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THE FOREST RESOURCES

OF

WESTERN AUSTRALIA

REPO RT

ON THE

FOREST RESOURCES

OF

WESTERN AUSTRALIA

BY

BARON FERD. VON MUELLER

C.M.G., M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S.
GOVERNMENT BOTANIST OF THE COLONY VICTORIA

LONDON
L. REEVE & CO., 5, HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN

1879

'SaSantgne ■p«SB

BALLANTYNE AND HANSON, EDINBURGH
CHAN DOS STREET, LONDON

CONTENTS.

Introductory Remarks ......

I. Spontaneous Forest Resources of West Australia

A. Eucalyptus timber

1. Eucalyptus marginata

2. Eucalyptus calophylla .

3. Eucalyptus ficifolia

4. Eucalyptus diversicolor .

5. Eucalyptus loxoplileba .

6. Eucalyptus redunca

7. Eucalyptus cornuta

8. Eucalyptus gomphocephala

9. Eucalyptus rostrata

10. Eucalyptus rudis .

11. Eucalyptus decipiens

12. Eucalyptus microtheca .

13. Eucalyytus oleosa .

14. Eucalyptus longicornis .

15. Eucalyptus salmonopliloia

16. Eucalyptus- salubris

17. Eucalyptus angustissiina

18. Eucalyptus megacarpa .

19. Eucal3^tus pyriformis

B. Timber-trees not Eucalypts — Casuarina, Agonis, Melaleuca, Frenela, Banksia

Santalum, Acacia
II. Chemical and Microscopical Examination of Eucalyptus Wood

III. Cultural Measures to enrich the West Australian Forests

IV. Initiatory Measures suggested for establishing Forest Administration in

West Australia .....

A. Local Forest Boards .....

B. Revenue from Forest Areas ....

C. Survey and Reservation of Forest Areas .

D. Disposal of Timber, Fuel and other Forest Products

E. Importation of Seeds and Plants

F. Establishment of Local Nurseries ...

G. Test Plantations ......

H. Creation of a Museum of Vegetable Products .

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ILLUSTRATIONS.

Plate 1.

53

II.

J5

III.

5)

IV.

3J

V.

33

VI.

33

VII.

33

VIII.

33

IX.

.33

X.

33

XI.

33

XII.

33

XIII.

33

XIV.

33

XV.

33

XVI.

33

XVII.

3>

XVIII.

Eucalyptus marginata.

Eucalyptus calopliylla.

Eucalyptus iicifolia.

Eucalyptus di versicolor.

Eucalyptus loxophleba.

Eucalyptus redunca.

Eucalyptus cornuta.

Eucalyptus gompliocephala.

Eucalyptus rudis.

Eucalyptus decipiens.

Eucalyptus microtheca.

Eucalyptus oleosa.
Eucalyptus longicornis.

Eucalyptus salmonophloia.

Eucalyptus salubris.

Eucalyptus angustissima.

Eucalyptus pyriformis.

Fig. 1 . — Transverse section of wood
of Eucalyptus marginata ; a. vas-
cular tubes, h. parenchymatous
cells, c. medullary rays, d. ligneous
fibre. -F.

Fig 2. — Tangential section of the
wood of Eucalyptus marginata.

Fig. 3. — Eadial section of the same.

Fig. 4. — Stomata of leaf of Euca-
lyptus salubris. Both surfaces
alike. 130,000 stomata to a
square inch.

Plate XIX. Fig. 1. — Isolated organs of wood of
Eucalyptus marginata, -r-- a. Vas-
cular tube, larger dots communi-
cating with medullary ceUs. h.
Prosenchyma. c. Parenchyma.
d. MeduUaiy ceUs. e. Transverse
section of medullary cells.

Fig. 2. — Stomata (hypogenous only)
of under-side of leaf of Eucalyp-
tus marginata, 500,000 on a square
inch.

Fig. 3«. — Stomata of under-side
(hypogenous) of leaf of Eucalyptus
calophylla. About 500,000 to a
square inch. Size of stomata 0 '0 1 5
to 0-025 mm. h. Pollen. H^-

Fig. 4a. — Stomata (amphigenous) of
leaf of Eucalyptus cornuta. About
120,000 to a square inch. Size of
stomata 0"035 to 0*045 mm. b.
Pollen, -i^.

Fig. 5. — Isolated cellular and vas-
cular constituents of the wood of
Eucalyptus loxophleba treated
with concentrated nitric acid and
chromate of potash, a. Paren-
chyma, b. Medullary cells. c.
Vascular cell (tube), d. Prosen-
chyma. ^f^.

„ XX. Fig. 1. — Lower cuticle of leaf of
Eucalyptus ficifolia, one areole.
About 170,000 stomata to a square
inch. '4^.
Fig. 2. — Tangential section of wood
of Eucalyptus loxoplileba. H^.

-Horizontal section of the

Fig. 3.

50

same, ^r-

Fig. 4.

-Kadial section of the same.

REPORT

ON THE

FOREST RESOURCES OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

The forest-regions of extra-tropic West Australia occupy an area equal to the whole territory of Great
Britain ; and it is singularly fortunate for the colony, that over this vast extent of wooded country
a species of Eucalyptus (the Yarrah) prevails which for the durability of its timber is unsurpassed by
any kind of tree in any portion of the globe. Under such circumstances the timber resources must be
regarded as among the foremost in importance throughout the wide tracts of West Austraha, even if
the many other kinds of utilitarian trees, occurring in the more southern portion of that colonial
territory, and the still more varied sorts of timber-trees, to be found within the intra-tropic regions
of West Australia, were left out of consideration.

It is furthermore of .particular advantage to the colony that its highly valuable Yarrah-timber is
obtainable through at least five degrees of geographic latitude, and this within so short or moderate
a distance of shipping places as to render it easily accessible to foreign traffic.

But as nowhere, not even in the most extensive woodlands, can the supply of timber from natural
forests be considered inexhaustible, a rational far-seeing provision for the maintenance (if not for
the enrichment) of its forest-treasures is needful for West Australia, however indiminishable these
may appear to be at present.

In all densely-popidated countries the consumption of timber is out of all proportion to the natural
upgrowth or even cultural renewal of indigenous forests ; and this disproportion of want to local
supply wiU become greater and greater in the course of time, when denser settlements will be formed
in those countries, from whence now subsidiary or main timber supplie;> are obtained. Hence also
the celebrated Yarrah-timber wiU become still more highly appreciated by subsequent generations ;
and as its replacement in cleared forests cannot be effected with the same celerity as that of sevejal
other less valuable timber producing Eucalypts, we may assume that any Yarrah-forest, if allowed to
go to destruction, would probably not be replaced more quickly than those of many European or North-
American trees, still largely (but not likely for ever) yielding timber for export, even if agricultural
and pastoral pursuits, with their ever-increasing demands for ground, would not likewise diminish
the natural areas of the Yarrah-Eucalypt in West Australia. Moreover, the forest questions have
their particularly important bearings, inasmuch as the West Australian territory, stretching through
such wide geographic parallels, can rear in reahty any kinds of timber of the globe by cultural
processes, the trees of colder countries being adapted to the cool and humid climate of the most
south-western portion, whereas trees of the tropic zone would prosper along the north-west coast. This
is not without significance, when we reflect, that neither the North- American, nor the Baltic, nor any
other northern countries will continue to furnish the indispensable deal for indefinite j^eriods to other
parts of the globe, where pine-woods do not exist either naturally or copiously ; in the same manner,

B

2 FOREST RESOURCES OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

every tropical country (and this applies also largely to West Australia) should strive to transfer the
leading timber-trees of the hot zone to its own shores for independent supplies, more especially as
tropical species, unlike many from the colder zones, are seldom gregarious anywhere. Considerations
of forest-resources are therefore of particularly weighty meaning to West Australia under manifold
aspects.

For clearness' sake it is deemed desirable to treat in this succinct report the forest question of West
Australia in four divisions : —

1. To elucidate phytograpliically the various native timber-trees, hitherto leadingly there in use,
by descriptive notes and lithographic illustrations for easy and accurate specific recognition, and to
add some brief data on their respective utilitarian importance.

2. To explain the chemic and microscopic characteristics, indicative of various qualities of Euca-
lyptus-wood.

3. To show by what cultural and industrial measures the yields and riches of the West
Australian forests could be largely enhanced.

4. To express my views, how in a yoang colony with a very sparse population, an inexpensive
forest administration could be effectually initiated.

A brief document, like the one intended for this occasion, cannot be expected to treat exhaustively
the forest-interests of a country as large as European Russia, and with a clime far more genial, more
particularly as the writer had only on three occasions the opportunity of traversing portions of
the vast extent of West Australia, and then only for a few weeks each time — in 1856 (as naturalist
of the expedition sent out by the Duke of Newcastle, under Aug. Gregory), some of the north-
eastern regions along Sturt's river from latitude 18° to 22° 20' south ; in 1867, the Stirling range and
surrounding country, and the vicinity of King George's Sound; and in 1877, the country from
Champion Bay to Shark Bay, and also from Swan River to Geograph Bay, and thence to the
Shannon and Gordon rivers — these last-mentioned journeys being carried out under special facilities,
liberally afforded by the West Australian Government.

I— SPONTANEOUS FOREST RESOURCES OF WEST AUSTRALIA.

A. — Eucalyptus Timber.

From the extra-tropic territory of West Austraha, as far as phytograpliically explored, about half a
hiuidred species of Eucalypts have hitherto been made known ; while we are acquauited w4th about
thirty tropical species, which extend into the West Australian territory. A portion, however, of these
eighty Eucalypts form only small trees, or are of shrubby growth. The technic value of many even of
the arboreous species, particularly those of inland districts, and those of the intra-tropic latitudes,
have been up to this time almost completely unascertained for the purposes of artisans. In the
following pages, therefore, only those kinds are aUuded to of which the timber has come into general
use, and has been tested by lengthened experience ; but it may be assumed that many of the other
Eucalypts of the West Australian dominions can be brought advantageously^ into industrial use ; and
inasmuch as the north-west coa,st possesses several excellent harbours, the shipment of many new
kinds of serviceable Eucalyptus-timber for export is likely to take place in years to come, when also
that ample territory will become more densely settled by colonists. It may here be observed that,
fas ar as known, Eucalypts form also in the intra-tropic portions of West Australia the prevailing-
timber, although they are in many places largely interspersed there with trees of Indian types.

It must be patent to every cofitemplating mind that a most accurate knowledge of the charac-
teristics of each species of tree is imperatively necessary to discriminate between allied kinds, the

EUCALYPTUS TIMBER. 3

timber of which, notwithstanding close speciHc affinity of the trees themselves, is often found to
be widely different in its adaptability to particular work, or in its resistance to the ravages of
insects or other destructive creatures, whether of animal or (as fungi) vegetable growth. Besides,
an intimate knowledge of each particular species will also render any culture of them easier, in
choosing for each the clime and soil respectively best adapted for them. Hence descriptive details
and lithographic illustrations are now offered, to render the recognition of at least the leading South-
West Australian species safe and altogether free from difficulty.

1. Eucalyptus margiiiata. Smith, in the Transactions of the Linnean Society of London, vi. 302
(1802). Bentham's Flora Australiensis, iii. tj09. The Yarrah-tree, or West Australian
Mahogany-Eucalypt.

Leaves scattered, on moderately long stalks, from oval to narrow-lanceolar, somewhat cun^ed,
acuminate, paler and not shining underneath, with numerous v^ry spreading veins, the intra-
marginal vein at some slight distance from the edge ; flower-stalks almost all axillary, with three
to twelve flowers, slender and usually compressed ; the stalklets (of each individual flower) longer
than the tube of the calyx ; lid from semi-elliptical to narrow conical, about twice as long as the
tube ; stamens all perfect, flexuose, but not bent back before expansion ; anthers heart- or kidney-
shaped, opening by longitudinal slits ; fruit ovate-globular, truncate, the margin of the summit flat ;
valves three, enclosed or but slightly exserted ; seeds without membranous appendage.

The Yarrah-tree extends over the greater portion of the country from the Moore river to King-
George's Sound, advancing also to Cape Leeuwin, forming mainly the forests of these tracts.
Isolated patches of straggling trees occur in some places beyond the main area here indicated. It
does not enter to any extent the forests of Karri and York Gum-trees. The tree exceeds occasionally
100 feet, but rarely 150 feet in height. On account of its persistent and somewhat flbrous bark, it
would be classed with the " stringy bark trees" of the eastern colonies, had it been an inmate of
the forests there. Hence in the cortical system it must be inserted among the Pachyphloiae. The
wood has attained a world-wide celebrity ; when especially selected from hiUy localities, cut while
the sap is least active, and subsequently carefully dried, it proves impervious to the borings of the
Chelura, Teredo, and Termites ; it is therefore in extensive demand for jetties, piles, railway-sleepers,
fence-posts, and all kinds of underground structures, and it is equally important as one of the most
durable for the planking and frames of ships. It is also much used locally for flooring, rafters, spars,
and furniture ; though hard (particularly that of the ironstone ranges) it is easier worked than
wood of E. loxophleba and E. redunca. The timber from hills is darker, tougher, and heavier than
that from plains. The weight of well -seasoned wood is, at an average, about sixty -four pounds for the
cubic foot. It is one of the least inflammable for building structures, and one of the very best in West
Australia for charcoal, not burning so readily into ashes as most kinds of Eucalyptus-wood. Stems
have been measured eighty feet to the first branch, with a circumference of thirty-two feet at five feet
from the ground. For shingles the wood is doubly as durable as even that of Casuarina Fraseriana,
though it is more apt somewhat to warp, if not well selected.

