THE LIBRARY THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from University of British Columbia Library http://www.archive.org/details/reportonforestsfOOward >s-1 T' VIENNA INTERNATIONAL REI^Oin E! eiBl^;^[ilBRARY CAT. NO. aD/3f KTru ACC. No._£^.?:^ ox FORESTS A^D FORESTRY. JOHN A. ^VARDER, M. D., MEMBER OF THE SCIENTIFIC COMMISSION OF THE UNITED STATES. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1875. TABLE OF CONTENTS. INTEODUCTION. Art. Page. 1. assigxmext of duties to commissioners 9 2. Importance of the subject to the United States 10 3. Forest- administration in Europe 10 4. Legislation demanded in the United States 11 5. Lessons to be learned in Europe 11 CHAPTER I. NATIONAL EXHIBITS OF FOEEST-PRODUCTS. 6. Extent and variety of exhibits 12 7. North America 12 8. South America 13 9. Belgium and the Netherlands 14 10. France 14 11. Sweden 14 12. Russia 14 13. Switzerland 15 14. Portugal 15 15. Spain 16 16. Italy 16 17. Germany 17 18. Austrian empire 19 19. Carniola 20 20. Illustration of the effect of pasturing woodland 21 21. Carniola 22 22. Ackerbau-ministerium ; Extent of exhibit 24 23. Bohemia 25 24. BuKOWiNA 26 25. Galicia 27 26. g5ritz and istria 27 27. Carinthia 27 28. Carniola 28 29. Lower Austria 28 30. Upper Austria ; Salzkammekgut ' 29 31. Duchy of Salzberg ; Effects of grazing in forests 29 32. Illustration of durability of salted timber 29 33. Styhia 30 34. Tyrol and Voralberg 30 35. Dalmatia 30 36. Styria ; Forest-culture ; Ciiarcoai 30 37. Hungary 33 38. RouMANiA 38 39. Turkey 38 40. Greece 38 41. Persia 38 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS. Art. Page. 48. Spain 1 39 43. Cmxv 39 44. BniTisn colonies ; Ckylon 39 45. MAriiiTii'S 39 46. Binrisii India 39 47. Al >-TRALIA 39 48. Nkw Zeal.o,d 40 49. Tkinidad 40 50. Japan 40 CHAPTER 11. SPECIAL EXHIBITS. The Schwarzenlerg pavilion. . 51. Location of pavilion and of estates 41 52. Character of exhiuit and its extent 41 53. Tabular statement of exhibit of trees 43 54. Worked timber 45 55. Living plants 46 56. Conclusions 47 Pavilion of Saxe-Cohurg-Gotha. 57. Location and character op exhibit 47 58. Tabulated data relating to exhibit of trees 48 59. Miscellaneous exhibits 48 60. Forest-culture ; Fauna ; Bees 49 The Austrian state-railroads. 61. Location and character of exhibit 49 62. Forest-industry 49 CHAPTER III. FOREST-AREAS OF EUROPE. Great Britain. 63. Area of forest-covered land 51 64. ALanagement of British woodlands 51 Holland and the Xetherlands. 65. Extent of forest-co'\'t:red country 53 France. 66. Area of French forests 53 Swiizerlaud. 67. Extent of forests .'33 Sweden and Xoruaij. 68. Extent of forests ; Character of the flora 53 Jiussia. 69. Extent of forests ; Kinds of timber-tjsees 55 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 5 Spain. Art. Page. 70. Extent of forests ; Flora 56 Portugal. 71. Area of wooded country ; Flora 57 Italy. 72. Area of forests ; Flora 58 73. The Apenxixe region 59 74. The islands ; Sicily ; Sardinia 59 75. SlEMONl'S division INTO ZONES 59 Germany. 76. Forest-administration ; Forest- area 60 77. Area of forests and value of products 61 78. Kinds OF trees ; Elevation; Soil; Age;^Size; Increase 62 Austria. 79. Area OF Austrian FORESTS 64 80. Areas by provinces ; Production 65 Archduchy of Austria — Lower Austria. 81. Forest-area of the Wiener Wald ; Topography ; Soil 66 82. Flora; Products , 66 83. M.os agement 66 84. Instruction ; Forestry 68 85. Grosspappen forest 68 Archduchy of Austria — Upper Austria. 86. Forest-area of state-forests 69 87. Situation, soil, and climate of the Salzkammergut 69 Archduchy of Salzburg. 88. Area, climate, and soil of the state-forests 70 89. Flora; Production 70 Kingdom of Bohemia. 90. joachimsthaler forest ; area ; soil 71 91. Flora ; Management 71 Dukedom of Bukowina. 92. Area ; Flora ; Production 71 Kingdom of Galioia. 93. State-forests ; Area ; Flora ; Topography 72 Earldom of Gilriiz and Margraviate of Istria. 94. The CO AST-LAND forests ; Injury caused by their destruction ; Ai;ka. 72 95. Description; Effect of the deforesting of the country 73 96. Flora ; Product of nurseries 74 Dukedom of Carinthia 97. State-forests ; Location ; Area ; Flora 74 6 TABLE OF CONTENTS. Dukedom of Carniola. Art. Page. 98. State-forests ; Akea ; Location ; Flok a 75 Archduchy of Styria. 99. FoiJKST-AHEA ; Flok a ; Prodvc riox 75 IIuiiga}-y. 100. Forest-area; Topoguaphy 76 lOL Tabular exhibit of areas and production 76 102. State-fore.sts ; Area ; Flora ; Production 77 Africa. 103. Egypt ; Flora 77 104. Improvement in climate with increased forest-cultivation 79 105. Algeria ; Area; Flora 79 French colonies. lOG. Guiana ; Characteristics of woods 80 1 07. Martinique ; Area ; Flora 81 108. GuADALouPE ; Area ; Production 81 109. Senegal 81 110. New Caledonia 81 111. OCEANICAN colonies 81 CHAPTER IV. ESTATES OF LANDED PROPKIETORS. The Vienna Joint-Stock Company for Forest-Industry. 1 12. Area of forest ; Topography 82 113. Climate ; Flora 82 114. Forest-management 83 Schwarzenberg forest at Wittengau. 115. Administration ; History 35 116. Area ; Soil; Flora 87 Estates in Bohemia. 17. Are \ of iore.st-land ; Areas of estai es 89 118. Domain OF Count TiiUN 89 119. Tetsciien ; Area ; Soil ; Flora ; Pjjoduct 90 120. Forest-culture ; Fish-cultuke 91 121. Peruc ; Area ; Flora 91 122. Groszdikau ; Extent ; Topography ; Flora 91 123. Skalpj z ; Topography ; Area 92 124. Count Rudolf Chotck's possessions 92 125. Weltnis ; Soil ; Area 92 120. Neuhok ; Soil ; Area ; Product 93 127. I3ela.>en ; Neustadt 96 134. Bavarian schools 97 135. Saxon schools 97 136. wurtemberg • 97 137. Brunswick 97 138. Saxe-Weimar 97 139. Hesse-Darmstadt 97 140. Baden 97 141. Minor schools 97 Austrian empire. 142. Austrian schools established by the goveisnment 98 143. ilARIENBRUNN ; CURRICULUM 98 144. Capt. C. Walker's description of Marienbrunn 98 145. Weisswasser 99 146. Entenberg; Krems; Hinterbruhl; Schneeberg; Prague; Brunn, etc 99 147. Hungarian schools 99 Switzerland. 148. ZtJRiCH 99 Italy. 149. Vallambrosa ; Florence ; Genoa ; Turin 100 France. 150. Nancy ; Grenoble ; Villers-Cotterets 100 liusnia. 151. St. Petersburg ; Lissins, etc 100 Xorway and Sweden. 1.52. Afr A 100 Behjiwm. 153. Bouillon 100 I'ortii(/a1. 154. Lisbon 100 Spain. 155. Madrid; S. Lorenzo d'Ecurial 100 Turkey. 156. Constan tinoi le lOO FORESTS AND FOEESTRY. INTEODUCTIOK assigxment of duties to commissioners ; importance of this subject to the United States ; Forest-administration in Europe ; Legislation demanded IN THE United States ; Lessons to be learned in Europe. 1. In rendering this report, it may be proper to refer to the letter of instructions received with the appointment of the writer as a commis- sioner " to observe and report" at the Vienna Exhibition. In that paper, the commissioners were directed to be present upon the ground, if possible, by the first of May, and to remain until the end of October. They were instructed to organize as a committee, in the pres- ence of the executive commissioner. Upon this committee devolved certain duties, such as the nomination of jurors. The chairman advised the Department of State of its organization, and of the progress of its labors. It is unnecessary here to recur to that part of the history of the commission and of the committee, further than to express individual regret that it became necessary, in some instances, to nominate its mem- bers as candidates for appointments upon the International Jury. In explanation, it may be stated that it was found impossible to engage the services of a sufficient number of fellow-countrymen, and those who were obliged, by the duties of their office, to remain in Vienna were forced to accept these additional burdens. The display was not in any state of forwardness at the middle of May, when all Americans present volunteered their services, and assisted in mailing up the American department. To the members of the com- mittee this occupation could not fail to prove an obstacle to the per- formance of the special duty of observation ; and the final opening of the United States department of the exhibition was immediately followed by the calling of the juries, of which the duties for the next six weeks were constant and exceedingly arduous. True, the jury- work did afford access to the material which members desired to examine and report upon; still, it should be borne in mind, this was an examination for award, rather than for report, and it was necessarily niuch hurried ; and, in the heats of summer, members found themselves exhausted with fatigue before they could begin really to execute their officially-prescribed duties in a regular and systenuitic manner. When every one, from the highest official down to the hum- blest commissioner, was retreating to the mountains for refreshment 10 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. aud relaxation, members were obliged to apply themselves assiduously to the jiioat task before them. Wheu the committee came to look over the euormous amount of material at this ' world's fair,' it was conceded that division of labor was absolutely necessary ; and after consultation as to the several qualifica- tious of members and specialties, assignment of topics was made to the different commissioners, and to other American citizens who kindly consented to accept such appointment; but still many subjects of the deepest interest remained unassigned, aud must continue without re- port. To the writer was given the investigation of the products of the forests, as shown at the International Exhibition, upon which is now rendered this report. First, however, it must be stated that, at an early period in the sum- mer, a request was unsuccessfully made to the State Department for the privilege of extending these researches into the forests themselves, in order to enable the writer to enrich this report with the result of obser- vations upon living trees, and upon many details connected with forestry^ an art which has grown to great perfection under centuries of nursing in Europe, though quite unknown as an art in our country, where the energies of the people have been bestowed upon the destruc- tion, rather than upon the preservation and production, of timber-trees. 2. This subject of forestry is now claiming, and must receive, greater attention than heretofore. The increasing scarcity of timber within the first century of the nation's history, and that in a country famous for the richness and value of its sylva, and for the extent of its woodlands, is a subject that calls for the most serious consideration of the states- man, and perhaps also for the interference and care of government. In this matter, it may not be wise to imitate the practices of European states. We have no crown-lauds, no royal preserves, no imperial forests nor any church and communal reservations of woodlands. We desire no such tenures, but we do need more forests in many parts of the country than the individual greed of private interests has left us. The government of a republic need not own forests, but by judicious enactments it may and should foster them where they belong, in the possession of the citizen, and by so doing the good of the many will be conserved. On the other hand, while, as American citizens, we cannot advise the state to become a forester, and to hold large tracts of laud, (except as public domain, for the use of the commuuity,) we may be very well content to have our people imitate Europeans in the treatment of their forest-lands. We may learn much of deep interest from ex- perience which has been gathered during centuries of successful practice in an art that has received the careful study of many wise and good men. 3. In Euroi)e, it is found advisable to hold international congresses of the forest-managers of different countries, in order to exchange view s of practice, to discuss principles, and to suggest regulations for their INTRODUCTION. 11 respective governments, to be supported by legislative enactments for the good of all countries, especially where the climatic and physical Influences of forests are concerned. Toward the close of the exposition, such a congress was held under the auspices of the Austrian govern- ment, and it was i)resided over by the distinguished minister of agri- culture of that country. The convention was composed of representa- tives from nearly every civilized nation, and contained within its ranks the leading foresters, forest-masters, forest-directors, and forest-couusel- ors of Europe. 4. Our own country, comprising great States, drained by the same rivers, flanked by the same mountain-ranges, and bounded by the same oceans, is situated in many respects just as the aggregate of the several countries of Europe which found it necessary to hold this international congress, except that our glorious Union spreads its ?egis over us all? and national legislation can be made to apply to the whole vast extent. In Europe, international action is required, because a single river- basin, like that of the Danube, may sometimes belong to several govern- ments, thus greatly increasing the difficulty of having a harmonious legislation for the protection of forests about the mountain-sources of the streams, to sustain and equalize their flow. Legislation is also needed for preservation of rivers near their mouths, to prevent the drifting sands from obstructing their outlets, interfering with navigation, dam- ming them up so as to submerge extensive tracts of valuable farming- lands, and changing them into unhealthy morasses, or covering them with successive layers of shifting sands that destroy their fertility, 5, From the jiractice and experience of Europe, we may thus learn the most useful lessons, and it is high time that our national legislature should turn its attention to the prevention of these evils before some of the fairest portions of our country become barren wastes, before the navigation of our rivers is impaired in consequence of their irregular floods and their frequent low water, and before their channels are ob- structed by the material that is washed down from their banks and the neighboring hills. These declivities should be kept clothed with forests to a much larger extent than the cupidity of man has permitted in his desire to extend the cultivable area of his farms. In transmitting this report, the writer feels that he has been treating a subject of vast importance to the future of our country; a subject which deserves, and should receive, much more attention than has here- to foie been bestowed upon it by our agriculturists and our statesmen. The whole subject has recently been so forcibly and so extensively pre sented to the people of the United States, in the valuable report of Mr. Hough, that it is deemed best, in this paper, to confine the report to th e strict letter of the instructions, " to observe and report'' what was more immediately connected with the universal exhibition at Vienna in 1873. CHAPTER I NATIONAL EXHIBITS OF FOREST-PRODUCTS. Extent AND varietv of exhibits at Vienna; Detailed description of the EXniIUTS OF ALL COUNTRIES ; EFFECT OF PASTURING WOODLANDS ; DURABILITY OK SALTED TIMBER. 6. The displaj- of forest-products upon tbe Exhibition-grounds was extremely fine and wonderfully varied. Within the palace, most of the nationalities exhibited, in Group II, (agricaltare and forestry,) extensive suites of blocks as illustrations of the various trees and woody plants produced in the several countries. These were usually of uniform size in each collection, and so prepared as to exhibit the natural appearance, as. the split or sawed, and the l^laned or finished surface also. In many, the bark was retained. In the exhibit from Greece, more ingenuity than taste had been exercised to bring out the desired result of showing combined in one specimen all the peculiarities of the wood. In many of the tropical collections, these collections of samples made a grand display of the wealth of the forests. This was especially notable in the extensive exhibitions sent from the British colonies and the rich display from Brazil. Beginning with our own department of the grand palace of the Exhi- bition, the forest-products of diflPerent countries will be presented in a rapid survey in the same order they were arranged by the Direction, passing from the west toward the east. 7. North America. — Xeither Canada nor the United States were worthily represented by their forest-products, notwithstanding the great wealth of which we may boast in that line — with our 380,000,000 acres of woodland* in the United States alone. From the States of Indiana and Alabama, there were cross-sections of some fine trees, such as walnut, {Juglans nigra,) ash, {Fraxinusamericana,) and blocks of pine and other woods, that gave some idea of the size, growth, and quality of the forest trees, but they were few in number^ and were not elegantly prepared. From Louisiana were several bales of southern moss, {Tillandsia usneoides,) a natural j)roduct of the forests that is considerably used in upholstery, and another article of similar use, from New York, a preparation of vrood, called ^^ Excelsior.^' To see American woods, it was necessiay to look into other groups to find the products of our forests in an advaij;;ed condition — that is, man- ufactured— as in the beautiful agricultural i.:iplements, the highly-fin- i.shed musical instruments, but especially in the ; ohool-furniture intended to illustrate a department quite distinct from the o; e under consideration, • Census, 1870. SOUTH AMERICAN EXHIBITS. 13 but which nevertheless afforded an opportunity for inspecting the beauty and other good qualities of our valuable timbers. Besides these, there were some specimens of carriage-making, especially some wheels in an unfinished state, unpainted, that served to illustrate the superior strength and elasticity of the woods we apply to such purposes, and which enable our artificers to excel all others in the lightness and ele- gance of the American vehicles for transportation. These wheels excited universal admiration from all observers. Our chief regret arose from the unfortunate fact that there was so great a dearth of the means of illustrating the richness of our forest-treasures. J^ov was this sad deficiency supplanted in any degree by charts nor by statistical tables, which should have been prepared to set before the eye, at least by columns of figures, such data as would have shown the wealth of our resources in this department. Xor are the materials for such tables inaccessible ', and it is to be hoped that in our coming Centennial Exhibition we shall be able to point to full exhibitions of all these important products, and to extensive statistical tables and choro- graphical representations, which shall exhibit the extent and value of our forests and the importance of their numerous products. 8. South Aimerica. — Chili sent a collection of woods. Uruguny. — The government exhibited several kinds of wood. An- other exhibitor sent fifty-two kinds of wood, species unknown; still another showed thirty-four woods for various purposes, and charcoal from twelve different species. Venezuela exhibited two large tables, each composed of fifty different woods named, besides fine specimens of mahogany, {Swietenia mahogani.) Brazil. — The grantl display from this country embraced beautiful pol- ished specimens of the woods of the province of Santa Catharine ; the valuable woods of Parana and of Pernambuco; and also a collection from the Dock- Yard Company at Rio de Janeiro. By the Forest Company of Parana was exhibited a collection of the woods of that country, shown in boards, planks, and logs of Araucania; also a complete tree of this species thirty-three meters high. This mag- nificent tree, which was erected in the park, and furnished with its upper branches and fruit, though of course destitute of green leaves, was a most interesting object. This very beautiful species, the Araucama hrasiliaua, abounds in Southern Brazil, notably in Rio Grande do Sul. Santa Catharine, Parana, St. Paulo, Miiias-Geroes, as far as Barbacena. ^'•Splendor sylvarum!