Lomein EN , SK cae Vena ~ ee c Unpssa ot Sea : SASS Na" ME i Chins ohdg er tehial hada eet teeter Te tte Ca NE aaNet . LN ch i ; iy }) f\, ‘ : UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT QF AGRICULTURE. ON THE CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BERT AND THE MANUFACTURE OF SUGAR THEREFROM IN FRANCE AND THE UNITED STATES. PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF Hon. WM. G. LEDUC, COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE, BY WM. McMURTRIE, E. M., Ph. D., Superintendent of Agriculture in the United States Section, and Agent and Representative of the United States Department of Agriculture at the Paris Exposition of 1878. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1880. / LOE RV aha yy a le. “aoe fe vate Fie aah che sens Ghee: 8 NT ONE ie Milde: yee ae we Soy ar. a tik ths bees Hatt Bah vee dik 19.4 ne : a ar Gi BE oe 8 ARR wr sissasegt Riviss Les NR ARUN aE Shs patie’ tt a ihkiul a ARE is eat se Pe aot ARE YS icon to Hiei RM Pat! papeny pale i Kone ip Bae We aaa ee SS ay ems wo ek ae | Wer oh ae TABLE OF CONTENTS. INTRODUCTORY. REPORT ON THE SUGAR BEET IN FRANCE AND THE UNITED STATES. SE OE GEMM RIEDE 5 casa S33 oa on alow ae ema ds bean os nw eee een emer CHAPTER I. The early history of the sugar beet, and the manufacture of sugar therefrom. -. CHAPTER II. Statistics on beet-root culture and the production of sugar.....---..-.---.---- CHAPTER III. Meteorology as applied to beet-root culture—Conditions most fayorable—Com- parison of conditions in the beet-growing districts of Europe—Limits of the ~ conditions governing the extension of the eulture—Location of sections of favorable conditions in the United States—Conclusions..........-.---.----- CHAPTER IV. Varieties grown in France—Their characters, mode of selecting, &c..........- CHAPTER V. Culture, choice of soil, its preparation, planting, care of, harvesting and pre- RR GOD, sii ht cae Sos iipintciciemesiaisinc ri ss ou diodes ean game anerte CHAPTER VI. Social conditions affecting beet-root culture......--...-.--.---.-------.------ CHAPTER VII. Manufacture—Processes and economies ...-....---..----.------ ------------ =e CHAPTER VIII. Taxes, rates of—Mode of collecting—Amounts collected.........-....-------.- CHAPTER IX. Conclusion—Importance of sugar-beet culture wee et meee eee eet wwe tee eee eee eee 33 2 TABLE. OF CONTENTS, APPENDIX A. Cuis showing some of the more essential apparatus and machinery used abroad im‘the production of beet sugar .--.-...5.--<-sachsceesaee seen eee ee APPENDIX B. History and progress of the culture of the sugar beet, and the manufacture ef sugar therefrom, in the United States of America..............--..------22- APPENDIX C. Preliminary report upon the condition of the culture of the sugar beet near Portland; Me: i... 25.2. soc. 3 Vets toe e ba eo cese es sae e eet oe eee APPENDIX D. Final report on the condition of the beet-sugar industry in New England under the direction of the Maine Beet Sugar Company, of Portland, Me...-......-.. APPENDIX E. Points for consideration with regard to the introduction of the sugar beet, and the manufacture of beet sugar in the Northwest as compared with the beet- sugar producing countries of Europe, by J. D. Fredericksen .......-.....--- APPENDIX F. The physiological functions of the nitrates and phosphates in the sugar beet - .- APPENDIX G. Meteorology and the growth of the beet, by Marié Davy..............---.-.-- LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Hig. 1. White Silesian beet ........2s20 5.560 sce.eoc-2 eee) seas ven = eee Bi cee. MM penial WOCCb access bce = =n ae ate niet tee aie ne a= Big,'3., Green top beet... 650-406 22 on ceo sev aegieeeneeie => pn ene cee Pig.4, Pink top Hest 2. 22 soc. 2 acme setae een eee <> - > ss =.) Bigsto. (Grayetop DeCiicccec cscs. saws c=) sc cateee aa ale ee == ole Big. 6G. Vilmorin’s improved. beet. 22 sro ts eam Sacer 2 o-oo. 9 ee Fig. 7. Anatomical structure of the root....--..2.------------ se2-s0 coe nee ones Maps showing the line of limit of meteorological conditions favorable to beet- rooticalture in the United States -2----7--s< . ‘ Pye cibyrst fe ak ad Bee sey Pay is oes baat is 2 hk ye west tiara, CeP IS Tithe aed \o 1k oe (Sih by oe eae ey ESE ot DEES. | pny ao | ay OR a Lo tea ke civics Praiketis te oe a . 4 “ hed PAN Pe ele te eee iat > i oe pet 7 69 8 ; 2 Nis pote Tak b+, . ve ‘ , * a t x ine Pi : j An +) Saenry tes UTC hk CR ae [ bette Are i ti ai awial Re Mente ere, SARE ay Suter Sota ae vw f L Aine ae a ’ - i an Lrmhs ot). oy < a a) f «? ‘Sd ! ef {* YC SPie as. i tee ane Cb ep phh Bette é aa et ‘ [+i a4] aL Ate 2 tes fie etd bane f: ‘ i ANC Serer as) vez ned 4 Prd I PRES Seek pos! EAD, ; } Y} rf. wy re at { oh ; ‘ ( vs are oF cy” mo. 3 Loh J ‘ { tpi ig + , > haet ‘ he ay ce f YOM A pte, Pb iin i" Pit : rete Rts age SAR ives? UAC Wide THOMARUAEE Hite RECAMOe A Ree bs ; ° f d « ’ Toit } ; hy \ ee Ry at uy \is h. Ey uh Bink VAtite OAs : soe tite eye ul ti OF oat : ’ . ? at out ee 4 Adie BS el ed ea ' 4 oe ’ EF 2Ub AMS Ls ky ¢ Fo 4 Bit 7s Hse it Ta : A ’ a . eaghe yeaa. tm Ve bane enletay.” } . ea 6 \ “ ¥ ‘ a - +» LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. WASHINGTON, D. C., November 1, 1879. Str: In compliance with your instructions, embodied with others in the letter accompanying my commission as agent and representative of the Department of Agriculture at the late Paris Exposition of 1878, directing me to make a study of and report upon the culture of the sugar beet and the extraction of sugar therefrom, I have the honor to submit the following report: I have prefaced this report with a discussion of the history of the industry, embracing Margraff’s discovery of the presence of cane sugar in the root, Achard’s enterprising efforts at its culture and the extrac- tion of sugar from it in an industrial way, and the substantial encourage- ment afforded by Napoleon I, which gave to the industry such an impetus that, in spite of the reverses and unfavorable conditions to which it was subject, it ultimately became an established fact; for thoughthis ground has been gone over by former writers upon the subject in the publica- tions of the Department of Agriculture, it has not been completely covered, doubtless from the fact that they did not have access to the official publications and State papers bearing upon the subject which in this connection it has been my duty and pleasure to consult. But, while I attach importance to the value of this branch of the sub- ject, my object shall be in this work more particularly to describe the present condition of the industry in France, the improvements that have been effected in the methods of culture and modes of extracting the sugar, and the influences which may modify or destroy the possibilities of successful work. It is only from the experience gained in older countries, after long years of varied success and adversity that we must estimate the probabilities of the successful and profitable manipu- lation of this valuable crop in the United States. The points herein considered may be summed up as follows: 1. History. 2. Statistics. 3. Meteorology: Conditions in the beet-growing districts of Europe, and comparison of these conditions with those of different sections of the United States; limits of conditions which govern the extension of the culture. 4, Varieties of beets grown in France; selection of seed and methods employed. 5 6 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 5. Culture: Soil required; physical qualities and chemical composi- tion. Fertilizers: What, when, and how to apply; influence upon the composition and value of the crop. Preparation of the soil. Planting: Time, methods, and apparatus employed; distance between plants, and its influence upon the quantity and quality of the crop. Care to be given crop during growth. Harvesting and storing. 6. Social conditions affecting the culture: Relations between growers and laborers, and between growers and manufacturers. 7. Extraction of sugar: Later improvements in the methods eaileeas 8. Duties imposed and taxes collected. 9. Importance of the crop in France, and its influence upon other cultures and economies. Conclusion. It is to be regretted that the time and means at my disposal, and the press of other duties imposed upon me in my relations with the late Universal Exposition, did not admit of a more extended and careful study of this important industry while in France; and any defects that may be noted herein must be referred to these causes. Most of the in- formation I was able to obtain was secured at odd times when my duties at the Exposition would admit of it, and from such publications as I could collect. There are some points in connection with this subject which are worthy of more thorough examination than has been possible in this work, and among these may be mentioned the meteorological or climatic conditions which may govern the extension of the culture into new sections— conditions, the important influence of which will be clearly manifest in the abstracts of records herein presented—and concerning the deficiency of our recorded knowledge of which, for this country we may not refrain from expressing regret. Study in this direction could not, I firmly believe, fail to be rewarded by results of a character most valuable to our people who may contemplate an attempt at the culture of the crop in the United States. Respectfully submitted. WM. McMURTRIE. Hon. Wm. G. LE Duc, Commissioner of Agriculture. RHPORT ON THE SUGAR BEET IN FRANCE AND THE UNITED STATES. ERRATA. On page 31, in table of statistics, under head of ‘‘ Manufacture of indigenous sugar,” place first line of figures opposite ‘‘Aisne” instead of ‘‘Ain.” On page 135, in table under ‘‘ Number of acres sown in beets ”— Instead of 748.98, read 7, 489.8. Instead of 1, 214.57, read 12, 145.7. Instead of 1, 457.49, read 14, 574. 9. Instead of 1, 659.91, read 16,599. 1. Instead of 1, 497.97, read 14, 979.7. Instead of 1, 457.49, read 14,574. 9. Instead of 1,659.91, read 16,599. 1. In Appendix A, plate xviii, instead, of ‘‘ Manull” read ‘‘ Manuel.” In Table B, page 264, under *- 11e1:a per acre, ” opposite numbers 21, 22, 23, 24, ana 25 of the first column, respectively— Instead of 18, read 15. Instead of 10, read 18. Instead of 13, read 10. Instead of 18, read 13. Instead of 15, read 18. On page 266, under ‘‘ Value of crop, at $5 per ton,” top of column, instead of ‘ $80,” read ‘* $150.” sugar VAL, SUIGUU UACUILIIWULUIE VE Ue E UU Pewee YR 1 ~~ ~~~ - . succeeded in separating from several kinds varying quantities of erystal- lizable sugar. His method of research consisted in cutting the material to be examined into thin slices, rapidly drying it, reducing to fine powder, and exhausting with diluted alcohol. The results of his re- searches were announced in a memoir read before the Berlin Academy of Sciences, in the year above mentioned. Of all the plants examined, he found the beet to be the richest in sugar, and believing that Europe 7 6 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 5. Culture: Soil required; physical qualities and chemical composi- tion. Fertilizers: What, when, and how to apply; influence upon the composition and value of the crop. Preparation of the soil. Planting: Time, methods, and apparatus employed; distance between plants, and its influence upon the quantity and quality of the crop. Care to be given crop during growth. Harvesting and storing. 6. Social conditions affecting the culture: Relations between growers and laborers, and between growers and manufacturers. 7. Extraction of sugar: Later i impr ovements i in the methods employed. REPORT ON THE SUGAR BEET IN FRANCE AND THE UNITED STATES. CHAPTER I. THE EARLY HISTORY OF THE SUGAR BEET AND THE MANUFACTURE OF SUGAR THEREFROM. Tt is difficult to trace the exact origin of this plant, which has become of ‘so much interest and value in Europe, and is not only of national but also of continental importance to the people of the other side of the Atlantic. Its antiquity finds evidence in the fact that Theophrastus described two varieties: the deep-red, and the white beet. Olivier de Serres, in his writings in 1590, makes mention only of the red beet, and states that it had not long been introduced into Europe, and says that “‘ the juice yielded on boiling is similar to sugar sirup.” This va- riety was introduced in England in 1548, but the white variety was not known until 1570. According to the Abbé Rosier, four varieties were already known in 1782, the small and large red, the yellow, and the white. “The variety known as disette, and which is still grown in France for feeding pur- poses, was believed to have originated in Germany. It was brought into notice by Vilmorin, the ancestor of the present head of the great seed house of Vilmorin, Andrieux & Co., who died in 1804, and was intro- duced by Perkins into England in 1786. The root does not seem to have been considered as having an indus- trial value, and was cultivated only for the table or for cattle food until 1747, when Margraff, a member cf the Berlin Academy of Sciences, believing sugar to be a regular constituent of plants other than the - sugar-cane, made examination of different varieties of vegetables, and succeeded in separating from several kinds varying quantities of crystal- lizable sugar. His method of research consisted in cutting the material to be examined into thin slices, rapidly drying it, reducing to fine powder, and exhausting with diluted alcohol. The results of his re- searches were announced in a memoir read before the Berlin Academy of Sciences, in the year above mentioned. Of all the plants examined, he found the beet to be the richest in sugar, and believing that Europe a é 8 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. _ would find in this root the basis of an immense industry, he urged the importance of his discovery upon the Academy, hoping to see valuable and practical results follow it. Buthe was not destined to see his hopes fulfilled. His methods of work, which were at best imperfect, were of a nature to succeed only in the laboratory, and the prices of colonial su- gars were so low as to render competition by the products from a new and untried source out of the question. This important discovery, therefore, remained dormant for nearly half a century, when one of Margraff’s pupils, Karl Franz Achard, son of a French refugee in Prussia after the revocation of the celebrated edict of Nantes, and director of the Academy of Sciences of Berlin, again took up the line of research started by his preceptor, and finally sueceeded in extracting sugar from the root on a comparatively large scale. The process he employed was peculiarly his own, and gave results which were at the time of an astonishing character. He announced his results in 1797, publishing his mode of operation, and in the latter part of 1799 presented a sample of his product, with a description of his method, to the Institute of France, stating that the cost of production of mus- covado of good quality should not exceed six cents per pound. Achard’s statements were as much the subject of doubt and even of severe ridicule by the people of his time as are the statements made by the Department of Agriculture in relation to sugar produced at the present time from sorghum and maize, and were even accepted with reserve by the mem- bers of the Institute of France, notwithstanding the high repute he en- joyed among his scientific confréres. The interest of the French Insti- tute was so aroused, however, that a commission was appointed by that body to make an examination of the work of Achard and to repeat his experiments: The commission consisted of Cels, Chaptal, Darcet, Four- croy, Guyton, Parmentier, Tessier, Vauquelin, and Deyeux. In their report they stated that Bermond had made unsuccessful experiments in the introduction of the culture of the sugar-cane in France, and the same was the result with the sugar maple, for though the latter might pos- sibly be grown it could never compete with the sugar-cane. Other plants had been experimented with; the turnip, carrot, parsnip, chest- nut, stalks of maize, and many other plants were submitted to experi- ment, but notwithstanding the assertions of certain enthusiasts it was proven that none of these plants could supplant the cane, and that in spite of the sugar they were presumed to contain the experiments were unsuccessful. Such was the state of things when Achard made the announcement of his experiments and results. The commission then proceed to state that they had repeated the ex- periments of Margraff to determine the value of their roots, finding them to contain a little over six per cent. of sugar. They applied the method of Achard for extraction on a larger scale, repeated several times, and succeeded in obtaining only a muscovado of very brown color and dis- agreeable to the taste. This muscovado, however, was readily purified CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 9 by means of alcohol, and in this way a sugar candy was obtained dif- fering in no particular from that given by cane sugar. The conclusions arrived at were to the effect that if with Achard’s process sugar may be extracted from the beet, the quantity was much less than that given by the alcohol process indicated by Margraff. They then modified the experiments by working on the juice of un- cooked beets and obtained 25 per cent. more of muscovado; and as a final result of all their experiments they adopt as the cost of refined sugar about 18 cents per pound, but think this figure may be reduced by improved methods. The report concludes as follows: It results from what precedes: 1. That it is certain that the beet which grows in France, and which may be recog- nized by its white flesh, traversed by red bands or rays, contains sugar as well as the same species grown at Berlin that Achard worked upon. 2. That the sugar may be extracted by various processes, and acquire by aid of repeated purifications all the qualities of cane sugar. 3. That the quantity of sugar which this root contains is so great that attention should be given to its extraction. 4. If, as we are assured by Achard, we may, as it were, render this root richer in sugar at will by caring for its culture, it is desirable that experiments be made upon this subject. 5. That independently of these experiments it would be of value to determine if, among the several varieties, some do not exist more rich in sugar than those pointed out by Achard. 6. That, admitting the results of these experiments, it remains to be demonstrated that the beet may up to a certain point supplant the sugar-cane. ; 7. That it is true to say that the cost of sugar cannot be determined with rigorous exactness without knowing the results of operations made ona large scale. However, at the present time it may be presumed that this price would not be higher than that of cane sugar in ordinary times. 8. Finally, if Margraff should justly be cited as being the author of the discovery of sugar in the beet, if must also be admitted that Achard is the first to have made fortunate application of this discovery, not only in announcing the favorable quantity that may be extracted, but also in pointing out the processes to which we could resort for success. Achard’s appreciation of the action and conclusions of this commis- sion may be gleaned from the following letter addressed to Citizen von Mons, and dated Berlin, November 16, 1800 (Ann. de Chem. 39, 223): I thank you sincerely for sending me the interesting report of the Institute. I have noted with infinite pleasure that the researches made by the celebrated French chem- ists confirm my discovery. The differencesfound in the products as to the quantities and qualities result either from the culture of the beet or the variety chosen for the tests. Notwithstanding the objections of the commission, I am still of the opinion that the best method consists in boiling the roots before expressing the juice, the clarification then taking place within the cells themselves by the coagulation of the albumen, so that we obtain the juice entirely clarified, or better clarified than it is possible to at- tain from raw beets by the addition of blood or other coagulable substances. But the report of the French commission had the effect to dampen any enthusiasm that may have been aroused in France by the publica- tion of Achard’s announcement, and for the few years that immediately : 10 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. followed it no interest seems to have been manifested there on the sub- ject. It was, however, otherwise in Germany. Achard’s letter proves that his zeal was in no way abated, and other workers were eagerly following the new line of investigation and experiment now made so attractive by Achard; and Lampadius, professor of chemistry and metallurgy at the School of Mines at Freyburg, took it up, repeated the experiments of his eminent predecessor in the work, improved upon his methods, from the average results of which he estimated the cost of refined sugar would not exceed 18 cents per English pound, about the same limit es- tablished by the commission of the Institute. Hermbstaedt also, mod- ifying the method of Achard, succeeded in extracting from 125 pounds of roots of Beta vulgaris 54 pounds of brown sugar and 1{ pounds of sirup, which drained off. The Baron de Koppy, having interest and confidence in the methods and results of Achard, erected in 1805 upon his estate at Krayn, near the town of Strehlen, in Lower Silesia, works capable of the annual extraction of the sugar contained in about 525 tons of roots, besides the manufacture of the rum and vinegar resulting from the utilization of the wastes of manufacture, viz, the pulp and molasses. These works of Koppy were constructed after the designs furnished by Achard, and carried on according to the methods he had determined. Achard also erected a factory on his own estate at Cunern, near Steinau, on the Oder. The results obtained by these two enter- prising pioneers in the beet-sugar industry were followed by the estab- lishment of other works at Athaldsleben and near Augsburg, and the interest which had thus been aroused in Germany bid fair to be again communicated to the French. This was hastened by a letter of Achard to the editor of the Moniteur, and published in that journal of October 2, 1808. This so thoroughly explains his position, the character of his work, and the progress he had made since the report upon his former results, that we deem it of value to reproduce it here: Sir: The manufacture of sugar in Europe being, in all its relations, and principally under existing circumstances, a very important object, I believe that you will not refuse to give publicity, in the Moniteur, to an exposé of the results of my researches upon the manufacture of sugar from the beet root, and the advantages which this new kind of European industry assures to all nations for which sugar is an exotic staple. It was decided by the report given by the celebrated chemists, Cels, Chaptal, Four- croy, Guyton, Parmentier, Tessier, Vauquelin, and Deyeux, under date of January 25, 1800, to the class of mathematical and physical sciences of the National Institute of France, upon the examination they made of my researches tending to the profit- able extraction of sugar from beets— A. That the beet contains sugar. B. That the sugar may be extracted by different processes, and acquire by suffi- cient purification all the properties of cane sugar. C. That even by following my first methods, which were still very imperfect at the time the celebrated French chemists were occupied with their verification, it was to be presumed that the price of beet-root sugar would not be higher than that of the cane in ordinary times. D. That all doubts of the existence of sugar in the beet root and the possibility of CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 11 extracting it being dissipated, it only remains to be desired that the experiments made on a larger scale may give to my work upon this object the degree of authen- ticity it merits. Encouraged by the suffrage of so illustrious savants, Ihave labored during eight years to perfect the manufacture of sugar from beets by experimental researches made on a large scale, in a factory I have established on an estate called Cunern, which I own near Steinau, in Lower Silesia. My labors have led to the determination of a much more profitable method for extracting the sugar from beet roots, so that by my new processes 25,000 kilograms (55,000 pounds) of these roots furnished 2,309 French pounds (2,098 English pounds) of unclayed muscovado, richer in pure crystalline sugar, in the relation of 662 to 591 than the brown muscovado of Jamaica, or 1,923 French pounds (1,748 English pounds) of a clayed muscovado richer in pure sugar in the relation of 666 to 664 than the white muscovado of Martinique, while by follow- ing my first imperfect methods the commission appointed by the Institute of France to repeat my experiments extracted and was able to extract from 25,000 kilograms (52,000 pounds) of roots, the product of 1 arpent of land (about 1 acre), only 782 pounds of muscovado (711 English pounds), containing 448 French pounds (407 English pounds) of pure sugar; that is, about one-third the quantity that may be extracted by aid of my new processes. The cost of production of muscovado from beet root ac- cording to my new processes, provided the extraction is carried on in a well-established factory, and the manufacturer secures his roots at the moderate price by growing them himself, as those in the colonies almost exclusively cultivate the cane, is compensated for as much by the leaves of the beets, which serve as food for cattle, as by the rum, other spirits, and vinegar extracted from the wastes of manufacturing the muscovado ; that is, the pulp of the root exhausted of the juice which the press can remove, and the molasses. The same being the case with the cane, it follows that sugar may be extracted with the same pecuniary advantage from the beet in Europe as from the cane in the islands. An arpent yielding, according to the basis determined by the French commission charged with repeating my first experiments, 25,000 kilograms of beets, from which is extracted by my perfected methods 2,309 and 1,923 pounds of muscovado, according to the quality given it, it follows that to produce 10,000,000 pounds of muscovado, it is necessary to set apart during the summer months only between 4,330 and 5,200 arpents of land to the culture of the beet. An area of this extent is too small to cause its use in the production of indigenous sugar to be followed by the restriction of other im- portant cultures, and this is all the more true since it is necessary to set apart for the culture of the beet, as it is practiced in this province, only fields which have been used two years for the culture of spring and winter wheats and remain a third year in fallow without furnishing other products than the pasturage of cattle that are al- lowed to range upon it, and which is more than compensated for by the leaves of beets. The facts I have established in the preceding article are based— A. Upon the report which the commission appointed to repeat my first essays in the extraction of sugar from the beet made in 1800 to the class of mathematical and physical sciences of the Institute of Sciences of France. B. Upon the later official examinations of my manufacture of sugar at Gani by my newly-perfected methods and the results they have given, made by a commission appointed by the Prussian Government. “C. Upon the results furnished by a beet-root sugar factory established in this proy- ince according to my instructions by M. le Baron de Koppy on his place called Krayn, near the town of Strehlen. This establishment is adapted to the annual extraction of the sugar contained in 10,000 Silesian quintals or 577,500 * kilograms of beets, besides the manufacture of the rum and vinegar which is obtained from the wastes of prepar- ing muscoyado, viz, the pulp of pressed beets and molasses. The constant success with which the manufacture of muscovado established at * 537 tons of 2,200 pounds. 12 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. Krayn has worked during three years, and the profit it assures its possessor, confirm the results presented by the official examinations which have been made of the manu- facture of muscovado according to my perfected methods, so that itis perfectly proven : 1. That the muscovado furnished by the beet root is of a quality equal to that of the cane. 2. That the quantity of muscovado furnished by beet roots is found so thoroughly proportional to the cost of its extraction and the profits obtained from the waste prod- ucts of manufacture in employing them for that of rum or other spirits of the better quality, and a very good vinegar, that these advantages under favorable local circum- stances wholly, and under all circumstances, in a great part, compensate for the cost of production of muscovado from beets, as is also the case with regard to the mus- covado from the cane—the cost of extraction of which is more or less compensated for by the rum extracted from the waste products they leave. 3. That the manufacture of sugar from beet roots may become the object of an im- portant industry for Europe. a. By the very considerable sums it will save from exportation. b. By the means it will furnish a large number of persons of the indigent classes to procure subsistence in the manual labor it requires. c. By the independence in which, with regard to this staple, it places Europe and other parts of the world which are really the principal depositories. (Signed) ACHARD. CUNERN, near STEINAU, LOWER SILEsIA, 1808. The following:article, from the Moniteur of March 2, 1811, will also be of interest in this connection, as corroborating the statements of Achard : His excellency, the minister of the interior, in making his report to His Majesty upon the sugar of beet roots, had hoped to be able to assure him that, according to the testimony of M. Deyeux, this sugar would present the double advantage of en- riching those who entered into the manufacture and cost a price low enough for con- sumers. But if M. Deyeux was unable to give this assurance on account of the fact that the main end of his work was in the interest of French speculators, to effect an improve- ment upon the processes of the German chemists, we may find it in the success already obtained in the establishment of the Baron de Koppy, success thoroughly recognized in Germany, and of which we have an eye-witness in M. Boudet, chief pharmacist to the army. It will be remembered that M. Achard, chemist in Berlin, who first conceived the idea of making the extraction of sugar from beet roots an object of speculation and manufacture, announced in the Moniteur of 1802 the advantages of this sugar, which he procured by a process more perfect than that which four years before had not been unreservedly accepted by the Institute of France. This number of the Moniteur, having reached Breslau, capital of Silesia, and con- sequently in the neighborhood of the two factories said to exist in the province of Prussia, M. Boudet, being there at the time, considered it of value to verify the facts advanced by Achard, in order in case of need to be able to destroy or increase the im- pression which the article inthe Moniteur may have produced in France. He accord- ingly betook himself to the house of Baron de Koppy, at Krain,* near the town of Strelzlen,* and visited the manufactory. He caused to be sent to M, Parmentier a memoir, an extract of which was inserted in the Bulletin de Pharmacie of the month of February, 1809. We shall not dwell upon the interesting details into which M. Boudet entered to elucidate for his countrymen the means of establishing similar manufactories in *In other places these are written Krayn and Strehlen. CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. iS Europe. It.is sufficient for our purpose here to make known the profit obtained by Baron de Koppy from his own works at the time of the visit of M. Boudet. He affirms, 1st, that Baron de Koppy is very well satisfied with the quantity of sugar, rum, spirits, and vinegar furnished by his beets, and with the ready and lucra- tive sale he had for these different staples; 2d, that the culture of beet roots, far from diminishing that of wheat, contributed to procure for him more abundant crops than be obtained before, first, because in employing for beets only the lands formerly left to fallow, his wheat occupied the same area as before he thought of making sugar; and, second, because beets furnish, besides their sugar, a large mass of food for cattle and sheep. He was able, without enlarging his domain, to double the number of his cattle, to obtain more manure, and with the aid of this manure to obtain larger quan- tities of wheat; 3d. He admitted that he owed to the existing war a large portion of the profits given him by a sugar the people were obliged to use in default of that from canes, but he asserted that should he in times of peace obtain from his factory only the cost of cultivation of the beets and the manipulation of the sugar, he would guard himself from abandoning it so as not to renounce the prosperity it had given him and which it could always preserve on his domain. The sugar sold by Baron de Koppy was not refined. M. Boudet wished to know for himself if it was susceptible of being. The trial he made having succeeded, he thought this sugar would become that of the richer classes, at least until we have the sugar from grapes M. Proust had led us to hope for, the sirup of grapes having already re- placed for the poor that of the cane. The establishment of beet-sugar factories may therefore be undertaken with confi- dence throughout the empire; but we must observe, according to the memoir of M. Boudet, it is especially to the large proprietors that it will be profitable, and that they should content themselves with making raw sugar to be sent like that of the islands to the refineries, one of which is able to purify and convert in#o 'caves the products of twenty factories. As Baron de Koppy admits in his statements to M. Boudet, the events which were brought about by the political conditions of the time did much to favor the success of the enterprise, for shortly after his works were started—in fact, in the years immediately following—Napoleon I issued his famous decrees of Berlin and Milan, establishing the famous continental blockade, and excluding from the markets and consump- tion all material whatsoever of English production or manufacture, and particularly the products of England’s colonies. This, of course, made sugars scarce and dear, and enhanced the profits of the manufacture that Achard and Koppy had so opportunely developed. _ The same conditions stimulated the search for products indigenous to France that might be substituted for those colonial staples which had become articles of daily consumption, and the deprivation of which was most keenly felt, and sugar seemed to have claimed instant at- tention. But the source developed by Achard seems to have almost completely vanished from the thoughts of both scientists and practical manufacturers. The destruction of external commerce, of course, re- sulted in the downfall of the wine trade, and all eyes and all minds naturally turn to the utilization of the enormous crops of grapes France annually produced, and everybody seemed to look to the sugar this fruit contained, both as a substitute for the wanting colonial staple, and as the rescue from the ruin which appeared imminent to the proprietors of 14 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. the vineyards, especially in the south. Parmentier was, among the sci- entists and members of the Institute, the leader of this movement and the promoter of this apparent germ of a new industry and internal source of national wealth, and he published a work entitled, Traité sur Vart de frabriquer les sirops et conserves de raisin”” The methods he indicated in this work were mainly followed in the experiments of 1808 and 1809, but were considerably improved upon by Proust and Fouques. They served, however, in the various southern departments of the empire, for the production of considerable quantities of sirup from the vintages of 1808 and 1809, samples of which were presented to the minister of the interior, who at once called the attention of the Emperor to the results represented in the samples in the fol- lowing report, which will serve to show not only the condition of the enterprise at the close of 1809 and the beginning of 1810, but also what had been done previous to that time and the appreciation with which he regarded it; and the decree of Napoleon issued in consequence of this report will show the interest he had in this possible source of a substitute for the colonial staple. The report appeared in the Moniteur of June 23, 1810. The minister, Montalivet, says: Sire: I have reported to your Majesty the successes obtained by M. Parmentier, who has given very useful attention to perfecting grape sirup and making it suitable to replace cane sugar in many medical and domestic preparations. Your Majesty, who ordered it to be used in the palace, seemed satisfied with it. I desire to-day to fix your attention upon more importantresults. M. Proust, an able chemist, has extracted from grape sirup a concrete sugars M. Fouques has found a means of bleaching it and giving it not only the brilliancy but also the consistency and color of cane sugar. I have called together a commission, composed of Messrs. Berthollet and Chaptal, Sena- tors, and members of the Institute, Parmentier, Vauquelin, and Proust. The sugar of M. Fouques was submitted to them for examination. The commission decided that this substance was worthy of the highest degree of attention, and after having made some tests upon the substance itself, without any preparation, thought it especially essen- tial to determine what would be its effects in different mixtures and different propor- tions. The commission then adjourned, and came together again at the ministry on the 12th of this month. The commission found that conserves containing the triple and quadruple of grape sugar were too sweet. Those containing the double were less sweet than those con- taining a single proportion of cane sugar. That the grape sugar equivalent of cane was a little over 2} to 1. MONTALIVET. In consequence of this report of the minister of the interior, his Ma- jesty issued, under date of June 18, 1810, the following decree: ARTICLE 1. There is accorded the sum of 100,000 francs-($20,000) to M. Proust,* and one of 40,000 francs ($8,000) to Sieur Fouques, in the form of gratuity and by way of encouragement for the discovery they have made of grape sugar. ArT. 2. They shall be obliged to use these two sums to establish grape-sugar fac- tories in that portion of our southern departments designated by our minister of the interior. * By decree of June 21, 1810, ee aa appointed M. Proust, chemist, member of the Legion of Honor. CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 15 ArT. 3. They shall be obliged to give up the secret of their processes, which shall be rendered public, and be sent to all the prefects of our grape-growing departments. Arr. 4. From January 1, 1811, at the latest, the sugar of grapes shall replace in all public establishments the sugar of canes. Art. 5. Our minister of the interior shall recommend to the prefects to propagate and encourage the establisment of factories for either grape sirup or concrete grape sugar, so that in the coming year the inestimable advantages of this precious discovery shall make itself felt for the good of all our people and the interests of our commerce. The same commission to whom was submitted for examination the samples of sirup and sugar produced by Messrs. Proust and Fouques were directed by the minister of the interior to prepare detailed instruc- tions upon the methods to be followed for the successful and profitable extraction of sirup and concrete sugar from grapes, and the result of the work they at once entered upon, a copy of which may be found in the Moniteur of August 25, 1810, was printed and distributed through- out the grape-growing departments of France, in company with the fol- lowing circular letter to the prefects of those departments, under date of August 18, 1810: MONSIEUR LE PREFET: His Majesty the Emperor desires to give an impulse to the manufacture of sugar and sirup from grapes, and he has ordered that there be pre- pared to this effect simple instructions indicating the best processes to follow. He wishes that the instructions prepared by the most celebrated savants, and generally distributed, may lead proprietors to make sirup and sugar for their own uses, and place manufacturers in the way of making it in the surest and most economical man- ner, and completely supplying the markets with products from the next vintage. Isend you several copies of these instructions. Be so good as to distribute them to your officers who will make the best use of them, and cause them to be printed in the journal of your department. You must not content yourseif with causing the description of the process of man- ufacture of sugar and sirup from grapes to be distributed to even the smallest com- munes; you shall stimulate the zeal of your officers; you shall promise and accord prizes to those who shall have made the most of sugar and sirup of the best quality. I will supply, upon your requisition, the funds you may dispose of. I also invite you to immediately confer with directors of hospitals and other chari- table establishments of your department, that they in turn may confer with farmers, proprietors, and pharmacists who may desire to make sirups and sugars, and arrange with these persons such markets as will assure the sale of the products of this year. You shall preside over these arrangements, and take care that, without injuring the interests of the poor, there may be all-sufficient encouragement for manufacturers. You shall address to me a table of the quantities of sugars and ordinary sirups an- nually consumed in each hospital, and of the presumed consumption of the coming yearin sirups and sugars of grapes, with indications of the markets which have been recorded. The subprefects and mayors will, I hope, second you in all your efforts. You shall make known to me those functionaries and special persons who shall be most dis- tinguished in this sphere of usefulness which is open to them. I shall report their efforts and their success, as well as your own, to the Emperor. Let manufacturing establishments multiply everywhere. Let it be considered, M. le _ Préfét, that this is a sort of war we are making against the enemies of the Continent, and which his Majesty considers, more than any other sovereign, worthy of recompense to those who make themselves prominent in the ranks. Count MONTALIVET, Minister of the Interior. 16 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. Immediately after this the Emperor issued the following decree, dated August 22, 1810: Considering that the economical manufacture of sugar from grapes essentially in- fluences the prosperity of agriculture and commerce, and desiring to give to this im- portant branch of the industry a particular mark of our special protection, we have decreed and do decree as follows: ARTICLE 1. On June 1, 1811, the sum of 200,000 francs ($40,000) shall be distributed among twelve establishments which shall have made the largest quantity of sugar from grapes. ArT. 2. The distribution shall be made among the twelve establishments propor- tionally to the quantity of sugar that each one shall have made. Arr. 3. To secure the right of competition it shall be necessary to have made at least 10,000 kilograms (22,000 pounds) of sugar. Art. 4, The quantities of sugar made shall be verified by a commissioner appointed for that purpose by the prefect of the department and certified to by the mayor of the place. ArT. 5. The prefect shall address these evidences to our minister of the interior be- fore May 1, 1811. He shall also send at the same time a sample of the sugar made. ArT. 6. Our minister of the interior shall make to us a report to this effect. He shall make known to us at the same time the manufacturers who have perfected the processes of manufacture and shall propose to us the recompenses and encouragements they shall have merited. But while these encouragements were being given to the enterprise of producing sirup and sugar from grapes in the south to replace the colo- nial staple in the home consumption of France, the results of Achard’s later work, as described in his letter to the editor of the Moniteur in 1808, had awakened anew the interest in the beet root as a source of sugar in the north, and M. Deyeux, reporter of the first committee of the Insti- tute, which conducted the experiments of 1800, in compliance with a re- quest made through the Institute by the minister of the interior, again undertook to repeat in 1809 and 1810 the experiments of the former com- mittee, and the later work of Achard, with such modifications as he deemed advisable and practicable. In this work he was associated with Mr. Barruel, chief of the chemical department of the School of Medicine of Paris, and their labors were rewarded by the production of a certain quantity of muscovado, which they refined and thus secured “ two loaves of sugar, perfectly crystallized, of great whiteness, brilliant and sono- rous, in a word enjoying all the properties of the finest cane sugar,” one of which was presented by the minister of the interior to the Emperor, who is said to have “received it with that benevolence which he accords to every useful object.” But these experiments, while they showed the practicability of extracting sugar from the beet root by the means pro- posed, were still not of a character to show the net cost of producing the sugar, because the experimenters viewed the work only in a chemi- cal sense. Messrs. Barruel and Isnard then undertook to determine this part of the question, and repeated these experiments just mentioned, keeping strict accounts of the cost of each stage of the processes applied and the quantities of the products obtained. It was found that by their processes they were able to extract 1.5 per cent. of muscovado, which CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 17 cost 30 cents per pound. The refined sugar produced from this lower grade cost 40 cents per pound. It appears, however, that the beets treated, which were grown upon the highly manured lands of the plain of Vertus where their works were located, were very unfavorable to the results of the experiments. It also appears that these figures represent the actual cost tc the experimenters in the extraction of the sugar, tak- ing no account of the by products and assigning the maximum price for the beets worked; but the further estimates of cost made up by Messrs. Barruel and Isnard, based upon their own experiments and work- ing by their own processes, supposing the value of the beets to be the actual cost of producing them and the amount of roots handled to be the yield of about 400 acres of land, about 6,000 tons, show that the cost of production should not exceed 8 cents per pound for good muscavado, or 12.9 cents per pound of refined sugar. The actual condition of the sugar enterprise in France at the close of 1810 may be gleaned from the following report to the Emperor by Montalivet, under date of January 10, 1811. The production of sirup and sugar from grapes ordered by your Majesty is pursued with activity ; and even though the season has not been very favorable to the vine, I am in daily receipt of proofs of the zeal with which a large number of proprietors are animated in the different departments, but those of the south and the center are the only ones who may engage in this manufacture, and on this account I would respectfully submit to your Majesty the results which lead us to hope that even the departments of the north may find upon their territory a sugar of very good quality. We know that for some years back beet-root sugar has been manufactured at Berlin and Bres- lau. Messrs. Achard and Koppy addressed to my predecessor very beautiful speci- mens of this sugar, but up to the present but slight results have been obtained. M. Deyeux, first pharmacist to your Majesty and member of the Institute has just re- — undertaken this work and has obtained very remarkable success in the results which he has addressed to me, and which I submit to your Majesty. He has also addressed to me an interesting memoir in which he has reported to the Institute the processes he employed to arrive at his results. He believes these processes to be more simple and better than those adopted by Messrs. Achard & Koppy. But M. Deyeux, obliged to devote himself to trials and experiments to find a good method, is unable as yet to establish the price at which this sugar canbe produced. Everything shows, however, that this price will be sufficiently low to prove a large source of profit to extended manufacture. Already,in the department of the Doubs, a rich proprietor, Mons. Secci, has established a manufacture of this kind and has sown 80 acres in beets, which have yielded him 500,000 kilograms (500 tons) of roots, from which 25 to 30 milliers (27,500 to 33,000 pounds) of refined sugarmay be expected. The prefect of Mont Ton- nére has also informed me that Mons. Molar, a proprietor in his department has sown 80 hectares (197.6 acres) of ground in beets which he proposed to convert into sugar, and for which operation he asks to be admitted to the prizes which your Majesty has deigned to promise to manufacturers of sirup and sugar from grapes. In the De- partment of Roer, the manufacture of sugar from beet-roots is carried on by the broth- ers Herbem at Urduiger. The prefect of the Rhine and Moselle has transmitted to me samples of a very fine cassonade from beet roots, manufactured by Mons. Antho- nin, who asks for encouragement to enable him to enter upon this manufacture on a es scale. Finally, for Holland, the prince, governor-general has sent me a sample of beet-root sugar made by M. Linden at Hemmer, in whose labors he appears to have confidence ; and the prefect of the Bouches-du-Rhone has shown me samples of beet- root, sugar made by M. Vanrroggen, one of his officers. 2SB 18 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. I shall, at a later date, report to your Majesty the results which these different at- tempts promise. At this time, I confine myself to presenting the sugar made by M. Deyeux. It in no way differs from the refined sugar of the colonies. This test shows what may be expected from this work as regards the quality of the material. I shall now study carefully the means of determining to what extent this manufacture may become economical and the measures to be taken to render it general in the Depart- ments of the north. MONTALIVET, Minister of the Interior. It is to be remarked further that prizes were also offered by the Société @ Encouragement pour VIndustrie Nationale for the production of sugar from grapes or beets, the annual prize being 2,400 franes ($480) for the best essay and sample, 1,000 franes ($200) for second best, and, on Feb- ruary 20, 1811, it received, through its founder and then president, Count Chaptal, a memoir upon the methods for the extraction of sugar from beets, by M. Drappiez, a pharmacist at Lille, together with a loaf of the sugar, of which he had been able to obtain 50 quintals by the method he described. The committee on chemical arts of the society compared the sample of sugar submitted by M. Drappiez with a sample of refined cane sugar they were then able to obtain at a cost of 95 cents per En- glish pound, and failed to detect the “ slightest difference” between them. M. Drappiez obtained by his method a yield of 1.3 per cent., the cost of which he estimated at 80 cents per pound. Shortly after this there appeared in the Moniteur of March 23, 1811, :a statement to the effect— That there had been presented to his Majesty several quintals of refined crystallized ‘beet-root sugar, having all the qualities of that of the cane; loaves of both kinds have been mixed together, and it was impossible to distinguish between them. It follows from the report of a commission charged with the examination of the differ- ‘ent means proposed to replace by indigenous processes the foreign productions so costly to France, that 70,000 acres cultivated in beet roots would furnish the 30,000,000 -of pounds necessary to our consumption. And two days later Napoleon issued the first decree, in which he pro- vided for direct encouragement of the beet-sugar industry, and which was as follows: PALACE OF THE TUILLERIES, March 25, 1811. NAPOLEON, Emperor of the French, §c.: Upon a report of a commission appointed to examine the means proposed to natural- ‘ize, upon the continent of our empire, sugar, indigo, cotton, and divers other pro- ‘ductions of the two Indies: Upon presentation made to us of a considerable quantity of beet-root sugar, refined, .erystallized, and possessing all the qualities and properties of cane sugar: Upon the presentation made to us at the council of commerce of a great quantity .of indigo, extracted. from the plant woad, which our departments of the south pro- duce in abundance, and which indigo has all the properties of the indigo of the two Indies: Having reason to expect that by means of these two precious discoveries our empire will shortly be relieved from an exportation of 100,000,000 frances ($20,000 ,000) hith- -erto necessary for supplying the consumption of sugar ane indigo: We have decreed and do decree as follows: CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 19 ArTICLE 1. Plantations of beet root proper for the manufacture of sugar shall be formed in our empire to the extent of 32,000 hectares (79,040 acres). ArT. 2. Our minister of the interior shall distribute 32,000 hectares among the de- partments of our empire, taking into consideration those departments where the cul- ture of tobacco may be established, and those which from the nature of the soil may be more favorable to the culture of the beet root. ART. 3. Our prefects shall take measures that the number of hectares allotted to their respective departments shall be in full cultivation this year, or next year at the latest. Art. 4. A certain number of hectares shall be laid out in our empire in plantations of woad proper to the manufacture of indigo in the proportion necessary for our man- ufacture. _ Art. 5. Our minister of the interior shall distribute the said number among the de- partments of our empire, taking into particular consideration the departments be- yond the Alps and those of the south, where this branch of industry formerly made great progress. Art. 6. Our prefects shall take measures that the number of hectares allotted to their departments shall be in full cultivation next year at the latest. ArT. 7. The comnuission shall, before the 4th of May, fix upon the most convenient places for the establishment of six experimental schools for giving instruction in the manufacture of beet-root sugar conformably to the processes of chemists. Art. 8. The commission shall also, before the same date, fix upon the places most convenient for the establishment of four experimental schools for giving instruction upon the extraction of indigo from the lees of woad, according to the processes ap- proved by the commission. ArT. 9. Our minister of the interior shall make known to the prefects in what places these schools shall be formed, and to which pupils destined to this manufacture should be sent. Proprietors and farmers who may wish to attend a course of lectures in the said experimental schools shall be admitted thereto. Art. 10. Messrs. Barruel and Isnard, who have brought to perfection the processes for extracting sugar from the beet root, shall be specially charged with the direction of two of the six experimental schools. Art. 11. Our minister of the interior shall, in consequence, cause to be paid the sum necessary for the formation of the said establishments, which sum shall be charged to the fund of 1,000,000 francs ($200,000) in the budget of 1811 at the disposal of the said minister for the encouragement of beet root-sugar and woad indigo. ArT. 12. From the Ist of January, 1813, and upon a report to be made to our minis- ter of the interior, the sugar and indigo of the two Indies shall be prohibited, and con- sidered as merchandise of English manufacture or proceeding from English commerce. ArT. 13. Our minister of the interior is charged with the execution of the present decree. Early in the following April, 1811, Decostils, reporter of the com- mittee on chemical arts of the Société d Encouragement pour V Industrie Nationale, reported upon a memoir and results presented by M. De- rosne. He was the first to suggest the use of quicklime in the puri- fication of the juice. His method was based upon three principal points: (1) the use of caustic lime; (2) the use of alum; and (3) the use of alcohol. The lime he adds to the fresh juice, of which he succeeded in expressing 63 per cent. the weight of the root. The proportion added was 0.24 gram per liter of juice. After the addi- tion of lime in a thick milk the juice was rapidly brought to boiling and the scums removed as they formed. The juice was then separated 20 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET, from the sediment, which settled and concentrated. It was then puri- fied with alum and blood, and further treated in the usual way. The proportion of sugar extracted by this method is stated to have been 44 per cent., and was the highest result that had yet been attained. The beets from which this high yield was obtained were of the white Swedish variety, while the beets of the plain of Aubervillier did not yield as much by 24 per cent. After the announcement of this method of Derosne, it appears that little was published on the subject of the new industry that was now beginning to assume important dimensions until the beginning of the following year, when Montalivet reported to his Majesty that 6,785 hectares (16,758 acres) had been sown in beets in different departments of the empire, producing 98,813 tons of roots. The number of factories established was 39 or 40, and the minister estimated that if the whole product were worked up the result would be 1,500,000 kilograms (3,300,000 pounds) of sugar; but the plantations were in many cases too far removed from the factories to make it possi- ble to transport the roots with profit. He also gave a table showing the number of hectares sown in beets in each department, the quantity of roots harvested, and the reasons which prevented more extensive plant- ing in each. The latter seemed to be, principally, lack of sufficient seed and lateness of the season. About the same time a report was made to the Emperor by Count Chaptal showing the cost, by the methods then known and in use, of the culture of the beet and the manufacture of sugar. The first he es- timates at 176 franes per metrical arpent (about $35 dollars per acre), the yield of which varies from 12,000 to 45,000 to 50,000 pounds. The second cost he estimated at 15 cents per pound, supposing all the mo- lasses to be sold; but if no molasses be sold then he estimates that the cost would reach 30 centsper pound. For the cost of refined sugar he makes two estimates: the first supposing 15 cents per pound as the value of the raw sugar, and in the second he values it at 30 cents. f Vic} [o) ; : © lor] B wo & 28 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. MANUFACTURE. AY e oe | 5 - © Cost. £ ia ee 2 Beek | aeajr 2 fe ae @ Name. 3 E P| a Bs is és a m @ Hi AB £8 A Aw 7S ee Ale 3 come) a of BS eo oo E Ps 5 cane pe &f Ry 4 al 2 a} a a Fs me g 5 S ral S r 5 5 = vA a a n is) ~Y AY PY Cents. CRnptaliuee one 2 eee - = 2 o= 120 UO IS See BAKU PIE SS 544 RESERES, 11.8 $4 00 M. de Dombaste...--. --..-. -- .---<. 150 | 2,250 | 99, 000 2 \$27, 656 | $12 29 27 6 00 Duke of Ragusa ..-.-...------------ 120 | 1,000 | 82,500 3.75 | 87, 000 8 70 9.9 4 00 (Oney Gl oes Skt as se Game poe cess ce] ce ae ae 2,000) |ce25--- BIO SABE eee eb +k 5.6 3 00 CAHGR ae see ceee = ere ca anes eat emanes U5; Uh Poe (US SERPS Se ia as Selle wank lib)” BGS eee Dubrunfaut determines from his own observations as the cost of pro- duction 5.2 cents per pound avoirdupois for the intermittent process, and 4.8 cents for the continuous. Colonial sugars were at this time worth - 1.40 to 1.50 franes per kilogram or 12.7 to 13.6 cents per pound, and it was stated to be impossible to produce them at a cost of less than 5.5 cents per pound in the Antilles. The above estimate of cost given by Dubrunfaut was for working about 1,000 tons per annum. For working double that quantity the net cost appears at that time to have been greater, and reached 5.8 cents for the intermittent process and 5.4 for the continuous process. From this time the industry continued to spread rapidly, and to pro- duce everywhere fruitful and profitable results, though, strange to say, no record seems to have been kept of the statistics of production in France until the year 1829, when it was stated at 4,000 tons. In Germany the industry did not revive until after 1835, when atten- tion was called to it by Krause of Austria, and Schubarth of Prussia, who went to France, the first in 1834 and the second in 1836, to study the progress and condition of the manufacture. As a consequence of these trips and the prominence given by the press of the information they carried home with them, the culture of the beet was inaugurated anew, factories were again erected in large numbers, and the industry soon became so powerful as to be competent to contribute to the reve- nue of the government. CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 29 CHAPTER II. STATISTICS. The departments of France in which the culture of the beet for the pre- duction of sugar is mostly confined, or where it is most active, are the Aisne, Nord, Pas-de-Calais, Somme, Oise, and Ardennes. Beets are grown for the production of sugar in the other departments, it is true, but the manufacture is carried on there to a limited extent as compared with those mentioned, and it is a rare exception to find it in any depart- ment south of the river Loire or east of the Saone. These facts are il- lustrated in the following table, showing the number of factories in existence and the quantities of sugar (in tons of 2,200 pounds) produced in the different departments in the campaign of 187 7~78: 0. of Departments. tactor- |Production. ies. ons. esate oto ty Dock Sees SSeRdocceseeeerscnt SSS Paes Seg Ss eR eee 91 83, 500 See eee eee ee ee eh one nnn ere ere 156 | 99, 500 Pan se NOURI ieee oe one a= Soe vo Soe ce bance ae doen Hewlec 5 Oe Lai telnntocteeee 96 61, 000 6 Sole Eee i Seer peer e ee, Oy aes mE eee oe ee een ee eee 65 54, 500 Oise ..----2 Pewee ce eee cee eee en ene eee ee een nee ee ee eee eee eee 40 33, 500 has ERT CE SNe ap ag La lee a ins ee OE op ES Ne) 11 ite Die, Gelade Be dae Apr pee = a RE al She gs Bt ONE a Eh Se Parner 2 “ls pele a neat panied emir! 8 85 wh ERY AE EGES OL 18s CR da sane a 1 i 2 THO tte pe Re tht es, = ee a ti pa EE Senay gE a hd BP ple i ee fee ee 4 Coote & foe ess Suber opp Bes ol Se a rie ar 2A CE oh ae a 2 gd ee ees 4 ARCH PISTENI Oe eee oe en nee sh OT VANS ACES PY Sk DUNNE deka pee AAR 1 CELT) a) S077 je Sea ea as it oe ea ee eho eee claw ne Mas esse 3 ae Leth oy eR Se ees Sane Pee ee re eee teeta eS ee bh ee eee ee ee ee 1 SOLA SS OO SE eo eT ee ee ee ee ae ee ee ee ere 6 Mouths: Bi-Moselle.. -- 2-2 eee ns She em Fe ee ee ee ee 2 Meuse. --.-=-- Suabetd Seu seieete eae ee teen Joe pice es Seca Se IST Leeks 1 58, 000 CGS eet me ee he tae ie RE eto as Re CRN lela de taeda ie eas Saw oR e hie apa 1 TPF UE UU ESO RR ee eee ee ee oe eh Sener 5 POO MOING ae hao ee aes an 4 ven ove awabann cess seteseteeat eed dsiutuel 3 OPM TIOWTE f=