In explaining in this and all other cases the uses of any particular Eucalypt, it must be under-
stood that it is not attempted in these pages to sum up all the purposes for which any particular
species of timber can be employed. This cannot fully and satisfactorily be done from such inquiries
as, amidst multifarious engagements and observations, the writer could carry ouc during the short
periods of his travels in West Austraha, but must be left to the circumspectness of local artisans,
whose accumulated experiences during the fifty years' existence of the colony must have
become both extensive and reliable. This much, however, can be foreseen, that E. marginata is
destined to supply one of the most lasting of hardwood timbers for a long time to come, at the least
costly rate, to very many parts of the globe.

The specific name adopted by Su- James Smith for Eucalyptus marginata is not very expressive,

B 2

4 FOREST EESOURCES OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

as it relates merely to the somewhat thickened margin of the leaves, which indeed is not more
evident than in most Eucalypts. The founder of the Linnean Society received liis specimens from
Archibald Menzies, naturalist to the expedition of Captain Vancouver, who in 1791 discovered and
named King George's Sound, and who was thus also instrumental in rendering known first of all
many South-West Australian plants.

^Explanation of Lithogram. Plate I.
The main Lithogram (Plate I.) exhibits in this, and all subsequent Plates, the natural size of
the foHage, flowers, and fruits.

1. Longitudinal section of unexpanded flower ; 2. Front view of anther (with portion of the
filament) ; 3. Back view of the same ; 4. Style, with its minute stigma ; 5. Longitudinal section of
fruit; 6. Transverse section of fruit ; 7. Sterile seeds ; 8. Fertile seeds ; 9. Embryo.— 1 to 4 and 9,
magnified ; 5 to 8, natural size.

2. Eucalyptus calophijlla. R. Brown, in the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, 1831,

20. Bentham's Flora Austrahensis, iii. 255. The Red Gum-tree of South-West Australia
(but not of the interior or the eastern colonies).

Leaves scattered, on long stalks, broad- or lanceolar-ovate, acute, of rather thick consistence, much
paler and not shining underneath, with numerous very spreading subtile closely-parallel veins, the
peripheric vein contiguous with the margin ; umbels four- to six -flowered, intermiiial panicles, or
some few axillary and solitary ; stalklets quadrangular, generally about as long as the stalks and as
the pear-shaped calyx ; hd depressed-hemispheric, very short, only about half as broad as the tube
of the calyx ; stamens all perfect ; filaments inflexed before expansion ; anthers cuneate- or oval-
oblong, with parallel cells opening lengthwise ; fruits large, urceolar-ovate, three- to four-celled, not
^.ngular ; valves short, deeply enclosed ; fertile seeds very large, brown-black, at the edge acute, but
not produced into a membranous appendage.

Interspersed with the Yarrah-Eucalypt throughout nearly the whole area of that species, but less
gregarious, though next to it the most frequent of South-West Australian trees, seemingly reaching
its northern boundary on the Hill river and its southern at King George's Sound, mixed also into
the forests of E. loxophleba, but not into those of E. diversicolor.

The most umbrageous among tall Eucalypts of the colony, on account of its leaves t mining the
surface more than the edge to the zenith, a characteristic which it shares with but few Eucalypts
although with most other trees of the globe. The bark is persistent, rough, furrowed, and pervaded
with Kino, for which reason this species would be ranked with the Ironbark-trees of Eastern Austraha,
if indigenous there. Its place in the cortical system is among the Schizophloiae. The foHage of
younger seedlings is remarkable, their stems, leaf-stalks, and leaves being beset with bristly haii's,
while the leaves are aflixed, not like leaves of the more aged tree to their stalks at the base, but are
inserted at a considerable distance above the base, as shown in the background of the lithographic
illustration.

The growth of E. calophy lla is far more rapid than that of E. marginata. The tree yields locally
much timber for naves, harrows, ploughs, shafts, spokes, rafters, handles, frames, rails, and various
building operations ; but the wood cannot be utilised for underground work, being subject to decay
when so placed. It is generally more free of Kino-substance when grown on alluvial soil, and is
tougher than that of E. marginata, but not so strong as that of E. loxophleba ; this is the only
tree in West Australia producing Kino copiously, this tannmg substance being drawn into use not
only locally as an admixture to the bark of Acacia saligna, but exported also both in a liquid and a
dry state. In height E. calophylla u not inferior to E. marginata, and stems have exceptionally
been observed with a diameter of ten feet.

Robert Brown, when as companion of Captain Flinders in 1802 he visited the south coast of

EUCALYPTUS TIMBER. 5

West Australia, bestowed the specific name on tliis tree seemingly for a double reason, because
the foliage is far more beautiful than that of most Eucalypts, and also because the venation of the
leaves reminds of that of the tropical genus Calophyllum of Linnc.

Explanation of Lithogram. Plate II.

1, Longitudinal section of unexpanded flower; 2. Front view of a stamen ; 3. Back view of a
stamen ; 4, Style with stigma ; 5. Transverse section of fruit ; 6. Longitudinal section of fruit ;
7. Sterile seeds ; 8. Fertile seeds ; 9. Embryo. — 1 to 4, magnified ; 5 to 9, natural size.

3. Eucalyptus jicifolia. F. v. MueUer, Fragmenta Phytographiae Austrahae, ii. 85 (18G0,)
Bentham's Flora Austrahensis, iii. 256. The crimson-flowered Eucalypt.

The characteristics of this species are so similar to those of E. calophylla, that it is deemed
unnecessary to ofier a diagnosis. The diversity of E. ficifolia rests on the following points : — The
tree is of smaller stature, the greatest height not exceeding fifty feet ; the bark is generally still
more deeply fiuTowed ; the leaves are usually longer, more acuminate and less dotted ; the calyces
are on the whole rather larger, somewhat tinged with red, longer in proportion to then- width ; the
filaments are of a magnificent crimson ; the seeds are of a pale colour and provided with a mem-
branous appendage. To this may be added, that the seedling at no time of its gro\\i:h is
conspicuously rough from bristlets, nor do the leaves even in the earliest period of the plant show
the insertion to be supra-basal to the stalk.

The geographic distribution of this species is very limited ; it extends, according to Messrs.
Muir and Maxwell, from the western side of Irwin's Inlet to the mouth of the Shannon, the forests
of this tree forming a belt not quite near to the coast nor very remote from it, the furthest distance
inland being about eight miles. Hardly anythmg more gorgeous can be imagined than the forest of
E. ficifolia about the month of February, when the brilliant trusses of flowers difluse a rich red over
the dark-green foliage of the whole landscape.

Although of the value of the timber nothing as yet is known, this species could not be passed in
this report, it being even almost unknown to West Australian colonists, though its floral magnificence
was demonstrated already in 1867 from trees reared by the writer in the Botanic Garden of
Melbourne. More recently it has been introduced into the countries around the Mediterranean Sea,
and into several other parts of the globe free of frost. A lucrative trade in seeds of E. ficifoha is
sure to arise, as through my exertions this species, like many other West Australian plants, has
now become widely appreciated.

The tree ought also in West Australia to be reared as an umbrageous, highly ornamental
avenue-tree.

The species was first described from a mere fruiting branchlet, and received its name from the
resemblance of its foliage to the leaves of several species of Ficus, of the series to which the
Indiarubber Fig-tree belongs.

Only two other taU Eucalyptus-trees can perhaps be compared in floral splendour to the present
species — namely, E. miniata (A. Cunningham, in A. Walpers's Eepei-torium, ii. 925, anno 1843), and
E. phoenicea (F. v. M., in the Journal of the Linnean Society, iii. 91, anno 1859), both extending
from Carpentaria into the most northern regions of the West Austrahan territory, the colour of their
flowers being a fiery orange.

Explanation of Lithogram. Plate III.

1. Longitudinal section of unexpanded flower ; 2. Front view of a stamen; 3. Back view of a
stamen ; 4. PoUen grains ; 5. Style : 6. Longitudinal section of fruit ; 7. Transverse section of
fruit; 8. Sterile seeds ; 9. Fertile seeds ; 10. Embryo m ^f^w ; 11. Embryo unfolded. — All magnified.
At the upper right-hand corner of the lithogram is shown the brancli and leaves of a seedling plant.

6 FOEEST EESOUECES OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

4. Eucalyptus diversicolor. F. v. Mueller, Fragmenta Phytograpliiae Australiae, iii. 131
(1863). Bentham's Flora Australiensis, iii. 251. The Karri-tree.

Leaves scattered, oval-lanceolate, somewhat sickle-shaped, paler beneath, traversed by numerous
very spreading and subtile veins, the intra-marginal vein somewhat distant from the edge ; umbels
axillary, solitary, three- to six-flowered, on almost cylindric stalks ; calyces ellipsoid, with attenuated
base on stalklets hardly as long ; tube not angular, nearly twice as long as the lid ; stamens inflexed
before expansion ; anthers almost heart-shaped, opening with longitudinal slits ; fruit truncate-ovate,
three-celled ; valves enclosed ; seeds small, without any membranous appendage.

Li the humid country at and near the Warren, Shannon, Donelly, Walpole, and Gardner rivers,
towards the coast constituting forests, occurring also as far east as Mount Manypeak and the Poron-
gerup, and westward fully to Cape Leeuwin. This gigantic tree has only one single rival on our
island-continent, the Eucalyptus amygdalina (var. regnans) of South-East Australia, the grand
features of which it completely repeats. Startling accounts of monster specimen trees are on record,
and its maximum height is certainly not over-estimated at 400 feet. Messrs. Muir measured stems
300 feet long up to the first limb. When closely growing the young trees have a very slender stem,
so much so, that a tree 180 feet high, and with comparatively but little foliage, may have a stem
not over one foot in diameter. Captain Pemberton Walcott found the circumference of one
particularly gigantic tree to be 60 feet around the base.

Although we do not know what giants the forests of Central Africa, many unexplored parts of
continental and insular India, New Guinea, and also perhaps South America may still jDresent, yet so
far as known to West Australia and Victoria must at present be awarded the palm for the tallest
trees in the world, the only ones which so far can be brought into comparison with them being the
Wellingtonia-pine and Sequoia-pine of western North America, unless perhaps Pinus grandis, Pinus
Menziesii, Pinus Lambertiana, and Pinus Douglasii, also enter into competition as regards enormous
height.

Widths of timber of as much as twelve feet can be obtained. The whitish smooth bark of the
huge stems of mast-like straightness impresses a peculiar feature on the Karri-forests, and places this
species into the Leiophloiae of the cortical system. These particular woodlands not being very
accessible our experience of the value of the timber is still imperfect, but the Karri-timber will
become doubtless important for the lumber trade, whenever the harbours between King George's
Sound and Cape Leeuwin shall have been fully opened up for commerce and settlement. The wood
is regarded as elastic and durable, but it is not so easily wrought as that of E. marginata ; it has
proved valuable for shafts, spokes, felloes, and rails, and' is paiticularly sought for large planks. The
writer has introduced the tree into Victoria, also into South Europe and North Africa, and to some
extent elsewhere, it being easily manageable in culture and of comparatively quick gro^vth. Abroad
this species, on account of its huge dimensions, passes very often as Eucalyptus colossea ; but the
name here adopted according to the laws of jDriority cannot be changed now ; it arose at a time when
the colossal height of E. diversicolor was quite unknown. The specific name was derived from the
paleness of the leaves on the lower side, unusual among allied species.

Explanation of Lithogram. Plate IV.

1. Two forms of the unexpanded calyx ; 2. Longitudinal section of unexpanded flower ;
3. Front view of stamen ; 4. Back view of stamen ; 5. PoUen grains magnified 300 times diametrically ;
6. Pistil ; 7. IVuit seen from above ; 8. Abnormal form of fruit ; 9. Longitudinal section of fruit ;
10. Transverse section, of fruit ; 11. Sterile seeds; 12. Fertile seeds; 13. Embryo; 14. The same
expanded. — The comparison with tire principal drawing, which is of natural size, will indicate the
degree of enlargement of the analytic figures.

EUCALYPTUS TIMBER 7

5. Eucalyptus loxoiMeha. Bentliain, Flora Australiensis, iii. 252 (186G). The York

Gum-tree.

Leaves scattered, curved-lanceolar, acuminate, equally green on both sides, their veins somewhat
distant and prominent, the peripheric vein distinctly removed from the margin ; umbels axillary,
solitary, six- to twelve -flowered, on cylindric or faintly compressed stalks ; tube of the calyx obconic,
not angular, attenuated into a short stalklet ; lid hemispheric or pyramidal-conical, shorter than the
tube of the calyx ; stamens short, inflexed before expansion ; anthers minute, opening with
longitudinal slits ; fruit truncate-ovate, three to four-cellea, its rim narrow ; the valves deeply enclosed ;
seeds small, without any appendage.

On the eastern tracts of the Darling ranges a main constituent of the forests, extending only
through a narrow strip of country eastward beyond them, spreading northward in a variety called by
the natives Yandee, to the Murchison river, and, according to Mr. J. Forrest, eastward as far as
Kojenup, and thence southward to near King George's Sound.

This tree occupies more particularly the eastern slopes of the Darling range, not entering the
western tracts where the Yarrah-Eucalyptus forms the main forest. It is content with poor soil.
Its abundance near the town of York suggested the English name.

Never a very high tree, seldom exceeding eighty feet, not rarely of crooked growth ; stem rarely
above four feet in diameter. The bark is persistent and rough, and draws this species mto the
E-hytiphloiae ; inside it is I'ed like that of the Morrel-Eucalypt. The wood is regarded as the very
best in West Australia for naves and felloes, on account of its toughness ; though not sufiiciently
fissile to be split into rails, it is for this very reason preferentially sought for many superior purposes
by artisans.

Mr. Bentham derived the name of this species from the direction of the veins of the leaves.

Explanation of Lithogram. Plate V.

