Kliatya). — Very common. Its ova are very liable
to be confounded with those of the Ankvlostomum. I have found the difference
in the shape (the ova of Oxyuris being more curved on one side than the other)
to be the best guide.

Trichocephalus dispar has not been met with.

Schistosomum hcematobium. — Ova with laterally ^slticed spines are conmion in
the fasces of Egyptian soldiers.

Chronic Diarrhoea. — Xo opinion can be given.

Sprue. — Apparently imknoAvn.

III. — Diseases Appearing from an Examination of the Urine

Hcentoglobinuric Fever (Huiiunet el mayiah el isvid ). — I have only seen one
case, and that Avas in a Greek at Gondokoro, in Uganda; but at Kejaf (Lado
Enclave) I met a yotmg Scotchman who had just recovered from a second attack.
Although not charted in Scheube's map, blackwater fever does occur in the Sudan.
Capt. Rivers, E.M.C., reports that no case has yet occurred north of 10° N. lat.
The disease seems confined to the White Nile regions south of Fashoda, and to the
Bahi--El-Ghazal province. British officers and Egyptians form the majority of the
victims, and since the reopening of the country these have been few in number. It
is, howe\'er, significant that the natives of the Golo tribe have a special remedy for
this disease.

Endemic Hcematuria (Bilharzia). — Of frequent occurrence amongst the
Egyptian soldiery. Was supposed not to exist in the Sudan, save such cases as
had acquired infection in Egypt or elsewhere. Recently the urines of three
Sudanese boys have been sent to the laboratories. All three showed blood, pus
and the characteristic ova. Two were brothers. Xone of the three had ever been
out of the Sudan. The chief point of significance lay in the fact that aU three
drank water from a school well in Khartoum. So far nothing suspicioits has been

iVl (iENKKAI. lidl'I'INK \V<i|;l<

ftiuiid ill lliis wiitci', tlmiigli some of it has Ik'cii ccutrifugt'd and exaiiiiiicd. 'I'lic^
iiiil\- (iiiicr wiitLT drank was that fruiii the Blue Nile, the general sdiirci' of supply
for KhurtuLun. The urines of all the boys (73 in number) attending the sclujol
have been examined and 17 per cent, have been found to suffer in like mannei'.
It is important to note that most of these boys were in the habit of bathing in
the Blue Xile.

Captain Ensor reports cases from the Kassala district in Arabs \\\\u had j)ri'-
sumably not been in Eg}'pt. They may have visited Abyssinia.

Calculus (N(i(/(/a misana) is common. Soft uratic stones are the rule ; but
phosphatic and uric acid calculi occur. Much of the underlying strata in the
Sudan consists of limestone, and the well waters are hard. Blue Nile Avater issues
from amongst the granitic rocks of Abyssinia.

Pyelitis. — A form of pyelitis, due apparently to the irritation pi-oduccd l)y
concentrated urine, occurs. Captain Ensor teUs me it is of common occurrence, and
to be attriljuted to the above cause. The symptoms are slight fe\'er, a general
feeling of malaise, sharp pricking at the point of the penis, Avith some spasm towards
the end of micturition, and a dull boring pain in the region of the affected kidney.
Rest in bed, a milk diet, free flushing, and dry cupping in the lumbar region soon
cause relief and cure.

IV. —Diseases Appearing from an Examination of the Sputum

Pulinoitary Phthisis [Sil rheowe, durran)? — Very common amongst the native
Sudanese. No doubt due to the fact that they live in ill-ventilated mud dAvellings,
the main object of Avhich is to exclude the powerful rays of the sun. !Most frecpient
amongst Avomen and children, as might be exjjected.

Asthma. — Bronchial asthma seems to be unknown in the Northern Sudan
Avhere the dry climate is good for catarrhal asthmatics. I have knu\\'n two
instances of British officials, previously martyrs to the disease, avIio have not
had an attack since coming to the country, in Avhich they have noAv been
resident for a consideral)le time. In the damp regions to the south the disease
is sometimes encountered.

Gangrene of Lun<i. — 1\\\^ mQm.^ rather common, as is cancrum oris. In one
instance the puhnonary gangrene occurred in a case of mycetoma.

V. — Diseases Aiteaking fko.m an Examination of the Skin

Lcproiy (Goya in). — i'robably occurs all over the Sudan. There are a
good many lepers in Omdurman and Kassala. The tuberculous variety seems to
be the more common form to judge Ijy the leper photographs sent me by
Dr. Christopherson. Fish is largely eaten by dwellers on the Niles, and I under-
stand that the natives are none too particular about its condition. There is said
to be leprosy in Avaterless Kordofan. In this connection one may mention

' Whore tberc is both au Egyptian and Sudanese name, the latter is i^ut second

GENERAL ROUTINE WORK 53

the siluroid fish, which appear there in the rain pools. At other times they he
perdu in the sun-baked mud. I do not know if they serve as food. Scai'ification
is practised as a remedy. Very few attempts at segregation have been made, but
lepers labour under certain restrictions.

Yaws. — Captain Ensor, who has had considerable experience of this disease
in West Africa, tells me that he has seen one undoubted and one doubtful case at
Kassala. In both instances children were affected. He suggests that the
introduction of the disease into this part of the Sudan is due to the Hausa
pilgrims on their way to Mecca.

Dhobie Itch ( Harrara). — Quite common, especially in the Southern Sudan,
Chrysarobin is found the most effective remedy.

Keloids. — Huge keloids occur as the result of syphilitic and other vdcerations.
The Sudanese seem specially liable to such disfiguring overgrowths.

K or do fan Sores ( Kurrha). — These are stated to be of the nature of veldt
sores, and occur chiefly on the hands. It will be interesting, in view of Wright's
discoveries in connection with Dellii boils, to see if Leishmania Donovani exists in
the basis of these sores.

Myiasis. — The larva? of flies are sometimes found subcutaneously in the
Bahr-El-Ghazal. No specimens have been sent me. Myiasis is common in the
domestic animals, especially the camel, mule and horse.

Leucoderma. — Seems to be rather frequent. May in some cases be the result
of syphilitic infection.

VI. — Diseases Detected by a General Examination of the Body

Beri-Beri. — Occm's. I saw a case in Omdurman which I suggested might be
beri-beri. Dr. Christopherson was inclined to regard it as a neuritis dependent on
diet. Captain Ensor tells me that he has seen two typical cases in the Sudan.

In Kordofan there is a peculiar disease, evidently a nem'itis, known by the
Arabic name for a haltered camel. Is this beri-beri, lathyrism, or the akatama
described by Welknan' amongst the Bantus?

Sleejnng Sickness. — So far unrecorded. As stated, Glossina palpalis has not
yet been found in the Sudan.

Low Fever. — Occurs. A kind of simple continued fever which is not enteric.
May be due to the B. coli communis. During the hot weather there is a so-called
Khai-toum fever, which is fairly sharp, but only lasts a week or ten days. It is
not malarial, but it is amenable to quinine. Possibly exposure to the sun and
fatigue are the predisposing, if not the exciting, causes.

Malta Fever. — Has been described, but is certainly very rare, at least in
its typical form.

Heat Stroke ( Darbit Jiarrarar). — Not very common, but may be fatal, as
in the case of a British soldier last summer. Red or rather orange covering

^ Journal of Tropical Medicine, September 1st, 1903

54 GENERAL ROUTINE WORK

for the head and spinal regions is effective. The small tight skull cap affected
by the Arabs is said to be an excellent preventive when worn under the helmet.

Poisoning. — Infrequent. The blacks employ senna as a purge, followed by a
large dose of a native salt called " gardugga." I have analysed this, and found it
to consist of the carbonate, cliloride, and sulphate of sodium. It caused the
death of a Greek, a weakly man, to whom it had been given. The ^jo.s< nwrtevi
appearances were like those met Avith in poisoning from a corrosive alkali. I
believe the large dose of sodium carbonate was what killed him. It is said that
datura is fi-equcntly employed as a poison. I have not seen a single case of death
resulting from this drug.

Alcoholic Poisoning from the drinking of excessive quantities of merissa, a
beverage made from dura (Sorghum vulgar e), now and again occurs.

VII. — Local Affections

Liver Abscess (Khorag Kabid). — Not uncommon. Apparently imassociated
with dysentery. I have found the Amoeba coli in the pus in one case — a
European. Is it possible that liver abscess may be the forerunner and not
the sequel of an acute dysentery\ Two out of four cases seen were multiple.
In one a superficial abscess was successfully opened nud drained, but the
patient died from a deeply-seated abscess, which had apparently formed
subsequent to operation, and was not detected during life.

Ainhum. — Is said to exist amongst the natives in the south. I have seen
one case under the care of Dr. Christopherson.

Goitre (Gioatre). — Occurs. I have a photograph of one case (from
Dr. Christopherson), associated Avith exophthalmos, in which the huge goitre has
ulcerated and looks as though it were undergoing malignant changes. The
patient was an Egyptian woman resident in the Sudan. (As regards water
conditions, see under Calculus.)

Hypertrophied Mammce in Males. — This curious condition exists,' but I am
told is not so common as in Central Africa. The possessor of tliese abnor-
malities has been known to excise them, being angered at the chaffing to
which he had been subjected.

Guinea Worm (Erk Medain, Farranteet). — Fairly common, and not confined
to natives. There are certain pools in both Niles (charted by Major Bray) wlience
infection may be obtained. It is most common in the foot, but I have seen a
Sudanese with multiple infection in the arm.

Cancrum Oris. — Already mentioned. The disease occurred in a chimpanzee,
Anthropopithecus troglodytes (Schweinfurth), confined in the Zoological Gardens
in Khartoum.

Mycetoma ( Napt Hindi Nahit). — Exceedingly common for such a rare
disease. The form due to the black variety, of Streptothrix is most frequently

■ Jyancet, November 21s(, '03

GENERAL ROUTINE WORK 55

encountered, but the yellow or white fungus is also to be seen. The pink variety-
has not come under my notice. The foot is the j^art principally affected, but
the inguinal glands are often involved, pointing to a spread by the lymphatics.
They may break down in the centre, and become what is practically a cyst with
pigmented walls. The ankle- and knee-joints may become involved and disin-
tegrated. The Laboratories' Museum possesses a fine specimen of mycetoma of
the hand — a case of twenty years' duration in a Nile boatman, aged 65. The
soui'ce of infection of the disease is unknown. It is worth noting that the
Northern Sudan is largely a country of thorn bush.

Jigger. — I have no information as to this pest.

Insect Bites. — Those of sand-flies and owl-midges are often more severe
and irritating than those of mosquitoes. Colonel Talbot has recently sent a
new and very vicious species of Siinulium from Abu-Hamed.

Tick Fever probably exists in the Bahr-El-Gliazal. It is not seen in
Khartoum or Omdurman, nor are ticks a nuisance in these places save to
cattle and sheep.

Snake Bites. — Rare, considering the large number of poisonous snakes in
the country. On the Sobat there is a viperine snake which protects itself by
spitting in one's eyes. The venom is very acid, and dries up into small white
crusts when ejected on a glass surface.