—) HO OO SH HRS > CS “> J —) OAMHAIMCMAUOANUSSHMOSHOHMDAHOAMHOW =_ tI G "8.007 “m0} rod onye A ‘morjonpord [vjoy, 180'L 08g ‘G 180 ‘L £68 ‘2 OST ‘ZL 020 ‘P LZE ‘OT O0T ‘8 G6P ‘P Ost ‘or $28 ‘ST 602 ‘L 882 'Z ah 06% $18 ‘OT SLI ‘FT @BL ‘VT Sb 'G 686 ‘OL CZL ‘OL II¢ ‘2 ZE9 'Z Gal ‘OL i ae $8 ‘8 GPL ‘IL 988 ‘S GZ ‘OT 160 ‘TL Coe ‘SL LLY ‘6 *8U0T, ‘grovrod ppers oSvi0ay o SOaSatS rHoon col aAroscr 08 ‘9 “‘spunog e108 ed pesn psag = 082 ‘IL OF8 | 666 ‘3 890 ‘¢ 882 ‘2 PSL ‘¢ 600 ‘20 TI6 ‘9 POP ‘0 BLE 6¢9 ‘T SFL LOP 126 ‘20 000 ‘ST GPS ‘LT 883 ‘G Te £88 ‘GT Pz ‘12 #26 ‘2 $69 ‘OL 884 016 ‘¢ OZL ‘TT bIS 'T 810 ‘G L8T ¢g9 ‘OL P80 ‘T L69 ‘6 GLB chr 686 ‘6 Th ‘eet £18 ‘8 “S040 V *sjoeq UT pezaeld va £68 ‘186 'T LG ‘819 'T BVG ‘926 'T OLE ‘OAT ‘E £0 ‘695 ' 160 ‘PEs PIP ‘8h0 GBL ‘01S C1@ ‘6L9 80 ‘299 TL9 ‘Tes GL6 ‘90% $96 ‘Igg £60 ‘cb 020 ‘199 £29 ‘19h 066 ‘2b 899 ‘TT9 G08 ‘163 IVI ‘656 L00 ‘SOT V6S ‘GhP 690 ‘6LL SZL ‘939 LPP '89F BPG ‘POs O8P ‘19% 109 ‘O9T 160 ‘09s 620 ‘E8P 'T SPE 1606 ‘I Tal ‘868 'T PLL ‘c08 ‘1 LLY ‘STL 'T G00 ‘908 ‘L F8L ‘918 'T 000 ‘8&h ‘T “Salo y ee a ES EE EE “Q0UJINS [VIO], 88 ‘T69 | 629 ‘T80 ‘T PIL ‘gg LOL 'VE9 896 ‘028 668 ‘scp GOL ‘S68 858 ‘E68 P89 ‘6L8 $90 ‘TOL ‘T OL ‘bS3 P22 ‘G09 160 ‘GGL PSP ‘OTP GPL ‘LOL OF0 ‘SOL ‘T 689 ‘986 LO& ‘890 'T 008 ‘ose ‘T 920 ‘6S9 "S010 Se eee ete ee Se ee * -oynNTT) OxLOT pal" el Ne st Ahctl sealalel 2 9) be ap ae eee) Fenasoa ee OBIE Eee gE et Le eee, OL aes arte sree" O1LOTT JO O1pay 2 eS ee ee ae v7ttt tT OUTUIEA 99 OTT gfe RI SS Tea nahn : sr teses** QDMOITy -** HOTT go ONG Ree eee ee veeeete ess ganar alee iieia= =“ TOUTOT OE: ~- sqnog. aas'sis's > aS > OT DODIOUL poe on hee. MOOT. a aislen Ne “ASOT IOC) Ee OD sso >="""*QIMOTLOJUT OFWIIVID ggnqone,” “9umoIvy JO IVY, Me gs sities Sis. eiereenis erie OULULON : *-(-xneq) 891AQg RSTn eT ORI OHO ORION srrttrssss =" OTLIR]T 39 OUIBG OINOLIOJUT YULAG eases (QyNV]{) SIOATS Red tiie. 5 sielalaceiereiaie grate otoaeg Sisieinisalsvacines OUTEICG Seieiicisina Seo = LO FOLOMLO UR torr strssssers (.QINRT) OMOEY Sepa qaoyyeg, (-oynvyy) oUNTAy “vss s* (-B9[B]MOLIQ) SegUgIA | ie SSS RP aa emog op Ang pniele ela SIV[VD Op Sv_ "=" 9TLIO ce eeet erste eeeeee ees ees: O81 (ee tee et eeeeneeeeeer ese DIONT ser seees OTAQTNE sioisciets Saar ae OSLO ME slolaterisainisvann Jes ie": GHNOAT -- -QTES0TT 49 9Y}IMETT oumaAv yy seo CopOury) OULV TL sr oS yaaa Oule yy Piste sigaigi= eis onic ass OU OUUN ccinia'sieisomnininiai=\* OTTOUTQOIOU TENN: “7-7 O19Z0'T Tro rcecsesses* OUMOIS) 49 90'T ‘sy uouyredeq CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 33 CHAPTER II. METEOROLOGY AS APPLIED TO BEET-ROOT CULTURE—CONDITIONS MOST FAVORABLE—COMPARISON OF CONDITIONS IN THE BEET-GROWING DIS- TRICTS OF EUROPE—LIMITS OF CONDITIONS GOVERNING THE EXTEN- SION OF THE CULTURE—LOCATION OF SECTIONS OF FAVORABLE CON- DITIONS IN THE UNITED STATES—CONCLUSIONS. In the meteorological conditions of various sections we believe will be found the most important influences that have a bearing upon the limits to the extension of the industry we have under consideration. Inestab- lishing the culture of the beet and the manufacture of sugar therefrom, much of course depends upon the social and commercial relations of a community, but these are to some extent variable according to the de- sire of the population composing the community, and may be modified by human influences. Deficiencies in the physical or chemical characters of soils may be modified by the application of human intelligence, skill, and labor, but the influences which may affect the culture of the beet for good or evil, and over which we have no control, are those which constitute the subject for consideration in the present section of this re- port. In this branch of the subject there is nothing to be done but to make a comparison of the conditions of the section in which an attempt at the culture is contemplated, and those of sections in which the in- dustry is most prosperous, and enter into or abandon the enterprise, - according to the results of the comparison as they are favorable or oth- erwise. The principal conditions to be studied in this connection are very nat- urally those of temperature and moisture with which the plant may be- surrounded, and we are perfectly aware that, in order to make this work. complete, the examination and comparison of the conditions abroad and at home should be much more extended and exhaustive than we have: been able to make on account of the various limitations to which we have been subject. However, the results we may here make public will not be without value as a guide to those desiring to attempt establish- ing the production of sugar from the beet root in any portion of the United States or, indeed, elsewhere. The a.nount of moisture at the disposition of tie plant at all seasons of its growth is the most important factor in its normal development that will affect to any marked extent the quantity and quality of the crop and consequently the existence and progress of this culture. Temperature has an influence it is true, but, except it be too low, it has not the same power for evil that deficiency of moisture may have, and we have nothing to fear concerning too low a temperature during the growing season in the United States. In fact, the plant is more likely to suffer from too high a temperature during the summer months than from a deficiency of heat. In determining whether a section be favorable to the culture it is, of ‘8SB 34 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET, course, of importance to note whether the temperature is sufficiently high to insure the development of the plant, and, after this, note must be taken of the rainfall with which the section is favored during each month. It is not sufficient to know that the quantity is equal to or above a certain average, but that it be regularly supplied, and also that the temperature is not sufficiently high to evaporate it before it can be made use of by the plant. In this study, therefore, it is desirable that we take into consideration as factors the average temperature, rainfall, humidity, and number of rainy days for each month during the growing season. . Upon consulting the map of the European states showing the location of beet-root culture, we find it generally concentrated toward the north. But, in the study of the meteorological conditions, we find that the quan- tity of rainfall during the year is greater in the south than in the north, and yet in the former section vegetation seems to suffer more from want of moisture than in the latter. Marié Davy justly explains this’ by re- ferring it to the evaporation due to a higher temperature, more direct sunlight, and a less number of days upon which rain falls. Thus he says :* Generally, rains are less numerous, more abundant, and less disseminated in the south thaninthenorth. Itrains longer and more frequently in the neighborhood of the coasts than in the interior; and, finally, mountains are a cause of increase in the to- tal annual rainfall, especially upon sides exposed to winds from the sea. The south of France, therefore, receives more of water in rains than the north, but the rains are less frequent. The temperature being higher, the atmosphere contains more of aque- ‘ous vapor, with equal degrees of the hygrometer, and, when the condensation of moist- ure takes place, it furnishes a larger quantity. But the condensations are more rare, and, as the evaporation is very active, the periods of drought are long and sometimes very intense. Sections bordering on the ocean and the channel are more frequently rainy than the interior. * * * The French coast of the Mediterranean forms an exception to this rule. Here the annual rainfall is but 0.60 meter (23.6 inches) not- withstanding their southern position. This is because the rainy winds of the center of France reach the basin of the Mediterranean only after passing the Cevennes Mount- .ains, where they lose the greater portion of their water. Concerning evaporation the same writer says:t It is the reverse of rainfall. This phenomenon varies widely according to times and places. If we consider first the annual average by regions, we obtain the results snmmed up below: Inches. Plans of ine North Ob LaNCO 222 cose sas saclee chee sooo nee ee > coe ee 24.4 PLNS OF URESWESt OLE TANCE 2ecss : secon cece Come wee ceseitaes cacee noes 26.7 Plateau of the central region 5.2.22. {22 2222-22-22 coe nne foe oe pee eee enon n wane 34.25 Southern Pramced. 4) A cjcuc 2. beet wos 2. Ja ose a Se. 2 ch eee 87.79 Whether these relations be the sole influence tending to confine the beet culture of France to the limits mentioned above or not, it will be of interest to see what are the conditions most suitable to the culture as de- termined by observation, and what are the conditions recorded for the * Meteorologie et Physique agricoles, Paris, 1875, p. 190. tlbid, p. 193. : 7 —— CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 35 sections in which the industry has secured firm footing and has become a source of profit to those engaged in it. But before proceeding to the discussion of the records we desire to call attention to the notions con- cerning the conditions found by observation to be most favorable to the crop both as to the production of quantity and of quality. In this connection Briem* considers that— The temperature of the soil should be at least 50° F. at the time of sowing. A warm month of May favors germination. A dry hot July makes the roots run to seed; rainy August gives weight; dry September increases the sugar, while a wet Septem- ber produces the opposite effect. From May to the middle of June should be warm and tolerably moist, with a day temperature of 60° to 65° F. June and July should be relatively cool and rainy, with a day temperature of 65° to 67° F. Angust and Sep- tember should be warm and relatively dry with an average temperature of 64.5° to 67.5° F. October cool and fresh with an average temperature of 47.7°. The sum? of degrees of heat required for production of sugar is di- vided as follows, in round numbers: April, 1,370; May, 1,840; June, 1,980; July, 2,140; August, 2,050; September, 1,840; October, 1,530— total, 12,750 degrees Fahrenheit in seven months. Bassett gives figures for sum total of degrees of heat required for production of sugar which do not vary much from those of Briem. Dr. Kohlrausch § says: “Among the labors and studies having in view the law presiding over this plant (the beet-root) the meteorological con- ditions are with this regard well worthy of attracting our closest atten- tion.” Dr. Joseph Hanaman has just published the results of observations of 1877 at the station of Lobositz, of which he is director. The tem- perature and the atmospheric conditions were very favorable in 1877, as well for the normal development of the plant as for the formation of sugar. Thus the year 1877 may be counted upon as one of the best of the last decennial periods. The last months of growth were eminently proper to facilitate maturation of the roots, the saccharine content and purity of which were exceptional. The month of September was con- stantly dry, except toward the last days, and the nights were cool. Dr. Hanaman says: “The influence of the temperature explains the exceptionally high polarizations and remarkable purity of the beet of 1877. Lobositz beets of that year varied in richness between 13.51 and 15.64 per cent. of sugar, with a quotient of purity of 80.4 and 92.7.” The observations of Hanaman correspond with those of Deherain, who, by comparing the yields obtained in his experiments of 1875, 1876, * Journal des Fabricants de Sucre, October 23, 1878. + This is determined by multiplying the daily average of temperature by the num- _ ber of days in the month. ¢ Guide Pratique du Fabricant de Sucre, 1872, vol. i, p. 419. § Journal des Fabricants de Sucre, 1878, March 27. 36- CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. and 1877, and the temperature and rainfall from September 15 to Octo- ber 15 of the same years, found the following relations : September 15 to October 15. Years. a een DS Oinvan iy Orman Average temperature. | Rainfall. Inches. TORS oi ae eee cet ete eek ot db some kite aay 8087 ahr se2ee ees 2.64 | Poor beets. NST Grecate teas ae ceskiss sh cd acouas case pacse eae ces 590s4 Nahr. ese one: 2.17 Do. 2 OE ENERO MORSE CE Ee ees eis. ~ Salen 510NS abr sss. 2-e eee 0.45 | Rich beets. We now come to the consideration of the meteorclogical conditions actually existing in the beet-growing districts of Europe, from a com- parison of which with those of a similar character in our own country, we must determine those sections in which we may enter into the prose- cution of the industry with the greatest probabilities of success. A very clear notion of the general conditions of temperature and rain- fall prevailing in the beet-growing districts of Europe may be obtained from the table of curves given in the lower right-hand corner of the European map. The curve of rainfall for the north of France and Germany is copied from a table of curves given by Marié Davy;* and the curves of tem- perature and rainfall for Cambrai, located in the midst of the beet-growing district of France, and for Halle, sifuated in the.most important sugar- producing section of Germany, are plotted from our own compilations. From these we see how closely the deductions made from a study of the recorded conditions compare with those arrived at by Briem, Hana- man, and Deherain, from their cultural experiments and observations. It was our intention when starting out with this work to confine the meteorological researches to the conditions of France, but the paucity and irregularity of the records of the climatic conditions of that coun- try forced us to look to other countries for the data we required. In this connection we find the records of Belgium, cared for by the illus- trious Quétélet, more complete in all particulars than those of any other country. From them, as given in his ‘“ Météorologie de Belgique,” we have constructed the following tables that will explain themselves: Average temperatures in Belgium for the different months. . a ro | 53 mb 2 (o>) i) b e° a a 2 Places. I 5 x | ws : 3 5 s | g 5 il 2 on bs 2 bB Ep pe) ° £ 2 Sie) 8) & |) Ss |8 is | se Be |) al 4 beet a os | 4 ee See 1 — eee © Brpxelles Ao. 3 spcetan bres 35 96| 38. 12} 41.90} 48. 2 56. 12) 63. 14 64, 94) 64.40) 59.00) 51. 98) 42. 80) 38. 12 PIOSG c= 222s ademea= cs 2s 32.90) 36.68) 41.36) 46.94) 56.30) 64. 22, 67.28) 65. 84 58. 82} 50. 00) 42. 80) 35. 60 (E11 eens meee 33. 62) 35.78] 41.54] 50.72) 59.90) 67.28) 68. 90| 67. 82| 60. 26) 50. 90} 40. 82) 35. 96 WOStendé... [2 eese = seeiae 36.32) 37.94) 42.44) 49.28 56. 84) 61. 34! 64. 04! 64.04) 60.98) 53. 24) 43. 52) 38. 66 HOWVAIN ... jn cas wseeaee anc 32.18) 35.06) 49.46) 48.56) 57.02) 62.96 64. 58) 64,22) 57.92) 49. 64) 42.44) 27. 86 Bis SCrON j sdc0ceaebaeceee 35. 42) 39. 20) 39.38) 48.38) 56. 66) 62. 60) 65. 84) 63. 86] 57.56, 51. 08) 42. 98) 37. 40 Liége..............-.----| 34.84) 36.68) 41.00) 48.74) 57.38) 64 22) 66.56] 65. 84) 58. 82) 51.80) 40. 82] 37. 22 ENeernoea ra ea Gee eee 34. 88) 55.96) 39.74) 47.84); 56.12) 63. 86. 66. 02| 64.58) 56.84 50.78} 40.28, 36. 86 DUAVElOG sc, 22 sep eswe ee 32.18) 32.90) 37.22) 46.04 55. 04) 63.86, 65.43) 63.86) 54.86 48.74) 37. 58) 33. 80 AIO as seein scene oes 36. 32| 35. 24) 39. 02) 39. me 48. 20) 57. ay 62. 42) 55. 94) 53. a 40. 46) 32.90) 23. 80 | | * Météorologie et Physique Agricoles. e factory 70 400-500. South Holland He Waldecle G. ve Factory to 500-700 ” mcr borg be NHblland 7? ane F Saone et Loire F' a Pe we FE! Pay de Dome FE. Ye Factary to 700-1000 » / BrndenInurg P Cite @OrE. Lactory 01000-1500 » ber Yssel H. Gelderland H. alicia A Vurtemberg G. we MAP of the | Beet Growing Districts | of FRANCE, GERMANY & AUSTRIA Showms 1® The velane pf soefhee ine aS © Department or Province gh stan ave recorded for either IntvorAngustis 70) FE 2"! | line passing th ns for which the maximum ay tempe of the number of Factomes to the Square mu fe’ ¢$ 0) S {} _ eseme -* 4 Grows Prieslana estan YA Deenuns DENMA Westphalia SWItT ZERLAN Neo ze gJix 1s H rGé > IN Ens Manche Calvados pri sti Cotes du Nowd , Orne L Te de Vilunne 2 foebiten fe Mayenne, 2 sg ) Sarthe ox 2 > | x | ~ Loner et Cher | ‘ Indee et Laie ee g a * i ) or Inte it Doubs, tthe o <9") in Jura a Charente Paes XN Hanite Vie & | a Covreze ~ Cironile Dordogne ~ 4 = Saul TanteLoire ~ nee vy | Le, fa oGerome; Jot J . 5 j Val. a anton tx £ivagent Pb sedcho Drome = Gers f . Tarn Sora. Va ~ Hasson Pyrinden ‘ Biases Alpes Alpes FL . MGnritiine as ie SS 5 Merman ee A me ea tt 2 4 . Ane ge Ande Var I =“ WM 71a TERRA Draven by Coa Mane NZ A N i es a i a oa f dD SAXONY Upper Auster ~ Salzburg for, Tyrol = Carinthia Carmol mets P Shlrvg Westphatin ! Ahunerra EB Belgnim FP Prance_ 6 Germany Welland PPrassia ’ ~ Ss Styria Transylvania A Tay Jor] Goma Cre of Raintitl Yor | 2.3} Noth of France and Ceomeny. | Mhiald of Caambreri Dee? Nord > + MaltesProv Snscony Eiaeta ed i = S| Yet [eo sped | T | | | | emperanire af Ormibras Dep* Nort France. | e } } 20 Trnernture at Hatin Prov.Sauran E Gomany | 20.) | Py very am CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 37 Average humidity in Belgium for the different months. : i . : . be Oo oO it m & : 2 : 2 2 Places. a{s8h4 ba 3 5 i a a a = PPE le re sl e)S!] 781312 bs Ee} 5 2 Serre! a at ls |e at ae TS Pe |e STEIN oo ecin ain'e acs gon 87.3 | 83.5 | 73.5 | 65.9 | 64.2 | 64.8 | 66.8 | 68.3 | 73.7 | 80.4 | 85.2 | 89.0 (PLD. tee Se 91.0 | 88.7 | 81.9 | 75.0 | 69.3 | 68.1 | 68.9 | 71.2 | 78.1} 83.3 | 88.0 | 90.4 SERIE fo sein a cons oon 89.2 | 88.4 | 85.4 | 78.8 | 71.8 | 75.0 | 71.2 | 78.6 | 83.8 | 84.4 | 88.8 | 92.0 hin 2 Jee eae 85.0 | 86.5 | 85.0 | 83.5 | 81.0 | 69.0 | 75.0 | 82.5 | 87.0 | 89.5 | 85.0 | 90.5 SS rote Sa a 92.3 | 91.4 | 85.8 | 77.7 | 74.6 | 75.3 | 76.9 | 80.4 |.85.0 | 89.8 | 90.3 | 92.2 LD e a eee 91.5 | 87.0 | 85.0 | 79.4 | 75.6 | 74.1 | 77.2 | 78.3 | 85.2 | 87.8 | 88.8 | 90.4 Relation between the numbers of years above the average and those below it. . : a B i PB 4 - as | 4 ai | ete Places. = Se lat - : 2 A g E F | LeeLee kee |S} @! él ere] s o & = 5 : ° i) ah et feat lea) Set ee) ess leat lal | Oboe: he oT os | 7-6; 86) 410) 86/ 86 | 7-7 | 7-7 | 68); 7-7} 410 2-12! 7-6 SU it eee eee | 32) 82} 32] 41/| 23] 23] 22] 32] 23] 32] 32) 23 li [a eee 1-2} 1-1) 1-1} 1-2 )71-1) 22) 22) 41) M1] M1]. 1-1 Sat a 65 | 47) 56/ 47) 3-8) 56) 3-8; 47| 47| 65| 56) 47 Namur .--.... We sneeee---- 24; 24) 42/| 24) 33) 33 | 3-3 | 3-3) 33) 3-3) 33 | 2-4 Number of rainy days for the different months—average of a series of years. ; 3 a | oa : b | co o 5 Val z oe 2 > 2 Places. S 5 a = : E 5 3 8 E = z e BS 2 Bb Ep = S 2 g = i (iil War ES "Pal Sag IR PP a = n= Se Po mA te PS Tao BoP PCP awe] 6) Boe PESBIERGUDN occ sc ac wc sa 14.8 |.12.1 | 14.7 | 14.3 | 14.9 | 15.6 | 16.2 | 15.3 | 14.7] 17.3 | 16.1 | 15.3 Cart Re eo eee 14.0 | 10.7 | 14.2 | 14.6 | 15.7 | 15.4 | 17.0 | 15.6 | 14.9 | 17.1 | 15.7 | 13.6 22105) ete lela ala Rai 10.8 | 10.6 | 13.4 | 10.2 | 13.8 | 15.0 | 16.2 | 10.4] 15.8 | 13.0 | 17.0 | 11.6 icueans . S720 995. 256 12.3 | 10.8 | 15.5 | 14.7 | 16.4 | 16.7 | 18.1 | 17.9 | 13.7 | 17.7 | 17.6 | 12.7 Siemirond < - 2 cssees2 5. 10.7} 10.3 | 11.7 | 18.0, |7125 | 15.2 | 12.5 | 15.7 | 13.3 | 13.5 | 13,5 |/10.2 armnn: 656. .PaGS ay 20 14.3} 9.8 | 13.6 | 14.0 | 14.9 | 16.1 | 14.4 | 14.0 | 14.9 | 16.0 | 14.0 | 14.9 Liége ... --| 13.7] 10.9 | 13.4 | 16.6 | 17.1 | 15.7 | 15.8 | 16.2 | 15.2 | 15.9 | 14.6 | 13.6 Stavelot ..-.---.......--- 12.5) 7.8] 89] 12.8 | 15.9 | 15.5 | 15.6 | 14.9 | 13.7 | 15.0 | 10.6 | 11.7 Relation between the number of years for which the recorded figures are above the average and below it, as shown by the observations of a number of years. Places. Spe Sas os 25. 28t 5. 22. Stavelot aoe eB | 3 2 i > i] ei = | 12-14] 15-11 S291) bea 6-6 6-6 33 | 42 7-6 7-6 8-9 | 9-8 65| 6-5 4\5 7-19 13-13 3-3 3-3 6-6 7-5 3-3 1-5 85 | 67 9-8 | 12-5 5-6 | 7-4 3 ‘ 3 : BAA rie Ble IlaA] als 12-14 11-151 14-12) 15-11) 12-14 33] 42| 42) 42] 1-5 PS Sd ea eves: 3-3 | 3 24| 42] 42 7-6| 7-6} 7-6| 49] 58 6-11 7-10) 10-7 6-11 6-5 | 65 | 56 November. December. 10-16) 11-15 3-3 | 3-3 6-6 | 6-6 3-3| 33 7-6| 6-7 98| 8-9 5-6 | 6-5 38 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. Average monthly rainfall in Belgium expressed in inches. 5 8 g | 8 b, : 2 if a 2 Places. & 5S a % FI sg FI | 3 7 S =| Bb oO b Ee ~ Cc e i) SME becde Pca Pe icra basta becink hl Me smu peu mS Viet eel es sist ee eae BSIIECOLIGN somes == so wn a 9.19 | 1.85 | 1.96 | 1.99 | 2.23 | 2.64 | 2.69 | 2.84 | 2.39 | 2.64] 2.38 | 2.14 Sec oe ee ee ie 2.30 | 1.82 | 1.89 | 1.92 | 2.32 | 2.94 | 2.91 | 2.97 | 2.87 | 2.84 | 2.59) 2.43 RAMS Seen = oe eae eee So 2.77 | 1.95 | 1.94 | 1.57 | 1.98 | 3.63 | 3.38 | 2.68 | 2.75 | 2.32 | 3.68] 2.02 Liége .....--------------- 2.10 | 1.96 | 1.88 | 2.52 | 2.66 | 2.81 | 2.53 | 3.31 | 2.63 | 2.60 | 2.18 | 2.43 Namur. eS) 92 | 1.94 | 141 | 1.789 | 214) 2018 | 2.05 [72.40 | 207 | 99 bas ela Louvain ......--------2--| 2.22 | 2.14] 1.98 | 2.00 | 2.15 | 3.05 | 2.64 | 3.05 | 2.31 | 2.3 2. 81 1. 82 DILTON ones sss e 1.97 | 2.10 | 1.66 | 2.95 | 2.38 | 2.43 | 1.98 | 3.70 | 2.17 | 2.78 | 1.76] 1.72 BLAVOlOU et oeseeee ese cece 2.92 | 3.03 | 2.48 | 3.31 | 3.07 | 3.23 | 3.16 | 3.50 | 3.16 | 3.01 | 2.73 3. 20 Relations between the number of years in which the rainfall of the different months is below 2 inches (50.5°) and of those in which it is above that figure. ‘S 5 g |] 8 mB | 8 a | 2 |") Places. a 5 z-| ze 2 8 3 FI A 8 x 2 mi S o rod ES & = ) 5 A 2 | a Les I 3 =F 2 5 = oA 2 5 i} a) ° ° o S| eo ole teh el Srl et ar) (Ses ens Uivni ball GU Ee eee 12-18} 17-13) 19-11) 15-15) 18-12 11-19} 8-22} 8-22) 12-18) 11-19) 12-18; 13-17 ANG ect we co secee te -15| 14-12) 16-10) 14-12) 9-17] 7-19) 7-19) 5-21) 6-20) 9-17) 9-17) 12-14 Adosto= 35 - Sines. a 3-3 5-1) 42) 3-3 1-5| 1-5| 24 24) 24/| 1-5 5-1 DCN S oS Re ee : 10-7 | 11-6 | 6-11 5-12) 3-14) 4-13) 5-12) 7-10) 6-11; 7-10) 7-10 INGEN ee ase eae eee eos no oe 10-3 | 10-3 8-5 7-6 6-7 6-7 7-60, 6-7 8-5 9-4 7-6 UST yg ee Sa i ae 6-6 7-5 7-5 6-6 5-7 5-7 2-1 4-8 7-35 2-10 8-4 St. Trond 3-3 | 42 1-5 3-3 3-3 3-3 1-5 4-2 2-4 4-2 4-2 Stavelotie-s2-ce—-s--6-.<- 5-6 | 5-6 2-9 | 1-10) 2-9 re 1-10, 47 47 2-9 | 3-8 | These tables show certain relations that it will be eminently advisable to notice in the determination of localities favorable to beet-root culture. For instance, we see that the maximum ayerage of temperature will not exceed 70° Fahrenheit; that the minimum average of monthly rainfall for the summer months is never below 2 inches; that the averages for the number of rainy days during the different months do not fall below 10; that during the summer months the averages are even above 15, and that the number of years in which the figures recorded are above the average is proportionally greater than the number of years in which they are below the average. And if it were possible to obtain the same extent of figures for the other countries where the industry of beet cult- ure and sugar manufacture is distributed and is prosperous, the relations would doubtless be found to be closely comparable with those we have just given. It is to be regretted, in connection with the matter of the introduction of the culture in the United States, that we cannot quote tables of records showing the average number of rainy days in our coun- try, for it has an undoubted influence upon the value of the crop. We may now examine the conditions prevailing in other beet-producing sections of Europe, as shown in the following tables we have been able to compile from the works of Quétélet, Dove, Marié Davy, Jelenek and Fritsche, and from the Atlas de l Observatoire de Paris, the Annuaire de la Société Météorologique de France, and the Bulletin de la Bureau Centrale de Météorologie at Paris. | CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 39 As before stated, the number of stations in France for which we were able to obtain averages or to find data sufficient to calculate averages from are very limited, yet the figures we present will serve to show the coincidence of the conditions in the sections. in which the culture has been so long established, and these and the other records of the table, taken in connection with the map showing the location of the culture of the beet, will form a subject of interesting study, and are of value for comparison in the selection of sections of other countries that will be suitable, so far as the meteorological conditions are concerned, for the introduction of the industry with chances of success and profit. TABLE SHOWING THE MONTHLY AVERAGES OF TEMPERATURE AND RAINFALL THROUGHOUT THE BEET-GROWING DISTRICTS OF EUROPE, IN DEGREES AND INCHES. BOHEMIA. Hohenfurth. Krumau. Budweis. Winterberg. Months. = a ae aT ain. ain. ain- ain- Temp. | “gay. | Temp- | fan. | Temp. | ‘fan. | Temp. | “tan, 22. 95 50 30. 20 Buy) 28. 24 34 28. 40 -728@ 25. 90 35 33. 75 . 34 26. 17 52 33. 80 1. 02 34. 6L . 66 41. 63 «46 36. 80 60 36. 86 47 43. 30 “iD 48.16 59 49.71 92 45. 57 1.10 53. 60 1.16 60. 53 125 54. 55 72 62. 76 94 59. 86 2. 00 66. 70 1. 50 60. 24 2.08 59. 88 1. 90 63. 21 1. 96 66. 20 1. 64 66. 76 2. 06 66. 92 2. 04 61.14 2.16 68. 16 1.10 61. 43 1. 69 67. 67 1.20 §2. 21 1.19 60. 65 1. 01 58. 87 - 98 56. 42 59 44, 56 - 92 51. 00 - 78 46. 81 .30 47. 42 1,37 33. 78 93 40. 71 - 59 35. 44 55 39. 70 1. 28 27. 57 58 36. 41 - 52 28. 08 30 34, 57 1.47 Rehberg. Stubenbach. Schiittenhofen. Neu-Bistritz. Months. Tuy ea ee a eee MMi oe Temp. aa Temp. oul Temp. aa Temp. Fane MAMMA I. oct. scee a se- =~ 21. 94 2.77 24. 35 2. 42 27. 09 . 46 22. 12 - 92 RIGDEUAEYs. 2 -- 0 hu ee sus 26. 80 1.79 31. 91 5. 82 34. 09 . 63 26. 62 41 LIU 1 a el Pere 33. 69 3. 05 33. 34 1.73 38.19 2 33. 40 . 81 LA Sdt) 3 0450 seer Cee 41. 02 1. 90 45, 44 5. 00 45. 95 82 42.89 1.14 yee reo <----peceec ae 50. 34 2. 65 54. 15 2.09 55. 33 1.98 52. 36 . 96 Une - eee eeaceee 56. 98 3. 05 61. 77 3. 89 59. 68 2. 09 57. 45 1.70 JE co FS eee 59. 41 3.14 61.12 3. 22 62. 94 135. 61. 16 pl PuISusbeasere s-ssses—202252 57. 81 2.14 60. 76 2. 00 63. 16 1.97 58. 73 155 Septeuiber=--..=--624...-- 52.16 1.41 47. 97 2.19 58. 73 eth 53. 20 1. 60 et Se Se ees 43. 52 1.71 41. 84 4.10 49. 62 . 66 43. 43 1. 09 PO GETIED Sere anos ks cee ae 34. 68 2. 89 29. 97 2. 56 40. 66 -79 32. 29 1.08 LOT 0 eee 26. 55 2. 85 31. 83 3. 25 33. 87 56 26. 73 2. 23 Brzecznitz. Strakonitz. Pilsen. Brzina. Months. = ; zs Rain- =e Rai — Temp fall. Temp fall. Temp. fall, Temp f aL JEM Ch a 24. 30 81 33. 44 48 24. 35 43 30. 41 42 L0G) Ey ie ee 28. 38 . 54 30. 04 94 28. 06 47 32. 12 23 Marcle ee LS 36. 84 aad 32. 23 1.11 38. 30 . 34 38. 92 33 2D URE. 3 ee 47. 35 . 82 45.10 77 48. 31 Pa HS 49. 63 71 oN Baa Cee eee 55. 09 qm bf 58. 62 1.12 57.52 1. 05 59. 68 1.35 LUTTE Bes ee ee 60. 31 1. 80 64. 50 2. 24 62. 94 1. 47 64.13 1. 43 JST Sb Be it ee SE See 64.15 1. 05 66. 11 1.38 66. 45 1.14 66. 83 1.32 7 PEG PTIS see acne ema 61. 97 1. 46 66. 47 $250 65. 10 . 96 66. 52 1.32 September........-.---...- 55. 38 1. 02 57. 22 48 58. 30 .81 59. 46 1. 08 OS as a 46. 92 -41 45. 88 aa 48.11 . 64 50. 79 45 SOG) - 36. 86 1. 08 41. 75 . 80 87. 06 .49 40. 60 . 46 UIG0t ee 33. 13 1.12 30. 67 42 31. 59 . 36 32. 36 - 62 40 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. Table showing the monthly averages of temperature and rainfall, §:c.—Continued. BOHEMIA. Teplitz Deutschbrod. Karlstein. Piirglitz. Months. Hi ees ain- Rain- Rain- Rain- Temp. | ‘fan. | Temp. | ‘fan. | Temp- | fan, | Temp. | “san. ANGRY Pose see see ees sacisie = cee 29.68 . 54 32. 79 57 16. 41 22 24.75 29 ‘ Czaslau. Prag Zlonitz Leitmeritz. Months. = Rain- Rain- Rain- , ain- Temp. | “fan, | Temp. | “gu. | Temp. | ‘fo. | Temp | gan DRRUALY, saeco soe oes Seas 32. 92 aoe 27. 61 35 25. 74 27 26. 28 - 60 PO QTUANY: @ ies. -acisjen cos ee 31. 08 .57 31. 39 26 30. 13 - 32 30. 47 45 IMAC Boe nne occ -c- Se eee 39. 60 . 34 40. 87 36 39. 47 38 37. 22 » 52 notches ee ee 50. 12 . 64 52. 61 49 48. 81 -47 47. 53 Faye SIMI oe ee ee ae ce sini eis 59. 50 1. 08 60. 49 77 52. 28 72 58. 37 1. 03 LG ee ee a 64. 22 . 94 65. 95 1.05 63. 23 1.59 64, 29 1, 40 PROUY 2 ot cpe ate = oe coisas senate 69.10 1. 06 69. 62 92 66. 83 - 96 66. 56 1.39 PAE OST Bitte ae min win aime, Sereinisie 63. 86 1. 42 68. 56 84 64. 45 . 92 66. 00 - 98 SOPHOMIDRL neo - ay> 56 act's he 61. 97 BYP 61. 81 57 59. 43 . 62 ‘59. 09 - 69 WCTODET tae see ccncnc os accene 52.19 . 65 50. 29 36 50. 50 .42 48. 97 - 81 INOVEMDER ser os conc. -ceese 41. 50 . 52 | 39. 92 45 39.11 47 39. 11 - 66 ECOMDEL see oe oc: ac a5 =05 2 31. 87 . 24 33. 53 387 34. 79 . 34 29. 84 . 55 } Landeskron. Senftenberg. Konigsgratz. Teutsch. Months. : 2 7 ; Temp. etl Temp. ae Temp. Boia Temp. pny URE? onenacesesacgcRgahe 23. 13 . 92 30. 31 . 93 + 24.75 . 80 29. 28 - 48 IM ENO? = So agooseceseeode ‘ 27.70 HOW 30. 25 1. 22 7 25. 54 52 28.18 . 54 March accmetecemassiecc ses 2 35. 94 . 86 32. 20 . 88 35. 62 . 67 38. 64 .37 Yay al epee se = Sees aseoaecnce 45. 07 . 84 43. 63 1. 02 44, 62 1. 03 48. 38 ot3 IE eee oe Bebo csoomoe 56. 05 1. 52 57.27 97 54. 61 TRIS 59. OL 1.50 DNs = 5 Se - aaa ceattswee asic: = 62. 69 1.74 64. 41 1. 85 62. 47 1. 40 66. 02 397 OLY ice ses case eeeee Boies 65. 73 1. 50 65. 55 1. 50 65.19 1. 33 68. 05 . 76 PATER Dose oats censors a= 63. 25 1, 24 64. 7: 1. 84 61. 99 1. 43 67.82 | + .92 NE PUOMINSD aso Soke 56. 01 1. 02 56. 10 1.24 57. 02 - 91 60. 06 45 October..-.-.. 47 23 ee 51. 00 1.18 47. 44 yal 45. 97 76 November . Z 36. 91 1. 05 34. 66 - OL 36. 16 . 82 39. 90 1,19 MUECAMDEL ooo cccjcomeeo once 29. 23 1. 02 30. 39 98 29. 50 79 33. 15 - 93 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. Al Table showing the monthly averages of temperature and rainfall, §-c.—Continued. BOHEMIA. Trautenau. | Hohenelbe. St. Peter. aL | Temp. | ay" | ‘Temp. | ¥30 112 24. 01 L511 23. 27 . 68 L25 27. 09 1.122 26. 08 1.14 - 87 33. 57 1.27 33. 26 1.40 .99 49.82 | 1.10 43. 50 1.49 1.95 52. 43 1.13 | 49.19 . 88 1.37 58.39| 149| 55.36| 245 2.71 60. 96 1. 52 | 59. 70 2.75 2. 67 59. 52 1.53 57. 07 2.32 - 61 54. 41 1.10 51. 89 1. 83 "alle li eal | 1.15 46.22] 1.92! 44.47 1.06 Mivanher........ 2.2... } 7 34.99] 1.51 32.70 1.32 2 PEP Se ee Bedale 1.51 29.12] 1.55 27. 34 2. 02 | ; Emden. § Lingen. Loningen. Minster. ’ Months. Sab GMs 1 et aie re Temp. | ate Temp. | ae | Temp. | a Temp — | ’ ; 34.41 1. 85 32.18 1. 84 32.11} 2.14 33. 33 2.41 31.37.17 > 1.50 33. 86 -95 33. 81 | 16 37. 51 1. 63 37. 69 | .75 39.38 | 1.41 38. 7 1.98 39. 90 1. 06 50. 86 . 88 47.7 1.39 BS fa | or | 47. 46 2. 36 54. 24 2. 24 57.18 3. 32 Dl. 40" [scneee ee 55. 87 3.41 59. 74 2. 93 64. 67 2. 60 64. 60 sess ate 60. 96 3. 40 61. 27 3. 67 66. 7! 4.61 | TS ig eee tas 63. 25 2. 57 60. 10 3.15 65.19 3.58 65. 01 4. 28 62. 51 2.79 59. 16 2.15 58. 71 1d | 58.42 | 2.00 57. 85 2. 00 51. 06 2.78 52. 82 1.99 52. 57 -73 50. 02 3.44 NeweMbers.~ 52. ee |} 42.22] 2.04 40. 82 2.49 40. 56 3.35 42. 64 | 2. 01 eeember .....- 6 Joo... --| 25. 27 2.61 34. 77 1. 63 34.14 | 1. 86 37. 09 | 2. 35 Giitersloh. | Paderborn. Salzufien. Months. (SS SESS SS | | | Temp. | Rainfall. Temp. Rainfall. | Temp. | Rainfall. CE ee 31. 54 2.39 32. 31 1.72 31. 82 | 1.68 _ 2 EE So ee 34. 25 | 1. 66 38. 33 1.59 , 38. 80 | 2.30 LL aes ee ee 41.05 1. 86 40.44 1. 46 44.20 1.35 PERRIN son Sans os tas shoda- 49. 71 1. 93 49. 65 1. 92 51.17 1.71 Lo eae eee 58. 28 2. 20 57. 30 2.77 59. 32 1.91 -.026- 38. $2 . 63 43. 30 - 53 41. 00 70 32. 47 1.59 WMECEMNGR: aah scha-.-c22ce 30. 02 . 90 2. 53 -44 30. 65 oor 29. 82 43 GALICIA. Czernowitz. Jalso. Stanislau. Lemberg. Months. ae =e ay =o ain- ain- ain- ain- Temp fa, | TemP pan, | POR gan | So DEST UE A) SRA es See 27. 31 . 89 27. 37 2. 33 22. 78 . 84 24. 33 1.20 LDR) Sy ees Soe edeecas 24.79 1.39 25. 09 1, 54 27.35 . 96 27. 39 1.13 Gir Gling 9 eh apoE coe 32. 23 1. 42 32. 23 1. 40 31. 54 1.27 32.17 1.56 SAS ae se esdae sss Sa = ee 49. 37 2. 20 49, 82 1. 94 48/32 1. 72 47. 48 1.73 TG BBE e OSC: SEE Cel 61.77 2.03 59. 18 3. 55 60. 15 2. 90 58. 75 3. 41 TEL Geo Sa enon on pebeepeedes 7.37 4, 56 62. 23 2. 33 66. 59 8. 34 64. 52 3. 93 Sy doggeegoc Se Sa eppepede 70. 09 5. OL 68. 48 3. 80 68. 50 3. 87 67. 49 3. 43 LATER eee aoe sae e eee 68. 48 2. 80 67. 53 1, 92 68. 32 3. 37 66. 49 3.01 September .......--------- 57. 22 1.15 58.75 2. 36 57. 81 2.45 59. 27 1. 64 SACTONOD Oe sence se eos ae EE 54. 79 1.31 57. 23 1. 63 50. 79 2.12 50. 57 1, 55 November 34. 61 1,70 32.11 . 59 39. 02 1. 44 38. 64 1.47 December 29. 56 1. 03 29. 52 1. 20 27. 27 111 27. 34 1. 53 Rzecow Saybush Wadovice Krakau Months. = Rain Rain- Rain- ain- Temp. | ga, | Temps) “gan, | Temp. |) eee QR AY a 0a sess SO OOS aOge 29. 52 LaSholSoocece aoe 1. 28 25. 12 1. 55 25. 02 . 86 February 25, 05 TID a\ see ee 2.17 27. 30 Bars 29. 06 1.25 MATCH Seee- s=— 32. 23 e048 sf aneae eee 2.13 41.10 1. 89 38. 28 1.15 wat upd AES 5 on eeoces 48, 25 22 Ws crap cowie 1. 82 48. 38 2.15 50. 01 . 84 1 29) a Spee Cee Rec aaoon 59. 96 PADS Mee ere occ 2. 81 57. 52 3. 68 61. 23 1. 34 PUM NGS ae ona wipes aeeeeee 63. 84 PERE Bee a he 4. 26 64. 34 5. 26 67. 58 2. 51 JUS? 2)5¢ Sopa pS ep eee Ro OCoOS 69. 00 3:95: |wcmie ste smn 6. 45 61. 72 4.13 68. 50 3. 02 August ......4 Eee Soc 68. 20 3:04 Wl. soe aeeeee 5. 58 61. 25 2. 38 68. 05 2.25 Septamberss.....02-2.cseeee 59. 88 2.163 se os eee 2. 02 59. 79 4. 08 60. 64 1.73 WCHONGUR Sas - open 3a a 55.15 | 2.60 | 56.05 | 2.80) 55.24) 1.06) 59.23 | 1.97 | 55.06 | 2.50 LE Se ee 61.21 | 3.07 | 62.69 | 5.80 | 63.43) 195] 65.48 | 3.37] 62.94) 3.50 Lop 2 Se a ae ae 63.21 | 2.69 | 65.73 | 3.22 | 65.98 | 2.31 | 67.75 | 2.79 | 68.00] 2.62 0 a eee 58.33 | 3.66 | 63.25 | 3.69 | 64.85 | 1.94 | 63.93 | 2.92 | 66.88] 2.57 ut El 3 OS a 58.28 | 2.43} 56.01) .97| 57.11 ]1.22| 5875) 141 |] 62.38) 1.44 JD Tea 45.10 |} 1.75 | 47.23] .53 | 47.82) 1.52) 51.83 | 1.89} 53.38] 1.22 WIMEROBE oe Sos os cod ne 33.60 | 2.25 | 36.91 | 2.02) 35.26] 1.20] 40.37 | 2.11 | 43.25] 155 December .......-. .-..---- 29.59 | 1.49 | 29.93 | 1.01} 29.55|1.31| 2883/ 1.43] 38.46|/ 109 i Breslau. Neurode. Proscau. | Neisse. Leobschiig. Months. - fa) es =a fa — Temp. | fall, Temp. fal. Temp. fall. | Temp. | fall. | Temp. | ¢. all. DT hi ee 27. 34 72 | 22.12|)1.79| 27.06 hoa 72 | 27.24) .75| 26.69) 1.33 LLnL a Se 31.89 57 | 27.06} .96] 31.08) 139] 31.87] .52] 31.87 - 99 _ es See ee 38.35} .7 31.81 | 1.41] 34.75-| 1.39] 36.97] 1.17] 39.09] 1.67 UL Se eee 45.93 | .98 | 45.48 | 2.57] 48.68 | 137] 50.48 | 2.37 | 4847) 1.90 ui 25 25 eee eee 58.98 | 1.31 | 55.74 | 2.77 | 59.46) 1.97 | 59.48 | 1.96 | 59.07 | 2.50 ih.) ee 61.70 | 2.12 | 61.43 | 4.82] 67.37 | 3.35 | 66.25 | 3.57 | 61.66] 3.46 UL. eee oe 67.75 | 1.83 | 64.05 | 4.06] 68. 74 | 3.88 | 68.46 | 2.93 | 67.56) 3.60 BEEN: S28 8. oo se = eo 66.97 | 1.55 | 61.97 | 3.63) 67.30 | 5.06 | 67.58 | 2.76 | 66.97 | 2.25 Sepenmiene. .. 8S 4-2 sscc se 59.97 |. 1.30) 57.27|198| 59.88) 1.95} 61.03 | 2.17 | 59.72] 2.20 0 A: 5 as eae 51.10] .96| 48.36 | 1.82| 53.33] 2.03] 52.52/159| 51.24] 1.93 MOVEMBER S... os 5-2 eses 40.89 | .88| 34.77 | 2.18| 36.50 | 1.70 42.53 | 1.45 | 41.23) 150 MOGEMPELU.. - 3. 0 = #5 «ssw es 31.31 | .88| 29.64) 2.18] 32.16| .94/) 32.69; .91] 31.31 | 149 Ratisbon. Kreuzburg. Posen. Warschan. wha Rai Rai Rai Rai 2 2 in- in- Temp. fall, Temp. | fall. | Temp. | “fy, | Temp. | “fan. 24. 56 1. 04 27. 27 1. 67 27. 28 1.12 29. 29 1. 34 29. 52 1. 04 29. 06 1. 03 32. 23 1.35 38. 57 1.70 31.18 1.49 48. 68 a7 45. 91 1. 43 48. 32 1.27 58. 80 2. 45 58. 94 2. 52 58. 35 1.73 63. 86 3.19 65. 59 3.12 66. 72 2. 29 68. 20 3. 09 67. 84 3. 34 68. 65 3. 54 67. 65 3. 99 66. 52 3. 42 7. 62 2. 58 58. 37 2. 02 59. 50 2. 20 59. 03 1. 93 52. 35 1.56 48. 22 2.15 52. 19 2. 64 34. 02 1. 92 40. 89 1.37 38. 55 1. 92 _LES ST (2 a eh ne ee 26. 81 1. 26 31. 84 1.59 31. 84 1.20 A4 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. Table showing the monthly averages of temperature and rainfall, §c.—Continued. BAVARIA. Andex. Peissenberg. Miinchen. Months. a - Temp. Rainfall. Temp. Rainfall. Temp. Rainfall. PABMAGY on . eee nko - See soe 29. 37 1.18 28. 24 - 28 29.75 -75 PLODTUALY snc cepil neon 28. 82 4.3 PADIS. orate ee Ee chee sc 41.55 | 3.64 B1.38:)| a2 one A085 | snscer 38. 89 3. 81 DY? ian so secs see aca se 54.08 | 3.70 48.9701. ce SMT e Bl OS er 49.11 5. 03 INTEC CE RI inten SSS cg) 63.53 | 3.54 SS loel cesses 64. 44 |...... 57. 59 3. 89 PT. 2. ae hee F 68. 92 | 3.28 66279) | Saeece 68.94 |....-- 63. 29 3. 68 PTI OUND reine ='cc at aa te aeete 7.24 | 3.56 63.38, \e- = 65,80 i s2eeee 61.55 3.44 BepLOMIDer sc .case Lae ee 58. 21 | 3.83 55549" ree es DOs e on sce 55. 67 3. 20 CGT EAS oo es Se Senet © 47. 62.| 4.77 45107. ae see ZEIGE Bl eee 46.21 |. 5,73 WNOMEINDEr 22-02%. 020. ne eee 37. 63 | 5.45 82.49) less SEAS eae 35.62 | 6.31 (DEC OMaN eT ccc ccccs cst 22. 66 | 3.36 18321 aeeose QOeste, \eiwe oats 24.11 | 3.59 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 53 Table showing the monthly averages of temperature and rainfall, §-c.—Continued. MAINE. Portland.* Months. QUO Yh 99 He G1 99 9 > Hh po gr SSSESRSLEBSR | South Thom- Saco. mebnaie =| = Yau | Temp. | “Sa 3.69 | 22.96 3.26 | 24.96 3. 72 29.49 2.12; 39.12 5.52 | 50. 90 | 2.69 | 63.37 | 3.57 | 66.74 | 4.76 | 63.84 | 2.76 56.51 | 4.34) 48.63 | 3. 81 37. 05 | 4.87 | 21.03 | Standish. 20 YP YP 99 90 0 NY Ye BERSAASSHABHR ~], BE bse Months. | 2a aan Sa SE ee LS SS | Temp. | fall. (Temp. ‘ay, Temp mony Temp. |. (2.96! 20.841 2.92) 24.00 | 47 | 3.26 | 22.73) 3.34) 23. |} 4.99 | 3149 | 2.38 | 5 3.32 | 43.21 | 3.49] 42. 3.96 |. 56.17 | 3.97 | t 27 | 2.93 65.86 | 2.72| 63. 3.94 | 69.91 | 3.68) 70. =! 4.92 | 66.80 4.17 . 70 |. : 3.51 | 59.15.| 3.43} 58. : 4.15 | 4882 | 4.26) 46. 2.38 | 37.96 | 3. 62 | 2 inna aoe) See) . | Fort Constitu- Dartmouth : ERS Won gat | College. | Hanover. | Littleton. Months. I | Rain- Rain-| Rain-| Rain- Temp. | fall. fall. | Temp fall. | Temp. fall. = -—-3 } | SS 24.89 | 2.42 | 2 86 | 17.57 | 2.59 26. 26 | 2. 64 2.70 | 18.40 | 149 34.37 | 2.16 2.98 | 24.44 |) 2.16 43.26 | 3.44 3.13 | 38.62 | 1.90 53.50 | 3.44 | 3.46 | 52.84 | 468 62 34 | 3.01) | 3.89 | 58.91.) .75 67.06 | 2.40} 69.02 }...... | 65.68 | 3.41 | 15 66.60 | 5.17 65.06 | 3. 80 GR Wy lc. | 63.34 | 3.79 | ’ 65.81 | 4.60 59.12} 2.43 | 59.45 }___...] 55. Sa) S317 || . 55.58 | 1.80 49.64 | 3.29 | 47.09 |......| 44.30 4.01 | : / 46.60 | 2.43 38.89 | 3.23 | 38.19 |......] 32.31 | 3.40 | 3 | 33.90] 1.05 28.74 | 3.32 | 29,46 |...... 17.08 | 3.52 | 20. OB loco cow | 15.09 | 2.30 i { 54 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. Table showing the monthly averages of temperature and rainfall, §c.—Continued. NEW HAMPSHIRE. Portsmouth. | Shelburne. Stratford. |West Enfield.| Whitefield. Months. =e ae mar = Zs ain- aln- - in- in- Temp. | fay. | Temp. | fay. | Temp. fall. Temp. fall. Temp. fall. MANUSTY) ob epee ad se meen 25.45 IWeiotens 16.32 |...... 13.27 || 2.77 | 20..10.| 3.72.) 22.50s)s22522 February - 2 17.17 | 2.52 | 20.11 | 1.46) 16.35 )..-... MTArOh 8528 oe ees eala.duie oars 24.92 | 3547 | 27.25 | 2.50) | 24. 18) eee “egret SEA Soo--8 338 SE See aoe 37.37 | 2.48 | 39.07 | 5.37 | 43.65 |.s2.-. ILE ie Ses Sea Se eee 50.84 |] 3.31 | 5L.77 | 3.25 | 58.235) -cueus DOUG. 24-eGee hate ohne oxi aie 31.36 | 3.24] 63.86 | 3.69 | 64.48 |...... SOY soe eee oe 65.21 | 4.42 | 68.73 | 9.25 | 67.61 ).-222- PAMISUNt ape os one -b-< 52a 62.27 | 3.84 65.48 | 4.28 62,42 \osnses September :..---..--..-.-.. 54.46 | 3.98 | 58.26 | 3.69] 57.68 |...... Octobprs 22-58 6 2 -- 54-05. 42.21 | 3.64] 45.58) 5.85 | 43.43 1 ..... November s. 2222: -2-. estes LY = oe etalon - aim ialaiala 70. 10 2.48 69.12 2.98 70.59) oe cea PROS here anits = =e eevee eons 68. 84 2. 72 68. 23 3. 94 67.40) | 2e-eoee September. .-..-----.-.---3 64. 13 3. 16 62. 05 3. 29 57.29) |e oeeeae Qe) ee Sk rr 55. 36 3. 57 52. 29 3. 36 46: 62 pace Wovembers etc. .------ases 45. 63 3. 38 42. 48 3. 87 Bt, al We re Wecember e-22...-.--e---5 36. 57 4.77 32. 40 3. 78 21. 20 None are Newburyport. Princeton. Sandwich. Topsfield. Months. = ain- Rain- fall, | PSUR) eat HSaS5a 20.27 | nema aes Ssic 21521 | nee ae ese ve 33.52. | «= --essee=5--se<54--2 9.06 }\ ae o=- = 47. 85 3.13 45, 84 4.29 50. 68 8. 03 WOVEIMDpE = -ne.>= soos —5 S5 B76 | are sme 36. 14 2. 82 35. 63 3.17 40. 83 2.56 DWpecembere------Ss-s02---22 20-201 Cem cinn a2 26. 68 2. 56 24. 69 3.15 29. 23 2.09 Cherry Vall ; : on ais bay Clyde Cuba Dansville. Months. : : ; : Temp. a Temp. Se Temp. Bera Temp. Pe PANUAT Ys se see iomcecscemeaas 22. 03 2. 66 Dp. G2 oamnws ae 18. 10 2.78 28. 82.5 eee PODINALY 2 522 wecineniv ease 21. 66 2. 57 ZBI) seem cbsee. 22. 48 1. 96 3153"). ceaaeee (March 22 -2h = ptis ncaa cecses 30. 30 2. 80 BIBL | Bane 28. 02 3. 72 32.30, |--sesear JN HUES | 253 os or 43. 64 3. 03 LEE ih | Seem 40. 41 3.13 46/87" || = =e WE pate 5o ae eee 53. 84 4. 04 383(02) | Beooeser B11 2. 54 52020) |2 2S oenee pipINIG See ee ree eo foots tees 63. 48 4. 35 G3.(6L9)- 20-5505 62. 60 3.43 65.227). ooo ST es Ae 67. 68 4, 24 OS GTE | eceeeee 63. 52 2.21 68. 95):| <5 = seem PASE OTIS Li ea atalc ete ain wieiselesarniacie 65. 58 3.45 BOAO = ein 63. 22 3. 27 68.012 Se aeeeiee SIRT S11) (ele ke rn ae 57. 82 3. 55 DOAT HIG === 2 Cee 55. 12 3.47 60. 80 |..-.-... OGGODORS eben 2 -wccowews ese 45. 81 3. 90 OA) | Be eee 40.19 2. 52 52. 12) |o a eeeee = INGVETIMORS 208 sess 2 ooo se Sees oe SoOG) | Estes = oe 29. 20 3. 20 36. 66 2. 54 33. 42) laws een PATI oe Sap aoe oe occ eae BO: 49 ee so... 42, 82 2. 29 44. 43 3. 82 48.69 | <-aeetee Misi eee ie Mae ois oo ise tne ate BDd.30) (See. 2-2 53. 10 3. 74 53.18 3. 66 BY Rn Bee yo = PHO oe yee eee ee oe ene 68.05: (Ee a-- <2 64. 85 4.08 62. 80 2. 98 64.73 |.:.cceee ul hes 55 oe 2 EB eee eeu Bil= sa eeee 69. 57 2. 81 69. 68 2. 54 69.75. |. ~--aeee JTRS =e See OS EES 64.69) |/22 52. -2 66. 49 5. 30 68. 51 3. 22 66,94 |. See PEpleMDOE Ae. 922.2 s2c5=-0 BD. SOniee—e- == 60. 32 5. O1 62. 54 3. 27 6L. 94 ||) c22caeee Wctober: $22 f2e0 oe sees ac. =. 45.92 ees =<. 46. 36 5 §2. 13 3. 65 48, 72. | saaaekeue NO VOMUUeES 29: 52. icsccee - se AYA eee 35. 96 5. 23 42. 27 3.16 38. 39 |caceaboa MeceMNeNe ye. a- seer cies B40 eee a5 23. 72 4.21 33. 45 3.17 36. 53 |.------- Elmira aca Acad-| ort Edward. | Fort Niagara. Months. ; ; ; = Temp. i Temp. aap Temp. rts Temp. fall, SARMATY oer e foe ia ina a ais 19, SOU Beemer 19. 73 2. 69 25. 31 4.72 267 We -aeeetee WeDLAarYy eae et eeee sc astm se 20. GUn eee 19.73 1.79 21 1.72 26. 98 |.------= arch): Sa ee ese ee 2. ae SPAS) eeooe = 29. 85 2. 36 33.13 2. 84 33. 34 |o--sese - Stig | oe ee See, “eee BL ell Benepe 42. 57 2. 53 45, 45 4 43.32 |..-c---- VUE, a5 eb ede seraetts cence 5609) W oc ae 53. 91 3.09 57.79 5. 26 54/59. |) - 3 -2 emer TT Raa ee sae pe “ALIN ests ae3 66. 39 4.21 70. 74 4. 92 70.53. |-\- | pete tee 68:25) ||se-ce ese PPS AEE cis ine a sane = == G657 Es | ecaseaise G8272 Eo aces GOS 80n| Sas neers 66/7 Ap eeceeeee MEWUEMENOI. 25> .5-3002-----< 963605 |c-34 2121: EY GW aes 58.28 |,....... SBNTGN Sa ecce os OST) ee ee ESO aes 81526) |55.25-52 cA) | eee 48046) 52225035 DNOVERIDEUE 35. 2552-5 soe BEE Ea eeeeee SOj90)| an snes BO S| eee 3B Lhis| sos. See IDE CET CG) Re ee an es ea 20.) 94) | Secret PACER ml Bees 20 OO dameae Pea AS Il ah eae, Henrietta Hermitage. iia Acuteny). Houseville. Months. : Rai Rai : Temp. th Temp. fall, Temp. fall. Temp. ea a a oa ee 23.296| 5.19 22.90| 1.72 20. 92 1. 96 MpMeGnE ys ao. 2 Cw Ey pa 23.44 | 3.64 22.51| 2.89 21.40 2. 92 TG De Se es eee i 26. 74 4. 28 31.12 2. 66 28. 37 3. 03 PANNTM ean 2 <= x aoa = a anwones a5: 39. 40 3.76 42. 40 3. 41 38. 89 3. 03 lui el i eae 50. 74 4. 64 53. 93 5. 06 51. 56 3. 03 ACP hp (Cae eas Seer 60. 57 3. 40 61. 67 4. 36 64. 97 2.13 (igi) 23 eee 64. 49 4, 96 65. 92 6. 51 69.16 4.45 PAN EINE 520 jas ons s- 28 Bis Nena <.< a 24, 58 3. 05 PoE El elle rae 23. 32 1. 53 1. Enid 1) Be ee ee eee DAL 90) oe, < =55 32. 68 3.10 BL GST sac. = 5 33. 74 2.48 DA O39 ee AG Wat oa 34% 43.38 3. 65 As, O0L|eucana=. 46. 30 2. 97 Geet eee eee ay Ate |S eee 57.16 4.40 Tae Ji ea eee 57. 26 3.41 SUNEL sence css. GOxAZ Hee - is 65. 98 3. 90 i 7 ae ae 65. 44 4.55 ‘oth a ee MONTBU Cees - ns 68. 67 5. 40 Tete tet Iet (pr ees 70.15 4.35 August GS\GS. ieee... 22 66. 26 5. 90 DYE TAL Ieper 68. 47 3.35 Peptemper -<.....u-...-..-- G0sobuleseo- ose 60. 94 6. 35 PS Gh s\ceacca 60. 30 2. 94 Optobenaseias. 0 oo. cs. 5. 49,200 eee. 22 48. 39 4.55 BO teb | coos see 47. 54 3. 25 INOMEMIDOR cease cose ccc ese BS. Ofileenc- => 36. 62 5.35 By Ey Gl Sete 38. 28 3. 69 Migcamipotiavescccts~ souss- SL 02) Eescone. 29. 28 5. 55 24. 83) | cacoe sae 25. 24 2.75 60 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. Table showing the monthly averages of temperature and rainfall, §c.—Continued. NEW YORK. 4 Leyden. Liberty. | Little Genesee. Lockport. Months. a Tr ain- in- - Temp. fall. Temp. fall. Temp. fall. PARMA Y) ee eet cet en woes AA, | Pee ee 18.19 1. 64 LOS Che gee Sees Se ee 16. 01 20.13 §. 72 March 25. 58 26. 71 4, 93 PARE > 58 ceoee ss - 40. 25 |. 39. 95 7.48 MSY 2 222 esc - 52. 73 |. 51. 59 3. 39 A) jr VNC eel as 3 9 9 ee eee 57. 82 62. 62 4.77 elgtl y= jee eee ceca ee 66. 33 68. 79 2. 73 aT Vee tsi rp te Pe 5 SE Sa ee (DBAS) | ee See, 64. 34 3. 53 MOPLEMNORe ses. + s+ scence se 99.05) | 252 25--5] 56. 63 2. 79 October! a2 -s=--253--55 39. 14. | 5-25 47. 84 2. 86 INGYEMbeGe ...-..--22---2 AS. OOM sine ayes 33. 95 3. 83 WECEMIDPLe- eco oes 0 le oo O20 | aaem =e 26. 32 4. 46 X é Madison Bar- Lowville. Lyons. McGrawville. rage: Months. = e ain- in- Raijn- Rain- Temp. fall. Temp. fall. Temp. fall. Temp. fall. 24. 90 21.79 26. 22 | 23. 81 31. 80 32. 89 42. 64 44.35 DA tomsse [222% 54. 56 eS SU | bees 64. 49 a 0 eet 69. 08 JAWEE Ri ee See ee eee G6..39)| 222-2228 68. 96 Bepientuene as. .cl-2522- 65 sf Bee a 60. 62 Ovi ieee ss AD. GT Giese eee 49. 49 WaveMmber nc ods. .6ee. se 38. 04 |.--....- 37.88 |p 2 ee eee MUBGEMIDER <== == doe 2e ose PAU | eases - 20. Of lene eee = aH = Malone eae Mexico(academy)., Middleburg. Milo. Months. = E =" ae = 3 2 ain- in- Temp. fall, Temp. fall, Temp. fall. Temp. fall. = eee | SIQMOALY, doe non ona soee soe 18. 24 |..--.--- 26. 87 1M) De Apes 5 Sop epesepsono- PA AS. Pesta ce 26. 28 |. WER See SS See ees DLA Nees ccna 33. 96 PAIEN cob in cas ce te ne oS oer LRU (| epee A 45. 59 ME ee atlas oie amie oe IAL) Den bale 2 56. 00 “LTO eas ea eee COZ eeen--e 63. 89 Talk) dt eS 66.90 |....---- 68. 75 Era 8 epee eee DOWD, lem oie coals 66. 91 PanneMmibere a o.- --. 25. ------ Sia Wil eee» 59. 14 | BGtObSr = 5-.5-2>-2-c- peo AGIOZN eee cet 48. 00 OV EMDOL © cap «c-cenccm 2-5 SPA bia Baers = 37. 22 Imei) (arse es ee Le eee eae 29. 17 aon (acad- | Mohawk. Newark Valley. | North Granville. Months. ae =< ae = 3 in- = ain- Temp. fall. Temp. fall. Temp. fall. Temp. fall. JEM BTA A - 5..- pags teeeeeraeS 26:00) [mens = = PUSSY (Ge eee 20. 67°}. . HeblIUaLyne-seeo=-b----0cnat 26. 36 |.--.---. OO eee 20. 09 |. - MATCH 25 ase pee et ese ca cece ae 2:28. lepers sae ARIUS) Bees 31. 29 Je rr a ioe eo ee eae AD Do teees oe 7: PARE yl eee 48. 63 Ofte Sea. B S6ceaa ees S “2 We es aaec = Bae ae. ae 56. 15 TTC ee sear oes eeeaeae Gojoe lees ae TA) eee 66290: | 72-2 BLY, Po eceae sacnoce cena G8:240 Cece naae viele RC A es ae 70282 |. Soho PAHOUSE sua. ca loeeee eee oe BIW leeon eos BY Gaul eB aenecs 68228! |. See Bepbempelcc..)s see ee coe BOOT ene a ace DSclii|sea- > ae SSN RACTOBON. 252 os. 5- obo ue eee 26.6 ice 2c BLS 2 Eee STO" s eee Movember. 2s... cloccees oe SYA (in| geaeee a SSE 0) Sees 35/89) |. Seas LDS.) (Tae a aeRecBeeeeccie = EU) Boece 28 ab) As ei ! Pz TEU Pete 2 { 61 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. Table showing the monthly averages of temperature and rainfall, §-c.—Continued. NEW YORK. ABSRARBZARSS orb 5 or i nt od od orl a Rain fall. 10 rt Qoad ANAGASSSSIS2 Bl é ggegaussess H SQRARMASeSse CA oicd cd od od aicd oi 3 ig bak abet ol Be Hee ae @o| 4 edeade 3 Gf | ass i rhe 5 an ee ee Months. September ---. October November December -..--- -----------| Plattsburg. ARBSBABH Soe ai aiod 06 of od od od i ai BARREALaSSIA iS on FA H | didsdssess sal es | wee e eee Palermo. Penn Yan. Oxford (academy). Months. g | BESRAGAG ISAS B | aiddeddedssa H eat Phi ck ' pate lied egaetees ia dgaedees Rochester. rm 1 Did b= DA eS 4eees Ge te 6) 6? Cs rl * os od oo . Schenectady. Salem. Sacket’s Harbor. > SI DANAOHHOt= © SS Na Ake LS - kB Ae ee 20 i ee LO Le ee Lil ae ee Rouse’s Point. SRRBSES saesn NASASSSSSS PHAR head ia TCO Ah gos aC TORR MM it tol det ie Thy Te Can EC ee aoe oe oT VOC een De Tete Pelee Oa ee Cr per te ie. Oe ne Cos oa a a ME a ED Bi yh i i i GSbsStAssssy Adasen adascdd BSSSenssisag MH His & © 6 Sts Is AA MOM AS Nia St dAsaatisssonisccis AASRSSRESESA Te ORL a TT Teel a ’ er ie rte re ee areas ee ees TN a) Ie ete TO es) ee te ee as OER he) eI ah Seat’ Of gat es ie i Wen: See lean) Sty Hie OG a aha Rn Sa al aaa ac Ce oer a Months. TOE ee eb peptember. ---.-...-. October. vemier eo. oe... MpecwHine Ges. lees 62 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. Table showing the monthly averages of temperature and rainfall, §c.—Continued. NEW YORK. Skaneateles. Smithville. South Edmeston. | South Trenton. Months. = = - ain- ain- Rain- Rain- Temp. | ‘fan, | Temp. | “fan, | Temp. | “en | Temp. | gaan UE Oa aes oS a eae 282 Ga eee PAWS tm (eee Qe Asolo 19.10 3.57 HPDEDALYiosee sac 4-smi- nana = = PLA D Ie Aa peoe 7A Seer ZN (hif | Pane psec 21. 08 5. 16 IMarGh.( 238 ten nn4-ecn kes ake BOO Alem an wet DEG) Ware ise-cak STAs ocoeceee 25. 97 4.61 PASTA oo See tette tea ae lah man is ole 2B 8 Pl A eResc AP SOB al ete rae CA) ee 39. 01 4. 00 May 2 Pa Sae + Seas ABA: ip Ry b hl eee D2 AON | otinivicrce DAO = we waar 51. 66 3.8L iGHO oe ee seeeana= ope -aelaes Ga OSn eecces = GobsVai alam ar ates (ila el Se 66. 06 ya BLY, Soe eee ao = hata aie BiCSusssasee = Ose oeeceet OND Seco coe 69. 29 4.51 JNO Pa 0) ie 2 (ie kl ee peeks BGO) | ne x= ctae 61229 4\ coe cee 65. 38 4. 64 MEpteMVEr sassa-s-soemnisaee GOs ppeenses 60504 |: Li oces EX: LAr 2)? | tes seagate 60. 39 5. 26 Oetoberiss-fee as s-2 5-6-2554 ES il ea AAO O Mee mecanee SONG ||) nia oes 45, 27 4, 65 November tgs-2-..jcii4---- 4 Tae Oullle miele c= OIE icc ce cet AUB Wl hice oc 34. 28 3. 62 MEcempeR faces 2 ce ohms os ZOtA0N cee eeces PPCM | RSS SES Se 75 eR 22. 90 4, 20 ee (acad- ssuaehe {ovpd Teves: Utica. Months. = 3 —— ain- ain. Rain- Rain- Temp. | ‘gan. | Temp. | fan. | Temp. | “fan. | Temp. | “fon. NUN YH ete co as aloe om 24. 88 1.18 PEST ae Se M5 NSO bees sces 23. 28 2. 89 ReDrUATY iso <2---+----—2 25. 95 2. 37 Pie ESS 20 GH = omictene 24. 28 2. 66 IMAKOR TY Sacco cs 64. 61 5. 65 ib eisil pe SaGee ae ee 66. S37 alee= =e Ji ee Soha ae ee 70. 29 7. 34 69) AG) Ese eee ee 69a a =~) ae JATIN ke ee ae 66. 42 8.15 65. 93 67.25 s|eon ase September 59. 45 7.20 58. 93 57.30 Wises a4 ee OCTODED ee cee ~ 52-5 --- 47. 87 6. 27 44.13 44.990 -. soe November 38. 05 5. 99 33. 14 CE ty Gl ee eee December 25,57 3.97 25. 22 p21 (es a White Plains. Youngsville, Newark. Months. Temp Rainfall. Temp. Rainfall. Temp. Rainfall. DE eRe cisco as LB SO8 see eae ee 31. 63 3. 52 ee eee ero aeiie SL 28) tice stem. 25. 90 3. 34 cE ReSE Re ees ne 29. 48) tere oceeee es 34.45 3.46 eS SP ee eee aS BY PY-74d aes nat 45. 62 3. 67 DG otisa Sen enen wale nace 525165): geen eee 56. 31 4. 36 June...... Ct A Ree eee ene 66. 01 3. 20 Pittbyons:.2 dod thoe te eee mee eeee 683 36) esos tees 70. 51 3. 66 agus .¢ eteeaeeens 66. 02 69. 04 4.72 MELDOMIDELS Be eceeeeecint 57. 56 60. 71 3.47 Optonor! ews e oscc seeeaabe 44.96 |.. 49. 86 3. 58 INGVEINDOT 2... 25.u00cedeees 36. 50 |. 39. 92 3. 79 DWSGEMPOE ons... case ceeacks 24, 26 29. 05 4, 08 63 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. the monthly averages of temperature and rainfall, §e.—Continued. owing Table sh PENNSYLVANIA. Blairsville. Blovming Grove. | Abington. Months. Hain ae | em. Temp. | S488 S ggageosaeee AUAMesSeSsss September --.-. Octo ee Ma ss eri aa er a ain ea a 4 ' i ‘ ‘ ‘ : : : ' : i - Saat \imieaat cat call eal an] jd a ae We ee f et rater ee Ae petbiob ik tint aret y | Eq bp ope tot a een ate ae BOR AAE IES | ABIZIBLSE ABH ; ibaa OE EL te exsungag | a | g | S8aeedecsdas 6 | . | Heaeguassecs gésddgue a F B | sdtdddegdssa H | | | | Months. Ae eee Bee Mak acemeno ash ES es “ls De 4 SS Se eee Pp OE es eae November ..... SUE a ee Se digg EEE J 64 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. Table showing the monthly averages of temperature and rainfall, §-c.—Continued. OHIO. Madison. Montville. Months. : ae Temp. fall ~ | Temp. fall. ROMAN YE ee eine nin lane =e 26. 54 2. 41 29. 45 1. 05 26.07 |\=-eneee 25. 29 2. 95 LOS) Ee 2a oe 27. 43 2.71 29. 24 2.11 30,040) 52.ceee 29. 34 1.89 EN OER* = 5 SSS ee ee - 34. 23 3. 26 36. 42 1. 60 1s koe | cee ses 35. 02 2.46 PANDTIL ob ee eee: sotencicisccte 45. 32 5.11 45. 84 4.40 AOS Ly ooo 47.70 2. 59 1 eee - A Ge Cee eee ee 55. 64 4. 53 57.19 5.13 DE 22 wees 55. 95 2. 98 OMNO 4 IEE Bee os acs snosn nk 65. 43 4. 43 65. 57 5. 21 65.45) |ececcnse 66. 66 3. 43 Sith eee oe | eae 70. 41 4. 26 70. 07 6. 97 TAU eee 70. 64 4. 13. AMI PUSb Ea pee a - caonmnicnne oe 68. 26 4. 64 68. 85 2. 46 9590s] oa 68. 78 3. 30 SEVLOMPCLES + nn --- nen ae 62. 07 4.18 62. 30 1. 27 (ab Ped) Re eee 61. 64 3. 24 OBEGDERI See a «cs = nnn co 50. 42 4. 44 50. 94 3.39 GAB PT | eee oe 50. 67 2.73 PNOVOMDEr PE. =< \-a--acine.cnia 39.19 6.12 38. 27 4. 33 SB.D Ls) ooo cn ee 40. 31 2. 40 IDO tl 1) i ee 30. 86 2. 91 31. 38 5. 86 32. 26 |.-..---- 30. 35 2. 04 Saybrook. Seville Tarlton. Windham. Months. = = ain- ain Rai in- Temp. | “fay | Temp. | “fay | Temp. | “fay | Temp. por AYE eee me seam ae PAIS Pa eee 26. 86 3. 20 BOS OS Mltoaitoate 32:36) |) See Isl big Eye Sones eee es 741352) fal ee 33. 60 2.13 Bia ets Ue eee 21.42) |e Ue a Se ee 33. 90 |.-- / Be 35. 43 2. 67 4156Ua ses se 31. 02)| So zeeeee 2 ES aes eS Seer ATO TS s\n ae ele 48.72 2. 06 AGL0T acme Se 43.567). See PEAY. a= ae GS Bie UN BR fee WIA HY | Seas sos USSU) Hee Sociac 68. 204). - bent September---.-......-....- 55. OBE a= =e GIES SS. eae cia. eee 5698 eo eee GLODEN ee seer tea-c = sora ER SRM Sar seo AT eAOM ae = 2a == ach Ly eee VO yl ees ING Vem bareresers-n-r asi ae DOs 20 etemte aaa 40. 83 |...--.-- BOAT pate anor SOT Ne apes Wecemberse cet wecc~ = ence 20/46 |. seo-5 i ns $30: Sap|a- 2 eS. }) ipa veos Wome cea 2 25: 5 || eee Saint James. (Sault de St. Marie. Tawas City. Ypsilanti. Months. a si a = ae Temp. fall, Temp. fall. Temp. fall Temp. one | ~ a January, ------...----=--08 20: ae neo ate Th 5) | eee PANG) ||, cos aee 24, 42 1.41 February -----------------. EDA peer ee ar 12 5)2) | BSB ee Des Oli| aac o == 26. 73 1.72 INTC eae a= = oe em ata 24, 64 |..----.. ATG) VE 31 )e74\) | [Seeeens= 34.19 3. 29 SADT ene see eas ne ne een SM AS Soe 40.45 |.----..- yisE AGI poSsaeer 44, 56 3. 29 WE Coe oo caosbpeeee sas ce DUMB |e sos — SOOO ea amie BOON eee 58. 16 3. 00 PILING See eee se l= = os == ae 59.65 |--...-.- BUD Sa eeersse O22 Opn) e amar 65. 30 3. 05 AJA eoee soe Se Sneeeetee ae 06205 |oo—-2 = Ges 000g| => == . G7 AGE) | See 70. 03 1.78 BNTATG} is So Ho geee oes a G6.004|o=a-eee TPA) RRBs AES) eee ste 68. 95 3. 65 September ...-.--..-..---.- SALUD eee ae 55. 60 |.----. -- Demtstey || Beeenoee 58. 81 4.03 OPES) 3s SS rece ch Py (s| eae 42. 60 |.------- ASS 00s emer ona | 48. 62 2. 72 November .- 35,43) ceoe eo SOLTO!| Jo oee aie) sesso ee 37. 61 2. 70 WPUOMIBRE See cosa on clare 77. Ns (8 eS APS) | ER ae PATE Wh Rees 28. 10 2. 23 i] WISCONSIN. Bay City. Bayfield. Dartford. Delafield. Delavan. Months. = =P — = = Rain- ain- ain- in- Temp. fall. Temp. fall. Temp. |“fay], | Temp- | fay. | Temp. = JSR ia? S556 Soap eeeenece- 13.94 | 2.24 | 13.44 |.....- I ACIS) |S ee 22.59 | 2.03 | 15.69] 1.01 IG DEUALY ester =) °<- == === HONK) eae || SISROB Neca. = 20. 32 |...--- 24.51 | 1.83} 23.01 | 1.60 March .-- 23.45 | 2.48 | 23.68 |....-- 30) 69R aaeeas 33.43 | 2.37 | 27.57 | 2.45 April .-- 33.02 | 4.93 | 38.59 | ----- 44, 24 |...... 44.28 | 3.32 | 4465] 2,75 LER eects oo Ae apeeeees 45.20 | 6.09 | 49.65 )-.-...- 52. 55 i|-co= =~ 56.03 | 5.42 | 52.33) 1.68 PUIG Ses ets am m alsin ilo wie inie 56.58 | 4.61 | 60.15 |.-.... 67.250) -seniae 64.14 | 2.91} 67.29 | 3.38 ditliyy +26. SE saSecoeessese= 65.08 | 3.72 | 67.84 |.----- 68. 45 |.----- 69.41 | 4.65 | 68.84) 2.94 LNTRANGD S35 55 SpoeoSSeaeeeee 60.90 | 5.62 | 63.59 |..-.--- phi) |/e- 505 68.30 | 1.41 | 66.34) 6.97 September - --.----.-------- 53.48 | 5.88 | 54.70 |.----- OlSStaeenae 60.82 | 4.79 | 60.54; 4.60 WELODEE se-el = ose mann 39.38 | 4.87 | 41.59 |.--... 490 1G ieeee 48.94 | 2.84 | 47.06} 2.10 INRVENMIGE noe 2 enim nice oe 26.40 | 3.18 |. 30.25 |.----- 34. 25 |...-- 35.74 | 1.86] 36.37 | 0.75 Wecemper = 2-6... -->> December 1G. 77) |so nae MINNESOTA. | Afton. Beaver Bay. Burlington. | Forest City. | Fort Ripley. Sack eee Ube alee om Rain-| 7, [Rain- | Rain- n-| ain- in- in- Temp fall. Temp. fall. | Temp. fall. Temp. fall Lemp fall. = PPE et es See 278} see 12.87 | 2.61 | 17.57 bp ct hs eee Toa ee Dg 3 pL Ea pl Wea 14.37 | 0.86 14.25 | 1.71 Loe On ee 1189) |S22Se= JJG i. eae AAT | 22. 22.36 | 1.82] 29) 86-226) || 27. 87 }2....- 23.98) aoe uid! . .o eae 42. 8842225. - 36.22 | 2.78 | 34.86 | 2.47 | 43.36 |...... 40: 8% |c.5. = LE dS ee 56. 09) 1oee | 47.02 | 3.29 47.09 | 6.47 | 57.06 |....-- 54. 80 |...... Cnt (12 See. 55.92 |-2.76 | 55.91 | 4.33] 66.40 |...... 60.97 |e... iE 70. 23) \asee 62.03 | 2.65 62.52 | 5.42] 69.08 |...--- y (iS Sd eee LE ee 66.05 }cc26.. 61:62 | 3.15 62.04 4.75 66.89) |2--25 GG18 }: ~~. Sah he 59.86) 0ee5.. 52.76 | 3.10 | 54.38 | 3.48 | 57.83 |...--.- 56. 52. |.....- LS Sas 43.55 [oes 41.56 | 2.15) 41.63°' 4.24 | 44.79 |._.... TT Ve US BIE es 32.43), |SEe 30.96 | 1.02 | 28.69 | 2.34] 30.21 |...... 28. 26) |. -2k 5 dlp te ae 14, 99) Iozees.- 16.32 |-1.01 | 13.34 | 137) 15.47 |..-.-. 19. 08 |--2.25 ! 68 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. Table showing the monthly averages of temperature and rainfall, §:c.—Continued. MINNESOTA. Ca Koniska. |Saint Joseph.| Saint Paul. | Sandy Lake. Months. ae = a ain- ain ain- Rain- ain- Temp. | ¢3) Temp. fall Temp. fall Temp. fall Temp. fall. ATED EY) ci seca tosis oe cle = G08 eee iP AUOE | Eeecee —1.18 |..-.-- 11.37 | 0.98 | 13.93 |..-.-- ODER Yi cr ee enc saute anole > 23.00 | ..--- DBE Uh eer ee 6. 30i\Eaer == 16.94 | 0.72 | 17.08 |---... LHC: 22 See eran aid oldie ate So pS eee Pky eee 20. GAs: cease 23. 06 | 1. 67 29: 68 | cue 2s shay Re eS ee er QA 500M cecs-| J4SySeeltccos- 43. 1Gii cee 43. 04 | 1.98 38..28 , |\- amb Lil a BS eee 08.00) | 455. Sy (Ba eee 52.268) Sepia 57.47 | 1.98 50.15 | sseee ores oe eee See Gosek GielOW 22. GF Ano) eee 65.8% 2eee 66. 65 | 3.40 60. 94 |....-. Ue Saale OS Se 66:50) s2-(02 Ce eee 68: 30}: sees 70. 64 | 3.93 | 67.69 )..-... PAE bee ea oom ons ie a Temp. | Rainfall. Temp. Rainfall. Temp. Rainfall. January 63985) 7-2 -he eee — 0.52 February LOBOS) 522 em scene September:=)-2--5------.-- 59. 40 | 0.00 G2e 7d eeees 66.18 | 0.09 58. 35.| OA7bo wer. SL | eens OGMIDEL2 eee eset s--- = ionic 60531 | 0.19 | “61505 |. .- 5.2 63.'32 | 0.46 | 55.47 | 1534) 6443) |2eeeee NOVEMUEE o.cutee tae Sacn 68.:99" S112) MOSES Te eee 55.27 | 1.80 | 51.54 |10.17 | 49:56 |---ce- DSCEMDELee Hache scence 55.18 | 4.98 | 52.66 |...... 47.88 | 3.11 | 49.33 |15.39 | 49.27 |...... wg (2 WW HAMPSHIR Oran by G Mare me j i eee INGSTON! + ou ed wey om UNE) of waAREI gn & © f aos. eo j i 1 renter i i H LAME f t Ler 1 Manenacil [Bele iawien luaseen le uyanoaal \s ree FY 5 1 lomanee ats wronol t _jmichian WYANDoT/CAh