1. Longitudinal section of unexpanded flower ; 2. Front view of a stamen ; 3. Back view of a
stamen ; 4. Style and stigma ; 5. Longitudinal section of fruit ; 6. Transverse section of fruit ;
7. Sterile seeds ; 8. Fertile seeds ; 9. Embryo; 10. Cotyledons stretched out to exliibit their form
and that of the radicle. — All magnified.

6. Eucalyptus redunca. Schauer, in Lehmann's Plantae Pressianae, i. 127 (1844). Bentham's

Flora Australiensis, iii. 253. The Wandoo-tree.

Leaves scattered, ovate- or falcate-lanceolar, acuminate, their veins subtile and rather remote,
the peripheric vein distant from the margin ; umbels six- to twelve-flowered, on an usually com-
pressed stalk ; tube of the calyx narrow, attenuated into a short stalklet, twice or thrice shorter
than the conical-pointed lid ; stamens before expansion inflexed ; anthers oblong, opening by
longitudinal slits ; fruit three- to four-celled, ovate or more oblong, truncate, but usually contracted
at the summit ; the rim narrow ; valves enclosed or only their apex exserted ; fertile seeds small
without appendage.

Prevaihng as a forest-tree on the eastern slopes of the Darling ranges, extending more spai'ingiy
northward to the Murchison river, and south-eastward to Cape Kiche, as far as hitherto recorded.

It is a smooth-barked tree and the principal White Gum-tree of West Austraha, so called on
account of the hue of its bark, which on friction imparts a white colour, and is not shining.

The height of the tree only exceptionally exceeds 120 feet, and like several other Eucalyptus-trees
it flowers often already in a shrubby state, when only *a few feet high. The stem is known to have
attained occasionally a diameter of seventeen feet.

In the cortical system it belongs to the Leiophloiae.

The wood is very pale, hard, and durable ; it is much used for cart-shafts, spokes, cogs, rollers,
naves, and felloes ; indeed, for these purposes it is on the whole regarded as the best in West

8 FOREST RESOURCES OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

Australia, although on account of its toughness it is difficult to work. The seasoned wood is so heavy
as to attain a weight of seventy pounds to the cubic foot.

The tree is so indifferent in regard to soil as to prosper even on cold clayey or poor gravelly
flats, where humidity stagnates in the wet season.

Dr. Schauer, of Breslau, who obtained specimens from Preiss's collection, chose the name of the
species (not very aptly) from the curvature of the lid.

Explanation of Litliogram. Plate VI.

1. Calyces of two varieties, natural size ; 2. Longitudinal section of bud ; 3. Front view of a
stamen ; 4. Back view of a stamen ; 5. Style with stigma ; 6. Longitudinal section of fruit ;
7. Transverse section of fruit ; 8. Sterile seeds; 9. Fertile seeds; 10. Embryo; 11. Cotyledons
moved from the radicle. — 2 to 11, magnified.

7. Eucalyptus cornuta. LabiUardiere, Relation du Voyage a la Recherche de La Perouse, i. 403,
t. 20 (1799). Bentham's Flora Australiensis, iii. 234. The Yate-tree.

Leaves scattered, oblong-ovate or falcate-lanceolar, equally green on both sides ; their veins thin,
spreading, the peripheric vein somewhat remote from the margin ; flowers from three to twenty-one,
crowded on long solitary axillary cylindric or somewhat compressed stalks ; lid horn-like, several times
longer than the obconic bell-shaped tube of the calyx ; stamens straight before expansion ; filaments as
well as the style yellow, very long; anthers comparatively long, narrow-ellipsoid, opening with
longitudinal shts ; fruit three- to four-celled ; valves elongated, exserted, pyramidally connivent,
cohering far up and passing into the style ; fertile as well as sterile seeds without any appendage.

From the vicinity of Geograph Bay, at least as far as Cape Riche, the " Yate" is of rapid
growth. In Lucknow, according to Dr. Bonavia (to whom I supplied the seeds), it attained in
the first year eight to ten feet, and the young plants did not sufler there from the tropical rains, as
is the case with so many other Eucalypts. I witnessed the quickness of its growth also at
Melbourne, on even poor ground. The tree advances in age to a very considerable height. The
bark of at least part of the stem is smooth and pale, hence the Yate must be placed among the
Lerophloiae, unless it is preferred to arrange it with the Hemiphloiae. Its elastic and very hard
wood is splendid for agricultural implements, boat-ribs, and is for wheelwrights' work as good as
that of Eucalyptus loxophleba, while for cart-shafts it is regarded as equal to the best English
ash-wood.

Mr. Muir noted a variety of Yate, which has the mass of its foliage flat-topped ; besides tliis
there is another variety, considered by some as a distinct species, the Eucalyptus Lehmanni (Preiss
in Lehmann's Plantae Preissianae, i. 127), which mainly diflers in having the calyces of the flowers
and fruits connate into one mass.

Monsieur LabiUardiere discovered Eucalyptus cornuta in 1792 at Cape Leeuwin, when naturalist
of the expedition sent out under the command of Admiral D'Entrecasteaux, in search of the missing-
ships of the unfortunate Count La Perouse. The specific name was aptly given in allusion to the
horn-like lid of the flowers.

Explanation of Lithogram. Plate VII.

1. Longitudinal section of unexpanded flower ; 2. Summit of longitudinal section of unexpanded
flower of a larger variety ; 3. Front view of the upper part of a stamen ; 4. Back view of the
same ; 5. Pistil ; G. Longitudinal section of fruit ; 7. Transverse section of fruit ; 8. Sterile seeds ;
9. Fertile seeds ; 10. Embryo. — 1, 6, and 7, natural size ; 2 to 5 and 8 to 10, magnified.

EUCALYPTUS TIMBER. 9

8. Eucalyptus gomphocephala. De CandoUe, Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Pvegni Vegetabilis,

iii. 220 (1828). Bentham's Flora Australiensis, iii. 231. The Tuart-tree.

Leaves scattered, on rather long stalks, sickleshaped-lanceolar, equally green on both sides,
traversed by very fine and spreading veins, the longitudinal vein on each side very close to the
margin ; umbels axillary, solitary ; three- to six-flowered ; stalks broad, much compressed ; stalklets
none or extremely short ; lid hemispheric or semiovate, hard, very considerably broader than the
width of the obconic or somewhat urceolar tube of the calyx ; stamens inflexed before expansion ;
anthers oblong-oval, bursting by longitudinal slits ; style very short ; fruit almost bell-shaped,
rather large, somewhat angular, four-celled, their rims convex and broad ; valves exserted ; seeds
without appendage.

In the calcareous coast-tracts at intervals from the vicinity of Swan River to near Cape Leeuwin.
Never a taU tree, rarely attaining a height of over 100 feet, but the stem often of considerable
diameter. Bark persistent, wrinkled, which thus designates this species as belonging to the
Rhytiphloiae. Wood in use for shafts, naves, felloes, and various implements ; it is solid, hard, and
does not rend; it has come into use for shipbuilders' purposes and various artisans' work.

The specific name arose from the extreme turgidity of the lid, as compared to the width of the
tube of the calyx. This characteristic renders this species one of the most easy for recognition.

Explanation of Lithoyram. Plate VIII.
1. Longitudinal section of unexpanded flower ; 2. Front view of anther ; 3.' Back view of
anther ; 4. Pistil ; 5. Longitudinal section of fruit ; 6. Transverse section of fruit ; 7. Sterile seeds ;
8. Fertile seeds ; 9. Embryo ; 10. The same unfolded to show the radicle fully. — All enlarged.

9. Eucalyptus rostrata. Schlechtendal, Linnaea xx. 655(1847). Bentham's Flora Australiensis,

iii. 240. The Flooded Gum-tree of the interior.

Leaves scattered, sickleshaped-lanceolar, of rather thin consistence, equally green on both
sides ; the veins fine, numerous, and pinnately spreading, the peripheric vein distinctly removed
from the margin ; umbels with from five to nine flowers, on a slender stalk ; tube of the calyx
semiglobular, much shorter than its thin stalklet ; lid hemisj^heric towards the base, long, acutely
and rather suddenly attenuated to its summit, or seldom gradually narrowed into a blunt apex ;
stamens inflexed before expansion ; anthers roundish-ovate, opening with longitudinal slits ; fruit
small, towards the base almost semiglobular, its vertex protruding with the broad ascending
margin ; valves emersed, short ; seeds without any appendage.

Generally lining the watercourses of the far interior, observed by me in the littoral portion of
West AustraKa, southward only to the Murchison river, but occurring also in the oases, where
humidity lodges, towards Shark Bay, thence often along the streams of also the tropical portion of
West Australia.

This hig'hly important tree indicates to explorers the lines of creeks, and to pastoral settlers,
chiefly in the more central regions of Australia, the watering-places for theii' flocks. It is the
famous "Red Gum-tree" of South Australia, Victoria, and the interior of New South Wales, but
passes in Queensland as " Flooded Gum-tree." It is one of the few Eucalypts which stretch from
the west-coast of the Australian continent to the east and north-east coasts, reaching also east of
Great Bight the southern shores. This tree is seldom over 100 feet high; the baik is whitish,
and remains smooth on account of the periodic secession of the outer layers, hence the species
belongs to the Leiophloiae.

In the extraordinary endurance of its timber in underground structures, it has only one
Austrahan rival — namely, the Yarrah — but surpasses that celebrated tree in ease and quickness of its
growth. It can be reared even in often inundated places, which thus might be utihsed for the

c

10 FOEEST RESOUKCES OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

production of one of the best timbers of tlie globe. It is also the leading species for forest-
culture in tropical lowlands. For piles, culverts, telegraph-posts, railway-sleepers, and fence-posts
no better timber can be chosen anywhere. For shipbuilding it is also in manifold ways available, as
it resists, when well selected, the attacks of the crustaceous Chelura and Limnoria, and of the
Teredo-mollusc, as well as of the Termites. The wood, moreover, is readily utilised for furniture and
for endless building operations, much sought also for railway buffers, not to speak of minor artisans'
works, for which it is eminently fitted.

The weight of a cubic foot of seasoned wood varies from fifty-three to fifty-eight pounds. The
tree exudes also an excellent Kino for medicinal and tannic use.

Dr. von Schlechtendal, of Halle, gave the tree its specific name in allusion to the beak-like
elongation of the Hd of the calyx.

10. Eucalyptus rudis. Endhcher, in Baron von Huegel's Enumeratio Plantarum Novae
Hollandiae Austro-Occidentahs, 49 (1837). Bentham's Flora Australiensis, iii. 244. One
of the Flooded Gum-trees of the south-western coast-country.

Leaves scattered, from broad- to narrow-lanceolar, curved, copiously dotted with pellucid
oil-glands, but not shining ; the veins numerous, subtile, and very spreading ; the peripheric veins
somewhat distant from the margin ; umbels stalked, axillary, solitary, three- to eight-flowered ; calyces
on conspicuous stalklets, the tube almost turbinate, nearly as long as or shorter than the semiovate-
conic lid ; stamens inflexed before expansion ; anthers obovate, with contracted base, opening with
longitudinal parallel slits ; style short, twisted ; fruit turbinate-hemispheric, three- to five-celled,
dUated around the margin, their rims narrow ; valves exserted, short ; seeds without appendage.

On river-banks from Swan River to Cape Leeuwin.. and eastward at least as far as the Gardiner
river.

This species has been described and illustrated on this occasion, not as an important timber-
tree — its wood serving seemingly for little else than fuel — but to demonstrate the uncertainty of
vernacular names bestowed by colonists on Eucalypts in various parts of Australia. Thus w^e have
not less than three distinct Flooded Gum-trees in Western Australia alone — viz.. Eucalyptus rostrata,
E. rudis, and E. decipiens. The last-mentioned species is described also by Dr. Endlicher, of Vienna,
in the quoted work of the nobleman (and subsequent ambassador) who visited the country between
Swan River and King George's Sound as long ago as 1 833, and brought with him for scientific elucidation
a host of West Australian plants, at a time when so little especially of the Swan River vegetation
was known. Eucalyptus decipiens differs already from E. rostrata and E. rudis m having
its flowers and fruits sessile on the general stalk, also in the form and dehiscence of its anthers,
which are globular and open rather by pores than by slits. Neither Eucalyptus rudis nor E. decipiens
are very large trees ; and both, on account of their persistent rough bark, belong to Rhytiphloiae, being
thus signally different from the valuable Flooded Gum-tree of the interior. The writer is miacquainted
with any technic value which the wood of E. decipiens may possess ; but E. rudis deserves notice
on this occasion, as being among the few West Austrahan species which would furnish lucrative
material for the distillation of the antiseptic and also industrially so valuable Eucalyptus oil.

Explanation of Lithogram. Plate IX.
1. Lono-itudinal section of a flower bud; 2. Front view of stamen; 3. Back view of stamen;
4. Pistil; 5. Longitudinal section of fruit; 6. Transverse section of fruit; 7. Sterile seeds;
8. Fertile seeds; 9. Embryo; 10. Cotyledons moved asunder to show the radicle. — All analytic
details enlarged. The branchlet with broad leaves in the background represents, in this and all
other Plates, the species in its youngest state.

EUCALYPTUS TIMBER. 11

11. Eucalyptus decipiens. EndKcher, in Huegel's Enumeratio Plantamm Novae Hollandiae
Austro-Occidentalis, 49 (1837). Bentham's Flora Australiensis, iii. 218. One of the
Flooded Gum-trees of South- West Australia.

Leaves scattered, from ovate to lanceolar, acuminate, dull green on both pages ; their subtile
veins very divergent, the peripheric vein somewhat distant from the margin ; flowers axillary, from five
to fifteen, crowded on a short stalk without separate stalklets ; tube of the calyx turbinate, as long as
or shorter than the broad- or narrow-conical lid ; stamens inflexed before expansion ; anthers minute,
spherical, opening rather with pores than slits ; fruit small, its form fluctuating between turbinate
and truncate-glolDular, the rim somewhat broad and flat ; valves emersed ; seeds without appendage-

From Swan River to Cape Riche, especially along watercourses or on river-flats, but occasionally
also on limestone-hills.