^^ exclaims the enthusiastic writer. "Trunk re- markably straigiit, 44 meters high, 2.30 meters in diameter; wood rather heavy ; specific gravity, 0.814 ; i)orous, with rose-tinted veins ; suitable for ship-building; equal to the pines and spruces; much used in Rio; indestructible by humidity. The bark is thick and spongy, rich in pot- ash, and used by the soap-makers. The knots are red and beautiful for turners' work, and make an officinal charcoal. The seeds contain nlaiuly but strongly built, to sustain the great weight that was put into it. The ornamental was uot needed where every square yard of space was occupied by objects of the deepest interest, tastefully ar- ranged, and some of them also of intrinsic beauty. Externally, the pavilion presented rather an attractive appearance, due to some simple architectural ornamentations ; but these were lost sight of by those who could appreciate the tasteful arrangement of the articles exhibited in the open air around it. On one side was an elevation made of rocks and soil, and supplied with water, on which were growing numerous alpine plants. In another place were great masses of the limestone rocks of the southern portion of the empire lying near the Adriatic Sea ; the region which, in past centuries, had been stripped of its timber to supply the wants of Italy to such an extent as to become a barren waste. This is now known as the Karst, or the Kiistenland. The efforts recently made, and making, to restore its fertility by reforesting it will be noticed in another part of this report, and are now only referred to ou account of the exhibit made by those who have the matter in charge. Among these bare rocks were growing young- trees, of the several species reared in nurseries, to the amount of mill- ions, and already planted to a verj' large extent among the bare rocks of that desolated region. The following young plants were growing on the rocks from Istria to illustrate the means of reforesting the desolate regions of that part of the enji)ire : l*inHH au.striaca^ riidia inaritima, liohima pHiudo-acacia, Fraxiiius excel- fiior, F. ornus, (Jntcdpa t 11. 68 1.26 Meters. 800 800 ITyO 150 125 250 125 1,140 950 250 250 250 2.')0 100 130 26 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1S73. 25. Galiica. — Statistical description and charts. — A model of a loug raft, with all its appurtenances; model of a mountain saw-mill, with cir- cnlar and gang saws ; model of a colliery ; model of a galley made from spruce, such as carry from 800 to 1,000 hundred-weight to Odessa ; models of ox wagons and sleds ; various wooden articles for domestic use, very fine ; resonance-boards ; and many fine preparations of wood for various purposes, shingles, &c. Forest-tools of all kinds, for felling, cutting, splitting, shaA'iug, and coaling-tools. Outside were abnormal growths of pine, oak, elm, birch, showing very curious irregularities, and some starved trees of considerable age, but little height, and very small diameter. Other logs, of great beauty of form and of good size, give a much better idea of the Galiciau forests. An exhibit of the durability of wood under certain circumstances was made from the salines of Wichc/ka ; a stick 3 feet long by 18 inches, since 1095 ; one 3 feet long by 18 inches, set in the year 1000; one 7 feet long, salt-iucrusted, set in the year 1G3G ; one 3 feet 6 inches by 18 inches, set in the year 1G96 ; a pine stick hewed in the fourteenth cen- tury; an aspen-stick set in the sixteenth century. These were all taken from the mines, where they had been exposed to moisture and pressure. 20. GoRiTZ and Istria. — Chorographic charts, production-tables, and maps representing the several portions of the imperial estates in these countries that we call lUyria. In the pavilion was a model of charcoal-ovens, such as are used in Ter- nova, where they have no water to control the fire. A very extensive collection of woods in book-form, showing the rate of growth, the specific gravity, and the elevation on which they grew, to the number of one hundred and fourteen kinds, all classified according to de CandoUe. The common and botanical names of this interesting collection were also given, with the place where they grew, prepared by Forstmeister Eedl. A very extensive and elegantly-prepared collection of beetles injurious to the forests, amounting to two hundred and sixty-four species, by Oberforster Franz Miklitz ; and a small group of six species of beneficial insects. These are grouped according to the injury they effect: eleven are destructive to the young trees in the nursery and seed-beds ; one hundred and sixty-eight do their work of destruction in the standing- forest ; and one hundred and seven consume the fallen wood and lumber. These insects were collected in various provinces; all of which places are indicated by different colored cards attached to the insect-pins. Outside was a collection of wood, sections of logs, with the several particulars given in the annexed table. AUSTRIAN FORESTRY. 27 Species. Exposure and soil. Above sea. Fir Fir .... Fir . . . . Fir .... Fir ... . Fir .... Fir .... Fir .... Sprnce. Spruce . Spruce. Spruce. Beech . . Beech . . Beech.. Beech . . Beech . . Beech Beech Beech Sorbus aria Q. pethinculata. . . Austrian pine Q. pubescens Q. pubescens Cork-oak Slieltered, humose Sheltered, stony and shallow Northeast expo.sed, poor Southwest sheltered, humose Northeast e.xpo.sed to the northers, poor Sheltered, humose Northeast exposed, stony Northeast exposed, stony Sheltered, deep and sandy loam Northeast exposed and stony Sheltered, deep sandy loam i Sheltered, humose Sheltered, humose Northeast exposed to northers, poor soil Sheltered, humose Sheltered, stony, poor Northeast exposed to northers, stony, poor. Southerly sheltered, good soil Northeast hardest northers, poor soil. .. Sheltered, rich in huraus Northers, poor Sheltered , sandy loam Somewhat exposed to northers, humose "Somewhat exposed to northers, thin . . . | Sheltered, humo.se, chalk , Sheltered, humose, Karst soil | Meters. 1,000 1,000 906 906 1,230 1,090 1,290 1,330 1,100 1,330 1,100 1,250 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1, 290 1,300 1,200 1,050 1, 200 100 100 150 100 33 Specific gravity. Age. Height. Tears. Meters. 0. 4549 74 30 0. 5282 80 28 0. 5541 84 10 0. 4501 84 24 0. 6482 85 12 0. 5369 125 37 0. 5943 150 12 0. 4918 150 10 0. 4497 77 25 0.6128 136 13 0. 5327 140 19 0. 5436 147 25 0. 8528 125 33 0. 7355 170 9 0. 9589 145 33 0. 9487 145 17 0. 8575 174 16 0. 9351 190 23 0. 7019 190 12 0. 8356 192 29 0. 9380 1.50 9 1. 0084 110 24 0. 6710 56 14 1. 2310 35 8 1. 1051 35 8 0. 9523 40 8 Diam- eter. Ctibie meters. 39 31 IG 56 14 73 21 13 5» 14 40 60 5ft 11 50 31 32 41 18 4^ 21 50 44 26 21 20 Collection of woods, split pieces. Name of tree. Soil and situation. Specific gravity. Oak, Qnercus pednnculata . . . Oak, Quercus pednnculata . . . Quercus pubescens Spruce Sheltered, sandy loam Sheltered, wet land Sheltered, stony, but humo.se. chalky soil. Sheltered, stony, hurao.se, chalky soil Fir j Sheltered, stony, humose, chalky soil Larch Sheltered, humose sandstone Beech i Sheltered, humose, chalky Sorbus aria j Sheltered, humose, chalky Austrian pine ! Rather exposed, humose sandstone Cork-elm j Slieltered, humose, wet soil Acer pseudo-platanns i Sheltered, stony, humose, chalky soil 1. 0084 0. 994:{ 1. 1226 0. 5446 0. 5283 0. 6694 0. 9009 0. 8903 0.6710 0. 8<)16 0. 8545 Here are some sections of logs of remarkable dimensions, from the Ternova forest, at an elevation of 1,000 meters : Height of tree. Length of log. Diameter, breast-high. Diameter, small end. Cubic contents. Formzahl. Meters. Meters. Meters. Fcatmeters. Fcstmeters. Fcstmeters. 41.15 'ili.\5 1, 765 0.737 30. 3.36 0.32 41.00 20. 55 1,264 0.758 21. 140 0.41 39.50 15.12 1, 238 0.800 16. 400 0.36 40.44 16.74 1,238 0. 822 17. 854 0.40 39. 81 16.46 1, 212 0.798 17. 000 0.37 40.76 20.22 1,238 0.7C4 21. 582 0.44 A collection of timbers prepared for sbip-building, knees, keels, beams &c., and tbe model of a sbip. Young plants from the nurseries, ready for planting in tUe Karst- lands. A collection of ship-builders' tools. These specimens from the existing forests of this region prove the adaptability of the soil and climate for the production of this staple^ 28 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. and fiiruisb great encouragement to tbose wlio have wisely undertaken to reproduce the sylvau garniture of the extensive wastes of the Kiisten- land. 27. Carinthia. — In the pavilion, we find the usual charts and tables, and also photographic representations of interesting portions of the forests; models in relief of the valley of the Drave; and specimens of pre|)ared wood in various forms. Outside was a collection of logs of different kinds, from various eleva- tions, with their several dimensions and contents, age, specific gravity, &c.; some of these grew at an elevation of 1,600 meters ; prepared lum- ber and materials. 28. Car>'iola. — In the pavilion were models of log- ways, and water- ways for transport, with their reservoirs of supply ; photographic illus- trations of the works ; forest-charts dating back to 17G0 ; tools for forest- culture; tools for felling and preparing the timbers, and for moving and handling them ; apparatus and tools for making the ways and roads in the forests. Outside was a collection of logs and timbers, some of the former of great size and showing by the annual rings a remarkable growth ; a beech two hundred and fifty-eight years old that grew at an elevation of 950 meters was 55 centimeters in diameter at breast-high, 34.12 meters long, with 14.50 cubic meters contents; a chestnut sixty years old, at an ele- vation of 570 meters, diameter at breast-high 32 centimeters, length 22.75 meters, contents l.OG cubic meters. The chestnut grows rapidly and is very durable, and the stem re- mains sound until seventy years old. It is used for grape-stakes, staves for wine-casks, and other purposes. For grape-stakes, it may be cut when five and six years old, and it makes telegraph-poles in seventeen years. There was a remarkable stump of fir, which had sprouted after having been cut, and another that had grown so as to heal over completely ; specimens showing the serious injury inflicted upon trees by pasturing. 29. Lower Austria. — In this region, the Wienerwald, so near at hand and so well known by the curious, furnished a large collection. In the pavilion were numerous charts, maps, and relief-models of va- rious parts of the forests, representing the surface, the water- ways, the roads, and the kinds of trees. Tools used in felling and preparing the wood and in transporting it; also the apparatus emjdoyed in the gathering of the pitch from those l>ortions devoted to the Austrian pine. Outside were sections of various kinds of trees, and logs of hand- fiome appearance and good size ; their age, height, thickness, and con- tents were given with each. The Austrian pines that had been felled for the tar were also shown in different stages of the process. Various preparations of wood for use in the arts, esi>ecially for the wagon maker. AUSTRIAN FORESTRY. 29 Many abnormal growths were exhibited that were exceedingly curious and interesting. 30. Upper Austria. — Scdzliammergut. — In the pavilion were a collec- tion of all kinds of forest-tools. Eesouance boards of spruce ; the annual production amounts to 2,500 cubic meters. A cubic meter was worth about $12 at the stump, and when worked up it was worth |1G3. Models of log- ways used in that region, and of water-ways with their reservoirs, maps of the several forests, and relief-charts. Outside was a collection of logs, showing the character of growth in that region. 31. Duchy of Salzburg. — In the pavilion, maps, statistic tables, pans, and model ; a complete set of forest-tools, &c. The following table shows the injurious effects of grazing in the woods, which, on account of the servitudes, is still practiced to some extent. Eleva- tion. Meters. 1 1,300 o 1,300 3 1.200 4 1, 200 5 1,070 6 1,170 7 1,170 8 1, 170 9 1,170 0 1,050 Situation and soil. Iforthern slope ; rather huniose soil, on chalk do do do From a north slope ; on a strong soil on niica-scLi.st Southeast slope ; stony, rather strong soil do do do North slope ; loam and lime Age. Height. Average diameter. Years. Meters. Meters. 30 12.5 0. 053 25 4.4 0. 039 53 16.7 0.158 53 13.9 0. 079 43 8.8 0. (192 70 18.9 0. 197 80 25.9 0. 263 90 17.0 0.158 90 14.8 0.118 95 12.9 0. 131 Contents. Cubic meters. 0. 05C 0.009 0. 327 0. 069 0. 058 0. 581 1.405 0. 334 0.164 0.176 * Normal. Contrast the second with the third, the fourth with the sixth and seventh, as to their relative contents. 32. Illustrations of the durability of timbers in the salt- works.— A piece of spruce which had stood twenty-five years in a dry place under great pressure, 190 meters deep ; a cross-beam of spruce, which had borne a severe vertical pressure fifty years in a damp place at the same depth ^ another under similar circumstances for one hundred years, and a piece of flood-gate from one of the oldest establishments, from two to three hundred years old ; logs of stone-pine of different ages up to two nundred and sixty years, grown in elevated places from 1,430 to 1,850 meters above the sea, and other kinds of logs ; larch cut into cross-ties, usually 6 by 5 inches. Tlie tree. was five hundred and thirty years old; diameter, breast-high, 8(> centimeters; 21J.4S meters long; contents, 6.75 cubic meters. Tree. Eleva- tion. Age. Diameter. Length. Con- tents. Larch Meters. 1,580 1, 250 900 Tears. 575 290 335 Centi- meters. 82 105 119 Meters. 16.5 38. 40 19. Cubic meters. 4 M3 Spr-ace 8 72 Fir 11 94 30 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, J 873. 33. Styria sent models of reservoirs and water-ways, of sbelter- buts, of ice-ways, sleds, and collieries ; also tools of all kinds for pre- paring wood and timber, and for coaling. 34. Tyrol and Yorarlberg. — In tbe pavilion were tools and appa- ratus for cutting and transporting lumber ; models of reservoirs and water-ways of collieries ; statistic tables, and an album of tbe views of constructions and interesting objects connected with the land and water transport. These representations of the modes of overcoming difficulties inci- dent to an alpine forest-region could not fail to attract attention. Outside was a collection of logs and timbers ; among them some fine sticks of Scotch i)ine and spruce cross-ties, and logs for masts and spars; abnormal growths of several kinds. 35. Dalmatia. — In the pavilion, sections of different woods, espec- ially of southern kinds, unknown to the forests of other parts of the empire. 36. Styria. — The collective exhibition from Styria was another of the exceedingly interesting groups of forest-products. It was placed in and around a neat building erected for the purpose, with open sheds on either hand for tbe coarser products. In the front, outside, were groups of forest-plants of many kinds ; among them spruce, pines, and larches from the seed-bed and nursery, where they are prepared for planting in the high mountains. These are preferred when from three to five years old, as then they can better withstand the growth of grass to which they are exposed. Ash, maples, and firs were also present. These con- tributions were from the Tordernberg Company ; Baron Sessler-Her- zinger, from the Leobeu Society; and the Stock Company of the Inner- berg Establishment. Forest-culture in the high mountains of Styria, which is situated from 1,400 feet to 4,500 feet above the sea, is quite a difficult matter. Not- withstanding the excellence of the soil, the scarcity of suitable labor, the shortness of the i)eriod of growth, the unfavorable influence of the climate and atmosphere, and the practice of pasturing requires for suc- cess the application of pecuniary sacrifice, great assiduity, and patience. Tbis culture began to attract attention about twenty years ago. In many clearings, tbe method of Beerman and Butler was applied. In the highest places, the tuft-planting* was tried, and planting in the usual way where, from tlie character of the soil, every intricate method of great cost was excluded. The country people, who occupy the great- est area, are enemies of forest-culture; to them pasturage offers a higher l)rofit. The culture costs from 3 to 8 florins per joch in the higher places, and in the worst soils, [verfifzeen,) from 5 to 15 florins.t Culture, be it understood, consists in planting the trees, and does not imply what we should consider cultivation afterward. With the European forester, a * BuHchelpJlamung, planting in bunches. \ We may read tliis, 40 cents to .^3 per acre, and §1.90 to $5.50 per acre. AUSTKIAN FORESTRY. 31 cultivated forest is one artificially stocked, and not the natural growth. More recently attempts are made to mix the species in these planta- tions, since in the Styrian mountains the deciduous trees are generally wanting and frequently desired. Logs. — From the Innerberg Company, there were some fine logs ; a spruce IG klafter (96 feet) long by 32 inches thick ; a larch of the same length and 30 inches thick ; and a fi^r of similar length, by 42 inches in diameter; beautiful and remarkable shafts they were. These trees were felled on the boundary of Styria with Upper Austria, brought to the river Enns without the aid of machinery, and floated by it and the Danube to Vienna. There was a spruce log 51 inches diameter, from Vorderuberg, which grew at the height of 5,400 feet on gneiss, and in an open situation. This remarkable log was 118 feet long, but in falling it broke into three pieces. It was taken to the railroad by means of sleds. From the Vorderuberg Society was a fir-log, 72 feet long by 32 inches diameter; one of larch, 60 feet by 34 inches ; and others very fine. Here were also to be seen logs of yew and of the Swiss stone-pine {pinns cem- hra) from the elevated alpine regions; also some spruce and larch poles for high building, remarkable for their length and strength. The export of long timber has recently assumed a remarkable import- ance in Styria. It is carried on by rafting, chiefly on the Mur, the Enns, and the Traun Rivers. The spruce and firs go to Vienna and Gratz; the larch, for ship-timbers and for masts and spars, to Triest, Venice, «&c. Great quantities of props for the mines are taken to the mining- regions of Upper Austria. The first transport of the long timbers from the mountains is effected chiefly by hand, aided by artificial slides and ways. The carriage of the smaller pieces is tedious and laborious in the mountains, and neces- sarily expensive. In the sheds which were erected, on either end of the pavilion, were collections of prepared woods, split, hewed, and sawn, chiefly of spruce, fir, and larch. Among them were cross-ties sawn in peculiar form, so as to economize the timber. Some were cut 6 by 8 by 10 inches, and intended to rest upon the broadest side ; here were also squared tim- bers. From Graf von Luchesi were oak posts, boards of elm, maple, linden, birch, alder, walnut, and ash, of unusual dimensions, intended for the cabinet-makers and were remarkable for their texture and i^erfection ; finely-split material for the Triest market, and for various i)urposes. From Vorderuberg were boards of the stone-pine of extraordinary dimensions, planed and polished for furniture and for carving, for which they are well adapted, because of the firmness of the fibers; on this account, they excel all other lumber. Such trees grow only on the high- est mountains, near the timber-line. This species grows also in lower situations, but it prefers the summits. 