octet. 258. 54.05 | 1.78 58.36 0.27 53. 42 |.----. 54.91 | 5.64 | 50.15 | 2.44 US GU oi 51.25 | 4.13 56.44 | 2.50 | 50.90 |.-.-.-.-.- 50.41 12.71 | 40.57 | 12.10 MEEOM PEI =2.. 2226 2S - oe 46.17 | 7.59 | 52.22 | 9.00 | 48.91 |.....- 45.11 (11.52 | 33.72 | 11.52 { 1 i } New San Di- ae : Yerba Buena | Monterey. ego. Presidio. San Francisco. Taba: Months. | ; Fak | Es Be Tey | Temp en Temp. fall. | Temp. | fall. Temp. fil. Temp. | — Tl? | 50.04 | 1.68 [SOD 1) ate Sn [sooo February - --| 50.35 | 1.50 | 4.44] 52.17 |...... March .. axl odcdsts| onan | 2.66 |) 5s. Gale cece April 54.56 | 0. 63 | 1.59 | 55.85 |....-- May ..- 57.05 | 0.53 | 0.49 Diet Iosseee June 58.67 | 0.13 } 0.05 | 58.38 |...... es 60.05 | 0.08 | | 0. 00 GL.80 [eo ss-— PTUSHEN oes os = olson sss 60.47 | 0.00 | | 0.03 | 60.79 }..-:.- on) Sry) } 59.95 | 0.01 , 0.08 | 61.17 |...... Setinbenresstss 22-2. 525.282 | 57.94 | 0.33 O.39.} 61. 02):255_- INGMEMBGE. o 6.25... ooh. =n: 54.01 | 1.31 3. OL |) S749 eee medembers 92.2 5.4.22-..2-.. 50.14 | 2.72 | 5.80 | 50.46 |...... | ! I We see from this that the sections of the United States most favora- ble to beet-root culture are confined to the north, including New Eng- land, New York, a narrow band south of the lakes, Michigan, parts of Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Dakota. Here the line of the southern limit passes into the British possessions and enters the United States again in Washington Territory, and, crossing Western Oregon, passes to the coast to the extreme north of California. In most of this band we find a favorable temperature, and the average rainfall is sufficient in quantity, but we are unable to make any observations concerning the number of rainy days. In California, as the tables will show, the tem. perature is sufficiently moderate, but, from examination of the figures for the stations for which the rainfall has been recorded, we find it to be remarkably deficient. Here, in order to make the culture a success, it would appear that the intervention of irrigation during the summer months would be an absolute necessity. We also note a few counties in the southwestern portion of Pennsyl- vania, and one county in Ohio, without the general band, where suitable meteorological conditions seem to exist. These counties are surrounded by the red line in the more detailed map that has been prepared, show- ing the county lines near to or over which the line of the limit of favor- able meteorological conditions passes. This map is intended for more 70 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. ready reference for those who may contemplate establishing the culture in the sections in the near neighborhood of the line. Now, I do not mean to assert that the band of country I have thus plotted on the map is exclusively that in which the introduction of beet- root culture may be attempted with prospects of success, but it is cer- tain that within this band the chances of success are greater than they are without it, and it also appears that all the unsuccessful attempts* that have heretofore been made to establish the industry have been at points without it. It is therefore advisable that farmers or manufactur- ers who may design entering upon the prosecution of this industry should study with greatest care these influences which operate with so much benefit or injury upon the profit of the crop. It is evident from what precedes that the beet requires a cool or at least a moderate season for suitable progress in development, that it may not reach maturity in ad- vance of the time for working it into sugar, and under the influence of the rains and elevated temperature of the autumn months enter into a second growth, thereby destroying the valuable constituents which ren- ders it so desirable as a sugar-producing crop. In this connection it has been suggested that in sections of protracted warm seasons, when the root will develop and attain full maturity in August, and during the summer drought, the crop could be taken up before the appearance of the autumn rains, and by slicing and drying the roots preserve them until the arrival of the proper season. This mode of procedure has in fact been recommended to the agriculturists of the south of France, and has, it has been stated, been the subject of experiment in Algeria. The method has the objection of being a rather precarious one on account of the chances of the crop being caught after a long-continued drought by late heavy summer showers that would prove almost as injurious as the autumn rains. t After the directions given by Briem and others it is scarcely neces- sary to recapitulate here the meteorological conditions which appear to be required by this culture, yet the conclusions arrived at from our study of the subject, in addition, may not appear superfluous. The conditions, then, are in general, comparatively dry and warm spring months during the time for preparation of the soil, planting, and culti- vating the crop; moderate temperature, abundant and frequent rains during the summer months, the time for ultimate development of the crop and its valuable constituents ; cool dry fall, the time for ripening, harvesting, and storing the crop. If these conditions prevail, the results will be good; otherwise they will be but medium or even bad. *The locations of these attempts are indicated by a red cross in the detailed map. +The experiment of drying beets for preservation in Maine, in the fall of 1878, proved quite disastrous financially for those who engaged in the enterprise. CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 71 OHA PTE RIV. VARIETIES OF BEETS GROWN IN FRANCE—THEIR CHARACTERS, MODE OF SELECTING, ETC. The importance of the variety or race of the beet to be grown for sugar cannot be questioned. A beet giving a large cultural yield rich in sugar involves no more cost to the grower in its production than one giving a small yield and low saccharine value. It is therefore useful to choose those which will give the greatest returns and be at the same time the most satisfactory in every way to the grower who must pro- duce them and to the manufacturer who must extract the sugar. For the latter it is admitted that the raw material—the juice of which contains the smallest percentage of mineral and organic impurities, other things being equal—will give a largeryield of sugar than juices in which these constituents exist in larger proportions, and it is well known and generally understood that these favorable conditions are found in roots of moderate size more frequently than in large ones. Thus Briem* says, “The size of the beet is in the inverse ratio of its content of sugar and salts; the content of water increases with the size and weight of the beet”; and Champion and Pellet statet that beets of good quality gen- erally have an average weight of 700 to 800 grams (13 to 1? pounds), and this size seems to be generally adopted as the most favorable by the best authorities on beet culture in France and by the manufacturers al- most unanimously. The rule that the smaller the beet the richer in sugar appears to find illustration if not complete confirmation in the results of examination of the beets submitted by Professor Deherain{ to experiment at the college farm at Grignon, and produced from seed furnished by Vilmorin, An- drieux & Co. Improved exposition | Improved beets No. | Pink top beets, Ver- : 5 beets. : 848. rieres. Pink top No. 34. Number. | | Weisht | Fer cent. : Per cent. : | Per cent. : Per cent. of b ot of sugar | Weight. of sugar | Weight. of sugar | Weight. of sugar ; in juice. in juice. in juice. in juice. Grams Grams Grams Grams ieee. a555 = - 395 18.1 282 20. 0 980 | 13. 10 530 13. 75 Wascenacss 365 16.7 330 20. 0 460 12. 05 622 13. 10 bio Shenae 720 16.4 660 18.8 630 11. 30 837 12. 50 Ae reac scoces 600 15. 6 450 18.7 627 10. 00 1, 115 11. 25 De-ti.ccs=-. 620 15.0 385 18.4 890 9. 84 1, 040 10. 60 Groescccess 740 13.9 335 18.4 1, 150 9:20: |.25 9. SEES eee ig eee eae 1, 130 13.4 BGO! |) SANS ase soe eal st wise -| so ccnmn: eee Brno aeainieie 850 13. 2 580 16.9) |\ocsaeewos| cn ccccmay 0c |cd yee cetee pee eee Averages -. 677 15.5 447 18. 6 789 10. 91 828 12. 24 * Journal des Fabricants de Sucre, October 23, 1878. tLa Bettrave a Sucre, p. 98. t Annales Agronomiques. 72 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. The form of the beet seems also to be an important feature in the con- sideration of the proportion of sugar to be obtained, and Champion and Pellet further state,* concerning beets of good quality, “their form is elongated and tapering.” ‘This admits of more thorough penetration of the root in the soil, more complete contact with the nutritive elements, moisture, &c., insures the plant against variations of existing conditions, and consequently a healthier state, from which must naturally follow a better quality. Corenwinder and Contamine ¢ find that there is a relation between the size of the leaves and the richness of the roots; that roots which bear leaves of broad surface are generally more rich in sugar than those hay- ing small leaves upon a contracted top, and these facts are confirmed by analyses of subjects taken from the same field. At the same time De- herain concludes from his researches ¢ that the weight of leaves of small beets is relatively greater than is produced by larger ones. The rela tions found are as follows: . Weight of | Weight of | Sugar in 100 Variety of beets. leaves. roots. of juice. Grams. Grams. LSE 10700 Be OpB ABE OE CBAC SOC ena 2one 5C GeScne ores er ee A052 281 1, 393 9. 94 Pink top Enterré 375 984 10. 18 Fmproved 1,093 .......-..-5.--2-2---.seces wee ee ne ese ene esenne 531 863 14. 42 METER COST) Aa nds ol eeifdln wlerg'= Aone Jal -\e\oeecaee Ss eines oieeleae ima 531 787 14. 78 In connection with this relation between the size and richness of the sugar beet and the number and weight of leaves they bear Champion and Pellet§ give the following figures: Variety of beets. Pounds of leaves | Per cent. of sugar per 100 of roots. in beet. PrerOveN WVTMOTIN .- sts. .sn2es=-- 2-25 - en S S-eSoSbe AAR SEE AS 56 14.5 Simon Legrand (choice). ...--......-..-...----- eticccdcscicin se EEee 33 13.3 WrdinaryOf Sugar factories). .---- 2. . 222-5. sec cee eee mee ae sheen 20 11.8 Beets produced in special cultures. - ; Per cent. of Variety. Roots. | L : ariety oots eaves sugar. Pounds: | Pounds. Ordinary, seed special Culture ..~- assests cosa eon asaeenes en 100 52 13.2 @rdimary seedyordinary culture ..-.225: ---..5-2255--.-.--0552------5- 100 28 11.8 * La Bettrave a Sucre. t Annales Agronomiques, t. IV, 380. ¢10., ¢. LH, 98. § La Bettrave a Sucre. CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 73 | Other tests gave— Percentage of sugar in roots: Weight of leaves per 100 pounds. SS ee pss Meta eh 1)... /_ til 58 cele RRS OSS GR We ar esmecgee sR Lin, FP FOL Fy, 63 oS RR ES a eee eeepc ee eee EN TO 52 eee... cM eal Atos... 2... eee 62 es ihe. anal joss ails vo. 2). Leesidedl = * 7 31 Sa a eee 26 a...) Jdeeeeee RAR socom Migs. 2.. 2... ee eee 36 ae dt -ecsageme? >. .c8i A levaLeewes< =. 2322 eee. beeen ee 25 TE feet ERE RIO aN 5. a Cane Ba 26 These are the principal external characteristics which seem to have an influence upon the composition and value of the beet, and for the de- scription of the varieties finding greater favor in France and most ex- tensively grown we shall quote from the writing of Mons. H. Vilmorin. It is generally admitted that the saccharine richness of beets is inversely pro- portional to their volume. Taken in a general way this proposition expresses a truth, but it is certain that selection judiciously applied may cause a varia- tion of this relation, and enrich a given race of beets without diminishing either the volume or the yield. It is in modifications of this kind that we should seek the practical improvement of the beet, and the end proposed is to create, at different degrees of the scale, races of beets uniting with a given yield the maximum saccharine richness compatible with that yield. The search for a beet which shows at the same time a maximum of product and a maximum of richness is a chimera, and the sooner its pursuit is relinquished the more will disappointment and useless endeavor be avoided. In fact, high saccharine richness is necessarily allied to a great abundance of leaves and rootlets, and beets rich in rootlets and leaves cannot become voluminous without becoming deformed and losing the external qualities of regularity and cleanliness which are in a great meas- ure indispensable to a good race of sugar beets. Starting out, therefore, with the idea that the different circumstances in which the manufacturer or the grower finds himself placed demand different beets, let us examine the really known varieties and what they may become under the influence of skilfully applied selection. The White Silesian sugar beet (Fig. 1), origin and point of departure of all the other varieties, is still preferred above } all in a large part of Europe. It is a race of medium size, almost entirely buried, with white skin, slightly wrinkled, leaves rather spreading thanerect. It isrichin sugar, gen- erally containing 12 to 14 percent. Its yield in good con- ditions is about 20 tons per acre. It is perfectly adapted to close culture, and does not require very deep soils. Cul- tivated in France for some years, it has increased in volume, and has come to yield easily 22 to 23 tons per acre. Now that there is a tendency to return to beets rich in sugar, the acclimated white German beet is one of the varieties most recommended. Of this there exist several sub-varieties, obtained by se- lection. We cite among the most distinct the Magdeburg, rather small, but long and very regular; the Zreslau, shorter and more swollen; the Imperial beet (Fig. 2), obtained by Fic. 1.— White Silesian Beet. Knauer, which is long, regularly tapering, having the form of a carrot, foliage light- 74 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. colored, curly, and approaching the ground; the Electoral, of the same origin, more (gonflée) swollen, larger, and more productive, but slightly less rich than the Imperial. The green-top sugar beet, a French race (Fig. 3), is in much less fa- vor to-day than it wasfifteen years ago. It is, however, an excellent race, larg- er, better formed and smoother than ¢ the Silesian beet. The top, which pro- trudes from the earth a few centimeters (a couple of inches) only, is colored green; the root is long, smooth, and white. This variety may give as high as 25 tons per acre, con- taining from 11 to 14 per cent. of sugar. Manufacturers who 7 have continued to cultivate it have had reason to be satisfied with it. We have known its yield in sugar to be as high as 3.69 tons of 2,000 pounds per acre. The French pink-top beet (Fig. 4) is that which has been most generally grown for years. The favor accorded it is jus- tified by a collection of qualities which seem to __. make the race the most ad- vantageous of all, in the ordinary conditions of the culture of our country. In fact it unites great vigor, , which admits of its yield- % ing 28 to 30 tons per acre, with a generally regular form and a very satisfactory richness, which varies from 10 to 13 per cent. of sugar; it is at the same time capa- ble of easy preservation. The foliage is vigorous and abundant, and the top pro- trudes slightly from the ground in such a way as to facilitate pulling without diminishing the saccharine Fic. 4.—Pink-top Beet. quality of the root. The Fic. 5.—Gray-top Beet. largest yields per acre we have ever known have been obtained with this variety. We have known a production of 3.95 tons of sugar per acre. The gray-top beet or the pinkish gray beet of the North (Fig. 5), is of all others the =—S ~ — — Fic. 2.—Imperial Beet. Fic. 3.— Green-top Beet. CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 75 most perfect as to form and the most productive. It has but few leaves, and very nearly one-fourth the length of the root is above ground. This part is gray, greenish, or brown; is clean and smooth like the buried portion, which is more or less pink. On the other hand it is the least rich of all the sugar beets, and is at present almost uni- versally proscribed by manufacturers. We believe the sentence rather severe, because the gray-top beet is capable of giving, by means of a suitable culture, yields of sugar per acre which rival those of other races, and we believe it may be sufficiently im- proved with regard to the richness without losing its qualities of form and volume. The white improved Vilmorin beet (Fig. 6) descended directly from the white Si- lesian, was brought by Mons. L. Vilmorin, by means of selection, to present, after several generations, a richness of 15 to 18 percent. of sugar. This has been its condition for long years, and experience proves that it would be chimerical to endeavor to obtain greater richness, be- cause the plant would then cease to grow with sufficient force. Efforts have tended in these latter years toward the improvement of the form and increase of the product, and important progress Bc has been realized in this direction, since the improved beet, which was represented at the beginning as giving per acre a product of 8 to 10 tons, containing 15 to 16 per cent. of sugar, has given in late yields of 18 to 20 tons per acre with a richness in sugar vary- ing from 15 to 18 per cent. This race has always been considered particularly suited to spe- cial conditions of culture and manufacture which are not those of France; it seems to us, however, that, in consequence of the modifications to which it has been submitted in later times, and which have increased its volume and its yield, it may be adopted iE in certain cases, even in our country. By growing it very closely, [: the inferiority of its volume as compared with that of other races isin great part compensated for, and on the other hand it has been proven by numerous analyses, especially in the competitive exhib- /) itions of beets at Arras and Senlis, that this race surpassed all pig, 6,—Vitmorin’s Im- others, not only in saccharine richness, but also in the purity of proved Beet. its juice, which contained less of ashes and salts than that of any other variety, an advantage of very great importance. This brings us to the consideration of the internal structure and com- position of the beet, which, like the external characteristics, may natu- rally be modified by the conditions of culture and nutrition to which the plant is subjected. The structure of the root has been the subject of careful study by M. Decaisne, the able director of the Department of Vegetable Physiology of the Jardin des Plantes at Paris, and he has made a complete micro- scopic examination and consequent description of the minute anatomy, ’ but in this report we shall notice only those physical characters which are manifest to ordinary vision, and the relations they bear to the eco- nomic value of the root. It is this part of the subject that has been worked up by Payen, who called attention to the appearance of the alternate opaque and transparent bands when the root is sliced in the direction of its longer axis, and of similar zones when cut in the direc- tion of its shorter axis. Of these, he shows that the former or opaque zones are the richer in sugar, and in his memoir on this subject he says :* *Compte rendus, xxiv, 909. Quoted in Traité de la Fabrication du Sucre, by E. J. Maumené, t. I. 76 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. If a root be cut in the direction of its length and through its center, it shows the section represented in Fig.7. 6b b are the parts containing the sugar. They are dis- tinguished by their more decided white appearance; all the tissue which separates them is grayish, and contains little or no sugar. This is proven by chemical tests, by cupric liquor among others, or even simply by the taste. Champion and Pellet state * that— If very thin slices of pink beets be used, after a few minutes’ exposure to the air, the zones pointed out by Payen may each be subdivided into two different zones, sep- arated from each other by a series of black points (tubes) distributed in the formeof circles, and seeming to correspond with the leaves. The structure would then be as follows: 1, opaque zone; 2, trans- parent zone; 3, opaque zone; 4, zones of vascular tissue. The formation of these zones seems to be in some way allied to the production of leaves, as well as the increased proportion of sugar con- tained in them, for Bretschneider noticed a relation between the number of leaves and of the concentric layers, and Gaudichaud found that “the leaves of beets correspond directly with the different zones of vessels in the roots in such a way that the appearance of new leaves should always give rise to new zones of vessels”; while in connection with the above facts Champion and Pellet give the following figures, showing the rela- tion between the percentage of sugar in the juice, the number of leaves on the plant, and the number of zones in the root: ; 2 se 3 g 8 I oS Q 8 4 we Ge Seed- used. Be : z = oe | Bee & | z : DB A a 15.7 42 48 NAIMOTINGSCOO seacac soos iaetisint sic tani soe ve oo tose been cewe aces mac es cinsicoetic ss 14.8 39 36 13. 8 31 32 9 Ordinanyiseed of the factories <2 - see dasc ca see nese ee sac eeir eee tec heen ; = Z a a i Payen’s notions found support in the results of examinations of the parts made by Joulie, Violette, and others. Notwithstanding the earlier statements of Violette, he has published results of analyses showing that the percentage of sugar in the several parts varies inversely with the distance of the part from the longitudinal axis, and that the higher percentage is found in the opaque zones. Thus the same beet gave the following figures : Per cent. 14.5 Prarie li GidiZzonegue-ccic. sud Saw nto eae Shien daalls Poel soe ciehies teeth. ee eS 13.4 10.0 15.7 MAMUS AGNER! sete cp mab ahs aren Se iedio aectasaest bee Meee pei ae anole oe ke 15.5 11.2 In his earlier work, Violette found little difference in the quantity of sugar present in the two kinds of tissue, but the notions then obtained * La Bettrave a Sucre, p. 58. CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. Fic. 7.—Vertical section of beet root to show anatomical structure. V7 78 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. from it with reference to the location of albuminoids and salts have re- ceived full confirmation in his own later work and in that of Professor Joulie. Thus, he stated— The former (the translucid zone) appears to contain the higher proportion of min- eral matters. The proportion of chlorides may be eight times as great ; organic, nitric, and phosphoric acids are about equivalent, but sulphuric acid ismuch more abundant in the sacchariferous tissue, probably on account of the predominance of the albumi- noids. The distribution of the albuminous matters and salts is shown in the following statement giving the composition of the translucid and opaque ZONES + ‘g ea oe ¢u | So ee Ae as a op i 2.) 23 hee RG | 2) 22 =o Zones. ° "a 5+ |: SO & | #2 | 888 | ge H e) iS) DS oo ° ° ok og S| 2.4 | 8" | seq | wm 4 na Z A A Opaquerzones - <5 -22-s06se5-se5 seco eeeee reas s= 11.27! 0.63 5.5 0. 263 1. 643 14.5 PransluCid ZONCS 2 «= .<-008-sSrineareeeeeranae Scene 10.00 | 0.84 8.4 0. 280 1. 430 14.3 Violette also found a higher percentage of sugar in the lower portions than in the upper portions of the root, and Joulie found that the tops contained less of nitrogen than the lower extremities. Thus Violette, cutting the root in several slices, beginning at the top, found them to contain, respectively, of sugar the following percentages: Per cent. of sugar. ISP ISIC Ge eee jose nieces dc o.csa as Sp 2 ne Bes | & Ep sA | ssa | 3 >) 3 od © > A < qom | <_ ONO MINU4OC saws onan Acanen scans tonddsscccarcceccacecess 1. 74 Sevan does PRUE HELOR NORE Soe scs Seer « daacawohbemat heecdaaspbana dawson 1.99 1.84] 19L MON UOMO es saeia te ce ce as ass nen s ea asenclocacteos scccsaee 2. 03 2.00} 2.02 PERS LCOVL AUG. 23 nn 8 ate c sows Seaeecsadipemde shewews soceat bees 2. 08 2.08 | 2.08 PBGR0 LOMOTOs se ccecc- nnn cles 2.1 2.12 2.13 1.070 and above eee baay 2.15 js Qa5 TRU URAMOHMOVG sans canwcn sccueccscisamecasctesecsccesnnes cena) 8 aNd ADOVE-lo—-cc- ose: 2.31] 2d. Be means of the average coefficients, the following table was con- structed : oH GH eH On eH Ge iS) iS) ° i) ° ° . Sa 2 2 o ht | . a1 k. ey ra ee |} ee] & | dBi & | 88] £ | 28) £ | sei 2 | ge oa os = os r= os D os D os D os F a a @ B Ha a i @ a Ba a om A |e A ;e | A | & A | & Avot hcl eet & 1. 035 6.0 1. 045 8.5 1. 055 11,2 1. 065 13.8 1. 074 16. 2 1. 083 18.7 1. 0386 6.2 1. 046 8.8 1. 056 1135 1. 066 14.1 1. 075 16.5 1, 084 19.0 1. 087 6.4 1. 047 9.0 1. 057 11.8 1. 067 14.3 1. 076 16.8 1, 085 19.3 1. 038 6.6 1. 048 9.3 1, 058 12.0 1. 068 14.5 1. 077 17.0 1. 086 19.6 1. 088 6.8 1. 049 9.5 1. 059 12.3 1. 069 14.7 1. 078 17.3 1. 087 20.0 1, 040 7.0 1. 050 9.7 1. 060 12.5 1. 070 15.0 1. 079 17.5 1. 088 20.3 1, 041 7.3 1. 051 10.0 1. 061 12.8 1.071 15.3 1. 080 BAYS 1. 089 20.7 1. 042 7.6 1. 052 10.3 1. 062 13.1 1. 072 15.6 1. 081 18.0 1. 090 21.0 1. 043 ya!) 1. 053 10.6 1. 063 13.3 1. 073 15.9 1. 082 18.3 1. 091 21.5 1. 044 8.2 1. 054 10.9 1. 064 13.6 These figures are determined for a temperature at 40° F., and are suf- ficiently exact for all practical purposes. They are modified, however, by certain circumstances of culture, such as the nature of the soil and fertilizers, and the humidity of the year. It is also a fact that in the juice of unripe beets the relation of the density and sugar percentage varies from the relations given above. * La Bettrave a Sucre. 84 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. Corrections for temperature are given by Champion and Pellet as fol- lows: For densities be-' tween 1.000 and Temperature, 1.100, add to the Fahrenheit. corresponding sugar percent- age. 4 oS [e) esse rococo cooOoqu The method of determining the value of sacchariferous juices by means of the specific gravity is that which will find widest application and give the most satisfactory results in all hands outside the laboratory. The second method mentioned, which is to some extent mechanical in its ap- plication, and that may be used with limited laboratory appliances, though more complicated than the first, is that depending upon the rotary power of sugar solutions, or their power to influence the rotation of the plane of polarization of a ray of light passing through the Nichols prisms. It must be manipulated with care, however, and gives best re- sults in practiced hands, The principal objection to the method is the costliness of the apparatus, but its convenience and practical accuracy cannot be questioned. Without entering further into a description of the principles of the method, or of all of the forms of apparatus which have been devised for the determination of sugar by this means, which may be found in any of the leading works on chemistry, I will merely call attention to the instrument lately devised by Laurent, of Paris, which finds such favor with all the chemists and manufacturers who have frequent occasion to estimate sugar in solutions, and who are dis- carding other polariscopes on account of its many advantages. Laurent’s instrument is a modification of that of Soleil. The differ- ence consists in the introduction between the polarizer and analyzer of a plate of gypsum or selenite of such thickness as to give to the ray of light passing through the instrument a yellow tint identical with that of the line D of the sodium spectrum. The plate covers half the field of vision, so that the other half of the field, when white light is employed, will have the color complementary to yellow or violet blue. The diffi- culty of differences of appreciation of shades of color by observers is obviated by using the monochromatic light produced by introduction of a sodium salt into the colorless flame of the Bunsen burner. The slight blue shade of the Bunsen flame, which is decomposed by the spectro- scope into violet and green, is disposed of by causing the light from the flame to pass through a solution of bichromate of potassium, which has the well-known property of absorbing the green, blue, and violet rays. The Selenite plate takes the place of the quartz prisms of.the Soleil in- strument, and the analyzer is connected with a metallic circular dise, which is arranged perpendicular to the axis of the instrument. The CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 85 upper edge of the disc is provided with two sets of divisions, one to in- dicate degrees of the circle, and another to indicate hundredths of sugar in the solution. This provision renders it possible to use the instrument for. ordinary polariscopic work other than the determination of sugar, while the second admits of reading percentages of sugar without the otherwise necessary calculations. The plate is also provided with a vernier to assist in reading parts of divisions, and to the vernier is at- tached by an arm a magnifying glass to facilitate reading the indications, and a mirror, so arranged as to reflect the light from the lamp used upon the disc, thus obviating the necessity for an accessory light. There is also a special arrangement for so turning the Nichols prisms as to ad- just them before taking observations, as well as to secure the maximum intensity of light when working with colored solutions, thus avoiding the decoloration of many solutions before observation that would other- wise be absolutely necessary. There are other ingenious mechanical ap- pliances connected with the instrument which increase its usefulness, but for the further description of the instrument we must refer the reader to Maumene’s Traité de la Fabrication du Sucre, or to the descrip- tive circular of the inventor and manufacturer, whose address is No. 25, rue de ’Odeon, Paris. The other method for estimating sugar in solutions referred to is that depending upon the reduction of cupric oxide to cuprous oxide, and is based upon the use of modifications of the well known Tromner’s or Fehling’s solution. The formula more lately employed is that given by Violette, and is as follows: Prepare a solution composed of 36.46 grams pure crystallized sulphate of copper and 140 cubic centimeters of distilled water. Then a second solution containing 200 grams pure crystallized Rochelle salts and 500 cubic centimeters of solution of caustic soda at 24° B. or 1.199 specific gravity. When the solution of the two salts is completed (it may be hastened by means of heat if necessary) the first is carefully poured into the sec- ond, interrupting the operation from time to time to agitate the mixture in order to dissolve the precipitate which forms. The transfer is com- pleted by washing the vessel which centained the first solution with distilled water. The mixture is then allowed to cool to 60° F. and the volume is increased to 1 liter. One cubic centimeter of the solution thus prepared corresponds to 0.005 gram of cane sugar. Vogel proposed substitution of glycerine for Rochelle salt to render the solution more stable and prevent the gradual deposition of cuprous oxide, but this does not seem in all hands to have proven effectual. Pellet claims to have devised a thoroughly stable solution which he prepares by the following formula, substituting sodic carbonate for sodic hydrate, and adding a small quantity of ammonic chloride. It has the merit of being easily prepared. It is a modifica- tion of those of Fehling, Violette, Possoz, and others. He uses alkaline 86 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. carbonate after Possoz and ammonic chloride after Monier, the latter to give stability to the liquor. The liquor is made up as follows: Take Grams. Pure crystallized sulphate of copper ...... ..2--- ---2 2 ce0e ceccee emcees connee _ 68.7 OEHe Ne Saltese amc ace este acle tas ca ese cae cose aie \je1a 0 Atse nema eee 200. Dry pure carbonate of soda ....-.-.---. --2 220 see eee coe cone cone cee cone eee 100. Chloride of ammoniwini occ. 64250 fase) ses oelatid ae atid Jods ghee Mix with 500 or 600 cubic centimeters of water; dissolve with heat on a water-bath, cool and make up to one liter ; filter if necessary. The standard of the liquor is 10cc=0.65 gram of sugar, but this should al- ways be verified. Pellet found in using the liquor that the results varied with the volume employed, but is exact for the following vol- umes of fluid: Cubic* centimeters. mitre Mp OL. «6 ea sein tee eee dee ses tonnes orien = edema 2 E ry a Ay re A < < eee ee ell eel Large seeds --..2.-.---.--- 4.130} 10.9] 2.66 5.4] 2.98) 6.061] 8&6 14.9 i 1b Small seeds, ........---.--+- 0. 546 | 11.0 3. 07 5.3 3.44.) 5.95 21.5 13.1 SUGAR BEET. Gee of the ties: | raytop, greentop, large Grpdartik ss 7sGeet | 4,.745| 12.2] 246] 65] 280) 7.4 | 168 |.....-.. German acclimated, pink 10 top, small seeds -.--- 334 0.777; 11.2 2. 80 8.2 EAM Ly Eee ee 19 68+]).cotr6 FORAGE BEETS. | Ox-horn, German yellow, | Jarve seeds .-..~.- <<... 4.647) 12.5 2. 38 7.0 2.74 | 80 14.87 | 13.6 4 Pink field, red globe, small | | t to Cot te eee eee 0.560 | 11.4 2. 55 9.0 rR Soe 15.93 |. 12.4 6 | =F These relations between the richness of the beet and the composition and size of the seeds, furnish the bases of ready and valuable means of selecting the good and separating them from the worthless. The method recommended is to pass them over a screen with meshes of a given diam- eter, which unfortunately has never been determined, or at least stated, and to throw those which pass through in water or a solution of salt, rejecting those which float. Those which sink combine the valuable properties above described, of small size and high specific gravity. In the processes of selection as applied to choice of beets for production of seed, which really constitutes the production ot new races, the end really to be attained is the ultimate development of a race, or of races, ~ 90 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. which will at the same time satisfy the demands of the producer and the manufacturer; that is, that will give a large yield to respond to the demands of the former, combined with good quality and high richness in sugar to respond to: the demands of the latter. In the opinion of some of those who have devoted themselves to this work, the hope of a result such as we have described must be considered almost useless, if we depend upon the root and its characteristics, but much valuable as- sistance may be rendered in the attainment of this end, as we shall see later on, by the intelligent application of fertilizers to the crop and the methods of culture adopted and employed. In the earlier experiments in this line, those of Mons. L. Vilmorin, at- tention was more especially directed to the production of very rich beets, with no particular care to the size, the desire being rather to obtain ~ beets of small size, with tapering form and smooth surface; but the late work of all engaged in this kind of experiment and research has been directed to the enrichment of races giving roots of larger volume and fuller form, making them better adapted to all svils and all methods of culture. In most cases, therefore, the work starts from the races most extensively grown. Vilmorin began his work by following the method employed in Ger- many of taking the specific gravity of the roots by plunging them in saline solutions of known density, but he soon found that, in conse- quence of the almost constant presence of an internal cavity, this method was inexact. Dubrunfaut further explains the cause of the inaccuracy of this method in the fact of the existence of air and gases within the body of the root. Vilmorin therefore resorted to the method of taking from the center of the root under examination a cylindrical portion by means of a cutting tube, and determining the density of the portion thus obtained, in solu- tions of sugar of known specific gravity, but these solutions were dis- carded on account of their unstable character, and similar solutions of salt substituted. But the loss of sugar in the sample by osmosis when in- mersed in the saline solutions renders this mode of procedure also un- suited to the attainment of the end in view, and he finally turned to the determination of the density of the juice itself as the readiest and most exact means of determining the sugar content of the sample. The sample removed from the beet, furnished on grating and pressing sufficient of juice to admit of taking the weight of a metallic cube of known dimen- sions immersed in it, from which the density of the juice could readily be calculated. This method of determination he found to give more accurate results than any other when working upon so small a quantity of material. : It is useless to add [he says in his paper read before the Academy of Sciences in November, 1856] that the temperature taken by means of a thermometer with tenths of degrees is carried on the register after each weight of the ingot, and that the gauge of the vases, the fineness of the suspending thread, and the identity of all the condi; tions of the operation eliminates errors which at first produced certain irregularities in the manner of working. CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 91 Having thus determined the specific gravity of the juices of the vari- ous beets under examination, those considered worthy of propagation are preserved and the others rejected. The surfaces of the wounds pro- duced in the beets examined by the removal of the sample is covered with charcoal dust, which effectually prevents any decay or deteriora- tion in consequence of the treatment to which the roots have been sub- mitted. This method was employed in the development of the race of beets known as Vilmorin’s Improved, and it is this method or modifications of it, or some additional operations carried on in connection with it, that is employed to-day by the most intelligent and responsible producers of improved seed in France. Mr. Henri Vilmorin, who has succeeded his father in the work, com- bines the method with examination of the sample of juice, after the deter- mination of its specific gravity, by means of the polariscope, while others employ, as supplementary to the method, estimation of the sugar by means of the copper test. But notwithstanding the unfavorable conclusions concerning the method of selection, based upon the density of the roots. as determined by immersing them in solutions of molasses or salt of differing but known strengths, it is still used by many of the leading seed-growers in the North of France. M. Demiatte, in an article on the subject of selec- tion of seed-bearers, states* that he proceeds as follows, according to Brabant’s method: Select subjects weighing at least 700 grams (13 pounds). For determination of their density they are thrown into a vat partly filled with a solution of molasses, having a density of 2.5 de- grees by the densimeter; those roots which float are rejected; those which partly sink are preserved for the production of seed called No. 3. Those which sink completely are thrown into a second vat containing a solution similar to that just described, but having a density of 3.5 de- grees. Those which float here are preserved for production of seed known as No. 2. Those which sink to the bottom are of course of the best quality, and are used for production of seed No 1. We have seen that the generally adopted opinion concerning the best form of beet to be chosen for production of high yields of sugar is to the effect that the long, tapering ones are the most valuable; but this opinion is likely to be subject to modification in consequence of the re- sults of later observations upon the constitution of the improved varie- ties and their power to resist the deteriorating influences to which they may be subject in the varying conditions of soil and culture. The taper- ing, richer, improved races, descended from German stock, have been found more subject to disease in France than the poorer races of the country, and M. Decrombecque, at Lens, conceived the idea of incorpo- rating within the latter the sugar-producing qualities of the former, and * Journal des Fabricants de Sucre, 1879, February 19. 92 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. at the same time retaining the hardiness for which the commoner races are well known. ‘To attain this end he had recourse to the method sug- gested by Walkhoff,* who believed that the saccharine richness of beets may be improved by crossing, and who was able by using seeds of Frick- enhouse, and the method referred to, to obtain beets the juice of which marked 18.8 degrees, Balling, and containing 16.5 per cent. of sugar, starting with varieties the juice of which showed but 17.8 degrees, Bal- ling, and containing 16.35 per cent. of sugar. In planting, the roots were placed in close contact so that the blossoms touched each other, and the slightest agitation was sufficient to effect the transport of pollen. But the results of the experiments and of the practice adopted by Mons. Decombrecque}t are rather more striking than those obtained by Walkhoff. He noticed when he began his work at Lens that the Silesian beet grown upon a rather shallow soil, and especially when manured with stable manure containing considerable straw, in the spring (well known to be a bad and injurious practice), was hairy, fusiform, and wanting in weight. At the same time the white beet of the country, with green top, gray flesh, and obtuse form, flourished and developed well, though remaining pyriform in the same field in which the Silesian fared badly. The question was to produce a beet having the hardiness of the one and the richness of the other. He chose from his crop the best formed, richest subjects, of size above the average, well covered in the ground, and then, observing the same care, chose specimens of the country roots, called toupie (about the poorest of all the beets grown), and the beets thus chosen he preserved for seed. In planting he combined them in the proportion of five plants of the Silesian with one of toupie. In collecting the seed he carefully preserved separately that from the Silesian varieties and that from the toupie, and in subsequent sowing used only that from the Silesian. He found that the character of the Silesian beet had changed, and that the beet had the obtuse form. How- ever, after the third year of planting the modified seed, he found that the good qualities of the Silesian had disappeared, and he had only the low-grade beet of the country. His subsequent practice, therefore, was to grow two or more acres of Silesian, and from the crop produced to select those he needed for seed, and these roots he mixed with roots from the ordinary crop in the proportion of 1 to 3, and thus secured continu- ously the hardiness of the one and the richness of the other combined. With the indications given by Mons. H. Vilmorin in his description of the leading races of beets grown in France, and the methods described in the preceding pages, it will not be difficult for the prospective grower to determine the varieties that will be best suited to his purposes, or to produce new races through which the results he desires may be obtained, but it will not be out of place here to call attention to the experiments of Mons. Derome at Bavay (Nord} made with seeds obtained from various * See La bettrave & sucre, par Champion and Pellet. t La sucrerie indigéne, xii, 434. CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 93 producers with a view to the determination of the best varieties for cul- tivators to grow in order to secure a crop of quality and quantity to be satisfactory both to themselves and the manufacturer. This he conceives fo be a variety that will give the most sugar per acre, in condition to be most easily extracted in the greatest weight. Without entering into the details of his experiments we shall simply give in the following table the names of the varieties of seeds grown and the results obtained : ee. | aes = | £ | Sugar of 88° ex- Se } S = a | > ¢ | tractable. ia eel ide a ate es esa PAE tea g er hn frag Ev ibytaee, bd 55 ail ie Gen Sabty ye c =e, Pech eel er coe | le 7 Varieties. ey ae ee ee Pe Pe sa ls OF ot” ete 28 Se =a So Ss | & | £ |],R | SS | Be} es | Be | = j Nn m id so = lad bk ee | | aN tan, (Pores | — a3 i iy Te PIAS, beat? = eke ee eats A ee eed (A= Pas Pa 3 rH a | Ac i | | Tons oo | Per et \Pounds.| Tons.* 1. Long pink toupie .......-...... ',33,205 | 20.1) 5 | 8431| g¢00/¢8000! 469) 0.98 2. Silesian, pink, fusiform --...--.) 34, 210 18.0} 5.70 10.766 464) §3 00 6. 84 1.23 3. Silesian, pink, fusiform | 32,388 | 15.9] 6.40 | 12.841 5 64 81 00 8.34 1.33 4, Silesian, white, first choice. ---. 32, 3 11.9} 7.15 | 13.769 680/} 7800} 9.27} 1.07 5. Silesian, white, second choice-..| 32, 266 16.0} 5.95 | 10.921} 494; 7900/| 6.84 1.09 6. Silesian, white, acclimated. ....| 35,060 | 15.9) 6.10 11.473) 516) 32 00 7. 34 1.16 7. Silesian, white, acclimated..--. | 34,656 | 14.9 6.15 | 11.194; 548! 6500/ 6.97 1. 04 White pmk top )=.2-~ 2.4. .-.- | 37,627 | 16.8 5.75 | 11.538 470) 7900| 6.50 1.09 9. White improved --.-...... .--..| 32,759 | 11.4 7.20 | 11.368 692! 7800; 868 0.99 10. White green top .............-- | 34,210; 15.3] 5.90/ 10.912) 488) 7300] 6.89 1.05 25 Pink aechmseed: 2.25 -5------- 31,983 | 13.8; 5.90 | 10.736 488 6800/| 6.67! 0.92 a2 White Silesian = \./..:..----.-.- | 32,874) 142) 6.10) 11-126) 510| 7300} 6.93} 0.98 a> PinkanWeneiice -n52)- cis cscens 33,966 | 15.1} 6.05 | 10.825 508| 7900) 669] 1.01 14, Pink silesian..-........--.----- | 33,400} 17.9) 5.45 | 9.957/ 436] 7800] 6.02] 108 a5. Pink Braadwicks 222-25 54.--==- 31, 583 / 17.5 | 5.40} 9.709 432/) 7500/ 5.86 1. 02 | | i | | * Of 2,200 Ibs. He concludes from the figures obtained and here given, that the best beets to be grown, and which he considers the races of conciliation, are those represented by the numbers 2, 3,5, 6, 7, 8,10, and 14. If sold according to the density of the juice and the scale of values in the form of arbitration adopted by the sugar manufacturers at Lille,* the grower will receive a higher return per acre than with any of the other varieties mentioned. In this connection the results of the experiments of Deherain are rel- evant ‘and interesting. He says: t It follows from our experiments and analyses that beets submitted to different modes of feeding or fertilizing, preserve in their development the native qualities of the seed, i. e., their race. In several of the experiments, pink tops and improved Vilmorins were submitted to exactly the same conditions, same sterile soil, same ‘manures given in equal quantities, yet in one case while the pink top contained 7.5 per cent. of sugar, the improved beet contained 16.2. In another case when the fertilizer was more nitrogenous, the richness of the pink-top beet fell to 5.5 per cent. and the Vilmorin to only 13.4. This shows clearly the influence of race upon the saccharine quality of the beet. The conclusions would appear premature were these experi- ments the only evidences to support them, but they are also confirmed OO * See later on in discussions of relations between the grower and manufacturer. t Annales agronomiques. 94 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. in the results of experiments made by Mons. H. Vilmorin at Verriers, according to Prof. Deherain’s suggestions. With reference to the type of beet to be chosen, Mons. Demiatte* says: The nature of the soil and method of culture being known, the form should change with the nature of the soil; should be long and tapering in deep sandy or alluvium soils; short and more obtuse in shallow soils like that near Arras, where the thick- ness of the arable layer will not exceed 6 inches. But whatever be the type chosen the top of the mother beet should not protrude from the soil more than one-fourth its total length. With the facts and figures presented, which have all been worked out in France by careful experiment and investigation, no further comments on the different French races will be necessary. The selection of varie- ties for cultivation can best be left to the reader. We believe, however, it will be of interest, and we shall, therefore, conclude the consideration of this subject by giving the names and addresses of several of the lead- ing producers of seed in France who made exhibition of their products in the late Paris Exposition of 1878, with short notices of the character of their exhibits. Desprez pére et fils, Capelle-—The varieties produced are No. 1, white or pink, containing 15 to 18 per cent. sugar, requiring deep, rich soil, plenty of manure, and excellent culture; yields 16 to 20 tons per acre. No. 2, white or pink, 12 to 15 per cent. sugar, for ordinary soil, fertil- zing, and care; yields 20 to 25 tons per acre. No. 3, 10 to 12 per cent. sugar for inferior soils and cultures; yields 25 to 30 tons per acre. Simon-Legrand, Auchy.—Different varieties containing 12 to 20 per cent. of sugar; some varieties of special selection containing from 20 to 23 per cent. I. Dervaux-Thled, Wargnies-le-Grand—Cultivates seed by special method of selection depending upon taking specific gravities of eylin- drical samples cut from the roots and immersing them in saline solutions of given strength. Brabant fréres, Onnaing—Cultivate seed of special variety bearing their name; claimed to produce 21 tons per acre, of beets of average richness of 14.88 per cent. of sugar. ¢ Vilmorin, Andrieux and Co., No. 4 Quai de la Megisserie, Paris—Pro- duce seed from five varieties, given in the table below, showing the in- dustrial value of each variety. 3 a 4 French races. ; 2 Ps 3 i=") ro 3 a ey | = Pa | 8 = 9. Aa ok q 20 | Be | ne do) al a O ds) Wield! per'acre' cceces Cosco cose ccseeecccaweececsens long tons..| 33.117 | 16.639 | 30.121 | 30.049 | 23. 360 Sua er Callow OL MCG sa acses eine -- eee Ease pounds..} 1.12 1. 63 1.24 . 20 1. 30 MAP Or ACOs esac crecwataree ss cm cece stocestsmtennee do..-.| 8,437 | 5,601} 8,754] 8, 595 7, 029 Sugar, per long ton. of: bects sss fit. tss 28 = hbase we odee= on eeepe 149.6 |2¢0.4 {182.6 173.8 222 2 Approximate industrial yield.........-...-....--- per acre..| 4.468 | 3.095 | 4.893 4.7389 2. 308 * Journal des Fabricants de Sucre, February 19, 1879. CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 95 CHAPTER V. CULTURE, CHOICE OF SOIL, ITS PREPARATION, PLANTING, CARE OF, HARVESTING AND PRESERVING CROP. CULTURE. The cultural conditions to be regarded as of greatest importance in securing crops of maximum quantity and quality, when a section has been determined upon by a consideration of all other conditions, are choice of soil, &c., its physical character and chemical composition, and the methods by which these may be modified or improved ; the first by the mechanical methods of culture, and the second by the proper and judicious applications of fertilizers. After this will naturally follow the modes of planting and the care to be applied during the season of growth. With reference to the choice of soil suited to the culture of the beet- root, opinions seem to differ somewhat, though the principles which ap- pear to govern them tend tothe same end. The illustrious Chaptal,* as a result of his study of the plant and its requirements, arrived at the following conclusions : Soils which are dry, calcareous, light, &c., are not well suited to the beet. Strong clay soils have little aptitude for the culture of this root. In order that the root may prosper, it needs, in general, a mellow, fertile soil, the arable stratum of which should be 12 to 15 inches thick. The root succeeds more or less well in all arable soils, but the products vary wonder- fully according to the nature of the soils. Bassett considers that “‘a fresh soil, rather sandy or silico-caleareous than too calcareous or argillaceous, rich in humus, and deep,” should be chosen. Briem,i in his late work on beet-root culture and sugar manufac- ture, says. of the physical character of the soil to be chosen, “itshould not be too light nor too moist; it should be bare; its subsoil permeable; it should be warm, free from stones, calcareous, and should contain humus.” Deherain,§ from the results of his experiments and investigations at Grig- non, publishes as one of the conclusions arrived at that the nature of the soil does not seem to exercise any sensible action upon the development of the beet, for the same results were obtained in soils consisting of pure silica, of calcareous matter, or of a mixture of calcareous matter and clay. Vivien || found in traveling through the provinces of the Rhine, Han- over, Brandenburg, and Saxony in Germany, that, though in each sec- tion there is a wide difference in the nature of the soil, there is a par- ticularly marked homogeneity in the character of the beets. * Quoted by Basset in Guide Pratique du Fabricant de Sucre. + Ibid. t See Critique in Journal des Fabricants de Sucre, 1879. § Annales Agronomiques. || Journal des Fabricants de Sucre, 1878, 27 March. 