For further observations, see preceding species. The geographic range of this, and indeed
of most of the West Australian Eucalypts, is as yet not accurately ascertained.

Explanation of Lithogram. Plate X.
1. Operculum ; 2. Stamens in bud, outer view ; 3. Longitudinal section of flower bud ; 4. Front
view of stamen ; 5. Back view of stamen ; 6. Pistil; 7. Longitudinal section of fruit ; 8. Transverse
section of fruit; 9. Sterile seeds ; 10. Fertile seeds ; 11. Portion of a leaf — All (but variously) mag-
nified, but the main figure of natural size.

12. Eucalyptus microtheca. F. von Mueller, in the Proceedings of the Linnean Society, iii. 87

(1858). E. brachyjwda, Turcz.; Bentham's Flora Australiensis, iii. 223.

Leaves scattered, on rather short stalks, narrow-lanceolar and somewhat sickle- curved, opaque on
both sides, faintly veined, the intra-marginal vein almost contiguous to the edge ; umbels few-flowered,
mostly in terminal panicles ; calyx very small, its tube hemispheric, about as long as the almost
conical lid ; stamens very short, inflexed before expansion ; anthers extremely minute, globular ;
fruit very small, semiglobular or semiovate, three- to four-celled ; valves somewhat exserted ; seeds
without appendage.

From the Murchison river scattered northward as far as Cambridge Gulf, also widely distri-
buted through the vast interior of Australia, particularly along occasionally wet depressions, reaching
to the Flinders and DarHng rivers, and also nearly to the east-coast of Queensland.

Usually this tree is not very large, though of sufficient dimensions to yield timber, and it
exceptionally attains 150 feet in height. It belongs to the Rhytiphloiae, or perhaps to Hemiphloiae,
as the bark is only partially persistent on the branches. It is fond of swampy ground hke Eucalyptus
rostrata, with which it is associated in many places. The wood is lasting in and out of the ground,
hence well adapted for waterworks, railway posts and sleepers, and a multitude of carpentry works ;
it is dark, hard, heavy, and elastic.

Explanation of Lithogram. Plate XL

1. Lont/itudinal section of flower bud ; 2. Front view of stamen ; 3. Back view of stamen ;
4. Pistil ; 5. Longitudinal section of fruit ; 6. Transverse section of fruit , 7. Sterile seeds ;
8. Fertile seeds. — All analytic figures enlarged.

13. Eucalyptus oleosa. F. von Mueller, in Nederlandisk Kruidkundig Archief, iv. 137
(1859). Bentham's Flora Australiensis, iii. 248.

Leaves scattered, narrow- or oblong-lanceolar, on rather short stalks, recurved-acuminate, sliining,
dotted with innumerable oil-glands, faintly veined, the peripheric vein slightly distant from the
margin ; umbels stalked, axillary, solitary, four- to eleven-flowered ; tube of the calyx obconic or
semiovate, usually on a very short stalklet, hardly angular, shorter than the mostly conical blunt or

c 2

12 FOREST RESOURCES OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

acute lid ; stamens short, inflexed before expansion ; anthers minute, ovate, ^vith parallel distinct
cells ; fruit small, truncate-ovate or almost truncate-globular, three- or four-celled ; valves subulate,
exserted ; seeds without appendage.

In the interior extra-tropical desert-country, forming a portion of the so-called " Mallee-scrub,"
which extends over a vast portion of the deserts of Australia.

This species remains often in a bushy state only, but attains also the size of a small tree. The
bark is mostly persistent on the trunk, but secedes from the branches ; accordingly Eucalyptus oleosa
belongs to the series of Hemiphloiae.

It is nearly alhed to Eucalyptus uncinata (Turczaninow, in Bulletin de la Societe des Naturalistes
de Moscow, 1849, ii. 23), which forms also a constituent of the Mallee-scrubs, but in that Eucalypt
each anther cell opens by a minute pore. Eucalyptus oleosa had no claims to be enumerated among
the timber-trees of the western colony, but the oil obtainable from its foliage is so valuable and
peculiar that this Eucalypt could not well be excluded from the present document. Its oil was
among the numerous new technologic articles exhibited by the writer at the second London
Exhibition in 1862. Its specific gravity is 0*911 ; it is the best known solvent of amber and other
fossil resins and of India-rubber, and has proved unique in many technologic applications.

This tree, though too small for timber, is important for the large yield of oil from its foliage.

Explanation of Lithogram. Plate XII.

1. Four forms (three abnormal) of the calyx ; 2. Longitudinal section of unexpanded flower ; 3. Front
view of stamen ; 4. Back view of stamen ; 5. Pistil; 6. Three varieties of fruit ; 7. Longitudinal
section of fruit ; 8. Transverse section of fruit ; 9. Sterile seeds ; 10. Fertile seeds.

14. Eucalyptus longicornis. F. v. Mueller, Fragmenta Phytographiae Australiae, xi. 14(1878).
The Morrell-tree.

It is needless to devote to this Eucalypt a special description, as most probably it constitutes a
mere variety of the preceding. It difiers, however, in its comparatively tall stature, attaining a
height of 120 feet, and perhaps more ; the leaves are longer and more lustrous, the stalks and
stalklets of the flowers are also longer, and the lid — from which the name " longicornis" became
derived — is hornlike-elongated.

On the sources of the Swan River it is interspersed with E. loxophleba and E. salmono-
phloia, extending thence eastward. It agrees with the York Eucalypt in its bark, with the salmon-
barked Eucalypt in its foliage, from which latter it is easily distinguished by the longer and more
pointed lid, the elongated style and the evidently larger fruits. The leaves are equally rich in oil, so
that probably after E. salubris (which like E. amygdalina yields nearly four per cent, of oil from the
fresh foliage), both the Morrell and the Salmon-bark Eucalypt would rank among West Australian
congeners next in the yield of this valuable volatile fluid. The oil is obtained in the most
profitable manner by passing steam through the foliage in a stiU.

The wood is nearly as dark as that of E. marginata ; it is remarkably hard, and used for
rafters, shafts, naves, spokes, harrows, and all kinds of wheelwi'ights' work. Straight and lasting
rails up to twenty-five feet in length can be obtained from young trees.

Explanation of Lithogram. Plate XIII.

1. Longitudinal section of flower bud ; 2. Anterior view of stamen ; 3. Posterior view of stamen ;
4. Style with stigma ; 5. Longitudinal section of fruit ; 6. Transverse section of fruit ; 7. Sterile
seeds; 8. Fertile seeds; 9. Embiyo ; 10. Cotyledons pressed outward, to lay free the radicle;
11. Elongated flower buds of a variety with longer stalklets. — All analytic details, except 11»
magnified.

EUCALYPTUS TIMBER. 13

15. Eucalj/ptus sahnonophloia. F. v. Mueller, Fragmenta Pliytographiae Australiae, xL 11

(1878). The Salmon-barked Eucalypt.

Leaves scattered, of rather thin consistence, sickleshaped-lanceolar, shining and equally green
on both sides, copiously dotted with pellucid oil-glands ; the veins concealed, the peripheric vein but
little removed from the margin ; umbels axillary, solitary, with few or several flowers ; stalklets very
thin, nearly three times shorter than the almost cylindric flower-stalk, but about as long as the
semiovate tube of the calyx ; lid semiovate-conical, slightly exceeding the length of the tube ;
stamens very short and all fertile ; the outer filaments flexuose-erect before expansion, the inner ones
inflexed while in bud ; anthers cordate- or renate-globular, bursting by longitudinal slits ; fruit
small, semiovate, three- or rarely four-celled ; valves long-exserted, very narrow and pointed ; seeds
minute without any appendage.

From the upper regions of Swan River, as far as the vicinity of Victoria Springs, occurring m
interrupted patches.

This tree attains a height of about 100 feet. The grey and slightly-purplish smooth bark is
of an oily lustre, which characteristic has suggested the vernacular name of the tree. Of the
quality of the timber not much is known ; it has furnished, however, good fence-wood. Here it was
deemed desirable to allude to the tree, because it is one of the few in West Australia yieldino- on
distillation a large quantity of oil from the foliage. The export of the seeds of this species and of
those of any other kinds rich in oil may become important, as these Eacalypts are so much sought
to subdue malarian evaporations. The nearest aflinity of the Salmon -barked Eucalypt is to
E. oleosa, but it differs in its entirely smooth bark, the smaller flowers and fruits, and the shorter
and also blunter lid of the calyx.

Explanation of Lithogram. Plate XIV.

1. Longitudinal section of flower bud; 2. Lid of calyx removed to show the du'ection of the
outer stamens ; 3. Front view of stamen ; 4. Back view of stamen ; 5. Pistil ; 6. Longitudinal
section of fruit; 7. Transverse section of fruit; 8. Sterile seeds; 9. Fertile seeds; 10. Embryo;
11. Cotyledons bent to exhibit the radicle. — All analytic figures magnified.

16. Eucalyptus saluhris, F. v. Mueller, Fragmenta Pliytographiae Australiae, x. 54 (1876).

The Gimlet-wood or Fluted Eucalypt.

Leaves scattered, sickleshaped-lanceolar, on both sides equally green tind very shining,
perforated by very copious oil-dots ; the veins ascending in a very acute angle, the peripheric vein
but little distant from the margin ; umbels axillary, solitary, few-flo\^ ered ; stalks linear-cuneate,
very compressed ; stalklets as long as the semiovate tube of the calyx or up to twice as long ; lid
semi-ellipsoid, very blunt, twice as long as the tube of the calyx ; stamens inflexed before expansion,
all fertile ; anthers oval-oblong, dehiscent along the margin, their two cells separated in their whole
length by a broad connective ; fruit small, semiovate, three- to four-celled ; valves short, deltoid,
emersed ; seeds without appendage.

From the upper Swan River extending as far as the Victoria Springs, where it was first met
in Giles's expedition, forming small forests in various places. Its further distribution remains
hitherto unascertained.

This taU but slender tree is remarkable for the broad longitudinal often twisted impressions
or roundish blunt longitudinal ridges of its stem. The bark is smooth, shining, and of a brownish
tinge. The length of the stem up to the first branch reaches not rarely 100 feet. The
wood serves for poles, shafts, rails ; although tough it is worked with comparative ease ; it is harder
-and paler than Morrell-wood, and proves to me the best of all for wood-engraving known from

14 FOEEST EESOUKCES OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

West Australia. The extraordinary abundance of oil in the leaves, approximately four per cent, in
the fresh foliage, pomts this species out as the leading one in West Australia for oil distillation, its
yield in this respect being as rich as that of Euc. amygdalina of Victoria, Tasmania, and New South
Wales, many thousand pounds' worth of that oil having been exported from Melbourne from
Mr, Basisto's factory.

Explanation of Lithogram. Plate XV.

1. Calyx of two varieties, natural size ; 2. Operculum moved from the calyx-tube to exhibit
ihe stamens while in bud ; 3. Longitudinal section of unexpanded flower ; 4. Front view of anther ;
5. Back view of anther ; 6. Pollen grains, 250 times diametrically enlarged ; 7. Pistil ; 8.
Longitudinal section of fruit; 9. Transverse section of fruit; 10. Sterile seeds; 11. Fertile
seeds; 12. Embryo; 13. Cotyledons torn asunder to lay free the radicle; 14. Portion of leaf
showing venation and oil-dots. — All details, except 1, magnified.

17. Eucalyptus angustissima. F. v. Mueller, Fragmenta Phytographiae Australiae, iv. 25 (1863).

Bentham's Flora Australiensis, iii. 238.

Leaves rather small, scattered, broadly linear, thinly acuminate, on very short stalks, equally
green and shining on both sides, perforated by very numerous oil-dots ; the veins almost concealed ;
flowers from two to four on short axillary, solitary, almost cylindric stalks, and provided with only
very short stalklets ; lid semiovate or somewhat conical, nearly twice as long as the hemispheric
not angular tube of the calyx, and slightly narrower ; stamens inflexed before expansion ; anthers
minute, almost heart-shaped, opening by longitudinal slits ; fruits very small, almost hemispheric,
three- to four-celled, slightly contracted at the convex rim; valves deltoid; seeds without appendage.

On the western side of the Great Bight, discovered by Mr. Maxwell.

The precise geographic limit of this Eucalypt remains as yet unknown ; it belongs probably to the
tertiary limestone formation, and may thus have a very extensive range. It is allied in many respects
to E. salubris, but the flower stalks are not dilated, while the leaves are narrower than in any
other Eucalypt.

The species, though mostly of shrubby growth, has found a place in this document in order to
draw attention to the copiousness of its volatile oil, more especially as various sorts of Eucalyptus
produce considerably different oils, and these not alike available for special technic purposes.

Only a shrubby species, but peculiar to West Australia, and structurally remarkable.

Explanatiofi of Lithogram. Plate XVI.

1. Longitudinal section of unexpanded flower ; 2. Front view of stamen ; 3. Back view of
stamen ; 4. Style with " stigma ; 5. Longitudinal section of fruit ; G. Transverse section of fruit ;

7. Seeds. — All magnified.

18. Eucalyptus megacarpa. F. v. Mueller, Fragmenta Phytographiae Australiae, ii. 70(1860).

Bentham's Flora Australiensis, iii. 232. The Blue Gum-tree of West Austraha.