32 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. Graf Liichesi showed oak staves and other split oak-wood of remark- ably flue texture ; grape-stakes elegantly split and dressed, made from sprnce and also from our favorite black locust ; the latter was produced in the lower forest-lands. Baron Sessler-Herzinger had grape-stakes made from larch, which were very good ; also shingles made from larch. These were of remark- able size, and made without the usual groove, common to the European shingle, by which they are joined laterally on the roof. These larch shingles are sought for on account of their greater durability and their resistance of the influence of the weather. From the Hohenwauger Company were charcoals from spruce and fir, and sections of larch and spruce intended to show the growth of wood in various places in the high mountains. A very important industry in Upper Styria is coaling for the use of the iron-manufacture, especially as there is no stone-coal. The two great sraelting-establishments at Eisenerz and at Hieflau, belonging to the Innerberg Stock Company, and that at Vordernberg, have used 21,000,000 cubic feet of charcoal in a year, two-thirds of which they make, and one-third is purchased. Besides these, the scythe- works, the steel-works, and machine-works consume great quantities. So import- ant an interest is this that the Vordernberg Company exhibited a table of the production, in cylindrical form, of the coal from a given quantity of wood of different kinds, that had been cut from one to three years. The measure and weight of the wood are given, then the amount of the coal, and lastly the percentage in measure and weight of the result. In traveling among these collieries, there seemed to be nothing like our charcoal-ovens, nor was there seen at the exposition any model of such a contrivance. Great care and skill are exercised in putting up the kilns; but tliey are all conducted upon the primitive plan of piling the wood, and covering with earth to control the fire. Another admirable illustration of the care with which the coaling of wood is studied consisted in a group of thirty-three cubes of definite size, beside which were placed the resultant cubes of charcoal produced by burningsimilarblocks. This was illustrated by a table, showingthename of the wood, the part of the tree, whether stem, stump, or branch, the size, the relative weight of a cubic meter of wood and coal; next, how much coal is produced by a cubic meter of wood, and the percentage ; next, the percentage of loss in measure and weight. These thirty-three cubes represented as many different kinds of wood. The experiments were made by the Innerberg Mining Company, and the tables enable them to make very close calculations on their results in coal-burning. The same association also presented another valuable table, with illustrations in wood, showing every important element connected with the results of the process of coaling ; giving the name of the tree, sta- tion as to elevation, place, direction of exposure, sheltered or other- wise, the rocks subjacent, character of soil, &c. ; then the age, height, AUSTRIAN FORESTRY. 33 strength, amouut per hectare ; the ascertained measure of the trunk, stump, and branch in cubic meters; the last year's height, strength, and mass, and the entire contents in cubic meters ; then the successive growths in periods of twenty-five years up to two hundred and twenty- five years. There were twenty-five of these representations. Among the curious and interesting things which'attracted the atten- tion of strangers were articles of dress ; the green felt hats and the green velvet and fustian or velveteen jackets with showy buttons in- numerable ; the short breeches of buckskin, with knee-buckles, not quite reaching the long green woolen stockings and the heavy shoes armed with iron points to keep them from slipping on the ice or smooth rocks. Thus equipped, the mountaineer still needs his A.lpenstocTc when taking an excursion, with his fowling-piece slung over his shoulder, and a good field-glass suspended from his neck. In this beautiful room, there were many objects of interest. The walls were ornamented with photographs of some of the establishments for mountain-industry, of the mountains themselves, and of some of the most picturesque Thaler, or valleys, and ravines, some of which, deep and narrow, nearly closed in by the almost vertical rocks, resemble the wild caiions of the Rocky Mountains of our own country. A group of rocks covered with alpine plants occupied one side of the room, and here were placed the fauna of the Styrian Alps, elegantly I)repared and tastefully arranged by the Eev. H. Blasius, of Mariahof, near Xeumarkt. The Emperor has a fine hunting-lodge in the wild Thai Eadmer, and here were also some of the trophies of the chase, taken by himself and by the young crown-prince Eudolf. Graf von Meran also had a large collection of horns of deer and chamois, trophies of the chase in these mountains, as had several other exhibitors, for the Styrians are all mount- aineers and hunters ; those who do not sport the horns or foot of a chamois will have at least the flower of the Edeliceis in their hat-band or button-hole as a trophy from their alpine heights. 37. Hungary. — The extensive and very rich exhibition made from the forests of Hungary required the erection of special and commodi- ous apartments. The main forest-pavilion was erected in the form of a wooden church, such as embellish the Eastern Carpathians among the inhabitants of Svathmar and Marmaros. This illustrated the peculiar Hungarian architecture, and was quite oriental in its style. The posi- tions for wood-industry were a little to the south of the main building, and a large area on all sides was occupied by immense logs, normal and abnormal growths, and the coarser kinds of prepared lumber, both split and sawed. This immense exhibition, in the collection, transport- ing, and exhibition of which the government expended about 8100,000, represented the forest-products of the Hungarian countries, including the provinces of Croatia and Slavonia ; the articles exhibited were drawn from the government forests and also from private estates. 3 F 34 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIHITION, 1873. Besides this great group, there are soiue very rich collections, such as those from Archduke Albrecht, from the Duke of Coburg, from the Aus- trian Railway Company, and others, which occupied separate pavilions, or were placed in the agricultural halls; these will be treated separately. In such a grand collection as was here presented, it will be impossi- ble to particularize, as the details would occupy too much space. Among the various objects of such deep interest, however, a few must be brought into tliis rei)ort. The primary ])roducts of the forests, such as bark, wood, sawed and and split, were presented in great abundance from all parts of the king- dom of Hungary. The tools used in felling, transporting, and preparing the lumber; models and plans for transport, in their minutest details, were exhibited. Abnormal and diseased growths were contrasted with healthy i)roducts. Here were the results of experiments on the strength of material, accompanied by a pamphlet,* showing the effects of num- erous trials in this important branch of physical investigations. Charts, plans, and statistic tables, showing the condition of the for- ests, their cost and returns, and propositions for their improvement, were numerous upon the walls. Everything of this kind that could thus be addressed to the eye was here presented ; as were herbaria, showing not only the forest-botany in the usual way by a collection of the plants, but also similar plants, particularly young forest-species, grown on vari- ous soils, exhibiting the different character of the roots produced in each. Among these last, some of the most remarkable were little tree-plants, with their roots, that had been brought from the region of blowing sands of the Lower Danube; these show remarkable growth of tops and roots. They consist of pines and other trees; notably of our own invaluable black locust, {Rohinia pseiido-acacia.) Numerous collections of wooden blocks were sent by various contribu- tors. These are generally of uniform size in each group, and are elle- gantly prepared; one or more sides polished so as to bring out the grain and characters of the wood. Some of these are made to resemble books, and are named on the part corresponding to the back. of the volumes. A favorite product appears to be thin layers, like veneers, which are marked as articles to be used by shoemakers and book-binders. They are so thin that it requires sixty thicknesses to make an inch, and in one sample sixty layers measured only three quarters of an inch in thickness ; this is like our wooden wall-paper, but is not used for that purpose. Seeds of forest-trees were very extensively exhibited from various parts of the country; and oak-bark, very nicely peeled and prepared in rolls, or quills; this is taken from young trees. The copse is cut over every fifteen to twenty-five years, and allowed to spring up again for another crop. Un'enuckung iiber die Fedijlui! der H'Olzer ; Jos. Vesseli/, Domiine-Insjyector. I HUNGARIAN FORESTRY. 35 Mr. Franz Sclimitt had prepared a pamphlet,* iu which the wbole process is described; aud the subject may become one of importance to us whenever the now abundant supplies of rock-chestnut oak of the Alleghanies shall have been destroyed. The young trees (copse) of this species grow ver^^ rapidly. In the wood-industry pavilions were innumerable articles of wooden ware of various kinds, from cross-ties to barrel and hogshead staves, of the finest quality. These last were of dimensions to make the largest sized casks, such as were shown, great tuns, to rival that which has rendered Heidelberg- famous. One of these great casks would hold 2,500 eimer, an Austrian measure of nearly 9^ g'allons; so that its contents, in our measure, would be 23,325 gallons. This cask is made of 71 staves, each 21^ feet long. At the end it measures 17 feet across, and in the middle 19J feet. The staves are 7^ inches thick; the head- pieces, Gi. Among the preparations of wood that are associated with art were woods elegantly prepared for inlaying floors, (parquetry,) which are very much used in Europe; sounding-boards [Resonanz-Roher] for pianos ; garden-furniture, rustic work made chiefly from the stems of hazel or filberts ; narrow strips of thin stuff for making screens, {jalou- sies, as they are there called,) and much used in eastern architecture. Outside these pavilions there was an extensive space, occupied by specimen logs from various sections of the country that were really remarkable. Some of these must be noticed, with their dimensions. From the Carpathians were an ash log 44 inches thick, a Xorway spruce 44 inches, an elm 3G inches, an oak 30 inches, a fir 48 inches. A larch log was 65 feet long, 6 aud 15 inches thick ; another was 50 feet long, 0 and 23 inches thick ; a Scotch pine was S3J feet long, 4 and 13 inches thick ; another was 50 feet long, 15 aud 20 inches thick; a beech 72^ feet long, 11 and 21 inches thick ; an oak 60 feet long, 8 and 14 inches thick ; a spruce 120 feet long, 48 inches at base ; a fir 134 feet long, 13 and 58 inches diameter. From Siebenblirgh was a spruce 148 feet long by 11 aud 35 inches thick; sections of Scotch pine, 21 inches; of (J. cerris, 22 inches; of bird-cherry, 17 inches; of hornbeam, 13 inches thick. From the Carpathians were sections 22 to 31 inches : alder, 22 inches ; silver-fir, 43 inches; maple, 37 inches; beech, 40 inches; silver-fir, 45 inches; elm, 31 inches; spruce, 44 inches; elm, 30 inches; maple, 39 inches; birch, 16 inches; chestnut, 26 inches; walnut, 19 inches; bird- cherry, 16 inches; larch, 27 inches; Scotch pine, 28 inches; silver-fir, 34 inches, and Xorway spruce 32 inches. Of timbers handsomely dressed : Scotch pine, 48 feet long, squared 10 inches; a larch, 56 feet, squared 11 inches'; a silver-tir of 60 feet, squared 13 inches; a Norway spruce, 60 feet, squared 12 inches; an oak, 60 feet, was squared iS inches; another oak of 60 feet, 15 inches; ' Die Giwiinninj dir Eiclwidohc, 36 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. a spruce 70 feet long was dressed to 18 by 32 inches. There was also in the same group a fine collection of logs from the famous forests of Croatia and Slavonia, whence great quantities of cooper's stuff are exported to all parts of Western Europe. Logs. — Oak, {Qucrcus 2>edunculata,) 90 feet long, 14 and 42 inches diam- eter; oak, [Q.sessilijlora,) GO feet long, 17 and 32 inches diameter; sil- ver-fir, 133 feet long, 10 and 44 inches diameter ; spruce, 133 feet long, 8 and 34 inches diameter ; beech, 75 feet long, 17 and 30 inches diam- eter ; maple, 58 feet long, 25 and 40 inches diameter; Austrian ]}'me, 76 feet long, 7 and 20 inches diameter ; Scotch pine, SO feet long, 4 and 32 inches diameter : elm, 90 feet long, 15 and 30 inches diameter ; ash, 88 feet long, 16 and 32 inches diameter. From the same forests were beau- tiful dressed timbers, the dimensions of some of which are here given : Xorway spruce, 74 feet long, 11 by 33 inches ; silver-tir, 81 feet long, 22 by 58 inches; maple, 47 feet long, 26 by 27 inches; hornbeam, 29 feet long, 26 by 37 inches; oak, {Q. pedunculata,) 91 feet long, 10 by 30 inches; elm, 84 feet long, 11 by 31 inches; ash, 84 feet long, 13 by 44 inches; Norway, 70 feet long, 30 inches square; fir, 70 feet long, 30 inches square; beech, 50 feet long, 18 inches square; Norway, 70 feet long, 20 inches square; fir, 70 feet long, 20 inches square; oak, {Q. ses- silijfora,) 60 feet long, 16 inches square; Scotch pine, 45 feet long, 11 inches square; Scotch i)ine, 64 feet long, 10 and 17^ inches square; Austrian pine, 66 feet long, 9 and 15 inches square; oak, 60 feet long, 15 inches square; oak, 63 feet long, 16 and 51 inches square; elm, 75 feet long, 11 and 30 inches square; ash, 74 feet long, 10 and 33 inches square; linden, 30 feet long, 10 and 17 inches square; alder, 30 feet long, 8 and 15 inches square. There was also a group of sections of logs, from places whence, on account of the extreme mildness of the winter of 1872-'73, it was impos- sible to transport great logs over the roads. Among them were the fol- lowing: oak, {Q. pedunculata,) 53 inches diameter; oak, {Q. pedunculata,) 65 inches diameter; oak, {Q. sessiliflora,) 42 inches diameter; chestnut, 47 inches; beech, 46 inches; ash, 43 inches; ash, 36 inches; elm, 62 inches; elm, 38 inches; elm, 56 inches; hornbeam, 32 inches; maple, 40 inches; linden, 34 inches; silver-fir, 54 inches; silver-fir, 60 inches; Norway spruce, 43 inches; another, 52 inches; Austrian pine, 22^inches; and a pine, 28 inches. ]\Ir. Zellen, of Galetten, showed bast from the mulberry-tree. Bachmeyer & Co., of Temesver, had various forest-products. The Countess Anthonia Bathyanyi, of I5lesd, exhibited a fine log from her estate. Mr. John Bibel, of Orawitza, had a collection of staves for barrels. From Baron Borneirfizza, of Maros-lllye, Transylvania, was a group of forest-products. From the ])ominion of Bakotra was exhibited, by the Baranyaer Company, barrel-staves and beech-felloes. HUNGARIAN FORESTRY. 37 From the forest-office of Belloyar were some boards. , Mr. Copoiiy, of Roseuaii, exhibited some logs. William Dapsy, of Eima-Szombat, showed gall-uuts. From the domain of Diakovar, iu Slavonia, were some forest-products. Eugene Dvihally, forester, Huszt, showed a table and settle of maha- leb-cherry and cherry-wood. Count Erdody, of Marcovecz, had a linden log on exhibition. John Erlitz, of Zirtz, had a collection of spunk. Count Panl Esterhazy, of Ugod, exhibited forest-products. Anton Freistadter, of Kaposvar, and Albert Fekker, Eoyal Head- Forestmaster at Abrudbauya, showed collections of similar articles. The Rungariau department of finance at Ofeu exhibited their forest - products. The chamber of trade of Fiume had a collection of woods from Hun- gary. The chapter of Gran, at Szobb, exhibited a group of forest-products. Oberforster Julius Grachey, of Gros-Kanizsa, made a similar display. Pitomaca Gyurgyevics, of Bellovar, forest-products. Geo. Hoffmann, of AYeidenthal, showed beech-spunk. Adolf Ludwig Hessheimer, of Kronstadt, and F. W. Hoffmann and Iguacz Hartl, of Essegg, exhibited various forest-products. Christian Herrmann, stave-dealer in Vienna, showed woods from Hungary. John Horvath, of Kronstadt, had a very interesting collection of hats and caps made of spunk. Adolf Moritz Kanitz, of Pesth, had forest-products and gall-nuts. Count Alois Karolyi, of Erd(3d, showed building-timbers and boards. Count Albert Keglevich, of Bodoka-Toma, had woods, boards, and shingles. Graf Guido Karacsonyi, of Bodra in Banlak, showed transverse sec- tions of wood and seeds of trees. Graf Gustav Kouigsegg, of Pruszkau, had a plan for forest-improve- ment. C. A. Kraetschmar, of Eima-Szombat, showed galls and acorns. George Kueres, of Zeiden, exhibited veneers. The Agricultural Society of Bistriz showed a group of cross-sections of wood. The Agricultural School of Debreczin presented " Studies on the Eobinia," with graphical delineation, tables of production, and sections of the wood. The Agricultural School at Keszthely exhibited articles from the forests. Michael Loewe, of Csacza, showed pitch from fhe spruce-tree. I. C. Eitter & Co., of Szlatina ; L. i!:^euwirth & Co., of Essegg ; and Leopold Eitter von Popper exhibited forest-products. Joseph Pfeifter, of Vienna, showed forest-products from Slavonia. DO VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, l«7:i. The Agi'icaltnral Society of Pressburg had a collective exhibition. Baron Bela Piret showed products from the domain of Dros- Jenoer. George Ilatz, of Debrecziu, had galls and tan-bark. John Keitzner, of Kaschan, and M. Koth, of Kronstadt, showed yew- wood. Franz Schnitt, of the Administration at Szokola-IIntta, Count Ervin Schuuborn, of ^Nlunkacs, and Nicholas Alexander Schulz, of George's Garden near Eaba-Hidveg, exhibited forest-products. Baron Simon Sina showed the products of his forests at Baau and Teplicska, and from Simongiit he had galls, deciduous and evergreen plants, and logs. Ch. Wallfisch & Sous, at Arad, showed various woods. Count Albert Zay, of Zay-Ugrocz, had oak-bark. Alexander Gliederer, of Sissek, and Gilbert Pierre, of Eecica, exhib- ited barrel-staves. From the parish of Dubrava an oak log was brought. Joseph Schmidinger, of Warasdiu, exhibited samples of maple and red yew, bushes of ivy, and larch-plants. August Duke of SaxeCoburg-Gotha made a grand exhibit of the productions of his forests at Belegvar, Csepreg, Kapsdorf, &c., in a separate and beautiful pavilion. 38. EouMANiA.— From her broad area of fifteen millions hectares, of which about eight millions are in forest, there was quite an extensive col- lection of woods, but they were not remarkable except as showing the kinds of forest-trees produced, as Norway spruce, silver-fir, oaks, ash, cherry, beech, birch, elms, poplar, walnut, mulberry, holm-oak, yew, dogwood, hornbeam, maple, pear, serviceberry, thorn, hazel, linden, alder, «S:c. These were shown in logs, boards, timbers, shingles, and also as blocks. 39. TuEKEY, among 2,G9G entries, had fifty or more of forest-prod- ucts. Among these were very extensive collections, embracing hun- dreds of elegantly-prepared blocks, some of which were marked with Arabic characters, but none of them so named as to be intelligible to us. Others exhibited acorns, bark of different kinds, but especially gall-nuts, dyes and dye-stuffs, and spunk. 40. Greece. — Theodore Orphanides, of Attica, had a collection of woods artistically and very elegantly prepared, showing the form, the bark, rough-cut wood, and polished, and also the botanical characters. The Public Nursery in Attica had an extensive illustration of forest- trees and ornamentals; specimens of ramie and other valuable plants. This was a good nursery exhibition or advertisement. 41. Persia. — From this ancient land, we have had such sad accounts of famines, resulting from the destruction and present scarcity of forests, notwithstanding the oft-quoted maxim of its own wise philosopher, Zoroaster, that we had not expected an exhibition. We had at Vienna, however, evidence that there are still trees in Persia in the interesting show of their products. EXHIBITS OF FOEESTRY. 39 Des[)ite the scarcity of trees in the table-lands, the plane-tree, which is especially trained by the people, makes a high stem, and furnishes valuable lumber. Two different species of ash and the Pninns mahaleh yield beautiful wood for veneers. The trunks of the J.w?/^(7ft/»s orientalls Rve much esteemed for their straight growth, for their strength, and for their silvery-white color. On the lowlands of the Caspian Sea, and on the slopes of the Elharg Mountains, are fonnd beautiful oaks, especially the Quercus castaneifoUa, the cypress, varieties of maple, the walnut, box, beech, gleditschias, and mimosas; so that Persia has a sylva of value and importance. Numerous examples of these woods were shown by the minister of agriculture, Hassan Chou Geras, in the name of the Persian empire ; of these, few had the botanical names ; but the oak, walnut, maple, ailantus, alder, lemon and orange, cypress, pine, plane-tree, and others could be identified; seeds of the cypress and of the MeJ'm azedarach, also acorns of the Quercus vaUonil, which are sweet, and, when roasted, are used for making bread. The same species furnishes useful wood as well as galls and tan-bark. 42. SiAM furnished its quota by presenting specimens of teak and other woods in considerable numbers, but unknown by their native names. 43. China showed a small collection of woods, but without any in- dications as to their names or qualities. 