96 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. Vilmorin considers that any good soil that will grow wheat and corn, and has an arable stratum of 12 to 15 inches, will be well suited to this culture; that where chalk exists in large proportion the yield will be small, Bat the juice pure. All soils should be thoroughly drained, So that the tap root may not find stagnant water in the subsoil. Notwithstanding the differing notions expressed above, it will appear that the physical characters of the soil which tend to render it best suited to the cultivation of the beet are porosity of surface and subsoil, to admit of drainage of superfluous water and of free circulation of Ab air, and power of absorbing and holding in a condition convenient for ready as- similation the elements of plant-food existing within it or coming from external. sources. Unless the supply of these elements be continuous and regular, a purely sandy soil would be undesirable. If no means were provided for the removal of surplus water which might be found in a purely clay soil, or to so improve its condition as to admit of free circulation of air as well as water, it is too heavy, and becomes abso- jutely useless. The same is true of purely calcareous soils, since the same unfavorable conditions would prevail, though perhaps to not quite the same extent. These soils would also be unsuited to the plant itself, because they would not admit of the free progress of the tap root nor of the lateral fibrous roots in their search for nutrition or in following the natural course of development, and, as will appear later on, these con- ditions have a powerful influence upon the ultimate yield of sugar from the surface cultivated. But if the sandy soil described be mixed with either or both of the others mentioned, and with humus, in suitable proportions, the conditions most favorable to the maintenance of a reg- ular and plentiful supply of food, the healthy condition of the root, and its consequent normal development, will be assured. The chemical character of the soil is of quite as great importance as its physical condition. For the proper development of the beet for the production of sugar it should contain in a suitable and assimilable form all the elements usually necessary to the normal existence and. develop- ment of plants, and attention must therefore be had to the conditions in which these substances exist in the soil. Phosphoric acid, potash, nitrogen compounds, and lime are especially necessary, to the life of the plant, but if these exist in insoluble combinations on the one hand, or in forms suitable for assimilation but in excessive quantities on the other, they will either be useless in the economy of nutrition in the first in- stance, or will stimulate the plant to abnormal growth unsuited to the ready extraction of sugar in the second. It is this branch of the sub- ject that has occupied the attention and enlisted’ the energies of scien- tists and landed proprietors, and the influence of the different combina- tions of the various leading elements of plant-food, and more especially, during later years, of nitrogen in the soil, has constiaesd the subject of frequent and continued investigation. CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 97 Basset * says: Soils charged with mineral salts are injurious to the culture of the beet for extrac- tion of sugar and are only suited to the cultivation of beets for distillation. In fact, we know that the beet easily absorbs saline matters and that the alkaline salts con- stitute one of the greatest obstacles to sugar extraction. New ground or that lately cleared of forest should not be applied to the culture of the beet, and it is considered by good authorities to be detrimental to the quality of the crop to make use of lands for this pur- pose that have not been under continued cultivation at least ten or fif teen years. This insures an almost complete removal of the nitrates and the organic matters containing nitrogen, which are always present in large quantities in new soils, and which it is well known exert an in- jurious influence upon the quality of the root. Basset, in his work, gives elaborate tables of analyses of soils to show the chemical composition of those most favorable to the culture, but we will here give the more succinct tables of Champion and Pellet,z showing the composition of soils from different departments in the north of France in which beet-root culture is most extensively carried on, and of one from a similar section of Russia. Those numbered 1, 2, and 5 yielded beets of fair quality, containing 12 to 14 parts of sugar per 100 of juice, while that numbered 4 gave beets of bad quality. The last, that from Russia, is quoted by Walkhoff as being well suited to beet culture. beter | : 2 : tie S 3. peed Es he a | 33 | aw A Tn me i ar | oi fares Corps re ’ ; TD DIn Tne! : 5.600 | 4.42 4. 840 5.70 &. 200 6. 207 ToS AL eee | S8L800]..........| 82.500] 79.00 | 42.000 72. 699 7 init (hel) of seb] aes eee ra eas: 8. 620 #508 |" 2:00 1) 9. 97. Lo ee RS ee 0.570} 0.476 0. 420 0. 25 23. 220 1.930 Peruxide of aan 222. 25 <2 2h 22s 5 2. $8 ie 2.180 5.50 | 2. 310 | 2. 834 Phosphoric acid . . 0. 070 0. 008 0.077 | Trace..| 0 385 0. 093 iPeiaah.. ...255 4 0. 064 0.130 0.140 | Trace--| 0. 034 | 2. 047 2) Se ee 0. 085 ‘ ? eee es | 0. 058 | 0. 914 Carbonic acid -.- 0. 400 | 0. 600 0.700 |f 2.85 19. 050 | 1. 280 Other matters............ eipatetan tambnds ih of B35l-[-= =. a Bs eee 0. 823 2. 022 | 100.000 } 100.060 | 100.000 | 100.000 | 100.000/ 100.0¢0 PReeal nitrocen. 222252) 2-2-2 2s keene | 0.088} 0.140] 0.120 / 0. 154 0. 270 | 0. 234 PTIOFING, <.—- Soe cee Nae ohn eae i 0.013 0. 040 0. 030 0.016 | Ow Eo preter. (Te nen as iy 20 72.100 | 85.000 | 80.000} 62.000} 35.770 |......---- oe ee Ee 2. 000 9.000} 14.000} 30.000 | 10 to 12 2 eee The same authors quote Schiibler as giving the following as the gen- eral composition of good soil for beet culture: __ =, a pt 3 RR ee cae een 33. 300 SUES 0 i as Gt ee Se Bey ee = 63. 000 Caleareous sand. .--...-.----- 2 | EES en ae ee 1. 200 Se ErCer earth.) RUMUStS=— sae eco. 25 Sed Boe a ee ne ile Se 2. 500 * Guide Pratique du Fabricant de Sucre. t Guide Pratique du Fabricant de Sucre. t Za Betirave a Sucre, p. 82. 7SB . 98 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET, We now come to the study of the means employed to supply the dif- ficiencies of plant-food in the soil, due either to the natural condition or the exhaustion by crops, and the influence of the means employed upon the production of rich and valuable roots. The general composition of the beet root and leaves is given by Cham- pion and Pellet, as follows: They state that for rich beets the weight of . leaves is about 50 per cent. that of the root, and 25 to 30 per cent. that of roots containing 9 to 11 per cent. of sugar. The table shows the general composition of leaves and roots of beets . containing 15 per cent. of sugar: In dr In dr In roots. | 5 zarecl In leaves.| att oo Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. 74. 00 83. 50 BVPI So = to ras noo cc welnlecnime oon owe awalieninelelneiwein'= sateen TAs OOM sie calato |) Gos 0 Nitrogen. .... 5 0. 40 1.55 0. 38 2. 30 SASHES? = 250-5 - 0. 80 3. 10 4.35 26. 20 For a yield of 20 French tons* of beets and 10 French tons of leaves per acre, there would be removed from the soil : Nitrogen. wie ashes. Pounds. Pounds. AAD OTS THO he SSS Ge pe e SEO noes Ber Or SmER con Sere soc coor ararecrocosce 178.1 356. 2 TD Gan ES Gh ee Sones" Eee SB esos CEE EDS SOE CH OSCnn eet Se nem er orRSconamoa ssc 84.8 934. 1 Or, for an average richness of 11 per cent. of sugar: In dry In dr Tn roots. Panties In leaves. inten Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent. Water ...-..----------------- 2222-2 eens eee eee eee eee eee S200 Meera 84.50) | :2cceeeee PNELO PON 2 aaera oem eae acre mine ol ele ce iea am ale Seat n=l Salen ale l= 0 25 1. 39 0. 38 2.45 JS N23) ggee tan Bn ABAD Oe Gang gue TUE OSne SdOSn Oe Bene ens aoe 5 ste. oo 0, 95 5. 30 3. 85 24. 8 Or, for a yield of 20 French tons per acre: Total nitrogen. Total ashes. Pounds. Pounds. OO ILONS TOOLS sete tact cs caste cna cece eee ce eee eee tae dale sne enn ona nk ee tata 110 418 . GPLOMBULEaMER etn) << os Sociseane ae oad weeds ceiee cae sce aisetee elaaaieinet mate aeein ied ot aoe 50 508. 2 * 2,200 pounds. CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 99 The composition of the ashes of the leaves and roots referred to 1,000 parts green matter is as follows: eee Beets supposed to | Beets supposed to contain 10 per contain 15 per cent. sugar. cent. sugar. Leaves. | Roots. | Leaves. | Roots. 9. 23 2. 93 10.0 2. 66 3. 23 0. 51 3.47 0. 45 3. 50 0. 42 3.75 0. 38 2. 81 0. 38 3. 03 0.33 3. 23 0. 57 3.47 0. 50 SeMBUTIO MCE at. oat ae sene enolase c= acctsan2=scsss=s+s=e 1.50 0. 22 1. 63 0.19 Behe =... Sere a ie ee soersstsssssssssesccecccsccsssseetcscess 0. 31 0. 34 0. 33 0. 30 oP lid) ila ee eee SE Ee 2. 23 0. 59 2. 40 0. 51 Wndetermined --=.. j22ssc2sc202ss505055-ssssscccscerscaseses 2. 03 0.16 1.92 0.13 Total mineral matters 28. 07 6.12 30.0 5.45 TolaPROlwinivcsea= ceceesssansncsa52sc5sseseeanseassacuces 138. 0 167.5 140. 0 240.0 NUMOPEN leer uoneesasass2ssssssesscssss2ssssssscscacees 3.3 25 3.8 4.0 From these figures we may easily determine the quantity of the dif- ferent constituents removed by average crops. Supposing the average to be 20 tons of roots per acre, the consumption of the different con- stituents would be, for beets of differing richness, as shown in the follow- ing table: For beets contain- For beets contain- ing 10 per cent. ing 15 per cent. sugar. sugar. Total. Total. Six tons Twenty Ten tons away leaves fons leaves. lows roots . roots. WASH. =~) dS III 2 she knows dba 121.8 128. 9 250.7 220. 0 337. 04 117. 04 J EA. en 42.6 22.4 65.0 76. 34 96. 14 19.8 EGG 2 5s enc t bd eee abe obi ik dente 46.2 18. 48 64. 68 82. 50 89. 22 16.7 1 Ler es oe, oe Ee 36.1 16. 72 42. 82 66. 66 81.18 14. 52 WPPIOEING oss eee eee oe seb ck ew cee cad. 42.6 25. 08 47.68 76. 34 98. 34 22.0 STU he oT Gi Oe a a 19.8 9. 68 29. 48 35. 86 44, 22 8. 36 RC at eee eee ve, fe 4.09 14. 96 19. 05 7.26 20. 46 135.2 E-NOAPHOLIC ACG sense oe ees c 85 os wee 29. 43 25. 96 55. 39 52. 80 75. 24 22.44 Undetermined 22 sce sees. concen 26. 79 7. 04 33. 83 31. 24 36. 94 5. 70 Total... } Dry matter... Nitrogen ..... In France the general sources of supply of the various nutritive prin- ciples for the restoration of ‘those removed by the crops, or to provide those required, are found in stable manure, seed cakes, animal wastes, woolen scraps, sulphate of ammonia, nitrates, superphosphates made from bones and minerals, potash salts, gypsum, and the scums and refuse from the sugar factories. Of all these substances, that which combines in itself in the highest degree all the elements of plant-food, and which is naturally the most economical, is the stable manure pro- duced on the farm, and this being generally the result of keeping cattle to be fed upon the pulps from the factory is one of the sources of real profit to the producer. 100 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. Joulie gives the following as the composition of French stable-manures of average quality, estimated in pounds per ton of 2,000 pounds: OO aLaL) FI 3S | a a 2 ° | ee ie eee Ales < i a ~y Dn 4A 4 Manure A complete. .-.-.-...--- 4.14 1.50 6:50, |, '8300)|tseecee 17. 00 ; 62.00 Rpts GOMIPOLO === aa 5-< oe) 2-2 = 1.50} 6.60; 8.00] 9.00| 14.80 | 55.20 Cicompleter-2o5--s-52—-|---— == 1,50) | 6.50) | 14,0082 -22ee= 19.00 | 56.50 D complete. -----.------|-.---- 2.50 | 10.50 | 8.00 |.----.- 20.00 | 59. 00 E without potash....-.-. 6. 50 1.50: }; 6.b0\| 252 2ce eee 19. 50 | 67. 50 E concentrated......-... 9. 00 2500))| tts 00S e eee eee 12.00 | 68.00 E without potash No. 2-| 3.00 2.00, |:36, OO NLsezee3 ------| 22.00 | 59.00 ¥F without potash. ..---.|..-... 15,501} 6; 600) = eas 14.00 | 15.80 | 57.20 G without nitrogen..-..|...... 1.50} 6.50 | 10.00 | 3.00] 20.00 | 60.50 G without nitrogen No. 2)...-.. 2.00 | 14.00} 5.00] 1.50} 20.00 | 59.50 t Journal des Fabricants de Sucre, 1878, October 13. CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 103 nitrogenous manures of organic origin. In fact the first are at once absorbed by the young plant favoring the development ofleaves. On the contrary, the others act slowly and in decomposing may undergo nitric fermentation, which, favored by meteorological conditions, such as probably existed in 1875 to 1876, creates in the soil an abundance of nitrates, ihe retarding action of which impoverishes the root in the last days of growth. Concerning stable-manure, it is a fact that there is no necessity for prohibiting its use, because growers are generally wanting in it, and they will not be tempted to use, it in excessive quantity to the same extent-as they may be induced to use the mineral manures. But it is useful to show that this excessive use, if it were possible, would be even more fatal than the use of nitrates, as regards the quality of the root. 3. For the same reason the use of nitrates after sowing, and especially in the months of August and September, is absolutely bad, and may be characterized as fraudulent. 4. The abuse of nitrogenous manures, nitrates, and others is much less fatal when used upon rich varieties, and roots closely planted than upon poor varieties and reots cultivated at greater distances. 5. The causes to which the bad quality of the beets in our region (department of Pas-de-Calais) should be attributed are * * * the too great richness of our soils , in nitrogenous matters, the abuse of manures, and the application of nitrates after sowing. Concerning stable-manures and the other nitrogenous manures used, M. Georges,* in a lecture on beet-root culture, advises that the quantity of stable-manure should not exceed 10 to 15 tons per acre, since this quan- tity will supply sufficient of salts for the needs of the plant. Nitrogen, being the deficient constituent, should be supplied by some very soluble and easily-assimilable compound, such as from 250 to 350 pounds per acre of nitrate of soda, with an addition of a like quantity of superphos- phate of lime, the latter element especially intervening to increase the richness in sugar. The prejudice against nitrate of soda is unjust. Ju- diciously applied it is useful. Only its abuse is disastrous, but neither more nor less than the excessive use of all others, and even stable-ma- nure worked into the soil previous to sowing; it hastens the vegetation of the plant at the start and helps it through the first stages of growth. When it is exhausted, the stable-manures, by their slow decomposition, supply the subsequent demands of the plant. But nitrate of soda should not be applied during the growth of the plant, because it may then re- main in nature in the adult beet, which will not have time to elaborate it and secure all the useful effect. Sulphate of ammonia, with an equal quantity of nitrogen, seems to be less favorable than nitrate of soda, be- cause it is a salt which tends to rise to the surface in the soil, while the other descends to an equal extent. Other matters, such as seed-cakes, wooien wastes, &c., may be substituted for the nitrates, but they should in all cases be worked into the soil before sowing, that they may have time to decompose in advance and may be thoroughly mixed through the entire arable stratum. These ideas expressed by M. Georges were reiterated by M. Drouyn de ’Huys,t and express the views of all scientists and cultivators in ‘* La Sucrerie Indigéne, 1878. t Compte-rendu des Séances du Congrés Agricole et Sucriére tenu a Compiégne, Mai, 1877. 104 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. France. But while all admit the value of the judicious application of the nitrates, it appears also to be the universal opinion that it should be accompanied by the application of a corresponding quantity of the phosphates, which have a tendency to counteract any prejudicial influ- ence that the nitrates may exert by hastening the maturity of the plant and increasing its sugar content. This fact has been very nicely elabor- ‘ated by Professor Maercker, of Halle, in a lecture lately delivered upon the subject of beet culture, an abstract of which may be found in the Journal des Fabricants de Sucre. He says it is a well-accepted fact that strong doses of nitrogenous manures are injurious to the beet crop, in that it increases the weight of the non-saccharine contents and reduces the sugar. The discredit into which the use of nitrates has fallen is due to its abuse and the manner of applying it. The difficulty appeared to be to determine the quantity to use and the best time to apply it. When. applied too late it retards ripening. Applied in spring the plants de- velop vigorously in leaves and root and the period of growth is length- ened. So strongly nitrogenous manures always produce growth. But the sugar-beet must ripen to accumulate sugar withinit. Its growth should therefore be arrested to admit of ripening, which late distribution of nitrates prevents. At Magdeburg part is applied in the fall and the remainder before the preparation of the soil in spring. Heavy doses of strongly nitrogenous manures also necessitate heavy doses of phosphorie acid to annihilate the injurious effect of an excess of nitrogen. Phos- phorie acid applied in large quantity induces early ripening of the plant. A mellow, permeable, clay soil may receive doses that would be injurious to a cold soil. Pagnoul has developed by his researches and observations that phos- phorie acid gives varying results. In some soils no appreciable effect can be noticed, while in others its use has been found very favorable, and these differences are attributed to the greater or less proportion of phosphorie acid already existing in the soil. Notes should therefore be kept of the effects of various manures in order to avoid unnecessary expense in their application. M. Decrombecque considers that in all cases the phosphoric acid in the soil should be increased as the nitro- genous principles increase, and Woussen considers phosphoric acid a corrective for the deleterious influences of nitrates, because upon soils where nitrate of soda has been applied in large doses it is only neces- sary to increase the proportion of phosphates of lime to secure good maturation of the crop, which would otherwise remain green. Pellet* has advanced some interesting notions concerning the com- parative values of the different elements of plant-food in their rela- tion to the production of sugar in the beet, deduced from the study of analyses of different plants obtained by various persons in their exper- iments. Lawes and Gilbert, discussing the analyses of wheats grown upon the Rothamstead farm, and of French wheats analyzed by Bous- * Journal des Fabricants de Sucre, October 2, 1878. CULTURE OF THE SUGAR’ BEET. 105 singault, conclude that wheat scarcely admits of a change in the com- position of its ashes, whatever may be the composition of the fertilizers applied; the same is true of potatoes. But Pellet finds that the beet, on the contrary, may grow with equiv- alent substitutions of the alkaliles necessary to the formation of sugar, so that,as shown by the experiments of Joulie, soda may be found in the ash of some beets in the same quantity as potash, while in others the quantity of potash is seven times that of soda. This substitution may alse be noticed between lime and potash, but experience shows that though the alkalies may thus substitute each other, and lime, by equiv- alents, certain other bodies, such as phosphoric acid, will not admit of being replaced. The experiments of Champion and Pellet also show that in all plants we may observe a relation between the total weight of ashes and the special organic matters for which the plant is cultivated. Thus, in wheat between the starch and total ash, and in the beet between the sugar and total ash. They construct the following table, showing in general that for the formation of 100 pounds of sugar in beets, the roots and leaves in their development must consume— 1 to 1.20 pounds of phosphoric acid. oto6 pounds of potash. 1.5 to2 pounds of soda. 1.5 to 1.6 pounds of lime. 1.2 to 1.4 pounds of magnesia. 2.7 to 3.5 pounds of nitrogen. Excess of all may be present in the soil, but if phosphoric acid be wanting sugar will not be produced, while if lime is wanting it will be replaced by potash or soda or magnesia, and this rule holds good for the other alkalies. The author therefore concludes that 1 of phosphoric acid corresponds to 100 of sugar, while 5 to 6 of potash corresponds to the same amount, and consequently phosphoric is worth 5 or 6 times more than potash in the formation of sugar, if potash replaces no other alka- lies; in other words, if a soil be wanting in 60 pounds of assimilable potash per acre, there will be a deficit of 1,000 pounds of sugar, while for the same deficit only 10 pounds of assimilable phosphoric acid need be wanting. Phosphoric acid he considers a non-dominant but indis- pensable element or base for the formation of sugar in the beet. Reasoning from these data, they conclude that without experiment, but by examination of the average composition of the ashes and of the quan- tity of nitrogen in the plant, and comparing the total weight of the dif- ferent constituents with that of the given proximate principle to be pro- duced, for instance, sugar in the beet and starch in wheat and potatoes, it is possible, they say, to determine the order in which the elements of plant-food are indispensable for each plant. Thus, for the beet they range: 1, phosphoric acid; 2, lime or magnesja; 3, nitrogen; 4, potash or soda. On the other hand, the order for wheat is: 1, lime or magnesia; 2, potash; 3, phosphoric acid, &c. These are facts of great importance 106 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. in the economy of providing supplies of plant-food, and they will aid greatly in thesselection of the compounds to be employed for the fertili- zation of various crops. From what precedes and what we learn from the long-established practices followed in France in the application of fertilizers to the land on which beets are to be produced, it appears that nitrogenous organic compounds insoluble in water should be worked into the soil a long time in advance of the crop, and that to enjoy a beneficial result from their use they should be distributed at least during the autumn preceding the season of planting, and for stable-manures it is preferable that they be given to a preceding crop, which in France is generally oats or potatoes, Stohmann,* saysit is generally recognized as a rule that the sugar-beet should never be cultivated upon a fresh manure or barnyard manure, because this system of culture gives a large yield in weight, but roots so rich in foreign matters that they cannot be worked with profit. The beet should always form the second rotation when the manure is strong. Other organic nitrogenous compounds, such as seed cakes, refuse ani- mal matters, and even ammonia salts, may be applied in the fall or in the very early spring, while the nitrates, which are more soluble, may be applied either immediately before or immediately after planting. In no case should the latter be applied during the period of growth, on account of its influence as shown by numerous experiments, to retard the time of ripening and the consequent maximum development of sugar. The quantity of stable-manure per acre that may be applied to land to produce the most favorable effect seems in France to be from 8 to 15 tons, according to the character of the soil, and it is generally more profitable to use a smaller quantity and supplement it with nitrates and phosphates. The value of lime in its relations to the beet is no less than for other crops. Its disintegrating influence upon the nitrogenous organic matters is as important as its power to take the place of other alkalies which may be wanting. In fact, on account of this property, many of the most intelligent growers are inclined to use it, and by means of it to avoid in the juice many of the more objectionable soluble salts that the alkalies are likely to introduce. Another important considera- tion is its low market value, and the convenience of its application. At the same time, deficiencies of the other alkalies in the soil should not be overlooked, and they should be in all cases made up. It is scarcely necessary to further call attention to the importance and value of the phosphates in connection with this crop, after all that has been said. They may be applied at all times, and many growers con- sider it of advantage to distribute small quantities with each working or hoeing. The general method employed, however, is to distribute it in advance of the last plowing, in the course of which latter operation it becomes distributed throughout the entire arable layer. But if ap- ps sk 2 Se Se ee ee * Journal des Fabricants de Sucre, November 20, 1878. : i CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 107 plied in the spring, it is considered by many that it should be deposited in the rows with the seed, and M. Derome is of the opinion that 100 to 250 pounds per acre applied in the rows will produce quite as good effects as 400 to 800 applied broadcast. He concludes from all his ex- periments, the results of which are confirmed by those obtained by Corenwinder, Pagnoul, Ladureau, and others, that artificial fertilizers worked in with the plow will give an average of about 3 tons more of beets than the same quantity of manure applied on the surface and worked in with the cultivators. he next consideration in the culture of the beet is the improve- ment of the physical qualities of the soil, and its preparation for the crop. The importance of drainage, &c., has already been referred to in the review of the inherent physical qualities of the soil which make it suited to this crop, and we may therefore proceed at once to the con- sideration of its manipulation to bring it to the favorable conditions before quoted. And we shall first of all review the ideas advanced on this subject by some of the later writers who may be considered good authorities. Briem* says: The development of the beet depends, in the first place, upon good preparation of the soil, and its continued and careful maintenance. A preparation carefully effected brings about a mellowing of the soil, access and change of air and water, destruction of weeds, and deep growth of the root. Deep plowing (with steam where this is pos- sible) is the first condition of a rational culture. This operation should be effected in advance of winter. Subsequent cultivation should not be spared. Itimproves the size and quality of the plant, and should be repeated as often and as long as the leaves will permit. The more the culture approaches that of a garden, the more the quantitative and qualitative yield will be increased. According to Stohmann, beets do better after well-manured gramine. They naturally find place in rotation after wheat or barley. In some cases beets have been produced two years in succession, but this is possible only in exceptional cases. It is injudicious to recommend a rotation of beets of less than two years. Immediately after a crop of cereals, the ground is broken up. In the fall, plow as deeply as the nature of the soil will permit, and leave the field with the furrows thus exposed during the winter to atmospheric influences. In the spring, prepare the soil for sowing by means of the roller and harrow; and in order not to lose the accumulated moisture of winter, avoid, as far as possible, plowing again in the spring. _ Vilmorint directs to begin with an ordinary plow in the fall, followed by a draining plow, so that the ground will be broken up to a depth of 6.to 8 inches; and plow in the spring, and follow with harrow and roller. We cannot more clearly give the prevailing opinions of French growers upon this matter of preparation of the soil than is expressed in the discussion on the subject in the meetings of the agricultural and sugar congress held at Compiégne in May, 1877, and published in the * Journal des Fabricants de Sucre, October 23, 1878. tJournal des Fabricants de Sucre, February 27, 1878. 108 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. report of the proceedings; and I therefore present below a translation thereof: M. Boursier said that it is, above all, necessary to work the ground and put it in such condition that it may be at the same time permeable and firm enough to adhere to the roots. This is effected by deep plowing, and energetic harrowing and rolling. It would, nevertheless, be useful to elucidate this point, whether it is better to give a single deep plowing in autumn, followed by cultures with the scarifier and the harrow in spring, or to give several plowings, the first in advance of winter and the second immediately preceding sowing. For himself he considered it better to give a single deep plowing in the fall or winter. M. Debains prefers the system which consists in first giving a plowing to break up the stubble, followed by another to bury the manure, and finally a third before sowing. M. Blin said there was no necessity to have an absolute system with this regard. It would be dangerous to give a deep plowing to land having a shallow stratum of arable soil. M. Decrombecque had not adopted deep plowing, for the nature of his soils would not permit it; but in order to submit the greatest possible surface of soil to the beneficial sirkosphesic influences, he practiced the method of ridging. M. Boursier explained that by deep plowing he did not mean absolutely to say Ato 16 inches; plowing is considered deep when it exceeds by 1 or 2 inches that of pre- ceding nes A plowing of 10 inches would be deep in ground which had never been broken up more than 8inches; the depth is modified according to the soil. M. Demot called attention to the excellent effects of breaking up without displacing the subsoil (i. ¢., subsoiling). With this system the production is sensibly increased. The use of the draining plow should be strongly recommended. M. le. Vte. de Chezelle called attention to the favorable effect of deep plowing shown by the vegetation on the sides of ditches opened for drainage. M. X. responded that this fact does not constitue an argument in favor of deep plowing. In fact, in drainage the vegetal earth is always returned to the top, while plowing brings the subsoil to the surface, and if this is not vegetal (fertile) it is evident that the operation is defective. He also insisted upon the use of the draining plow. M. Barral recognized the fact that deepening the arable layer is always advantage- ous in the long run, and he recommended attacking the subsoil only with precaution, and after taking into account its chemical composition. In this connection, as in the most of agricultural questions, it is impossible to fix an absolute principle, and it is always necessary to take account of circumstances. Besides it cannot be denied that the beet is one of the plants for which the depth of the arable layer is of the greatest importance. M. de Rougé has proven the excellent effects of deep plowing upon the poor clay soils of the extremity of the Aisne. Like M. Boursier, he counseled plowing in autumn. During the winter the land to be sown in the spring should be impregnated with the substances of the air and submitted to the favorable atmospheric influences. Broad furrows should be made in the first plowings given in autumn, because the more the earth is formed of large lumps, the more the frost may penetrate by the wide spaces which separate them. M. Ch. Gossin remarks two unfortunate effects in the plowing which immediately precedes sowing the beet. 1. This plowing stirs up the soil in the interior. Now, the beet does not like light soils. 2. By this plowing we bring to the surface a quantity of bad seeds, which germinate at the same time as the beet, and cover the ground with weeds, while if the ground be plowed in the fall, the seeds which germinate in the early spring are killed in the operations of culture wit precede sowing. There- fore in the triple regard of contact, of atmospheric agents, of the mellowness and inter nal cohesion of the soil and cleanliness of the ground, fall or winter plowing should be advised. CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 109 The method of preparation followed in practice by M. H. Vilmorin is as follows: Begin plowing in November and break up the land eight or ten inches, and follow this with a subsoil plowing to a depth of @ght or ten inches more, so that the ground will be thoroughly stirred up to a total depth of at least fifteen inches. During the progress of this work, and as far as possible, the artificial fertilizer employed is distributed in the furrows before subsoiling. The ground is then left in the rough con- dition consequent upon plowing, and after that is twice plowed in spring, in February and April. It is finally prepared for sowing by harrowing and rolling. M. Champonnois considers it of advantage to prepare the ground in ridges before sowing, especially in working very shallow soils, in order to provide depth for the long tapering root, and put the ground in bet- ter condition for the circulation of air and water. He claims for his method of culture that it is less costly than the ordinary methed, and gives a better quantitative and qualitative result. In his experiments he obtained forty tons of beets per acre having an average richness of 18.50 per cent. and a coefficient of purity above 83. The results of his experiments in 1878 do not seem to be as good as those obtained in previous years, as shown by the following table: No. 1. | No. 2. | No. 3. | No. 4. | PIO MU GMPEL MEOW SOS) sa. setts «cases = he santa oe ence couse ea sunces | 28, 300 | 40,450 | 22,500 | 11,725 Density of juice .....- Bc NS GOaki pp 5% 450 Gey tes 7.5 Per cent. of sugar -:-. SSG | LPR 9.61 | 14.90 16. 91 Quotient of purity..-...- 69.70 | 66.69 | 83.94 86.0 OBSERVATIONS. ‘No.1 43 No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. Seed, four kinds; richest, | Samecultureandcare; | Manure well rotted; | No manure plowed in; 124 per square meter; four kinds of seeds lowed in ridges; well chemical manure, 625 fresh manure twomonths | productiveof weight; eaten by rolling; ma-| pounds per acre, before sowing; earth at November 1 beets|} nure-residues of elu-| worked in; sowed beaten slightly on April | were in full growth} tion containing salts} late; culture con- 23, andatter the beets had due to kind of ma- and nitrogen of mo- tinued throughout four leaves ; complete ma- nure and time of its} lasses; culture regu- vegetation; quality nure, 200 pounds per hec- application; beets| lar thro’out entire good; quantity want- tare; culture given regu-| short and rooty. growth. ing, explained by late larly. sowing. However, in this matter of preparing the soil, as in all others, it ap- pears that the grower, while following the general principles enunciated, must be guided by his own judgment and the character of the soil with which he has to deal. Sowing is generally effected by means of a drill especially designed therefor, but any drill that will deliver the seed regularly and in suffi- cient quantity will satisfy every purpose. The forms employed in France vary with the different inventions, but the spoon drill is the most common. 110 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. The best time for sowing is considered to be the last week in April and the first fortnight in May, when the temperature should range from 50° to 60° Fahr., for at this temperature the seed will germinate most surely and most rapidly. The germinating faculty is materially in- creased by immersing it in water at 120° Fahr., and the beets produced are often richer in sugar on account of this treatment. Messrs. Champion and Pellet* give the following results of an experi- ment in growing seeds soaked in water and those not soaked : Per cent. Average sugar i weight. beaks: INO per OSINAl SCCOh= == sbtee<\c ces anisne = t= 5|) AUPRIS UI ~ aeedinin beninnmeeinn aisle aie 4 Peano eee on aetna ee 13.4 17.0 INo; 2) soaked’ seed. 0-22. 00sec eens cet. ARIGUST OL 0 Lhe head Seiacace since eican nee aaa eee 16.9 September 162555. cence bh etioe eae 14.9 2 SOPUOMUCL 20 scan seen edo cesses se manera 580 17. Besides this, the beets produced with soaked seed had a better form than those from normal seeds. Various solutions have been suggested to be employed for soaking the seed, among others water slightly acidulated with nitric acid. Hum- boldt suggested very dilute chlorine water, but Duchartre showed that this was of no value. In many sections of France and Germany the juices flowing from the manure heaps are used for this purpose. They are diluted with an equal volume of water, and the seeds immersed in them for 48 hours. The seeds are after this time taken out, mixed with ashes, and passed over ascreen. After this treatment they may be put in bags and kept in a cellar or other cool place until needed. When ready to be sown they must be quite dry on the surface, in order that they may not adhere to each other in sowing. Other solutions for the purpose have been used in France and Germany, the values of which, Basset} states, range in the order in which they are named: 1. Mixture of urine and water in equal parts. 2. Purin, or manure juices, pure or dilute, for which may be substi- tuted ordinary water in which has been macerated guano, fowls’ or pigeons’ dung, so as to obtain a solution of a density of 1.015 or 1.020. 3. Solution of nitrate of potash of 5 per cent. 4. Solution of phosphate of ammonia of 2° B. 5. Solution of superphosphate of lime 2 per cent. 6. Solution of 2 to 2.5 parts chloride of lime in 100 of water. 7. Dilute acid solutions of 1 to 14 per cent., prepared only with hydro- chloric, sulphuric, or phosphoric acids. * La Bettrave a Sucre. t Guide Pratique du Fabricant de Sucre. CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 111 Solutions of nutritive matters are considered more favorable to the purpose than pure water, because the latter in prolonged soaking will often remove from the seeds some of their soluble constituents. The length of time during which the soaking should be continued might vary somewhat, according to the temperature, but it is generally confined to 48 hours, and 24 are often considered sufficient. Basset states that during 24 hours seeds will absorb— 69 per cent. their weight of water at 39.9° Fabr. 91 per cent. their weight of water at 50.8° Fahr. 95 per cent. their weight of water at 60° Fahr. 97 per cent. their weight of water at 65° Fahr. Experiment has shown that seeds require, in a soil sufficiently moist and aerated, a total sum of degrees of average temperatures equal to 650 Fahr. for germination. Thus if the average daily temperature be 50°, 15 days will be required for germination ; if it be 55°, then 12 days will suffice; and if 65°, only 10 days will be required. If, however, the seed be soaked for 24 hours in water at 100°, then the total sum of ther- mometric degrees, and consequently the number of days required for germination, will be correspondingly reduced. If they be soaked 48 hours at 100°, then only 9 days will be required for germination in the ground at an average temperature of 50°, and a correspondingly less time with a higher temperature. With regard to the best time for sowing them, Basset* directs as a Tule: “Sow as early as possible according to the temperature of your locality, whatever may otherwise be the method chosen.” Thus, when the tempera- ture of the air is from 50° to 54° Fahr. at noon, 46° to 50° in the evening, and 32° to 36° in the morning, sowing may be begun without fear of unfavorable temperature. This may be combined with observations of the temperature of the soil, which should at the same time have an ay- erage of about 45° at a depth of 4 to 6 inches. Concerning the depth to which the seed should be covered in the ground, opinions differ somewhat, but it will naturally follow that much must necessarily depend upon the temperature of the season, the phys- ical condition of the soil, and the proportion of moisture. The seed re- quires the presence of oxygen for germination, and, therefore, if the penetration and circulation of atmospheric air be rendered difficult or impossible on account of a close, hard character of the soil, this func- tion cannot be exercised, and the seed will rot inthe ground. If the soil be permeable and contain sufficient moisture, the depth of covering the seed will vary with the temperature. If this be too low, again, the seed will rot. But with a favorable temperature and a good physical condition of the soil, less attention may be given to the depth of seed- ing. However, it is considered a good rule not to bury the seed under any circumstances more than 1 to 2 inches, and experience has shown * Guide Pratique du Fabricant de Sucre, p. 387. 112 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. that at this depth, other things being equal, a higher percentage of the seeds will grow than at any other. In all of the beet-growing districts of Europe the system of planting in rows has been adopted, but in later years the attention and experi- ments of the progressive men have been directed to the determination of the influence of the distance between the rows and the beets in the rows upon the yield per acre and the saccharine value of the crops. In ear- lier years the practice was to separate the roots to such an extent that each square yard of surface should be devoted to six roots, but the expe- rience of later years has shown that it is better to increase the number for this surface to ten. The extent of separation must naturally vary with the character of the soil and the seed grown. [If in rich soils the roots be widely separated from each other they have at their disposition more of nutritive materials, and there is, of course, a tendency to the production of large roots, which, we have seen, will contain more of min- eral and organic impurities mag less of sugar. On the other hand, if grown more closely the stock of nutriment is less, the beets are smaller and longer, and consequently richer. Yet, notwithstanding the smaller volume of the beet produced, the weight of the total yield per acre is very much larger than when the roots are separated to greater distances. These facts are amply illustrated in the results of the experiments.of various workers in the sugar-growing districts of France. The following table shows the averages of the results obtained from experiments made by the Société d Agriculture de Compiégne in “concert with the Comité des Fabricants de Sucre de V Oise. This recapitulation is made simply according to the separation, and without regard to the fertilizers employed. [Distance between the rows, 18 inches.] = x |) See 5} s 3 oar iy | 8 A, Eh 4 Per hundred of juice. = 5) am pa AS ioe) 5 3 a3 : ' 2 . 52 oa Pt Ee Bon) Distance between beetsin | 292 aa? os Sie 3 2 3g the rows. ag ea ee | Aa 5 Ss) Dy S) Bey a> BH as 3) @ co n RO n oq nD ae H =| Am a a ef = 3 op | 2 Ey i isneal Sek a |.@ 7) 68 |.8 ae Lbs. 2 REM ITH ONES) <\c scle'saoss ciel os 32. 533 1. 88 6.79 | 14.55 | 1.0823 | 2.0910} 81.93 | 13.58 8, 473 Fourteen inches........... 29.515 | 2.23] 6.06] 12.68 | 0.8195 | 2.2976] 80.19} 15.61 | 7,480 Eighteen inches.........-- 31. 048 2. 85 5.05 | 12.40 | 0.8700 | 1.0142} 86.71 | 14.43 6, 691 Pagnoul’s experiments, conducted during a series of eight years, gave Similar results. He concludes that close planting gives beets which are, 1, richer; 2, better quality ; 3, of larger yield in weight; 4, less ex- hausting to the soil. He took, for his wider separation, 20 inches be- tween the rows and 20 inches between the roots in the rows, and for the smaller separation 17 inches between the rows and 8 inches in the rows. 1. The richness of sugar in percentages of the weight of root was: Horthe larre distances 2iw2 ie ie cso eco Lede bbees sce eewkbe tee eae eet oe 10. 2 Forthe small distanees 253 2c a ees RR sao ce eee 12.2 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET, 113 2. The proportion of alkaline salts, giving at the same time the meas- ure of the foreign organic matters, was for 100 of beet: iat Ieee rENIOCS 5 £25 Fs Oo Ak RENTS Sao de den O25 Eo GSLs SERRE 1.512 nia bat ra TEGAN ICOS 5 2) ee i eh de is Bis ol woe pes ere eee 0. 722 3. With large distances there were 16,326 roots per acre, and with the small distances 46,122, or nearly triple. The yield in weight per acre was: Tons. RIIRESE® CIS DANI GOR! Soe ee eo eee ee ein kc a 28. 035 SIPMESPPESELT C11 LATICO ore ee ee PE ce hae ha econ ap ane ps anim teoe 36. 045 4, The quantity of salts removed per acre would be equal in round numbers to: : Pounds. il Are ince ete ls oo secre SoU e ccna. Seen sectors tee cee case ns see ease eae 840 tah Ii ahhesoreerenes a: 8.8 de ee se ee ce as eee 2h Le eee 520 M. Pagnoul says, in conclusion: Beets at small distances, while producing more of sugar, absorb less of saline matters. Now we know that the constituent principles of sugar are entirely furnished by the atmosphere, and that the saline matters are furnished by the soil and by fertilizers; therefore, beets at small distances from each other (i. e., closely planted) are less exhausting to the soil. Close culture is more profitable at the same time to the grower and the manufacturer. Dubrunfant says :* The multiplication of subjects to avoid large roots, and to facilitate at the same time the production of a good constitution of the cellular tissue, is another condition to which great importance should be attached in the interest of richness in sugar. Briem sayst “‘the separation of the roots should be 15 by 10 inches.” In a late discussion in the meeting of the Cercle Agricole du Pas-de- Calais,i it was developed that though the distance of 17 inches between the rows was still in use, it is gradually giving way to the wider sepa- ration of 20 inches, on account of the difficulties experienced in horse- hoeing and the deficient aeration of the improved races of beets with strong foliage, which require more room. At the same time that the wider distance between the rows is adopted, the roots are left closer to each other in the row about 8 inches; that is, to confine them to from 7 to 9 roots to the square yard of surface. The experiments of M. Pagnoul, and results he obtained, together with the other facts and figures given, will be sufficient to show the im- portance of this matter of close planting, without quoting the results of the same character obtained by Corenwinder, Ladureau, Mariage, Pellet, Deherain, Vilmorin, and others; and we may conclude that for the methods of culture that must be employed in the United States, where hand labor cannot be obtained, the wider distance between the rows, 20 inches, should be adopted, separating the roots not more than 8 inches. in the rows. * La Sucrerie Indigéne, xiii, 460. t Journal des Fabricants de Sucre, October 23, 1878. t Journal des Fabricants de Sucre, June 4, 1879. 8SB 114 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. - The cultural manipulations proper of the crop should begin as soon as the beets are up and the leaves sufficiently developed to distinguish the rows; and we may accept the statement so universally reiterated by those who speak and those who write on the subject, as supported by the success of the practice, that ‘early and frequent cultivation cannot be too strongly recommended; it kills weeds scarcely started and forms a stratum of mellow earth which constitutes an obstacle to dryness by day and assimilates the moisture of the night.” As before stated, as soon as the rows are defined by the development of leaves the first cultivation by hoeing begins. In France this is, in many sections, performed by hand, while in others it is effected by means of the horse cultivator, the object being, of course, the destruction of weeds and stirring up the soil. At this time, also, many growers make an application of nitrate of soda or potash. Two weeks later the beets are thinned out, so as to leave the roots about 8 inches apart from center to center, after the manner described above. After this the crop receives about three hoeings or cultivations, and more than this if time allows, for the work should be discontinued about the 1st of July, according to some authorities, or it may be continued as long as the leaves will allow, according to others. The latter will proba- bly be for all localities and climates the better indication. After the final hoeing, about the Ist of July, no other care is neces- sary, with the exception of the removal of seed-stalks that may oceasion- ally appear, especially if July and August be dry, until the harvesting, which should take place before the appearance of hard frost. If the roots be frosted in the ground they are rendered unfit for storing and preservation in caves or trenches for extraction of the sugar in the late winter, which is of course often necessary. Harvesting is generally begun about the middle of September, and may, according to the condition of maturity of the crop, continue until the middle of October. Pulling the roots is sometimes eitected by machines that have been devised for the purpose, but the method generally employed is hand- pulling; the latter facilitated by the assistance of the pick or plow. In many cases a narrow furrow is made near to the row, which loosens the earth about the root and renders its extraction from the ground easier. The operation must in all cases be exercised with great care, in order that the roots be not bruised or cut, accidents which increase the tendency of roots to decay when stored. They should also be pulled when the ground is in the driest condition. If the ground be wet at the time of pulling, the earth will adhere to the root, and this will also produce a tendency to decay. Besides this, trouble will arise in the de- termination of the tare in the delivery of the crop to the manufacturer. In most cases the leaves are removed from the beet in the field, either at the time of pulling or at the time of charging them to the carts or wagons in which they are to be transported, either directly to the fac; tory or to storage. If there be danger from frost the roots are piled in CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 115 pyramidal heaps, either before or after the removal of the leaves, in such a manner that they may be covered by their leaves or by straw. The leaves are removed by a knife or other instrument sufficiently strong and heavy that the operation may be effected at a single stroke. It is estimated that 20 laborers* (women and children) will be required to pull and prepare for transportation from the field the crop of an acre of beets in one day. But this estimate is made for French laborers, and we may calculate that only half the number of laborers will be required in the United States to do the same amount of work. The beets to be preserved, if all surface moisture has not already evaporated from them, should, before being placed in trenches or cellars, be temporarily stored under sheds. Here the wounded, withered, or frosted roots, which would be subject to rot, are separated ,if they have not already been in the field. The larger roots are also separated for the same reason. When thus separated and prepared they are ready to be stored. In the preservation the conditions to be avoided are too low or too high a temperature, too moist or too dry an atmosphere. With too low a temperature they deteriorate by freezing. This is not so in- jurious if the roots can be worked before they have an opportunity to thaw; otherwise, much of the cane-sugar changes over to inverted sugar, | and must necessarily pass into the wastes in the processes of extraction. If too warm, similar effects will be produced by growth of leaves, as shown by Corenwinder and others. If too much moisture be present the roots have a tendency to rot, and if too little be present there will be a tendency to wither, and this effect is always accompanied by a loss of sugar, besides increasing the difficulty of extracting the juice from the root. The best temperature for preserving the roots in the fresh state, which is the condition of preservation most employed in France, is between 35° and 40° Fahr. The equilibrium of moisture between the air and the root should be so maintained that evaporation may not take place; at the same time, as before stated, excess of moisture must be scrupulously avoided. Prudent cultivators consider that the roots should be so ar- ranged in storage that they shall never be more than three feet from an air passage, in order to secure constant and regular renewal of the air to carry off noxious gasses, superfluous moisture, and regulate the tem- perature which always has a tendency to rise. The cellars or trenches must also be thoroughly drained, so that any water that may collect in the bottom may flow off. Temporary trenches are often made in the fields, but the more advanced growers are preparing permanent: ones with well-paved bottoms and walled sides. They are generally 8 to 10 feet wide and 6 to 8 feet deep. I have seen them with walled sides 9 by 9 by 35 feet. *In the department of Seine-Inférieure 10 laborers are generally employed for pull- ing the crop and preparing for transportation, 5 to pull the roots and 5 to remove the leaves and tops. 116 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. Along the bottom of the ditch and through the middle of it is made a small trench to convey any water that may percolate through the walls or through the roots. Before the beets are placed in the trench the bottom is covered with poles, or in any other convenient manner, to keep the roots off the bottom and provided for free circulation of air under them and drainage of water. Straw is often used for this purpose, but is considered bad because it is subject to packing and decay, and the latter will, of course, be communicated to the stored roots. They are then packed in the trench and covered with straw or leaves and finally with earth. The depth of covering must be determined by the climate. In the case of permanent walled trenches, which amount in reality to elon- gated cellars, I have seen them covered with a very thick thatch of straw, proper openings being provided for the necessary ventilation. In this way the roots may be preserved throughout the entire winter. If they should by accident be frozen they should be preserved in this condition until they are worked. Indeed this condition constitutes one of the modes of preserving them where a sufficiently low temperature may be maintained to keep them in this way unchanged without an opportunity for thawing, and is recommended by some authorities. In sections where excessively cold winters prevail it might be found a very conven- _ ient method for the purpose. Desiccation may be practiced where the method of diffusion or macer- ation has been adopted as the means of extracting the juice. It has the advantage of preserving the beet perfectly, with no danger from variations of temperature if the product be kept free from moisture or a moist atmosphere. They are also in the most favorable condition for ready transportation to any distance. For the purpose of drying, the roots are cut in slices, and in warmer elimates placed in the sun, but in ordinary climates they are dried in ovens by artificial heat. The method has the disadvantage of requiring a double expenditure of fuel in evaporation, 7. ¢., for the removal of the water of vegetation and the water of diffusion employed for extraction of sugar. We see therefore that the experience of French growers and scientists proves that to secure the greatest profit from the culture of the beet the following points must be observed: Choose well-drained permeable soils, not overcharged with nitroge- nous organic or soluble mineral matters. Choose the best qualities of seed. Give preference to smaller seeds. The best beets for all purposes are long, tapering, and smooth; do not grow out of the ground; are of moderate size and are dense and heavy. Plow deeply and as frequently as may be necessary to make the soil mellow. The more it approaches that of a garden in physical condition the more favorable it will be for culture of the beet. Be careful in choice of manures to be employed. Remember that insoluble and not easily assimilable nitrogenous organic compounds, before they can be of use to the crop, must be thoroughly disintegrated CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 117 and decomposed. They musttherefore be applied sufficiently in advance of the crops to secure this effect. Soluble nitrogenous compounds may be applied immediately in advance of or simultaneously with planting, and of these the nitrates are preferable. Nitrogenous compounds have a tendency to extend the period of growth and delay the time of ripen- ing. This tendency is counteracted by the phosphates, in consequence of which they increase the production of sugar. Stable manures must in all cases be worked into the soil with the fall plowing. Do not apply more than 10 to 15 tons per acre, and supple- ment it with nitrate of soda and superphosphate of lime at the rate of from 200 to 400 pounds of each per acre, according to the character of the soil. Alkaline salts should be applied with great caution, and only to soils manifestly wanting them. They add to the cost of culture, and often reduce the industrial value of the crop. Plant closely; 18 to 20 inches between the rows will be found the most convenient and favorable for culture in the United States. Separate the beets by about 8 inches in the row. Cultivate early and often, and continue as long as the leaves will per- mit, but not longer than the middle of July. Do not harvest until the crop is thoroughly ripe, but it must not be allowed to be injured by frost. Store the roots in such a way that they may be protected from ex- tremes of temperature and moisture, and observe care in ventilating trenches or cellars; otherwise the roots will rapidly deteriorate. CHAPTER VI. SOCIAL CONDITIONS AFFECTING BEET-ROOT CULTURE. It is rather difficult to determine to what extent existing social con- ditions and habits of a people may affect the profitable operation of an industry in the different countries, as based upon the density of popula- tion, the percentage thereof engaged in active work of production, whether of employers or employed, in the factories or on the farms. While it is true that there must be a sufficient abundance of laborers in the population of a section to satisfy the demands made by the manu- facturing processes, it is also true of the industry of production of sugar from the beet that it provides work throughout the entire year, in the factory in the winter, when laborers on the farms are comparatively idle, and employment in the summer in the cultivation of the crop. The following table, showing the population of the different depart- ments of France engaged in agricultural work, serves to illustrate the difficulty of determining from this source any special influence upon the extension of this valuable industry. The table is nevertheless of inter- est, and will explain itself: 118 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. Departments. Alpes (Basses) Alpes (Hautes). ----.