Leaves scattered, sickleshaped-lanceolar, of firm consistence, the veins subtile and hardly
prominent, the peripheric vein but slightly removed from the margin ; flowers one to three, often two,
large, axillary, sessile on a thick and very compressed stalk ; tube of the calyx turbinate, not angular,
with a prominent margin ; lid smooth, hemispheric, pointed ; stamens all fertile, mflexed before
expansion ; anthers oval-oblong, opening with parallel longitudinal slits ; fruit truncate-globular, large,
four- to six-ceUed, with convex and not channelled rim ; valves emersed ; seeds angular, shining, without
any appendage.

Sparsely occurring from tho vicinity of King George's Sound to Cape Leeuwin, occasionally
ascending the tops of mountains.

This tree is very different from the celebrated Blue Gum-tree of Tasmania and Victoria — namely.
Eucalyptus globulus — never attaining the enormous size of that species, seldom, indeed, exceeding 100

TIMBER TREES NOT EUCALYPTUS. 15

feet in height, differing also much in its floral characters and in its fruit. The bark is smooth, hence
E. megacarpa ranks among the Leiophloiae. Of the value of the timber almost nothing is known.
The specific name is derived from the comparatively large size of the fruit.

19. Eucalyptus pyriformis. Turczaninow, in Bulletin de la Soci^te des Naturahstes de
Moscow, 1849, ii. 22. Bentham's Flora Australiensis, iii. 226.

Leaves scattered, of thick consistence, oval-lanceolar, acuminate, with spreading parallel veiy
fine veins, the peripheric vein slightly distant from the margin, the oil-dots hardly visible ; flowers
very large, one to three together on thick cylindrical finally recurved and often elongated stalks ;
calyx red, its tube semiovate, with two to four prominent angles, tapering into conspicuous stalklets ;
lid semiovate-hemispheric, short pouited, nearly as long as the tube of the calyx ; stamens inflexed
before expansion, all fertile ; anthers ovate-cordate, opening by parallel longitudinal slits ; fruit of
very large size, hemispheric-turbinate, two- to four-angled, four- to six-celled, the broad rim ascending
from the concave edge ; valves enclosed ; seeds without appendage.

This liighly remarkable species has found a record here not as a timber-tree (for it is mostly of
shrubby growth), but as deserving culture for ornamental purposes, its red calyx and long
stamens being showy conspicuous.

The shape and size of the calyx gave rise to the specific name. Several other large-flowered
Eucal3rpts are peculiar to Western Austraha, for instance : E. macrocarpa (Hooker), E. Preissiana
(Schauer), E. tetraptra (Turczaninow), E. ptychocarpa, E. erythrocorys, and E. Youngiana (F. v. M.),
the seeds of all which could be made an article of commerce.

This is only a shrubby species, but as it is much sought in horticulture on account of its re^ calyx
it is well worthy to be included in the West Australian Eucalyptus Atlas, the sale of the seeds being
an industrial resource.

Explanatioji of Lithogram. Plate XVII.

1. Transverse section of unexpanded flower ; 2. Front view of stamen ; 3. Back view of stamen ;
4. Style with minute stigma ; 5. Longitudinal section of unripe fruit ; 6. Transverse section of
young fruit ; 7. Sterile seeds ; 8. Fertile seeds.- — All enlarged.

Besides the species enumerated several other Eucalypts pass in Western Australia under vernacular
names — thus Eucalyptus patens (Bentham) is the Blackbutt-tree there ; the Spearwood is E.
doratoxylon (F. v. M.) ; the Yatthae is E. foecunda (Schauer) ; while several well-defined tropical
species pass as Bloodwood-trees, Stringybark-trees, Box-trees, &c.

With the economic properties of these species we are as yet almost unacquainted.

B. — Timber Trees not Eucalypts.

It may suffice to offer merely cursorily some notes without descriptions on the other principal
trees of technic value, occurring in West Australia, not belongmg to the genus Eucalyptus. Among
them the Casuarinas are for wood perhaps the most important.

Casuarina Fraseriana (Miquel) yields there one of the most elegant furniture woods and a
splendid and extensively used material for shingles.

Casuarina glauca (Sieber) is one of the interior desert-trees of considerable size ; the wood is
hard and durable.

Casuarina Decaisneana (F. v. M.) is the Central Australian species, which enters the remote
eastern portion of the colony. The few other tall congeners are of less importance, although every
one of them furnishes excellent fuel.

16 FOREST EESOURCES OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

Agonis flexuosa (Scliauer). The Peppermint-tree of many of the river banks and humid
valleys. Attains a height up to seventy feet. Wood sought for various implements, and also for
superior fuel.

Melaleuca Leucadendron (Linne). The tropical Paperbark-tree. On river banks in the
intra- tropical districts. The tree attains 100 feet in height, or more, and can be planted on
wet saline ground, even on tidal streams. The hard wood resists the white ants, and is available
for many kinds of building purposes and various artisans' work, also for shipbuilding. Several
species of very tall Melaleucas pass in the extra-tropic districts as Paperbark-trees, and their wood
may perhaps prove as valuable as that of the northern species. They are all important for subduing
malaria in swamps even of brackish water.

Frene/a verrucosa {Cunningham). This is the most widely-distributed Cypress Pine of Western
Australia, valuable for its splendid wood and also for its resin, which is very similar to the Sandarac
from the Callitris Pine of Northern Africa.

Banksia verticillata (R. Brown). The River Banksia of West Australia, confined to moist
valleys. It rises to seventy feet or even more. The beautiful pale and soft wood is sought by
joiners for furniture, sashes, and many other purposes, for which otherwise deal is used. The other
congeners, which form good-sized trees in West Australia, are Banksia littoralis, B. attenuata (the
narrow-leaved Banksia), B, Menziesii, B. ilicifoHa (the prickly Banksia), all named by R. Brown, and
B. grandis (Willdenow).

The species on the North- West coast is B. dentata (Linne).

Santalum cygnorum (Miquel). From the vicinity of the great Bight to Shark Bay. The
fragrant Sandal-wood of West Australia, which for many years past has been so largely exported, is
derived from this s^^ecies.

Acacia acuminata (Bentham). The raspberry-scented Acacia. A small tree widely-distributed
through extra-tropic West Australia. It yields lasting fence-posts, though its scented and hard
wood should realise a good export price for ornamental wood-work, on account of its fragrance. It
furnishes the best of charcoal in West Australia.

Acacia saligna (Wendland). A small tree, common in most parts of extra-tropic West
Australia, at least towards the coast. Its bark is as rich in tannic acid (ujd to thirty per cent.) as that
of Acacia decurrens, A. pycnantha, A. falcata, and A. harpophylla in East Australia. It is easily and
quickly raised from seeds, even on poor sandy ground.

Acacia microbotrya (Bentham). The Badjong Acacia. This species yields an enormous quantity
of superior gum, according to Mr. George Whitfield, sometimes as much as fifty pounds weight
from a single tree. ,

Several other Acacias produce in West Australia fragrant wood, tanners' bark, and mimosa
gum, but which precise species is as yet not well known, more than 150 Acacias standing already
on record from the hitherto explored portions of the Western Australian territory, although the
majority of them are shrubby kinds. The seeds, however, of every sort would be acceptable for
horticultural export trade, Australia,n Acacias being always in request for European glass-houses, to
aid in a display of very early spring-flowers and odd foliage in conservatories. Very few of the
West Australian species are as jet under cultivation.

EXAMINATION OF EUCALYPTUS-WOOD. 17

II.— CHEMICAL AND MICROSCOPICAL EXAMINATION OF

EUCALYPTUS- WOOD.

Conspicuous ingredients of Eucalyptus-wood, irrespective of such as are found in all other
kinds of timber, are Kino-tannic acid, which readily dissolves in water and alcohol, and Phlohaphen
or a closely allied pigment, only soluble in alkaline liquids, and re-precipitable on neutralisation by
acids. The comparatively large development of phlobaphenic pigment has on this occasion been
demonstrated in the wood of Eucalyptus marginata and Eucalyptus rostrata ; and it is a significant
fact, that just these two kinds of wood more than any other among the Eucalypts resist decay by
antiseptic ingredients for long periods, when immersed in soil or water, or when otherwise exposed
to disintegrating influences. This peculiar form of Phlobaphen seems to owe its origin to changes
produced in the tannic acid. The pigments contained in Eucalyptus diversicolor, E. longicornis,
E. calophylla, E. loxophleba, E. salubris, E. cornuta, and also E. globulus (which were the only
kinds of wood subjected at present to comparative experiments in this respect) are chemically
indistinguishable, so far as the tests went, but differ in some optical characters, as observed by Mr.
L. Rummel, who has ably aided me in these microscopic and chemical investigations. In all
probability the Plilobaphen is elaborated from the tannic sap, and deposited gradually while the new
growth of wood matures ; hence it is most richly stored up when the main activity of the circulation
has ceased. It is not merely on account of the diminished humidity contained in the wood at the end
of the dry season, or at the annual termination of its cyclus of life, but also in consequence of the
phlobaphenic substance having then become fully elaborated with other elements of the mature
wood, that timber will prove in the highest degree durable, when felled towards the end of the
summer, before heavy autumnal rains start the circulation anew for another year's growth. I am
aware that it is at present beyond possibility to restrict at large colonial sawmills the operations
for cutting trees to a very limited period of the year ; still such timber, as is needed for exceptional
purposes of resistance, should be secured during the late summer months. Whether to this
generally recognised rule any exceptions exist in Western Australia — be it from climatic circumstances
or from special peculiarities of the timber there — can only be ascertained by local test and
experience, for which no opportunities have arisen to myself.

It is Hkely also, that the durability of the Eucalyptus-wood may partially depend on the
quantity of oleo-resin, bitter of taste and soluble in alcohol, by which it is more or less pervaded.
To fix the respective quantity of this oil-resin of various Eucalyptus- woods must remain the object
of subsequent researches, no time being allowed to enter on a set of investigations of this kind for
the present document.

In Eucalyptus marginata the phlobaphenic particles fiU up as a brown and peUucid mass the
cavities of most of the vascular and cellular tissue, at least in the harder kinds of wood of that
species, which is obtained from mountain regions. In the lighter and softer kinds of larrah-wood
the Phlobaphen occurs in far lesser 'quantities. In Eucalyptus rostrata both vascular and celullar
cavities are very extensively filled with the phlobaphenic substance ; in the other kinds of wood
subjected to examination for this Report, the Phlobaphen occurs chiefly in the vascular tubes and
fills them far less completely.

D

18

FOREST RESOUECES OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

Table.
In 100 parts of Air-dried Wood of

Phlobaphen.

Tannic Acid.

Water.

Eucalyptus marginata (hardest)

16-50

.. 0-05 to 4-75 ...

12-05

Eucalyptus rostrata . . .

16-62

4-38

9-00

Eucalyptus diversicolor . , .

7-75

5-50

13-63

Eucalyptus calopliylla .

7-00

2-25

12-75

Eucalyptus loxophleba .

4-40

4-00

10-00

Eucalyptus longicornis . . .

4-25

3-90

11-12

Eucalyptus salubris ....

3-60

2-50

14-38

The results rest, however, on solitary analysis only except in reference to the Phlobaphen of
Eucalyptus marginata, where the average of three tests is given.

The West Australian Eucalyptus-woods, when dried, vary very considerably in specific gravity.
Those of Eucalyptus cornuta, E. loxophleba, E. salubris, and E. longicornis sink in water at once ;
that of the harder kind of E. marginata and those of E. calopliylla, E. diversicolor, and E. rostrata
sink only after soaking ; that of the lighter kind of E. marginata remains lighter than water under
any circumstances.

Specific Gravity of Air-dried JFood, ascertained by the Hydrostatic Method.

Eucalyptus cornuta .
Eucalyptus loxophleba .
Eucalyptus longicornis .
Eucalyptus salubris .
Eucalyptus marginata (hai'd)
Eucalyptus rostrata .
Eucalyptus calophyUa .
Eacalyptus diversicolor
Eucalyptus globulus
Eucalyptus marginata (soft)

235
090
060
040
970
970
970
935
875
0-820

y in size within certam limits ; they

The vascular tubes of each kind of Eucalyptus-wood vai
are, however, always very much larger and consequently always much less numerous in E. marginata,
E. diversicolor, E. longicornis, E. calopliylla, and E. rostrata (also E. globulus), than in E. loxophleba,
E. cornuta, and E. salubris.

The woody fibre (Prosenchyma or Pleurenchyma) is remarkably different in reference to the
thickness of its walls, and the lumen of its cavity in different kinds of Eucalyptus- woods. In
E. cornuta, E. salubris, and E. longicornis, the cavity is very small in proportion to the thickness of
the walls ; that of E. cornu^. a is the narrowest of all, the lumen being many times smaller than the
walls. In E. marginata the width of the cell of the ligneous fibre is variable, according to different
sorts of wood, but it is never so wide as in E. rostrata (and also E. globulus), but about the same
diameter as in E. diversicolor. Intermediate in this respect between the above-contrasted species
are E. loxophleba and E. calopliylla. These observations need repetition on ampler material.

The cellular substance (Parenchyma) is more or less copiously distributed throughout the mass
of the wood in various Eucalypts. and more generally developed around the vascular tubes. Its cells
have usually about the same diamtter as the ligneous fibres, but their walls are thinner. In the light
kind of wood of E. marginata, in E. globulus, and E. calopliylla, the diameter is larger than that of
the Prosenchyma. How far this will prove constant in wood of diiierent ages and from distinct

WEST AUSTRALIAN FORESTS. 19

localities remains to be ascertained. The wood of E. salubris Ls remarkable for the comparative
paucity of its Parenchyma-cells, their number being six times less than in E. calophylla and E.
loxophleba.

The medullary rays in all the West Australian Eucalyptus -woods, subjected to examination for
the present purpose, consist usuall}^ of no more than two rows of cells ; in E. rostrata medullary rays
of three series occur. The breadth of the medullary rays, as a rule, decreases in proportion to their
distance in various kinds of these woods ; the width of single rows is generally greatest in
E. diversicolor and narrowest in E. salubris.