44. British colonies. — Ceylon. — From the forests of this island were specimens of cinnamon, the bark of the Laurus cinnamomum ; also cinchona-bark by Mr. Layard, who exhibited, besides, quite a col- lection of tropical woods, most noted for their value in building, for cabinet-ware, and other construction ; all shown with their botanic names. 45. Mauritius. — This gem of the Indian Ocean furnished an exceed- ingly rich collection of fibers and woods, mostly native. Of these, there were sixty-two kinds, presented with their botanical names, shown by Mr. J. Home, of the Botanic Gardens ; by the same exhibitor, descrip- tions of these woods, their qualities and uses, and the characters of the trees which produce them. 46. British India. — From the rich forests of this country, which are now better managed than heretofore, we found, from Madras, woods for wagon-making, and the woods of South India; from Malabar, teak- plants set between 1844 and 1SG3, and woods ; also woods and bark from Coimbatore, and from the Nielgherry Hills. There were forest- products*from Salem, from Madura, from North Arcot^ from Cuddapah, from Tinnevelly, from South Arcot, from Kurnool, and from Gowalpara, in the Himalayas; also woods from the central provinces, and from IVIysore, and timbers from Berar. 47. Australia. — Victoria. — From ^Melbourne was a collection of native woods and sections of trees. 40 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. 48. New Zealand furnished a large collection of native woods, sec- tions of tbe trunk of the Dammara aKstralis, ship-timbers, section of the Lejytosjfcrmtim scojmrium, of the "yellow pine," and botanical col- lections. 40. From Trinidad, (West Indies,) there Avas a very rich collection of tropical woods of two hundred and twenty-two kinds, of which the English names, with the'French and Spanish names, were given, as well as their botanical titles, and the natural families to which they belonged. These furnished evidence of a very rich sylva in this island, most of which are native, though several have been introduced. Shown by Mr. S. Devenish. 50. Japan. — The exhibition from this far-off and wonderfully interest- ing country was highly creditable. Among the forest-products were wood-specimens of one hundred and seventy kinds, presented with their botanical names, carefully prepared, no doubt, by the celebrated botanist Siebold, whose son, Henry, was a member of the Japanese commission at Vienna. These trees embrace many species and some genera peculiar to the eastern hemisphere, but among them were recognized many names already familiar to American ears as those of plants now cultivated by ourselves. The bambusas were shown in quantities and of great size ; and, though rather grasses than trees, they perform the office of the latter in construction, as was illustrated by the ijavilions and other structures and fences in the park and garden, as well as by the furni- ture and apparatus shown within the palace, by these interesting and industrious people. There were also large collections of idant-products in diifereut kinds, of dye-stuffs and tanning-material, consisting of galls and bark, charcoal from different trees, and the ashes from certain species that are employed in the glazing of porcelain. In the garden, in the park, there was a large collection of plants, among which, besides those with beautiful flowers, there were many young trees iieculiar to the country ; among these, the Qtiercus glauca, for feeding silk-worms, and the Acer palmatum^ with variously-colored foliage, were remarkable. CHAPTER II SPECLiL EXHIBITS AT VIENNA. The Schwarzkxberg pavilion; its locatiox and that of the estates ; char- acter, EXTENT, AND STATISTICS OF THE EXHIBIT ; THE SaXE-COBURG-GOTHA PAVILION ; THE LOCATION AND CHARACTER OF EXHIBIT AND STATISTICS ; FOREST- CULTURE ; fauna; ores; the exhibit of the Austrian state-railroads; EXTENT AND CHARACTER OF EXHIBIT ; FOREST-INDTTSTRY. 51. The Schwaezenbeeg pavilion. — This was truly one of the gems of the exhibition on account of the architectural beauty of the building-, its tasteful arrangement, both internally and externally, as well as for the varied character and richness of the exhibition of the pro- ducts of the estates of the proprietors. This pavilion was happily situated in the north zone, but a little east- ward from the great dome, fronting upon the common thoroughfare on that side of the Industrial Palace, so that it was brought prominently before the passing throng, who could not avoid being attracted by the extensive and well-filled parterres through which it was approached. These enterprising princes — father and son, John Adolf and Adolf Joseph Schwarzenberg — have i^ossessious in Bavaria, in Styria, in Salz- burg, in Upper and in Louver Austria, and also in Bohemia; the latter being the most extensive, occupying more than 387,000 acres. In Styria, they have 43,000 acres ; in Bavaria, more than 6,000 5 in other places, 220 acres. These diverse and widely-separated possessions embrace a great variety of climate, soil, surface, and geological formation ; hence the diversity' of products here exhibited, which are derived from the forests, quarries, and mines, and their manufactures, as well as from the rich fields of agriculture and horticulture, and also from their fisheries. o2. Confining myself to the notice of forest-products alone, these were found to be very extensive. The doorway of the pavilion was ornamented with sections of great trees, and on entering the hall the visitor was delighted with the wild woodland and rock scenery, in which the native animals and birds of the forests were exhibited in their natural postures, showhig the skill of the taxidermist. The left transept contained the agricultural products in great variety, while turning to the right one found the products of the mines and forests. Here were all sorts of finely-prepared woods ; veneers for parquetry and other purposes, for bindery, «S:c. ; round splinters for matches; resonance-boards for pianos and other musical instruments ; specimens of pnrquetry-work with differently-colored woods, such as white pine 42 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. ami larch ; wooden shoes ; wooileu shovels and various other implements ; fiually, Faber's celebrated lead-pencils, made from their own famous graphite and cased in red-cedar wood grown in the countr}* and declared to be better than that imported from America for the same purpose. Unfortunately, however, little or none of this valuable wood has ever been grown in European forests. Tree-seeds. — These were exhibited in great variety, in buckets that were made of the very wood from which the seeds had been gathered : Acer iiseudo-phifanns, Acer platdnoides, JEscuJus hi>>pocast(mum, Alnus glutinosa and incana, Betula alba, Carpinus betuls, Fagus sylvatica, Fra.vinus excelsior, Qncrcus sessiU/flora, Roblnia pseudo-acacia, Spartium scoparium, Tilia grandi/oUa and parcifolia, Uhnus campestris, Qiiercus cerris, Abies pectinata and excelsa, Pinus sylvestris, lUiginosa, and ccmbra, Larix europwa. Wagon-maker's lumber of every kind was exhibited, and cooper's stuff; also, the withes used in securing logs together in the rafts ; sec- ondary products, such as tan-bark from the spruce and oak, natural and pressed for transportation ; turpentine, in flasks ; tar ; charcoal ; and bast, from linden. There were forest-models of means of transport, of rafts on the Elbe, of log-roads in the Boehmer-Wald, &c. Tables represented the various subdivisions {Reviere) of the forests, with their different kinds of trees, ages, and management ; and charts of the domains of Krummau, Wittingau, Winterberg, Steubenbach, Frauenberg, Protiwin, Liebiejitz, Xetolitz, Labositz, and other forest- regions were hung on the walls, with photographs of various interesting points, such as the sawmills and workshops, parts of the famous Uricald, which has not been invaded by the ax for centuries, and of the terrible windfall that desolated part of the forests with the furious storm of October 2G-27, 1870. Herbariums of forest-plants from different domains, and collections of insects, and of the results of their injuries, were extensive and interesting objects of study. The zoological collection of the wild animals and birds embraced more than a hundred si)ecimens ; and there were prepared fish from the numerous Oeiclie and lakes of these estates, besides having specimens in the ponds outside, where also were living beavers. Outside and in the rear of the pavilion was quite a lumber-yard of forest-material, some of which must be mentioned in this report, begin- ninir with the lo^rs of trees. SCHWARZENBERG EXHIBITS. 4S 53. — Tabular statejiext of names and conditions of exhibits. Xams. Spruce. Silver-fir Oak, (Q. sessilijiora) : "Winter-liudeu Birch Beech . Scotch pine Oak, (Q. 2^eduncxt- lata.) Scotch piue 215 230 Moor-pine, {P.mon- tana. Do Aldery. Black poplar Sprnce. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. 530-550 350 Do. Fir .... Do. Beech . . Do. Maple . Do. Spruce . Fir Do. Do. Do. Q ! s In. I Ft. 34 144 350 320 360; 280] 330 250! lis! Cu.ft. 11=0' 24 132 250 l'J5' 27 96! 224 230| 29 21.5! 10 140 13 W 12 62i 42 340 18 320 11 580! 26 40 17J 60' 300 4fi 120 12 140; 12 130' 19 130! 21 90 240 78 104 96 156 105 234 10 23 17 294 Formzahl. .48 36! 39 36 11 60 90 108 150 126 260 1125 (.05-.35*); .38 87 (.59-. 41) 132 935 (.72-28) 120! 693 (.72 78 373 (.73 108! 385 (.72- 661 119 (.72 54 j 92 (.52 39 7 65 28 83 30 131 112 127! 131 .43 .54-.18t 3,880 .46 .60-.21 3, 460 .47 .93-.86 2, 920 .43 .97-1.00 2,920 Ft. 1,350 1,400 l,30i 1,300 1, 451 1,350 1,400 1,340 1,350 1,300 1,300 1,300 3,250 3,250 3, 350 4.030 3, 500 2, 300 3,000 Remarks. Soil, dc. TVith fir and beech on gneiss, in gravelly hn- niose loam, easterly slope. Do. Gneiss, stony, humose loam ; soutlierlv ; with spruce, Scotch pine, liuden, Sec. Do. As above, ■(vith linden, aspen, some beech and oak, very thick bark. Xorthem slope : soil as above ; beech - woods, with some spruce and fir. Loamy sand. Tertiary formation. Loamy sand, Tertiary, with fir, spruce, and some ash. Loamy sand, with fir, spruce, and some ash. Turfy soil. Turfy soil, with Carpinus. Turfy soil, alone. Low," wet land ; in park at Wittingau. Frosty place. Frosty, on gneis.s. Gneiss, stony loam, northwesterly slope, fir- wood, TJrwald. Granite, slony, humose loam, westerly slope, fir-wood. Gneiss, large stones, east- erly and northeasterly slope : sheltered from storms ; saudy loam, rich in humus of cen- turies ; spruce, fir, some beech, occasionally a maple. This and the next seven are li(mi the famous Vrwald of the Schat- tawa Kevier. This and the four follow- ing are from the Kdm- Bevler, Wintcrl-trff, the north slope of Kleba- ni Mountain, 4,296 feet high, on gneiss, sandy loam, with much feld- spar, clear spruce-for- est, nnmixed. * The.se figures in parentheses ( ) signify the proportion of timber, (Xtitzholtzj shown by the first figures, to that of mere fire-wood, shown by the last figures. t The first of these numbers represents the Hvhenziacachs, and the second the 2Ias.?cnzuirachs. 44 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. Tabular statement of names and condition of exhibits — Continued. Xiuue. Maple . Spruce. Do.. Do.. Do.. Beech . . . Silver-fir Spruce . . 100 lo- an; •215 GO 90 Fir ... Beech . Spruce Do Do Larch . . Locust. 'Walnut, {Jvglans ni qra.) Ash Spruce. Larch Field-elm Service-tree, (Sorbtu terminalin.) Tears. In. 450 ai 110 13 Ft I Cu.ft. 84 337 (.85-. 15*) lOe 50 100 17 110 12 70 12 f)5 12 7.T y7 100 15i CO 50 75 164 30 12 30 11 75 30 75 21 70 21 90 38 140 22 31 15 12 15 33 146 97 112 73 86 09 193 29 66 Formzahl. .70 . 50 .98-46 Eemarks. W 63 31 .62 .63-.31 4« 14 .37 .45-.13 4-^ 13 .40 87 4b 17 .45 1C2 101 .41 1.13-1.12 84 50 .38 .84-.50 78 23 .44 .71-.21 51 18 .44 .73-. 25 . 46 1.17-.41 , 03 .60-.50 . 61. 96-.8S ,48 1.23-1. 49c . 48 1.04-1.22e Ft. ! Soil, (tc. 3,000 Easterly slope, with fir, spruce, aud beech, in i the Urivald of Kruin- I niau, Kevier Schwarz- I \vald. Kexl ten Iroiu 1 same district-doinaiiie. 2, 350 Granite, coarse sand, Im- mo.se loam, much feld- spar,-with some tir and j beech. This and the five nest are from the easterly slope of the Ploekensteiii, which is ! 4,351 feet hish, the j hifjhest point of Balm- ewald, granite; soil, i coarse, sandy loam, with abundant feld- spar ; fore.st is spruce, with some beech au(l til', the first reproduc- tion of the Urivald. 2, 500 3, 350 4, 300 2. 450 3.410 2, 840 This and the two ne.'it are j specimens of the rela- tive growth of spruce, I flr, aud beech in the ! mixed forest of ■>-tlie Plankerswald, a spur I of the Balmewald, of I which the hig'hest point is 3,416 feet ; granite. 2, 800] 1, 520: 1, 520 \ 1, 300 650 700 I 1, 100 This and the next are from clear spruce for- est, ou the northeasterly slope of Plankerswald. Chalk formation, clear spruce forest, with the next six, come from district Domauschitz, in Northern Bohemia, from Keviers Domau- schitz and Rotschow. Chalk formation, Pliiuer kalk, clear larch forest. Rothliegendes, exposure northwest a wide-row plantation. Alluvium, avenuetree, ( AlUehaum.) Diluvium, iu a bowl- shaped sink-hole. Clear si)ruce forest at the foot of a western slope, rothliegeiules, strong, loamy soil. RothUe()endes, strong loam, at base of western slope. Nortliwcstora slope, on basalt, a shade left in undergrowth of oak- forest. Do. * These figures in parentlie.ses ( ) signify the proportion of timber, (Xutzholtz.) shown by the first figures, to that of mere fire-wood, shown by" the last hgures. SCHWARZENBEEG EXHIBITS. 45 Tabular statement of names and condition of exhibits — Continued. The next are curiosities and abnormal forms. Name. Moor-pine 1 Do ' Firs. Firs, 6 i Firs, c j Firs, d Firs, c Firs./ Mountain-pine. 6 j sucks. {P.montana.)\ Mountain-pine I Mountain-pine, c . .. Mountain-pine, d .. Alpen erle, (mount- ain-alder.) Juniper Iteniarks. Years. I 130! 1)1. \Ft.'' 7 ! 24, 10.5 W 16 llOi 6" 24 150 7 260-2i?0| 6 lUO-llO' 3i 220j 7 185! 5i Cu.ft. FormzaU. Ft ' 35. ! 1,200: From the tnrfy lands of i I I "Wittingau. 0.4 ; 1,2001 3. I 3,350 From the liigher parts of i Balmurwald, very frosly place. 1.6 3,3.i0 Do. 1.3 1 3, 000 On bigk moor. 2.5 70-150] 130-140i 3-5 I ■ From Stubenbach. 165. 8 120 3J-3i I 70-90 3-4 J I 95: 3, 200i 4, 350j From the Plockcnstein. 3,250' ^. 3, .')50: S 4, 3001 From the hitrh moors of I Domain Stubenbacli. I between the great rock.s I on the Suzen Mount- ain. 3, 350 From the Stone Lake of I Plockeustein, in Do- main Knimmau. 6,000 Grew on the mica-schist j of the Alps of Domain Murau. 6, 000! Do. At Franenberg in Bohe- mia. Abnormal and injured or diseased. — Curious and misshapen roots: An enlargement on the stem of a spruce ; a unioa of a maple ninety years old, IH iuche.s in diameter, with a beech of eighty years, 8 inches in diameter. 54. Sawed, hewed, and split lumber of fine quality was shown ; lum- ber for forming and for ship-building ; of the latter, some timbers were from 40 to GO feet long, 10 by 10 inches, and 12 by 14 inches square; 46 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. and there were spruce boards, from 111 to 126 feet long and 23 inches Avide. The split boards were most remarkable for their perfection and for their great length, being from 15 to 18 feet long, 10 to 14 inches wide, and from half an inch to two inches in thickness, as regular and even as though sawed. These were from spruce, tir, and larch. Those from oak and beech were thicker. oo. I cannot leave this most interesting place without referring to the very rich collection of living plants in the parterres in front of the pavilion. Passing by the representations of all the grain, forage, and other plants of agriculture, and the flowering representations of the horticulture of these estates, let us take a glance at the orchard and forest representatives here present : Young plants of fir, from the seedlings, produced upon the ground, to those of one, two, and three years, once transplanted; yearling Scotch pines; of firs, seedlings of plants of from one to three years; of larch, seedlings and two-year old stone-pine plants of one and two years. Oaks; an exceedingly rich collection of species and varieties. Quercus pedunculata. — Seedlings and nursery-grown, two years and up to eight years old. Quercus scssiUflora. — Seedlings and nursery-plants to five years old. Quercus cerris. — Seedlings to four years. Quercus ])edunculata-j)yramidaUs. — Four years and from four to eight years. Quercus jyannonica. — Tricolor maculata. (?) Quercus fenessi and macranthera. — From six to ten years. AMERICAN SPECIES OF OAKS. Quercus rubra. — From two to four years and seedlings. Quercus macrocarpa. — From four to ten years old. Quercus coccinea. — Four years old. Quercus alba. — A rare species in Europe. Quercus " castanea.^' — This, I think, is discolor. Quercus palustris and Quercus nigra. Our oaks are highly prized in Germany for park-planting ; but, unfor- tunately, great confusion exists in the naming among some of the pro- pagators. Frax'iiius excelsior. — Seedlings and nursery-plants of three and four years. Fagussyh-atica. — Seedlings and plants from four to eight years. Carpinus hetula. — Seedling and plants from three to four years old. Ulmus campestris. — Five years old. Acer 2>^eudo-plntiinus. — Seedlings four to six years. Acer platanoides. — The same. Tilia grandifolia.—lu seed-bed, and from three to eight years old. Alnus glutinosa. — In seed-bed, and four year old plants. SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA. 47 Also plrtuts, forest-seedlings from the Uncahl or original native ancient forests of Bohemia, attached to the decaying logs, to illustrate the natural reproduction of these forests. Altogether the spaces allotted to these .young forest-trees were admira- bly arranged in their grouping, so as to be not only beautifully attract- ive to all who passed by, but peculiarly instructive to those who could appreciate their importance to the great study of forestry. I cannot leave without referring to parterres devoted to fruit-trees in pots, dwarfs, espaliers, cordons, and high stems. These were shown in quantity, beautifully arranged in groups that displayed the ripening- fruits during the season. Of these, there were more than two hundred apple-trees, about one hundred pear-trees, chiefly dwarfs, and bearing, plums, cherries, peaches, apricots, and other fruits and nuts. 50. To those who enjoyed the privilege of studying this exceedingly rich and practically interesting collection, no apology will be needed for occupying so large a space in this report wiih the foregoing sketch of the collective wealth of the estates of these eminently representative men. Fortunate the government that has its territory owned and occupied by such practical and nseful princes, who direct their energies to the utmost development of all the resources of their laud. I have dwelt the more willingly upon these forest-products, here so richly displayed, not merely because of their unquestioned merit, but also because of a sort of personal interest in them, fostered by a care- ful examination of extensive portions of the estates in Southern Bohe- mia, where, during a week's excursion, I was enabled, by the exceeding kindness of the proprietors and their officers, to see the arrangement and practical workings of some of the best forest-management of the coun- try, the details of which may become very useful in our own land if properly appreciated and applied. 57. Pavilion of Prince Saxe-Cobueg-Gotha. — Immediately to the north of the Schwarzenberg pavilion was another very pretty structure, containing the collective exhibition of agricultural, forestal, and mountain industries from the estates of Prince August of Saxe- Coburg Gotha, which lie in Austria and Hungary. Passing the extensive collection of agricultural products, we come to those of the forests, both natural and prepared. Here was a very extensive collection of wooden blocks, in book-form, embracing almost every kind. There were two hundred and lifty-four of these pieces, many of which of course were duplicates ; but they in- cluded all the species cultivated, and were a most interesting study. Next was a very large group of the same species in cross-sections of the stems, amounting to more than three hundred pieces, a few of which will be mentioned. Some of them are of good size relatively to their ages and species, and some are cited to show how small was their growth compared to the same kinds in our own laud. 48 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1373. 