Leeches ( Alak). — Common in the SAvamps of the Southern Sudan. I have
found them clinging in dozens to the under surface of a crocodile, and they
have been discovered within the beak of a whale-headed stork ( Balinceceps
rex). Those on the crocodile, when dislodged, fastened at once on the feet of
the Egyptian who was skinning the reptile.

Eye Troubles. — I cannot say much about these. Cataract and corneal
ulcer both occur. I have a specimen of Staphyloma sent by Dr. Christopherson.
The Sudanese, as mahugerers, sometimes put the milky juice obtained from the
" Ushar " plant, Calotropis procera., into their eyes, in order to produce
iufianunation. I have seen women collecting this juice ; but whether they
employ it to destroy female infants, a use to which it is said to be put in
India, I cannot tell. There is much blindness — the result of small-pox.

A PPENDIX

(\) Epide7nics

Small-pox (Gidri). — Is said to be endemic, and occui's in epidemics.
May cause many deaths if unchecked. There was a small epidemic in
Omdurman last year. A good many of the cases were confluent and severe.
The natives recognise and appreciate the benefits conferred by vaccination.

Cholera (Shota). — Has reached Wady Haifa. Will probably visit the Sudan
fi'om Egypt. The completion of the Berber-Suakin Railway may be of grave
significance as regards both cholera and plague.

Enteric Fever. — Natives apparently unaffected. The disease is I'are.

56. GENERAL ROUTINE WORK

Chickenpox (Gidri Kasib. Borgool). — Is occasionally seen.

Dem/ue (Abul Ruknb). — Not recorded, with the exception of one epidemic at
Wady Haifa. Culex fatigans, said by Dr. Graham' to be the intermediate host of
the protozoon, is common.

Plague (Tahun). — No record of this disease.

Cerebrospinal Fever. — Occui's sporadically and in epidemics. Some forty
deaths in the last outbreak at Omdurman in 1899. I have seen one typical case
along with Captain Ensor in a Sudanese. We isolated a small diplococcus from the
cerebro-spinal fluid obtained by lumbar puncture during life. It was secured in
pui'e culture, but efforts to inoculate rabbits and a monkey, ind their nasal cavities,
proved ineffectual. A rabbit received 1 cc. of a broth culture subcutaneously.
Beyond slight fever no illness resulted. The cultural and staining characteristics,
such as they ai"e, were positive, and we have little doubt the organism was the
Diplococcus intracellularis meningitidis of Weichselbaum. The disease did not
spread, every precaution being taken.

Typhus [Humma Typhusick). — Was once supposed to be common. It is
said the Mahdi died of it. His fatal disease was, however, probably cerebro-
spinal fever, and typhus is only doubtfully present, if at all.

(2) Other Diseases common to all climates which are frequent in the Siidan

Tabercidosis (tsil, daran) and syphilis (zhurri, halug ) are common. Their
ravages are terrible, especially on the integumentary and loco-motory systems of
those affected. The reason for the tubercle bacillus system finding suitable
pabulum has been mentioned, but it must not be supposed that the climate of the
Sudan favours its existence. The reverse is true, at least during the winter months
(November to March) when the air is very dry and pure, and the \\ariations in tempera-
ture are not starthng or excessive, although the nights are always cool. Occasional
high winds and blowing sand form the only drawbacks.

Syphilis in the Sudan is a loathsome scourge. In the time of the Der\dshes it
was considered rather an honour to have acquired infection. A lad was not a man
till he had developed a chancre. The results of this ignorant and pernicious regime
are deplorable. Patients do not visit the hospitals tiU they are masses of ulceration
and necrosis. True, they make use of tureba, a native preparation of mercui-y
found locally, and they even fashion cones for fumigation with it, but their
ti'eatment is not conducted on sound principles and is probably more hannful
than beneficial. Education, combined with proper sanitary measures, is the only
remedy. The Sudanese are fond of their children, and if they could be made to
underetand how fi-equently they are themselves to blanie for the pitiable condition
of their offspring, be taught the dangers and crippling effects of the unchecked
disease, and be instructed how to avoid acquiring it and how much can be done by

' Journal of Tropical Medicine, July Ist, 1903

GENERAL ROUTINE WORK 57

proper treatment when it is acquired, a great step would have been taken
to amehorate their sad condition. Such methods of instruction are now being
put in force, and I beUeve their value vnH ere long be apparent.

Gonorrhoea is common, and is called Salan in Egypt and Bagal in the Sudan.'

(3) Surgical Affections

Concerning these I do not feel qualified to speak. All that one would say is
that sarcoma and carcinoma both occur, and there have been some cases tending to
prove that the native who has never lived in contact ■with the white man is
not immune.

One may also note the frequency of both inguinal and umbilical hernife.

" Veterinary Diseases "

As regards veterinary diseases, parasitic worms are very prevalent in
horses, and I have httle doubt, account for a good deal of the mortality amongst
these animals. The armed strongyles which produce thrombosis, aneurism, and
death occur as does Spiroptera microstoma which causes curious cystic tumoui's
in the walls of the stomach and occasionally peritonitis, the result of suppuration
and ruptui'e. The bot of the warble fly Gastrophilus equi is met with and so is
a trematode, which I think is identical with Gastrodiscus Sonsinoi. There seems to
be an idea prevalent that the so-called " star sickness " of horses, so named in
reference to the astronomical conditions obtaining at the time of year it occurs,
is dependent on parasitic infection. Lieut.-Colonel Griffith, however, assures
me that it is the same as the South Aii'ican fonn of horse sickness known as
" big head," and he has sent the museum a typical specimen of a stomach from
such a case. Texas fever probably occurs in a latent form amongst Sudanese
cattle.

^ For information regarding the drugs employed by the natives, see a paper on the subject in the
Journal of Tropical Medicine, April 15th, 1904

58

EOSINOPHILIA IN BiLHARZIA DiSEASE AND DrACONTIASIS'

Previous
observations

Methods of
staining,
counting, and
classification

In the Lancet of October 10th, 19(»8, p. 1009, there is an article by Captain S. R.
Douglas, I.M.S., and Major F. W. Hardy, R.A.M.C, on 50 cases of Billiarzia Disease,
in which they gave an account of the results obtained by them in the differential
leucocyte counts. Their very complete and interesting investigation was apparently
instigated by Coles's observations ^ on one case of billiarzia disease, in which he found
an increase of coarse-grained eosiuophile leucocytes. His case was that of a young
Englishman in whose blood he discovered 20 per cent, of these cells instead of the
normal 2 to 4 per cent. Hayem puts the normal at 7 per cent. With a view to
confirming Coles's solitary observation I proceeded in my spare time to examine the
blood of the few bilharzia cases I could obtain in Khartttum and Omdurman.
Billiarzia disease, so far as is known, is not common in the Egyptian Sudan, save
amongst those who have acquired the infection iu Egypt or elsewhere, and
owing to this and other reasons I was only able to examine three cases.
At the same time I thought it weU to investigate the blood condition in
dracontiasis. At the time I began to do so I believe no work had been accomplished
on this sul)ject, but while I was thus employed a paper ^ appeared by Dudgeon and
Child recording their results in one case of guinea-^vorm disease in an Englislunan
infected in India and resident in London. They found from 13"0 to 18'4 per cent,
of coai'se-grained eosinophiles present, and suggest that in this respect di'acontiasis
may occupy a position midway between trichiniasis and infections Avith other internal
parasites. I have notes on six cases of guinea-worm disease, and had intended
collecting further statistics before publishing an account of them, but as I find my
results confinn theirs in large measure I think it well to place them on record,
especially as some time must needs elapse before I can add materially to my number
of cases.

Method. — In each instance I counted 500 leucocytes, and in nearly every case
made a double examination, one film being stained by Jenner's method and the other
liy the Leishman-Romanowsky. The counts were found to approximate very closely,
and that obtained in the better-stained fihn was taken as correct. In several
instances also other confirmatory counts were made. In difierentiating large
mononuclears from lymphocytes I followed the plan adopted by Captain Leonard
Rogers and classed every single unlobed nucleated corpuscle as large as, or larger
than, a jjolymorphonuclear as a large mononuclear. Like Captain Delany, I
preferred to place transitional forms imder the heading polymorphonuclears, Init
I see that Dudgeon and Child counted them as lymphocytes.

' This paper originally appeared in the Lancet, 12/12/03. I .-im indebted to the Editor for kind permission

- to re-publish it here
- Diseases of the Blood, Coles.
• Eosinophilia associated with Dracontiasis. — Journal of Tropical Medicine. 15/8/03

EOSINOPHILIA IN BILHARZIA DISEASE AND DRACONTIASIS

59

Table of Re.^ults. — For convenience of reference I place the accepted normal
percentages in the table (Table I.)

1

Table I. — Cases of Bilharzia Disease.

No.

Cases

Remarks

Percentage of various Leucocytes

Eosino-
philes

Poly-
morpho- ,

nuclears ^

Lympho-

Normal . . . . . . 2 to 4

Egyptian soldier, Omdurman 18'0

70-75
49-0

15-25
12-6

Large
mono-
nuclears

6-8
20-4

Egyptian soldier, Omdui-man
Egyptian soldier, Omdui-man

Baso-
philes

0-5

14-0 28-6 46-4 11-0 0-6

18-4 35-8 33-6 12-2 0-2

Bilharzia of
the rectum

2 BiUiarzia of
the rectum

3 Bilharzia of

the bladder
It win be seen that there was a very decided increase of coarse-gi'ained
eosinophiles, and though the number of cases is very small, too small to furnish any
definite conclusions, it is interesting to observe that the average percentage works
out at 16-8, while in Captain Douglas's and Major Hardy's 50 cases it was 16-486.
As is mentioned by them there is also a proportional diminution in the percentage
of the polymorphonuclears, and cui'iously enough in the one case (No. 1) in which
there is a marked increase of the large mononuclears there is a diminution of the
lymphocytes, a point to which they also draw attention. In the remaining two cases
there is an increase in the lymphocytes.

Bilharzia cases

No.

Oases

1 Greek, Om-

durman
la Same man,
Khartoum

2 Egyptian

soldier, Om-
durman

3 Sudanese,

Khartoum

4 Sudanese,

Khartoum

Table II. — Guinea-worm Cases.

Remarks Percentage of yarious Leucocytes

Eosino-
philes

In foot, much induration . .