In conclusion, it may be summed up that the capability of different kinds of Eucal^^jtus-wood
to endure for lengthened periods the destructive contact with humidity, air, and temperature depends
largely, and perhaps mainly, on phlobaphenic substance unchangeable by water ; further probably also
on the occurrence of oleo-resin, on the reduced number of hollow vascular tubes, on the organisation
of the walls of the ligneous fibre, on the decreased copiousness of parenchymatic substance, and on
the lesser space occupied by the meduUary rays. The hard variety of Yarrah-wood fulfils most of
these conditions, eminently so of the first one, and the same may be said of E. rostrata. It must,
however, be remarked that nearly all the above observations, as here now instituted, refer onlv to
solitary samples of wood, whereas it is but reasonable to suppose that wood from different trees or
portions of trees, even of the same species, when grown in different soils and climes, would vary in
some respects ; nevertheless it is likely that the relative superiority of one sample of Eucalyptus-
wood over another would always clearly and instantaneously be demonstrated by the aid of the
microscope and according to recognised chemic and anatomic principles, which continued experimental
research is likely to affirm as reliable.

Ill— CULTURAL MEASURES TO ENRICH THE WEST AUSTRALIAN FORESTS.

Although the colony is so very rich in durable hard woods, it is nowhere extensively endowed
with trees of the soft wood classes, and it is almost totally devoid of timber which could readily be
utilised instead of deal, red cedar and many other kinds of easily workable wood, such as are in
daily demand by artisans. Indeed, every country should strive to place itself, regarding timber-
resources, in a position of independence, so far as climatic circumstances will permit ; and in this
respect West Austraha is most happily situated, its wide territory, stretching through twenty-two
degrees of latitude, admitting in reality of the culture of almost everj kind of utilitarian tree in
existence anywhere.

West Australia possesses three principal or extreme cHmatic regions, though through mai_y
tracts they verge into each other : —

A. The humid cool forest- country.

B. The dry regions, particularly inland.

C. The tropical coast-tracts.

All three demand foreign trees and other cultural plants, selected purposely for eacli.

A. In the southern forest regions, where Yarrah- and in some districts Karri-trees prevail, all
kmds of utilitarian plants, requiring a comparatively cool and humid atmosphere, should be brought
under test with a view to final selection from them for culture and naturabsation. The renowned
Wellmgtonia- and Sequoia-pines, which in their colossal dimensions exceed even the Karri-Eucalypts,
the Oregon-pine (Pinus Douglasii), the great SHver-fii^ (P. grandis), the lofty Sugar-pine (R
Lambertiana), Menzies'-pine, the yellow Pitch-pine (P. pondei-osa), which with Pinus Sabiniana and

D 2

20 FOREST RESOURCES OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA. ,

P. Lambertiana produces edible nuts, and the Nutka-cypress, all from North- Western America, could
be reared for pine-timber in the forest-tracts between Swan River, Cape Leeuwin, and King George's
Sound. It is also there, where the Weymouth-pine (Pinus strobus) which yields us mamly the
white deal of the eastern United States, the two prmcipal American Pitch-pines (P. austrahs and
P. rigida), the white Cedar-cypress, the Thuya occidentalis, the Virginian Swamp-cypress (Taxodium
distichum), and many others of the hr-tribe from eastern North-America, would find their place.
The Lebanon-cedar with its Himalayan Deodar- variety, the Bootan-pine (Pinus excelsa), the
Cheer-pine (P. longifolia), the Dye-pine {P. Webbiana), the Nepal Nut-pine (P. Gerardiana), with
many other Asiatic species, the tall Nepal-cypress (Cupressus torulosa), then the Silver-fir of Middle
Europe (Pinus Abies), and the Norway-spruce (P. Picea), would also in the Yarrah- and Karri-forests
rapidly attain a great height.

To these ought to be added, so far as coniferous trees are concerned, all kinds of Kauris,
especially that of New Zealand, chiefly for masts and spars, the Totara or Mahogany-pine of the same
islands, the various kinds of Larches (in the coolest places), the Sugi (Cryptomeria), the Hinoki
(Cupressus obtusa), the Thuyopsis, the Gingko of incalculable longevity — the four last-mentioned
from Japan, the Gingko being there the grandest of all — the Pencil-cedars (Juniperus bermudiana,
J. virginiana, J. chinensis), with some other congeners should, as highly desirable, not be passed on
this occasion, nor the nut-bearing Araucarias of Brazil and Chili, all important for yielding pine-
timber. The Norfolk Island and the Moreton Bay Araucarias, of which A. Bidwilli further yields
edible nuts, are established at many West Australian domiciles already, and could advantageously be
grown in West Australia as forest-trees.

Among trees not coniferous might be introduced into the most south-western forests large
numbers of the best of Oaks, particularly the White Oak (Quercus alba), the best of all for coopers'
use and highly important for shipbuilding, the Burr Oak (Q. macrocarpa) and the Live
Oak (Q. virens) of North America ; also the British Oak, and numerous other species, either
evergreen or deciduous, from both hemispheres. The Cork Oak (Q. Suber) and the Vaionia- Oa.k
(Q. jEgilops) would also thrive best in these forest regions, although they might be planted as well in
drier locaUties for bordering roads and streets. Speaking of avenue-trees, I may be permitted to observe
that one of the most splendid among those of evergreen verdure which can be chosen is the tall
Grevillea robusta of East Australia, which vies with the Nuytsia m the brilliancy of its flower,
but surpasses it far in the ease with which it is reared and in the excellence of its timber. The
ordinary Walnut-tree, as well as the North American Butter-nut and Black Walnut-trees, and the
allied Hickories (Carya alba, C. glabra, C. microcarpa, C. tomentosa, C. sulcata, and C. oliviformis)
are all recommendable for transfer to the West Australian forests on account of the excellence of
their peculiar wood, irrespective of the value of their fruits, those of the Shellbark Hickories (Carya
alba and C. sulcata) and of the Pecan-nut (C. oliviformis) rivalling the European Walnuts. The
evergreen Nut-tree of East Australia (Macadamia or Brabejum ternifolium) together with the allied
Ghilian Hazel (Guevina Avellana) should mingle as denizens of the southern forest-trees of
Western AustraHa. The hardiest Indiarubber-tree (Ficus elastica) deserves also introduction there.
It is in the south-western iorests also where large plantations of the hardy Red Cedar of East
Australia and India (Cedreia Toona) and likewise that of South America (Cedrela brasihensis)
should be reared for one of the best and most easily worked of furniture woods, which from the
exhausted " Cedar brushes" will ere long be no more obtainable. The Sweet Chestnut-tree deserves
the fullest attention both for its timber and its nuts, whether in forest land or for shading roads or
streets. The North American Sugar Maple with many of its congeners, as well a,s some of the best
Ash-trees from both hemispheres, could also advantageously be introduced into the forests of West
Australia. It would be easy enough to transfer Beeches, particularly the beautiful evergreen
species of East Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand, to the banks of watercourses in the Karri-
forests, if their wood was deemed requisite. The Blackwood-tree of South-East Australia (Acacia
melanoxylon) deserves special attention for the sake of its magnificent wood, which for furniture,

WEST AUSTRALIAN FORESTS. 21

as well as for carriage- and boat-building, staves, &c., has come most extensively into use ; its bark
moreover contains as much as twenty-eight per cent, of tannic acid.

Though West Australia is so rich in Eucalypts, yet the East Australian E. citriodora might well
become an inmate of plantations there on account of the exquisite fragrance of its foliage and the
essential oil to be distilled therefrom. Hazels, Filberts, Bamboos, Poplars, and Osier- willows (among
the latter especially Salix purpurea, S. rubra, S. viminalis, and S. triandra) set quickly a banier
to bush-iires, if planted along rivulets ; the last-named yield simultaneously the most valuable
products for basket manufacture, the best charcoal for gunpowder, and the medicinal salicine. Con-
comitant with tree culture the formation of tea-plantations could proceed in all the south-western
forest valleys, as the Chinese (or rather Assam) Tea-bush would prove quite hardy, and in the humid
valleys particularly prolific also. The simplified processes in preparing the young leaves (as pointed
out in a printed essay of mine from recent Upper Indian experiences) would render tea-culture in the
Yarrah- and Karri-forests most remunerative, and could afPord occupation to the juvenile and infirm
among the labouring classes, as would in irrigated valleys the culture of the Hop-plant. The Turkish
Box-tree also, the wood of which cannot be fully replaced by that of any other tree for
xylography, is likely best developed to the requisite dimensions in the forest-land, wherever the soil
contains a considerable quantity of lime. Even the Peru Bark-trees (Cinchonas) would adapt
themselves to these sheltered and equally temperate regions, they having flowered in Victoria as
far as 38° S. unprotected.

The Rhea- or Ramee-fibre ■ (from Boehmeria nivea) and similar textiJe material from some
allied bushes of the genera Debregeasia, Maoutia, Piptums, ViUebrunia, and Touchadi, aU preferring
a moist clime, could also best be produced in the forest-valleys.

An essay of mine on such fibre-plants, as are adapted for extra-tropic Australia, appeared in print a
few years ago. Quite a legion of forest-grasses from different parts of the globe might likewise be easily
disseminated through these sylvan regions. Among the latter I would merely single out Bromus
asper, Festuca gigantea, Melica nutans. Milium effusum, and Poa nemoralis, as among the English
species, the gigantic Festuca dives of Victoria, which when once raised would be sure to spread on
its own accord through all the moist portions of the woodlands. Similarly the still more nutritious
Prairie-grass (Bromus unioloides) should be dispersed. The Falkland-island Tussock-grass may live in
the coldest sandy heath-moors.

It is beyond the scope of this document to adduce all the most important plants from
which new treasures could be obtained in the genial forest-cHme of West Australia, but
while referrmg for further information to my work on " Select Plants," I wiU conclude this
passage by merely pointing out yet, that a multitude of forest fruits, such as the British
Bilberry (Vaccinium m^Ttillus), the Canadian large Cranberry (V. macrocarpum), the Blueberry
(V. pennsylvanicum), some Gaylussacias, and the Blackberries (among them the North American
Rubus occidentaHs, R. macropetalus, R. canadensis, R. viUosus, R. trivihs) could with very little
care and expenditure be naturahsed along the forest-brooks with species of Rubus and Fragaria. By
the mere scattering of the dust-like spores of fern-trees (among which the South-East Austrahan
Dicksonia antarctica and Alsophila australis and the New Zealandian Cyathea dealbata and
C. medullaris are grand and graceful in the extreme, the magnificent features of these noble
productions of Nature could without the slightest difiiculty in the course of time be impressed also on
the forest- valleys of West Australia, to enhance the scenic beauty afforded by indigenous palm-like
Zamias, which latter ought to become lucrative articles of export to conservatories abroad. In and
out of the forests many hardy Palms, Bamboos, and also the various Yuccas, Fourcroyas, Agaves,
DasyHrions, together with the New Zealand Palm-lilies (Cordylines), could be introduced into the
landscapes cheaply and copiously for embelHshment and scenic effect. Seeds of the Palm-lilies
obtainable already millionfold from plants, reared by me around Melbourne, when merely thrown
broadcast on open places at the forest-ravines, would raise these elegant forms of palm- like vegetation
not merely for decorative grandeur, but also for the textile fibres of their foliage. The superb Rice-

*22 FOEEST EESOURCES OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

paper bush of Formosa could from hence furnish irrespectively its pith for solar hats. For the
dissemination of trutfles and the best of mushrooms forest ground is also always the most favourable,
and efforts might be made for their introduction, when an insight into the manner in which these self-
caring vegetables can be transferred to wide distances shall have been obtained.

When so many indications of the mildness of the West Australian climate are obtained, the
wish cannot be suppressed to see the Chinese Date-plum or Kaki, regarded as the most delicious of
all the fruits of Japan, associated with the colonial table-fruits. The North American Persimon, a
congener of the Kaki, is a much hardier tree. None of the splendid Guavas seem as yet represented
in the colony, nor the best of Passion-fruits or Granadillas ; Passiflora ligularis is noted as one of the
finest fruits anywhere in existence at Caracas, while in the Botanic Garden at Brisbane fruits were
obtained from Passiflora macrocarpa weighing eight pounds. The Rena of Fiji, the Tongan and
Society-islands (Spondias dulcis) ranks also as an important tree, yielding esculent fruits in copious-
ness. Nor has the South American Cherimoyer found its way to Western Australia, nor other
Anona trees with edible fruits, nor the Sapodilla plum, nor the Chinese Hovenia and Litchi ; many
of these would thrive best in forest-lands. My work on " Select Plants," the re-issue of which for
Avide distribution in West Australia seems recommendable, gives fuller infonnation also on this
subject.

In West Australia the forest-fires are not so excessively destructive as in the eastern colonies, nor
do they as there leave in ghastly deadness vast numbers of standing trees, after the burning element has
swept throu2:h the woods ; on the other hand, the woods of West Australia are charming at all times, no
lifeless trees disfiguring the landscape, all fresh and ever verdant with Zamias, Xanthorrhoeas, and
Kingias remairdng unimpaired by the scorching flames. Nevertheless, the bushy vegetation and
underwood, and all kinds of herbaceous plants, are at least periodically apt to be annihilated in
the woody country, when the bush ignites ; hence the same precautions, which are recommendable in
the other colonies to interrupt the fires, must be adapted also in the Yarrah- and Kani-forests, to
prevent the destruction of foreign plantations formed within their shelter or limits ; watercourses,
or bands of soil turned up by plough furrows, or stone-lines, where rocks or boulders are readily
accessible, will often debar fire from ingress ; or it may become advisable to border plantations of
select value by any kind of vegetation not inflammable or not readily consumed by ignition. To
plants fit for this purpose allusion has already been made ; and in the same manner as for street-
avenues or for road-lines such trees should have preference as will yield annually a return in utilitarian
products, so also for these forest-fences, besides rows or copses of Mulberries, can be adapted many
kinds of Blackberry bushes, Roses for Attar-distillation, and an almost infinite number of other
productive plants fit to be reared into hedges.