58. In this collection also will be noted the occurrence of some trees not usually found in the forests of Europe. The diameter, age, and character of soil were given, and, in some cases, the elevation above the sea-level. Silver-fir Do Xorwav oprnce Do". Iforway maple Beech Do Birch Do Do Larch Do Do Scotch pine Do Do Oak, ( Q. robur) Do Oak, ( Q. pedrtnculata) Oak. {Q. eerris) Do Ash Elm Hornlicatn Do Black poplar Do Lombards poplar Aepen-poplar 'White -nilldw.. Black -willow Apple Pear Keld-elm Do Plnm Field-maple Hazel-nut Tew Do Do Do Thorn Black locust Eo:;::;:::;;;:;:;: Do : AilaDtns Pine, (Pinxut pumilu)) Juniper Do 0'~ 9 o o P Soil, &c. 47 2 21 34 23 31 6 22 16 23 ?? 6 28 3 15J 2:h 330 114 190 90 185 230 65 100 125 190 130 154 120 100 24 115 140 106 230 153 60 50 100 60 36 300 33 200 200 80 31 67 36 100 74 60 86 34 80 118 46 85 46 27 28 1 2 24 85 60 60 Clay. Chalk. 3,090 Do. Do. Do. Do. Chalk soil. 2,000 Clav. Do. Sand. Clay. 2,600 Do. Chalk. 3,000 Clav. 2.370 Chalk. Clay. 37 35 15 7 12 18 15 4J 63 18 46 44 18 11* 9' 11 17 Clay. Do. Do. Chalk loam. Do. Loam. Sand. ' Loam. Sand. Do. Do. Do. Sai dy loam. Do! Do. 8 10 9 Do. Do. Do. 4 D(». u c 23 o 1 2 13 C 5 3 2,800 2,800 2,800 2,800 Chalk. Do. Do. Do. Sandy loam. Sand. Loam. Sand. Do. Do. 4,900 2,600 Clav. Do. Do. Various abnormal and diseased growths were also present, some of which were very curious and interesting. Numerous charts, plans, and photographs illustrated the different forest-rev ier.s, and the tables of statistics showed their annual exijenses and production. 50. Forest-products and apparatus, specimens of charcoal made from different kinds of wood, and from the same woods of different ages, made a group for study. The coaling-apparatus used, coal-wagons, &c., were also exhibited, and wagons for the transport of logs and wood. A raft, compo.sed of eleven spruce logs, 10 ^klafter long, (00 feet,) with AUSTRIAN STATE-RAILROADS. 49 its appurtenances, oars, levers, pulleys, «S:c., was shown. This was loaded with all sorts of prepared lumber, shingles, &c,, ready for trans- port; among- the products, locust posts were observed. There were railroad-sleepers, some of which were of larch. Their size was from 6 by 9 inches to 6 by 13. Those 8 by 11 to 8 by 14 inches were called extra. Also wagon4umber of oak, beech, and hornbeam ; and wagon-wheels made from a combination of elm, locust, and ailan- tus. The latter is used for the felloes, while the spokes were of locust and the hubs of elm. Ox-yokes and tool-handles also were made from the ailantus. There were various implements made of wood, such as shovels for different purposes, meal-troughs, bread-bowls, &c. Tery pretty rustic tables and seats were made from birch and hazel, and especially noteworthy was a", garden-table, the top of which was a section of poplar 42 inches in diameter. The feet, of crooked spruce stems, were of alpine growth. 60, Forest-culture was illustrated by various seeds and seedling-plants ; acorns of the different species, and seeds of other forest-trees. Living plants of spruce, fir, pine, larch, and others, deciduous species, such as maples, oaks, and black locusts from two to six years old, were growing in the soil. The wild animals belonging to the forests were represented by more than one hundred specimens elegantly set up. Then came a large collection of the iron-ores of the estates, and the iron-production in various stages up to the finest iron and steel. Altogether, this pavilion was a very attractive place. Gl. Exhibit of the Austrian state-kailroads. — In the north zone was a pretty pavilion erected by the Austrian State Eailroad Com- pany, in which were displayed not only the machinery and apparatus connected with their great organization, but also the products of the mines, lands, and forests of their extensive and widely-scattered pos- sessions. It is with the latter that we have now to concern ourselves, leaving the rest of this very interesting display to the care of the appropriate reporter. 02. From the forests of Banat in Southern Hungary, near the line of Turkey, on the Theiss and Danube Elvers, was a collection of sections of logs of useful trees. A collection of similar woods was exhibited in three-sided prisms. Young trees for forest planting were also shown, among which were oaks, larch, beech, firs, spruce, pines, (includingour white pine,) and the Pinus cemhra, or stone-pine, with other plants of forest-culture. An herbarium of various forest-growths, and a collection of forest- seeds, embracing 92 species. Among the secondary jjroducts of forest-industry were timbers, cross- ties, of course, with various other forest-wares, rustic furniture, &c.. If 50 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. besides pieces of wood in cubes and other forms, witb corresponding specimens of the cliarcoal, so important in their steel-works. There were models of the water-ways for transporting wood to the collieries, and for floating the hewed timbers from the mountains. Statistical tables of the products, of the annual jield, and of the growth or increase of the forests, as well as of the production of wood and coal, produced by them, were presented, with maps of the com- pany's domains and forests. When will our great railway-companies become creators and conserv- ators as well as consumers and destrovers of the forests ? CHAPTER III, FOEEST-AREAS OF EUEOPE. Great Britain: Area of British forests, and their management: Extent op FOREST in OTHER European cocntries: German and Austrian administration AND methods of instruction IX FORESTRY ; COLONIAL FORESTRY. 63. Gkeat Britaix. — Great Britain is not so fatuous for her woodlands as tlie continental countries of Enrope : and, although many of her his- torical forests are of a very inferior character so far as their qnality and productiveness are concerned, there has been a great improvement in this respect, and many private plantations, as well as some that are man- aged by the state, have been conducted upou more scientitic principles within the present century, and have been made very profitable. Cap- tain Walker gives au aggregate of the royal woodlands of England at 58,600 acres, covered with productive forests, in an area of 109,30(3 acres To much of this latter the title is mised, and it is often hampered by servitudes to such an extent that it is unworthy the name of forest. In Scotland, the properties of the Earls of Seafield and Mansfield and of the famous Duke of Athole amount to 00,000 acres of veritable for- est-lands, in which tlie Scotch pine and the European larch are largely grown.* These figures, in a total of 118,000 acres, do not include the many smaller plantations of numerous private individuals. From my own observations in the so-called Epping forest, there was very little to be seen that deserved the name in comparison with the well-managed and cultivated forests of Germany. There were trees old and young ; some are very ancient. There were numerous coppices, some of which were looking well, but the mass was simply au extent of neglected commons, with patches of woods badly managed, and with frequent openings of cultivated lauds, and other wide spaces that are partially covered with useless bushes. These furnish a meager pasture, and provide a favorite resort for wandering gypsies. 6-4. The first feeling was one of surprise and regret that so much land should be lying idle and unproductive near the great metropolis of the world, where many thousands of its inhabitants were suffering for the need of supplies, which might be furnished by this land if it were prop- erly cultivated. The traveler recently from the Coutinent cannot avoid contrasting * Forest Managenieut : By Capt. Camiibell Walker, F. K. G. S., Deputy Couseivator Forests, Madras. Parliameutary report, Loudon, 1?'73. 52 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. the wellinanaged forests he has left beliiud him with these uuproduc- tive Avoods, ai)d estimating the favorable results that would follow a judicious planting and cultivation of these tracts. Upou inquiry, how- ever, he will find that nearly all the forests of England were originally hunting-paiks, and a little investigation will show him that this was the original meaning of the term foreat in our language. The antiquity of the tenure of some of these tracts is so great that it is lost in oblivion. Even in the time of the Saxons, a great part of the crown-lands were devoted to animals of the chase, and were kept for the amusement of the king, and from which all other persons were excluded. "William the Conqueror is said to have had GS forests, 13 chases, and 781 parks; the latter only were inclosed. In those days, the forest was a preserve for game, not a place for the production of timber. The forest-laws were very oppressive, and, at the time of the issuing of Magna Charta, King John found it necessary to make other concessions to the demands of the people, and, with certain reservations of favorite forests, "he gave up all others in quiet to the churches and the kingdom." In Magna Charta itself it was granted that all the lands which had been afforested (de- voted to the chase) in his time, should be disafforested, or restored to cultivation and occupancy by the people. Even now it seems a source of trouble to the citizens, who are very jealous of any trespassing by inclosures of the smallest portions of this public property, and questions are constantly arising where the occupants of ancient leaseholds are required to give up their possessions by their jealous countrymen. As already observed, however, a great change has been effected in the forest character of these demesnes within the present century, and extensive i)]antations have been niade in the endeavor to improve the productiveness of these lands. This is very manifest in the woods attached to the great park at Windsor, which is not oulj- a very beauti- ful estate, but contains some admirabl^'-managed woods. Here one may see both systems ; the park Avith its numerous deer pasturing among the venerable oaks of centuries' growth, which are " stag-headed " and gnarled enough to please the painter and the lover of the picturesque, is contrasted Mith younger plantations of the same species that have been reared under the most judicious management. Here, too, you may see groups of various kinds of trees from many lands, that have received proper care; among these the groves of tall chestnuts are remarkably fine, and the American oaks are growing beside the cedars of Atlas, of the Himalayas and Lebanon, while the firs of Asia and America equally assert their claims to admiration. The undergrowth, too, is beautiful and abundant; acres of rhododen- drons and laurels furnish a perennial green, contrasting in winter with the russet of the brackens, and with them providing a perfect cover for the ])heasants. The following are the leading forests of England : Windsor forest FOREST-AREAS OF EUROPE. 53 and ^Yalthaal forest iu Essex ; the forest of Dean ia Gloucester ; in Hampsliire are Xew forest, Woolmer, and Aliceholt ; in ^S'ortbampton- shire, the Rockingham, \Yhittlewood, and Salcey forests ; in Xotting- hamshire is the Sherwood forest; and in Oxfordshire is Which wood. England does not appear by any means a treeless land. Excepting upon the downs, the traveler will find plenty of trees, which contribute in no small degree to set off the beauties of the landscape; these are often in the hedgerows, in clumps, in coppices, and in small woods. 65. Holland and the Xetherlands. — Holland has her forests. Notwithstanding the advanced state of her agriculture, she produces some wood and timber. The trees consist chiefly of beech, fir, poplar, and ash in woods and coppices ; willows and poplars are grown along the canals. In the coppices, there are also maples, hornbeam, birch? and oaks. In Guilderland. there are extensive forests of firs and Amer- ican white piues, and hundreds of acres have been planted with acorns. At Rhenen and at Arnhem are thick woods, and i^lantations have been made on the X7pper Yssel. The proportion of woodland could not be ascertained, but it cannot be large. Belgium. — In 1866, this country had 1.074.393 acres of forest iu her territory of 6,796,800 acres, or less than one-sixth of the whole in wood- land. 66. France. — France has many fine forests, and is favorably situated for the production of a variety of useful trees. The woods are distrib- uted over the country. Most of the provinces have considerable tracts of woodland ; some have from one to two hundred thousand acres each; a few have from two to three hundred thousand, and some as much as from four to six hundred thousand, while the department of Dordogne alone has more than a million acres. There is a total of 21,983,000 acres of forest in her territorial area of 133,380,000 acres, being rather less than 17 per cent., or say one-sixth, wooded. This estimate has been put as low as one-seventh of the total area. 07. Switzerland. — Switzerland, according to Piischel,* has 1,513,192 acres, being more than one-sixth of the whole area, much of which is bare mountain-tops. GS. Sweden and Xorway together have a large area of forests. South of latitude 61^, one-fourth of the surface is covered by woods. Sweden has 17,568,000 hectares t of forest-surface, from which is derived annu- ally t 1,150,000,000 cubic feet of timber, 890,000,000 cubic feet of which is burned chiefly as charcoal. The lumber is largely shipped to Eng- land, France, and Belgium. Norway has 13,000,000 hectares in wood, from which she draws timber for sale to the value of 88,000,000 annu- ally. The author of the descriptive catalogue already referred to sug- *" Forst-Eiicyclupoedie von AJ. Pmchef, Leipsic. 18o0. tA hectare is equal to 2.47 acres. tSchweden Statisiiche, von Dott. Elis Sideubladh Stockholm. 1^73. 54 VIENNA INTEKNATKJ.NAL EXHIBITION, 187:3. gests the division of Xorway and Swedeu into three zones, accordiug to the character of their flora, as follows : First zone. — The regiou of the beech and the hornbeam. This is Southern Sweden, and extends from the most southerly part, in latitude 55°.20, to o7°.5, on the eastern, and to the fifty-ninth parallel on the ■western coast. In this region, wheat and other grains grow well, as do all the fruits that succeed in England ; with some care, such tender jdauts as the Aucnha jopoiiica, Brortssonctia papyrifera., Bigno- nia radicans, Catalpa syringafolia^ Hibiscus syriams, Paueloicnia impe- rialis, and others. The Rohinia pseudo-acacia thrives as well here as in Southern Europe. The Castanea vesca is to be found one hundred and Mty years old ; the box between two hundred and three hundred years, and with a diameter of 8 inches. Many conifers, such as Thuja jiUat fa and occidentalis. Salisburia, Irish yew, and Lawson's cypress, grow finely. The liriodeudron is to be seen 30 feet high and bearing its blossoms, and in one place is the Magnolia acuminata, 40 feet high and 1 foot in diameter. At Goteborg, on the west coast, the climate is milder. Amygdalus communis, Azalia spinosa. Wistaria sinensis, Hydrangea horten- sis. Hex aquifoUum, Chan€(v cyparis, Cephalotaxus ; the pines from the western coast of ]^sorth xVmerica, such as JDouglasii, grandis, Menziesii, &c., and even the Sequoia gigantea of California thrive well. The nat- ural sylva is characterized by the Sorbus aria, Acer campestre, Euoni- miis europaus, Cornus sanguinea, &c. Second zone. — The region of the oak extends northward to latitude G2^.20 on the east coast. Eye, barley, and oats are the leading grains pro- duced. Fruits are grown ,• the apple does well. In favorable summers, the walnut ripens, and even grapes, especially the American sorts, and apricots. In the region about Stockholm, among others, the following trees succeed well : Acer negundo, ^sculus macrostacliya,Ailant1ius glan- dulosa, Castanea vesca as a bush 8 to 10 feet, Cratcegus pxjracantUa, Cu- 2)ressusIairsoniana, Cydonia japonica, Liriodendron tuUpifera as a bush G feet, Mespilus germanica , (fruits annually,) Abies canadensis, Abies orienta- lis,Ficeca ephalonica, Cilicia nordmaniana, Quercus coccinea, Rhododendron catawbiense and dahuricum, Ribes, Sinrwas, Wiegelias, S:c. The native growths consist oi Fraxinus excelsior, Acer platanoides, Ulmus montana, Tilia europa'a, Alnus glutinosa, &:c. Third zone. — The region of the Alnus incana, the conifers, and birch, occupies Norsland to the bounds of the Swedish mountains in Lapland. Barley is the chief grain, but rye is sown, and sometimes wheat also. Flax and hops are produced even in high latitudes. Red and black currants and other kinds of berries are native. The season of growth is very short, being from two to three months at most. The snow is deep and the winters severe. The ash is often killed. The sylva of this region consists of low-growing plants that may be covered by the snow, and only the most hardy trees, among which the following stand unprotected: Ficea balsamea, Finns ausfriaca, F. cembra, F. miighus, Fopulus bahamifera, P. laurifolia, F. candicans, Fyrus baccata andpruni- FOREST-AREAS OF RUSSIA. 55 folia, Thuja occidentalism Sorbus aria, &c. Besides the native conifers aud tlie birch, there are the Alniis incana, Primus padus, Sorbus ancu- imria, Populus tremula, and willows, from all which a pretty good native forest is made up. These particulars have appeared so interesting as to justify their introduction into this report, as showing how in this northern region there appears a mixture of the arctic sylva with that of South- eastern Europe, a mingling of the Caucasian flora with that of the extreme north. It might be an interesting query. How much of this is owing to the influence of the great ocean-stream flowing from the coasts of tropical America ? 69. ErssiA. — Eussia has very extensive forests, especially in her northern provinces. They amount to nearly 500,000,000 acres, or more than one-third of the whole territory of that empire ; but much of this is said to be in a comparatively unproductive condition. Eassia has more forests than other European countries. Birch abounds to the fifty-fifth parallel ; pine and firs are found in great ex- tent farther north. In the government of Perm, there are 47,000,000 acres of forest in an area of 50,000,000 acres. Conifers extend to lati- tude 57° ; birch, aspen, and linden reach to 54° aud 55^ -, oak succeeds at 51° to 52° on the plateau, but is best in the valley of the Volga at 55°. Finland has extensive forests of firs and pine in the southern por- tion, interspersed with oaks, elms, &c. In Northern Lapland, these are replaced by the birch until trees cease altogether in the coldest dis- tricts. The mountains are generally bare or covered with low growth. The wild crab is found to the sixtieth degree; the oak, to the sixty- first ; the ash, to the sixty- second. Finland has a special forest account or bureau for the management of the state-woods, the extent of which is 29,681,088 tonneu, or 36,210,927 acres. This is divided into 52 reviers aud 565 districts. The districts are managed by forest-masters ; the reviers, by over-forest-masters, all under the control of an upper director. A forest-inslitute for theoretical and practical training is to be found at Ewois. "According to recent statistics,* the extent of the forests of Eussia in Europe is about 442,897,500 acres, or 40 per cent, of the whole area. The forests are very unequally distributed, and internal communication is still very imperfect in many parts of the empire ; hence much of this wealth is at present unavailable. Every year, however, the facilities for transport are increased, and tbere is a corresponding augmentation in the amount realized. !N^early 65 per cent, of the forest-land is situ- ate in the four governments of the North Archangel, Vologda, Olouetz, and Perm ; this equals sixty-five acres to each inhabitaut. The govern- ments of the south are relatively poor in timber, aud in some parts al- most treeless ; but since 1842 the forest-administration has been engaged in remedying this defect by planting largely. Between 1866 and 1870 * " Xotice sur les forels tt leiirs prodnits,'^ etc., par P. X. Wtrckha, quoted in "Nature."' 