Worm had been Avholly re-
moved two weeks before
this examination

Worm had been wholly re-
moved two days before
examination. Indm'ation
was stiU present in the foot

In foot ; malaria, but no
rise of temperature

In foot ; malaria, but no
rise of temperature

Poly-

Lympho-

Large

13-4 52-8 24-4

34-4 36-0

36-6 31-2

13-0
16-4

Baso-

morpho- •'j.^gg' mono- . ^^^
nuclears •' nuclears ^

16-0 51-0 22-0 11-0 —

15-2 42-0 27-8 15-0 —

9-4 —

16-6 —
15-4 0-6

Guinea-worm

eases

60

BOanOFHlUA IK Bn.HAKTTA DISEASE AXD DBAC05TL&SIS

liMUM-jteB

TbeUooa

:-'lfii IIULICIP of

6-4

LrmpJw-
cTtes

28-8

IjBge

noekars

26-2

BteD-

10-8 27-8 39-6 218 06

5 Sudanese DooMe infectkn in the arm.

soldier, One w^csm tdicAy re-

Khaztoam moved and a pordcm of

the oftfaer three weeks

b^CVe ffxauninarinn Pio-
faafahr n^laiia jH'esQit

6 Sudanese In foot. Worm siqipased to

soIdiQr, have been removed, bat

Khartoom ulcer and indnrati<Hi per-

'^sted. Probably malaria
Tliere being, so far as I am aware, no other statistics with which to compare
these resoltc it is hardlj worth while, with so few cases, to express the average
percentage ot eosinofMes or to discxiss the rdative numbers of the other forms of
kooocyte. One point may. howev^-. be raised. It is often a diflBcult matter to say if
the whde of a guinea-worm has been extracted. 31ight the percentage of eodnophiles
be takai as a guide in snch cases ? I have not been able to follow out a case tkrough
all its stages, but the resuhs obtained seem rather suggestive, and if this be so
the differential leooocyte count would have a practical and useful bearing. It will be
seen that Case 3 and Case 4 gave a much higher percentage of ooarse-grained
eognofihifcy than did the case in IxHidon. Further observations are indicated to
dedde die usual amount of eoan<^diili^ which one mav expect to find in dracontiasis.
I am mneh inddited to Dr. J. B. Christopherson, Omdurman, and to Captain
Cunmiins and Sadek Efiendi, E.M.S.. for kiudlv placing suitable and unoomphcated
cases at mv disposal in the militarv bog^tals at Omdurman and Khartoum, and in
the PrisMi HospitaL Khartoum.

2. Chemicaju
Hatme No.

(a) Analysis ci akohc^c liquorg . . 6

(6) Toxicc4ogical ...... 3

(e) Medical Jurispnidaiee apart from (b)
(d) Plant analysis (Econcauic)
(«) Water analysis
(/) Milk analv^
(^) Soil analysis

As regards (a) it has been shown that substitution is practised, cheap made-up
s^nrite, 90-called braodieB and whiskies, being manufactured. The toxioological
caaes (b) were not at any special mterest, though in f>uc instance arsenic in the form
of the yeflow orpimoit mixed with sulphur, was detected. Ax the same time
these casee invt^ved a great deal of labour. Ihis will be apparent idien it is stated

EOSLN'UPHILIA IX BILHAKZIA DISEASE AND DR-VCuXTIASIS

61

that two of them Avere associated with native vendors of drags, and that tlie whole
stock-in-trade of these worthies, varying from Galena to santal oiL was sent to the
laboratories for analvsis along: Avith the organs of the deceased. Their dnicrs are, as
a rule, harmless, but it is gi-atifying to know that the new sanitai-v regulations avIU R^uiation of
deal with such gentiy and so prevent much unnecessary work in the laboratories. ^^
An opinion had to be given regarding blood stains (c) in a case of suspected murder,
while the plant analysis mentioned (</) was that of " Kusub," the product left after the
extraction of sim-sim (sesame) oil from the sesame oriental e. The result obtained
bore out ilr. Fitzojerald's ^ statement that it is an excellent food for working bullocks,
being employed largelv as such in India under the name of " gingelly-poonac."'
The sample was of the foUo's\'ing composition : —

Water . . . . 7-70

Value of
' Kusub"

Ash

Fat

Starch as sugar

Total starch (bv difference)

^Albuminoids

Crude Fibre

Less starch as sugai*

8-80
11-07
11-97
26-43
34-50
11-50

111-97
11-97

100-00

The soil analyses were in connection vdxh the disposal of sewage in Khartoum, soii anaijses
and interesting fi*om that standpoint. Thus \Trgin desert sand gave the foUoAving
results : —

Moisture -8 per cent.

Organic matter as Nitrogen . -0329 grams per cent.

Free Ammonia . . -00085

Fixed Ammonia . . '039

while soil fi-om a sewage trench in the desert which had not been employed as such
for a period of eight months, \-ielded these figures : —

Moistiu-e (air-dried sample)

Oro;anic matter as Xitrogen

Free Ammonia . .

Fixed Ammonia

,, .. iSand

Composition- ,^,
^ / L lav

1 -44 per cent

-1916 grjims

per

cent

-665

,.

,,

-232

..

..

91-15 per cent.

1-85 .. ..

' BepoTt on the ImproTement and Possible DcTelopment of the Cnlti-saUle Products of the Sudan. — W. W. A.

Fitzgerald, 1902

(i2

/ The Mosquitoes of Egypt, The Sudan and Abyssinia

BY
FkED. \'. TUEOBAI.D. M.A..

Vice Principal of the S.E. Agricultural College ; Foreign Member of the Association

of Economic Entomologists, Washington, D.C., U.S.A. ; President of the

Association of Economic Biologists of Britain, etc.

The folloAnug paper is mainly based on the material collected by Dr. Andrew
Balfoiu-, Dii'eetor of the WeUcome Jiesearch Laboratories, Khartoimi. aud to some extent
by Captain Lyle Cummins, R.A.M.C, Dr. Keatinge. !Major Ronald Ross, C.B., late
I.M.S., and othei"s. Many of the notes are those sent me by Dr. Andrew Balfoui'.

The specimens collected by the Du'ector were mostly taken during a
trip up the Blue Xile to Roseires. up the White Xile to Regaf in the
Lado Encla\'e and up the Sobat and its two bi'anches the Baro aud the Pibor
in Abyssinian temtorv.

As one might expect the regions travei-sed by the Nile and its tributaries
are veiy prohtic in regards to this group of Diptera. Tliis is especially
noticeable along the coiu"se of the Blue and White Xiles, where in many parts
the number of these pests is enomious. Xot many species are yet knoAvn
from this region, but it is almost certain that very many more exist.

The chief pests seem to be in the genera Culex and Mansonia, and amongst
the Anophelina we find abvmdance of a CeUia, C. pharoensis, Tlieobald, and a
Mvzom>na, M. funesta, Giles. A neAv Anopheles (A. iceUcoinei) closely related
to Aiuiphelea 'jiffa-"^ Giles, fi'om India is described and a new Myzomyia also
some other Anophehnes of considerable interest. The collection made by Dr.
Balfom- also contained a new Uranotaenia ( U. balfouri) and at least one new genus
( Etorleptiomyia ). Two strange males occuiTed in the collection, one undoubtedly
the male of my genus Mimomna. Tlie other I c-annot place in spite of its
marked palpal character. I have merely described it A\-itliout referring it to any
definite jX)sition, as it was in too damaged a condition to show scale sti*ucttii"e.
The great number of Man-sonia unifonnis, Theobald, was the most noticeable
feature during Dr. Balfoui*'s tiip. For other locaUties vide Dr. Balfour's list,
which I have checked.

Many of the specimens showed the presence of a i)arasitic tick attached to
them. When aUve the parasite resembles a tiny presened clieny, says Dr.
Balfour. As a rule this parasite is attached to the under surface of the thorax
and abdomen, but it was once found on the wing of an Anopheles. Tlie coloiu-
varies in intensitv.

PLATE I.

Fig. 1. Myzom>"ia funesta, Gile-

Fig. 2. Mj-zomj-ia funesta, Giles

iFiG. 3. Myzomj-ia nili. n. sp.

Fig. 5. Anopheles wellcomei, n. sp.

Fig. 4. Myzom\Ta nili. n. sp.

Fig. 6. Anopheles wellcomei, n. sp.

Fig. 7. Mimomyia uniiormis, n. sp. x

Fic. S. Miniom>-ia uniformis, n. sp. j^

Fig. 9. Eiorleptiom>-ia mediolineata, n. sp. Fig. 10. Mimom>Ta uniformis. n. sp. J

WINGS OF SUDANESE CULICID^

64 riii'; MostiirroKs ok koyit, puk sidan and abyssinia

Genus Anopheles, Moiijen
Syst. Bc'schr. 1, lU (181S), Mi'i^a-ii ; Mono. Culicid. 1., p. 11') (lOnl), Theobald,
and Ili., p. 17 (1903).

Anopheka irdlcoinei, n. sp.
(Plates I., Figs. 5 & 6 ; III., Fig. 4, & V., Fig. r>)

Head bliu'k with dense ■white, yellow and brown upright forked scales, the wliite
ones in front and two long hair-like projecting white tufts ; palpi yellow, black at
the base Avith two white ])ands on the yellow area. Thorax ashy, chestnut-ljrown
at the sides and Avitli hair-like golden scales ; abdomen broAvii, unhanded with
brownish-golden hairs. Wings mostly yellow scaled, costa jet black with two yellow
spots and three or four black spots on the wing field.

Female. Head l:)lack densely clothed -ndth large upright forked scales giving it
a ragged appearance, white in front, yellow in the middle, lilack behind and at the
sides; projecting foi'wards are two j)rominent tufts of long white haii'-like scales ;
antenna; brown Avith pale hairs and the basal six or seven joints Avith many white
scales, basal segment bright reddish-broAvn ; proboscis with basal half lilack, apical
half ochreous; palpi not quite as long as the proboscis, basal third lilack scak'd,
apical tAvo-thirds bright ochreous with an almost white apical band and a jnn-e
white band aliout one-fourth the Avay down.

Thorax ashy-grey with a broad dark median stripe and chestnut-brown laterally,
two more or less yellowish lines on the grey median area seen only in certain lights
and under |rd power, scales haii'-like and pallid golden, except in front over the head,
where there are grey and long narrow-curved scales ; the hair-like scales form a
prominent double row on each yellow line ; scutellum and mctanotum ]iale brf)Avn ;
pleura^ pale ochreous brown.

Abdomen brown, ochreous yentrally, with pale In-own hairs, most dense on the
venter.

Wings (Plate I., Figs. 5 ct 6) with the costa jet black, with two prominent,
rich yellow sjjots on the apical half ; apex of -wing yellmv ; first long vein yellow
with a black spot near the apex under a small apical black costal spot, traces of
two smaller ones nearer the base; subcostal black; second long vein yt'llow with
a black spot on both branches of the fork-cell just imder the black spot on the
fii*st long vein ; third long vein all yellow, with a minute apical black spot and
another tninute one at its ])ase just past the cross-veins ; fourth long vein yellow
with t\vo duskv spots on the upper and one on the lower branches of the
fork-cell, and a few on one side of its stem; fifth long vein yellow, a few l)]ack
scales at the base of the upper branch, and a trace of an apical spot; sixth
vellow Avith a black median spot; fi-inge ])lack Avith yelloAV spots at the
junction of all the veins, Avith tlie border and the givater part of the fringe
from the sixth A'cin to the ])ase yelloAV ; first sul)niarginal cell longer and
narroAver tlian the second posterior cell, its l)ase nearer the base of the Aving,
its stem slijrhth^ more than half tlie len<rtli of flu- cell; stem of the second

PLATE II.