--2.--..0... Alpes-Maritimes ........-....--- PTAC OTGY SEE RASE Bases SaaS ereersne Aveyron .--. Bouches-du-Rhéne .......------- Charente .-.... Charente Inférieure CHEE eecas eee eentesheneosteoees CORSON. Aascie. Savetd so sesek we tees. CétediOn 2222e-s20ece ecto mn aese2 Cétes-du-Nord CREASE, £424: 2 2 ccpiniet He anomie ceiseignid Dordogne .... Eure-et-Loir .. Finistére ...... MAT tierce c.< Ille-et-Vilaine PERT Oye esc ciate wae oe seeeee nee Loir-et-Cher... Loire ye cae. ot csese Loire (Haute) Loire-Inférieune 2. <52o neh mais. ss NGI Ue Meee oes fone Vee ee 5 tee Lot-et-Garonne.........--.--.--- Lozére ....... Manche ..-.--. Marne.....-.- Marne (Hante)......-..--..0c2s. Mayenne ..... Meurthe-et-Mosello ............- Meuse....-... Orne 2222522 Pas-de-Calais . Puy-de-Déme. Pyrénées (Bas ra rénées (Hautes) One). 222 4/53 Sadne (Haute) Sadne-et-Loire Sarthe ......- wee eee eee eee eee ses) Proprietors. Clerks or em- ployés | =| Bata ridliee 5 a 3 E P| E 3, 670) 656 399 1, 855) 918 585) 3, 168 303 120 2, 560 268 214 2) 164 61 7 400 540 290, 2,613} 1,193] 1,358 1, 746 195) 83 3, 844 214 151 2, 371 391 52 4, 435) 650 762 2, 096 70 5 2.705 389 135 2. 746 463 563 3,317; 1,961} 1, 009 3, 920 337 145)" 3, 536 400 100 1, 784 574 56 4, 999 115 25 2, 484 106 41 999) 186 46 4,714 208 137 802 280 281 87| 1,240 101 2, 160 303 280 4, 093 291 271 2, 348 758 729 2, 959 333 125 1, 570 435 431 2, 887 661 154 2) 549} 2, 000 100 8, 152 304 450 6,670| 1,196 603 1, 752 702 566 38, 942 50 3 3, 880 328 315 rk 474 366 467 3, 203 1, 590 1, 707 3, 042 195 436 1, 428 235 240, 2; 242 165 61 2; 736 472 157 2, 317 266 112 2) 509 664 689 3, 958 326 191 4,684} 2,200] 1,412 4, 399 428 341 1, 404 255 180 1, 312 500, 300 2, 390 435 358 4, 853) 404 155 3, 886 89 39 1, 776 516 117 2) 472 158 80 4, 574 185 11 2) 360 285 201 3, 664 366 181 1,650 418, +382 1, 274 603 128 2, 925) 210 27 8, 555 399 100; 6,156, 1,753 306 3, 937 396 109 4, 168 92 155 1, 426 215 62 522k -ac|seccc tue 1, 419 647 465 3, 372 73 11 2) 911 666 407 2, 258 363 % 396 036} 1, 098 111 » 455| 62 50 Detailed statistics of population 1.—Individuals cultivating their own lands. | i ; Laborers. Day laborers. a ro co CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. engaged in agricultural work in Fance. a 2.—Tenants, colonists, and metayers. Fa S ’ Fe s F @ | 2a Eee 5p Employers. | Clerks. Laborers. Day laborers. 3 2 s a See Total. | 4 8 | 2&8 \BA5 a SS ke 2 : =I EA Saullsu. =| ° Ka |Hene o pe a | s Lam . r= a r= 5 = wo Bats 3 S |Ba\sae Ss ° =] nos mas| E & 44 8, 422| 1, 669 2, 254 162 31 4744| ° 60 6,473} 5,266, 72, 932 2/995, 180] 24 19, 194] 1, 337 4,148} 2,093, 64, 459 9821] 144, 22 4,246) 435 127 803 34, 077 2, 685 50 13 974) 143 130 16 27, 753 2, 157 54 12 5, 372 235 2, 350 1, 825 20, 76 1 Sus 134 13 §, 244; 107 2,525) 2, 527 82, 370 2,134 180 38 1,528} 179 993 739 31, 935 2, 920 161 15 5, 500 214 612 688 51, 046 1, 989 123 25 1, 600 191 1, 152) 1, 321 32, 302 2,317 110 14 4,421 828 543 502 81, 998 2, 440 123 33 3,020} 302 1, 876 1, 553 74, 699 3, 370 152 22 9,068; 806 4, 501 1, 383 48, 931 1,970} 287 25 13, 215) 1, 817 9, 557 7, 985 80, 224 2,133 211 37 3, 838) 134) 2,879} 1,139 53, 283 2,206} 104 24 11, 995) 1, 034 1, 024 500 68, 663 2, 294 163 30 7, 452) 1, 546 684 854 85, 635 3,635} 129 23 5,508) 203 2, 296 1, 000 81, 636 2, 780 125 29 7, 743 197 3, 000 2, 000 67, 944 2, 287 136 30 3, 265) 185 2, 227 3, 555 74, 034 3, 376 Uh @ al 17, 758| 2, 641 3,372; 1,944, 44,833 3,367} 1121 19 48, 496) 6, 071 9, 079 8,186 135,531 2, 657 237 52 23, 747| 2, 058 2/210! 1,596, 44, 258 9'149] 125| 20 22, 345, 650 2, 340 849 151, 718 8, 545 138 42 8, 466 520 813 999 41, 850 2, 025 150 20 5,379} 991 1, 099 670 77, 851 2,518 127 3l 7,477| 381 5,694| 4,034, 52, 637 2'300| 162} 18 8, 909 556 8, 008 4, 651 53, 861 2, 268 124 24 40, 134) 1, 767 15, 916 7, 825 111, 551 2,595} 257 43 4, 539 512 985, 337 54, 290 2, 247 188 23 2, 982 907 342 251 62, 949 2, 427 196 26 5, 4387 156 694 826 59, 574 2,425 116 24 16, 657} 1, 288: 1,897; 2,903 105, 502 3,760) 196 28 1, 658 79 4, 934 3, 511 48, 071 2, 393 186 16 33, 073) 1, 999 8, 714 9, 148 113, 357 2, 598 270 48 8, 136 322 2, 807 1, 723 44, 841 2, 624 111 17 23, 296) 3, 796 6,692} 4,127 55, 780 2, 360 137 23 7,795| 475) 1, 537 822 103, 259 3, 200 181 35 9, 448 674 708 702 47, 871 1, 929 149 25 28, 864) 866 2, 223 844 54, 135 3, 598 &4 15 5,065) 804 2, 750 1, 397 29, 421 2, 452 111 12 5,587| 487 1, 418 715 67, 452 1, 837 316 36 4, 725 691 1, 305 1, 661 62, 986 1,915} 164 32 28, 326) 1, 194 3,689} 2,309] 80, 962 2)653| 231; 30 6, 473) 1, 379 3, 037 1, 485 45, 899 2, 614 138 17 1,517 189 536 320 80, 140 2, 012 137 40 11, 328) 1, 154 1, 348 1, 036) 85, 007 2, 067 153 41 2, 882 665 639 826 35, 228 1, 996 69 18 31, 989) 2, 409 5,038) 3,297 85, 541 2, 749 189 38 17, 855) 1, 309 3, 481 6, 820 94, 642 2,289} 280 41 2, 402: 139 722) 626 39, 927 3, 158 129 12 6, 098) 1, 094 4,159 3, 840 37, 979 2, 401 105 15 25, 465| 1, 906 3,129| 21483; 40, 767 1,996} 176) 20 2, 451 253 2, 272 1, 403 39, 470 2, 020 200 19 1, 982 332 602 393 36, 860 2, 404 122 15 24, 009} 2, 468 6, 166 5, 852 90, 262 2, 615 193 B4 5, 040 194 3, 606 1, 772 54, 520 2, 632 131 20 22, 681/ 2, 136 13,517; 11,854) 134,089 2,192} 693 62 5, 280 801 5, 812 3, 282 50, 987 401, 618 2, 260 177 22 20, 599) 2, 658 13,721) 15, 286 100, 196 392, 526 2, 354 166 42 16, 988) 1, 800 11, 120 6,173 104, 428} 793, 140 2,551; 310 41 6,279} "691 3,451| 2,916) 141,706| 570,207; 3,069] 185| 46 12, 154) 1, 618 6, 214 7,408 92, 233 431, 525 2, 843 151 32 1,721) ‘123 592 175 43, 884 238, 037 2, 095 113 20 2, 253 63 1, 100 604 23, 982 197, 940 1, 591 124 14 325, 23 1, 025 6281 13,216) 68, 600 236| 295] 56 6, 569 135 795 621 46, 152 705, 131 1,077) 654 41 9, 031 703 824 843 48, 969 304, 052 2, 062 147 23 20, 763) 1, 247 4,599) $8,914 93, 295 614, 309) 3,302 186 28 27, 652) 1, 906 6, 770 5, 529; 74, 724 446,239) 2,396 190 31 2,486) 421 353 354 64, 182 268, 361 2, 223) 120 26 3,608) 175 201 e2ld 65,852! 273,801' 1,666' 164 29 120 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. Detailed statistics of population engaged 1.—Individuals cultivating their own lands. Clerks or em- e Proprietors. foven Laborers. Day laborers. Departments. shied Tag Hie | | | o ° C) ° ® 3° a E a E | E Seine sss sq 2 WN a Re ok 3,385} 1, 908 74 899 Seine-Inférieure . 5,178] 1, 467 602 2,467} 1, Seine-et-Marne ................-- 14,481] 1,589 601 4,603) 5, Seine-et-Oise .-.....2.....-.----- 18, 885} 3, 098 508 6,455) 5, Savres (Deux)......-..2..--..--- 21,154] 2, 613 538 3,954) 2, Pomme. keGoL. BeAA de 13, 860) 1,121 461 8,977; 7, Merny Oe GE gs eee 20,729} 2, 430 299 3,841| 3, Tarn-et-Garonne ...-.....------- 25,382) 3, 492 580 3, 232) 3, 56 Sd SR ee eR 8 17,486) 2,315 179 6,298) 6, Wauchuse. iitd.2. bo eee. 6. 8 24,174) 2,009 820 4,203) 4, PNAGO= +... ceases. sees Ue 16,023) 3, 025 260 3,448] 9, WEE eae 22,988] 3, 044 598 6,598) 4, Vienne (Manté): .i-.. 522222... 24 22,633] 3, 089 560 4,002] 3, essere SEER se ooo le 28,687} 4,415 176 7,309) 5, Monnies sso. esses oe ee ek 26,857) 2, 406 595 2 318) Total. .... ate ves pee a8 2, 078, 517%) 248,740) 42,926) 26,518) 276,818) 187,456) 442, 572, 348, 59 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. in agricultural work in France—Continued. 2.—Tenants, colonists, and metayers. a Employers. Clerks. | Laborers. Day laborers. = S Total. — a « : E = Pe doh delbagaeles ; a qa A | oO °o ° ° 3) ° oO ° ~~ asfeF/ale] & = a e a 724, 368) 121 ss 327 167 33 209 50, 138) 2, 410, 849 5,344; 310 47 31 613 573) 1,019 946 59,488) 407, 082 952, 699|86, 964|27, 679/18, 593| ~198, 378] 124, 047) 297, 890] 224, 500 5, 582, 970/36, 905, i 204, 028 i . — 5 cee = AZ a soe 2 (28 z |: A Ss = | Be < A 185/13, 035 2,330] 342 2,114) 117 2,664) 209 2,361; 142 2,535} 211 2,217; 162 1,436] 154 2,328) 271 1,367} 186 2,588) 160 2,690/ 123 2 129, 154 2,275) 179) 2,868} 125 ! Number of individuals engaged in agricult- ure per square mile. 121 276 24 23 25 26 31 27 28 23 40 30 23 29 25 36 27 122 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. Notwithstanding the difficulty mentioned above, I have obtained, through the courteous assistance of Mr. Worthington, statistician of the department, data from which the following table has been con- structed, showing the relations between the total population that is ae- tively employed and that engaged in agricultural pursuits in the North- ern and Western States, or that section of the United States in which there is any possibility of the culture of the sugar-beet taking firm hold and becoming a source of profit to the producer. From the figures given in these two tables, and the tables showing production in each depart- ment of France, each one may estimate for himself the possibilities of success in the introduction of beet culture for sugar production in his section as depending upon these relations: Table showing total number and proportion of the inhabitants engaged in agricultural work, as compared with those engaged in industrial and professional occupations in the Northern and Western States. Tos uf Sek maketh ama ro ° oO 7) i" Bi =| | @ rs A = 28 Ns S = = a 3 Go | cals Fe | ge B=) ae tye & 5 am States. Hd £.2 B + 2 bp 22 RA ea Ger “8 oe | bb oS = Z ° 7 rs) A ae = = H 23 a oO o AD sy 2 ° 2 Yo i ° | oa aS my H = Hm ° iB} © 5 85 H a AY A AY PLETE en erect rein taints a ieleiais salou side sige cisis ae ’aeeicoie asa 82, 011 39, 4 13.1 56, 941 69. 4 IMG is Oi Wn SE eee Gorm eseeeosuse: adeeen: haeceser 46, 573 38. 7 14. 6 30, 749 66. 0 RV EROMNONU tals cae vin Sais wnicctnia duces cdtlnanldwaewsinmencsan's 57, 983 53. 3 17.5 34, 144 58. 8 IMPS RC MUSOU seen en cowie vanes eioe anaes eeeeee = em e rc 72, 810 12.5 5.0 39, 766 54.6 SHOU OP RIAN Cae acissenasoeineriehesas scams cewa anc mesa 11, 780 13.3 5.4 5, 954 50.5 Conngovicnt 2.2... .cae) States. 8 Qe = = © Sl ad os a eH O:n q S i=] ° a = e xz a eo 7 I >) aan 2) =| | = ae) 2 2 os s >) a | Exes 5 bs 2 A oe A a 4 Eee see 2 seco aactine ee festa een ae 24,738 30.1 208, 225 33. 2 31, 766 LEAL ECS L0G 2 eee ene oe eee Serre e ene 15, 666 33. 6 130, 168 37.7 9, 280 WWGRMONG 2st ntsc cece c stokes ste ceded veecastees 23, 692 40.8 108, 763 32.9 10, 212 IMGRSACHTEOULS a= 4 — ince tases ees mo te omic 31, 019 42. 6 579, 844 39.7 , 800 Rhode Island.........-.- Sdn os ABR See 5, 475 46. 4 88, 574 40.0 1, 306 CETTE Re ne See Saree ee eee er 18, 934 43.3 193, 421 35. 9 4, 674 Te vas WANE ie Be ts aoe ee) ae ap wide nla ge So 434, 562 35.9 | 1,491,018 34.0 47, 000 Torii TLS ik ee ee eee eee 68, 897 26.4 | 1, 020, 544 28.9 46, 000 I GRRIEEHON © pie Macai Jaa =o vee e stad as sain 29, 240 46.3 296, 036 32.6 8, 320 The WL loibotoseece Seek) Sse ee eee 8, 131 50.9 40, 313 32. 2 2,120 (He oa one recicw accesses ee 191, 063 48.1 840, 889 31.5 39, 964 Michigan 64, 885 34.6 404, 164 34.0 56, 243 Indiana 83, 949 31.4 459, 369 27.3 33, 809 Illinois 133, 649 35.5 742, 015 29, 2 55, 405 Wisconsin 50, 753 3L.7 292, 808 27.7 53, 924 Minnesota 20, 277 26.9 132, 657 30.1 83, 500 DSM rene Sain an abe wee aim ania as ais aa oie 69, 821 33. 2 344, 276 28.8 55, 045 WRRGUEC ee Ceeee = = aes cans Sehite dees oe case ee ook 86, 807 32.8 505, 556 29.3 67, 380 ING EUS? =. 2 ne eee eee 5, 899 25. 5 43, 837 35. 6 122, 007 Te ee ee eee oe eee re 595 26.8 26, 911 63.3 83, 500 Gatarnlopeeens eee. ete eee EL se ase LS) 2,659} 41.1 17,583 | 44.1 106, 475 SHE O leh eens etree se a oa tee ake a ae ai 308 12. 2 5, 887 41.5 318, 128 WGA ote see cet ca ctets te sone eco cn sese estan 3, 048 29. 2 21, 517 24.8 109, 600 TAOS. a eee trek = odes Secrest saeeh 720 49, 2 10, 879 F2ibhes bss sees INN DHIT MEE een 4 cee as coduceaeeco enc ae 670 31.7 14, 048 G8, 2 |eccce neers AWARE es Ee RE ee ee on eee seer ee ; 58 35.1 6, 645 12,9) 2 3ose. sees CabiSrnia tees soi dics oes 552 ees 16, 231 33.9 238, 648 42.6 159, 000 ERM) eaten Scan cssclscscccccrsoetcteceecns 3, 126 28.5 30, 651 33. T | 100, 000 Washington. ..ii/-...----. ne oe Bees Ree oe 742 19. 6 9, 760 40.7 53, 924 The relations between the proprietors or tenants of farms and labor- ers in the beet growing sections of France are comparatively simple. In many cases the family of the land-holder joins him in the labor re- quired in the production, but in the great majority of cases he must secure assistance from external sources. Sometimes laborers, men and women, for hoeing, weeding, and pulling the crop, are employed by the land-holder himself, and he performs the function of overseeing the work in the fields, and this is the method generally pursued in sections in which day laborers are easily obtained, but in sections in which labor is scarce the contract system is resorted to, and the work of cultivation is intrusted to a single person at a given rate per acre, and this individ- ual undertakes to find the laborers and do what is required. The rate of pay for agricultural work varies from 50 to 90 cents per day for full- bodied and adult laborers, being less for some women and children that may be employed. But the relations between the producers and the manufacturers are much more complicated in their character, and often give rise to serious 124 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. difficulties and vexatious disputes. Under the plan of sale and purchase of the crops at a given rate per ton, as fixed in the contract between them, it becomes the desire of the producer to obtain from the land planted in this crop the largest possible quantity, without regard to quality. On the other hand, the manufacturer, studying his own inter- ests alone, and desirous to obtain the largest possible profit from the material he must handle, would have only good quality, without regard to the quantity that may be yielded per acre to his colleague, the pro- ducer. In the pages which precede this we learn that large yields per acre generally meant, in the ancient modes of culture, large roots, and these large roots were found to contain much larger quantities of organie and mineral matters other than sugar than roots of smaller size, and that these impurities have deleterious effects upon the quantity of sugar that may be extracted by the means usually employed in the factory. : We have also seen that there are various influences tending to the in- crease of the impurities, among which we have mentioned qualities of soil, depth of plowing, character of the fertilizers employed, and the time and mode of applying them, the kind of seed used and mode of planting it, and the treatment of the crop during growth or subsequent to harvesting it; and all these matters the manufacturer seeks to con- trol, making them so far as possible the basis of the conditions of the contract, to which the farmer on his part must submit. He also endeavy- ors to secure to himself the right to superintend, personally or by proxy, the work of preparing the soil, application of manures, and sowing, and to furnish at the lowest market rates the seed to be sown; the latter to be paid for by deduction from amount due the grower on delivery of his crop to the factory. But, as before stated, the existence of all these conditions produced innumerable disputes, involving many costly suits at law, and intelligent agriculturists and honorable manufacturers have endeavored to determine a means by which both the farmer and the manufacturer may be free from all special conditions in the production of the crop or its acceptance for manufacture, and this has given rise to the system of purchase by density, or according to the quality of the product delivered at the mill. In the study of the means of estimating quickly and accurately the quantity of sugar existing in the juice of the beet root, it was found that if the density of a sample of the juice of a root be taken shortly after being pulled, there is a definite relation between this density and the proportion of sugar it contains; and it is this relation that constitutes the basis of the new system. They retain so much of the old system as provides for the determination of the: amount of tare to be allowed when the roots are delivered, however, and this is effected in the following manner: The director or superin- tendent of the works being present at the time of delivery, acts in con- cert with another person who is employed to act on behalf of the pro- ducer. Each select from one or more loads three or more beets, such as it is understood he considers a fair average of those constituting the CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 125 load. In actual practice the representative of the farmers selects the best specimens he can find, and the superintendent of the factory takes the worst specimens obtainable. The roots thus selected are then weighed, the adhering dirt and the useless portion of the tops and leaves that may remain removed, and the difference in weight found by a second weighing is accepted asa basis for calculation of the tare to be applied to the entire crop to be delivered. The manufacturer has, however, always the right to demand a new determination of the tare, if at any time during the delivery of the roots he considers them in worse condition than at the time of the first determination. After the same manner the quality in the new system is determined. In the first place, the rate to be paid according to the density of the juice is fixed in the contract between the supplying and receiving parties, and this is generally $4 per ton of 2,200 pounds of beets, the juice of which has a density of 1.055. The scale of the densimeter used in the estima- tion of values is so divided that the figures representing what are tech- nically called degrees of richness may correspond with the hundredths figures representing the specific gravity. Thus, 5 degrees in the scale of richness means a density of the juice equal to 1.050, and 5.5 to 1.055. A beet giving a juice having a density of 1.055 is considered of good average quality, and will contain about 11.2 per cent. of sugar, and this root will yield in manufacture about 6 per cent. of merchantable sugar. It would be better, or, rather, more nearly correct in this work, to make at the same time an estimation of the organic and mineral impurities; but this would require special knowledge not possessed by the farmer, and the value, as determined, would be by no means as manifest to him, nor would it be as readily accepted by him. By the method proposed in the use of the densimeter, he is able to participate in the estimation of the quality, and he can much more readily understand it. A juice having a density of 1.055, or of 5.5 degrees, is considered of very fair quality, and this degree has been adopted by many as that upon which the price of $4 per ton of 2,200 pounds shall be based. The variations of price for degrees above and below this standard degree of richness is determined and setiled upon in each contract; but it is in general, where the system has been adopted, 4 franes (80 cents) for each degree; that is, for each degree above the standard, 5.5, this amount is added, and for each degree below the standard the same amount is de- ducted. But this standard of values, depending upon the degrees of density above and below 5.5, has been the subject of earnest discussion, for it has been found that the same relation between the density of the juice and its sugar content does not always hold good for degrees above and below the figure adopted. The commission established to determine the readiest means of esti- mating the value of the root for commercial purposes acknowledged this fact, and that while the reading of the instrument might correspond to 126 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 2 per cent. of sugar for each tenth between 5.0 and 5.5, above and below these limits this coefficient is incorrect. Below the lower limit the beets are less rich than is indicated by the densimeter, and above the higher limit they are richer than the indications. By the same commission it was questioned whether there should be established a relation between the price of sugar in the markets and the standard price to be paid for roots having a richness corresponding to 5.5 degrees of the densimeter, bat they concluded, after a consideration of the matter, that this would be impracticable.* But M. Blondel proposes a scale of prices to vary with the ranging prices of sugar in the market, and, accepting 4.5 de grees as the standard, believes it just to make a standard price for this degree, and an addition of 5 per cent. for each tenth of a degree above, and a similar deduction for each tenth of a degree below. When sugars are worth 14 franes ($2.80) per 100 kilograms (220 pounds) in the mar- ket, he would pay 14 frances per ton for roots the juice of which has a density of 4.5 degrees, and for each increase of one france in the market prices of sugar he would add 25 centimes (5 cents) to the standard price per ton of roots. The system of purchase by density, while it amelio- rates the relation between the manufacturer and producer, places a check on the grower of roots of bad quality, and furnishes a premium to the producer of those of good quality, and becomes an incentive to effort in the further improvement of the saccharine value of the crop. The actual relations between the manufacturers and farmers in France, under the old and new systems, are well illustrated in the following copies of the old form of contracts and of the record of proceedings of the Reunion of Agriculturists, held at St. Quentin, March 25, 1876, for the determination of a new form of contract, which they finally adopted, and which I have been able to obtain through the courteous intervention of Mons. H. Vilmorin, of Paris. Copy of table of conditions in use at Saint Quentin. THE AISNE SUGAR MANUFACTURERS’ CLUB. SuGAR-BEETS. The designation sugar-beet excludes the varieties known as Disette, corne de boeuf, long, yellow globe, and bettraves bouteuses,t or those grown upon cleared forests or marshes. Beets when delivered shall be cut off immediately below the last or lower leaflets. They shall be healthy and free from all alteration. Tare.—Tare comprises, besides earth, the rudiments of leaves and woody portions of the top. t Reception of beets shall take place at the factory, or, if possible, at the boat-landing. *Journal des Fabricants de Sucre, 1878, March 6. t According to a decision by arbitration of January 5, 1872, and confirmed by decree of the court of Douai of July 3 following, beets of the variety bouteuse or Boutoire are not merchandise of good grade, and may be refused by the manufacturer. CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 127 SUGAR FACTORY OF THE SOCIETY OF PERRUWELZ, AT PERRUWELZ. No. 71. Between the subscribers: of the first part, the administration of the Society of Perru- welz for the manufacture of sugar from beets and of animal charcoal, the headquar- ters of which is at the establishment of Perruwelz; of the second part, M. Louis Letureq, cultivator, domiciled at Roucourt. Parties to the following agreement : ARTICLE I. The party of the second part engages to cultivate during the campaign of 1874, in beets called Silesian, green top or pink top, the following quantity of land: Art. II. The grower may use only the seed furnished by the factory or permitted by the administration, and in the latter case at his own risk and peril. ArT. III. The seed shall be furnished by the factory from the 15th to the 31st of March at the price of 1 frane per kilogram (9 cents per pound). \ Art. IV. The beets shall be planted before the 15th of May upon a good clay or sandy soil, suitably prepared without excess of manure. The latter shall not be dis- tributed after June 15, neither shall direct application to the plant be allowed. Art. V. The plants shall remain completely provided with their leaves—that is, the leaves may not be cut off for feeding purposes until the time for pulling, which shall not be made more than five days before their delivery at the factory. However, after the 25th of October the beets may be pulled at once and piled in heaps or stored in trenches until the time of delivery. Art. VI. All beets shall be delivered healthy, free from earth, leaves, and “ turols.” Their weight shall be determined at the office of the scales at Perruwelz, with a tare of 5 per cent. This tare shall be rated according to the cleanliness and the quality of the beet. Above 15 per cent., and if the beets are rotten, frozen, or of bad quality, the purchasers may refuse them, or accept them with a tare, which they alone shall value or appraise. Ant. VII. The delivery of the crop shall be made at the trenches of the storehouse of the sugar-works of Perruwelz at the price of 20 francs ($4) per 1,000 kilograms (2,200 pounds). Art. VIII. Beets grown in gardens or upon low, wet, or turfy soils will be refused. Arr. IX. The purchasers reserve the right of inspection by their employés of the fields planted, in order to be assured that there is no detraction from the agreements herein stipulated; and in case of infringements it shall be optional with them to make a reduction of 2 francs (40 cents) per 1,000 kilograms (2,200 pounds) or to declare the present contract null and void. ’ Art. X. The person furnishing the roots shall have the right to a quantity of pulp equal to 20 per cent. the weight of the roots delivered by him, at an average price of 10 francs ($2) per 1,000 kilograms (2,200), but he shall lose this right if he fails to come and take the delivery on the day which shall be indicated by the manager of the so- ciety. Art. XI. In order to avoid obstruction on the reception of the crop, the dates for the deliveries shall be at suitable times designated by the purchasing administration, having regard for the greater or less quantities of the crops to be furnished, and in general in such a manner that 15 per cent. and no more may be called from the 15th to the 30th of September and 50 per cent. from the 1st to the 25th of November and not after. Art. XII. Payment for roots furnished shall be made as promptly as possible, but certainly before the end of January. ArT. XIII. Beets pulled with a hook shall be refused, LOUIS LETURCQ, (Made in duplicate at Perruwelz this 8th day of January, 1874.) 128 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. The following is a copy of the record of the proceedings of the Reunion of Agriculturists held at St. Quentin (Aisne), France, March 25, 1876, for the consideration and adoption of a form of arbitration bond be- tween growers of beets and sugar manufacturers, depending upon the new system of purchase of beets by density of the juice: Arbitration bond adopted by the Reunion of Agriculturists held at Saint Quentin (Aisne), France, March 25, 1876. The reunion of agriculturists of the arrondissement, called together for the purpose of studying the means of fixing upon a better defined basis of the relations between the sugar culture and industry, and to examine in its practical relations the purchase of the beet according to its quality, met on the 25th of March at Ferragues in the hall of the Tribunal de Commerce. Two hundred and forty cultivators assisted at this reunion, under the presidence of M. Albin Damoisy. In opening the meeting the president called attention to the promptness with which the growers responded to the call of the committee. They thus prove that they com- prehend the joint responsibility existing among their members and that they are capa- ble of uniting when their interests are at stake. The president then stated the motives which induced certain agriculturists to call this reunion together. The crisis bearing upon sugar manufacture enters into the culture of the beet in a new phase. The manufacturer now demands a richer raw material than in the past, the purchase of which shall be based upon its quality. The cultivator does not object to this reform, but wants it in such a way that his interests may be guarded. The quality of the sugar-plant may be thus stated : The density of the juice is a cer- tain index of the saccharine richness. Science and practice are in accord on this point. On the other hand, the means for taking the density have been the object of serious study, and in this relation also practice has shown that certain methods offer for the seller, as for the buyer, the double guaranty of impartiality and exactness. But it is not enough to possess practical means for determining the quality. It is further necessary to be able to determine a price according to these variations. For this purpose a basis must be fixed. Culture admits of 5 degrees because this figure corresponds with the average density of our region, and indicates a plant of good quality, susceptible of yielding a profit to the industry which transforms it. On the other hand, if the cultivator consents to reductions of price below the basis, he requires that all superior richness shall be paid for proportionally, a requirement conformable with good sense and equity. As to the refusal of merchandise which does not possess a minimum richness, thisis an inadmissible requirement. The producer of beets cannot involve his interests in a situation which leaves him such uncertainty, because the quality of the plant does not depend simply upon his operations, but upon atmospheric circumstances as well. Besides, the purchase according to quality, which gives the manufacturer the right to reduce the price when this quality is below that of the base, assures to the sugar- works sufficient guaranties. The Société des Agriculteurs de France has thus decided, because by a majority of 116 votes against 42, it rejected this idea of limitation. In short, the plan of arbitration bond proposes an arbitration to settle possible con- flicts. The beet is an encumbering merchandise, and subject to rapid alteration. It cannot, like the cereals or oleaginous seeds, be stored. It requires that all differences relative to the delivery shall receive prompt solution. Growers have therefore no cause to be timid concerning the new mode of purchase proposed, provided the practice be regulated in a judicious manner in advance. CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 129 This innovation would involve the necessity on the part of the producers of beets ot placing at each factory a representative charged with the inspection of the mani- fold operations connected with their deliveries, and the sugar works would willingly accept this agent, not only because it would be the exercise of a right, but also because this agent would relieve them of all responsibility to the vendor. En résumé, the plan of an arbitration bond submitted to the assembly is ‘testchedl to prevent the return of the difficulties of 1875. It takes account of the reclamations raised by the sugar manufacturers, and at the same time guards the interests of the growers. A work of conciliation, this arbitration is not drawn up for the exclusive profit of one of the parties; growers and the sugar manufacturers alike may make it the basis of their conditions. After this statement followed by a discussion participated in by Messrs. Lalaux, Lehoult, Ernest Robert, Thuete, Eustache Damoisy, Suin, Francois Honorez. Gladieux, Gonhzelle, Voiret, and other cultivators, the different articles of the plan for the arbi- tration bond were successively studied, modified or adopted, and the assembly ad- journed, after having adopted almost with unanimity the entire arbitration bond worded as follows: ARBITRATION BOND BASED UPON PURCHASE ACCORDING TO QUALITY. AnTICcLE I. The beets shall be delivered at the sugar-factory, the rasping-works, or the scales. Ant. II. They shall be delivered healthy, without top, cut off immediately below the last leaves. Art. III. ‘‘Bouteuses,” or forage beets, frozen or altered ones, or those coming from marshes or cleared woodland, shall be refused, or at least specially reserved. Ant. IV. The delivery shall be made on all workable days, without interruption, from five o’clock in the morning to seven o’clock in the evening in September and until the 15th of October. After this date it may take place from six o’clock in the morning until six o’clock in the evening. Art. Y. The discharge of merchandise must be cared for by the purchaser, who shall take measures necessary to prevent delay in transportation. ArT. VI. The weight, tare, density, and all operations depending upon the delivery shall be taken in presence of the vendor or his agent and assistants. Arr. VII. The tare shall be determined with a basket of beets taken without choice, and in the same manner as the discharge is effected. Art. VIII. The density is taken with the same lot of beets which have served for determination of the tare. It is taken with each tare and immediately after it. Art. IX. The density shall be taken by one of the three methods given below: Ist. Either by rasping the entire basket of beets that have served for taking the tare. 2d. Or by dividing all the roots in the basket into fourths, in the direction of their length, and rasping one-fourth of the whole. 3d. Or using the cylindrical borer, which shall be passed into each root in the bas- ket in a transverse direction near its center of gravity—that is, at about the upper third of its length—after it has been topped. Art. X. The density shall be taken and expressed in figures only after ten minutes after the densimeter (pese-jus) shall have been immersed in the liquid. Art. XI. The manufacturer of sugar shall not use the numerous operations deperd- ent upon taking the density as a pretext for delay in the entry of beets to his works. Art. XII. The price is fixed at —— francs per 1,000 kilograms (ton) for beets, of which the pure juice at a temperature of 15° centigrade (62° Fahr.) shall mark 5° on the densimeter. Art. XIII. All degrees of density are paid for, and the price applied to the basis 9SB 130 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. shall be increased or diminished according to the ascending or descending variations of density. ArT. XIV. The additions to and reduction of the value are estimated thus: Ist. Each tenth of a degree above the basis gains a premium of 2 per cent. between 5° and 6°, inclusively, and of 3 per cent. above 6°. 2d. Each tenth of a degree below the basis skall effect a reduction of 2 per cent. be- tween 5° and 4°, inclusively, and 3 per cent. below 4°. 3d. These 2 per cents and 3 per cents are calculated upon the purchase price ap- plied to the basis. Art. XY. The person furnishing the beets shall have a right to a quantity of pulp corresponding to 20 per cent. the total weight of his deliveries. The price of these pulps shall be francs per 1,000 kilograms (ton). Everything is reserved concern- ing pulps obtained from continuous presses. Art. XVI. Payments shall be made according to the following conditions: * * * * * * * ArT. XVII. All differences on the subject of the present market, or operations de- pending upon it, shall be judged with little delay and as a last resort by arbitrators chosen by the parties, and whose decisions they agree to accept. In case of failure of agreement by these, then, by a third arbitrator named, at the request of the com- plainant, by the president of the ‘‘Tribune de Commerce de St. Quentin.” St. Quentin, March 25, 1876. Ernest ROBERT, Secretary. ALBIN DAMOISY, President. LALAUX, CARLIER JULES, THUET, BELMER, BOURY, PAUL DELACOURT, OBLET-MILLOT, VIRGILE DAVIENNE, Agriculturists. It is considered by the later authorities who have given attention to the relations between the producers of beets and the manufacturers of sugar, that it is of great advantage, and is a potent means for reducing the chances of conflict between these two branches of the industry under consideration to have the farmers part owners in the factory. That is, in seeuring capital for establishing a factory in any section for the ex- traction of sugar from the beet, the farmers who must supply the raw material should be induced to subscribe for a certain amount of stock, and have in consequence a voice in the management, thus securing a bond of mutual interest. This is the plan that has been followed with good results in Germany, where the number of shares that may be held by the farmer is based upon the area of surface he may engage to culti- vate in beets for supply to the factory. The engagement by those having no ready money to cultivate a cer- tain area for supply to the factory is also sometimes accepted as an off- set to the capital of those having no landed property. While such con- ditions would seareely be entertained in this country there would appear to be no doubt of the importance of the influence that such a system of copartnership between the manufacturer and the farmer would exert in the introduction of this industry so novel to our people. CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. TSE CHAPTER VII. MANUFACTURE—PROCESSES AND ECONOMIES. The rapid decrease in the values of sugar has rendered necessary the strictest economy in all the modes and apparatus employed in separating it, and every possible means that has been devised for reducing the cost of securing the sugar is being adopted. This is evident in the relations between the producer and manufacturer that have already been discussed. But in the work directly under the coutrol of the manufacturer there are three sections which have claimed the attention of progressive men, and in which the greatest economy and improvement have been attained. These are methods for reducing the cost of transportation of the raw product to the mill, and securing a larger quantity to be worked at each establishment; for securing from the roots a larger quantity of juice at a reduced cost for labor and ma- chinery; and for saving the sugar lost in the molasses, which has here- tofore been utilized in the distillery to the loss of the sugar manufacturer. In the first of the methods for reducing the general cost of sugar pro- duction we have the system devised by Linard for the subterranean transport of juice through pipe lities, by which it is possible to establish small works for the extraction of the juice in sections in which it would be impossible to secure supplies for a factory of capacity sufficient to insure economical and profitable working, and to provide a cheap and ready way of sending the juice extracted to a central factory of large capacity and with the consequent appliances for separating the sugar at a minimum cost, and at the same time leave the pulp in the immediate neighborhood of the producer, who finds in this waste product a source of profit in its well-known value as cattle food. Maumené has given, in his Traité de la Fabrication du Sucre, page 207, &c., a description of the system which is so complete that we consider it of value to give a trans- lation of it here. His description is as follows: To the extraction of the juice is attached a new method we are about to describe, that of the subterranean transport of the juice. This is not a special means for extracting the juice but simply a means of procuring beets from very great dis- tances without an excess of the cost confined within the prescribed limits. The juice never representing more than 80 per cent. of the beet, its transportation would com- prise at most four-fifths of the ordinary cost; besides, the flow of the juice in a tube may take place with no cost except the expense of purchase and placing of the pipe, when there is sufficient fall between the rasping-works and the factory. But without such very rare conditions only a pump and a litile steam-power will be needed to overcome the resistance in the tubes themselves or counter inclinations. In fact, this mode of transport offers a more or less decided economy upon the ordinary method, and it has the especially enormous advantage of being always practicable when ordi- nary transportation may be arrested in default of horses, drivers, or even by bad roads. Besides, the profit resulting from the non-transportation of the pulp is doubled by a possibly greater benefit, that of delivering the pulp to the grower in the best condi- tion at the same place to which he brings his beets, and in a covered place, with no intermediate charging or discharging, as occurs in the usual system, especially on the 132 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. scales from which they are almost always thrown upon the ground, even in a rainy time. Since 1867, the year of the establishment of the first pipes at Mont Cornet (Aisne) for the length of more than 8 kilometers, * rasping works have been constructed in increasing numbers and at greater distances. There are now in existence (May 1, 1875) 240. One of them serves a factory 32 kilometers distant, and the system has everywhere given good results. The juice cannot be poured into the pipes in the natural condition; certain preserv- ing agents must be provided, and under all conditions there is nothing comparable to lime. I may be permitted to say that without my studies on the preservation of the juice and the industrial tests of my process founded upon this preservation, Linard could not have thought of transporting so alterable a liquid in pipes of such length. With lime there is no fear of alteration, and the juice may travel long distances. “Experiments made in the laboratory and industrially have. sufficiently demon- strated that by the process of the Chemist Maumené juices may be preserved several months, and even several years, and the case in point is but a modified application of this process. The juices therefore preserve all their qualities during their passage through the conduit.” Such is the appreciation of Mauré, the colleague of Linard, in his note of 1869. The juice is limed at the rasping-works with one per cent. of lime, Ca O; the solution 18 total and rapid. After repose of twenty-four hours or less the limpid juice is taken by a pump and forced into the pipe, which should be buried to a depth sufficient to be protected from frost (24 to 30 inches). This pipe, which should be of iron of the first fusion, has a diameter which varies between 2} and 5 inches, according to the quan- tity of juice to be delivered, the length of the*course, and the accidents of the land. All precautions should be taken to secure a good construction of the pipe, mechanical molding, upright casting, in order to have good close iron, free from bubbles, and of a regular thickness; and testing of all tubes at 15 atmospheres before delivery, &c. These tubes are 3.3 yards long. They are joined by a socket with a tarred cord, upon which lead is poured ; the metal is finally tamped with.a mallet. The pipe being fin- ished, it is filled with water before being covered. Thefew joints at which leaks occur are retamped and the pipe covered. In case of subsequent accident, all loss of juice promptly becomes evident at the surface of the soil. The pipe is generally laid on the roadside, where the ‘‘cantonnier” or a special employé may easily see the slightest leak and report it to the factory. A loss of eight or ten quarts cannot be avoided, but it represents at most only 5 or 6 cents. The highest points of the conduit are provided with stopcocks to remove the air and avoid (coups-de-belier) shocks. These shocks are never very severe, the rapidity of flow of the juice never being more than 1 to 14 inch per second; whenever they may probably be produced, all possible care should be taken to avoid them. One of the most unfortunate cases is the sudden obstruction of the pipe in full operation ; this obstruction may be brought about by insoluble deposits of lime mixed with coarse pulp, pieces not reduced by the rasp, &c. The surest means of obviating such accidents consists in never pumping turbid juices into the pipe, which may be readily effected by allowing twenty-four hours of repose, as I have said before. Many persons object to this means, because it leaves a calcareous deposit, which must be washed, and send the juice simply filtered through chopped straw, then passed through a metallic screen, or even simply passed through the screen before delivering it to the pump. It is more simple to wash the deposits in a small automatic washer, and to employ the waters to hold the lime for the juices coming from the presses. Felix has invented a good mode of purging the pipes of the air which the juices contain, the accumulation of which is very deleterious to the good progress of the work. An iron bell, tested at 15 atmospheres, like the pipe, is placed at an elevated point on the pipe in an opening, where it is adjusted by two opposite tubulures sol- *1 kilometer = 0.6214 miles. CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. Poo dered to itslower part. In the center is a pump cylinder in which slides a piston, the rod of which passes through the summit of the bell and communicates motion te a safety-valve. The air rises to the summit of this purger about the pump-cylinder, and gradually exercises a sufficiently strong pressure upon the piston to cause it to descend and open the escape-valve. A large portion of the air is thrown out, the piston rises, closes the valve, and so on. It is indispensable to verify the condition of the juice on its arrival at the factory. A small £-inch iron tube, with a stupcock, should be arranged to deliver ab libitum 500 to 600 cubic centimeters in which to determine the proportion of lime added. Hereto- fore lime has not been used in a sufficiently exact manner. A large vat of juice badly limed may occasion serious trouble in the work. Let us admit a vat of 400 hectoliters (8,800 gallons). Such a volume of juice introduced to a conduit of 10 centimeters (3.9 inches) diameter would occupy a length of 5,000 meters (5,458 yards), i. e., it would fill the entire pipe of certain rasping-works. It is thus possible, on the one hand, to cover the entire interior surface with a viscous stratum, which in fermenting would considerably reduce the quality of the juice to follow, even supposing a somewhat better liming, and, on the other hand, arriving at the factory its mixture with the other juices render the work difficult and often bad for several hours. It is of the utmost importance to watch this danger. Rasping-works seem to be a source or great expense, but this is certainly a delu- sion. One may be convinced of this by carefully examining the conditions of their operation. They may involve no surplus of expense, and simply be a source of profit when placed in such a way as to increase the capacity of the factory, without taking away any part of it, The rasping-works furnish the factory with supplies of beets that would otherwise be inaccessible, and in quantity sufficiently large as not to increase the net cost of the juice. This end is easily arrived at by the numerous adyantages of the rasping-works, of which we shall present a succinct résumé. One of the greatest of these advantages is to obviate the possibility of arrivals of © beets above a certain limit on the same day. Thus the arrival of 200 tons would re- quire an average of 50 to 100 carts. But in the first days, when each one is hurried, or when it is necessary to secure supplies, 4, 5, 6, 20 times this number may arrive, and it is easy to understand that their reception would be impossible. Subterranean transport removes these difficulties; it is possible to receive enormous volumes of juice with no other inconvenience than to provide the necessary recipients. In transportation by means of wagons the roads are subject to such degradations that the administration causes the manufacturer to pay, under the title of manufac- turing grants (subventions industrielles), for all the injury caused on account of beets, with no distinction between the manufacturer and the grower, so that the grower, whose beets are not received by the factory by default of quality, has left him the right to carry them home at the cost of the manufacturer. One factory has paid 32,000 francs (about $6,400) in a single year. Manufacturing grants are suppressed by the rasping-works and pipe-lines. All.that remains is the insignificant cost of the care of the ground in which the conduit is buried, and in place of a sort of antagonism between: the manufacturer and the administration, there is complete harmony by reason of the convergence of otherwise opposing interests. Another serious advan- tage is the non-concentration of the entire personnel in the factory. Division of labor is always of highest interest. Rasping and pressing, especially with hydraulie presses, employ the most numerous portion of the workmen. The requirements of the rasping-works alone are therefore often beyond the possibilities of the local pop- ulation. Added to this is another and stronger reason, that several rasping-works of the same power is an absolute impossibility in the factory. It is an easy thing to leave the laborers at home, where they may remain, by putting the rasping-works in the distant villages. The farmers of certain localities may not be able to grow beets on account of their special situation. Removed, not by real distance, but by too pronounced accidents 134 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET, of the land, it is impossible for them to devote themselves to a culture the products © of which are not transportable. Local rasping-works resolve the difficulty. Its pipes may be conformed to the most variable lands, and carry to the factory ail the juice of the roots, leaving the pulps on the place for the cultivator. It will probably be easy in the near future to sell the juice by the saccharimetric degree, and not according to the weight of the beets. This is really a problem of common interest to the grower and to the manufacturer. The conduit is used about four months. During the remainder of the year it may serve for transportation of water. This office has in earlier times contributed to the success of a factory, the supplies for which could not possibly be increased without this means of transport. Growers, located upon a plateau too dry for the purpose, en- gaged to grow beets in return for an engagement to furnish them water by the conduit. These numerous advantages are, by no means annulled by the expenses; this is very evident. Rasp and presses were necessities of the works. Even the boilers are not an increase; a factory does not operate with a single boiler; there are several, and the number increases according to the needs. Hven the buildings are not an extra expense. These would have to be increased in the factory. The conduit is really the only new expense for stock. Adding two or three individuals to the personnel and a force-pump, and the account is complete. A conduit of 10 centimeters diameter (3.9 inches) costs 7,000 to 8,000 frances ($1,400 to $1,600) per kilometer (0.62 miles) ; let us suppose 28 or 30 (18.60 miles) kilometers; 30 kilometers, for instance, it would cost 240,000 francs ($48,000) or 24,000 franes ($4,800) per year interest and redemption. It is possible to carry in 120 days 120 times 2,500 hectoliters (65,000 gallons), or 300,000 hectoliters (7,800,000 gallons); i. e., the juice of 37,500 tons of beets, at least. Now it is usual to obtain the beets at 2 and even 3 francs (40 to 60 cents) less per ton at the rasping-works. There is therefore a gain of 75,000 to 122,500 franes ($15,000 to $22,500), which largely compensates for the 24,000 francs ($4,800) of interest, the slight increase in the personnel, &c., at the great dis- tance spoken of.* ° The force-pump necessary to overcome the resistance in the conduit requires an ay- erage of 1 to 8 or 9 horse powers; say, 5. Each horse-power costing 2 franes (40 cents) per day, the expense for 120 days will not exceed 1,200 franes ($240). The ground is sometimes an extra cost; 1 hectare (2.47 acres) never costs more than 6,000 to 10,000 francs ($1,200 to $2,000); even at the latter price the annual interest is 500 franes ($100). There are at present in France 145 of these rasping-works supplying central factories. Of the latter, that at Cambrai is considered one of the most important, and is described by a writer in the Journal des Fab- ricants de Sucre in the following terms: It was started in 1872, after those of Origny, Sainte Bernard, and Meaux, which marked the beginning of this well-known system of causing to converge at a single point the juice extracted in several rasping-works. The rasping-works placed in purely agricultural centers have no other function than to extract the juice and send it, by means of subterranean pipes, to the central works, situated near to a canal or railroad, where may be found the apparatus necessary for the conversion of this juice into sugar. The principle of the division of labor upon which this system rests has found in the works at Cambrai one of its most extended applications; and we believe that nowhere have they succeeded in reducing in a greater proportion the cost of manufacture. It is particularly here that the system of M. Linard, the inventor, should be seen; and it may be said that it is especially at Cambrai that the concen- * Maumené’s figures may be somewhat simplified, as follows: At the rates for cost he assumes the figures would be $2,250 to $2,500 per mile—suppose 20 miles. The cost would be $50,000 and interest and redemption $5,000 per year. The amount of juice that could be transported and the saving on inferior prices of beets would be the same. CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 135 tration of work and the reduction of the general costs and the costs of manufacture have given the most significant results. Compared with other works, this reduction of costs has been from 80 cents to $1 per ton of beets; and we speak only of works well supplied with apparatus and well directed, working 15 to 20 thousand tons per annum without annexed rasping-works. * * * In 1872~73, the first year of working the factory, with 14 rasping-works, and hand- ling upwards of 64,000 tons of beets, the total expenses were 12.27 francs ($2.45) per ton. In 1876~77 these expenses, with 90,000 tons of beets, were 12.11 frances ($2.42). In 1877~78, with 18 rasping-works and handling 112,000 tons, they fell to 10.02 franes ($2); or 11.02 franes ($2.20), if we add the storage of beets, not included in the figures just given. No ordinary works, however well they may be supplied with apparatus, can work within these limits of cost; and we see that M. Linard was right when he said it was possible to realize with his system at Cambrai a saving of 4 to 5 francs (80 cents to $1). At their creation the Cambrai works comprised 14 rasping-works, and the total length of the subterranean pipes was 59 miles. To-day, 1879, they employ in winter 1,200 laborers, and are supplied from 18 rasping-works, which pour the juice through 77.5 miles of subterranean pipes. The following table will serve to show the condition of the works at Cambrai, and the results obtained for a series of years: Condition of central factory at Cambrai, and results obiained in a series of years from 1872 to 1879. a | g | a - = s r=) £ ee a Bia = on Pane = s So r= = = es mo = > Oe E oe jhe it an a Sa to na 2 E> fa a= ZS Aa ss =] Ss a ibe =~ sr 2h a 5 a ea oi be | ae dea ee. cea aes 5 es 2 Ba, oR = : a : | Sa | S82 | Se | SS | s2 | cs | SS] ee rs Wi Ws FA Se ek sis a {ae | 8 oS | 8 | °R | ef | 38 | 84 5S & 2 =e =° Hes 54 = | a m& s = FI So = So ba hec) = a = ro) 5 on =] = z 3 3S A s A ia 7 RD ie aa] H =e | | i | | Ty a ee | 14| 58.90 | 748.98 64 | 12.8 | 32,000 2.3 5.5 | $2. 454 Tit eC ae 17-| 70.37 | 1, 214.57 111] 23.3 | 61, 605 4.3} 10.5| 2.626 | 70.37 | 1,457.49 141 | 29.6 | 75,435 5.5 |) 2s esas : | 70.37 | 1,659.91 204 | 42.8 | 10,400 $3] 20.2) 1esee | 70.37 | 1,497.97 90 | 20.2 | 45,000 3.5] 10.1] 2.422 as | 70.37 | 1,457.49 112 | 25.2 | 75, 000 4.5] 125) 2.004 TTS eS S SER Eee | 19 77. 50 | 1, 659. 