B. The dry inland regions of West Australia, though possessing naturally little forest-timber, should
not be left out of consideration in this recommendative Report, and should also be brought within the scope
of forest surveillance. The more or less open or bushy land, whether belonging to the limestone, granitic,
or sandstone formation, or to any other geologic age, offers however only a limited range for the choice
of plants suitable for culture ; but in proportion to the wide extent of these dry tracts of country stands
also the importance of those plants, by the cultivation or natin-al dispersion of which such lands
may be ameliorated and rendered infinitely more productive for pastoral and even sometimes
for agrarian pursuits. A regularly organised forest administration of the colony must take
charge also of these districts ; and here the watchfulness of the forest department will be
all the more needed, inasmuch as at least the present desert-area is for long periods not
likely to be alienated from the possession of the Crown ; yet even these desert-lands will afford
ample scope for raising there not only woods, but also many other utilitarian plants, to enhance the
public revenue gradually with but little original outlay. Pines again claim here, in a very high
degree, our attention. In the southern districts, at least, several firs will endure perfectly well the
dry slime, among them the Cluster-pine (Pinus Pinaster), the Stone-pine (P. Pinea), the common

WEST AUSTRALIAN FORESTS. 23

Seacoast-pine (P. halepensis), all three from the countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea ; fuiiher,
the famed Pinus insignis from California (first introduced into Australia, and most copiously too, by
the writer of this document), which, indeed, is the most rapidly-growing of all pines of the globe, and
yet at the same time one of the most regardless to soil ; aU these, together with the gigantic and
quick-growing Cupressus macrocarpa of California, can be raised even on the sands of the sea-coast,
which will thus finally be converted into pasture-land. How far northward these firs would prosper
in Western Australia remains yet to be ascertained. For several other coniferous trees, fit for dry
and poor ground, I would refer to the " Select Plants."

In altogether timberless localities, at least in the more southern latitudes, no tree
could be more quickly and easily raised for shelter, fuel, and hardwood-timber than the
celebrated Blue Gum-tree of Tasmania and Victoria (Eucalyptus globulus). Very special
allusion deserves a tree from the eastern colonies, the Acacia decurrens, for obtaining within
a few years a revenue from very sterile land. This, the feather-leaved Wattle, attains a much
greater height, grows with more rapidity, and produces a larger return of the richest tanners' bark,
than any West Australian Acacia. It is here, however, not recommended as a timber-tree, although
its wood serves for staves and various implements. This tall Wattle exudes also gum of mercantile
value rather copiously. For Olive culture porous calcareous soils towards the sea-coast are best
adapted, though these long- living trees of great fecundity are able to cope even with protracted drought.

But it is more particularly the grasses to which I wish to turn, for showing that through their
gradual progress the most arid tracts of country can be rendered habitable. We have mtnessed
already what a marvellous effect the Cynodon Dactylon or Doab or Doorva grass, passmg m West
Australia as Couch grass, has already produced on some of the sand-lands of the colony ; but in the
same manner the Stenotaphrum americanum, called in Australia Buffalo grass, would operate there
to subdue the worst of drift sand and cover it with lasting verdure. According to locality and soil
various grasses of the genera Agrostis, Alopecurus, Avena, Chloris, Dactylis, Ehrharta, Eragrosfcis,
Festuca, Lolium, Phleum, Mehca, Poa, and in poor localities especially the best kinds of iVndropogon
and Panicum should be dispersed, as they are evidently destined, particularly the perennial species,
to give nutritive pasture even to extremely arid and sandy tracts, if the dissemination is aided by the
sunplest means. Many large Andropogons and Panicums especially resist scorching hot wands in a
remarkable degree, and will live on poor sand-land. Attention has also recently been called to
Aristida prodigiosa as an important desert-grass from West Africa. Paspalum notatum from the
Laplata-stream luxuriates there particularly on somewhat saline ground as a nutritive fodder-grass,
whereas P. distichum of East Australia and South Asia is splendidly adapted to line watercoui'ses
and surround swamps with an exquisite verdure of turfy grass. The tall and fattening Sorghum
Millets, and the Bairee (Pennisetum typhoideum) have also not yet found their way sufficiently
widely through the colony. Special mention deserve the best Millet-grasses, such as the Coapm
(Panicum spectabile), the Deccan-grass (P. frumentaceum), the Para-grass (P. moUe), the Guinea-
grass (P. maximum), but they need rich soil, and can also be introduced into open places of forest-
land for pastoral gain. A most promising huge saccharine fodder-grass, the Euchlaena luxurians of
Mexico, has recently come into notice, seeds of which'have been sent also by the writer to the western
colony.

What holds good for recommending these grasses applies with equal force to a multitude
of fodder-herbs. Lucerne and various kinds of Clover (the Alsike-clover succeeding where
the ground is too humid for Lucerne) ought to change the aspect of many parts of
West Australia in years to come, and are likely destined to increase vastly the productive-
ness of numerous pastures there. Wherever the limestone formation exists, or where otherwise the
soil is calcareous, many others of the leguminous fodder-herbs would thrive well, such as the
Sainfoin, the Horseshoe Vetch (Hippocrepis comosa), the big Soola-clover (Hedysarum coronarium).
The Fagopyrums are also easily dispersed over sand-land to raise the first vegetation. To swampy
lands the tall Sesbanias, indigenous also in Northern Australia, can easily be brought for

24 FOEEST RESOURCES OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

naturalisation, cattle being ravenously fond of these so-called wild pea-bushes. They furnish
moreover the Dandri-fibre. Accounts of the extraordinary v^alue of the Prickly Comfrey (Symphytum
asperrimum) of the Caucasus are perhaps somewhat exaggerated ; but in moist, or perhaps even
moory soil, not easily otherwise utilised, this fodder-herb may prove of signal imjDortance. Sumach
and Scotino, for select dye and tanning purposes, can be reared also on comparatively dry ground.
The Date-palm and the ordinary Fig-trees could never be planted in too large a number in the
desert-regions. In calcareous soils of the less arid districts the culture of the Carob-tree of the
Mediterranean regions (Ceratonia Siliqua) should be initiated and extensively encouraged, the
saccharine pods being far more important as fattening fodder than the recently so much lauded
Prosopis-beans. The growth of the Ceratonia however is slow, unless in marly forest-lands. The
Congo-pea (Cajanus indicus), one of the best of pulse-bushes, has yielded in rich alluvial soil the
almost incredible quantity of two tons of pea from an acre ; a further recommendation of this shrub
is its adaptability also to dry ground. Annual Gram-plants ought to become redisseminated
spontaneously in many, especially marly localities ; so also the Ground-pea (so valuable for its oily
seeds), the Bersin-clover, and others. Conflagrations of the bush can be effectually arrested, if
cultural spots are lined by Opuntias (on which again Cochineal may be reared), or by Agaves from
which the Pita-fibre, and by Phormium from which the New Zealand flax is obtained, these plants
neither being inflammable nor likely to perish altogether when they are scorched. White Mulberry-
trees admit of being trimmed into hedges, and would thus conveniently affc)rd food for silkworms on
any farm, wherever needed or desired. The Adeira Arrowroot of Peru (Canna edulis) would grow
vigorously down to the most southern portions of the colony, in almost any soil of trifling fertility.

Wherever waste sands are likely to encroach the dissemination of native maritime bushes can
be powerfully aided by the incomparable Sandstay-shrub (Leptospermum laevigatum) of South -East
Australia, and by establishing the famous Moram Bent-grass (Psamma arenaria), and the tall Sea
Lyme-grass .(Elymus arenarius), both of which tall widely- creeping grasses (through the
instrumentality of the writer) have found a permanent home already on the drift-sands of the
Victorian shores. Cynodon and Stenotaphrum are here also of immense value for fixmg the moving
sand- waves. In California large kinds of Lupins are preferentially chosen for the same purpose, while
the annual yellow Lupin (Lupinus luteus) is the best for raising the first fodder-crop or green manure
on sand-lands, where the absence of lime forbids the culture of Sainfoin and many other fodder-herbs.
One of the best native tanners' Acacias of West Australia, A. sahgna, with the eastern A. pycnantha,
will arise, if properly sown in the autumn, from even seacoast- and desert-land. I should like to
see the annual Peruvian Sunflower naturalised on any forlorn spot for the sake of its oily fodder-seeds.

Many waters, whether stagnant or fluent, whether in or out of the forests, can contribute
their share to the economic resources of the colony by being made the vehicles of particular
alimentary plants. Let us only be reminded of the Trapa Water-nuts, the North American Zizania
grasses (Z. aquatica and Z. miliacea), the Kausun, another Zizania (Z. latifolia) from China, which
yields a culinary vegetable, and the Solah-pith plant (^schynomene aspera). How far south the two
Nelumbos of Asia and North. America will endure the clime remains yet to be ascertained ; but they
have been traced to the 44th degree in the northern hemisphere. Nelumbo nucifera is with real
Rice indigenous in the waters of Arnhem's Land, and botli are probably natives also of the West
Australian northern territory. Further information on prominent utilitarian vegetation is oftered ii.
the ''Select Plants," in which work all industrial species are also classed for easy reference
according to the locality inhabited by them.

C. The tropical littoral tract" of West Australia provide ample areas for most plants of the
equinoctial zones, although the humid coast-valleys do not perhaps extend' very far inland, and soon
merge into the drier open regions of the wide interior. The geologic formation of the northern
regions of Western Austraha remain almost unknown, indeed that portion of the territory

WEST AUSTRALIAN FORESTS. 25

to a great extent geographically unexplored ; hence the limits of the trap-formation and of the
rich alluvial deposits, which would yield the most fertile fields in sheltered positions for tropical
products, continue unascertained. The natural boundaries of culture plants in intra-tropical and
sub-tropical regions is also not always strictly defined by degrees of latitude, indeed their
geographic circumscriptions depend often on a multitude of circumstances, climatic, topographical,
and geological. Thus, cotton-culture advances elsewhere from the tropics to fully 3G° S. latitude ;
Bananas ripen under shelter of limestone cHffs as far south as Swan River at 32° S. ; Mangos per-
fect their fruit beyond the tropics in the Himalayas, even up to 3500 feet ; Cofiee culture continues
prolific at temperate elevations of 4500 feet in Ceylon, so long as the large annual rain precipitation,
needful for the luxuriant growth of this highly useful plant, is obtained ; the Breadfruit-tree
stretches in the Sandwich Islands almost beyond the tropics, while its congener, the Jack-tree,
advances on mountains in India to elevations of fully 4000 feet, and has borne the clime of Sydney,
where also, in 34° S., the Durian-tree became acclimatised. The culture of Sugar-cane, which extends
to the countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea, is still profitable at 32° N. in America, and
succeeds in the northern parts of New South Wales. The Persea- or AUigator-pear has for a long
period been naturalised as far north as the Azores, while the Cassava or Tapioca-plant advances
southward to Uruguay ; Taro is hardy even somewhat further south ; some of the best Dioscorea-
yams can be cultivated successfully in the northern portion of New Zealand ; the Palmyra-palm
yields its enormous masses of sugar even in Persia, a country completely extra-tropical ; the best and
largest of all Bananas, the Peesangs (Musa simiarum), wliich has never been introduced into Australia,
is also likely to bear the climate very far south.

This may suffice to show that the southern hmits of tropical culture, whether of forest-
trees or any other plants in Western Australia will very much fluctuate under different
fneridians and parallels, and according to the particular endurance of any species. What timber-
trees should be added to the Eucalypts and the few other large trees with superior wood,
indigenous to North- West Australia, must become an object of experiment in many places,
as colonisation proceeds northward and inland. It is, however, quite likely that some of the
Eucalypts peculiar to that portion of our continent will prove most valuable for increasing the wood
supply by cultural means, particularly in the inland-districts. Indian Red Cedar, Teak, and Sal, the
best of Ebony-trees, various Guttapercha-trees, West Indian Mahogany and Cedar (Cedrela odorata),
the Copal-trees of different parts of the globe, the South Asiatic Gamboge-trees, the best Central
American Caoutchouc-trees of the genera Hevea and Castilloa, and a multitude of other arboreous
species yielding dyes, and particularly furniture woods in various tropical countries both of the eastern
and the western hemisphere, are more particularly fit for plantations in the humid littoral northern
regions. A whole host of Nageia-pines from South Asia, Africa, and tropical America would furnish
pine-timber in localities where the firs recommended for the southern districts would no longer prosper;
to these could be added several splendid Kauri -pines from Polynesia and India, calculated to replace
in warmer zones the coniferse of the north.