Fig. 1. Mucidus africanus, ? (Theo.

Fig. 2, Etorleptiomyia mediolineata, ? n. sp.

Ftg. 3. Mansonia uniformis, ? Theo.

Fig. 4. Culex dentatus, ? n. sp.

WINGS OF SUDANESE CULICID^

66 THE MOSQUITOES OF EGYPT, THE SUDAN AND ABYSSINIA

posterior celt iicnrlv as long as the eell ; supernumerary and mid cross-veins in
one line, posterior cross-vein about its OAvn length distant behind the mid.
Ilalteres with pale sti'in and fuscous knob.

Legs lirown with very narrow apical yellow bauds.

LeiKjth. 4.5 to .5 mm.

Habitat. Baro and Pibor.

Observations. Described from several females, but all have been slightly
damaged, the wings are very characteristic and a])})roach nearest to Giles's Anopheles
(/ii/as from In<lia. Dr. Ralfonr states that "it boarded the steamer in the evening
at Baro and Int freely.

There is variation in the wing marking especial!}' in the size of the black
spots on the wing field. It is abundant on the Baro.

Genus Myzomyia, Blanchard. {Grassia, Theobald.)

Comp. Rend Hel). Soc. Biolog. No. 23, p. 795, Blanchard [Myzoiinjia) 1902;
.lourn. Trop. :\[i.d. \ ., p. 181, Theobald {Grassia), \m2 ; Mono. Culicid. III.,
p. 24, Theobald, 1903; Mem. X, Liverpool School Trop. Med. App. p. 4, (Varieties
iniibrosa and ■■oibiniib/'osa). Theobald (1903).

Myzomyia nili, n. sp.
(Plates I., Figs. 3 & 4 ; III., Fig. 2 ; V., Fig. 3)

Related to Myzomyia funesta, (Giles) liTit easily told by its much darker
hue than in the dark varieties of funesta, by the palpi having one small apical
pale band only and b}' the palpi and the proboscis being much shorter than the
body.

Female. Head deep brown with grey upright forked-scales in the middle with
a slight creamy hue, dusky ones at the sides, a creamy white tuft of hair and
scales projecting fonvards between the eyes ; antenna? deep brown -with brown
hairs ; palpi thin, as long as the proboscis covered with lalack scales, the aj^ex
only pale; clyjieus black with a sulcus across the middle; proboscis thin and
black, apex acuminate and testaceous with a few black hairs; proboscis and jialpi
not nearly as long as the l)ody.

Thorax dull, pale fawm colour in the middle, dark lirown at the sitles,
covei'ed with scattered pale golden cur\ed hair-like scales, a tuft of pale creamy
naiTow-ciirved ones in front projecting over tlie head ; scutellum pale l)rowii with
manv brown border-bristles; metanotum bi'owii : pleiuu^ pale broAvn with a
greenish tinge. Abdomen black with rich brown hairs.

Legs bro^vn, unhanded, Avith small simple, equal ungues.

Wings (Plate I., Figs. 3 & 4) mainly black scaled, with three yellow costal
spots spreading evenly on to the first long vein, all the veins dark scaled,
except for a small yellow spot at the base of each of the two fork-cells, and
at the cross-veins and another at the lower branch of the second fork-cell
where it joins the costa and one on the costa where tlu' low^'r branch of the

p

PLATE III.

Fig. 1. Myzomyia funej>ta, Giles

Fig. 2. Myzomyia nili, n. sp.

Fig. 3. Mimomyia uniformis, n. sp. 9

Fig. 4. Anopheles wellcomei, n. >p.

WING SCALES OF CULICID^

(58 TIIK MOSQUITOES Ol-" EGYl'T. I'lIK SIDAX AM) AKVSSIMA

fifth ji)ins it: friuyx' dark cxeept wIrtc the ItAver branch of the foui-th and
fifth veins join the border where ci'eainy i)at*-lu's (icciir: lurk-ccUs Ixjtli sli<irt,
the base of the second posterior the nearer the base nf the w'nv^. bdtli nearly
equal in length, the first submarginal narrowi'i- tlian the second posterior,
its stem as long as the cell, stem of the second posterior as long as the cell ;
supernunierarv cross-vein slightly in front of the mid, the posterior nearly twice
its own length distant from the mid. Halteres })ale -with fuscous kuub.

Lem/t/i. '.\ mm.

Hiihitat. delx'l Akmet-Aga on the White Nile, also on the Middle Sobat.

Obscrratioiis, — Described from two perfect females taken by Dr. Balfour.
They bear a \'ery strong resemblance to Mi/:oiiii/ia fuiiesta, Giles, variety umOro.sa.
Theobald (\-ide Kept. Malaria Exp. to Gambia, Mem. X, Liv. School Trop. Med.
App. p. 4, 19U3). The main differences are as foUoAVs : the palpi and the proboscis
are relatively nt)t so long as in J/, funesta, and they are all black save for a
minute pale apical baud, whilst in funesta there are three pale bands ; the wings
are much more densely scaled than in funesta and the fork-cells shorter and "with
much longer stems than in funesta. I thus think it must be treated as a distinct
spacies owing to the shorter palpi and not as a melanic \-ariety.

3fi/Z(iinyia funesta, Giles
(Plates I., Figs. 1 & 2 ; III., Fig. 1, & V., Fig 2)

(Hand. Bk. :\Ios(i., p. 162 (1902), Giles; Mono. Culicid. I., p. 178(l!»Ul);
III. p. 34 (190,3).

This species has been sent bv Dr. Balfour from the Sudan, and he states it is
common on the Sobat, where he found it in numbL?rs, The specimens sent Avere
quite typical. I believe it occurs all over Central Africa down to Fashoda. The
wing is figured on J^late I., Figs. 1 and 2.

Mjiztniniin n. s]).

A single much damaged Myzomyia was taken at Bor ])\ \)v. Balf(jur, but it is
too imperfect to describe, I am sure it is a new species lun\'e\er. Its marked feature
is the pale grey ventral surface; the Avings haAe only two yelktAv costal spots and a
yelloAv apical spot Avhich extends on to the first long vein, another pale spot toAvards
the base of the first long vem, not reaching the costa and the base of the vein
yelloAvish ; a pale spot at the base of each fork-cell, another at the cross-A'eius and
another at the marginal cross-\-ein ; on the loAver bram-li of the fifth a long yelloAv
area and another faint one on the stem : fringe unspotted.

Lenyth. 3 mm.

Anopheles ( Myzomyia? ) iiu/'nncfiis, Donitz

(Beit. II., Kennt. d. Anop. (19U2), p. 67; Mono. Culicid. III., p. .')4 (1!)(>3).
This s])ecies is described by Donitz from Tit)Aver Egvj)t (Wadi Xatrun). 1 have
not seen any species Avhich ausAvers to the figure of the Avmg Avhich he gi\es.

PLATE rV.

Fig. 1. Mansonia uniformis, Theo.

Fig. 2. Mucidus africanus, Theo.

Fig. 3. Culex dentatus, n. sp.

Fig. 4. Txniorhynchus tenax, Theo.. var inaculipes, n.v.

WING SCALES OF CULICID.E

70 THE MOSQUITOES OF EGYPT, THE SUDAN AND ABYSSINIA

Genus Pyuetophorus, Blancliard [liowardia, Theobald)

Compt. Reiul. llcl)(lnin. Soc. d. Biol. No. 2?,, p. 795, Blanchard ; Joura.
Trop. Med. W, p. ISl (1902) Theobald ; Mono. Culicid. III., p. 66, Theoliald (1903).

Pyretophorus cos talis, Loew.

i Anopheles costalis, T.oew.
Anopheles ganibico, Giles.
Anopheles (jracilis, Diiuitz. (?)
(Plate \., Fig. 4)
Ent. Zeit. BcrHn, p. 55 (1866), Loew; Handbook Gnats, 2nd Edition, p. 511,
Giles (1902) ; Mono. Culicid. I., p. 157 (1901) ; and TIL, p. 74, TIicoIkiI.I (19()3):
Beit. z. Kennt. d. Anoph., p. 76, Donitz (1902).

Found by Dr. Balfour at Senga and at Roseiros, on the Blue Nile. I ha\e not
seen any specimens myself from Egypt or the Sudan, but I ha\'e had si)ecimens
fi-om Uganda. It also occurs in Khartoum. Tliis is a malaria carrier.

Genus Myzorhvnchus, Blanchard. [Rossia, Theobald).

Comp. Rend. Hebd. Soc. d. Biol. No. 23, p. 795 (1902). Journ. Trop. Med.,
p. 181 (1902), Bossia; Mono. Culicid. III., p. 84 (1903).

Myzor]i]inchus paliidis, Theobald

Repts. ]\Ialarial. Comm. Royal Society England, p. 75 (1900); Mono. Culicid.
I., p. 128 (1901), and III., p. 86 (1903).

Dr. Balfour obtained many on the Pibor (Bor and South of Goz-abu-Gvuna,
White Nile) which showed no special peculiarities. He says they are very connnon
there, but not very vicious. This species is much subject to the parasitic tick,
often being covered with them. It is also probably a malaria bearer.

Previously, Captain Lylc Cummins obtained specimens from Bahr-El-Gliazal.

Genus Cellia, Theoliald
Mono. Culicid. III., p. 107 (1903)
Celt/ii ji/xiiwnsis, Theobald.
Anopheles pharcensis, Theobald.
(Plate v.. Fig. 1)

Mono. Culicid. Vol. L, p. 169, (1901). ct Vol. III., p. 109 (1903)

Found by Dr. Pialfovn- at Baro, also at Roseires on the Blue Nile
(W. L. S. Loat and Di'. Balfom-) ; Cairo (Keatinge) ; Ismailia (Ross).

This seems to be an abundant North and Central African species, and is
undoubtedly a malai'ia bearer. It also extends into Arabia, having recently been
sent me from the Aden hinterland, and it also occui-s in Palestine.

C. Batrd

2 8Cj.B:rr.7Ta *-trT«E:a^ G'.sa

S IC'MBifiaE x^m^traff^oit TTrAaoa^r:

THE MOSQUITOES OF EGYPT, THE SUDAN AND ABYSSINIA 7 1

Genus MuciDUS, Theobald.

Mono. Culicid. L, p. 268 (1901)

Mucidus africanus, Theobald.

Mono. CuUcid. I., p. 274, and III., p. i;3-l (1908).

(Plates IL, Fig. 1 ; IV., Fig. 2 ; V., Fig. 6)

A single female was sent by Colonel Stanton to Dr. Bulfuur, taken in

Khartoum. It is undoubtedly a variety of my M. africanus. Dr. Balfour

describes in his notes the ci'oss-veins as being like a Culex. I have mounted

the wings of the specimen he sent, and find them quite normal. I may here

point out a character I have missed in this genus, namely, that the third long

vein is very near the second {vide photo of wing, Plate IL, Fig. 1). It has

also occuiTcd in Uganda. (Wadelai, one female.)