91 ToU) es 5s ee ee Ja Through the courteous intervention of Prof. B. Corenwinder, of Lille, France, I have been able to obtain from M. Linard the following state- ment concerning the cost of establishing the central factories with pipe lines in France: The expenses of installation of central factories with rasping-works and subterranean transport of juice of beets are very nearly those of ordinary works. Compared with the tons of beets to be worked they are a little lower, varying from 35 to 40 francs ($7 to $8) per long ton. Thus the works at Cambrai, capable of working 200,000 tons of beets, cost 8,000,000 francs ($1,600,000). The crisis in metals at the time these works were constructed had a decided influence upon this cost. The metallurgical establishment of Marquis sells the pipe at 16 francs per 100 kilo- grams. The meter of pipe (of 100 millimeters [3.9 inches] diameter) weighs 28 kilo- grams. The cost of laying complete for this diameter is 1.50 francs per meter. The price varies with the diameter. 136 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. The net cost of extraction of the juice is evidently variable with the processes of extraction, and it is the same for rasping-works as for ordinary works. The advantage of central factories consists in the reduction of costs of every descrip- tion at the central works and in the reduction of the general costs by half the weight of the beets. Thus at Cambrai we have expended this year 30.80 franes ($6.16) per long ton of beets, including cost of beets, paid for at the rate of 21 francs ($4.20) to the grower. In the next campaign, if we work 200,000 tons instead of 165,000 tons, the quantity worked in the last campaign, the cost per ton will be reduced to 30 franes ($6). I think that an ordinary factory working annually 15,000 tons of beets will expend 34 to 35 francs with our price of beets. With the continuous presses we are trying we shall fall to 28 franes ($5.60). It follows that central factories less important than that at Cambrai will expend more. That at Origny, which consumes 120,000 tons, has expended 1.50 frances more per ton than ours. I hope, sir, that this information will be satisfactory. Accept, etc., LINARD. Linard’s figures for cost of constructing pipe lines may be translated as follows: Pipe 100 millimeters (3.9 inches) diameter weighs 18.779 pounds per foot. Pipe 100 millimeters (3.9 inches) diameter costs $0.273 per foot. Laying same complete costs $0.0914 per foot. Estimates for similar costs in the United States are given as follows: For pipe: 4-inch diameter, weighing 18 pounds per foot, costs $0.23 per foot. 6-inch diameter, weighing 26 pounds per foot, costs $0.41 per foot. For laying, filling, calking, fitting, &c.: 4-inch pipe, $0.14 per foot. 6-inch pipe, $0.16 per foot. From these figures we may estimate the comparative cost per mile of constructing pipe lines in France and the United States, using 4-inch pipe: United France. States.* PNB Ghce mimes sinless aceiasaciaciscasietescma scchins cocci sce cndoadecemp ete eenccedoccte $1, 441 44 | $1,214 40 u GAVIA COMPlOtOsseckor ests Hess Sce Soe eae ee ea sees Seer ene dee enteeacbaceceeces 482 59 739 20 DO Gall fase trated omiaieretend aes: ades cle acl Ge doe he Se Se biack cone Seehatae nee tee bees 1,924 03 | 1,953 60 * Since this table was constructed in July, 1879, the price of pipe in the United States has advanced (December 15, 1879) at least 75 per cent. As Linard says, the cost of establishing these lines will, of course, vary with the size of the pipe used. For the United States, supposing 5,000 tons* to be handled at each rasping-works in a year, cost of estab- lishing the pipe line at $2,000 per mile in round numbers, and interest, &c., at 10 per cent. per annum, the cost of transporting the juice by this system would be 4 cents per mile per ton of beets worked, and this * But for so small a quantity as 5,000 tons per annum a much smaller pipe, half the diameter, could be used, and the cost of establishing the line would be reduced in con- sequence by about 30 per cent. CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. Sit rate would be reduced in proportion to the increase over this quantity in the beets worked. It would appear from what has been stated that besides the profit to be derived from working larger quantities of juice under the same ad- ministration, no appreciable saving would be effected in the United States in the cost of transportation, except in the event of working at the rasping-works over 5,000 tons of roots. But it must not be forgot- ten that this system leaves behind all the pulp, amounting to at least 20 per cent. the weight of roots, for which the cost of return transportation to the farmer will be saved. The following information I have been able to obtain through the courtesy of M. Henri Vilmorin concerning the central factory at Meaux: The cost of working proper amounts to 36 to 37 francs ($7.20 to $7.60) per ton; it amounts to 40 to 41 francs ($8 to $8.20), including interest on capital and redemption (amortissement). : The tctal length of pipes is 90 kilometers (55.8 miles). The diameter of the pipes is variable according to the place, the pipes of several rasping-works flowing into the main pipe, that must of course be larger. The smallest are 10 centimeters (4 inches) in diameter, and the largest 20 centimeters (8 inches). The cost of laying the pipes, 0.40 france per meter ($0.093 per yard) for the smaller, and 1.50 france per meter ($0.274 per yard). The total cost per kilometer amounts to 7,000 francs ($1,930.80) per mile. The juice runs, or rather is forced through the pipes at a speed of 10 to 15 meters (12.8 to 19 yards) per minute. The cost of working the pumps is only 3 to 4 centimes per ton of juice, but the main expense is derived from the interest on the capital in- vested in the rasping-works and pipes. Of the total expenditure at Meaux (5,800,000 francs = $1,160,000), one-third at least is invested in rasping-works and pipe-lines. The cost of carting the roots would amount to about 0.50 france (10 cents) per ton per kilometer (equivalent to 16 cents per mile); but it must be borne in mind that it is impossible to have roots carted to the factory from a greater distance than 5 or6 miles (8 to 10 kilometers), while the factory at Meaux requires an amount of roots or juice not to be found within that distance. It is only by means of the rasping-works and pipe-lines that they can obtain a supply of roots. The total amount worked has been as follows: Tons. 18 aan nee tt Bee et AU “ee aa Foe ie ee ee oe ee eee cee eee 79, 504 ilove pels t ates ||) ped Lt EMRE |S ee BOER eee hd eee CN eee oe ed ae od SE ER 2h 90, 436 The factory is intended to work 100,000 tons a year, but they have never succeeded in securing so large a supply. The proportion of sugar obtained has been, in 187677, 5.81 per cent. of the beets worked ; in 1877~78, 7.87 per cent. of the beets worked, the roots being unusually good in the latter year. The systems for extracting the juice is the next branch of the work under the direction of the manufacturer to which intelligent and sue- cessful effort has been directed to secure economy in the time and means for extracting the sugar from the root. In France that which until later years has found greatest favor and widest application consists in a combination of the rotary rasp, after the invention of Lampadius, for reducing the root to pomace, and the hydraulic press of ordinary con- struction for expressing the juice. But this system involves the em- 138 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. ployment of large numbers of workmen, which it has become the desire and the necessity of the manufacturers to avoid, and the improvements that have been brought to bear upon it depend for their value upon their automatic functions, by which the suppression of manual labor is effected. But before proceeding to the discussion of the means referred to for suppressing manual labor, it will be proper to call attention here to the means devised for increasing the effective power of the hydraulie press, the most important of which seems to be that of Gallois, depend- ing upon the principle developed by others working with the continu- ous presses that the juice of the root liberated from the cells cannot carry out all of the sugar under pressure, and that much is lost by me- chanical adhesion. His idea was, therefore, to wash the sacks from the preparatory press with a small stream of water, amounting in all in the operation to about 15 per cent. of the normal juice obtained. The water is made to flow automatically upon the center of each sack as it is put in place on the hydraulic press from the preparatory press. It has been found more efficacious to use hot than cold water. The water becomes slowly diffused through the thin layer in the sack and thoroughly washes the mass. It in no way affects the quantity of pulp produced, but reduces the proportion of sugar left behind by about 1.7 per cent.; that is, the ex- periments of Gallois prove that for each 100 pounds of beets worked he was able to save 0.39 pounds of sugar, amounting to 39 sacks of 220 pounds each, for each 10,000 tons of beets worked, and this quantity in France is worth 2,000 francs ($400). The cost of evaporating the extra water added is estimated at 300 franes ($60). Viviens* analyses of pulps obtained in the application of Gallois’ method for washing the pulps in the hydraulic press and with the hy- draulic press alone showed that with washing the loss in sugar was 0.8 67 per cent. of the beets worked, while the pulps not washed carried away 1.28 per cent. of the beets handled. Lalouette conceived the idea of surrounding the movable platform of the hydraulic press with a chest made up of strong vertical iron bars placed very closely to each other and lined inside with a strong perforated metallic sheet generally of copper. The press has the advantage of sup- pressing part of the manual labor, as no sacks are required, they being replaced by simple small sheets or towels which serve to divide the charge to the press into layers, but in order to render the press com- pletely effective second pressing must be resorted to. In order to ren- der the work more automatic, therefore, this press is used in connection with filter presses, into which the pomace from the rasp is forced by means of a strong force-pump. By this means 60 per cent. of juice is obtained. The filter presses are so arranged that the pulp from them falls directly into the chest of the Lalouette press, and much handling * La Sucrerie Indigéne, xii, 350. CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 139 is in this way saved. Before the second pressing, the pulp may be mixed with a small quantity of water, and such treatment has been found of great advantage. But even without this treatment it is claimed that the loss of sugar in the pulp amounted to only 0.825 per cent. of the weight of the beets worked. _ Each of the filter presses has a capacity of 40 tons per day, and each Lalouette press the pomace of 15 tons of roots or the pulp of 30 tons. The system requires no handling at preparatory presses, filling of sacks, &c., and, it is claimed, requires only about 40 per cent. the number of laborers employed with the ordinary hydraulic press, increases the yield of sugar, and reduces the yield of pulp to 17 to 18 per cent. of beets worked. The filter presses referred to vary in design according to the maker or inventor, but all are based upon the same principle of a series of gridiron- shaped frames, the faces of which are covered with a filtering surface or linen or jute cloth. These frames are arranged parallel to each other upon a strong support, and are brought into close contact by means of a screw-press fixed to one end of the support. The material to be filtered is forced between the frames through a passage along the side or through the center and distributes itself over the filtering surface; the liquid por- tion finding its way into the interior of the frame is drawn off at the bottom by means of a stop-cock attached to each one, while the solid portion is held back between the filtering surfaces. When the press is fully charged, the pressure holding the frames together is removed, the frames separated, and the pulp allowed to fall into a recipient under- neath. If necessary, the cloth is cleaned by means of a brush or other suitable instrument. . But the combination of the hydraulic press of Lalouette and the filter presses just described is not as effective in saving labor as the contin- uous presses are claimed to be. These latter seem to reduce the labor required to @ minimum, and, with the improvements lately introduced in their construction and management, they seem to be about as effect- ive in extracting the juice as the other systems of presses employed, and depend in principle upon the application of rolling cylinders var- iously constructed.* While we do not intend entering here into detailed descriptions of the different continuous presses, or other means of ex- traction that have been invented and employed, we consider that atten- tion should be called to them on account of the interest that has been manifested concerning them among the sugar manufacturers of France, and that brief notices of them here will be of value to those desiring to enter into the manufacture of beet-root sugar in the United States, or as a source of preliminary knowledge, at least, to those who may be in- terested in the progress of the industry abroad. The cylinders of these presses are constructed either with/amertures * With the exception of the Piéron screw press. 140 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. perforating their rolling surface, so that the juice is caused to pour into the interior, from which it is allowed to escape, as in the presses of Champonnois and Lebée, or the pulp is carried, by means of endless belts of linen or jute, between a series of solid rollers, effecting a grad- ually increasing pressure, as in the presses of Poizot and Manuel and Socin. : The presses with rolling cylinders having perforated surfaces are modelled after that of Pecquer, who seems to have been the first to ap- ply this system in the industry. In his press the cylinders are partly inclosed within a closed chest, into which the pomace is forced by means of a strong pump. The surface of the cylinder is merely perforated with small round holes, but this was found subject to serious objection on ae- count of the quantity of solid matter that was allowed to pass through with the juice, which it was difficult to remove by means of filters. Champonnois and Lechaume improved upon this press, following the same principle, and covered the surface with longitudinal openings in the direction of the circumference; and into these openings, which are suit- ably prepared to receive it, and passing around the cylinders spirally, tri- angular wire is wound so closely as to present an almost perfectly smooth surface. The openings for the passage of the juice are formed by very slight elongation of the wire, due to the pressure to which it is subjected. As in the Pecquer press, the pomace from the rasp is forced, by means of a strong press, into a close box which covers about two-thirds the filtering surface of the cylinders. The axes of the cylinders are inclined about 45 degrees to facilitate the removal of the pulp. The Lebée press is based upon the same principle; the cylinders are partly inclosed, but the. filtering surface is of different and perhaps simpler construction. It is made up of a series of movable frames, which may be changed at will, consisting of small narrow bars, about 0.05 inch wide, separated from each other by an interval of about 0.004 inch. These small bars are soldered together in sets, so that any injury to the filtering surface may readily be repaired. In the Cham- ponnois press the exhaustion of the pulp was not sufficiently complete by means of single pressing, and it was found necessary to resort to double pressing, involving the use of two or three machines to secure continuous operation, but in the Lebée press this work is automatically effected in the same machine, by means of a combination of several cylin- ders. After passing between the first set of filtering cylinders, the pulp passes under a solid cylinder, rolling upon one of the filtering cylinders, after which it is treated with a spray of water, and again passed under solid cylinders, rolling upon another filtering cylinder. By this means the exhaustion is not only accelerated, but it is claimed to be rendered more complete. In the:Collette press the filtering surfaces consist of sheets of finely perforated copper, fastened only at one end, along the length of the CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 141 cylinder, so that the other being left free may not be injured on account of any extension produced by the pressure to which it must be subjected. These sheets are therefore capable of being easily and readily removed for repairs. In other particulars the press is very similar in construc- tion to that just described. In the Dujardin press, lately invented, the cylinders are covered with heavy brass sheeting about .08 inch in thickness. The openings made in this metallic sheet are cylindrical for a short distance, about 0.26 inch, after which they expand conically toward the under side, and by this means the difficulty of choking the holes is avoided. By a special machine used by M. Dujardin for piercing the sheets, he is enabled to make the apertures closer to each other than is obtained by other man- ufacturers in sheets of this thickness. The principal difficulty encountered in the application of these differ- ent presses is found in the very large amount of pulp that passes into the juice and is found difficult to separate by means of the filters that have been devised for the purpose, but this difficulty has been materially reduced by the adoption of the process of adding a small proportion of milk of lime to the juice previous to filtration. This treatment seems to have a tendency to render the solids more dense and less liable to choke the apertures of the filters, whether rotary or of other design. The same difficulty is found in the use of the other continuous presses to which we are about to call attention, but in a less degree. In these the filtering surface is generally of flax or jute cloth, made in endless bands, and there is less liability of the small particles of pulp passing through them. All of them depend upon the principle of subjecting the pomace to a gradually increasing. pressure by passing between dif- ferent series of rollers, and carried between endless belts of the material mentioned above. The first of these presses is stated by Basset to have been devised in 1812, but Poizot seems to have been the first to make an effective one, and to apply it in industrial work. That described by Basset consists simply of an endless sheet carried between two rollers held in contact with each other by means of levers to the further end of which weights are attached. The material is dis- tributed upon this belt and is carried by it between the rollers. Poizot’s press is a great improvement upon this simple means of extracting the juice. In his first designs he made use of two belts which were made to pass between the same rollers, the pomace being distributed between them. The belts were carried around a large cylinder against which a series of smaller rollers is forced with gradually increasing. pressure. After passing these smaller rollers the belts are subjected to further pressure by means of another cylinder of the same size as that at first mentioned, and rolling against it. The exhausted pulp is dis- charged on the other side of the last cylinder and the belts cleaned by means of beaters. In the presses of later design only one belt is em- 142 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. ployed. The pomaceis distributed upon it and it is caused to pass over the smaller rollers, being brought into direct contact with the larger roller. The pulp falls from the belt after passing between the larger rollers, and is collected in a recipient below. In later days, when it has been found that work with all presses may be rendered much more effective by mixing the pulp with a certain proportion of water and repressing, the pulp from Poizot’s press of latest design falls into a mixer into which a constant spray of water flows, and it is here thor- oughly mixed with the water and distributed at once to the belt of a second press. This preparation for second pressing is an entirely auto- matic operation, and the two presses and the mixing may easily be super- intended by the same individual. The Manuel and Socin press depends upon the same principle, but the system of rollers is arranged horizontally and consists of five pairs of cylinders of the same size. The distance between the cylinders of each pair varies respectively according to its distance from the point of sup- ply. ‘The pressure exerted by each pair of rollers is governed by a strong steel spring the power of which may be increased or diminished at will by means of a screw regulator. The Leroy press is described by a writer in La Sucrerie Indigéne (XII, 367) in the following terms: The Leroy press, constructed by Messrs. Mariolle Brothers, of Saint Quentin, is pro- vided with rollers and an endless sheet upon which pulp is distributed by means of a special apparatus called the preparateur, founded upon the same principle as the press properly so called; that is to say, in the preparateur the material coming directly from the trough of the rasp and equally distributed upon an endless sheet is submitted to an energetic preparatory pressing by means of a series of rollers gradually approach- ing each other more and more in such a manner as to distribute upon the press only pulp partially exhausted of its juice. The endless sheet is here a thin sheet or steel pierced with a large number of small holes, forming the filtering surface for the juice. In the press the endless sheet is of the same nature, but it is doubled, as it were, by a woolen sheet, upon which the pulp to be pressed is distributed. Good filtration of the juice is thus assured, and at the same time almost all the fatigue is referred to the metallic sheet. ‘ This steel sheet is very useful, and the price is not very high. It is, besides, easily repaired in éase of accident. Mons. V. Piéron has devised a press that is more simple in construc- tion than any yet described. It consists of a screw arranged horizon- tally within a perforated cylinder of copper, and the whole hermetically inclosed in an envelope of cast iron provided with internal channels for flow of the juice. The blades of the screw are of copper, and the axis of bronze. The blades are in sections, and may readily be removed and cleaned. The pulp to be pressed is forced into the cylinder by means of a strong pump, and is carried by the revolving screw toward the other end. When it first enters the press the pulp is submitted to very slight pressure, but the pressure increases as the pulp approaches the other end, where it is forced out through a valve so arranged that CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 143 the discharge of pulp may be regulated at will. A portion of the axis of the screw is hollow, and the portion beyond the discharge orifice con- nects with the water supply, so that a small quantity of water may be continuously added to the pulp at the latter part of the pressing to effect a saving in the sugar that would otherwise be left in the pulp. To secure effective work with this as with other continuous presses, the method of double pressing must be employed, and for ordinary work- ing 6 presses are used for the first pressing, and 2 for the second press- ing.. For the first pressing the motive force required by each press is 14 horse-power, and for the second 2 horse-power. The advantages claimed for the press is its solidity, slight liability to accident and repairs, and small amount of labor required in their management. The work of grinding and pressing being altogether automatic, one man can attend to both operations. There is no opportunity for the juice to come in contact with the air between the press and the liming-vat, and there is consequently little or no change. The pulp of the first pressing contains 80 to 83 per cent. moisture, and 7 to 9 per cent. of sugar; and that of the second pressing contains 4 to 5 per cent. of sugar. The final pulp represents 26 per cent. of the beets worked. On account of the advances it is making in France, the process of diffusion invented and applied by Robert, of Seelowitz, in Austria, merits some attention here. It finds favor among manufacturers on account of the reduced cost of working as regards the employment of manual labor, and the larger proportion of sugar it is claimed may be extracted from the pulp. But the apparatus of Robert has been somewhat im- proved upon with regard to rendering the process more automatic by placing the diffusers in a circle upon a platform, to which a rotary motion may be applied. They are so arranged that the root-cutter may be placed upon a floor above, and the slices charged directly to each dif- fuser in turn as brought in place, with no extra handling. Georges Dureau, writing of this improvement, and quoting Dantzenberg, says:* Desirous of effecting more rapid work than otherwise, and at the same time doing better work, there has been constructed a diffusion battery, charged directly from the root-cutters. For this purpose the diffusers are placed upon a movable base and under the root-cutter, so that the slices may fall directly into the diffusers like rain, in such a way as to distribute themselves in the best possible manner for the circula- tion of the juice. The diffusers are animated by a rotary movement, which may be made so slight that when we wish to work 240 diffusers per day the rapidity of motion on the circle will not pass 3}™™ per second. It will therefore be seen that the rotary movement will not interfere with the manipulations. It follows, from the mechanical movement, that the interval from charging the dif- fusers and the different operations up to the discharge is exactly determined. The spaces of time for each diffuser are exactly the same, and the workmen must abso- lutely follow the rapidity of the apparatus. The manufacturer needs, therefore, to place no dependence upon the laborers. He may fix the duration of diffusion and make the number of diffusers he desires. On the other hand, the personnel is reduced in most factories by about eight men. * Journal des Fabricants de Sucre, July 24, 1878. 144 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. The tubes for juice, water, and steam are placed in the interior of the circle of bat- teries, and facilitate by their short length the flow of juices. The space occupied by the system is limited, and this is particularly important for those who desire to re- move their hydraulic presses. Besides, the cleanliness of the works is always abso- lute. Means for closing the doors of manholes have been invented applicable to all 81ZeS. It is in Austria that the process of diffusion has found widest applica- tion and has made the greatest advances. Thus in 1867 there were 114 factories with hydraulic presses, 3 with centrifugal filters, 2 with macera- tion, and 2 with diffusion. In 1876 to 1877 there were 30 factories with hydraulic presses and 181 with diffusion. Each diffuser of 750 gallons is supposed to handle about 64 tons in twenty-four hours, and a battery of 10 would therefore be capable of work- ing 65,000 tons or more per annum. In France it is stated that during the present season (1879) as many as fourteen or fifteen works will introduce the diffusion process, in addi- tion to the five or six already having it in operation. It is considered that but for the high price to be paid for the patent rights and the pres- ent depression of the sugar industry in France the method would ex- tend much more rapidly. It is stated that the process of Robert requires not more than five or six workmen to manage it, but it is claimed that by means of the rotary arrangement of the diffusers mentioned above this number is reduced to two or three. It is also claimed that the process will secure to the manufacture an increase by about 1 per cent. in the amount of sugar ob- tained. One of the objections urged against the process has been the time re- guired to extract the juice, but this difficulty has been to a great extent remedied by application of heat to the water employed in the diffusers, or to the material itself in the diffusers ; but while this reduces the time for extracting the sugar from the slices, it also carries out a larger pro- portion of organic matters and saJts, which have the well-known tend- ency to increase the proportion of molasses obtained at the cost of the yield of crystallized sugar. It would be of interest and importance to note the comparative value of the different methods we have described, and we give below some of the figures by which this may be determined. The value will depend upon the cost of apparatus, the labor required in management, the steam force employed, the quantity of material that may be handled in a given time, the degree of extraction of sugar, the total cost, and the value of the residues. ‘ With the limited time and means at my disposition while in France it was impossible for me to obtain complete data bearing upon these points, yet it would appear that, all things being considered, power and labor required and convenience of management, some of the continuous presses will find favor among American manufacturers who may desire CULTURE OF THE-SUGAR BEET. 145 to attempt the introduction of this industry, which has proven such a valuable source of profit to both the capitalists and the laboring classes of France and other portions of Europe. In this connection however, the conclusions arrived at by M. Durin* in his discussion of the efficacy of the processes of extraction by means of hydraulic presses, continuous presses, and diffusion will doubtless be of interest. He finds that: By hydraulic presses, with beets of 10 to 10.50 per cent. sugar without washing or maceration of the pulps, the loss of sugar in extraction per 100 pounds of beets may be valued at 1.70 to 1.75 pounds. This loss would be greater with very rich beets and less with poor ones. By continuous presses, and kneading at a temperature of 50 to 55° C. during 10 min- utes, with a quantity of water equal to 120 to 140 per cent. the weight of the pulp of the first pressing, and working beets of 11 to 12 per cent. of sugar, the loss in extrac- tion per 100 pounds of beets is 1 to 1.10 pounds of sugar. By diffusion the total loss in extraction per 100 pounds of beets is 0.50 to 0.55 pound of sugar, and by compressed air this may be reduced to 0.35 to 0.40 pound. The juice of diffusion is purer with regard to saline and organic matters than juice from the presses. But Champonnois,t comparing the results obtained by diffusion and continuous presses, and taking the figures given by Walkhoff and those published by Vivien for the efficacy of the diffusion process in Ger- many, and the figures obtained by double pressing with the continuous presses in France, deduces the following table: ! Proportion of 4A Percentage Diffusion. : the sugar pres- sugarin beet. | ont extracted. WaaION: OIE NION Grae nan cco adm ca ca oe anamh= <2 440n saab dieneseaGacmemacemare 12.4 70 NVstiOft, GituslON sec nascent cece Ce deck etes wnes tic teoecees 10.0 66.3 nies Uk Sata Pee RTT. Rae 13.50 | 66. 66 . 11.20 | 66. 69 BeITINGUA DNCHHES enc 2 aco meng toa na gsecncacesisewes sceu- ance sessqaee ; 12.00 | 68.33 The higher yield in the second case with continuous press is the re- sult of hot maceration before second pressing. And according to Viv- ien, the loss per 100 pounds of beets worked by the continuous press of Manuel and Socin after second pressing was but 0.925. The farmers to whom the residues of the factory having a feeding value must be returned to be utilized will naturally inquire which of the processes mentioned will yield a pulp that will give the highest net return in meat or milk. This matter has been pretty thoroughly determined as regards the residues from the hydraulic presses and the diffusion processes, but concerning the residues from the continuous presses such information is wanting. If, however, we make allowance for about 10 to 12 per cent. more of water, the latter contain, their average composition must be much the same as the pulps from the hydraulic presses. In an article on “ Beet-root pulp,” Professor Voelckler, of Lon- * Journal des Fabricants de Sucre, April 16, 1879. t Journal des Fabricants de Sucre, March 28, 1878, 10sB 146 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. don, gives the results of his analyses of this product from various sour- - ees, and we have collected them in the following table: u ) ae Sapllaatyisstusc™pecaalaily = Se s¢ 8 ay | Ee Ash E 8 5 S BS $3 as | eo | ge |] & | 38 = NG aa aS mo Go Ae, ae eo 5 a as a a th 5s 3 AS. 6.23 er 2 | S pS R cy AY FY FQ =e IMGT Ui) Ge Se Bee raptae Sec ose sor po nonenecise si ataae 70. 11 70. 88 77.10 70. 00 70. 00 Albuminous compounds’ (flesh-forming matters) -- 2. 25 2. 38 1.93 2. 43 2.5 Sebbeae Pe ahs ane vaste. CAL Sets 0s aa steO Teese OlaO! Wales sk ab] E ena eee 1.5 Mucilage and pectinous compounds ..-.-..-------- 1. 93 16.59 $1.19; ,).2,5+ 22' 06) eae et Digestible cellular fiber ........-..------2--------- 1a ese ager See pe $18. 67 “|ceeeee Woody fiber (cellulose) 22.222. 2.--22202-2222--2-2. B24 Hess. OMSL Aedes 6.48 "|| Ses Crude ceumlar fDel. 0 ace. secee ri - = cae seme se ee cane |e man teen 16. 43 16.07, 9] .-= cece ||24. 00 URCMICACIO Hee tea nace oa ee nce cone retene eae Sleetee ee Sette eraetela| resiet ere= chatea 12 <2... cee ee Mineral matter (ash)).003- st - aviemesans - 2432 cee. - 1. 87 3. 72 2. 59 2. 42 2. 00 Aa tals J. Se Rhos ti. 28. ee oeeS aes aes oe 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 * Containing nitrogen. --.-- Dee Sine ag Ca ae Sho shes ke 0. 361 0. 382 0. 39 0. 39 0. 40 t Containing a little sugar. {Including sugar. § Including pectinous compounds, &c. || Including a little lactic acid. The following will show the results of Corenwinder’s analyses of French pulps from the hydraulic presses : WAEOreet eee el ee Se oe stewereve~wviulech side. meow chess cused. pete 71. 240 eA eee BU ee Ua lat ela c clei ning in ninth ne AAR iat ea eee 3. 620 _ Fatty matter-...--..---.---------------- 2+ +--+ -2 ee eee nee eee eee cee eee 0. 628 TOUTE cE iontae gil oo cienn aclrale mate enim cae oe MRR Np hea 10. 345 “ANT Oye Ag CR eA «ta ip, ya ga Upon gra Sear ee 2. 381 BCUGSS) MOCO. i oc cain ae Sais Hale sine tas ee min eetan es we ees's oman edison nae 9, 434 MINE MATTOTS seer ls cheese cw cen geoele semis sicalenincr aiding oietiels- = eer 2.172 100. 000 Tn this connection the following abstracts from the tables of Settegast, in his work Die Thierzucht, quoted by Graudeau in his Instruction pra- tique sur le calcul des rations alimentaires des animaua de la ferme, show- ing the composition of various residues from the sugar-factory having a feeding value, and of few varieties of hay, will be of interest and value. RESIDUES FROM SUGAR FACTORY. ably |i Hope loans 38 | A aa QD | abe = o S cs OR es 3 2a8 og BER E 2 f= oS. l as | &$ | 38 8 ip we Fe ep S Ags ° Bn Se S © s poi cs ; ona s | 8 B er @ i888: EF | ca 3) q & Beet-root molasses’. ...-.--------.--s---sqe- 18. 33 HOLA See noe 63103) | jueeeeeny 9. 97 7.2 Residues from presses. .-----..---..+.-----+ 71. V7 1.91 0.42 | 17.24 5. 59 3. 07 9.2 Residues from centrifugal process.....----- 82.0 1.0 0.1 12.1 3.6 1.2 12.2 Residues from diffusion (fresh) ......-.-.--- 92. 86 0. 59 0. 08 4,01 1.71 0.75 ype Residues from diffusion (pressed) ---..----- 88. 08 0. 97 0. 12 7.19 2. 33 1.31 7.5 Raspings of beets ..-..--.-------..--eeeeee- 82. 91 1, 28 0.11} 10.42 3. 98 1.30 8.2 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 147 DIFFERENT KINDS OF HAY. + + Ke oR =I I Bs < ako A |e [ee | 8 Bee Bg ee 1 S3 3 Bax Sa SH ES A Scie i Aw go eS 7) AAD : oo ~ aq 3 i) ©... ice it ad 2 TAD © Wan Se a = = ee | 7 le es s # p 8és| & aS |e Sot: St “Siang tes 5) 4 MesMOW AY . e.Gor. Ve sektwt. cbc essere ad 14.59 | 10.11 2.34 | °40.90 | 25.52 6. 54 4.2 Ray grass ......----- 2222-2 22-22 eee ee eee ene 11. 23 8.0 2.80 | 44.58 | 25.45 7.95 5.9 PEED 2 = occa cing ea ee anil or = mim ce 14.3 9.7 3.0 45.8 22.7 4.5 5.0 GO ClOVED, i scp 425 od ones bere seweteactes LY 18.38 | 12.97 2.18 | 386.16} 24.45 5. 86 2.9 Lint ee Se ee eee 15.07 | 14.76 3.02 | 35.65] 24.08 8. 42 2.5 PRIOR et eee ees sare nee ) BETTS 14.3 8.9 2.3 | 39.1 | 32.6 5.1 4.6 Average of all grasses . .....--..---.--..--- 14.3 9.5 2.6 41.7 28.7 5.8 4. 66 ‘ DISTILLERY REFUSE. ROM COM NAS Nese ena se seen pine sacecs 90. 61 1.98 1. 04 4.95 0. 99 Cy: 87) eee: Men eyes mnt. Poe SO Se te ie 92.16 1. 64 0. 34 4.30 1.17 Orso Sieh ram: beer maghine o- 5-275 > <-asteeanes an50\p = 96. 74 0. 73 2. 08 2. 08 0. 32 0; 13 nse 2 From this it would appear that in order to secure in pulp from the presses the equivalents of hay from the sources mentioned there will be required— Tons pulp. ion eee matey” 5 80) PL PO O02. G2. ete nb wester essen ae sse eee 24 Hor lttonguumnothny: hay ste Oy eer cea ee 2s Ue Se eee ee tee = eee 3s For,1 ton ayetage of all eragses - «2. <<. --jysaeend ener enseran= sapqrcecnta* oo -8 3 With a crop of 20 tons of beets per acre, therefore, the yield in feed- ing material is by no means insignificant. Now, concerning the relative value of pulps from the presses and diffusion, we may quote a review of the late work of Dr. Petermann, the able director of the agricultural station of Gembloux, bearing upon this subject, and published in the Journal @agriculture pratique, 1879, p. 13: These residues are far from having the same value according as the beets are treated by the ordinary method (with presses), or by the system of diffusion. In the first case, the roots being submitted to rasping, the cells are torn, and the saline and albuminoid matters are mixed up with the sugar in the juice by the action of the press. In the second case the cells are preserved intact in cutting the beets in thin slices, to be ex- hausted with tepid water. The residues from diffusion are almost free from sugar. If in the dry state they are more rich in albuminoids; in the fresh state they contain a larger proportion of water and are much less nutritive, as the following analyses by Dr. Petermann will show: Diffusion. Ordinary press. Composition. Fresh | Composition | Fresh | Composition pulp. jof dry matter.| pulp. jof dry matter. DELO TRC 2 a' 5 co bra ae ae ee aie = ie oie aleis a sin =o ENS = Ses ere 72.48) |x coer eee PMIMMIMINGIG MACCOIS,...- o>. dae ceoscescceece sacs ececs=s 1.08 10. 70 2.18 7.92 WANE LOTR Go 2e ~ oc20claae ebeeee tee eee is ancien 0. 08 0.79 0. 30 1. 09 MUHeMILE ONOUA, . - = .--sasea= en eatenemeasarisiac caaee == eatin PONE LEIS ca cca ocec ce bateaeee duet acweceme dee 6.18 60.76 | 15.93 58. 08 MIME THL WISTLCIS = nov ooo cbc cace semen eeee es cnsnee hae HELA OED! 7.14 3. 29 11. 87 Cb In ES. A” a eee Oe ee erence. eee 2. 08 20. 61 5. 79 21. 04 100. 00 100. 00 | 100. 00 100. 00 148 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. Dr. Petermann says that, ‘‘Comparing the residues of diffusion with those of tho presses, we see that the first are much more watery and less rich in nutritive princi- ples than the latter. Therefore, the cultivator cannot expect from an equal weight of slices and of pulps the same effect in fattening. By 1,000 pounds of the residues of diffusion he acquires in round numbers only 10 pounds of albuminoid matters, 1 pound of fat, and 61 pounds of non-nitrogenous extractive matters, while in the residues from the presses he will furnish his cattle with 22 pounds albuminoid matters, 3 pounds of fatty matters, and 160 pounds of non-nitrogenous extractive matters. The grower should not therefore pay for the slices (containing 90 per cent. of water) more than half the price he pays for the pulps of ordinary presses.” But the system of diffusion constitutes a manifest progress, not only in an industrial but also in an agricultural point of view, a progress which should be considered»in comparing the two above analyses giving the composition of the dry matter. In fact (we quote textually from Dr. Petermann) it preserves to agriculture, and in the form of a suitable food, the millions of tons of albuminoid matters, which, in the work of the presses, are lost to it, or of which only a small proportion is restored in thescums. Thus a factory which works, according to the old system, 20,000 tons of beets restores to agriculture 3,500 tons of pulp, or, according to our analyses, 76.3 tons of albumi- noid matters, while if1t adopts the system of diffusion it produces 14,000 tons of pulp, which, holding 1.08 per cent., contains 151.2 tons of albuminoid matters. The 20,000 tons of beets which agriculture has furnished to the industry contain 200 tons of al- buminoid matters. In the first case the loss is 200—76.3=61.8 per cent. ; in the second case, 200—151.2—24.4 percent. If we apply these results to the calculation of the production of an entire country we recognize how much the interests of agriculture are allied to the progress realized by the sugar-producing mndustry. Dr. Petermann recommends that farmers take into account, in the calculation of their rations, the difference between the composition of ordinary pulps and pulps from diffusion. They should also associate with the latter a larger proportion of dry fodder, in order to avoid the inconveniences which result from too watery food. The feeding values of residues from the two processes mentioned for extracting the juice have been determined by direct experiments by Mr. Simon Legrand at Bersee (Nord), and we give below the results he ob- - tained. They show that if the modification in price recommended by Dr. Petermann be allowed, the profits secured by fattening cattle are greater by use of residues from diffusion than with residues from the presses, and with an equal expenditure of money the fattening is much more rapid. ‘ty CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 149 Comparative table of feeding cattle with pulps from hydraulic presses and those of the diffu- sion process on the farms of Simon Legrand. Pulps. Hydraulic presses. Diffusion. .Oxen. Bulls, Oxen. Bulls. Ter OL ANIMALS .- Peas -seaenees tase cee oeel ust coe essen ete 40 20 40 20 Mateo: entry to stable . << <2. ae ant a tome ee aco ren es eee ee 798 Pevetes Cru, COMPIOUG.. 26 enc cn-nr era nceene ce eme® ant cone pee tee. eee 189 yneoling Woxds Cextra)ias. to. 22 g7o2 eee RAE ee A ee 53 apenas | Os0t - ayer. s-269-f2Us- dies. 2-2. Lee ee: ee eee ee oe 85 limechanical filler (netleteur) 2. ict $iac Ke po acaci te cee see Steere ee eee 126 imechanical preparatoryspless 2-52 2S wee ees = Bee eeaee chee eee eee 504 6 hydraulic presses, cast and wrought iron, with piston 12 inches diameter, EGU C2 Ae tin ap ee Sa lal PR A erst I fa bli lates Papen 2, 520 1 battery of injection-pumps, with 6 cylinders for 6 presses...--...---.------ 1, 156 1 non-condensing engine, 124-inch cylinder, 24-inch stroke....---.--..------ 1, 386 Transmission ‘of power, about is. 2-22 vos See ee eee ee 1, 220 Approximate cost of hydraulic presses and accessories......-------.-- 9,273 (d) Robert’s diffusion process : Mhroot-ele VabOR. (22 ire = Wace asia) Scins Gains eee wits seen se tees Gate eee 460 1 root-washer and stone-separator, complete..-.-...-...-.---..-..---------- 856 1 root-cutter, horizontal plate, 44 feet diameter; 24 boxes of knives, of which lojare:tor exchance Pits o Sus AAS. or hee seo cecl chs wens Lee ees eee 735 10 diffusers, each of 440 gallons capacity, capable of holding 2,640 pounds per charge, each $504....-.-...- Rees ec Stott creat Sen Coe el eee oe 10 heaters (calorisatewrs), with 5 feet 10 inches steam coil, valves, stopedoks) tubing, and accessories for connecting with diffusers, each $252...... ...--- 2, 520 Girdled iron tubing, adherent to the battery of diffusers, about....-.--..---- 560 Copper tubing for conveying steam to and from diffusers, about --..-.---.----. 300 1 wagon of perforated plate, with circular track...-....--..-----. -21.----- 320 1 elevator for exhausted slices, complete... 2.2.22... Jee. ele re 525 2 Klusemann’s presses, for slices, each $525..-.2./..--. 2c e oie. 622-2 e ee 1, 050 1 reservoir for compressed air, with tubing, safety-valves, &e., complete... - 126 Transmission-of power, -complete;' about.) 22. 0 tr cee 1, 000 1 pump for compressed air, 104-inch cylinder, 12-inch stroke, with special en- gine, of 9-inch cylinder and 12-inch stroke, complete ..--......----------- 1, 060 Total approximate cost of apparatus and requirements for Robert’s dif- FOBION' PYOCOSS ets coe cece dee eee oe ee nates owe mers Sas nue meaner a cite 14, 552 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 153 (e.) Rotary diffusion battery, capacity 140 to 150 tons of roots in 24 hours: Ampot-clevaiar, complete... <.2. 06... cmwod wpb cqucn- 55i5- sae See ees $440 SERDOL-WASDOL, COMPlGbG sae seicmers- Se ye swe Je aeis sek 2) Soe sea ee Aaa Se 320 INC ollas-stOne Separator Jootie-. << -- <= qeetece \eelae te cees Sasae aoe uSseop == 350 1 root-cutter; 8 boxes of knives, with 16 boxes extra for exchange -.-.---.--.-- 1, 000 1 complete system of rotative diffusion (patented in Prague), patent rights ° 5.5L TDG 5 eee So TE ae RE rae Cea Se ee Beene oS 9, 000 Transmission of power, complete, about ..........-=----+----2 .--.-.)---- = ee 960 Various vats for holding juice and milk of Mme.-..-.....--....-..---..----- 225 Total approximate cost of apparatus, machinery, and accessories for Syste) Gf remeby Gsiinnren v2), J. See bite C0 2 est So ee 12, 305 PRODUCTION OF GAS. 1 metallic fixture for lime-kiln of 175 cubic feet capacity .-.--.--..-.--.-.--- 680 Bgas-washer No. 1.2. ni-- cee anes ejo asice Snem anion nied seme bow r=! <e0se=ec e+ -a- francs 3.60 plus 4 per cent, Sugars imported directly by sea from countries outside Europe may be ad- mitted for refining for exportation. Molasses for distillation from French colonies...-....---.--..------.----- Exempt. Molasses for distillation from foreign countries .......--.-----. .--------- 3. 12 Molasses for all other purposes, containing 50 per cent. or less Ber sugar. 25, 42 Molasses for all other purposes, containing more than 50 per cent. of sugar- 68. 64 Articles 5 and 6 of the law of 1875 provide that sugars imported to France for refining shall be subject to a tax of 73.50 frances per 100 kil- ograms of sugar that it is presumed will be obtained by the refining process. “At the time of payment of the duties a warranty-bond will be executed at the desire of the importer, good for two or four months.” Article 8 provides that at the exportation of refined sugars the cus- toms service shall deliver a certificate of export, stating the nature, weight, and saccharine richness. Certificates of export not having been dated more than two months, shall be received as compensation, either in payment of duties on sugars or of the warranty-bonds above men- tioned, for a sum equivalent to the duty that would have been paid upon them had they been delivered for consumption. A decree of August 8, 1878, provides in general for a drawback upon all articles of confectionery, comfits, preserves, &c., equal to the tax that would be required upon the sugar they contain. The method of collecting the taxes upon sugar in France is the same - in principle and similar in practice as that in use in this country for col- lecting internal revenue on spirits. An officer of the government is stationed at each factory, and is charged with making an examination and keeping a record of the material worked, as well as the products obtained. The latter must have a certain relation to the former, %. ¢., CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET, 161 as stated before, a certain quantity of juice having a given density must yield a given quantity of sugar, and the manufacturer is taxed for this minimum yield determined by the examination of the juices. -All prod- ucts of the factory are taken in charge by the officer and stored ina warehouse, the key of which is in his possession, and the sugar is kept here until disposed of for refining or for other purposes. The tax, 73.50 francs per 100 kilograms, is finally levied upon the quantity he takes in charge. The amounts of taxes realized by the government of France on su- gars from all sources during the years 1877 and 1878 were as follows: Kinds of sugars. 1877. Mors diby- Orr CG OMIA SNPATS < cose = . 5a S ofa cs Steen ce totic serouaawene $7, 540, 800 $6, 768, 760 innport duty omforeien sngars: +... 235 < 2. 6555. cs cne aps jawace sans, See 6, 886, 000 8, 642, 000 Duty on manufacture of indigenous sugars..............-----------.---- 22, 088, 400 17, 035, 600 abate tee ate BND) seh 9. TEL ee a ee 36, 515, 200 32, 446, 360 CHAPTER IX. CONCLUSION—IMPORTANCE OF SUGAR-BEET CULTURE. In France the universal importance of the influence of the culture of the sugar-beet was rather slow in being acknowledged by those accustomed to write on the subject, but once it became thoroughly manifest, it was earnestly accepted, and the introduction of the crop in the systems of rotation rapidly took hold in all sections in which it could be made suc- cessful. The value of the culture in the amelioration of the soil was recognized by Dubrunfaut as early as 1825, when he said: The beet as a biennial plant enters readily into rotation with annual plants and with those considered as exhausting. It precedes wheat with great advantage and prepares the soil in a marvellous manner for crops of cereals. In 1853, Prince Napoleon Louis Bonaparte, after a study of the sub- ject, said: The beet requiring frequent hand-hoeing and considerable fertilizing improves the soil. Itis a fact that wheat sown after a crop of beets produces 10 per cent. more than after any other culture. In fact, everywhere that the beet is grown the selling value of the land has considerably increased, the wages of workmen have followed the same ascending progression, and the general welfare has improved in a wonderful manner. Behic, reporting to the council of state on a draught of a law concern- ing sugars in 1850, said: _ Metropolitan agriculture and industry are interested in the production of sugar from beets. By the aid of this industry cattlv-raising is encouraged, rotations favored, the mass of manures augmented in countries where this kind of work has been estab- lished ; the culture of oleaginous seeds, hemp and flax, being crushed out by the beet, has all tended to enrich localities which had previously known only the culture of vulgar plants. 1LsB v% 162 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. These sayings are all quoted by M. Mariage in a report upon the in- dustry in the arrondissement of Valenciennes, made on the occasion of the Universal Exposition of 1867. Further on in the same report, M. Mariage shows that in the arron- dissement of Valenciennes, between 1854 and 1866, there was an increase of 103 in the number of oxen and bulls, 437 cows, 2,580 young cattle, and 3,144 goats. This rate of increase in the number of cattle is not found in other portions of France consequent upon the introduction of the beet-sugar industry, but it appears to be generally accepted among the agriculturists of the north of France that while the numbers of cat- tle have not increased to any considerable extent there has been a marked increase in the average weight of beef-cattle, amounting to from 50 to 75 per cent., and this increase is referred to the extensive use of beet-root pulp for food. By reference to the table given in the chap- ter treating of the statistics, we find that this industry, confined to a comparatively small area in France, gives employment to over 50,000 individuals during the winter season, and all these people are left free during the summer season to assist in the cultivation of the fields, and the large majority find employment there. They not only manipulate the raw product of the farm but they are producers as well. In this particular this industry is one of the greatest boons to the laboring classes that can well be imagined. The amelioration of the soil by beet-root culture has already been re- ferred to. In this industry nothing should be lost to the farm, though it cannot be said that this is always carried out. The marketable constit- uent of the crop, the sugar, takes nothing from the soil in its formation. All its constituents are derived from other sources, atmospheric, Se. Much of the mineral matter of the crop is returned to the farm in the refuse of the factory, though a large proportion is lost in the molasses ‘sent to the distillery, the residues of which are in most cases worked for the recovery of the alkaline salts to be used for other industrial purposes. It may, however, be justly said that in the culture of this crop, besides the improvement effected in the physical condition of the soil, its chemi- cal character suffers less from this than from other crops. The statement of Prince Louis Napoleon has found confirmation in the results universally obtained in culture of wheat and other cereals ; for the cereal crops cultivated have increased to a very marked extent ‘both in acreage grown, the yield per acre, and the weight of a given volume of the grain. As a consequence of the beneficial influences of beet-root culture on the land, we find that its advance into any section is soon followed by an increase in the value of property, and M. Macarez, in a short sketch lately presented of the history and importance of the culture in the arrondissement of Cambrai, states that in 1835 land cultivated in beets was worth $120 per acre, and that in 1875 the same land was worth $280 to $325 per acre, and relations of a very similar character prevail in all the departments of France where the culture has become firmly established. CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 163 Another advantage that may be claimed for beet-root culture, and one that would have great importance in the United States, is the utili- zation of the land annually left open to fallow, and this would effect a great saving, and be afruitful annual source of profit to cultivators. In this country, the ground, after previous culture of Indian corn, would be in excellent condition for the beet crop, after having been broken up in the fall, and could, after beets, be planted in the subsequent spring in oats or barley, and these in turn, after application of stable manures, may be followed by wheat. M. Mariage, speaking of the disappearance of fallow in the arrondissement of Valenciennes says: It has radically extirpated fallow, which at the beginning of the century was rep- resented by 11,362 acres; in 1840 by 9,875, and in 1857 by 103. There does not now remain a trace. In the introduction of the culture of the beet and the manufacture of sugar therefrom the enterprise will not have the same advantages in its favor, as to the value of the ultimate product, as the Europeans had at the birth of the industry on the other side of the Atlantic. In the be- ginning of the work their sugar was worth 125 to 128 franes per 100 kilo- grams ($11.36 per cwt.), and it was several years before it fell to 90 to 100 franes; but now that the price has fallen to 53 to 58 frances, the manu- facturers find themselves in the unpleasant predicament of being unable, with the apparatus they have in their works, to extract the sugar from beets of the average production, which are generally of low quality, at a cost sufficiently low to compete with products from external sources. However, in the United States we may have the advantage of the ex- perience gained in the European works, so that, instead of having to begin upon a raw product of low quality and crude methods of culture, fertilizing, and manufacture, we may start with those varieties of seed and those methods of culture and manufacture which have been found by long practice to give the highest return for the capital and labor em- ployed. But the greatest obstacle to the ready introduction of this valuable industry into sections before unknown to it, and where all the conditions of soil and climate are favorable to it, will be found in the difficulty of securing at once concerted action on the part of the farmers to produce each year a quantity sufficient to be economically worked for sugar on the one hand, and the capital necessary for the erection and maintenance of the buildings, machinery, and apparatus required for extracting the sugar, on the other hand. » is ‘WMOT}OOS [woTpAO.A ‘uv WeIssNyy (dAOWTHV MI UV TTD ONTAUHSAAd NING WUT GONE CU ifecin cE aa : . AY Nase lltin \ \ Sq I ‘ \ WY iP TN \N [— Sy EAI QO LO) elk Freee <= —s ees, \\ AN Ny \ YY SS 4 ass ee on, CONE Zn BESS NS PLATE X. \ WSR ~ Sx Qayyils > il TNA \ SS NU "6S “OTA PLATE XI. Fic. 23. LAMPADIUS RASP.—(MAUMENE.) . Hopper for roots. Plunger to force roots against cylindrical rasp. Turning in direction of arrow R. Trough to receive pulp. nO bi b Fia. 24. FRAME FOR CYLINDRICAL RASP. —(MAUMENE.) PLATE XII. Fig. 25. 7 SSIS SOS —= — : = TTI CHAMPONNOIS RASP.—(MAUMENE.) M. Hopper for roots. P,P’. Heavy cast-iron arms attached to axle V, and which, by rapid revolution, force the roots against rasps held in frame B B’. T. Pipe to convey jet of water to interior of rasp. ria. PLATE Xill. Fa = = = = es =) L Ba Lh <—_ a jen) ss a) Zz = aa —S =. ~— = = mS fe < = a -_ 7 ES =) Zz = © eS 7 = 2 =, a) Lt a “ = e aS Lom | o) 2 = = =| = I = 2) Oo re Le | i 2) Zz 2) _ S. < _ me Le. 2) oO MMMM SLY. PLATE - ‘aoystd ssorg ‘yO ‘edid-qoyvm TIN{OY “YL ‘zopmipso ssoad 04 10yvA Jo yMpmoo 10j odrg “q “dung “AV (‘gNaWAVW)—'SSUUd OLTAVYAGAH AWVNIATO ASASS Cad a BS SESS SGQ[|O|OoL™E|E . SWE SS SS BS Mow iies ey Nt! Fee 4 Sy SS SN \Y, Nii —URLHH@EC€Q@#@©@HHEelv GAN a 7 ‘ +, PLATE XV. qt UU meet pee Ibs i “gy “80 intl al Dy LALOUETTE IMPROVED HYDRAULIC PRESS.—(JouRNAL DES FABRICANTS DE SUCRE.) It is claimed for this press, that it increases the yield in sugar, suppresses three-fifths the labor required with ordinary hydraulic presses, and leaves but 17 to 18 per cent. of pulp. PLATE XVI. 29. dartry ot Pomace Fig. LLZ “Wty (1) OY LYMAN HPAL Pos pAE poRmezaw woudl puooas w 11 no 1b PU ‘Kanf[On [AOA 1 wioay oouutod OU, Pe 26 22 265 Ee re TAX GLV1d PLATE XVII. ay tical section of thi LEBEE CONTINUOUS PRESS.