56 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1673. Upward of 20,000 acri's were planted, exclusive of tbe action of private owners. "Tbe value of tbe forest-prod acts exported in 1871 amounted to 16,026,353 rubles, of which more than oue-third came to this country, (England.) But the internal consumption gives a better idea of the im- mense wealth of these forests. It is only possible to give an approxi- mate estimate of the value, which Mr. Werekha states must be at the very least 205,450,000 rubles per annum. "■ The most destructive industry, so far as the forests are concerned, is the manufacture of bast mats, bark shoes, {lapti,) cordage, and other articles prepared from the liber or inner bark of the lime, birch, and willow, chiefly of the former tree. It is computed that 100,000,000 pairs of la2)ti are made annually, each pair requiring the bark of four young trees. ; thus 400,000,000 trees are cut down every year for shoes ! Lime- trees, from five to ten years of age, and half-grown birch, are employed for this purpose. Such reckless waste is much to be regretted ; and Mr. Werekha observes that the pines are tapped for their resin, and bled to death in from ten to fifteen years, in the same way as the Landes of Gascony were denuded of their pine-forests during the last century." 70. Spain. — Spain has 11,725,213 acres of forests, which are classified as belonging to the state, to the communes, and to establishments or endowments. They are also characterized by their contents, as of pine, of oak, and of beech. Comi)ared to the total area, her forests occupy nearly 10 per cent., but much of the wood is said to be scattering and indifferently managed. The following trees are either native or naturalized, and are now growing in the forests of Spain: Abies iiectinata sluCL jjinsapo, Acer x^seudo-platanus, Almis glutinosa, AmygdaJus communis, Betula verrucosa, Bujcus scmjjervirens, Castanea vesca, Celtis austraUs, Ceratonia siliqua, Cerasiis capro and Juliana, Cercis siliquastrum, Citrus medica, limoni, and aurantiacum, Corylus avellana, Cydonin vulgaris, Daphne, Erica scoparia and stricta, Fraxinus angxistifolia, Genista florida aiid tridentata. Ilex aquifoUum, Juglans nigra, Jiiniperus macrocarpa, phoenicia, sahina, sophora, and thurifera, Laurus nohilis, Melia azcdarach, Mespilus germanica, Morns alba and mnlticaule, I'inus clusianus or hiapanica, P. halepensis, P. hisjyanica, P. maritima, P. pinea, P. pinaster, P. sylvestris, P. uncinata, Persica vulgaris, Phanix dactyliliora, Platanns orientalis, Popnlus alba, fastigiata, nigra, and irtmula, Prunns domesiica, Punica granatum, Pyrns communis and malvs, (Juercus cocci/era, Q. ilex, Q. Insitanica, Q. pedunculata, Q. sessilifiora, Q. ruber, Q. trna? Bob iniapseudo -acacia, Salix alba, Aurita biennialis, &c., Morbus aria and ancnparia, Faxus baccata, Vlex europna, Ulmus campestris. Also the following shrubs: Berber is vulgaris. Chainarops liumilis, Cist us albidus, lancifolius,ledrui, lalani/ormis, luonxpeliensis, populifolius, salvifoUus, &c., Daphne laniilla. FOREST-AKEAS OF PORTUGAL. 57 Urismca puiif/eus, Madirolea tenacissima, Xerium oleander, Phylisnea argeii- tifoUa, ristacliia lentiscus and terebintJnts, Fhamnus alaternm, Ulex pvo- finsiata, Vibernum lantanoides mid tinus. This is given ou the authority of a jurj'-colleague, Don Fraucisco Garcia Martiuo. The following- table shows the character of the growth, (species,) and the ownership of the woodlands of Spain :* Proprietors. Pine. Oak. Beech. The state .•)91, 141 5, 231, 776 264, 764 67,941 34. 546 4,290,765 ' 1, 134,481 99,087 ' 71. PoETUGAL. — The area of forest is computed at 5.3 per cent, of the total superficies. The state- forests embrace 20,013 hectares; besides these, there are 100,000 hectares in the possession of communes and individuals. The largest forest is that of Leiria, coiitaining 0,914 hec- tares of sand-dunes, in which the Pinus maritima abounds. The other species are Finns pinea, different species of oak, evergreen oaks, chest- nut, alder, plane-tree, poplar, willow, mulberry, ash, &c. There are also trees of the second class that attain good size, such as laurel, arbu- tus, viburnum, holly, walnut, cherry, box, and others. There are also great.patches of shrubs and bushes, among which are myrtle, broom, and thorns. In the forest of Leiria, the Pinus maritima attains sufficient size and such excellent quality that it is highly esteemed for construction, both naval and civil. The fire-wood is in great demand at the glass-works of ]\Ianuha-graude. A portion of the forest, 1,032 hectares, is devoted to the production of resin, with an average of 132 trees per hectare, which yield 150,000 kilograms, or 330,000 pounds. The country is poorly wooded, and individuals have exerted them- selves to increase the plantations, especially in the western portions of the provinces of Beira and Estramadura, where there are stretches of idle laud and hills covered with broom. The cork-oak is much planted and yields a large income.! The forest of Busaco is in the western i:»ortion, ou the mountains of Alcoba, a few miles northwest from Coimbra. Its area is small, not more than 100 hectares, but it has fine woods and a historical interest, having been a religious retreat, founded in 1G28 by Bishop D. Joao Mauoel, for the Carmelites. After the abolition of religious orders, this ■was attached to the royal forests, and great pains have been taken to pre- serve and improve it. Here have been established a great nursery of indigenous trees and a garden of acclimatization for exotics. The oaks of different species are colossal. Many other trees of the second rank here attain their largest dimensions ; but the glory of this forest is the so-called cedar of Busaco, the Cupressus lusitanica, (Tournefort,) said to * Siemoni, op. cit. i Le Portitfial, Jlplionse Fiqiurialo, Lishonne.. 1873. 58 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXIIIIJITION, 1873. Lave been iutrodiiced tVoin the Azores iu IGSO. There are specimens 40 meters liigh and ."5 or G meters in circiimference at breast-high. The recent plantations contain numerous specimens of many species of the leading forest trees from all countries. 7i*. Italy. — Italy has 12,413,955 acres of forest-land, or in the propor- tion of less than one sixth of the whole territory of the peninsula.* Siemoni gives a table of the sixty-eight provinces, with their respect- ive population, territorial area, and forest-area ; also the relative pro- portions of these latter to the population. The forests of Italy occupy an extent of 5,025,893 hectares, which is 17.G4 i>er cent, of the whole surface ; less than that of Germany, which is said to be 20.50 per cent., but greater thau that of France, which is 1G.79 per cent. It is claimed by writers on forestry that the best pro- portion for the prosperity of the state is 20 to 25 per cent, of woodland. Italy has 0.20 of one hectare of forest to each inhabitant ; Germany lias 0.37 ; and France has 0.27. The annual consumption of wood amounts to 30,342,220 cubic meters, of which 12,13G,S88 cubic meters are for construction, and 18,215,332 cubic meters for combustion. t In a report t on the forest-interests of Italy, very minute details are given of all particulars of this important branch of industry*. ^Yith regard to their elevation and situation, forests-lands are divided into the alpine, found in the northern provinces, and the apenniue, in the penin- sular provinces, besides which there are those of the plains and the islands ; iu all of these, there are some ditterences in the sylva. The alpine region covers about a million hectares. The species are Finus ccmbra in small masses, at a height of from 4,250 to 7,8G0 feet. Abies exceUa grows iu considerable masses at from 3,000 to 7,8G7 feet, and is often associated with the Pinus cemhra, Picea jyectinata, and the beech. Larix europa'a is found from 3,000 to G,500 feet, sometimes as low as 1,G00 feet, forming extensive woods, either alone, or mixed with the Pinus cemhra, spruce, fir, and beech. Fir {Abies pectinata) reaches from 3,300 to 5,800 feet in dense woods, alone, or associated with the preceding species. Beech {Fagus sylva- tica,) grows at a height of 4,2.50 to 5,300 feet, iu close woods, alone, or associated with the species named. This is the most valuable deciduous tree of the mountains. Pinus sylvesfris reaches from 900 to 4,900 feet, and even to 1,900 meters in woods of small extent. Pimis 2)umilis is seen in the mountain-tops. Pinus iincinata, perhaps a variety sylvestris, at 4,000 to 5,800 feet. Ash {Fraxinus excelsior) grows at 4,800 feet. Sorbus ancuparia is found from 3,590 to 5,800 feet. Morbus aria and ^Horhus terminalis occur at 5,800 feet. Betula alba thrives at 6,500 feet j Cerasus avium, at 5,200 feet; Acer pseudo-phdamis, at 5,400 feet; Acer 2)Iatanoi(1es, at 4t,2oO ft^et. I'lmus camjyestris is seen at 4,000 feet; Car- * Government report on forest gives the total area of Italy 70,351,343 acres. t R(la:ione di Giovanni Carlo Sienwni xiii hoKchi ed i loro pvodotii aWespoHizione universale di Vienna, 1873. t OfiBcial report, supra. FOREST-AREAS OF ITALY. 59 jnnus betidus, at 3,700 feet. TiUa euro^xca aud Alnns incana thrive at 4,000 feet ; Ahius glutmosa, at 3,270 feet ; Corylus aveJlana and Castanea vesca, at 4,000 feet; Hippopluc rliamnoldies^ at 4,500 feet. Ta.vushaccata, ■vrhich is rare, reaches 5,200 feet, aud other shrubs are fouud "^ith it. Quercus rohur is only seen on the southern slopes at 3,000 and Quercus pedunculata at 2,900 feet in moderate amount. 73. The apenxine region. — In this subdivision, the leading species of trees are: Fagus syJvafica, generally seen at 3,200 feet elevation, but sometimes as low as 1,400 feet; Abies pectinata, at 2,100 to 0,200 feet, in great forests; Acer psemJo-plaianus, at the same elevation, and Acer campesfris at 3,000 feet ; Cerasus avium grows from 2,600 to 0,500 feet ; Taxus haccata, at 10,000 feet; Ahuis incana, 2,600 to 6,500 feet; Ahuis glutinosa, at 3,300 feet; Betula alba, 3,300 feet and rare; Fraxinus ex- celsior, about 5,000 feet; Fraxinus ornus, at 2,000 feet; Sorbus ancuparia, Sorbus aria, and Sorbus turminalis, from 2,000 to about 6,500 feet ; Ulmus cdmpestris, 5,000 feet ; C'orijlus aveUana, 5,600 feet ; Tilia europwa, about 5,500 feet ; Ilex aqu if ol i um, abont 9,000 feet; Castanea vesca and Qnercus robur, at 3,300 feet ; Quercus pedunculata, about 2,509 feet ; Quer- cus ilex, 2,500 feet ; Quercus cenis, about 3,300 feet ; Carpinus betula, 0,500 feet; Bobinia pseudo-acacia, at 2,000 feet; Finns laricio, at 6,600 feet Other species, less abundant and at lower elevations, are: Finns bintia, Finns halepensis, Finns maritima, Cupressus sempervirens, &c. On the plains, the forests, which are scattered, have a combined area of 1,000,000 hectares. The rotation varies from three to eighteen years 'while iu the elevated regions it is from twenty to eighty years. The reproduction of the forests is generally natural, occasionally artificial. 74. The islA]\"DS. — Sicily. — The treatment of the forests is similar to that of the southern apennine region, and often much worse.* The sylva also is very similar. On Mount Ecna, the beech reaches 7,000 feet. Quercus robur is seen at 7,000 feet on the southern slopes, and only reaches 5,600 feet on the northern. Of the chestnut, there is a specimen which reaches such a colossal size as to hold 100 horsemen in its hollow trunk; it has a circumference of 210 feet. This species reaches 5,400 feet on the south and east, and 3,800 feet on the north and west sides. Sardinia, with an area of 2,425,018 hectares, has 1,045,522 hectares of woodland, or 43 per cent. These forests have not been well managed. The species correspond to those of the middle and lower portions of the Apennines. The most valuable tree is the cork-oak, {Quercus suber.) 75. These divisions correspond to the three zones of Siemoni.* First zone, having an elevation of 7,900, down to 3,000 feet, is called alpine, and is characterized by the Finns niontana, Finns ccnibra, Finns larix, Finns picca, Finns abies or pecfinata, Betula, Fayns, Acer^ &c., abounding iu conifers. Second zone, called the apennine, having an elevation of 3,000 to 1,300 feet, and is characterized by the Castanea vesca, Quercus cenis^ * Manaah teorico-pratico d'arteforentcdf di Gioranni Carlo Siemoui, Firenze, 1S72. 60 VIENNA INTEKXATIOXAL EXIIIHITION, 1873. <^)utrciis robiir, Szc. Clu'stimt, either alone or with the Querctis cenls, occupies the ui)[)er portions of tliis zone. Third zone, from 1.301) feet to the sea-level. This is the region of the Plnus i)i)iea, Qiieraoi suhcr, Qnercus ilex, Fisfaciu lentisea and Pistacia terchinthns, Chamcvrops Jnonilis, Erica muJtiflora, &c. Xear the sea- level is the Piiins pinaster, and near the upper portions the oaks. I\r. Sienioni refers to Professor Schouw's six zones of Italian sylva : 1st. The region of broad-leaved evergreens, 1,200 feet high. 2d. The region of the oaks and chestnuts, from 1,200 down to 300 feet. 3d. The region of pines and firs, from 3,000 to 5,000 feet. 4th. The subalpiue region, from 5,000 to 0,000 feet. 5th. The lower alpine region, with distinctly alpine flora, elevation 0,000 to 7,500 feet. Gth. The upper aipiue zone, from 7,500 to 8,tK)0 feet.* In Italy, there is provision of 1.25 cubic meters of wood to each inhab- itant: of this, one-half a cubic meter is lumber for construction, and three-quarters of a cubic meter for fuel, either as wood or charcoal. The proportions of the several classes of forest are thus compared with to whole area in hectares :t Total forest-area, 5,025,803 ; deciduous, 4,473,305 : conifers, 347,040 ; mixed, 204,582. The average annual increase of the wood is 3 cubic meters in the Scclta, and 3.00 cubic meters per hectare in the close, tall, timber plantations, {alto fttsto.) 70. Germany. — Because of the wealth of its production and the ex- tent of population employed by it, as well as on account of the protec- tion and ornament which it renders to the country, forestry is properly considered one of the most important departments of the German econ- omy. • Since the days of Charlemagne, who afforested the Ardennes and established the woods of Osnabriick, the sovereigns of this country have bestowed especial attention upon the forests, so that now German for- estry is superior to that of all other countries. Of the entire area of 2,000 square miles of woodland, 34 per cent, is held by the state, fully one-sixth by the communes, and not quite half belongs to private individuals. Jlockwald management prevails, being 81 [)er cent. ; yicdencald, 19 per cent. Of this extent of forest, 3o per cent, consists of conifers and 45 per cent, of deciduous trees. For the production of tanning-material, there are 125,000 hectares of oak-co])i)ice, cliiefly in tiie southwestern divisions. The net returns of the forests amount to from 2 to 12 thaler per hectare, so that, at 5 per cent, interest, we may assume the value of the land and its crop is 53.} thaler per hectare. The forests therefore represent a capital of 000,000,000 thaler.l *GrundzUge einer allgemeincn FJianzcnr/eographie, Berlin, 1823. tOfiRcial report, cit. supra. X AmiUchcr Catalor/ dir AiisstvUiuig des deutschen I'eiches, Wiener WtltausuleUung, T . BodiLcr, Jln-liv, 1^'~:3. FOREST-AREAS OF GERMANY. 61 77. The data here following have been gathered from various sources ; the best that were at hand, aud they suffice to give a glimpse of the ac- knowledged importance of forestry in European countries. From these statements aud tables, much iustrnctiou may be drawn, aud it will appear that quite a large proportion of the country is wisely reserved for the production of timber, for the influence of the forests upon the climate, aud also upon the consequent water-sui>plies of the continent. Forest-area and aionial yield of the German e)m)ire, reduced to acres'and dollars.'' Couutries. Area in acres. ; Annual product. Prussia Bavaria , Saion y Wiirtembeig Baden , INLAND STATE* Bettveen Eliiue nml Elbe Thurinaiau States Baltic States Alsace- Lorruiue Totals ■- 20, 666, 3-10 829,11.3,316 6,414,328 13,601,274 1, 166, e75 2, 933, 721 1.469,902 3, 054, 962 1,261,9(^2 2, 820, 300 1, 228, 7T3 2, 632, 822 970, 856 2, 440, 895 667, 396 1, 305, 070 1, 114,802 3, 238, 754 34,061,273 61, 141, 114 The total area of the empire being 111,688,000 acres, the forests bear the ratio of 0.315, or less than one-third. Of the Rhine and Elbe States — Acres. Hesse has 593, 005 Brunswick 282, 861 Anhalt 137, 952 Waldeck 100, 685 Schaumburg-Lippe 21, 411 Lippe 83, 822 Total 1,228,772 Of the Thuringiau States — Acres. Saxe- Weimar 221, 611 Saxe-Meiuingen . 230, 762 Saxe- Altenburg 98, 313 Saxe-Cobnrg-Gotha , 116, 515 Schwartzburg-Eudolstadt 95, 334 Schwartzburg-Sondershausen 62, 301 28,311 81, 044 Total 970, 855 "Dieforstliehe AussfeUiuig det denfschen Beiches auf der Wiener TTeltaussieUung, lS7'i, von Bernhard DanckeJmann, kccnigHch-premisischen Oher-Forstmcister, etc., Berlin, 1873. 62 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, J 873. Of the Baltic States- Acres. Mecklenburg Sciiwc'iiii 404, 010 Meckleuburg-Strelitz 143, 134 Oldenburg 110, 630 Liibeck 7, 470 Lrenieu , 413 Uamburg 1, 722 Total 007, 300 Forest-area of Alsace-Lorraine. Retlnct'cl Hectares. to acres. Exclu.sively .state-forests 133, 81 1 320, 512 Undivided .state and other ... 17, 005 44, 448 Coininnue-woods 107, 314 437, 305 Endowments of institutions 2,215 5,471 Total - - ^ 351, 337 807, 802 78. The following very instructive table is condensed from one pre- pared by Oberforstmeister Danckelmann, Academy-Director at Xeustadt- Eberswalde, &:c. It shows the kind of tree and the forest-management, the elevation at which it was produced, the foriratiou and soil, the age, height in meters, contents in cubic meters, the number of trees standing upon each hectare, the contents in cubic meters per hectare, and the annual increment by the same measures.* * 0/>. cit. SHjjra. FOREST-GROWTH IN GERMANY. 63 J a '= ^ ^ Sc = o s .3 ..S =~ =-f X o o _2 p ' • .5 ?' •-= -- - H = =■ g 1" ^C?=xi^SrC^^ Ph £.^'^^-^-^-2i-^-2iC^i z^ 5 a • X i~ r-. n •sjsjaoi « i^ r: X I! 7? X -J5 T T — C-. r? t- c. ^ c- GC :s L* i* *- i.-: rs oo si xj C-. — -r = T --s o i- ;= -s- L-. rr ?o i- oiqno at ajBjaaq ■^ t-' li r: li d t-: H r: _ si -r ■—■ -T -T ~ d r-i r: d si x' d d aaJ asBaaoni lutuia Y '"' ^ c X SI & &. •sjajani oiqno nt f:i r- •.£ =-. K -r — =; X -- si ^' — -.= 1- -T SI I; 2 "; C 3.' Z! ~ c3 aiBpaqjadsjuajuoQ J2 ^ 'T li li 5 I- si r: t; i^ ?i ^ SI SI S w ;:; l)^ S 2 i; S = © ~-'-^ "" H t> — = -.1 — X — — T -I _ _.__., ..^ __._•,.,_._ ^ _, ... 1- '4 ~ 5 5 i£ s 5 •"- i; •a.n;j.o.iq c^ •w r- ~—^ X -r rs r; si o •..; ~ x -^ jad saaa; jo aaqtnnx; f-l w " " " " " >^.~ 1C IT -r ?( ~ 1- i- 7> = = •sja^aiti T t- -.= <- i~ T •-= L- i.'" »" o — -r 2 X 1.C rs "T i?; — ^; — 3 — d ■.© oiqno at t!}aa;uo3 ri r; ■ rt ■ -^' ?:' ?:" ■ e^ n e -2 — ri t- (s L- c- Cl L-. ■:> ~. SI -.c ^ « 6 >. >■ >i _>-.>. ; . ^ a T .~ 'H" g j rr'-Tj' 'vS lEj IB t- i S E "i i'fl il i 11 ili r^'E ,- I £ a a C_ Sh- C .5 .S .5 - || ;^ •? ~ ll-l": ^.= .H|j.E.= .= |.2.= rt C — — ^ - >- = * " > ^ E^- — ~*— — — i:~z — ~ — — — ^— 1 ■ cg'^- J- » P><^'- 5J;4;:^->:c < C f^ < -^ V ■<<<-;:,<;c<^<<;5;1h | 1 cc o V 5 a a .2 r; ■-S "ti "Crs — •^ a n- — — — r— C — r— -—— -^— r^ ' c a = = = = =je = 3 2 § a_ =3 « H ^ 5 5 =',. 5-555— 5555c?^s — S>^ ►^ Er ^^^^^^^^^^J^ X*— fi?o tr i p tr tt H o ■ C © C t S © ■ ! wwaa? ^^Jtca^ ;z ; a c c a a aMUM 1 KSS^K--^-^---^ t -••■—.. -.-.-^j:..= j=j:^r'S'^ 1 ? \a 'j^ '. '^ 5| 1 1 _! a f>- 7^ f«= ■■7 ^ jT <; 1 i X X 7. ■z x X ■J: ■•X -c •/ . 64 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. A ricic of the Pntssian states' forests, shoicing their extent, the Vind of trees, (((je, ttr. Reduced Hectares. to acres. Total area 2, 610, 972 6, 40-3, 021 Pine and larch • 1, 371, -105 3, 0S7, 370 Spruce and fir 2G1, 015 GU, 707 Oak 129, 450 319, 741 . 5 Beech 398,735 884,875 Alder, birch, &c 98,741 243,891 Amount of Jlochicald 2, 259, 340 5, 380, 315 Amount of MittehcaJd 33, 1 79 81, 940 Amount of yiedenccdd 41, 242 103, 808 Oak-coppice - 15, 440 38, 127 Pasture, ( Weidenheger) 2, 025 0, 384 Age by clas.ses : Over eighty years 548, 009 1, 343, 953 Forty-one to eighty years 734, 720 1 , 814, 773 One to forty years!^ 897, 328 1, 710, 400 79. Austria. — The forests of Austria cover 1,000 square miles, or 33 per cent, of the productive surface. Compared to the population, this gives one acre of woodland to each inhabitant. But this is not evenly distributed, since the great body of woods is in the alpine regions of the south, and in the Carpathians, where the percentage is from 40 to 70, and the per capita is from 3 to 11 acres for each person. There is, indeed, in some regions a surplus, as in Galicia and Bukowina. Total 2)rod iirfl re forest-area of Austria* Acres. Lower Austria 1, 381, 250 Upper Austria 820, 825 Salzburg 458, 125 Tyrol and Yorarlberg 1, 040, 000 Styria - . 