Genus Stegomyia, Theobald
Mono. Culicid. I., p. 283 (1901)
Stegomyia fasciata, Fabricius.
(Plate VI., -Fig. 2)
Syst. Antl. oti, lo (1805) Fabr. ; Mono. Culicid. 1., p. 289 (1901) and
III., p. Ul (1903).

This yellow fever carrier has been taken at Ismailia and Port Said by
Major Ronald Ross, and it also occurs in Khartoum and on the river steamers.
Other localities Pibor, Cairo.

Genus Etoklei'tiomyia, nov. gen.

Head clothed with a mixture of narrow-ciu'ved scales, upright forked ones
and small loose flat scales all over : antenna? scaly on the basal joints. Thorax
with scales of mesonotum narrow and cui'ved, those of the scutellimi flat and
small. Abdomen clothed with flat scales. Wings with very marked heart-shaped
scales (Plate IL, Fig. 2), on the basal halves of the second, fom-th. fifth and
sixth veins ; on the first long vein, base of second and fourth also \\ith more
or less Mansonia-like scales and along costal border also, scales on the apical halves
uf the veins pedimculated, clavate, pedimcles very short ; costa spiny ; fork-cells
moderately long.

This forms a very distinct genus, easily told by the curious heart-shaped
scales on the wings. The proboscis seems very weak.

A single species only is so far known, wliicli Avas taken by Dr. Balfour.
"The Mansonia-hke scales are not exactly as in that genus, but approach them

very closely.

Etorleptiomyia mediolineata, n. sp.

Head yeUow with a black patch on each side; proboscis brown, unhanded.
Thorax black with narrow-cui'ved golden scales. Abdomen black with a median
line of yellow scales. Legs brown, femora yeUow beneath, tibia' mottled with
yellow, metatarsi and tarsi with yellow apical bands except the last. Wings -with
dark broAvn scales basaUy and along the costal area.

72

rilK MtiSc^riTdKS i)F K(iVlT, TllK SIDAN AM) AIIVSSINIA

'^^^m

F.G. 1

Cephalic and scutellar ornamentation of

Ktorteptiomyia nu\iii'lifit:<iia

Fiiiitde. lluiul bruwn, I'lothed with crcumy yuUuw st'ales in the iiiidilk! and
iiround the eyes, black at the sides, the scales behind and in tlie middle are narrow-
^ ciirNcd (jnes and they extend ihi'nuuli to tlie IVtmt, and

scattered between the loose flat paler yellow ones -which
form most of the median area ; fiat ])lack scales at tlie
sides, those rotiud the eyes pale yellow, fork-scales black
on the dark area, ochreous in the middle yell<iw area:
tlie A'cUow fork-scales have three terminal spines, the
black four or iive. Pali)i densely black scaled, short;
proboscis weak and tiiin, clothed with small black scales,
the yellowish ground color showing throtxgh ; antennic deep Ijrown, Ijasal joint
and next two following -with small flat creamy scales.

Tliorax black with narrow-curwd golden scales and a few bronzy ones
behind: scutelliim with small flat black scales, mid lobe with live posterior
border-bristles ; metanotinn deep broAvn with a median paler line ; pleura? ])ale
ochreous. Abdomen black with a median line of creamy yellow scales, rather
broadest at the base.

Legs ^\•itll yelloAv coxae, femora yelloAv with blackish scales abo\-e, and two
])ale spots, yellow below ; the fore femora appear much paler than the inid and
hind ; tibia; black with scattered yellow scales and small yellow apex ; metatarsi
yellow at the base, and apex, and Avith a more or less pronounced yeUoAV median
band ; flrst two tarsi on all the legs Avith an apical yelloAV liand. last tAvo all
bi'oAvn : ungues small, eipial and simi)le.

Wings (Plate I., Fig. I) and Plate II., Fig. 2), Avith dark scales basally

and some spread out toAvai'ds the apex along
the costal border and another slightly dark

area on the first fork-cell ; scales on the

first long vein, upper branch of first fork-cell,
and one side of the base of the fourth, of
Mansonia type ; the second, fourth, fifth and
sixth AA'ith characteristic single line of heart-
shaped scales on the majoi- ai-ea, on most of
the branches of the fourth and fifth are clavate
scales, Avith very short peduncles ; a fcAV heart-
shaped ones at the base of the cells ; costa
spiny ; first submarginal cell longer and slightly
narroAver than the second posterior cell, its
l)ase nearer the base of the Aving. its stem
short, about one-fifth the length oi the cell :
stem of the second posterior not quite lialf

the length of the cell ; j^osterior cross-vein about tAvice its own length distant

from the mid.

JM'Uiltli. ."> nnn.
Habitat. Pibor.

Fig. 2
Scale> of EtorUptiotnyia tucdioliiteata
a & h Upright forked scales
c Ile.art-shaped wini^ scale
d Mansonia scales of costal border
e Other wing scales

THE JIOSQUITOES OF EGYPT, THE SUDAN AND ABYSSINIA 78

Observation!^. Described from a single perfect female. Dr. Balfour sends the
following notes regarding it which show that differences of colour exist between
fresh and dried s^jecirnens : — " proboscis brownish yellow with a purple or black
band or tuft near the labell*. Thorax, ground colour purple. Abdomen purple
with median line of pale scales and two yellowish lateral patches on the last
segment." There may be a minute tooth on each fore unguis, but I do not
think so ; the mid and hind ai'e any^vay equal and simple. The differences in
color between the areas of the mng are very marked.

Genus Theobaldia, N^eveu-Lemaire
Compt. Rendus. d. Seas. d. la. Soc. d. Biol, 29 Nov. (19(»2). (Xeveu-
Lemaire) ; Mono. Culicid. III., p. 148. Theobald (1903).

Theobaldia spathipalpis, Rondani
Culex spatJiipalpis, Rondani
(Plate VL, Fig. 1)
Dipt. Ital. Prodro. I. (1886), Rondani; Mono. Culicid I., p. 339 (1901), and
III., p. 154 (1903), Theobald.

Adults, larvas and pupaj of this species, have been sent me by Dr. Balfour
from Khartoum North. Both male and female are somewhat pallid, but the
thoracic ornamentation is very marked, the Aving spots paler than in most
specimens, almost absent.

Genus Culex, Linnaeus

Linn. Syst. Nat. (173.5) ; Mono. Culicid. I., p. 320 (1901)

Culex viridis, Theobald

Mono. Culicid. III., p. 212 (1903)

This is apparently a widely distril^uted Afi'ican species, being especially

abundant in Central Afi'ica. I originally described it from Uganda specimens.

It varies much in size ; some sent by Dr. Balfour being 3.5 min. only, others

4.5 mm. Dr. Balfour collected it from the Sobat, Baro, Pibor, Lado.

The specimens show considerable variation in regards to the length of the
fork-cells, position of the cross-veins and size.

Dr. Balfour mentions in regard to one specimen that the " legs were rich
reddish-brown." They are dull bro-\vn in the dried specimens.

The lateral abdominal spots also vary, usually basal, but some are found
to be central and others apical, yet others where the spot spreads aU along
the side of the segment. It is the only species so far found in Central
and West Afi'ica with an unhanded abdomen, othermse it looks much like
C. fatigans. The Sudanese specimens do not show so clearly the gi-eenish
pleurae seen in Uganda specimens.

Cidex /xilh'diiffpJidla, n. sp.

Somewhat like C f align iis liut the lu'ad Avith i-ather dense, pale, narrow-curved
scales and numerous dark lir^wn to black upright-forked ones. Palpi and

74 TIIK MuStillTOKS OF KliYl'T, I'lIK SIDAN AND AliVSSlNlA

pn)lK)Sfis bliick. Tlionix diirk brown onitunL'Uti-'d \v\i\i Kimwh mid ^ii.ldcn hiuwii
iiarniw-curvrd sraks. the g'(,)l(l('ii brown fonniiii:' tiu'iv or k'ss distinct liucui'
ornaiiR'ntiitioii and a curwd line on I'acli side in li'ont of the wind's, which
surrounds a dark area in front of each wing. Abdomen blaclc with basal
creaniv l)an(ls. Legs brown unbarided.

Female. Head brown, clothed with rather dense pali' narrow-curved scales
whicli lie uniforndy pointing forwards, a few still [)aler \ery small Hat scales
laterally and long thin bifid upright forked-scales o\er the greater part, those
placed lateralK" jet blai-k, those in the median urea dark liro-\vm to \'ello'\\ash-
brown according to the niys of light ; palpi thick, thrc'e distinct small basal
segments dull testaceous, tlie fat apical segment as long as the three basal ones and
black scaled; there may be a minute nipple-like apical segment, but if so it is
hidden in scales; proboscis and clypeus deep brown.

Tiiorax dark brown, ornamented with dull golden and deep rich brown
uarrow-cm'\ed scales ; the dark scales form two prominent o\al areas, one in
front of the base oi each Aving, the dull golden scales bordering them : the
latter arc also more ov less placed in lines along the middle of the thorax and
othei-s at the sides abo\'e the pleune, others, almost creamy, in front of the
scutellum : scutellum paler brown than the mesonotum, with pale uarrow-cm'\-ed
scales and black border-bristles, se\"en to the mid lobe ; metauotum black :
pleurae black with three patches of Avhite scales.

Abdomen l)lack with black scales and creamy basal bands, the last two
spreading out laterall\-: \-enter all creamy yellow.

Legs deep brown, uubanded, traces of a i)ale knee spot and a civanu' apical
spot on the hind tibia?.

Wings witii typical brown Culex scales: the first sub-marginal cell
cousitlerably longer and slightly narro^ver than the second posterior cell, its
base much nearer the base of the wing than that of the latter, its stem short,
rather less than one-fourth the length of the cell : stem of the second posterior
about two-thir<ls the length of the cell: ju/sterior cross-vein rather more than
its own length distant behind the mid cross-vein : halteres with n-ddish-browu
stem, fuscous knob Avith a few grey scales.

Leruitli. -i.o mm.

Habitat. Senuar, Blue Xile.

Ob.servation.'i. — Described from a -ingle female. it resembles at lirst sight
C. fatiyans but the i)aler scaled head and the numerous long ui)right forked-
scales separate it. the thorax too is distinctly ornamented, the two dark ocellate
areas being most noticeable. The palpi may be fiAX'-jointed, but are heavily
scaled so that a small apical segment caimot be seen, the three small basal segments
are very distinct. Thi' last tarsals are gone so that the characters of the
uugues cannot Ije given.

\, /

X

Plate VI.

SUDANESE MOSQUITOES

1 Theobaldia spathipalpis. Rondani

3 Culex dentatus, n. sp.

5 Mansonia uniformis, Theobald

2 Stegomyia fasciata. Fabricius

4 T^niorhynchus tenax var. maculipes n. var.

6 Uranotsenia balfouri, n. sp.

TIIK MiiSyLTHiKS ni' EGYl'T, THE SUDAN AXD AUYSSIXIA 75

Culex cuiniuinsii^ Theobald
Mono. CuHcid. III., p. 2U, (1903)

Tills large inoscjuito ^vas taken first by C'apt. Cummins in the Balir-El-
Ghazal and sul3se([uently by Drs. Molliit and Low in Uganda. From a note sent
me by Dr. Balfour I fancy it also occurs in Khartoum.