—(MAuMEst.) PLATE XVIII. ‘SEMAN! ONY OF poousye ssurids puv saotos Jo sUNOUL Aq poqsn{pe st saoqpoa oy} Aq poqaoxo oanssoad oy, TAT POY dT AAA SA0][O2 pros O17) UoOMGOG porawo sy puD ‘gq Hd S8OTPTO OTT} HOdN SAOT[OA-pooy OY) CODA YOR S[[ty V toa oovutod ony, (INAHAVA)—SSTtd SAOANILNOO NIOOS (NY 'ITONVIV S \\ \ NY \\ Wh \ S\ MK AW AI SW A . KQIQ VA \\ \ \\ \ \ \\\in\ SS~, AX x AN as ee a ee a " * ym, : 1 plete vindraty lop alist ‘ ‘osuo DUpUnoaans JO s—xv SHoryy ‘q faopaypAo-Burssoad or} Jo “VY : uoyjoos [CUIpnysuoy ‘77 “WOLJOOB OBLOASUBAT, “7 “AN OD ONT OULU NE Ss nt are SS BSSSSSSssssss Ir Le SS 1 } ' | | | = LIZ. Sy ‘*XIX GLVW Id ‘Ce “DI ee ee ee ete ele ced = : 5 +: oe cee fet aoe Ey a: Pi fie tis aes “hreies + PLATE XX. Fy DUJARDIN CONTINUOUS PRESS.—(LA SUCRERIE INDIGENE.) A. Entry of pomace. B. Exit of pulp. i “A ih a ell a a m ~ | ——— | screw. / . PLATE XXI. Fic, 34, hae a =| AN | = Pago i A Im i nd ADAYA ASUS CALETA II WA = = h rl | —= — ly & H => | : ETE A > : iw 0 PROTO LETC NY Mm H ULL Mm BS My i Hi MATT HT \ A AAI A | ANAK AG cl tl OE i i l INA AS i TTT PIERON CONTINUOUS SCREW PRESS. A. Entry of pomace, ZB. Exitotpulp © 0. Exits of juice. D. Entry of water for washing. £. Supply of water for injection through center of screw. PLATE XXII, Fic, 35, 1 SMa W ROOT CUTTER.—(STAMMER.) a. Cutting-plate. b. Feed-hopper. ce. Reservoir of slices. da. Exit of slices. os 2 A J Li me } Care t ‘ ‘ ’ nd r 1 . PLATE XXIII, Fig. 36, ARQ U | U VITLTT: | Z cE | Siu Yj, 444 Gn aammnsn me 1 ab 2 9B € 4 2 0 1 2 3 4 Metres ; r a 2S ee eee es co een eee an ty a a et “+ So cemmemeen \ a LORS 4 he VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL SECTIONS OF ROBERT'S DIFFUSION BATTERY.—(STAMMER.) a. Root-cutter. b. Charging-car with weighing attachment. ec. Movable hopper. 4d, d!, d?, d3, &e. Diffusers. e. Reheating-reservoir. f. Communicating-tubes between diffusers. g. Discharge-tube. k. Conducting-tube for displaced water or juice. 1. Safety-tube connecting with all the diffusers, and serving to disconnect a defective one. t, u, v, x, y, z. Valves corresponding to the various tubes. m. Tube joining valves with diffusers. r'and r?, &c. Conduits between reheaters and diffusers. w and u. Valves corresponding with same. r%. Conduit of juice to defecators. s. Manhole for exit of ex- hausted slices. & iz ‘ " Sat! fe Sap SS ae oe! “ae PLATE XXIV. 2 mt =) 5 ie ROTATIVE DIFFUSION BATTERY.—(JOURNAL DES FABRICANTS DE SUCRE.) “tome 8 Sita ie: 5 ae , ar ad * = Chas - Fig. 38. en | a " my y ml TT l 5 = A Hi oo lh —— R SS. FARINAUX FILTER PRES bs bigiiend en Pe ae ee “dl that the 2 and 3, so arrange D. Pipe connecting Steam-condenser. pray that may pass over. +. Juice-tank. H. rs | | milar internal construction, A A. Steam-chost traversed by small tubes for heatin; | appara double, or triple effect at will, E. Chest for condensation of ateam fr PLATE XXVI. XXVIII. PLATE Fie. 40. ARAL AARA AR AAA EOS OEP IRIEL ROTI ARIA) 1202 FP TIUANR LALLY i VP EEE PPE LEP CF AAAI A RIAA LEAR ALA LEASE STRIKE PAN.—(MaAvuMENE) CUUM VA PLATE XXVIII. Tae TELCLLLLLLA SELL AA LEE RS oe Wis hbddlladddbacdddddddbbddasbdddddidddldddé -* PHOTO. ENC. CO. KY. iia BSG, ww $pqwqyq*_}»_}7p}] KW WG. GG G0 VACUUM STRIKE PAN, VERTICAL SECTION.—(MAUMENE.) PLATE XXIX. Fig. 42. S SS > SN A= ZW | UMA “Le sddddddddd @ “tery oy G CENTRIFUGAL FILTER.—(MAUMENE.) Fig. 43. KLUSEMAN’S CONTINUOUS CHARCOAL WASHER.—(MAUMENE.) PLATE XXX, ‘puto oF.amqo “SIP OF PlvAdoy poutpour AyYsys “topuypo 07 poouyye GoFuupy poaano prot Om} JO OND "A '[HOOIMTIO poTsVAr Jo 4IXST “GQ ‘uoOdoR Sudopauo-aopurypAg ‘eoonyo Supaywap ao; woosog "9 ‘MOLOS TUTLOATION “Hy saoddorp Sy Apdooyy ‘a “woqny A[ddns-aoye ay puv W ‘woyjout suyyuorunuios sof KONG “VV WL ALOT[OL UO ytoddns aoy spuuq JOOULG ‘sf Hf MOpy[AD [UtLogxg, yy CUNGOLANT INIA V1)—UTHSV AM TVOOUVILO AMV LOW SOMATA Os ZIDIIIVIITIIII? y j teal SH ‘PP OI Gz aft? ® * ce pic), NG OF os 0 te Ez “ pm a) ~ ft Pgh es ~ $ PLATE XXXI. ss 3 >) es * (MIONG AC SLNVOMAV YT, SAA TYNUNO f) TVOOUVHO ONIAATATAGY WO HOVNWO SATATAAHOS sh tsa oe 2 cm ae Lo —we » = — = ee Le Rh EE | AA ot. Mid ‘Sp ‘OLA Sey) | ‘ Se Ut | iia Ml Au r ae ve ‘ te i \ ; > i - c re ; y . v4 C - - e % > “ f ‘ Fi j : s PLATE XXXII. Fig. 46. Us "ti TH IU ALTA TT A Wa | im TU 4 ae J Wy si } (1120000 SRT OAD eu it 0 | AA MI ue. A ea a Hi Hitt bt | x in a I ah ier hl 5 i) He ia 1) tris it l Itc . wn E =) HIN aii i it SAS SSN FURNACE FOR SUPPLY OF LIME AND CARBONIC ACID GAS TO FACTORY. (JOURNAL DIS FABRICANTS DE SUCRE.) a » ae en ; aoe: ; a Fae eee ve Ge TE eC ae De Pte « APPENDIX B. HISTORY AND PROGRESS OF THE CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET AND THE MANUFACTURE OF SUGAR THEREFROM IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. Notwithstanding the progress that has been made in Europe in the culture of the sugar beet and the manufacture of beet-root sugar, and immensity and value of the industry it has supplied to European nations, the knowledge and experience resulting has not been applied in such a way in the United States as to make the production of sugar from this source a matter of any commercial or industrial importance, although attempts at the introduction of the industry have not been wanting. In most cases the attempts, which have had varying success or rather failure, seem to have been origi- nated and guided by enthusiasm rather than by sound judgment, based upon a pre- vious close study of all the conditions which should influence or absolutely govern the success or failure of the enterprise. This is very evident from a review of the records we have of the various experiments.which have been made both on a large and a small scale. The iirst experiment made by two enterprising Philadelphians as early as 1830, was almost cotemporaneous with the final firm establishment of the industry in France and the great interest manifested in it there, but it seems that these gentle- men were wholly ignorant of the requirements either of the culture of the root or the extraction of sugar, and failure was the natural result of their efforts. Eight years later, David Lee Child, who had spent a year and a half in the beet- growing districts of Europe in careful study of all the requirements, both of culture and manufacture, undertook in a small way the production of beet-root sugar at Northampton, Mass. He was attracted by the method of drying the roots that had lately been invented by Schutzenbach, both for the purpose of preserving them and for facilitating the extraction of sugar, but being unable to obtain from Schutzenbach any information concerning the details of the method unless he would purchase the ex- elusive right to use in the United States, and give security for payment in case success should be obtained in a model factory, Mr. Child operated the method with appa- ratus of his own device, by means of which he was able, with a temperature of 150° to 185° Fahr., to dry 800 pounds in twenty-four hours. The dried product was ground, treated with three times its weight of water, and subjected to pressure, giving, it was said, a liquid twice as rich in sugar as the ordinary juice of the beet. In his little work entitled The Culture of the Beet and the Manufacture of Beet Sugar, Mr. Child informs us that the cost of culture in the Connecticut River Valley was, in 1838 to 1839, $42 per acre, with an average yield of 13 to 15 tons; that the crop yielded 6 per cent. of sugar and 24 per cent. of molasses, and the cost of the sugar 11 cents per pound, pulp and manure not taken into account. But he does not mention the surface sown in beets nor the quantity worked up. From other sources, however, we learn that the quantity of sugar obtained was 1,300 pounds. The interest in the beet-sugar industry in the United States seems to have been quite dormant, or at least not sufficiently strong to manifest itself in active work, and its subsequent history, which, as before stated, was a rather checkered one, began in 1863 with the inauguration of the well-known enterprise at Chatsworth, IL, by the Gen- nert Brothers, formerly of Braunschweig, Germany, and later of New York City, which, on account of the ill-chosen location as regards soil and climate, really the 167 168 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. two principal conditions of successful culture, failed after a struggle of nearly six years. Bad management and lack of practical knowledge of the industry in the first few years, bad culture in 1868, deluging rains in 1869, and drought in 1870, in addition to the abundance of nitrates found to exist in the soils, appear to be the causes tending to the disastrous result. As afinal struggle to maintain an existence the company removed the works to Freeport, in Stephenson County, of the same State, and though the saline character of the soil, which wasa bane to the culture in the former locality, did not exist here, the efficient management of the able superintendent could not pro- vide against the unfavorable climatic influences, and one year later the Germania Beet-Sugar Company finally succumbed, and its superintendent removed with some of the machinery of the late company to Black Hawk, Sauk County, Wisconsin, to join with the co-operative enterprise that had been started there a year before. But the lessons of experience appear to have been no guide, for this attempt was made, like the previous ones, in a section not provided with the principal requirements for successful work. The crop of 1870 partially failed through drought. The machinery for the utiliza- tion of what there was arrived late, and the ponds upon which the company relied for water supply dried up before all the roots were worked for sugar, and a portion was left to be fed to cattle. Though additions were made to the works during the following year by means of machinery brought from Ilinois and Fond-du-Lac, the result of 1871 does not seem to have been profitable, for since that time the enterprise has been so completely lost sight of that it is impossible to obtain any further inform- ation concerning it. The experiment at Fond-du-Lac, which, however, was not Jong continued, seems to have been the first to give unquestionably good results. It was started by two Germans, Messrs. Bonesteel and Otto, who organized a company with $12,000 capital, and though compelled, with their limited means, to work on a small scale, their success was such during the two years of existence of the enterprise as to attract the attention of capitalists on both sides of our continent, and they received an offer from Philadelphia of funds to carry on the work where they had so success- fully established it, and another from San Francisco to put them in charge of the works of the Alvarado Sugar Company, which had just been organized with a capital of $250,000, and, finding the latter offer the most tempting, they abandoned their works at Fond-du-Lae and migrated to the Pacific coast, where they managed to carry on the work with varying success until 1873, when it was reported that the company pro- posed removing to a more eligible locality. But it does not appear that this proposi- tion was carried out, for what reason we are not informed; though Mr. Otto, whowas then superintendent, and who, with his colleague in the Fond-du-Lac enterprise, Mr. Bonesteel, had become partners in this company, was shortly afterwards transferred to Soquel, in Santa Cruz County, where as late as 1876 the factory was reported as being in successful operation. The Alvarado Company struggled on until 1876, when drought having destroyed the crop so completely that there was no raw material for work in the factory in the ensuing winter, the company not having realized enough to enable them to carry over until the following season, failed financially, and perma- nently closed their operations. The Sacramento Valley Company was organized in 1869, and commenced extended op- erations in manufacture in 1870, and its existence was maintained until the close of 1875, when the machinery, which had cost $160,000 in Germany, was offered for sale at $45,000, and we have no information to the effect that it has been sold. Concerning the industry, a writer in the Alta California during 1869 says: ‘“ Something new and un- expected has revealed itself. In Europe the beet attains its maximum of sugar in the latest period of growth before the frost sets in. Here it has lost half its sugar in the last six weeks—last of October. The beets taken from the same soil and milled in December by Wadsworth, superintendent, had the full complement of sugar.” The Soquel factory soon followed the fate of the others, but causes of its failure have not been assigned. CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 169 The importance the manufacture attained in California is shown in the following statistics of beet sugar produced, published in 1874 by the State Agricultural Society: Pounds. | het es ce teenage’ wh Loeth daptpeinnclt eal trae as tedlaceapedy) ations, mabetn@ambesieec 8h 500, 000 co ns saci th ieabeprelniierrtieosereiacpgdnemcated patella anaiga paapeteliaes nie eee petien 88 800, 000 NP ee ets cece ces a ih tripellins ner neyisemetierapiraaiapritee fee ho 1, 125, 000 I nr OR ee te nes net aie ran tna oy waar canaeeaee 1, 500, 000 But nothwithstanding these figures, which are certainly flattering to the industry, there has not been a factory in operation in the State since 1876, and the capital in- vested in the manufacture, nearly one million dollars, has been a total loss, the causes of which may undoubtedly be traced to conditions determined in the department dur- ing the present year by the study of European history and practices to be manifestly unfavorable and decidedly deleterious to the successful prosecution of the industry. We refer more particularly to the meteorological conditions prevailing during the season of growth, which, as appears from the relations worked out, have a clearly defined influence for good or for evil, for success or failure, in the culture of the sugar beet, and it is an interesting fact to note that at none of the localities where the ex- periments made have been attended with failure are the prevailing meteorological conditions found within the limits determined to be favorable to or governing the ex- tension of successful culture. The experiments made up to this time received no aid or encouragement either from the State governments or from the general government, with the exception of the pro- vision that no machinery purchased abroad and imported for manufacture of sugar from the beet in this country should be subject to customs duty, and the limited assist-* ance given by the Department of Agriculture, in contributions of seed of the bet- ter varieties for experiment, and such information on the subject of the culture of the root and the manufacture of sugar as could be obtained by the means at hand; but this limited assistance was not of a character to produce any very marked effects. In 1870 to 1871 the States of New Jersey and Massachusetts made legislative pro- vision exempting from taxation for ten years from date all capital and property en- gaged in the beet-sugar industry, but no practical results seem to have followed this provision. In New Jersey, however, Mr. Joseph Wharton, of Camden, has during the past three years devoted a portion of his estate at Batsto to some very intelligent ex- periments in the culture, which, as regards the quantity of the product, have given unsatisfactory results, and only tend to show that the climatic conditions of the sec- tion, possibly combined with the light character of the soil, are not such as to render the permanent establishment of the industry in that locality possible. In 1876 the Canadian Government offered a premium of one cent per pound for all sugar manufactured from the beet-root, the total sum paid to any one individual com- pany or corporation not to exceed, however, $7,000 per annum. This premium stimulated the culture of the crop and the establishment of factories, which have continued in active and profitable operation. The State of Maine followed the worthy example of its near neighbor, and in the same substantial terms; the Forest City Sugar Refinery at Portland hastened to take advantage of the premium offered, and the experiment on a small scale in the manufacture, by the company, as had been the culture by the farmers in 1878, re- sulted in such brilliant success that the company have this year so enlarged the ca- pacity of their works as to enable them to work 150 tons of roots per day, and have secured from the farmers a crop from 1,250 acres of land. Their success has also ani- mated the people of Massachusetts, who have organized a company for work at the locality of Child’s experiment of 1838~39, at Northampton, Mass. In 1876 and 1877 Delaware appropriated $300, and in 1878~79 $1,500 to be expended in premiums, &c., to stimulate the culture, and the result has been the establishment of the Delaware Beet Sugar Company at Wilmington. 170 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. In California, also, interest in the industry has again been awakened through the in- strumentality of Mr. Th. Gennert, whose worthy enthusiasm led to the establishment of the enterprise in Canada and in Maine. The work is to be renewed at the factory of the former Alvarado Company, and Gennert’s scheme for drying the beets for preserva- tion and transportation, which was attended with such disastrous results at Chatsworth and in Maine. is to be tried once more. It is understood that Mr. Gennert is now in- terested in the Alvarado Company and expects to carry out his plan for drying the beet-roots, and, thus diminishing the cost of transportation, increase the profits of manufacture, in which we hope he may be successful. The culture of the beet has also been undertaken in Santa Clara County, where it is proposed to supply deficient moisture by irrigation, and to dry in open sunlight the roots, of which it is declared two crops can be produced in one year. Without wishing to discourage the enter- prise in any way, we may venture to express the hope that the promoters are acquainted with the experience of the growers of the south of France and Italy, as described by Gustave Heuzé in his work ‘‘ Les Plantes Fourragéres,” page 9, where he says: ‘‘The beet succeeds well in the cold climates of Europe. It will grow in southern countries, but it suffers there from heat or drought; its root remains small, green, and contains little sugar. An attempt was made to hasten its growth in Lombardy by frequent irrigation during the summer, but irrigation was fatal to it, and growers were forced to adopt other means to assure success.” We would also call attention to the fact that in Algeria where the enterprise of pre- paring beets for preservation and transportation by drying in open sunlight, the suc- cess, if any was obtained, has not appeared worthy of record. Besides the arrangements that have been made for the production of sugar from the beet at the different places mentioned active interest has been awakened elsewhere, particularly at Baltimore, Md., Chester, Pa., and at various localities in New York, but these movements have not yet assumed definite shape, APPENDIX C. PRELIMINARY REPORT UPON THE CONDITION OF THE CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET NEAR PORTLAND, ME. WASHINGTON, D. C., October 5, 1879. Srr: In accordance with your instructions of August 26, I proceeded to Portland, Me., and made examination of the condition of the culture of the sugar beet in that vicinity, and have the honor herewith to submit a preliminary report upon that sub- ject. On the return of circulars which have been distributed among the farmers grow- ing beets for the Maine Beet Sugar Company a more detailed report will be made. Very respectfully, Hon. Wn. G. LEDUC, Commissioner of Agriculture. WM. McMURTRIE. PRELIMINARY REPORT. The inauguration of the enterprise of growing beets for the production of sugar in the vicinity of Portland, Me., occurred in the spring of 1878 under the influence of the Maine Beet Sugar Company, which issued notice of organization on April 23, and was granted a charter by the State legislature May 11. The plan of the company was to secure a limited crop in 1878, and work it with as inexpensive apparatus as could be procured and made effective to be used in connec- tion with the Forest City Sugar Refinery. The German idea which has governed former experiments of this kind in this country, that of purchasing for the company a quantity of land sufficient to furnish the necessary supplies for a factory, was consid- ered impracticable, and they determined to depend upon contracts to be made with the farmers for their supplies, and though the enterprise is a new one to the farmers large numbers appear to have been willing to cultivate small areas, but on account of an unfortunate delay in securing the seed for distribution (it had been ordered in Germany) and the consequent very late planting the crop was not a good one, and, therefore, not very profitable to the growers, and only about 1,000 tons were obtained to be worked up in the factory last year. The company suffered another discouraging experience in the way of the mode adopted for the preservation of the roots for work- ing late in the season. The method proposed was to slice the roots and dry them, and by this means it was expected that larger quantities could be obtained from the fact that they could be transported greater distances, but the experiment resulted in dis- astrous failure. The drying oven experimented with was estimated to cost $800, but actually cost $5,000. It was stated to have a capacity of 25 tons per day and would dry but 7 tons, and the cost of working was about $6.50 per ton. The experiment was made in the Aroostook upon 500 tons of roots under the most favorable conditions, proving conclusively that the method is too costly to be employed for the purpose. Besides the cost involved in drying the roots, it was found more difficult to extract the sugar from the dried slices in the factory than from the roots worked in the green state. But after all these discouraging circumstances the results obtained in the factory did much to counterbalance them. The roots produced and delivered, contained an average of 12} per cent. of sugar and yielded nearly 10 per cent., in the extraction, of sugar of good grade, convincing the company that good roots could be produced, 171 172 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. and that if sufficient quantity could be obtained for work in the factory the enter- prise could be carried on with profit to all concerned. They, therefore, proceeded to make arrangements for securing the machinery and apparatus necessary for work- ing 150 tons of roots in 24 hours, and roots sufficient to supply a factory of this capacity. The process for extraction adopted is Robert’s diffusion process, for which the apparatus of the most approved patterns, and with the latest improvements, was purchased at Halle inGermany. The works are adapted to the extensive buildings of the Forest City Sugar Refinery, and the glass-house adjoining, and will be ready for active work by the middle of October. It was proposed to make use of the vaults of the glass-house as a place for storage of roots during the winter, but upon later con- sideration, this, it was thought, would be found impracticable on account of the danger of collecting too large a quantity of roots in a single mass, and subjecting them in this way to the possibilities of heating, sprouting, or decay, and consequent loss in their sugar content. Arrangements will, therefore, be made with the farmers for storing the roots in trenches and delivering them as they may be needed. As before stated, the German method for obtaining supplies, that of purchasing large areas of ground to be devoted to the culture, was considered impracticable on account of the large investment of capital involved, and the method followed by the French, though somewhat modified, has been adopted. The company appointed agents to call upon the farmers and make contracts with them for the roots produced on a given area, to be delivered either at the factory or the nearest shipping point. In this way contracts were made with about 1,700 farmers for the roots of 1,250 acres of land. When the agent of the company made the contract he delivered to the farmer the quantity of seed desired, to be paid for in the fall in beets from the crop produced. The following are the forms of contracts employed in all the dealings with the farmers: P. O., ME., —, 1879. I agree to raise for the Maine Beet Sugar Company —— acre- of sugar-beets from seed furnished by them, and to deliver the beets next fall on the cars at rail- road station for five dbittars per ton of 2,240 pounds of unwashed dass as they come from the field. [George S. Hunt, president; Henry B. Blackwell, treasurer; Ernest Th. Gennert, secretary and gen- eral superintendent. } Orrick MAINE BEET SUGAR COMPANY, Portiund, Me., —, 1879. We agree to buy of all the sugar-beets raised by him on —— acre~ from seed furnished by us, and to pay for the beets cash on delivery on the cars at railroad station next fall, five dollars per ton of 2,240 pounds of unwashed beets as they come from the field. MAINE BEET SUGAR COMPANY, Per , Agent. $—.] P. O., ME., —, 1879. For value received in sugar-beet seed, I promise to pay the Maine Beet Sugar Com- pany, or order, in October next, dollars and — cents in cash, or in sugar beets at the rate of five dollars per ton of 2,240 pounds of unwashed beets delivered on the cars at railroad station. The company agreed to pay $5 per ton for the roots delivered at the nearest shipping point (railroad station or wharf), and made arrangements with the freight agents at different points to receive, acknowledge, and forward the roots to the factory. If they be delivered by the farmer directly to the factory, the price paid is $6 perton. The quantity delivered directly will, however, be small. The companies governing the CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 173 railroads centering in Portland allow very generous terms for transportation of the roots, and for any distance not exceeding 50 miles the rates are 50 cents per ton; while for distances of over 50 miles, and not exceeding 110 miles, the rates are 80 cents per ton. This admits of obtaining roots from very.long distances, and they have this year been grown in small crops in the entire section extending from Farmington on the north to Haverhill, Mass., on the south, and from Orono on the east to Concord on the west. The pulp will be carried back to the farmers at the same rates for freight, and will be sold to the producers of roots at $1 per ton, which will afford them a cheap source of valuable cattle food. In order that the farmers with whom contracts for roots were made might .be in- structed as to the methods of culture to be followed, the agents of the company de- livered to each one, and to all others who might desire them, copies of the following circular: HOW TO RAISE SUGAR BEETS. PORTLAND, March 31, 1879. To-the farmers of Maine: The Maine Beet Sugar Company is now ready to contract with farmers to supply them with genuine sugar-beet seed, and to pay them $5 per ton for the crop of beets, eash, on delivery at the nearest railroad station, or $6 perton, cash, on delivery at the Forest City Sugar Refinery in Portland, either by wagon or vessel. The seed will cost 20 cents per pound, payable next fall in cash or beets. Fourteen pounds of seed will plant one acre. Almost every farmer has raised beets, or mangel-wurzels, which require similar cul- tivation. In order to get a good crop, say 20 tons or more per acre, the needful con- ditions are, early planting, good manuring, deep plowing, thorough harrowing, plenty of seed, timely thinning-out, careful hoeing and weeding. With these seven conditions, a good crop is certain. We will name some of the farmers, among many others who raised satisfactory crops of beets from our seed last year: Tons per acre. DMR MEI PMECIOIG 5523. 34- ba nol ood Seip ada-Heit= 13-b sant ye eee 20 Iza, X... Getehell, North Vassalhorough..;. 22: <4 ne 0s - -s55h-d ned nea -ieanewnecee 20 Senne 2 eeerin. Cn DETIANG -. - _ she eee ee ERE EOIN TOI aS p55 of yt 4 gyi ah er inp 3013- sneoll at aap eer 40 eee AN ASU Wp oe tn a halo la crs nig ~ serep ge salen ... 05 s- cee eee none = Harrowing and rolling -..-.....---------+------------ Marking and planting. -...-...--..------------------- First weeding and thinning -..-.--.........-.---------- First hoeing or cultivating--...-....-.....-.------------ Second hoeing or cultivating --.--..----.----.-------- Third hoeing or cultivating. --.............------.2.--- Pulling and topping, or harvesting. ........-.-------. Delivering at place of sale. .-..-.---.-...-..---------- cords stable manure, at pounds artificial manure, at Other operations of culture. .-..-.....---.--..--------- SUTRA TI DGD TE Pi as ee eae Quantity of product per acre tons, at ae Name of grower, ——-; town, ———;; county, ———;; State, ———. Of this circular over 1,300 copies were distributed to addresses furnished by the Maine Sugar Beet Company, and the number returned-with replies worthy of being entered in our record did not exceed 200. The information thus received has been arranged in the following tables. The table A is intended for detailed record, and the table B is a condensation for more convenient reference and study of the principal conditions of the culture and the results obtained. 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AF | |i orsoeereowsos 10} JOd Ze |"""""°*** 10} JOd 87190 09 |*""~ “==> 70} dod gyU0d OT [7 §SUMOATLOP JO 80D 4 ALopous ‘soyyur p |" "*"WOT}eys ULOTT SOTTO g | 1,478 P,TTPwA WLOTF OTTUT g |****7 TTT TTT GOTT FZ [nn javy a {spor og | 10 ‘FavyA ‘aorye}s wOAy Cord Jo oowLySTC. *OIg |" 7 "0108 a0d gg Jo OYeA YW ‘ogra "9108 Sie'sie seen STOTT OTL KWE lee ee es cinpsheer ane ial fol rrreesee** gspunod 0pz'z |""por Jaoj aod syuoo §fap | ~~" ~~ sreceeesscreesss= 1 M9001 JO U0} 10g PS acon w SS ONOB KL day |r” mislas inselnyen ees Se Gg | == og'yd |* 7777 "4oa0e dod SuTysoAIvy JO 4800 [BIO pibosieisiois man RY Mee Ker mah eins | ra em E eee © STEN |>e *'0/ein/* @rinleis anin= ie PSR Pee niente PS eee j kup aod coaoqny youo £q poddoy Aqryuune j OFlUDy TYLAL 40 pang aides 15, 10 S| ae ela en staid 7° heli 1: le eae a Aq ‘sdo} 10 Save, HULAOMOL JO OPOTL smwncccenacccccenacncernsr|scovesecoserorccen: QIOB Fe |-""°°°°°""- SNOT OLVNDE OT |" seeeeeess gio Ht |-- "5 Aup sed bia ape aka “pueq Ag VebithwweWamevens pus Ag seem e enw newne puvyy ee er puvy eee er puvyT “uy TTA 10 pussy &q ‘Suypud jo Opoyt seeeeeeleee srreees- 4 Krojovy ony ye dnd Jo oor * eit) CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET, 186 “Sareoy pz 98 pouuryy, "ph oT ANE "of ‘ pauuryy pues peoy ‘ounr jo ysvT “Aep rod $399 08 “Spot OT ‘o1ov § sod FH *puey Ag ‘Lounge ‘of ‘IOZTTIJ.AOT eSpraqyoojg spunod 00% 481g 4 o10B od sp109 0g “QOT$ 3800 80K “SoTOUT OT 0} 8 *SOTOUT 0G ‘orov § aod p$ ‘puvy Ag "g pue F AvTT ‘ore rod 1$ {poysniq pue pamolieyT ‘ON ‘oro rod ef “BOTOUL ZT 3 AVI 09'e *SaTOUL OT "83 [dy *S90}UJOT 9100 $ *[Banyw NT ‘sO *JOATIN puryd 08 2 ‘spunod $f *poos qooq-1v0ng “Or verses" gh qgoo fog oun ---+*--ehagsoo fT ysnsny ----parvoqg pus Avp aod 1¢ spor orenbs cz aomncopdhersebe eee es one (Oa LUE a “ase pus seyse ‘puevy Aq ‘tT Aine PEERS Sssser see 80K. ss2+*-*- g10@ $ 09 SP100 9 *---=- ginuvar pavé-MIeg GOQOTOG 109190 WOT} 4OOF T Brae ae -*->*"S9T0UI GZ ee 0g'2% ISIE II LUCA MNS | DSI ITO OR IOI (eh b Arh TES dala we eeeee Ng ed 03'FS “qooy [ !MOLIN UT OOTALT, ee c Av “9r0zoq sivok Zz ‘8007730 ZEUS, peaeo g socnnod feos ess sous POOL See = alee pt OE Sten oe ei ALCS pur ArIO pt ogee “= * puvl MoT SSSooe eee 08's pieaes fae ichanigs -spunod tL Rs pee cen crees QOURIIT Ce eae qooq-avong +++++ 2g foump Jo OTPpPHT s=2++---7h £99 07 cg OUNL SASSO SCA IN Va yeralal gi See oes 9.108 JO ¥ See a cee eeencee- at ce rceeereress od ‘; qQuoM 10 Avp Aq ‘s1o1ogey JO SADB AY ---- ¢ kep dad ro10qry youoe Aq pooy voty i na qsay JO 80D -* qt oqizosep ‘pesn yuoureydurt jeroods Jy -+-7*) j JoywaTNO os1oy to puvy Aq ouod jSULOY 4ysay JO OUILT, --49800 fTonm Moy {yuTTA f MOT, ‘TOT A j porjdde ornueld [BIOYT4yIT 8B AA --;o20¥ rod Aqruenb yey UT pus ‘Toy A , sdo.10 oy 03 pordde ormuvor o[(248 SB AA seestess=""3 S100T OY} TOOMJOY GULISTT SC SSAIADEACE {SMO 04] TA9MJoOd OOULASTCT * sinimicininiaisisiee = in.nis,oin/-I-neiig Sanurtd jo ys0p b rretteses sp TTtIp ro puvy Aq—jo poqwon * scegeaescese yee sssssc <9 ,o1ep ‘Suyurlg ‘otaes JO 4800 puUB ‘[LOs OT} jo worvavdoid jo suoryeaedo 10430 OJ0N jours jo yydoq -----2--4 poXopdure SurMoyd TLosqns 8B AA joules Jo 980 jours jo yadoq se.sinie soeeeeres- Surmoyd puooes Jo OMLy, aesees troreeeess 9r0R Zod ‘euUs JO SOD jours yo qydoq saisisis srreerccesoos SuoTMOTd JSG JO OUTT, * ------ pavoX snoraoad pury eures uo do) j8]90q avsns ur poured vory -=** ;]BIOYIJAV IO [VANYVU OSVUIVIp OY} ST jpourearp [[OM 4t ST j WIBOT[ 10 ‘oqvqs ‘Kuqo ‘otoysounry ‘pues qlos anoX ST “*7") PUBLAOT Lo puvydn ‘ploy Jo WorywoorT pins) sia.si=)Sisinisia ---; 9208 rod UMOS Aqyyuen(y Z9UIVS JO DDILOG SOO SICILY ICC ----;AOS pods Jo PUL 9 “GE is ie GE ‘TE “08 “63 “83 ,oUINs JO yS0Q "NE ‘ % a Baoae srerereeneeccccroroee KINA JO IOQUINNT 187 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET, *£IOATLOP JO 4809 Surpnypour 4oNy J "s}OTSNG 00Z “BPUSNG OF "8U0} 0G “00Ts ¥'SS'Sth x GZd «'08'39$ “of 10} 10d 83099 G) “SOTLUI Z "8099 OF "8 *SU07 “OFTU, TILMAN "910v ¥ “pury Ag "ST 1940}90 “puvy WoT} ‘ooy 4sITT *OINULUL O[ VIS FUTPNOUL FONT » oe a a | Nt ISIN (la AH If OCH COO a ey ise eae SlOusho fsoozejod JO ot) Ce er a eee ee er See ee ey ee gn oe OID OS se tteeeereereeees Opies retttesceeeeseeeeo-S1109 9 eter eters ter ea 2p rebaeeaarenyadaea dd pee oe OL OU 82 sceeseEse™ OTOU 100 GL yia ee ee ee rs ee ee ee ee ll de ee ed ee eee eee es ee ee) Pe i semen e ee reeseeerccewneseeslscc meer eesces ase seseccswes|sece we eees se ssesseseessces AmB Oe eee rea weesaraesanseen|sbeeaweseneseessesseseseer|encssaseesseseseassecessees Sewers w eens wens rw enesaseslasesamassrsssesesesesasaanlesewoseeessteeuaeestssasece wee ew eww eee ewe SO Oe a Oy tii Gt 08TH i ee a Roe eee emma TON Te teem ween ee ee ee a 2 meee eww eww www nne ed ee es ee. ns ld ee ee eee eee ee ee ee 2 eas "7" " TOYJVOM ULICM T90Q, A eh ea a ath SE “12)y, ‘osnoy -Ivsns ye porsarjep ‘gf “se**""*"7109 JOd 8}U99 G), "tort Tts-soprur ¢7 oe eee ree arene TI) ARGC. 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Poo oe eae ge GLI “UOATS OFBUIIISO ONT |*>- >>> >> (AUS (OC) GM hel halide Gea eee OCCU) =<=-=s= = —=iOUNie |e sonora se Cech ep la ssa Sart SSULE) Perms erste Osa s uvoy Avo | $1 FLT Oreos O0KO9 a (ecb. \aizse: Botts (uSUE |=95==- PE) Wc) Gi ba ce Oe ese nd0e, |? =sso* sess (nee ESS hemi Oh cies (oe “ss uvOTy | FL | SLT uo} ted 9$ | 09 TOT | 00 24 | 2k [777 (FAA Gt ia eI oes GT oun: |*====5| Sr BR TAQER Gun o> Pree aes OD en lemeae 01 ~--uIvol AvTO | &T SLT GZ 0S | 00 0F | 8 Bea es Cy gielenalfe | A Avy Jo ysevy |7777 7 P (y ANG iitd (pepe Spooq ‘suwog |------ (Rese ee eam | |e ieee POUCH aaa TAT 103 zed 9¢ | 08 62 | 008 | LE [7777 TT” 0g oung |----------- or Avy | 002 | 8 ACOs |Ps2 2225s" se0twIem |g [57525 g |" wroy Apueg | $T | OAT CRE OV en KCOLOD ss Holian a2 sauee case pecs [7s tess pag Liat oor | 9 ObAO ya ese smog ‘WI0D | 9-G |---"~ G |'"""oUO\somLy | FT | GOT OSETODE NOOUOGIN etae c\sneeessnaes cy eung |------ sayy jogs | "777/06 8 S08 |S uLoy | 8 isheny testes Tales wo, Apuvg | pL | 891 0€ GBT | 00 0OL | 0B [77777777777 TOMES ane sas == ot Sem | 009 | 9t | 8 AQ 8T 77°" Misaki, WI0Q | OT [7777 Bs ies Apuwg | #1 | LOT OoeeR 001g). nop | (tess 2tsss OPARW, | ss""*-=" ee qed .|=72--*|<8 g 4q oe |-""" eseqqeo ‘UI0D | ZL |" -" OLSRh Cet op" g 99T tees atte ca Bae a | he | OrsACrAp |F-"""5° woo werpuy | hj 9 |--- wo, Apug | cr | SOT Jo yuM000B TO 4oOF € | OS BSH | GL Ech EOL |---° 7-7" -" OB OUNE |------- ~--- og key | OOF | F g Aq 0g |--"--" SEVIS YSIVPL |----77|"7-- 7 @r | > UeoT AvIQ | HL | F9T *SUOT, ‘SQT \Sp1oQ| “sayouy *YouUy \youry | your ie < re b> 2) nD Mm} mM ty rm | tA e| & | 8 A | El eee | 2 aE Bl aae Bua ale: oe B | & e | “‘gYIVULO 8 a BF ® “Sur 3 d * ES ey} doz snoracig E TSP % | 9 S +° E : ‘supuerd Jo omy, : I ¢ gel iee i) 3 g E B eoy 481 JO CUNT, 3 5 ce 2 © | -omn gern jo dojyovrvyD 2 g a SS) ; 5 a 3 s a ct © 4 x = ; Sil oe ‘Suraod Jo yydoq a bar} oO far) by *ponur}aoO—aNT VIA ‘ponurym0g9—oxy ‘GNVIONT MUN NI LAGG-YVNAS AHL AO AYNLTINO AO SNOLLIGNOO 40 AWASTA 269 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET, OB Set Oeay ~ sgh lige se" "=" SOL SUR BS? == PCCM cco mes mes TL Avy | 00F | 8 Si AGNae: es eo ee eee L GE Blea oell oe urvoy Apueg peas OOROCR FEC aes eumennee a OROUN Cu oat aera ArT OOO) tes =|) 21 “so0jzeyod ‘asuqqey | 6 6 "Trot siss** ULBOT PUBG O€ SITS] 00 O8T$] 96 [~~ TE oumg fos ao Avy jo" 8 aI Aq 0@ |--~ saoqeqgod ATaegy |--*--- Cs SSS ae weo'T ‘SLLASQHOVSSVW $b9b 10006 | SE |tt77tt77777° OEIC a el er Av | 008 | ¢ ot Aq er [7-77 sdruim ‘syoog | #L | FE fot urvot ket 08 8004] OOROH: [s80> et see eases oT lee aaa er Ave | 008 | OF =| 8 Aq 0g Jr-r7 renee Ope 2 i le a ala UIvoy Apu OX 86 J |SO0R00 TF OCR: | ements sae eaeie etna cae ae or AvW | 002 | 8 9 4q.qB [8524 “*"° 10D | L ire [ae ae oe WLBO'T 8:98 ~)OONORE OL. Ie a ae ae SCeUR( a: "a" *s"* Teun |--"--- 9 og Aq og |°7""* WI00 ‘sa0}uIOg |-*~-~* "a ala fe wavy Avy) 0G 6L$ | 00 OS$ | OL fr---- 9 Sey [--------* or AUT | 008 |°-"* "8 RRR eo ares Be@eda| se =) 0 lo" " |" weol Apurg RAM HO ra OO SHAG ‘“AUTHSHNVH MAN 270 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. The facts given in the above table are well worthy of consideration by those inter- ested in this important subject. It must be remembered that in many cases no care- ful record was kept by the farmer, and the figures given are taken from memory}; but they are important for the determination of the value of the culture in the section for which they are made, and we therefore feel justified in offering the following observa- tions concerning them. With very few exceptions the character of the soil as regards natural physical con- dition was, for the crops reported, favorable to a good yield both as to quantity and quality, but there were, as may be seen by reference to the table, but few cases in which it received any preparation by plowing in the previous fall. It is true that here the prevailing crops in advance of the beets were plowed ones, which reduced the absolute necessity for fall plowing, and even for more than one plowing in spring, and we find that this was all that was given in a large number of cases. While the depth of plowing was not as great as is generally recommended by Euro- pean beet-growers, this may have been limited to a considerable extent by the thick- ness of the stratum of surface soil which long continued root culture would modify for good. Yet we find scarcely any mention of subsoil plowing, so well known to much more than repay the cost of its application, especially in the culture of root crops, that must take their nourishment through the medium of long-tap roots, and should therefore find no obstacle to their development. The chemical character of the soil was in all cases greatly stimulated by the application of natural and artificial ma- nures; but we see by comparison of the figures given in the table, and the results of French practices, showing the requirements of the average crop, that the quantities applied were extravagantly large, and were sufficient in many cases to have an in- jurious influence upon the crop. It appears that it would be of greater advantage to the grower to apply the stable manure to a previous crop—say corn or potatoes—and follow these crops by beets, with no application of stable manure, and with a limited application of artificial fertilizer consisting of— Five parts superphosphate of lime. Two parts nitrate of soda (Chili saltpeter). One part muriate of potash* (kainit). Two parts land plaster. Of this mixture applied in the row at time of planting 300 pounds per acre would be sufficient for the demands of the crop, if it followed corn, otherwise 500 pounds should be applied. Such a system of manuring would be quite as favorable to the beet crop, as to quan- tity, as that which appears to have been generally followed, and would be much bet- ter for the quality of the crop for sugar extraction. At the same time it would largely reduce the immediate cost of the beet crop and increase to a marked extent the value of the corn or potato crop. The large cost of the culture of the sugar beet in Maine as shown in the last column of the table would thus be reduced in many cases more than one-half, and the probability is strong that if thissystem be combined with other changes in the system followed last year, that we shall mention further on, the quan- tity of the crop would be even greater. If, however, it be the desire of the grower to make an application'of stable manure, it should be done in the fall, and the ma- nure should in all cases be thoroughly well rotted, and should be well plowed in. The quantity applied should not exceed five or six cords. Now as to planting and culture. The quantity of seed recommended and offered by the company was 14 pounds per acre, but we find that a large proportion of the growers made use of a much smaller quantity than this; many times less than one half, and while such practice was not always followed by unfortunate results, it may be said that it must be attended with great care on the part of the planter to avoid the existence of bare spots in the field. It is much better to be called upon to remove * Or of sulphate of potash. CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 271 extra plants than to replace wanting ones by transplanting, and while in careful hands no bad results will follow the use of the smaller quantity of seed yet it is more probable that the larger quantity recommended will give in all hands far better results. The distances between: the rows and roots adopted may in general be subject to improvement. The most successful culture in Europe has proven that with horse cult- ure the distance between the rows may be with advantage reduced to 18 inches, and in many cases 14 inches has been the distance adopted. The distance between the roots in the rows has also been reduced to about 7 inches. This increases the number of roots per acre to nearly double that which can be obtained with the separation indicated in the tables here given, and improves the quality of the root for sugar production. While the weight of each root will be smaller in such cases,* the ultimate quantity of the crop grown has in France been found to be from 50 to 100 per cent. greater than that obtained by wider separation of the roots. We may therefore confidently assert that if the separation of the roots in the crops of 1879 in Maine had been reduced to 18 by 7 inches, the profit from the crop would have been materially increased. That the failure of some of the crops must be referred entirely to the conditions of soil and culture, and not to the existing meteorological conditions is shown by the very favorable indications concerning the latter given in the following statement with which we have been favored by the Chief Signal Officer of the United States Army. Statement showing the mean temperature, relative humidity, amount of precipitation, and number of rainy days for each month of the year 1879 at Portland, Me., Eastport, Me., Burlington, Vt., and Boston, Mass., as recorded at the stations of observation of the Signal Service, United States Army, at those places. [Compiled from the records on file at the Office of the Chief Signal Officer, United States Army, Wash- ington, D. C.] Portland, Me. Eastport, Me. . ® pb . . i g iS Eee altelindl oe & igi is Months. heir soonedion tf tae 8) (AB col Oa eee aa Bs g os |Se| Es | on Sa pie A 8 |32| #8 5 238 Bm qa” = fa | 20 +7 da, | as i : Hl ical ae oe a | ge | & 5 Buia cope chs ~ Oa oe 1879, Degrees. | Per cent.| Inches. Degrees. | Per cent. pir” PANUAEVR ees = Wece= cas ace : 5 2.3 9 1.65 16 GUGM eases cies «none a 24.9 72.6 3. 80 17 21. 6 75.7 3. 39 14 March ete wien aes e=4 s< 34.0 73.4 4.42 19 29.9 76.5 3.77 21 2 3-6 oe eae 42.6] ° 63.0 3. 68 14 37.5 68. 6 3.95 15 BY? iene eke vee oe 57.7 66. 4 88 11 47.2 76.2 3.18 14 JUTE S225 == 5S eee 61.8 73.8 6. 61 16 53. 2 77.3 3. 42 17 SLY). oweeememe es acet cee 68. 0 70.3 3. 80 16 60. 2 76.1 5. 57 16 PARCUSE cacitene dee 455552554 63. 9 70.2 3.73 9 59. 4 77.5 3. 66 12 RERLOMDOE Se racec ences sess 59. 9 76.3 2. 67 8 55.1 81.2 3. 42 16 Menroper: -'.6-Gss2cn ste 82: 55. 6 64.2 1. 43 10 49, 2 69.1 3. 28 10 BNiryem DOP -<<225505 205 2-H 3s 38.5 70.7 4.90 17 34.9 75.3 4. 52 16 POGCOMDOSN. <.cccs wes ae= oon: 29. 2 68. 0 3.39 19 23.9 76.7 3. 67 16 * This would admit of 49,760 rvots per acre, or with an average of 1 pound for each root, a yield of about 22 tons. 2i2 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. Statement showing the mean temperature, §c.—Continued. Burlington, Vt. Boston, Mass. 8 a e) eB Fs ; r) be ~ 3 EI Ag | 3 P z Ad | @ Months. a 5 a 9 i =e _ a Keay EI oO eI os oD | oO 3 os oa +3 A eS |ae| #3 A 48 By a> Fl a= = a a Bi = Be | 2 epee ge a a q a | a 4 A Degrees. | Per cent.| Inches. Degrees. | Per cent.| Inches. 16. 6 73.1 .78 17 24.5 62. 6 2.79 16. 2 72.1 BAG 17 24.5 66. 1 4.35 16 28.4 69. 0 1.45 17 33. 8 73.7 3.90 16 39.7 57.9 97 15 42.4 61.1 6. 54 16 61.1 52.9 38 8 59. 4 61.8 97 13 62. 8 68. 0 4, 52 17 64. 2 70.1 6. 24 20 70.3 63.3 2.71 19 69. 9 69. 2 3. 09 12 67.0 69. 3 2.39 11 67.7 73.1 6. 71 12 59. 1 66. 9 2. 82 16 60. 8 73. 2 1. 84 12 October s 27a teeses-2 se2eee 54.7 64.7 1.36 11 56. 6 64.7 91 8 November: 225. 0 cescee weds 35. 0 73.7 3. 56 24 39. 2 71.5 2.97 17 December: 2 = > -csmass- 4.05 23. 6 74.6 2. 22 26 32.6 68.3 5. 36 20 ROBERT CRAIG, Ticutenant, A. S. O., and Assistant. WAR DEPARTMENT, OFFICE OF CHIEF SIGNAL OFFICER, Washington, D. O., February 2, 1880. We see here that the meteorological conditions in New England during the past year have been eminently favorable to beet-root culture either as regards temperature, the number of rainy days, or the amount of precipitation or rainfall. . Some complaints have been expressed in the replies to our circulars concerning the effect of dry weather during the latter part of August, but the above table shows that this was not sufficient to produce any marked reduction in the quantity of the crop. And an examination of the records of the averages of meteorological conditions made up from those of a series of years show, that for New England they compare more closely with those of the beet-growing districts of Europe than for any other section of the United States. So far as the initial conditions of the culture are concerned, therefore, that is, the physical character of the soil and climatic conditions, two great factors upon which success in the work depends, the farmers of New England have little to contend against. The depth of the surface soil may not be as great as that required by the crop, but this will be improved each year that the culture is followed, not only to the advantage of the beet crop but to other crops as well. In fact, here as elsewhere, the improvement of this culture will react to the advantage of all other cultures accom- panying it. We would also call attention to the estimates of cost of the different operations of culture. In the majority of cases the cost of plowing is estimated at over $4 per acre, and in many cases it is even placed at $8 and above. And these are the figures given for the first and second plowing of sandy soil or a sandy loam in the spring following a plowed crop. They therefore appear entirely too high. Good authorities on the sub- ject in New England and in other parts of the United States place the cost of this operation below $3, and this might be considered a high average for all soils; and in- many sections this is the average contract price for such work. Again we find a large number of estimates for cost of planting placed at $4, $5, and $6. Others are placed at from 75 cents to $2 per acre. Is it not more probable that the latter, all things considered, are nearest the actual cost of the work? Mr. Harris, president of the Maine State Board of Agriculture, estimates cost of marking and plant- ing at $1 per acre; and Mr. Hays, of Portsmouth, N. H., places cost of planting at 50 cents per acre. These gentlemen manage extensive farms; they keep close accounts of CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. Zito expenditures and are therefore in position to judge of this and other items of cost in ~ the culture. If the estimates found in the replies to our circulars, for the cost of other operations involved in the culture are made upon the same basis, in the cases where they are very high, such as $7 to $10 per acre for hoeing, for instance, it is easy to be seen how, even with the heavy applications of manure that have been made, the fig- ures of the estimates given in the last column of our table may frequently be reduced to such an extent as to show a handsome balance of profit to the farmer. Again, the estimates for the actual value of the stable manure will seem, in very many cases, to be abnormal. It is true that if it be necessary to purchase it from the stables of the town or village, the prices given, $5 and $6 per cord, are what must be paid. But it can scarcely be reasonably asserted that it will cost anything like this figure to produce it on the farm, and even half the amount named might be considered sufficiently high. With the criticisms we have made upon the methods of culture followed, as indi- cated in the replies to the questions of our circular, we leave it to the readers of this report to make their own estimates of the cost of the various operations involved, and we venture the assertion that in almost every case in which an estimate is based upon the suggestions we have given and the system of manuring we have recommended, the total cost will fall below the amounts of value of crop of the past year as given in our table; and, where there is any exception to this fact, the cause thereof may generally be traced to some preventable deficiency in the quality of the soil or its preparation, the quantity of seed sown, or the operations of culture. Another valuable item of profit to be set opposite the account of cost of the various operations of culture is to be found in the favorable condition in which these opera- tions by their thoroughness leave the soil for subsequent crops. It must also be ob- served that an average crop of sugar beets, say 15 tons per acre, will provide for the grower a quantity of pulp, resulting from the extraction of sugar, equivalent in feed- ing value to something over one ton of good meadow hay, which is about the quantity of the average hay crop in New England. It will therefore appear that, notwithstanding the many unfortunate results of the past year’s experience as to expense, the prospects for the future are by no means dis- couraging. At the bottom of Table A we have brought together the figures showing the comparative cost of culture of beets, corn, and potatoes. In some cases the figures for cost of beets are higher than was reported by the grower, because the latter evi- dently omitted to include the cost of the stable manure applied, and this was added in making up our estimates.* It is a question whether something should not be added to the cost of culture of the other crops also on this account. Yet where we take the figures given, that is for the cost of simple cultural operations, it appears that the same complaint can be advanced against other crops as against the beet crop, for in the large majority of cases the margin for profit is small for all the crops, the princi- pal advantage being in favor of potatoes first and then beets. But it remains to be seen whether in coming years, with improved methods of culture, this order of things will not be subject to change. Tuere is still another consideration to which we would call the attention of the farmers of Maine on account of the many statements we have received to the effect that they could better afford to feed their roots to cattle than to sell them to the sugar company at $5 per ton. It is a fact proven by an infinite number of analyses that the pulps from the factory are really of almost as great value for feeding as the roots them- selves, and the latter can be purchased from the factory at Portland at the compara- tively low rate of $1 per ton. How much better, therefore, to make the exchange with a clear profit. For the information of the farmers who have been the authors of the * Where the farmer footed up the estimates himself, leaving cost of stable manure out of account, his figures were accepted and entered into this column; otherwise, the cost of stable manure was included at a valuation of $3 or $5 per cord, according to the value most frequently given for the locality. 18 SB 274 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. complaints, we have collected below a statement showing the comparative composition of the different products. / 4 Percentage composition of dry matter. ®. és f ] ; Se | 3 aR | 38 = q a og og 6 PB H A A 2 He nD a oo Ob ° os 2a + on os 2 gk S os oR 3 AE | se | 8 | be ee 3 sa | 2 > | ABS] aoe | © : fu tc} S ako! dado EB | o a=] a oor oae 3 Q Ay a Fy A A Fa 4 Suvanbechinsss- + se eseneteaeeacee eee acca 17. 75 5. 52 .56 | 81.54} 82.10 7. 54 4, 84 Diffusion pulp (fresh) .......--.------------ 7.14 8. 28 1.12] 56.05 | 57.17 |. 24.02] 10.35 Diffusion pulp, pressed...........----.----- 11. 92 8. 13 1.00] 61.42) 61.42] 19.54] 10.91 Pal p toni presses a eee setae eee ete =r ere 28, 23 6. 70 1.48 | 61.11 | 62.59) 19.79) 10.86 Concerning the saccharine value of each crop, which would have been of great value for comparison with the yield and the other operations of culture, etc., it was impos- sible to get complete information. The farmers had no means for its determination, and really little interest in it, and the sugar company made only a limited number of tests. In fact, a greater number than they made would have been impracticable, on account of the manner in which the roots were received at the works. The average value of this year’s crop is given in the following statement received from the com- pany: ‘‘ You ask for information as to the percentage of sugar in each particular lot of beets raised for this company. No such analysis has been or could be made. We have re- ceived beets from 1,500 farmers delivered at 147 railroad stations as well as at our works here in Portland by wagons and vessels. These crops aggregated 9,000 tons. We made, perhaps, 100 polarizations during our working season of 75 days, but not with reference to any special érop or locality. The average yield was 10 per cent. of fillmasse, or to speak more accurately, 93 per cent. of fiillmasse (masse-cuite). The beets polarized from 9 to 13 per cent. according to size, quality, etc. We distributed two kinds of seed: the German Imperial seed bought from Ferdinand Knauer, of Grobers, Prussia, and the Collet rose or red top, bought of Vilmorin & Co., of Paris, France. The German or white variety was richer in sugar by 1 per cent. than the French or red variety; but the French variety gave somewhat larger crops.” Respectfully submitted, WM. McMURTRIE. Hon. Wo. G. LE Duc, Commissioner of Agriculture. APE ENDTX. fi POINTS FOR CONSIDERATION WITH REGARD TO THE INTRODUCTION OF THE SUGAR-BEET AND THE MANUFACTURE OF BEET-SUGAR IN THE NORTHWEST AS COMPARED WITH THE BEET-SUGAR PRODUCING COUNTRIES OF EUROPE. By J. D. FREDERICKSEN. 1. Climate.—In Europe the northern part of the temperate zone affords the most favorable conditions for the growth of the sugar-beet and the development of a pure juice from which the sugar is easily extracted. The northern part of Germany, Prus- sian Saxony, Brunswick, and Hanover; Denmark and the southern and middle sections of Sweden; Belgium, Holland, the northern departments of France; Bohemia and a section in the middle of Russia, all produce beets from which sugar can profitably be manufactured. Sections with complete inland climate seem to produce richer sugar- beets than those with coast climate. In northern Germany and certain parts of Rus- sia and Sweden the beet is generally richer in sugar than in France, Belgium, Hol- land, or Denmark, the latter countries being more exposed to the sea. In England, where the climate is moist and temperate all the year round, the beets grow bulky but poor in sugar, and there the beet-sugar industry has proved a complete failure. As to Denmark the climate is not so favorable to the development of sugar in the beets as it might be. The spring is rather dry, so that it is hard to get the plants started, and the fall is so wet that there is a danger for the beets to set flesh at the expense of the quality of the juice. For the same reason the harvestis difficult. Still the industry is flourishing, so that the climate may not be called bad. The following table shows the average temperature and rainfall at Copenhagen, in Denmark, and in Minnesota: Minnesota. Denmark. Months. : Temperature ain Temperature., Rain. (S2years). |(44 years). a Y SS SSeS —— © Fahr. Inches. Fahr. Inches. MANIA tatin See fa wis was Hohe eke cucuswsedaes cone 15. 85 . 49 29. 84 1.74 GIR UAL Vee eerane sb e- boone seca nagenaas sy @-o2-5 5: 2s. 14. 40 1.07 30. 92 1. 52 Meee eee er eames aT Ee eo eS 23. 66 2. 24 33. 80 1. 56 ZT sean eae ey eee oe ee ee 37. 52 95 42. 08 1. 46 tem ERY AS a eee ee ane 62. 24 1. 65 51. 62 1.49 PURER Pench iat ea one ie Se el le oe 68. 70 11. 67 | 59. 90 2.12 FL) Jade 32 SSS Ae ee eae ee 74. 72 1. 94 | 63. 14 2.30 JST hee SS RE REL Ee at Se eae 70. 54 3. 90 62. 24 2.48 SOARES eet casei ee ce a 60.95 | 5.76 | 56. 12 2.18 OU Ti sae BS Be ee eee ee 49. 36 3.21 47. 84 2.17 INGVOIMMBET sean ee does eet? A ee E 28. 72 1.90 | 38. 84 2. 04 LOST) a eR PS eS eee eee | 18. 81 .72 33. 80 1. 69 dry) SS eS eae eo ee ae 43. 62 35. 50 | 45. 