2, 191, 875 Carinthia 808, 125 Carniola , 933, 125 Kiistenland 390, 750 I )almatia 901, 250 Bohemia 3, 277, 500 Moravia 1, 258, 125 Silesia 433, 125 Galicia 4,450,000 Bukowina 984, 375 Total 20, 000, 450 'JJie Bode II till tiir Oes'erreichx, im Auftruije des k. k. Acln'rhnii-Miiiislcrinnis, rtdi(/trt von Sect ions rath Dr. Jon. /?. Loren: and Geinral-Domainn luniicctor Joxvf Wessthj, Wicii, 1^7.3. FOKEST-AEEAS OF AUSTRIA. 65 BY TERRITOKIAL SUBDIVISIONS. Alpiue lands 7, 393, 250 Northwest laud 5, 663, 625 Northeast laud 5, 434, 000 Karst laud 1, 640, 000 80. The followiug- tables show for each of the proviuces in the first column the area of forest-lauds ; the next, other productive in-operty not wooded ; then the sum of these ; the next shows the amount of un- liroductive or waste; and the last, the total area of the crown and foun- dation estates of Austria. It has been collated and reduced to acres, from a comprehensive work on the agriculture of Austria, by Messrs. Lorenz and Wessely,* to the latter of whom, a jury-colleague, I am in- debted for a copy. The first table gives the figures for each of the several provinces; the second shows the proprietorship of the several foundations. Crown and foundation lands of Austria. Lower Austria Upper Austria Salzburg Tyrol aud Vorarlberg Styria Carintliia Carniola Coastlantl Dalmatia Boheuiia Galicia Bukowina Total This area is divided as follows The state Church foundations Greek church foundations Students' foundations Invalid foundations Military academy foundations . Forest -lands. Otherlands. Total. Unproduct- ive. Total. 65, 2C9 5,906 71, 234 478 71, 715 159, 792 16, 440 176, 282 83, 172 269, 455 203, 899 82, 516 264, 915 152, 110 430, 525 299, 24fi 31, 260 330, .506 359, 009 080, 515 12(i, 240 26, 464 154, 954 54, 069 206, 522 44, 415 9,153 56,317 9,477 65, 791 34, 119 1,934 36, 056 835 37, 029 31, 728 2,519 34, 246 311 34, 557 C,250 28, 806 35, 326 317 35, 644 20, 711 5, 840 26, 551 189 26, 740 481,873 28, 746 510, 349 14, 377 524, 726 481, 500 81, 645 563, 145 8,019 571, 164 1, 955, 252 260, 959 2, 259, 881 682, 363 2, 942, 244 1, 437, 375 138, 324 1, 578, 699 652, 347 2, 230, 091 75, 748 29, 494 105,241 22, 200 127, 479 481, 500 81,645 617,596 8,019 625, 615 10, 150 9,557 19, 683 34 18, 716 3,130 3, 130 3,130 1 772 1,416 356 1,772 The imperial and endowmeut forest-property of Austria, with other estates, amounts to 1,371,311 hectares, as represented in a chart in the pavilion of the department of agriculture ; of which extent 935,295 hec- tares, or 68 per cent., are productive forest-land ; 123,170 hectares, or 9 per cent., fifrming-lands ; and 312,846 hectares, or 23 per cent., are unpro- ductive.t These possessions are scattered from the northern to the * Op. cit. supra. t For tlie valuable information' contained in this section of the report, I am indebted largely to the "special catalogue" carefully prepared by my very agreeable colleague, Dr. Arthur Freiherr von Seekendorff, professor at Mariabrunn, the author of some standard works on forestry, a gentleman who.se charming manners and many kind- nesses to an unknown stranger from a far-off land quite captivated the recipient of his attentions. 5 F 66 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. southern bouudary of the empire, iu both Eastern and Western Austria, and they rise from the level of the Adriatic to the limit of vegetation in the alpine regions. Some of the alpine forests are still hampered with servitudes, thongh many of these have been released since 1853.* 81. Archduchy OF Austria BELOW THE Exns:— Lower Austria. — In this province, we find the Wiener- Wald lying to the west and south- west of the imperial city of Vienna. It contains 26,677 hectares of woods, besides 1,200 of other lands ; also near Neustadt, by the boundary of Hungary, is the so-called Kaiser- Wald, or Ofenbach forest, with 898 hectares of wood and 8 hectares of other lands; making in all 28,783 hectares, or 71,092 acres. The Wiener-Wald or forest has belonged to the Austrian government since the earliest times; but its economical importance dates from the latter part of the seventeenth century, and its management has culminated in a plentiful supply of wood and timber for the city, besides furnishing a charming resort for the citizens in summer time, — a grand park. The surface is generally hilly or mountainous ; the highest point, called Schopfel, is 893 meters, or 2,924 feet, above the sea-level. The soil of the Wiener-Wald is chiefly derived from the Wiener sandstone, with a mixture of finer and coarser masses of quartz ; besides, in some of the districts, the Alpenkalk limestone is found. The Ofenbacher forest lies on schist, gneiss, and granite, with abundant pebbles from the mountains. On the sandstone, generally, is found a clay soil, veiy favorable to the growth of trees, especially the beech. This changes according to the varying hardness of the sandstone, and the greater or less amount of lime it contains. A striking appearance is the frequent coming to the surface of the sandstone, especially on the north and northwest slopes. Above the limestone is a light and fertile soil, especially* adapted to I)ines. Deficiency of water is a characteristic of the AViener-Wald. The principal river is the Wienfluss, which is liable to sudden floods at times of heavy rains. Besides the Wienfluss, the Schwechatbach is to be mentioned as one of the most important, since it furnishes the chief water-way for trans- porting wood by means of dams or reservoirs, that are opened at inter- vals to flood the channel and carry the wood to its destination. 82. On the sandstone is a mixed wood-growth; thebeech prevailing on the loamy soils. This is often the only tree, but is freque'ntly mixed with firs and hornbeam, the common kinds of oak, Austrian and Scotch j)irie, and, in smaller (pumtities, spruce, ash, larch, elm, maple, birch, Sorhus torminalis, alder, asi)en, and poplar. Tlie management is LFochicald, with a rotation of one hundred to one • Some discrepancies may be noticed by the critical observer of these lifjures, which are Riven as they were found, presented by different anthorities ; but they do not niaterially invalidate tlic ic-smUh. FOREST- AREAS OF AUSTRIA. 67 hundred and twenty years. ]S'ear Weidliagau is a small portion of Mittehcald management, with a rotation of forty years. It is attached to the Forest School of Mariabrimu. The annual yield is 163,540 cubic meters from the chief product, and. 33,390 cubic meters from the thin- nings; together, 190,930 cubic meters, or 46,422 cords, chiefly fire- wood, about 5 per cent, only being utilized as timber. The income for 1871 amounted to 1,131,754 florins, about 8565, 877 The expenditure 217, 368 Excess of income 348, 509 About S5 per acre. The actual i^roduct, nevertheless, generally exceeds the estimated quantity by several thousand cubic meters, which is due to the improve- ment of the forests. The valuable varieties of wood are divided into three principal groups : The first group on the north and northeast, which lies between Kir- ling and the public road that passes through the Wien and Grablitz valleys, contains deciduous trees almost exclusively. These are princi- pally beech, with more or less mixture of oak, hornbeam, ash, elm, maple, aspen, poplar, alder, &c. To the second group belong the forests south of this road, with the exception of the Anuinger and a part of the Kaltenberger reviers. Here, also, the beech prevails, though pines are mixed with it in varying pro- portions, so as even to preponderate in some places. In the more ele- vated situations of this group, the spruce and larch are found in natural growth. On the limestone of the Auninger forest is the third group, composed of the native Austrian pine, mixed with the Scotch pine, {Plnus sylves- tris.) As regards the different modes of transportation, the forests of the Wiener- Wald are divided into Achsforste, which means where the wood is transported by laud to its jjlace of destination; and into Schwemm- forste, from which it is transported by water to some point where it is either sold or sent on farther, by rail or otherwise. These Schwemm- forste occupy 8,130 hectares, (four districts,) and the Triftholz amounts yearly to from 150,000 to 65,000 cubic meters of fire-wood. The wood is chiefly sold by auctiori in the forests ; most of it is con- sumed in Vienna, to which point it is carried by the West and South Railroads. Incidental products. — Among these, the leaves are most important, and they yield relatively large products, amounting in the year 1872 to 6,129 florins 75 kreutzers. Next to the leaves comes the resin from the Austrian i)ine. Besides these are the rents for wood-pastures, meadows, quarries, and for hunt, ing, which last does not amount to much. 68 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. 83. Management. — Since the new organization cf the xiustrian gov- ernment forests, the management of the woods and domain in the Wiener- Wald is controlled by the minister of agriculture, under whom are also the Fouds forests and domain, situated in Lower Austria. The forest-direction is made up as follows : one Oherforstmeister, two Forstmeister, one Forstselcretar, one Ober/orstingenieur, one Concepts- flirster, one Rechnungsrafh, and various assistants. The body of the real Wiener- Wald is divided into sixteen forest- districts, whose managers, with the title Fornt- und Domaeyien-Ver waiter, are immediately under the direction. For the protection of the forests, there are forty-eight Forstwarte, or guards, for the same number of districts. 84. The Wiener- Wald, being so near Vienna, afforded a good oppor- tunity for studying Austrian forest-management, in which great assist- ance was rendered by the amiable and intelligent professors of the Mariabrunn Academy, who are very enthusiastic in the pursuit of forest- studies. Besides this, the Forest-Jury was favored with a pleasant excursion through some of the best and most interesting portions of the estate. This entertainment was given by the administration, and under the special guidance of Herr Eobert Micklitz, K. K. Oberlandes- forstmeister, (who was also a member of the jury,) accompanied by the Mariabrunn professors and the Oberforstrath of Austria. The occasion was a delightful one, and it afforded an opportunitj- of making obser- vations under the most favorable circumstances, as the visitors were attended by the most intelligent cicerones, who were ready to answer all questions and to explain all difficulties. The whole trip was an example of the peripatetic forest-school. As a means of conveying instruction, however, its only fault was, perhaps, that the course of study was too full for the time allotted to it. What might have occupied months was necessarily crowded into one day. But text-books were provided for us in the way of maps, and a full description of the Wald, especially i^repared for the occasion, which have served an admirable purpose by enabling us to con over the details at leisure in our own homes. 85. The Students' Endowment Forest, at Grosspappen, contains 800 hectares of woods lying on the watershed of the Thaia Kiv^er, about six- teen German miles northwest from Vienna. The surface is undulating, sometimes hilly, in part flat. Elevation from 500 to GOO meters. It is on the Urgebirgaformation, crystalline schist, mixed with gneiss, lime- stone, and granite. The soil a deep loamy clay. The climate is try- ing; the winters are long and snowy; the winds are often heavy, and hurricanes sometimes occur. All this requires the most careful plan- ning of the clearings or culling of the timber. The principal kinds are spruce, fir, and Scotch pine, with birch, aspen, and linden. The rota- tion is one hundred years ; the reproduction is by artificial planting. The annual yield is 4,G80 cubic meters, of which, since the opening of the railroad, 50 per cent, is useful timber ; the rest, fire- wood. FOREST-AREAS OF AUSTRIA. 69 8G. Archduchy of Austria above the Enns Eh^r — Upper Austria. — The beautiful river, Enns, whicli furnishes a natural outlet for the rich products of the mines and forests of a part of the mountains of Styria, is also the eastern boundary of the province to which this part of my report refers ; a region of varied surface, traversed by the Danube and drained by the Traun, the Salza, and other streams that flow from the snowy tops of the Austrian Alps. This archduchy extends from the Enns to the Inn Eiver. The state forest contains — 85, 220 hectares of woods ; 1, 807 hectares cultivated ground ; 61,262 hectares unproductive; 148, 289 hectares, or 466,274 acres. The Salzkammergut is famous for its salt-works, and also as a sum- mer resort for the Yiennoise, as well as for its forests. Indeed, the leading motive for purchasing these possessions by the government was the preservation of the woods to furnish fuel for the imperial salt-works in the valley of the Traun. On the west, south, and «ast, the region is inclosed l)y the Alps of Salzburg, Styria, and Upper Austria. 87. With regard to situation, soil, and climate, the forests of the Salzkammergut may be divided into three regions: the first and largest of these is composed of the high mountains of limestone, which rear their mighty crests of unproductive lands, with rocks and precipices, on which only the Plnus montana is found. The highest point of this group is the Dachstein, that raises its head, covered with eternal snow and ice, to an elevation of 8,900 feet, while the lowest is the surface of the Traunsee, that is 1,270 feet above the ■ocean-level. Throughout this region, tree-growth is arrested at 1,510 meters, (4,945 feet,) and is confined to the valleys and sheltered places ; where exposed and on the poorer soils, the trees are gnarled and twisted. The next group embraces the foot-hills of clay-slate, and sandstone, of which the highest point is 1,074 meters, or 3,517 feet. The soil is not favorable for tree-growth. The third group is level, of small extent, being the alluvial of the val- leys ; a sandy loam. The climate varies with this grouping. Snows fall early and abundantly, and in the spring they disappear very slowly. Besides the mountain-streams flowing out by the Traun, which afford a convenient means of transport for the wood, the Salzkammergut is rich in lovely lakes of beautifully clear water, which lie embosomed among the mountains, and add to the beauty of the landscape, so that this region has well been called one of the most attractive in Europe. The largest of these lakes are the Ilalstiittersee, the Wolfgangsee, the Mond- see, the Zellersee, the Attorsee, and the Traunsee. 70 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. The leading: tree in the forests is the spruce ; next to which are the beech, fir, and larch. Others, deciduous kinds, are scarce; but in culti- vation, in the vallej" at Ischl, quite a number of American trees are growing well; among them the liriodendrons are remarkably fine. Near the town, a very thrifty chestnut was also seen. rienterhetrieh prevails, with rotation of one hundred and twenty years. Annual product is 230,840 cubic meters, or 7,714,730 cubic feet, natural reproduction; with little planting, on account of the shortness of the season. 88. The Archduchy of Salzburg. — The state-forest here occupies an extent of 125,088 hectares of productive woodland, besides 250 hec- tares in farms and meadows, 2,290 hectares high pastures, and 5,870 hectares of alpine wastes ; the whole property contains 134,104 hectares. Most of the tract lies in the high mountains, composed of crystalline slates and gneiss, upon which lie grauwacke, sandstone, and alpenkalk. Diluvial and alluvial formations are found in the valleys. The disin- tegration of the rocks has formed a rich, productive soil. The climate varies : in the sheltered valleys, it is warm enough for the walnut, {Jvglans regia;) on the more elevated places, and on the north- erly and easterly slopes, the winter begins early, lasts longer, and has more snow. Long winters, short and cool springs, rainy summers, and warm falls characterize the climate. 89. The spruceconstitutes the leading tree, alone or with fir, beech, and larch, a mixed, close forest, reaching a height of 1,000 meters, 5,244 feet. The highest wooded point is the Honikogel, 1,855 meters high ; it is stocked with a beautiful dense forest of spruce. In the sheltered places, indeed, the spruce is found at a height of 1,900 meters, but the stems are $hort and small. The fir does not occur massed by itself, but mixed with spruce and beech ; nor does it reach so high as the spruce, seldom exceeding 1,300 meters. Fine specimens of the beech are rarely found so high. On the northern slopes of the Tannengebirg and on the west slopes of the Stuhlgebirg, at a height of 1,000 meters, the beech occurs in masses with the Pinus pumilis ; the stems, however, are gnarled and short. The larch is usually mixed with other trees. Clear patches are of small extent. It is found in all situations, but prefers the north and east slopes, and reaches the height of 1,900 meters. The Scotch pine is seldom seen except in dry and hungry soils, and seldom over 1,450 meters in elevation. The Swiss stone-pine is found in many valleys quite abundant, some- times in fine stems. In a good situation, handsome trees may be found at 1,900 meters; but its favorite locality is between 1,450 and 1,750 meters above the sea, where it is found in small compact groups. The Finns jiumilio occurs on all the high mountain-tops, and reaches to 2,200 meters in sheltered places. The common alder is found in the valleys by the streams, occasion- ally rising to 1,300 meters. FOREST-AREAS OF BOHEMIA. 71 Maple, ash, elm, birch, oak, &c., are not sufficiently numerous to be of much importance, and they generally stand singly. In some of the lower altitudes, with deep, rich soil, we find here and there a wood of remarkable beauty and with an abundant growth that would 3'ield GOO to 650 cubic meters per hectare. In this region, the har- vesting of the forest is done by clean clearing {Kahlhiehe) of the entire side of a valley. ' The product of 1S7L consisted of — Cubic meters. Fire- wood 108, 880 Coal- wood 17, 030 Logs 5, 150 Total - - - 131, OGO Most of this is consumed at the salines of Hallein. The charcoal goes to the furnaces and founderies. 90. Kingdom of Eohemia. — The Joachimsthaler forest lies near the boundary of Saxony on the Erzgebirg. It contains 5,G1G hectares, and lies from 900 to 1,000 meters above the level of the North Sea. Conse- quently, these elevations, combined with their northern position, have on their summits a severe climate, which is milder and the vegetation more promising only in the sheltered valleys. The angle of incidence of the sun's rays on various slopes and mountain-tops falls between 20^ and 40^. The soil consists of clays and the detritus of schist and granite; and, in consequence of abundant precipitation, it is usually moist and well adapted to vegetation. 91. The leading forest-trees are the spruce, with some firs, and occa- sionally beech and larch. The forest-management is high timber, (Rochicald,) and the annual yield is : Cubic meters. First quality 15, 036 Inferior . . /. 1, 232 Total 16, 268 92. The Dukedom of Bukowina. — The area of the Eastern Greek church endowment amounts, in round numbers, to 230,240 hectares, or forty German square miles = 568,693 acres, divided into five districts. This property is scattered in larger or smaller tracts over the whole of the crowu-lahds of Bukowina. Some is among cultivated lands; the rest lies on the high Carpathians. Among the usual species, the spruce occupies the first place, next comes the fir, and then beech. Oaks are only found in favorable situa- tions. In the lower lands are the ash, maple, elm, alder, linden, &c., and, where introduced artificially, the larch and Scotch pine. On the heights, at elevations of from 1,650 to 1,850 meters, the Ftnus pumilio and Finns uUyinosa are found. 