It is a large handsome gnat with deep brown thorax clothed with narrow
hair-like golden scales and white scaled pleural ; deep brown unhanded al:)d(jmeu
^vith prominent white lateral basal spots. Unhanded legs and brown palpi and
proboscis. Length 7 mm.

Culex dentatu.'^, u. sp.

(Plates IL, Fig. 4 ; IV., Fig. 3 ; VI., Fig. 3)

Head dark l)ruwn with some narrow-cur\ed golden scales, a- golden yellow
biirder around the eyes and a pale patch on each side. Thorax deep brown,
ornamented with rich golden-brown and golden narrow-cur\-ed and hair-like
scales showing more or less linear an-angement. Abdomen deep IjroAvn with
Ijasal pale bands and basal creamy lateral spots, \'enter creamy scaled. Palpi,
proboscis and legs uniformly Ijrown, except the ^'enter of the femora -which are
pale, and tliere is a yeU(jw a])ical tibial spot ; ungues large, equal, uniserrated.

Female. Head dark bro-\vn, ahnost black, clothed behind and over most of
the mid area with large narrow-curved pale golden scales, almost creamy yeUow
in some lights and with a frontal median patch of much smaller golden-brown ones,
around the eyes thin narrow- cur \ed pale creamy scales and flat pale creamy lateral
ones ; upright forked-scales not much expanded apically, scanty and dark brown ; a
pale yellow tuft projects beneath the eyes ; palpi thick, deep bro^vn or black, with
long black bristles ; proboscis deep black ; antennae deep brown, basal segment and base
of the second segment testaceous, the former darker on the inner side Avith a lew creamy
scales. Thorax deep lirown clothed Avith cur\ed hair-like golden-brown and golden
scales, the golden scales forming two rather indistinct median pai'allel lines and a
cur\'ed lateral line on each side behind with a more or less darkened area outside it,
liefin-e the scuteUum the scales are paler and of normal curved form ; scuteUum
l)roAvn Avith narrow-curved pale golden scales and broAvn liorder-bristles, seven to the
mid L ibe ; metanotum brown ; pleurae black with patches of creamy scales.

Abdomen black with basal creamy scaled bands and lateral spots, venter mostly
creamy scaled ; on the apical segment the creamy lateral spots join the basal band
and look like extensions of it down the sides.

Legs brown, unhanded, but the femora are pale ventraUy, and there are yelloAV
knee spots and traces of apical yellow tibial spots ; ungues all equal, thick and with
a thick tooth.

Wings (Plate II., Fig. 4) large and broad, scales of typical Culex form
(Plate IV., Fig. 3) ; tirst submarginal cell longer and narrower than the second
posterior cell, its base nearer the base of the wing tlian that of tlie second
posterior cell, its stem a little more than one-third the length of the cell ;

7G riiK M()S(jnTor.s of egytt, tiik sioan and aryssinia

posterior cross-win aluiut liiilf its length (listaiit fnmi the mid cross-vein; halteres
with pale stem and creamy scaled knob.

Length. 5 to ■'}.!) nun.

Habitat. Abyssinia (Isana. through Damot).

Observations. Described from four females. It is ii hirge heavy built Culex,
very like a large C. fatigam, Wied., but can at once lie told by the dentate
ungues. Tlie thoracic ornamentation is marked in some very clearly, in others
not so much.

A specimen sent liv Dr. Balfour from the Sobat in ^•ery damaged condition
seemed to be this species.

Culex fatigans^ Wiedemann

Auss. Zwei. Ins. p. 10 (1828), Wied. Mono. Culicid. II., p. 151
(1901), Theobald. Mono. Culicid. III., p. 22r> (1903), Theobald

Apparently verv abundant along the Nile and its tributaries as elsewhere.
Dr. Balfour has taken it on the Baro and Pibor, and reports it as by far the
commonest mosquito in Khartomn. I have also seen specimens from Suez,
Ismailia, and Cairo.

Culex piisiihis. Bigot
Dipt. Exot. 4th Supp., p. 9, Mono. Culicid. II., p. 166 (1901)
This small thick set Culex has not occuri'ed since Bigot's specimens were
taken. It is evidently distinct, and comes between Culex pipiens and C. fatigans.

Culex pipiens, Linnaeus
I'll. Suec. (17.58). Linnaeus; Mono. Culicid. II.. p. 132 (1901). and

III., 224 (1903)
Recorded by Dr. Keatinge from Cairo, and fi'om Suez by Col. Giles, late
I.M.S. Also from i'ort Said and Ismailia (Maj-.r Ronald Ross,"c.B.).

Genus Mansonia, Blanchard

Prinoplifes, Theobald

Comp. Kond Hebd. Soc. d. Biul., X<i. 37, T. liii,. p. lo4(i (lilol)

Mono. Culicid. II. p. 173 (1901)

Mansonia u7iiforn)i.'<, Theobald.

(Panoplites vniforniis^ Theobald.

(Pand/i/itcs africanus, Theobald.

(Plates IL, Fig. 3 ;' IV., Fig. 1 ; VI., Fig. 5)

:M()no. Culicid. II. p. 180 (unifornris), p. 187 (africamis). 1901 ;

m, p. 273 (1903)
Specimens Avere taken at the following places: — Middle Sobat, Pibor River,
Renk, and Kenissa by Dr. Balfour. Bahr-El-Ghazal (Cummins).
Probably occurs all over Egy])t and the Sudan.

THE MOSQUITOES OF EGYPT, THE SUIJAX AND ABYSSINIA

77

Fig. 3
Upright forked scales of
a Mansoftia major
b MansoHia itni/ormis

The specimens show great variatiou iu size. Tlie large
ones look very like Mamonia luajoi; Theobald (Mono.
Culicid. III. p. 270) Init the forked cephalic scales have
mostly only one median spine, Ijut may ha\-e two as in
J/. maj(>i\ but the lateral spines are equal not unequal. This
character I neglected to point out before. For figures of
wing, vide Plate II., Fig. 3, and Plate IV., Fig. 1.

Dr. Balfour writes that this species "becomes common
and remains so shortly after i^assiug Wad ]\Iedaui on the wav
South."

It is widely distributed i>\er Central, Xorthern, East
and \Vestern Africa, and also in India and the Philippine
Islands. I have had none from the Transvaal, Orano-e
River Colony or Cape Colony.

^[ansonia rnajin\ Theol^ild
Mono. Culicid. Ill, p. :i7U (l'.)03)
No fi'esh specimens have been received since the one sent me by Capt.
Cummins taken in the Bahr-El-Ghazal.

It is larger than the largest of the preceding species reaching fi.5mm. in
length. It can be told by the upright forked cephalic scales hax'ing the thin
lateral spines unequal and by their irregular form and the " border scales "
on the wing being all dull yellow Avhilst iu J/, unifonnis they are in alternatino-
patches of dull yellow and black.

Genus T.ENiORHYXCHUS, xli-ribalzaga
Dipt. Argentina, p. 47 (ISySJ); Mono. Culicid. II, p. lOu (lUDl)

To'iitiifhi/nchus aurites, Theobald
Mono. Culicid. II, p. 209 (1901) and III, p. 269, (1903).
This species occurs in fair numbers on both the Blue and White Niles.
Dr. Balfour took thein between Roseires and Sennar on the Blue Nile, at Bahr-El-
Jebel North Sudd country on the White Nile

It also occurs in Uganda and on the West Coast at Bonny and iu the
Federated Malay States.

Tc^ntiirhi//tc/i(is anurtt'ii, TlieoJjald
Mono. Culicid. II, p. 205 (1901)
A single female with body gorged with blood and denuded of scales thus
appearing black. Tlie sixth dusky scaled long vein is prominent and clearly
defines it from the former species.

Taken at Lake No, White Nile. Dr. Balfour adds a note ■ " femora spotted
black," I cannot detect the spotting in the specimen he sends. This beautiful
species has also been taken in Old Calabar.

7S THE MOSQUITOES oF EGVrT, I'llE SUDAN AND AI5YSSINIA

Tceniorkynclius criatatits, u. sp.

Thorax shiny bhick, witli golden hair-Uke curved scales. Abdomen orange.
Legs black and orange, with tufts of black scales especially on the middle of the
hind til)ite.

Fcinalc. Head brown, with pale yellow narrinv-curved scales, and long, l)lack,
biiid, u])right, foi-ked -scales over the occiput, and a tuft of stout bi'own bristles
projecting forwards; autennie l)nnvn, the four basal segments reddish. Proboscis
and pal])i yellowish, with black apices.

Thorax black with narrow hair-like curved golden scales, pleurie -with a few
\vhite patches ; on the mesonotum lateral rows of long stout black bristles ;
scutellum black, with hair-like golden scales and black border-bristles.

Abdomen entirely orange with orange-yellow scales, above and below.
Legs yellow, with black tufts, \-ery inconspicuous on the forelegs, more like
banding at the femoro -tibial and tibio-metatarsal joints; the second pair the
same, but more marked, femur spotted with black, the last segment of tarsus
black ; the liiud legs similar to the mid, but with bright purple to black tufts in
the middle of the tibia?, consisting both of scales and bristles ; apical half of the
metatarsus black ; nearly two-thirds of the apical half of the first tarsal and the
second tai-sal black, last tarsal black with yelloAV basal baud at the joint ; ungues
of fore and mid legs long, equal and simple, of the hind small, equal, and
simple.

Wings with yellow costa and veins, and yellow and dark scales, the yellow
scales more rounded at the apex than the dark ones, some slightly expanded ;
most of the dusky scales are acutely truncated. First sub-marginal cell \qvj
long, longer than the second posterior cell; fringe dark. Halteres pale yellow,
with pale knobs.

Length. 6 mm.

Hahitiit. Pib(jr.

Ob.ser vat ions. — A single specimen only taken. The description is mainly
that sent me by Dr. Balfour; the type was much damaged in transit, but I
ha\e added a, few notes to those he has sent me. It is certainly a new species,
easily identified by the tuft of purple-black scales and bristles on the hind legs.

Teeniorhynchufi tenax, Theobald
Mono. Culicid. II., 198 (1901), and III., 258 (19o8)

Mule. Thorax as in the female ; palpi black with five ycUoAvish bands, one
apical, the two apical segments of nearly equal length, with black hairs on lioth
sides, the antipenultimate segment Avith black hairs on the outside, the fifth
(basal band) is small ; antennae banded black and white with blackish hairs.
Abdomen with basal pale bands Avhich spread out laterally on the basal segments.
Wings with the fork-cells and their stems short ; the first submarginal cell longer
and narrower than the second posterior, its stem about half the length of the
cell, stem of the second posterior less than half the length of the cell. Legs as

THE MOSQUITOES OF EGYPT, THE SUDAN AND ABYSSINIA

79

in the female ; fore and mid ungues unequal, the larger luiiserrated, the smaller
also with a basal tooth, hind equal and simple.