84 22.75 Comparing these figures, it would suggest itself that the excessive rainfall in Min- nesota in June might favor the development of the young beets, but at the same time make it very troublesome to perform the work of harrowing and hoeing to keep the land clean from weeds. The months of August, September, and October also seem rather moist, making it possible that too much inorganic matter may enter the juice at the time when the beets get ripe. Still, when falling in heavy showers at long 275 276 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. intervals, as it probably does in Minnesota, the rain is neither likely to influence the beets nor to bother the harvest in the same way as when coming down gradually at short intervals. More water will evaporate from the soil, and therefore more rain is needed in Minnesota than in Denmark on account of the higher temperature of the former. According to another account the fall of rain in Minnesota is as follows: Seasons. Minneapolis.| Duluth. Breckinridge. | Pembina. New Ulm. SWANLEY Secs =a ea eee cesar 3.105 2. 160 4. 980 2. 750 2, 260 SOHN sek eee Ss oesSscmedsse 7. 960 6. 480 6. 250 2. 450 6. 300 DRnmMOere sae osee sneer estan 16. 304 20. 850 14. 150 7. 250 7. 020 Be so er cote nia sete mic moiniots 5. 108 8. 060 3. 580 6. 910 9. 280 iAiviasl ess cethoeeg 32, 456 37. 556 28.960 | 19.360 24. 860 With such extraordinary differences within the same State it would seem likely that some sections, at least, may be favored with the proper climate for a successful culti- vation of the sugar-beet. The temperature of the summer does not seem excessively high, for even far south on the continent of Europe the beet is grown successfully, and just in those of the above sections where the beets are richest in sugar the sum- mer heat is comparatively high. 2. Soil_—The proper soil for the sugar-beet is neither too heavy (clayish), nor too light (sand), nor containing too much organic matter. A well cultivated, rich, and deep soil, that would produce a good crop of barley for malt is well adapted for the sugar-beet. New and rich land, that in a crop of cereals would develop the straw at the expense of the seed, would make a bulky crop of beets, but they would be poor in: sugar and rich in non-sugar, detrimental to the extraction of the former from the juice. Land of old cultivation, made rich by continued plowing and manuring, is better than newly broken land. Therefore, without knowing from personal experience, one would imagine the soil of Illinois to be better adapted to the sugar-beet than that of Minne- sota. The land should be well drained, either by nature or by pipes laid deep in the ground, allowing no water to remain on the surface at any time. The limits for the physical condition of the soil are, however, very wide, for we have grown rich sugar-beets on comparatively heavy and on comparatively light soil, the former being made porous by deep drainage and intense stirring with steam-plow and cultivator. But, whether heavy or light, only land in a state of high cultivation could produce beets rich in sugar. * 3. Labor.—One of the worst drawbacks to the successful introduction of the sugar- beet in the Northwest would seem to be the labor question. Even with the advantage of the best implements to stir the land, thin and clean the ridges, and gather the crop, the hand-labor needed to grow sugar-beets is considerable. Wages being about three times as high in the Northwest as in Denmark, this would increase the expenses at a great rate. Supposing one hand to be needed for three acres of land for four months, about 30 days’ work would be necessary to cultivate one acre. Supposing one acre to yield 15 tons of beets or 2,400 pounds of sugar (8 per cent.), 30 days’ work, at $1.50 a day, would make $45 an acre, or $3 per ton of beets, or 183 cents per hundredweight of sugar, while in Denmark, at 50 cents a day, the labor would only amount to one-third of these expenses. And supposing the product could bear such expenses, would it be possible to gather a sufficient number of hands so as to grow 1,500 acres of beets within the limit for the area of one sugar factory? For it is a deplorable fact that, at the present development of the industry, sugar cannot be manufactured from beets on a small scale, but must be produced in large establishments which require the raw ma- terial from a large number of acres. And, on account of the bulky quality of the beets, they cannot bear long transportation, and must therefore be grown within a certain comparatively narrow distance from the factory. Again, during the manufac- turing season, which only lasts about four or five months, the factory would employ a CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 200 number of hands who, after all of the beets have been disposed of, would have to look for employment elsewhere. While at the time between the clearing of the beet land and the harvesting of the beets the regular harvest of the cereals might give employ- ment to the beet hands, would the forests of Minnesota or other industry dispose of the laboring hands during winter and early spring, until the beet field again might need them? Sugar beets should not be attended to only when the other work of the farm is done and there is nothing else to do; but should be worked when they need working. Without independent labor at the proper time, their cultivation always proves a failure. So also should the manufacture of sugar begin when the beets are ripe and contain most sugar, and it should be continued energetically as long as any beets are left, in order to dispose of the whole crop before too much sugar is lost, for every day after the beets are ripe they grow poorefin sugar. Therefore laboring hands must be at disposal at any time when they are wanted, independent of other work that might need them. In the factory, the high rate of labor in the Northwest would add considerably to the expenses; while in the beet field where, in Denmark, female hands are employed in a great measure, the labor would probably be three times higher in Minnesota than in the old country, the manufacturing-labor expenses would, no doubt, be twice as high in Minnesota as in Denmark. In the latter country the labor expenses in the factory amount to $1.15 per ton of beets or about .72 cent per pound of sugar. 4, Other expenses.—Quite different is the case with regard to other expenses than laboring. The cheapness of the land in the Northwest as compared with rich land in the old country will, no doubt, do much towards reducing the expenses of the grow- ing of beets in Minnesota. In Denmark the rent for rich land amounts to $7 to $8 an acre. In Germany as much as $16 per acre is paid yearly for a rentage lasting ten or twenty years. In the Northwest, improved land could probably be had for less than half the rent in Denmark. In the factory coal plays a prominent part among the expenses other than labor. In Denmark this item amounts to $1.20 per ton of beets or .75 cent per pound of sugar— the price for coal being $6 per ton. This price being reduced to $2 per ton, the expense for fuel would be 40 cents per ton of beets or .25 cent per pound of sugar only. 5. Duty.—In the old country the duty paid to the government by the manufacturers makes a heavy reduction of the profit realized by the production. In Germany the duty is laid on the beets, being raised gradually from 1836, when it was only ¢ silver groschen per hundredweight (11 cents per ton) of beets, to the present time, when it amounts to 9 silver groschen per 100 pounds ($4 perton). This is, in a great measure, the reason why in Germany the manufacture of beet sugar is developed to such ad- mirable perfection as isthe case. The more sugar that could be gained from the beets, the less the duty drew on the profit of the manufacturer, for the duty on 1 ton of beets remained the same whether 6 or 10 per cent. of sugar were extracted. All the efforts of the farmer and the manufacturer had the aim to produce much sugar from a certain weight of beets, not to produce much sugar from an acre of land. Therefore the quantitative yield of beets was neglected, while beets were produced which yielded as much as 10 per cent. of sugar. In Sweden the same system is adopted. In Belgium and partly in Holland the duty is calculated on the basis of the quantity and richness of the juice extracted from the beets. In France and in Denmark the duty is laid on the sugar produced. For this reason it is in these countries the aim of the producer to get the largest yield of sugar from an acre, only provided that it can be profitably extracted. Therefore the yield of beets is larger, but their contents of sugar less than in Germany. In Denmark the duty is equal to that on imported sugar, amounting to 2.16 cents per pound of raw sugar (below No. 18 Dutch standard) or about $3.45 per ton of beets. The duty in this country being about 3.5 cents for average raw sugar, this item would amount to $5.60 per ton of beets in favor of the manufacturer, provided 8 per cent. of raw sugar can be extracted (besides the molasses). 278 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. Summing up these items, the following figures are arrived at in favor or in disfavor of the sugar industry in Minnesota, as compared with Denmark, provided 8 per cent. of sugar is realized in both countries: Extra expenses in Minne- sota. Savings in Minnesota. Per ton of | Perpoundof | Per ton of | Per pound of beets. sugar. beets. sugar. eahor Mihell econ ecee ne sates stocema seamen ee 7 $2001, 900125}... - 3... ose eee Pabor im factory: ais ccs eee See aise se cee SSA OM MALE IMT ONO AE Ee Se Renin jeepers ate $0 0014 PROM Sal weteeme ne aw nineein se meee ke 50 Dittihyascsee Ses. Mee tie See a el es see ag te aS ake 350: 3 15 197 6 63 ° 414 Deducting the extra expenses from the savings, we arrive at the following real say- ings in favor of Minnesota : Ren toner Wecinen oss eee ee ae 4 cae cet 2 oda eeepc Eee $3 48 Ber pound of sugar. ok haji 2 a ea eee ee eek ee a 2.17 But the whole calculation depends upon the question, can beets be grown in Min- nesota which will yield 8 per cent. of sugar? The most careful study of tables of rainfall and temperature, and of analysis of the soil, cannot decide the question. The only way is to try. Seed of rich sugar beets should be distributed to intelligent farmers throughout the Northwest, accompanied by directions how to grow beets. The farmers who undertake to carefully make the experiments should be requested to return an average sample of the crop, describing the soil in which the beets are grown, and the treatment of it; the fruits which the land bore in previous years; the manure, if any, that was used; the time at which the manure and the seed were sown, and at which the thinning out, the harrowings and hoeings, and the harvest were performed; the yield per acre, &c. The samples should be analyzed, not only for sugar (and especially that kind of sugar which would turn the polarized light to the right, and which would crystallize), but also for organic and inorganic non-sugar. Such a material for one year would already afford valuable suggestions, and, carried on for several years, such experiments would justify a decided opinion about the pro- priety of the introduction of the industry. To start a large and expensive factory without such foundation would be to runa great risk, and to establish small and cheap factories would always prove a failure. As to the plan for establishing sugar factories, several systems prevail in Europe. One is the codperative, very much like the system of cheese factories and creameries in certain sections of this country. The farmers in a section intending to establish a sugar factory form a joint stock company, and are bound to deliver to the factory the beet crop of a certain number of acres for each share in their possession (in Bruns- wick generally 8 acres for each share of $100). For the last ten years the sugar factories have become very expensive, being profit- able only when very large and when furnished with the latest inventions. Therefore, the farmers could not afford to build their own factories if it were not for large stock companies which undertake to build and furnish factories for the farmers, leaving the greater part of the cost at low interest to be paid off gradually, against mortgage in the buildings. This plan does not work well in a country where the industry is new, and, though it is no doubt best of all, it-cannot be introduced until the beet- sugar industry has proved an unquestionable success, and is known to the people as a safe thing to invest in. Another plan is for a stock company to establish a factory, buying the beets from the farmers, and return the refuse (pulp) to be consumed on the land, so as not to CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 279 exhaust the latter. It is, however, not an easy task to induce the farmers at once to grow an area with beets large enough to furnish a factory with sufficient raw mate- rial of good quality for a successful starting. It takes time and experience to learn how to grow rich sugar beets; the best way to learn it is to get direct interest in the profit. Therefore such concerns who build factories, intending to buy the beets in a section where the industry is not previously known, are generally forced to grow a large portion of the beets themselves, by establishing some kind of bonanza farms, or by renting suitable land for the purpose, returning it to the farmers after the crop has been gathered. In fact, this is the only way to secure within reasonable time enough of good raw material, until, by and by, the farmers are educated for the task. In Denmark the beet-sugar industry was introduced in 1873, when it had been ascertained by experiments during several years that sufficiently rich sugar beets could be grown. Two factories were started, one by an old concern that previously commanded the whole sugar refining business of the country, the other by a new stock company prominently made up of landed proprietors. The former company built a large factory in a fertile section occupied by intelligent farmers, who, it was thought, should furnish the beets. The factory was capable of working up 12,500 tons of beets a year. The first year only 2,500 tons of poor beets were received, and the second year proved but little better. Then the managers were convinced of the neces- sity of adding farming to their business, and bought a farm of 300 acres, to manage which an expert was engaged. Another year more land was added to the farm, and suitable fields were rented for one year and grown with beets by the manufacturers. On these lands rich sugar beets were grown. In the mean time the farmers learned how to grow the beets, and the quantity received at the factory increased yearly, until now sufficient raw material is furnished so as to run the factory profitably. Large amounts of money were lost during the first five years. The business seemed con- demned to failure, but the managers succeeded in keeping it going until the balance turned, and now the factory is flourishing. The other company went at once to work and rented for twenty years three large farms, of 2,000 acres of land in all, every acre of which was in a state of high cultiva- tion and well drained. This land was divided into four fields and sown successively with wheat, beets, barley, and clover; so that every fourth year beets were grown on the same land. Steam-plows and first class machinery were introduced. The factory was built so as to work up 7,500 to 10,000 tons of beets a year. Besides those grown on the 500 acres of the company, more beets were grown by the company on land rented yearly and being returned to the farmers after use, and as many as possible were bought. In this way the company succeeded in gathering 6,000 tons of toler- ably rich beets the very first year, sufficient to make a rather successful start. The factory being built at a time when all materials were as expensive as ever; the price of sugar falling about 30 per cent.; hard competition being brought to bear from the sugar refiners; an excessive duty even higher than that on imported sugar* being at once enforced as soon as the manufacture was started; and finally entering the time of universal financial depression, commanding ingaffieient capital, the company could, however, not carry the work through, and failed in 1876. A new company took the matter in hand, and carrying on the anes on the same principle as it was hitherto managed, have succeded in making it pay well. Having passed through extraordinary difficulties, the beet-sugar industry in Den- mark is now successful. But though a handsome profit is realized by the manufactur- ers, it is nothing compared with the indirect profit which is the result of the improve- ment of the land where beets have been grown. The influence on the land of the deep and thorough cultivation, and the use of fertilizers, which go hand in hand with the * The duty at once laid on the manufacture of beet sugar in Denmark was a few years later acknowl edged by the government to be higher than that on imported sugar, and was reduced accordingly. In no other country in the world has this industry suffered an immediate imposure of duty, time being everywhere else allowed for the industry to develop and acquire stability. 280 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. growth of the sugar beet, of the beet itself by opening and manuring the soil, and of the stable manure which is produced by this system, is simply wonderful. All other crops are increased and their quality improved. On such land as would previously produce only common barley, a highly praised malting grain is now raised, which brings far better price than the old product. Those farmers who at first looked sus- Piciously on the new industry are now quite enthusiastic in favor of it, and several factories are about to be built this year. APPENDIX FF. THE PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OF THE NITRATES AND PHOSPHATES IN THE SUGAR-BEET. The following remarks made by Herr Strohmer, at a late meeting of the Austro- Hungarian Association of Sugar Manufacturers, constitute so succinct a resumé of the present knowledge of the position and value of the phosphates and nitrates of the alkalies in their relation to the physiological functions of the sugar-beet, that we consider it of value to transcribe them here in full: Among the conditions of the growth of the sugar-beet, nutrition occupies the high- est rank. Numerous tests of manures have been made to resolve this question, but in spite of the trouble and care bestowed, it has been impossible to deduce from them a general rule. From these experiments I may cite those made by Gilbert in later days, showing that by the mineral manures alone or with slight doses of nitrogen constant crops may be obtained, and that the mode of action of nitrogenous manures is rather indirect than direct, and consists in rendering the assimilation of other nutritive ma- terials more ready. In general we may say that tests of manures possess a purely local value; for one and the same place this may, however, render great service and be of the greatest importance. The classical work of Hanaman on the soil of the neighborhood of Lobositz gives proof of this. But the real question can only be determined by cultural experiments, and the true significance of the results deduced by a knowledge of the laws of nutri- tion. These laws can be defined only by experiments executed in a truly scientific manner and with the aid of chemistry in alliance with physiology. Experiments with manures have heretofore been as numerous as the experiments in vegetation, under- taken in later years, have been few. The special literature of the subject could not have said less of this work. It is but afew years since Dr. Kohlrausch and myself published a notice upon experiments in nutrition. It followed from them that an augmentation of the con- tent of sugar in the beet does not correspond with an increasing manuring with nitrate of potash, and that with regard to the total sugar produced in the plants no deter- mined relation is attached to increasing doses of nitrate of potash. It is therefore probable that potassium and nitric acid paralyze each other in part in their physio- logical action in the production of sugar in the beet. The experiments also enable us to recognize that in all probability the content of nitric acid in the dry matter of the beet is augmented by increasing doses of nitrates. We would not positively declare at this time that nitrates interfere with the formation of sugar, because beets which we ourselves have procured, though having a normal appearance, showed only 5 to 10 per cent. of sugar, while the beets of a preceding experiment made at Prilep by Dr. Kohlrausch, had always given 10 to 16 per cent. It might therefore happen that the lower richness was the consequence of local influences. Hanaman has shown in a brilliant work that the Jess free (moins dégagée) situation of a soil has a powerful influence upon the quality of the beet. In order to clear up this question we made other experiments in 1876 and 1877 with nitrate of soda and phosphate of potash. Beets manured with the first fertilizer were in both years much less rich in sugar than roots manured with the phosphate. On the other hand they showed a higher content of nitric acid and potien with a quo- tient of purity much lower than the other roots. «The principle we expressed as 281 292 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. probably exact, that is to say, the injurious physiological action of nitrogen and of potassium upon the production of sugar in the beet, is therefore confirmed. Nor would I omit to state that our test beets were of small size, and as the two series of experiments in the two years presented the same results and the same char- acters, we may accept as exact the principle in question. The growth of the leaves gave place to a striking phenomenon. The beets manured with nitrate of soda had more powerful leaves, indicating a large afflux of juice; the surface of the leaves was firm and brilliant. The beets manured with phosphate of potash, on the other hand, bore leaves which were weaker, languishing and much more sensible to the direct solar rays and to heat. According to the observations and results of vegetable physiology, it is a fact that the production of reserve materials is accomplished in the leaves. The phenomenon above mentioned, the rapid yellowing combined with a very prompt change of the leaf, in consequence of which the reserves produced in them are more frequently given up to the roots, was partly attributed to the higher content of sugar in the beets ma- nured with phosphate of potash. The experiments of Deherain have confirmed this opinion, that the sugar is produced in the leaf; from this it follows that the richer beets are those which have the most leaves. Besides, Sostmann has shown that the content of inverted sugar in the juice of the root gradually diminishes, while the stem of the leaves and the juice of the leaves themselves still contain it in important quantities; but the inverted sugar is in all cases an intermediate product of the trans- formation of the starch of the granules of chlorophyle into sugar. An interesting observation has been made by Corenwinder: that the saccharine content of the beet increases with the importance of the surface of the leaves. In our studies the difference in the leaves of each series of experiments led us to make weekly measurements of them. We recognized that the beets manured with nitrate of soda showed, with regard to their leaf surface, a decided growth in length, while the other roots, manured with phosphate of potash, showed in their leafy portions a develop- ment in breadth. But the surface of the leaves may be compared with that of an ellipse, and as in this surface, the increase of the shorter axis corresponds for the leaf to an increase of breadth. Theleaves manured with phosphate should have a greater surface of leaves for the production of sugar. The manure of phosphate acts princi- — pally upon the development of the leaves of the beet, and in a manner more favorable to the formation of sugar. In order to determine what réle potash plays in this effect of phosphate of potash, we last year made other experiments with this salt and with phosphate of soda. These experiments showed that phosphoric acid combined with soda also acted favorably upon the production of sugar, but not in as efficacious a manner as when combined with potash. In the development of the leaves no striking differences were observed. In these later days the question of Chili saltpeter has become (brulante) one difficult to treat. Our experiments in nutrition have not been favorable to this fertilizer. The experments of Bodenbender have also given the same conclusions, especially with regard to the purity of the juice. I would also mention an observation of Vilmorin, which has its importance with regard to the prudence which should be observed in the use of Chili saltpeter. Vilmorin found that nitrate of soda injured the germina- tive faculty of beet seed. In the general reunion of the German Association of the past year, Professor Maercker supported the use of Chili saltpeter for beets. -In the position in which the orator was placed—he spoke especially of the immediate neighborhood of Magdebourg— we could scarcely object to his conclusions. The principles of Maercker cannot be generalized; he has himself elsewhere admitted this. As the experiments in manuring at Eisleben have proven, such a generalization would soon be controverted by practice. According to the tests in nutrition thus far worked out, and according to the prac- tical experiments made up to this time, the use of Chili saltpeter as manure for the sugar beet is, at least from the standpoint of the sugar manufacturer, to be prohibited. In some ne CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 283 special cases the moderate and intelligent use of this salt may, however, seem justifiable be- cause of its constant indirect action in rendering soluble other nutritive materials. Experiments with special manures should always decide this, because our knowledge of the soil and of the life of plants will not permit us to give a reply to the question in advance. Laplace once stated, as the end of chemistry, that this science should teach us to know the movements of atoms as astronomy teaches us to recognize the movements of the heavenly bodies. Agricultural chemistry shall have accomplished its task only when it shall teach all the properties of the soil and all the chemical and physiological properties of plants. . AIP UP TOWN TD PAL ee. METEOROLOGY AND THE GROWTH OF THE BEET. By Marie Davy. {Journal d’Agriculture Pratique, 1880, I, 539.] In ordinary beet-root culture there is no special phase to consider. The plant is pulled before it has accomplished its preparation for blooming. The duration of growth is therefore limited only by temperature. It is within these conditions that we must endeavor to determine what are the climatic influences which modify the yield in weight of roots and of sugar. With this crop as for the vine, we have but few documents bearing upon it; but we find in the Annales Agronomiques of December, 1879, a very important memoir by M. Pagnoul, of Arras, which provides means for a primary examination of this great ques- tion, and we must applaud the fruitful efforts of the able directors of the agricultural stations of France in the scientific paths into which they have entered. The prelim- inary examination we shall undertake will doubtless convince them of the necessity of conducting meteorological observations alongside their agricultural work instead of limiting themselves to those old practices which no longer correspond to the needs of science. . M. Pagnoul describes in his memoir the demonstrative experiment he made to de- termine the influence of light upon the development and the saccharine richness of the beet, and he calls attention to those of M. Corenwinder on the same subject. Itis greatly to be regretted that he had no means for valuation of the degree of light acting upon his crops except the estimation of the proportiun of sky free from clouds; this process is absolutely insufficient. We have endeavored to supply these deficiencies by actino- metric data collected at Montsouris, but this is only a palliative, the clearness of the sky at Arras not being always the same as ati Paris. The documents furnished by M. Pagnoul are of two orders. One series relates to successive analyses made every ten days in 1879 with samples taken from the same plot uniformly planted ; the other series relate to analyses of ten successive crops taken from the same field from 1870 to 1879 inclusive. A primary point seems to us to follow from this great work. Beets sown April 5 came up slowly and unevenly. At Paris this month was not dry. From the 5th to the 30th March we find 17 days of rain giving 2.59 inches of water. The totai amount falling during the month was, it is true, 1.8 inches at Arras; but it was still above the average (1.6 inches) of the past ten years. The bad germination of the seed cannot, therefore, be attributed either to dryness or to an excess of humidity in themselves. The month of April, 1879, was a cold one, especially from the 10th to the 30th. Its average temperature was but 45°.6 Fahr., while the average of the last ten years is 49°.6 Fahr. Beet seed is generally sown from the 10th to the 25th of April, during which period the average temperature at Paris is 50°.36 Fahr. This period may be advanced and in the northern departments sowing is often done, in favorable years, during the last fortnight of March. We believe that more inconveniences than advantages result from sowing before the average temperature has passed 46°.4. This condition occurs at Paris as early as the 28th of March in average years, but it is far from common to alj years. On the other hand the analysis of M. Pagnoul show that from the 19th to the 25th of September, 1879, the weight of the roots and their contents of sugar showed no marked variations other than those which may be attributed to inequalities of sam- ples, whatever may be the care observed inselectingthem. At the same time, the pro- 2r4 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 285. portion of chlorides, and especially that of nitrates, shows.a marked increase in the last twenty days of October. From the 21st of September, 1879, the season became, it is true, relatively dry for the year; but rains were not really wanting, either in number or in quantity. It therefore becomes a question of temperature. In fact, while the average temperature is 60°.4 and 61°.7 for the first two decades of Septem- ber, 1879, it fell to 55°.5 for the third and 54°.3, 499.1, 99.5, and 479.48 for the three decades of the month of October following. It therefore appears that the beet ceases to grow usefully below 55°.4. Itstill takes place, but its reduced assimilation scarcely compensates for its proper consumption, and even though a new growth of leaves may not intervene to reduce its content of sugar, the weight of salts it contains increases to an extent injurious to the extraction of this product. In an average year this temperature limit is attained at Paris the 19th of October; the date is advanced or re- tarded according to the years and the sections. We think there is no advantage in leaving the beet in the ground longer than this, while there are very decided advan- tages in advancing the sowing which must follow this culture. Wheat still grows in the fall as long as the average temperature does not fall below 43°. The successive analyses of M. Pagnoul commenced the 11th of June, 1879. We find in the following table a resumé of these analyses made up from one given by this able chemist : Results of analyses of beets, by M. Pagnoul. June— July— August— Year 1879. 11 21 i 11. 21 31 10 20. 30. Rain in 10 days. -.......---.- English inches..| 1.29 | 1.45 | 0.71 | 2.20 | 2.28 | 1.02 | 0.31 | 0.94 | 0.71 Atmospheric heat. -...-- degrees Fahrenheit. .|600. 8 [611.6 |606.2 |568.4 |617.0 |604.4 |642.2 |647.6 | 638.6 Cloudiness at Arras ..-.......-....-...-.---- 41 30 31 16 26 28 31 43 36 AGI PAPTIGN ANU es APIS pans cna San ele eminem a vinta s 398 | 479 | 444] 399| 320} 378) 416] 361 373. Average weight— Ola moots esos. esos te *prams... 1 7 31 | 105 | 220] 346] 486) 666 778 ENS leaves 25-55 cn cee wes = do... 8 41| 110 | 222] 333] 462| 452] 433 335 Of sugar per hectare ......- tkilograms.. 2 9 96 | 339] 776 |1, 422 |1, 848 |3, 073 | 3, 543 (iL SYS Co: Ap Snr gee eee coer eee dozc5: 1 4 15 49 92 | 144) 228] 27 315 OMT OD mien ns oila\ciale =o = =n aan a 3 d0=-<- 0 2 8 23 36 49 79 66 69 Relative weights for 1,000 of beets— MLO LODE Galas ia sina nn Siem one ona 8,000 |5, 860 |3, 550 |2,110 |1, 510 |1,340 | 930] 650 430 la? GMD 3 ee se Bose Shes Bere sap ses sreer 30 21 52 54 59 69 63 77 76 Increase of weight in 10 days— PereeeeO OU eee in ) ee eee F jean 5, 002 By cikeht of pailtah dei .- AMY Shes ros eee 08 oe oe De Ags) es 552 Wheicht of nitwate Jabs 223 ano asic aah aoe 0s ence ease ee ee a dowcsse 145 * Hectare=2.47 acres. t Kilogram = 2.2 pounds. ¢{ Meter = 39.37 inches. CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. 287 The variety cultivated was a pink beet rather rooty, smooth skin, belonging to the ordinary race of the country. The saccharine degree, 7.94, is low for extraction. In two other experimental fields, cultivated in beets without interruption for ten years, one of the fields receiving no manure, the other receiving each year a complete chem- ical manure, the yield for the same year, 1879, was— With | Without manure. | manure. Reet. ORL a se ere as ee ote censor loan aml aon ae = per cent-. 8.3 10.0 Ment Of DESts NGr NOCtARG = sos eee esas eae ea een ween 3 e-em enn oem ----kilos.-| | 33,000 | — 10, 000 weirht of sugar per hectares... -------- << 22525-5552 -2 520. o-oo cecenncescens do... 2,739 1, 000 In these three crops the proportion of sugar increased according as the total product decreased, but it always remained low enough. In the manured field it increased to 13.9 in 1872, with the same common beets of the country, and rose to 16.7 in 1877 with an improved beet. On the other hand, at Asniéres, and under the influence of sewage water, the beets being planted at the rate of 10 per superficial meter, the yield per hectare was 80,000 kilograms of beets and 4,750 kilograms of sugar after 9 waterings made in July and August in new, sandy, and very poor ground. The crop reached 180,000 kilograms of roots and 6,640 of sugar in a soil irrigated during ten years and until the end of the season. These figures would at first seem to justify the sugar industry when it protests against the tendencies of the culture to push toward a general product by means of manures to the detriment of the industrial yield. Both interests may, how- ever, be conciliated within the limits of reasonable conditions. The sugar-producing power of a given surface of leaves is not undefined ; it depends upon the degree of aptitude acquired by a chosen variety of beets and, undoubtedly, also upon the meteorological and other conditions which have presided at the forma- tion of the seed employed. It also depends upon the temperature and clearness of the period of vegetation of the plants issuing from a given seed. If water and manure stimulate the development of the root in an exaggerated degree, as compared with the power of the leaves, the weight of sugar amassed in the root may increase, but it will increase in a much lower proportion than the total weight, and the saccharine content will diminish to an extent injurious to the extraction. There are, therefore, rules to be fixed either for the better preparation of the seed or for the culture of the products of this seed’for the best interests of the two parties concerned. These rules are begin- ning to be determined by the labors of Messrs. Ladureau, Pagnoul, Corenwinder, Dehérain, but there still remain several questions to be cleared up. It seems to be thoroughly demonstrated that sugar is primarily elaborated in the leaves under the influence of light. Outside the variety chosen, and which should be the best that can practically be procured, the greatest possible surface of leaves should be exposed to luminous action. Every ray of light which strikes the soil with- out being intercepted by a leafis a lostforce. Besides this, it produces a direct evapora- tion from the earth of a quantity of water not passing through the plant, and isa new source of loss to the latter, without the elevation of temperature that may be attributed to this nudity of soil being able to compensate for the assimilating surface which must result from it. Bare spaces in the beet field in good condition should be carefully avoided by regular planting with a separation proportional to the development to be taken by the variety to be cultivated. ; Concerning water and manure, the experiments made at Asniéres may furnish in- formation that may be usefully added to that furnished by the agricultural schools or stations. It may be referred to three types. The first plot of land was submitted to no irrigation, but it had been manured in previous years by the solid deposits in the irrigation trenches from the sewage waters; the plantation was made at the rate of 10 to the superficial] meter. A second parcel composed of new and very poor ground received 12 waterings with sewage waters from May 28 to August 28. 288 CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET. A third parcel submitted to irrigation for ten years was watered in 1879 until the time of harvesting. Samples of beets were also taken from the plain of Montrouge, the soil of which had been manured with night-soil and belonged to the dairymen of Paris. Here beets were irregularly planted. The first series of analyses made August 8, 1879, gave the following results: Weight of ia at Pot | Total sugar, a dade juice. crams Montrouge: ChamprHOberbjen~-e rasss so sceaes oace sea ae ea eee 0. 342 7. 27 24.8 Cham prAwyray fener atene sass pee nese ae seeeene see oases 0. 460 6. 67 30.7 Asniéres: Plot not watered sasesee se eae cock oe et ee Clete eee 0. 508 5. 30 B1.7 Plot Wwaterine s\n nano a asset ina ees Societe neces 1. 035 6.59 68. 2 The second series of analyses, made August 28, 1879, gave very different results: . Sugar, per Weight of y Total sugar, root. beet of grams. ; Asniéres : Plot ENoOt Watered ss. s< ccc co ccucwes ds sascscuscccsessaccener 1. 056 3. 68 38. 9 Plot MA 2iwaterings)>.cecssece= esas cece ae onsen ce eee sete 1. 562 4. 53 69.7 After August 28, watering having been suspended on plot 2, the proportion of sugar rose, between August 28 to October 3, from 4.53 to 6.59; and, according to the analyses of M. Pagnoul, we should think that this increase is produced during the month of September. On the contrary, the development of the beets seems to have been entirely suspended after the close of the irrigation. In plot No. 3, where irrigation was carried on until the end of the season, the roots continued to enlarge, and on October 5, the time of harvesting, their total weight was estimated at 180,000 kilograms per hectare. But the sugar increased much less rapidly, its proportion continued to diminish and fell from 4.53, August 28, to 4.10, October 5. An excess of nitrogenous manure, with or without watering, though favorable to the absolute weight of the crop intended for cattle food, is therefore unfavorable to the industrial employment of the plant and may render it unfit for the extraction of sugar. But its unfavorable action does not remain the same throughout the entire period of vegetation. It is in the second half of the season that it is most marked. In the first part, on the contrary, it is important that vegetation have the greatest possible activity, since then it bears principally upon the leaf, and this latter should: be largely developed in order to most efficiently perform its functions. So animal manures should be incorporated in the earth in the preceding fall; chemical manures, which are rapidly assimilated, may be applied shortly before or a little after sowing or planting, but it is of no advantage to renew the application during the course of the- season. Thisis shown in the theory and verified by the experiments of MM. Ladureau, Corenwinder, Deherain, and others. The sameis true for irrigation with sewage water - or even with pure water where this is possible. The first are useful and may be abundant during the first months, but they should be very moderate during the later ones if forage beets are not to be exclusively produced. We shall ultimately examine in a meteorological point of view the results of beet-- root culture during the past ten years. 5 a a Bd Se ee Page. Achard, Karl Franz., erection of his factory.........---------.0.---cccecececes eam einegeiera meee 10 : his success in extracting sugar from beets........-...-.. reales ort crates a 8 his new method and model school and factory........----2--------.s-+0-- 24 progress of his Work. ----------.-----ssseces---00 -esecenemncceenseseccase 10-23 PERPENBOOUS INAihel, GISLEINUELOM OL ..-- oc cote ce ecae eee pet aees doch wen Se nneeas ama eee a0 eat es 78 PREACH nities and phosphatesio£ ...=.5.-=- =. ~< = 222-22 - 5 5s5- 712 so- Sen en aw astcacensecs Sac oes seme acne des Suess seleceses -o-a-= 79-81 extraction of, by hydraulic presses .....--..--------- 2ietigo5 SBR eos ece. oe aco eeaeer 152 Manuel & Socin’s continuous presseS. .-..------------+---------+------- 151 Piéron’s COntiNMOUS Presses - <<< << ~~ eno ee aw ew nee ence wean senna 152 RO VELS A OL UAIGN PLOCGSS |— oboe wee seee etree ole omen elon ames alo eee 152 rotary diffusion battery. --..---..----------------2---eseesseenees------ 153 systems for extracting ...........2:-------05 seeeece- eo ooo eeesceceee- Pees arate tema 137-145 system of pipe line for transporting, in France ......-..--.----------------+e--+-------- 135, 136 Kohlransch, Dr., notes on meteorological conditions. --..--.-.---------------+------------------- 35 mopny, baron do,sugar works at Krayn. ..: 2-2 cccencs ooo asan ecw cer -atemecnciesleseast tm snc eas 23 Habor on indigenous sugars in France. .---.. <2... 1c 2 one onan enna n nsw emcee eens eae scenscee cs 30 question of, in connection with beet-growing in the Northwest 276 Hanrent, Ma, description of his’ polariscope 22-22. 2... 226-222. = 2st eccccenesecseseesccseccts ace 84, 85 Leaves, beet, pounds of, per 100 pounds of roots... 72 ie Duc, Commissioner, letter to the President.....-.....------8 ---2 2. cnc nee ween we scenes 4 Legrand, Simon, peabarenye table of feeding cattle with pulps from various processes --- 149 SIUM Obese s sone ce ee a oe ato ee ce Seem niece recon cme Sete ein eats Sm pee eee 149 Linard, M., eet by, concerning cost of establishing central factories in France with pipe ECR ae ee ne ee a eae eee ae ate en erg otelnintetar late = inte aac tes ato 135 Systemmor the transportation Of jICG 2222-55-22 -ce--=- + -tacencevecs ose ese oce=veen- 131-134 Machinery, approximate cost of, for extracting sugar from the beet .-.-....--..-.--.------------ 151-156 Mesto Congiion Of Siear-Deeb CUNT Il. 26s: soSscn sees eee eo ae > encase ce cecceencsaccesacceeca= 184-260 Enc Hearn Peal Near © Ortiandl o-oo sscecmceaa tase one eels eee ssn nacacscanes 171-180 monthly average of temperature and rainfall im........------------------e-eenees------ 51-53 PON CaS CES LA GDtAMEG In 1879 in ~~ 2. ose Foose esae olen a esas con sa ececcee se snens os: 264-268 Rae nee onary Off Portland 2 ls: 25) sac eeaaee seme ss cemeccse tases scceesessceece ss 181-275 Moniteur, Le, article from, on beet-root sugar --.-------- 22-200. 22sec nce snc ens concn cess enene- 15 MN nC MnUCH einer OL 1 MranCe ul 1829). .- =. 5 5526 cas cenifreces Sst cose sees tans oscccse.3 27-28 Dest yl se rey eT a OR ee oO eraeerinnrce 30 pug bey ea eer rere ae : SU Aaee clad in United States --...-. 167-170, 181-275 Manufacture of sugar, processes and economies ---.---.---- 2-2-5 conn - seen en cence ene e eet eene- 131-156 CONDE TOHIOLIDOOLS a2 aerate ase eo seae act ee cncneoes tence s secs 154 Manure in Coniposiiion ot tue complete. - 0252-2. .0-6- geen. qos Scccus == Seen ss ececcececesnssacue 101 best, for soil in beet-growing in New England .........-....----.2--002:seceneseee---- 270 GiGi nie TES) ee eae ey AO Oe Oe o Se nee Soop OD nT nInen Rpecer Bae 99-113 influences of, on yield in weight and richness of sugar -.-...-...---.----------------- 101 stable, tons necessary per acre to be applied........-..---.--- 220222 --0---222e eens eee 106 Mare rath} TESOarGHes ANG OXPELIMENtS 6252 Cale acasate vce css caucaccssnccseaSelenscccoesasse T Massachusetts, condition of sugar-beet culture in....-.-.------------ + een ee ne cee ee eee eee nee 262, 263 monthly average of temperature and rainfall ..........-..---.---.2-.--.------- 55, 56 TEHMMOOL Teswits obtamed im LS(9 ine - 2-2 aw ss oceans sence ecw seceneasancwe- 269 Maumené, M., describes Linard’s system of transporting juice ---...----..---------+++-++-+--+ 131-134 MceMaurtrie, Dr. William, letter of transmittal to Commissioner Le Duc .....-..-....--.------- 5,6 report on condition of sugar-beet culture in Maine .........-.--...-- 171-180 industry in New England .....---. 181-275 MG ATURE A ACHOEY, Cie t esa cas Join ows aiden sien © ese sence = pion wee Saab sna eSensi-bebsE Sees 137 Moeteorolery as applied deibeet onlture’. <.. 25. fcc sens coeur meee catermtaes cubes > Siebewces 33-70, 284-288 Meteorological observations at Portland and Eastport, Me., Burlington, Vt., and Boston, Mass. 271-272 SueMannesota aii, DeRDIAPK. --..octeapmeseee obeis< Uo seeeeeee ms 275-276 in the United States ......... Deane eteetaee he incee ol teehee tne 51-69 : tin nein 2 SA oe he antag her So Ee asa eee sone 49-51 Michigan, monthly average of temperature and rainfall -.......-..----..--------------------+- 65, 66 Minnesota, average temperature and rainfall at various points im .-.-....-.--.-.-..------------ 275, 276 ‘ monthly average of temperature and rainfall .........-..---..----------------0--- 67, 68 Moisture, amount necessary for beet development ..-.......--.----------22--e eee eee ee ene eeeeeee 33 DIGISRRES, 28 a residue How-to obviate loss Of -.-....2c.cece--2e-t scans sou desecectenteccaseeetees 149, 150 treatment Ob awaits oat oo. oo toca dees cca pcanncgcsbascdtebetee = cetsee seems 150 Napoleon I, his substantial encouragement of the beet-sugar industry in France......-...----- 26 IBSUEH 4 CECEES ON PTA SUPA. 2 oo. ccm nic cece ne ccecwe ce tesoctmasloun=unemse sneer 14, 15 issues a decree on beet-sugar industry. ..-.-.--..-------- --02-~ ceeseneces den stzsnne 18,19 New England, final report on the condition of beet-sugar industry in ......-.....-..---.------. 181-275 meteorolopical Conditions IN 2. ~~. cee see--secncc se ennasdeena== Se ae ee 271, 272 292. INDEX. Page. New Hampshire, condition of sugar-beet culture in ......--.------- 2. - 22 ee nee eee renee eee 260, 261 monthly average of temperature and rainfall in -.-...--..----.-...--.-.--.-0- 53, 54 résumé of results’obtained: im 1879.- ose oon cee n soem omen veo ae eee 269. New York, monthly average of temperature and rainfall in ........-.-.-.---.2-.-------------4- 57-62 Nitrates, their influences in fertilizing compounds ........----..---- 2222+ cennee-neenee-encenee 102, 103 Nitrogen, percentage of, in beets ----- 22. 2-2 o-oo nw ene mewn cone nn emn ee cennewaecns 78-89 relation between content of, in beets and in juice.-..........--..-... Sere EG Hotel sue 79 Observations on preparing soil for beet culture... --... 22.22.22. 22-2 eens een ene ne enn neem e ee nne Ohio, monthly average of temperature and rainfall in iPaenonl Ii GIscOveries! Ot. = seas sre a) ome ee aaaia a ee = elnino Oe ee eee his experimental field, manuring of -.- 2.22 342-2 oc nana deeemer eee eee results of his analyses of beets --..-.- Saeed ae coe sition ae apem ape ana a eee Paris Exposition of 1878, character of beets exhibited by French seed producers Pellet, M., his solution, how to prepare it : interesting notions Of 22 22225825 < Soca 2 oo = tepiie sa saan ackins Saomanmna d- peepee Pennsylvania, monthly average of temperature and rainfall in PErGentace Of AsWiin DECU en acme 2 aaa = ala = elma oo ee eae ei ain dl nitrogen in normal matter OPAQuO ZONES Wile asec ee sae a = aa mee wee ae eee bene nna a a sugar in slices of beet HICH OE DOCU —- ta ae oe enee = 5 Soe ono ane een eee eee translucid'zones'in: beet) 222222222 - 6. oem nn = anna nese noes 5 -bisiad ee ee Petermann, Dr., analyses of relative value of pulps Phosphoric acid, percentage of, in forage beet.....-..-----.---.--.-- relation of, to percentage of sugar in the beet results of Professor Joulie’s researches Prk Pop IpGen, LesUrip MON O0-n. <6 mao sees fee Sates ee nee ele ane oe eee eee ee IPApPEliMmes Lor srAanspOLrpatiOn OL j UCC sae el om aaa ele eee ee Slee in France, cost of constructing ee eee cme eee ee ee eee ee ewe Preparation of the soil, discussion on, in the sugar congress at Compeigne, May, 1877.-.-..-.-.- 107, 108 Process, continuous and intermittent, cost of production by...-..-....-.-----------.----------- 28 Processes and economies in the manufacture of beet sugar .-...-..-.---.----------------------- 131-156 Production from1835\to 1879'm Wrance. - ~~ -- o- - een ce ne onae oe eens cine a eee number of tons in France in 1877 and 1878 IPTONLS) PEL bOnlOr TOOLS WOEKOG |. seen aaa apa ane eee enee cee an eens Pri ps, eH kenGhs aAnalySeOs OL ese omaee em ae ene ee lel feeding of, to cattle relative value of Rainfall and temperature in all parts of Austin coe. cot eee Belgium Bohemia 42 64 64 i 51-53 Massachusetts -.ct.2oci.ccimnscnet tess Hee eee 51-69 Vermont) <. tp eep] sos aon se dees eeeeiedeee oe eee eee 54-55 Westphalia (22h enmoes nw ajnane se 0 os) Glee ete ee eae 41 "WUSCONBIN: one a5 Sonia. ciaieiaimin eee S/o mi ate te oe ie 67-68 Raspimyp works at'Cambraidescription of 5.220022) ee fio i eee coco cs sone cnn. cose nee 134, 135 Retuseot the distillery 22.8 Ss. o 2 ee ete ss kccec Sa cece cdeasceeseece asahe eee eee aaa 147 Relation between nitrogen and sugar contents of beet .....-.....------------------- eee es enee 78 between proprietors or tenants of farms and laborers in the beet growing districts of IDEANCO Ms hoe 2 tl CESS SSS ODE ess cmin ntds Snide cinwcicin us oe bemaee a alate ee eee 123, 124 Rheinthal, monthly average of temperature and rainfall in .........----...------------------- 44,45 Rhode Island, monthly average of temperature and rainfall in .-.--...-.--.---.---------------- 56 Ridicule, attempts of the English Government at.--...-.-...--.------- cis one aetee soe eee 26 Roots; best temperature for preserving -- =. ~~ - oe. soe ngs neces sen secmencaccmeed= seers 115 distance between the rows in) planting <<... 2.22.6 ac nan ceswniews eo sp ilar ee eee 112, 113 of the: beet; number of zones in .... 22.2... 2b. nen cece eo nc capes saeiba see se oe 76 VU UY TA CARS Ae, HOO EP em naraS a aNeesanOen 4ersctecsecme:sfor PR i nt me 114 Sugar ines. cetict Wes ocak es sc wce sen cee se cccsccisetasicaccnsecnc cme Shee ee = ee 87 Rassia, Czar of, gift of $38,895 for beet sugar 24, 25 first beet-sugar factory founded in .....--..- 24 Saltsidistribution/of an" beets <2... 20-2 sscses esses > ccceepicenc- ase 78 Satration, cost of machinery for: 5: 25.3522 ob saat tena eae osee- eee bee eee eee ame 153 Saxony, Silesia, &c., monthly average of temperature and rainfall Schools established in France for beet-sugar manufacture..........--2-.2-2e- eee eee eee ee eee eee 21-24 Page Scums, cost of machinery for... -----------0000cnescnccnn cee eennaenns ce sose sence eeeeen= Lopente 158 Seeds and seed bearers, method of selecting .......... 2-2-2 -ce0ee een ne ene een eee en eee nnee----- 86, 87 average weight of per 100 ....--------+-----0--0+---- 202222 eee ee eee e eee eee cree rc eee 87 DCRtin Mra ten AMIN ea sees toh cee nisin sat cneeiawee Tea Ramee ie cy ace onal dete wtalem=(alaimioi inlaesle 88 DER LRN OT SO WAN Olsen ee spec eee ances eee ee Memeee a cecneseqasceuanes saeane es = 110, 111 HER IATIERIES, OF OCGUItUTOr sect cise ce icc ee eae Uae selene me vaccecdeececace aaneemine 93, 94 Peebemical COMPOSIMON Offs <6.) (- nes oem names nae ee eemnse = «ens ceenas corencenee nina ecen: 88 Fageen Piy.e MOLE TODUSE PLANO 2. ae nms sane melminnn aol e eee am a neo nips se eenie mmm nets lain 87 hearers, M. Demiatte’s article on selecting. ...-.-- 2-222 25--.------ eens ee sense eecs === 91 ReboiOn Seo esied Ot SOAKINO loss seameeanidaanes so enbeSeasiescacncaccesseancessneces eaae 110, 111 Separation of the roots, number of inches apart. Social conditions affecting beet-root culture .-.-. Soils, analyses of, to show favorable composition Eso SUAUCO pO PRO Win OM DOCU psa sete ema ois einen eam te mee a Salons sam eme Sonsini hone aa eeree eliemical Chareerer Obje saris seamen ass sao ae Seer ersten pete oie iam lowe win oieie a aielare arnin aim [snlee improvement of the physical qualities of ....... 2222.22.00 -- 2.22.02 20 2 ees ce seen sone ennee BGAN OR TMC OS tent pinie al acto ns Sess s emls ale acai pa ete a lave im erwcw! om alee minim mim Renal observations on Brepariy for, beet-culburesss42cedeee seats fae cece ee cee cee maa aaeem 109 BUG HONDA NOLO LAN y OLAITOO tease qs4e ana aceite te ee Sic aa alain isle sxe a-aeaslot see 96 SpE: [OTE Sy HTT) Ra NB OT SR Sh eo ee Stop aan ee mC rencaetocinee case 110, 111 PRO CINCTULILEO, DOU PLOMUGCED MI. s o/s maaan )a)=\ sitet eee SE no ilo me melee cee me se cinleinalaen === 72 SB IsitCSs OL Op UL On, Of Hranee 2y4c acre ottac eee meeeeginn = cs ate oa ches saetemcaue acisiacis 117-121 ON DESh COMUNE: 2\ce wep wake eben sto aioe Ce ee ea ebelon ns emnietem cine-e alls maces oie eatale 97-110 condition of sugar-beet culture in New England..-.....-.-.--.-----.-------.---+- 184-275 Mcuirie Reno te Ga at ae) Ei coe 184, 260 ING WAERAIMpSHING 2-28 25 ke ann wate sioeme eels 260, 261 IMBASaChnsebia ee. een eos woe tcc oa Se eee 262, 263 beet culiure:in Prancein 1e25e. seeu cee eens ee te enn ea cinc scab escwente 27, 28 departments in France 29 Brance ant 187bo ee ccees se eee x 31, 32 indigenous sugar in France ....--.----- Cera a ine. aaevehe Seen eet. SUE cose w sSlared 30 rainfall and temperature in France.....-.. pun ye Boys cides pees idl aalsia cides 34-50 the Wnited: States. 242225 5-24 scoters con cee--sde-n-—2 51-69 showing total number and proportion of the inhabitants engaged in agricultural work as compared with those engaged in industrial and professional occupations in the Morohern.and. Western Statesenc. Gusset eees ewe eet wekld Jape Sec Ueeiecetne a> ee ere 122, 123 showing cost of machinery and apparatus for extracting sugar from juices by various TEIRT HES VED Se OC eee ne) 5 SE Bea eR SRBC SHED oon oor dee HEOaSOADre 151-155 Strohmer, Herr, on value of nitrates and phosphates of the alkalies..-..-.......--.....---.---- 281-283 Sugar, Achard’s method of extraction.............---- Retr ee 2 he ed NR. Bee Meee ewe foe 8-23 article from the Moniteur of Paris on the manufacture of.-.......---------------------- 12, 13 Bartels note: On the manulachure Of. nessa Meant nares se cles Sal eeeeeieace cee cen eeetese 21 SGioniboTe IMpOLLAICO OL . 2-5-6. soe eR CERO re tee cia > oe coe REE G clon otaisiciasing ace acts 161-165 Ine Mane, MEDOLE OD ./-canirsyseepsean waa asc aectee Gum aes ea ae eeioe ce 171-180 New -Hampshire.... .sgeee tee cuore te cemeteries ah coeee coos setae 260, 261 Massachusetts --.- earn Ack ee BO See Dene ee nes ae 262, 263 the United Statesu.c-c chosen sscce a scek seecc ee useteGeeer 167-170, 181-275 PeoLANOUsUnye Tn New, MaClAN’ «ust cs cas Saeeeeees cep ee anc ac incase cvaracaenee ac ea aes ee 181-275 IH TAN CG poe fe a, ae:« bx CURE POE Re toe eee inate ween eek Mee ee 49-51, 71-94, 123-1387 beet factories, plans for establishing, in the United States. ..............-.-.-.-------.+-- 278-280 beet, physiological functions of the nitrates and phosphates in.-...-...--.-.-.---.------ 281-283 conditions of the enterprise in France in 1810. -.---.. 2.2.22 2-2-2. n-ne ne nee e nee eee eens 17 concrete, secured in twenty-four hours by Achard Count Chaptal’s report to Napoleon on creation of four imperial factories HNerosNe Saneunod «with. QUIGKLime. ...-ackecanceses Setee «em cRe Jon ace beeadnoe smeactamemns factory of the Society of Perruwelz factory, residues from EE THUIDS. OE UES Bee ae egret fe DB TS 2 en eae met eet eee fetes AD Maven TUN MUTI E TT SREY oe oc -15.5 syelaye wo oe Se ee me cick colbe oe Seen cuits Nalcw Soeeac or heat required for the production of......-..-.-.-.-------------e- eee indigenous, production of, in France, in 1873, 1874, 1875. INGUsEnVrOnC Weal Olin rane: ..s.cscvecsee ee so eacee tcc scteceniccces manufacturers, bond between growers of beets and manufacture, processes and economies ......------------- enn nnn eee ee eee ee eee eeeee manufacture from beet in the United States Margraff’s researches and experiments and important discovery.-.--..----.------------- 8-23 PACLNOUN MOR ONg Map 11) SOLU GONGe week se eee eee ee eh oeueaa bona sao ct sce usceeuee 85, 86 apoleomedecneeranubect SUPATE Hare ce nates eres ent ene: coomce ene cleo cned eeicoc ecules 18-21 PERCen i OP scoMpared With BSH). =>. eee heee saat econ coe eee nececs bo dseeewenscneene 79, 80 TED) TUERUELS apoE Ae ate RI NSIS SESE ae ESI ee i en 79-81 : BAINDEOUS eect oewe eee ee ciate jute acaes se Stace noddawcceass Saccaseaees 78-87 phosphoric acid an indispensable article to produce 105 prizes offered for the production of, in France 18 producing power of a given surface of leaves 287 producedsmelrancegeonN 1 So) tO 1879. = sane tose eee ho a nc ceo dle wc dw en cu cosseenceehens 35 report op beet, in France and the United States... 7 schools for the manufacture of............-.---- 21, 22 separation of, from molasses ..........------.----- 150, 151 ETHAN GV BEVIN SIT) 8 2 or Oo RN ee Nn eR ae Cae 157 System, Linard’s, of transporting juice, as described by Maumené 131-134 Geos purchase byidensityqand quality <<.css=2= cesses sc nceecncoe cos geeacscercquuecnonsuue 124-130 PUA aE AL In) Nranc erent ne eho Soe Ue ee 8 2 aa 157-161 or duty paid to the government by manufacturers in Europe....-----.------s-e--------- 277 Taxes, rates of, mode of collecting, amounts collected .......-.------s---++csceceeeceeeeeceeeee 157-161 294 INDEX. 67, 68 New Hampshire: -cos2e.-2 0-2 = 2c eee seen eee eee 538, 54 New’ York 22322 -.600--2202220. 0030s cote 57-62 QORI0 } ole coh es ee eee se gue eee ae eee 63, 64 Pernsylwania <2. - as <-- 2-)- ss. See eee ee ee 63 Rheinthal 22/22). -e.