As forest management is nowhere restricted, merely to the conservation, multiplication,
and best utilisation of timber-trees, though that is its primary object, it wiU not be out of
place here to aUude to the Indian Mangostan-tree with its luscious fruit, the Central American
Cacao-tree, which produces the chocolate, the Coconut-palm, which an enlightened missionary
has recently recommended for permanent beacons on emersed Coral-reefs. If it were
an object, the whole of the Palms of the globe, exceeding one thousand species, could
by cultural processes be established in different localities of Western Australia; but on
this occasion I will only recommend the early introduction into tropical latitudes of the
Sago-palms, the Oil-palm of Guinea, the majestic Wax-palm which attains in the Andes a
height of 180 feet, the Carnauba or Wax-palm of Brazil, the starch-yielding Oreodoxa of the
Antilles, the Ivory-palms of Peru, the wonderful Seychelles-palm before that glorious plant becomes

E

26 FOKEST EESOUECES OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

extinct, the Peach-palm of the Amazon River, and the Hyphaene-palm of East Africa ; whereas, from
among the hardier species may be singled out for the extra-tropic latitudes the Chdian Treacle- or
Coqiiito-palm, the sugar-yielding Caryota-palm of India, the tall Toddy-palm or Palmyra extending
westward to Persia, all magnificent objects for scenic effects, all of highly utilitarian importance also,
all readily raised from seeds, if such are obtained fresh. Bamboos, so important for their multi-
farious application, and so easily increased and distributed when once introduced, could in their
most majestic forms embellish all the Western Australian landscapes except the most scorched
desert-country. In Tenasserim, Bamboos rise to heights of 150 feet with a diameter of fully one
foot of then- mast-like canes ; the great West Indian Arthrostylidiums are nearly as high and
columnar. The mighty Dendrocalamus of Pulo-Geum is also of enormous size, while in Java some
Gigantochloas grow to a height of 120 feet, with a girth of 22 inches. The Bamboos now already known
amount to about 170 species, many of stupendous height and marvellous rapidity of growth, and of
these a considerable number can be transferred even to the southernmost limits of Western Austraha,
as some of the Chusquea Bamboos reach high elevations on the Andes, while several Himalayan
Arundinarias advance to nearly the snow-hne. It would need a volume to enumerate whatever
foreign countries could contribute to the wealth of West Australia, which, so far as cultural capa-
bihties are concerned, excludes from its zones in reality only the Arctic and Alpine vegetable organisms,
and which can afford apt space and shelter in select spots also to every Palm in existence. But this
Report would become extended to an undue length, and would deviate from its primaiy intentions,
were I to dwell stUl further on the almost endless forms of plants, particularly from intra-tropical
parallels, which the industry and intelligence of the colonists of a great and rising country are sure
in the course of time to render their own for the augmented enjoyment and prosperity of coming
generations.

IV.-INITIATORY MEASURES SUGGESTED FOR ESTABLISHING FOREST
ADMINISTRATION IN WEST AUSTRALIA.

A. — Local Forest Boards.

To effect a vigilant surveillance over such wide forest-tracts as those of West Australia, it is
suggested that the central- office administration should m the first instance be aided by local Forest
Boards, each consisting of a few members chosen for the sake of their experience in wood industries,
or for their predilection for cultural pursuits. Such Boards would readily meet once a month, inspect
periodically the local forests under their control, would frame such regulations for aiding the central-
office as would be best adapted for preserving, increasing, and utilising the woods of thek own
districts, would lease out forest-lands, sell timber in cu^cumscribed areas, would issue licences to
woodmen, direct measures for new cultures, guard against waste, choose means to utilise the coUateral
products of their forests, and foster or create industries for obtaining potash, charcoal, tar, vinegar,
alcohol, dyes, tanners' material, and other products or educts from their local woods. At the
commencement it might suffice to station merely one State officer in each district to be the practical
functionary of each local Board, bo whose directions he shoidd be amenable, while measures of
general importance would all remain subject to final Ministerial approval and sm-veillance. In the
first instance, an industrious man, merely of horticultural experience, circumspect intelligence, and of
modest aspirations, would locally suffice for giving effect to the earhest resolutions of each Board.

WEST AUSTRALIAN FORESTS. 27

B. — Revenue from Forest Areas.

The local Boards should be empowered to raise revenues from the areas entrusted to theii-
care, in order that their decisions on any subject of protection or improvement of the forests should
not remain inert for absolute want of monetary means. Wise statesmanship does not expect to raise
extensive incomes from forest-lands without re-voting at least a portion of the funds so obtained for
renovating, or for enriching to some extent, the very forests which yielded the revenue, not to
speak of the occasional or frequent necessity of enlarging or even creatmg forests, where timber may
be scanty or altogether wanting. These two cardinal measures — -namely, the appointment of Forest
Boards and their endowment with a portion of the forest revenue — were recommended by me long
ago as the first steps necessary towards establishing an initiatory forest administration in any new
colony, where forestry according to modern European organisation could not possibly be initiated at
once, while the population remained scanty, and the income of the colony very limited, in comparison
to that of densely populated older States. The adoption of these two primary measures I advocated
for many years for all parts of Australia, and set them fully forth m a lecture on " Forest Culture
in Relation to Industrial Pursuits," copies of which in 1871 were widely circulated, and reproduced
also in America. In this lecture I explained also at length the importance of maintaining forests
on climatic and hygienic considerations, and for the sake of controlling and regulating to a large
extent the water-supply and its distribution over any country. This lecture might deserve, perhaps,
re-issue in West Australia.

C. — Survey and Reservation of Forest Areas.

It is important that in any country, even where private enterprise fosters forest-culture,
extensive areas of woodland should not be encroached upon, but be retained by the State, to place
the final alienation of all forests from Government beyond possibility. Such reserved and carefully
surveyed areas would best remain unbroken, and therefore private settlement should be excluded
from them. Wherever possible natural boundaries, especially those afibrded by watercourses, should
be secured. This foresight ought to leave to the State the control over many of the principal
sources of rivers, and would enable the forest dej)artment to seize at any time on any such wooded
Crown-land needed for cultures — whether of trees or any other plants — as could not exist or would
not prosper outside of forest-regions. Such reserved woodland might, under due restrictions, be leased
out by Forest Boards to pastoral tenants, to obtain a revenue without injury to forest-interests, and
leaving it optional for the State to resume fuU possession of the woods whenever cultural or
technical operations in the area became expedient there.

D. — Disposal of Timber^ Fuel, and other Forest Products.

The necessity of surveillance over the existing timber-resources of the State in order to prevent
waste, and to encourage, regulate, and protect the natural upgrowth of young trees, cannot be
too rigorously insisted on ; furthermore, it must be the object of an enlightened forest administration
to frame and enforce rules, according to which timber of the best quality should be cut at that season
when the circulation of the sap is least active, in order that, for the credit of the timber-resources of
the colony, wood only of the best kind obtainable may come into the trade. The renovation of superior
timber in the Eucalyptus forests can also greatly be aided by timely removing saplings, where they
have arisen too copiously for the proper final development of well-formed trees, and by filling up
empty spaces, through sowing or planting operations, with the view of deriving the greatest possible
return from the whole forest area. Arrangements for the earliest renewal of the forest, wherever
denuded by the removal of timber, devolves also on a regularly-established forest administration ;

E 2

28 FOREST EESOURCES OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

moreover, in West Australia the very important question must arise whether the removed trees are
to be replaced by native species of the same kind, or whether to some extent trees of foreign countries
should be sown or planted. In the latter case, it involves much consideration and inquiry to choose
for each climatic region, and for each geologic formation, those particular species best adapted for the
respective localities ; and in this respect many indications, given in my work on " Select Plants," will
to some extent prove available for guidance. As elsewhere, so also in West Australia, one of the
leading considerations for forestry will be to decide on the systems of removal of timber, whether
by the total sale of all the wood on defined square miles, or by numbers of trees within surveyed
areas, whether by restricted licences or by any other well-meditated mode. In all such measures
the local Forest Boards could afford the best advice to the central administration.

E. — Importation of Seeds and Plants.

The mode of adding to the natural constituents of a forest from abroad may be twofold ; either
by interchanges or by direct purchases of the plants or seeds desirable for any forest locality.
Importations by purchase of seeds tend on the whole to the speediest and most extensive enrichment,
of forests, although the treasures of woodlands can be largely augmented also by sending abroad
seeds of native plants, to secure in reciprocity those ehgible in other countries, whereby, moreover,
the resources of the colony become thus far widely and instructively known. The least expensive
and the simplest mode of obtaining seeds in quantity, from which vast additions to forests can be
realised far more cheaply and speedily than from the introduction of living plants, is always by
simple mercantile trade. Orders for seeds might, however, be brought under the control of consular
oflScers, directors of scientiiic gardens or other competent authorities, to secure by their aid the
selection of the right kinds and of fresh and well-matured seeds, and also a careful system of packing
and despatch. West AustraUa is singularly fortunate in being able to initiate an extensively
ramified system of interchanges in seeds, as, indeed, very few countries in either hemisphere can vie
with the western colony of Australia in the numeric richness and the elegance of its exclusively
endemic forms of plants. The Geographic Index appended to my work on " Select Plants" would
afford aid in ordering from any part of the globe seeds of such plants as would prove hardy in South-
West Australia for either forest-culture or agronomic purposes.

F. — Establishment of Local Nurseries.

Both for immediate extensive supplies of trees of recognised value and for plants intended
merely for experimental tests, local nurseries in the forests themselves need to be established, the
transfer of living plants on a large scale from one locality to another being beset with difficulties,
subject to great losses, and involving proportionately large expense. For forest piu'poses, it is not
sufficient to plant a limited number of trees ; if practical results are to be attained trees must be
raised by hundreds of thousands. Rarer kinds, or such as are apt to succumb in their earhest stage
of growth, are, as a rule (subject to some exceptions), best planted out at defined distances as seedlings
from nursery-beds, whereas the seeds of commoner and hardier kinds of trees can be scattered best
(after some cheap preparation of the soil) at once in suitable spots of the forest, particularly at the
end of the hot season. Forest-nurseries serve simultaneously for raising many kinds of plants besides
forest-trees, but fitted only for a forest clime, to obtain from them a remunerative additional yield
of the woodlands. From forest-nurseries plants can be distributed to a limited extent for tests in
various localities with different soil and clime. When a local trade in any important plant has sprung
up, the opportunity often arises for forest administrators to secure at a nominal price the surplus of
plants or seeds, after private estates are supplied, for the State forests.

WEST AUSTRALIAN FORESTS. 29

G. — Test Plantations.

Irrespective of the local nurseries under the supervision of each Forest Board (to the
formation of which was aUuded already), it would be advisable to create three general experimental
plantations, one in each of the principal climatic regions of the West Australian colonial territorv.
At the commencement it would suffice to station, as an operator on each of these three plantations,
only one person, who should combine zeal and circumspectness with plain horticultural ability.
A series of tests could then be initiated and annually recorded, to guide settlers in the selection
of particular plants for their gardens, farms, pastures, or forests. These experiments would indicate
also to which trees preference should be given in ea.ch of the main climatic regions before the more
expensive and toilsome process of rearing foreign species in masses comes into operation. Thus,
also, an endless array of fodder-herbs and grasses could be tested, w^hich naturally are of such very
scanty occurrence in most of the districts of Western Australia, whUe of lono- introduced culture-
plants, such as, for instance, the Tobacco, the distinct qualities arising in diflPerent latitudes and on
various soils could readily be made known. Moreover, the Tobacco-plant delio-hts in rich forest-
soil, particularly where limestone prevails, on account of the potash combinations which abound in
woodland soil, and also as in the clearings of forests the atmospheric humidity prevails which is need-
ful for the finest kinds of Tobacco. At such centres of cultural experiments, sustainable at a very
modest expenditure, means for irrigation should be within reach for increasing the scope of the
experimental inquiries. On providing for the two cardinal requirements of West Australia wiU
to a large extent depend the increased future prosperity of the colony — namely, on the augmentation
of the water supply — either by mere storage, or by the more costly but in time lai-gely remunerative
process of Artesian borings — and on the copious dispersion of perennial grasses and fodder-herhs best
adapted for each zone, and which by their gradual spread will add unceasingly to the country's
wealth.

Though the intra-tropic portion of West Australia is only under incipient settlement, it would
be a wise measure to commence early test-cultivation of tropical plants also at Nichol Bay. The
small outlay involved wiU be a thousandfold regained in periods not distant. Test-gardens further
north could be formed as gradually colonisation proceeds in that direction. Almost a countless
number of plants of industrial and pastoral importance could be reared in the tropical latitudes of
West AustraHa, many or most of which would not thrive further south. Again, it will be found
that the coast-country towards Arnhem's Land belongs to the zone of the Spice-plants and general
equinoctial vegetation, while the drier inland regions, in which the temperature sinks very low
during the nights of the cool season, will prove more adapted to sub-tropic plants. The limits
of these zones of vegetation can best be ascertained by practical tests, such as could be extended
by distributions of plants from a few original plantations on the coast.

H. — The Creation of a Museum of Vegetable Products.

A powerful and very demonstrative auxiliary for diffusing knowledge on forest-trees, and
indeed on any other utilitarian plants, is afforded by an economic and technologic Museum. Such
may be made an adjunct to a general Museum, or be maintained as a separate establishment,
according to local circumstances. In either case such an institution need not be burdensome by
claiming costly endowments ; but, whenever possible, it ought to be connected with a real Botanic
Garden, in which under scientific direction the various pla,nts important to trade, factories, dispen-
saries, workshops, and households are cultivated, and geographically, systematically, and techno-
logically grouped, so as to be readily accessible for information, with the least sacrifice of time.
The timber of various parts of the globe, together with other forest-products, would necessarily be
included among the subjects prominently displayed in such a Museum. Much can be accomplished
by inexpensive methods in this direction under judicious and experienced management.

30 FOEEST llESOURCES OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

In concluding this general Report on the forest capabilities of Western AustraUa, I am conscious
that many important questions bearing on the subject under consideration have remained unanswered,
while other points have been insufficiently discussed. But within the limits of one preliminary
document the multifarious aspects of the forest-interests of a vast country, with territorial possessions
both in the temperate and the hot zone, could not be exhaustively scrutinised, even if more
extensive opportunities for research liad arisen to the writer. It will, however, be to him a pleasing
task to aid further in the development of the great resources of West Austraha, as he may
fairly claim to have done to some small extent during the last quarter of a century, and he can
foresee that before another generation has passed away, the whole of the immense extent of that
great country will be densely occupied by settlements, and will under its winterless sky afford happy
abodes and scope for innumerable industries to many millions of prosperous inhabitants.

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