Length. 5 imii.

Habitat. Middle and Lower Sobat ; Sennar, Blue Nile ; Jebelein, White
Nile ; Fashoda ; Kenissa ; Baro ; Pibor. This sjDecies is very conunon on both
Niles.

Observations. Dr. Balfour adds a note as follows : — " Band on the proboscis
naiTower and paler than in the female. Thei'e are marked white basal abdominal
bands. The white scales on the second segment are arranged like the letter V :
abdomen has also white lateral spots."

Besides the male, which has not been previously described, several females
have been sent me by Dr. Balfour. The anterior thoracic ornamentation is not
as pronounced as in the type, but wliere the pale scaled area joins the dark it
is just the same ; the abdomen is not so speckled on the posterior segments.

Tceniorhynclms tenax Theobald
var maculipes, n. v.

(Plates IV., Fig. 4 ; VI., Fig. 4)

Very similar to the type, l^ut with the femora and tibiie of aU three pairs
of legs with a row of clear white spots on one side.

The banding of the legs passes slightl}' on to the apices of the preceding
segments above, forming apical pale spots. The tibia; and to some extent the

femora have black bristles. The Avings
(Fig. 4) resemble the type, but there is
some variation in the relative lengths
of the fork-cells and their stems ; in
the ty]3e of this variety the first sub-
marginal is considerably longer and
narrower than the second posterior cell,
its stem less than one half the length
of the cell, its base nearer the laasc of the wing than that of the second
posterior ; stem of the second posterior half the length of the ceU ; posterior
cross-vein about twice its own length distant from the mid. Scales sho-\\ii in
Fig. 4, Plate IV.

Length. 0.5 mm.

Habitat. Kenissa, White Nile and Middle Sobat.

Fig. 4

Wing of Ta'niorhyitchics ienax Theo.
var mncitlipes, n. v.

Genus MiMOMYiA, Theobald.

Mono. Culicid. III., p. 304, 1903.

The female only has so far been described, and in general appearance it
resembles a Uranotajnia but the larger fork-cells and narrow-curx'ed scutellar
scales wiU at once separate it.

80

TIIK MOSQUITOES OF lUIYl'T, THK SUDAN AND ARYSSINIA

Dr. Balfour sends a male whidi is doscribed here, I feel sure it is the
male of the lu'w species reeonled. It is one of the nmst curious mosquitoes I
have seen. The proboscis is much swollen for half its length, the labelUc
small, leaf like and acuminate and the palpi long and thin and acuminate,
al)iiut Twii-TJunls the length of the proboscis. The structure t)f the j^alpi would
Thus pbice it between the Culicina^ and Aedina>.

Mniioiinjia uiiifoniiix^ n. sp.
(Plate' I., Figs. 7, 8, & lU)

Head broAni with yelloAvish scales, thorax testaceous with small black
scales. Abdomen lirowii -with blackisli-bi-own scales, the apical segments ^vitll

scattered creamy scales. Legs uni-
formly brown, venter of femora pale.
Wings with a pale spot at their base.
FeinnJe. Head brown, clothed
with rather irregulai' flat creamy
scales and S(.)me ycUoAv and black
u|)right-forked ones, the latter towards
the nape ; antenna^ brown, Ijasal joint
testaceous darker on the inside,
remainder deep brown ; proboscis
In-own, swollen apically and the labellaj
black : palpi small, testaceous, Avith
l)lack scales above.

Thorax shiny brown with scat-
tered narrow-curved black scales ;
j^leura^ testaceous ; scutellum bright
brown with black narrow-cur\ed
scales, four border-bristles to the mid
lobe ; metanotum diestnut-brown
with l)rown scales and with liasal bands of dull creamy scales, so dull that they
arc only noticeable in certain lights, apical segments with a few scattered creamy
scales ; border-bristles dull golden.

Legs uniformly broAvn, except the venter of the femora, which are pale: in
certain lights the legs show ochreous reflections. "Wings with lirown scales and \\irh
a nude shiny white basal patch, lateral scales on the apit-d poitions of the veins and
on the major area of the second and on one side of the fourth elongate, clavate.
those on the basal parts of the second and fourth longer than the others ; median
vein-scales short and spatulate a single row only, those on the sixth somewhat longer
than the rest; first submarginal cell al)oiit the same length and scarcely naiTOwer
than the second posterior cell, its base nearer the apex of the wing, its stem longer
than the cell : stem of the second posterior about the length of the cell : supernumeraiy
cross-vein slightly nearer the base of the wing than the mid cross-vein ; posterior

Fig. 5

Mimojityia uni/onnis X

Enlarged portion of wing to show scales

THE .MOSQUITOES OF EGYPT, THE SUDAN AXD ABYSSINIA

81

cross-vein longei' than the mid and about its own length distant from it : halteres

with grey stem and black scaled knob.
LeiKjth. 2 mm.

Male. Proboscis (Fig. 6) broAvn, swollen from a little past the middle ventrally,

apex truncated, labella3 leaf-like and
acuminate, clothed with small brown
scales. Palpi very thin and needle-like,
about two-thirds the length of the
proboscis, swollen at the base and
clothed with small broAvn scales. An-
tennae denselv plumose, i^lmne-hairs

Fig. G ..11

Mimotnyia tini/ormist n. sp. T proboscis DrOAVTl.

Legs brown, unhanded ; fore and mid ungues simple, unequal ; hind, small
equal and simple. Wings (Plate I., Fig. 10), with similar scales to the female,
Ijut the lateral clavate ones rather shorter and broader (Fig. 5) ; the upper
branch of the first submarginal cell rather close to the first long vein ;
fir,st submarginal cell scarcely narrower but almost the same length as the
second posterior cell, its stem as long as, or longer than, the cell, its base
nearer the apex of the wing than that of the second posterior cell, stem of
the latter as long as the cell ; posterior cross-vein longer than the mid and
about its own length distant from it, supernumerary and mid cross-veins united.
Upper costal border with black spines.

LetKjtlt. 2 mm.

Habitat. Lado (female) ; Bahr-El-Jebel (male).

Oh.^ervations. Described from a single female and male. I feel almost
sure the male belongs here as the ijeneral characters are so similar. It can at
once be told from the two other African Mimomyias by the general brown
hue. The female was partly denuded in transit, but some notes sent by
Dr. Balfour complete the description.

Miinoinyia .splendena, Theobald
Mono. Culicid. III., p. 304 (1903)

Di-. Balfour records this very marked species from the Sudd country^
Bahr-El-Jebel ; the specimen being captured on the steamer. He has not
sent me the specimen, but says apart from the features mentioned below, it
entirely agrees with the type having apple-green scales on the thorax, etc.

The following difterences are pointed out. — "The halteres of a fine lemon
yellow ; there is a thick scahng, almost tufting, at the apices of the tibiiu with metalhc
violet scales and metallic violet scales are scattered over the tibia? and some on
the coxsB." These differences in colour are due probably to Dr. Balfour noting
a fresh specimen, whilst mine was some months old. The only important
character is the trace of tibial tufting, but if only slight it cannot be taken as
a character sufficient to separate the specimen as a new species.

S2 TiiK .MdSi^ri'roKs uv icgvpi', riiK si dan and abvssinia

Goiius UuANOTiENiA, Arril)iilziiga.
Dipt. Aryvntiiiii, p. (i.". (1899); Mono. Culicid. IL, p. 241 (IIM»1)

UrarKjtceula balfoiwl, u. sp.
(Plate VI.,' Fig. 6)

Head ■\virh a l)r()ii(l hlai'k incdiau band, j)ale 1)Ur: un oacli side. Thorjix
l)i-(i\vn with pale blue pro-thoracic lobes and a jjale blue area in front (jf the
roots of the \vings. Abdomen brown, unhanded. Legs brown unl^anded.
Wings with brown scales, except a short row at the base of the fiftli long vein.

Female. Head black clothed in tlie middle with fiat black scales forminir a
broad median area, sides clothed with flat pale blue scales; viewed in certain
lights tlie liack of the dark area of tlie liead reflects deep rich blue colours ;
four prominent curved black bristles in front which project medianaUy and some
short black ones between ; antenna^ deep brown with paler nodes, basal joint
pale reddish-brown ; clypeus pale reddish-brown ; palpi blai'k ; proboscis black,
nearly as long as the whole body.

Mesothorax brown with smaU narrow-curved brown scales, a short blue
line on eacli side before the root of the wings ; pr(^)thoracic lobes clothed with
fiat pale blue scales ; scutellum brown, testaceous along tlie edge, lateral lobes
with small flat black scales (mid lobe rubbed) ; four posterior border-bristles to
the mid lobe ; metanotum deep brown ; pleura' bro\vn, with a small median
patcli of pale blue scales.

Abdomen deep brown with rich deep brown scales and pale golden border-
bristles, on the sides of the last three or four apical segments are traces of basal
brown scales ; venter pale ochreous with brown border-bristles ; legs deep brown,
bases testaceous, venter of femora pale ; ungues small equal, and simple ; wings Avith
brown scales except at the base of the fifth long A'ein ^vhere there is a row of broad
fiat ■\diite scales ; costa and first long vein with very dark scales, long lanceolate and
prominent lateral vein-scales on the second and third veins and a few on the fork of
the fourth ; the second long vein lying very close to the first, the upper branch
of the small first submarginal cell being particularly closely applied ; the stem
of the first submarginal cell about two and a half times as long as the cell,
that of the first postei'ior slightly longer ; posterior cross-vein twice the length of
the mid and about its own length distant from it ; mid cross-vein much shorter than
the supernumerary ; the scales on the fifth (except base) are dark and also on the
sixth except at the apex which is nude in the specimen examined; halteres Avith
testaceous stem and l)lack knolj.

LetKjtIi. 2 mm.

Habitat. Pibor.

Observations. Described from a nearly perfect female, the scutellum alone
being damaged. Dr. Balfour states that it is " very common on the Pibor, and
very annoying in the evening." It is a very small sjjecies that may easily get
through ordinary mosquito netting.

THE MOSQUITOES OF EGYPT, THE SUDAN AND ABYSSINIA

83

It is closely related to Ui'anotisnia cceruleocephala, Theobald (Mono.
Culicid., Vol. II., p. 256), but can be told at once by the head having a broad
area in the middle of flat black scales, and by the thoracic markings being blue
instead of white.

Uranotcenia cceruleocephala, Theobald
Mono. Culicid. II., p. 256, (1901), and III., p. 302 (1903)

A single female taken by Dr. Balfour on the Bahr-El-Jebel. It exactly
resembles the type but small, lateral, white abdominal patches may be seen. It
can at once be told from the fonner by the head being entirely pale blue. It
has also been taken at Old Calabar, Gambia and Uganda.

A New Genus and New Species.

The very curious male described here cannot be placed in any known genus,
but without the female I prefer to leave it un-named.

Male. Proboscis black ; labella? paler ; palpi brown (Fig. 7), a pale Imnd on
the lower side of centre ; the apical joint, rather swollen and
bent, covered with scales and a few bristles. Antenna?, plumose
with a long terminal pilose segment. Head dark and small,
eyes deep purplish-lilack ; pale upright scales, not forked, over
vei'tex and occiput ; white flat scales on either side of a dark
median line of scales, a few black scales on the nape. Thorax
denuded, with traces of black and long golden hair-like scales ;
pleuras liroAvn with white patclies.

Abdomen purplish-black with basal yellowish white bands
to the segments, whicli expand laterally and spread on to the
venter.

Legs vni\\ knee spot and long tibial bristles, pale tibio-
metatarsal tufts and the three last hind tarsals pale yellow ;
posterior ungues much smaller than the others, all apparently
equal and simple.

Length. 4 mm.

Habitat. Bahr-El-Jebel, North Sudd Country.

Observations. — Described fi'om a single damaged male which I have mounted
in balsam. It is most marked owing to the curious form of the palpi wliicli
separate it from all other Culicids I have seen, or that have been described. It
may be a male of some genus already named ; hence, until more specimens are
obtained, I leave it unclassified.

Fig. 7

Male palp and labellae ot a

new genus ?

LIBRARY OF

THE WELLCOME RESEARCH LABORATORIES,

GORDON COLLEGE, KHARTOUM.

Design for the Bookplate of the Library, Wellcome Research Laboratories.
Gordon College. Khartoum

KEY TO THE ABOVE DESIGN

In the centre is the famous Zodiac of Denderah depicting the various signs, planets,
constellations and decani, together with the genii of the months and days.

Above is the winged disU. symbol of Horbehutet. a solar deity, which was believed to ward
off evil and protect the buildings over which it was placed from destruction.

On the right is Thoth. one of the earliest known Egyptian deities associated with medicine.
He was believed to be the inventor of all the sciences, letters and arts. He wrote the sacred
books and was a great magician. In one hand he holds a stylus or pen, and in the other the
notched palm branch.

On the left is Ptah. the most ancient of the gods, who is called the " Father of the mighty
fathers." " Father of the beginnings.'* " He who created the Sun egg and the Moon egg." In
his hands he holds a sceptre which terminates in the signs for power, life and stability.

Below is a roll of papyrus, on which are inscribed the ancient Egyptian symbols for the world,
life, goodness, the sun. the moon, barley, water, fire, science, medicine, geometry, astronomy
and magic.

INDEX

■li- PAGE

Abscess of liver ... ... ... ... 54

Ainhum ... ... ... ... ... 54

Alcoholic poisoning ... ... ... 54

Amoeha coli ... ... ... 51, 54

Analysis of " Kusub " ... ... ... 61

„ of soil ... ... ... ... 61

Ankylostomiasis ... ... ... ... 51

Anopheles impunctus ... ... ... 68

wellcomei 33, 34, 63, 64, 65, 67,

Plate V.
Anophelina 16, 22, 31 to 35, 67 to 70

,, parasite of

Aphis sorghi
" Asal" fly
Ascaris lumbricoides
Aspongopiis viduatus
Asthma

B

Bassus

Beri-Beri ...
Bilharzia ...

,, in schoolboys
Blackwater fever ...
Blister beetles

c

Calculus

Galotropis p7-ncera . . .
Cancrum oris
Cellia pharoensis
Cerebro-spinal fever
Chemical work
Chemist, necessity for
Chicken pox
Ghilomenes vicina . . .
Cholera

Chrysoidine, as larvicide
CoccineUa undecim punctata
Collector, value of
Gulex cwmminsii

,, dentatiis

,, fatigaiis

,, pallidiKe.phala

29

41, 43, 44, Plate B
41, 43, 44, Plate B

51

43, Plate C

52

... 45
... 53
51, 58, 59
... 52
... 51
38, 39, Plate A

... 52

... 55

... 54

32, 33, 70, Plate V.

... 56

60, 61

... 11

... 56

42, 45, Plate B

... 55

29, 30

42, 45, Plate B

... 11

34, 75

33, 65, 69, Plate VI.

14, 24, 32, 33, 34, 35, 76

32, 73, 74

C — continued

Culex pipiens

,, pusillus

, , figripes

, , viridis
Culicifuge ...
Cyanogenesis in sorghum vuJgaro

D

Dengue

Dhobie itch

Diarrhoea ...

Diseases of crops
,, of Sudan
,, Veterinary

Diplororcns intracelhdaris . . .

Dracontiasis

Dysentery ...

E

Elephantiasis
Endemic Hsematuria
Enteric fever
Eosinophilia
Epidemics ...
Etorleptiomyia mediolineata

Eye troubles

F

Filariasis ...

Fish and mosquitoes

leprosy

G

Gangrene of lung
(}astrodiscus Sonsinoi
Gastrophilus equi ...
Glossina morsitans ...

,, palpalis
Goitre
Gonorrhoea

Gordon Memorial College
Guinea worm
Gynaecomastia

PAGE

76

76

18, 32
32, 33, 34, 35, 73

35

46, 47, 48

14, 56
... 53
... 51
... 41

49, ft seq.
... 57
... 56

58, 59, 60
... 51

14, 50

... 51

... 55

58, 59, 60

55, 56

34, 63, 65,

71, 72, Plate VI.

55

14, 50
... 21
... 52

52

57

57

38

38

54

57

2
54, 58, 59, GO
54

u.

INDEX

H

Hsemoglobinuric fever ...

Heat Stroke

HerniiE

Uippoboscidx

Horse sickness

I

Insect bites

Insects, Biting and Noxious
„ Injurious to crops

Jigger

PAGE

51
53

57
38
57

55

38
41

55

K

Keloids

... 53

Kordofan sores

... 53

" Kusub," Analysis of ...

... 61

L

Laboratory assistant

... 7

Laboratories, constitution of

6, 8, 9, 10

,, functions of

... 7

,, library of

... 13

„ museum of

...9,10

plan of

... 6

situation of

... 9

,, staff of

... 11

Lady-bird beetles ... 42,

45, Plate B

Larvicide, ideal ...

... 29

Lathyrism

... 53

Leeches

... 55

Leishmania Donovani

50, 53

Leprosy

... 52

Leucoderma

... 53

Liver abscess

... 54

Low fever ...

... 53

M

Madura Foot

54, 55

Malaria

... 50

in Khartoum

16, 22

Prevention of ...

... 30

Malta fever

... 53

Manscmia viajnr

... 77

M — continued page

Mimomyia splendens ... ... 34, 81

,, uniformis ... 34, 35, 63, 80

Mosquito bi-igade ... ... ... 18

,, ,, extension of work of 28

work of ... 20, 21

maps 23, 25, 27, 31

,, plant
,, tick
,, work
Mosquitoes and disease

uniformis 32, 33, 34, 35, 50, 65,

69, Plate VI.
Melon bug 43, Plate C

30

35, 02

14

14, 16

,, ,, meteorological conditions 26

,, ,, steamers ... 21, 22

,, ,, sudd ... ... ... 36

,, breeding places ... ... 18

,, distribution in Khartoum 22, 24

,, Sudan 32, 33,
34, 35, 62, et seq.
,, Genus Anopheles ... ... 64

„ Cellia 70

„ Culex 73

,, ,, Etorleptiomyia ... 71

,, ,, Mansonia ... ... 76

„ ,, Mimomyia ... 35, 79

,, ,, Myzomyia ... ... 66

Myfeorhynchus ... 70
Mucidus ... 35, 71

„ New 34,83

,, ,, Pyretophorus ... 70

Stegomyia 71

,, ,, Taeniorhynchus 35, 77

Theobaldia ... .35, 73

,, ,, Uranotaenia... 35, 82

,, of Egypt, Sudan and

Abyssinia 62 rf xnq.

on Bahr-El-Jebel ... 34, 35

,, ,, Baro ... ... ... 33

„ Blue Nile 32

„ Pibor 34

,, ,, Sobat ... ... ... 33

„ White Nile 33

,, Statistics ... ... ... 26

Mucidus Africaiius ... 18, 65, 69, 71, Plate V.

Museum, donors H

,, General and Economic ... 11
,, Laboratories ... ... ... 9

Memorandum ... ... ... 13

IXDEX

111.

M — contin tied page

Mycetoma ... ... ... ... 54, 55

Mylahris 38, 39

Myiasis 53

Myzomyia funesta 33, 34, 35, 63, 67, 68, Plate V.
,, new species ... ... ... 68

nili 33, 34, 63, 66, 67, 68, Plate V.
Myzorhynchits paludis ... ... 34, 35, 70

0

S — continued page

Stegomyia fasdata 16, 24, 32, 34,71, Plate VI.

,, ,, var. " mosquito " 18, 32

Stomoxys ... ... ... ... ... 38

Strongyles ... ... ... ... ... 57

Sudan, diseases in ... ... 4:9, et .wq.

,, population of ... ... ... 49

Sudd and Mosquitoes ... ... ... 36

Sunflower cultivation and malaria ... 35
Syphilis ... ... ... ... ... 56

Omdurman foreshore

.

37

Oxyuris vermiculans

51

T

P

Tnhanus dorsovMus

... 38

Teenia saginata

... 51

Parasites of animals

57

Tsenioi-hyncli us an netii

34, 77

„ crops

41

, , aurites

32,77

>, man

51

,, cristatus

34,78

,, ,, mosquitoes ...

. 29, 35

62

,, tenax

32,

33,

34, 78, 79

,, malarial
Petroleum ...
Phthisis
Plague

16

50
20
52
56

,, ,, var. maculipes

Texas fever

Theohaldia spathipalpis 18, 32, 73

69,
Plate VI.

... 57

Plate VI.

Poisoning ...

Pyelitis

Pyretophoncs costalis 24, 32, 33, 34

... 54

... 52

70, Plate V.

Therapeutic garden
Tick fever ...
Trtchocephalus dispar

... 9
... 55
... 51

Trypanosomiasis ...

... 50

R

Tse-tse fly

... 38

Eainfall in Khartoum ...
Eiver bank, Khartoum ...

18

20
19

Tuberculosis
Typhus fever

... 56
... 56

,, ,, Omdurman ...

37

,, pools, Khartoum ...

18

19

u

Eoutine work — Chemical
,, ,, Pathological

60
49

Ustilaginous fungus
Uranotasnia halfouri

34

82

... 43
Plate VI.

s

,, cieruleocephala

33, 34, 83

, , domestica

... 34

Scale insects

42

Schistosonium hiematobium

51

Y

Sesame orientale
Sleeping sickness ...
Small pox ...

61
53
55

Vegetable parasites
Veterinary diseases

... 41
... 57

Smut of dukhn ...

40

Y

>, ,, dura

Snake bites

40

43
55

Yaws

... 53

Soil analysis

61

z

Spiroptera microstoma

57

Spirit substitution

60

Zeers as breeding places

15, 18

Sprue

51

,, inspection of

... 21