72 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. The proportions of woods are represented by spruce, 50 ; lir, 23 ; beech, 20; oak, 1.5; asli, maple, elm, alder, linden, bircb, aspen, and willow, 1.5 in 100. The chief forests are Hochwald^ with a rotation or term of from eighty to one hundred and twenty years. The reproduction of the woods is chietiy natural, by self-seeding ; but some planting is done from nurse- ries. Ship-timbers arc an important product. They are floated on the Bis- tritz and Dorna to Galatz on the Lower Danube. The mainmasts are from 26 to 32 meters long by 57 to 68 centimeters thick. The mizzeu- masts are from 47 to 55 meters long by 47 to 55 centimeters diameter. The foremasts are from 24 to 28 meters long by 3G to 44 centimeters thick. The yards are from 19 to 23 meters long by 21 to 36 centi- meters thick. Beams are from 13 to 19 meters long by 16 to 19 centime- ters thick at the upper end. The annual product equals 556,738 cubic meters, or 18,606,143 cubic feet. To offset this abstraction, the calculated increase by growth in the same districts amounts to 1,338,050 cubic meters, or 45,817,631 cubic feet, so that only about one-third part is utilized. 93. Kingdom of Galicia. — The state and endowment forests are comprised in nine divisions, which have a total area equaling 229,182 hectares, or 556,079 acres, of forest, and 40,530 acres of farming-land. Of this, the state holds 438,250 acres of the former, and 24,402 acres ot the latter; the rest is endowment-land, (Fondshesitz.) In the sandy lands, the Scotch .pine is the chief tree ; on better and loamy soils, the oak comes in with fir and beech, birch, &c. (3f all these divisions, that of Bolecliow and DoUna furnish the best ex- ample of a Galician forest. It is a mountain-region, with broad levels on the summits, and in the elevated valleys, which are from 650 meters to 1,600 meters above the sea-level. The lower slopes have deciduous trees, mixed with the conifers; the latter, chiefly spruce, in the higher grounds, are of remarkably fine quality. 94. Earldom of Goritz and the Margr aviate of Istria. — The Coastlnnd forests. — In his report upon the plans for reforesting this re- gion, M. Scharnagll says* that perhaps in no part of the Austrian empire, with the exception of Dalmatia, is the forest so much reduced as in the Kiistenland, nor does any other country suffer so much from the conse- quences of this scarcity of woods as these provinces ; because of their southern position, and of the prevailing limestone rocks,' they require especially a permanent forest for the preserv^ation of the earth moisture. It is well known that the deforesting of this territory is the cause of the severe drought and the consequent scarcity of pasture and bad crops. The impoverishment of the land is referable to natural causes. In consequence of its mild climate, and of its being accessible to the * " Karlbeicaldung," von ISimon Scharnagll, Fontinsjpeeior in Triest, FOREST-AREAS OF BOHEMIA. 73 markets of all the great states, this was one of the richest lauds of Eu- rope in the times of the Eomans. Within a few years, the reforesting of this extensive, desolate, and really unprofitable Karstland has been undertaken in earnest, as will appear from the report of the contents of the nurseries to supply the plantations. The total extent of the Kiistenland amounts to 1.385,476 joch = 1,731,845 acres. 95. An intelligent writer from this country, who was met at the forest congress to which he refers, gives the following graphic description of the region under consideration : " Immediately after leaving Triest, the train passes through miles and miles of the most barren, rocky mountain-scenery that it is j)ossible to imagine. It seems as if some terrible curse hangs over these miles and miles of hills, literally covered with stones; even shrubs being scarcely able to take root among the rocks. Five hundred years ago, as an intelligent gentleman informs me, all these hills were covered with grand old forest-trees, of which, however, none remained at the end of the last century. " The Venetians had been in the habit of sending their galleys to this coast, bordering as it does on the Adriatic, to fetch all the wood they needed, until they had finally completely deforested the entire region. So it remained for centuries, and the hills liaving lost their protectors, the soil was washed away by the storms, leaving the bare rocks, on which no vegetation could cling. " Thus the vast stony wilderness remained until some twenty years ago, when the attention of the Austrian government was called to the matter, and eminent economists were confident that the waste district could eventually be reclaimed and restored to its former usefulness. " The Austrian government then caused miles and miles of olive-trees to be planted among the rocks, although first of all the very soil had to be carried to the roots of the trees. " The young trees took root, but at first suffered severely for lack of moisture, since it had been noticed that with the destruction of the for- ests the rain-fall had constantly dimiuished, until finally scarcely any fell during the hot summer months. " By and by a pleasant verdure again covered the hills, and the clouds took compassion on the gasping plants as they passed over them; for it is a fact that whereas heretofore rain scarcely ever fell upon the barren hill-sides, now it falls in sufficient quantity, and a pleasant climate will soon return to the once barren district. The phenomena here related are by no means isolated in the history of deforested districts. They have been observed at Cairo and in other countries. " I think it well to call attention here to the fact that one of the most important international congresses to be held at Vienna during the 74 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. Exposition will be (levoted, on the one part, to the question of forest- culture. ''The g^reat chemist Licbig, whose death at IMunicli occurred a few days ago, spoke once to me on this very subject. lie expressed the view that the decay of ancient empires — of Greece and Rome — was due, more or less, to the neglect of the peoples to take care of the land and its fer- tilizer and climate-regulator, the forest." — (Correspondence New York Herald.) 9G. In 1872, the following i)lants were in the central seeding-nurseriea of conifers : such as Austrian pine, white pine, maritima, Aleppo pine, pinaster, stone-pine, spruce, larch ; at llodik were 3,082,500, of which 1,150,000 were ready for planting; at Capo d'Istria, 211,000, of which 73,500 were ready to set ; at Goritz were 15,930 ready to plant ; alto- gether ready for planting in 1873, 1,239,000. Of deciduous trees : such as robiuia, Norway maple, sycamore-maple, field-maple, box-elder, beech, hornbeam, ash, Fraxinus ornus, alder^ Quercus pe(hinculata, puhescens^ and siiher, (cork,) horse-chestnut, linden, field-elm, Ulnuis efusa, Labunmm, Gleditschia, Catalpa, &c. Of these there were at Eodik 810 not yet ready to plant; at Capo d'Istria, 1,351,000, of which 338,000 were ready for planting ; at Goritz, 4,891,200, of which 3,872,000 were ready— total, 4,210,000 ready to set out in the year 1873. Besides which there were 000,500 nut and fruit trees, of which 480,700. could be planted — total plants, 10,817,741.* M. Scharuagll gives iu tabulated form, representing all the above- named varieties, the number of young trees that have been sent out from the nurseries for planting up to tlie autumn of 1872. Without going into the details of the proportion of conifers and deciduous forest and fruit trees, the grand total is here presented : for planting in the Karst, 1,019,945 ; sold to other provinces, 1,740,500. Total of plants produced by these uuseries: Conifers 3, 909, 40(> Deciduous 0,247,070 Fruit and nut trees 000, 599 Total 10, 817, 741 97. Dukedom of CAKiNxniA. — The state and endowment forests lie iu the western part, and extend from the levels of the valleys to the alpine heights as far as forest- vegetation is possible. They are drained by the Drave and its numerous branches. The area of the four districts amounts to 42,481 acres, which, with the sterile alpine heights, makes a total of 53,948 acres. With deep and long valleys separated by high mountains, this is essentially an alpine region. The servitudes of wood, litter, and pasturage make a heavy drain upon these possessions. * Schariiajill. FOREST-AREAS OF BOHEMIA. 76 Ou tbe foot-bills, the forests consist chiefly of conifers, spruce, fir, Scotch piue, and larch, with deciduous trees, such as beech, hornbeam, alder, poplar, maple, and birch, scattered through them. The land is well stocked, and the trees make a good healthy growth. Their har- vesting generally occurs by clearing entirely, {ScJdagweise,) and the management is Plenterhetried, with a rotation of eighty years. In the higher grounds, the deciduous trees give place to the conifers, spruce, fir, and larch. The Swiss pine (Pimts cemhra) appears in the central alpine chain, in the highest timber-region, mixed with stunted spruce and larch, as warders of the highest forest-production. These forests, which are seldom more than 1,700 meters high, and from their being scattered, and with their rugged character, it is assumed that they generally have a rotation of one hundred to one hundred and twenty years. 98. Dukedom of Carniola. — The state-forests of Carniola are divided into five districts, which cover 12,1G7 hectares, or 30,052 acres. The imperial forest of Idria is from 300 to 1,300 meters above the sea. The rotation is one hundred to one hundred and twenty years, with either the entire clearing or gradual cutting. The area is 7,735 hectares. The yearly production is 28,078 cubic meters. The mountain-forest of Lanczowa-Illoucze is an elevated plateau of square form. The highest point is 1,400 meters, and still within the line of wood-vegetation 5 the soil is rich in humus. The woods are made lip of spruce and fir, with some beech on the northerly slopes. The rotation is eighty years, and the annual yield is 4,422 cubic meters from an area of 1,863 hectares. 99. Archduchy OF Styria.— The Neuberg-Mariazel state-forest con- tains 33,493 hectares forest ; 7,790 hectares productive land ; 4,240 hec- tares unproductive land; total, 45,535 hectares, lying in the forest-region, and extending in part into the alpine heights. The surface is all mount- ainous. In the Neuberg-Wald spruce and fir are the most numerous, about GO per cent.; next, larch in mixture, 20 per cent. ; then follow the Scotch pine and beech, and a small amount of maple, birch, and alder. In the alpine region the Finns pumilis abounds. In the Mariazel district, spruce is the most frequent and important tree, mingled with larch. In the deeper and more sheltered places, the fir bears itself well, and the birch and Aliins incana assume importance. The management is altogether high timber, {Hochtcald.) The state-forests in Tyrol and Yorariberg cover a space of 138,115 hectares, besides 19G hectares of endowment-lauds. These are still much hampered by servitudes, in spite of the efforts to free them. These amount annually to an abstraction of timber and lumber, about 7,581 cubic meters; fire-wood, 45,489 cubic meters; litter and brush, 40,435 cubic meters ; pasture of about 74,000 head of cattle, horses, and mules, and about 22,000 sheep and goats. The forests are chiefly stocked with conifers, and have a rotation of one hundred to one hun- 71) VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIIUTION, 1873. ilretl and sixty years. Tbey lie from G50 to 1,9G0 meters above the sea. lu the valleys, the rotation is twenty years. The leading trees are spruce, lir, Scotch ])ine, larch, cembra pine, beech, Almis incaiia, yew, Pinus pumilio, and Finus ohliqua. The proximate yield is 238,082 cubic meters. Resonance-boards of superior «iuality are prepared here. Excepting some small reviers in the valley of the Inn, the management of the forests is chiefly Hochwald, and this is mostly cut by Kalilhieh, (clean cutting.) So far as appears, the Plen- tcrbeirieb prevails. The felling is done from spring to fall. Coaling is largely carried on. After the clearing,^ the reproduction is chiefly effected by plantations, which i)ermit a choice of kinds and proper ad- mixture. The larch is highlj' esteemed, and its increase is thus secured. Ill 1870, there were 150 nurseries of young trees. 100. Hungary. — Of the total area, being 32,988,795 acres, the forests cover 9,082,434 acres, of which, according to the minister of finance, the state-forests compose more than one-half, or 4,383,244 acres,* from which it appears that rather more than one-fourth of the territory is wooded, and yet there are extensive tracts of open country, resembling the steppes of Asia, and devoted to agriculture and pasturage. 101. The following tables convey much information as to the kind of forest, their productiveness, and relative area compared with the total of the different provinces of the kingdom. In Hungary, we find the relative distril)utiou of forest-lands as fol- lows : t Provinces. Forest area. Total area. Acres. 2, 18:?, .505 770, .506 1, 888, 2.59 2, 844, 920 1, 395, 144 Acres. 6,216,496 Hu. Tttschen. — Of this, the forests cover 19,140 acres, and most of this is an area of 17,3-47 acres, bounded on the east by the Elbe ; tlie rest is seatted in parcels over the estate. These woods are divided into ten reviers. The formation is quaternary sandstone, with some basalt. The sur- face of the great forest is mainly composed of slopes to the north, south, and southeast. The soil on the sandstone is somewhat stony, on a sandy loam, with suilicient humus in the valleys. On the basaltic rocks, it is stony but rich. Since the elevation is from 350 to 2,300 feet above the sea, the climate is favorable, in the lower parts adapted to deciduous trees, but on the elevations only spruces are produced. Conifers are the leading sorts, chiefly the spruce alone or mixed with firs, pines, and beech of various ages. The Scotch pine is next to the spruce in respect to numbers. It grows both mixed and in masses by itself, especially on the dry, sandy southerly slopes near Tetscheu. The fir is seen only in the valleys in scattered groups, especially on the basaltic soils; the larch and Pi?ms strohus appear in small patches. Beech is most numerous among the deciduous trees, and is not only found in a liberal mixture with the spruce, but also in extensive woods alone in some of the reviers. There is not much oak, maple, nor ash; but care is now taken to increase these kinds where they will not be injured by game. The rotation is usually about one hundred years. The reproduction is commonly that following a clean cut, either natural growth or by seeding. Classification. — A portion is divided as follows as to age : Classes. Years. Acres. I 1 to 20 3 288 11 '21 to 40 2 235 Ill 41 to 60 2 439 IV 61 to 80 . 3' 784 V 81 to 100 . 3' 736 About 185 acres are felled annually, yielding a total of 17,025 klafter, or 1,123,050 cubic feet, being an average of 0,074 cubic feet per acre. The lumber is mostly sold to dealers, who talce it by the Elbe ; and much of the fire-wood goes to market in the same way. The inferior wood and the stumps and roots are made into charcoal for the Saxon iron-works. The production may be divided thus: soft woods — lumber, 71. C per cent.; fire- wood, 28.4 percent.; hard woods — lumber, 18.6 percent.; fire- wood, 81.4 per cent. Annual production. — Ship-timbers, 25,872 cubic feet ; building-timbers, 201,4.32 cubic feet ; tan -bark, spruce, 22,008 cul)ic feet. Each acre of a clearing will average, if spruce, fir, and beech, of one hundred and fifteen years, 17,417 cubic feet ; if Scotch pine, at seventy-five years, 3,305 cubic feet. BOHEMIAN FORESTS. 91 120. Forest-culture. — Since 1785, surface-draiuage by open ditches bas been extensively carried on. Since 1830, 48,000 ruuning-klafter have been dug. Planting and seeding are both practiced; in the former, the plants are grown in home nnrseries, and set out at one and two years old ; latterly, good resnlts hav'e followed from transplanting spruces at one year. As a rule, the planting is in rows; on good soil, the rows are 6 feet wide and the plants set 3 feet apart ; on thinner soils, the rows are 5 feet apart and the plants from 2 to 2^ feet apart. The seed rows, or beds, are from 18 inches to 2 feet wide; and the plants should stand from 4 to 4J inches apart. The annual planting amounts on the average to 175 acres, consisting of conifers from 450,000 to 500,000 ; deciduous kinds, 12,000 to 14,000 ; seeds sown annually, 350 to 400 pounds. These forests are damaged by the game gnawing and peeling, by the Curculio pini, and by snows and sleet, as well as by occasional storms of wind. In January, 1834, 42,625 trees were prostrated ; also, in 1808, there was a widely-extended storm in Bohemia that destroyed 4,194,515 cubic feet of wood in this forest. Fishery. — Within the forest, there are nine ponds and mill-dams for the saw-mills, where trout are bred in large numbers ; these fish abound also in the brooks. 121. Feruc. — This estate has been enlarged by successive additions within the i)resent century. The forests are not large, and are divided into two reviers ; a part is Hochu-ald, with eighty years rotation ; part Mittelwald, with thirty years; and \)?ixt Niedericald. S[)ecies grown : chiefly the Scotch pine, and oak ; then spruce, beech, larch, and birch mixed together. 122. Gros ZdiJcau. — This extends westwardly to the bounds of Bavaria, joining the state-forests; eastward and southward it joins the estate Winterberg, (Schwarzenberg's.) The elevation is considerable, and the mountains form the water-shed between the North Sea and the Black Sea ; the Moldau descending to the one and the Danube to the other. The mountains rise to more than 4,000 feet. Gneiss abounds, and the soil is good, a stony loam ; but the climate is unfavorable ; the winters are long and severe ; the summers cool, so that vegetation often suifers from late frosts and from the early approach of winter; snows do considerable damage. The storm of December, 1808, destroyed 30,000 klafter of wood, and that of October, 1870, 90,000 klafter.* Spruce is the leading forest-tree on these elevations ; fir and beech, however, take a very i)rominent rank. The Scotch pine is seen only about Gros Zdikau, mixed with spruce and fir ; the mount- ain-pine is found on the high moors. Maple, ash, birch, aspen, &c., are occasional. * A cubic klafter is (Miiial to C6 cubic feet, riitliBr more than half a cord. y-i VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXIIIBITIOX, 1873. . Igv-vhtfisijicatioti. Class. Years. Acres. Estimate. I 1 to 20 2,962 1,185 1,928 725 286 2, 2f!!) 1, 030 Cubic feet. 807, f 40 II 21 to 40 1, 414, HJO Ill 4 1 to 1)0 4,271, ICO IV (U to fO 2, :if(l, 1 40 V 1-1 to 100 ],11H, 100 VI Over 100 14, -:«, 300 Totals 5.52, 300 10,005 25, 277, IGO 48, 000 25, 325, ICO Under the present management, with a rotation of one hundred 3'ears and a clearing of 72 acres annually, the product should amount to 522,000 cubic feet. The proportions are : Of soft wood, timber, 39 per cent.; fire-wood, Gl iier cent.; of hard wood, timber, 34.3 per cent.; fire-wood, (J5.7 i)er cent. Of the timber, nearly 3 per cent, is made into resonance-boards; the mass of fire-wood is used by the glass-houses, which consume more than three thousand cords annually. A large quantity of stump-wood is made into charcoal. The reproduction is chiefly done by planting, a small part by seed ; the plants are set C feet by 3 in rows. In the decennial 186G to 1875 they are planting 153 acres each year, using about 2,150,000 plants, and G.OOO pounds of seed ; of these, the largest proportion is spruce. The nurseries occupy 3^ acres, and furnish 400,000 two-year old plants annually. 123. Skalicz. — The freehold of Skalicz, lying near Zdikau, was pur- chased in 1802 by the present i)roprietor, for the sake of clearing off some troublesome servitudes on his other possessions. The surface is mountainous ; it lies chiefly on the right bank of the Volinka,and, being so near the Boehmerwald, the climate is raw, except in sheltered valleys. The rock is gneiss and lime, and the soil tolerably good, according to elevation, better below ; from 7 to 12 inches cultiva- ble or surface soil. There is not much forest, about 75 acres of Jlochwald^ chiefly Scotch l>ine, with some spruce and larch. 124. Count Kudolf Ciiotek's Possessions. — These embrace : Weltru.'^ 10, G80 inetzeu 5 mssln. Neuhof 1!>, 050 " 3 " Kelo.sic 3, 143 " 13 " Total 32, 884 " 5 " 125. M'eltruH. — The forests are divided into three reviers. The soil is sandy to loamy in different parts, and adai)ted to deciduous trees ; a portion of one of the reviers is appro[)riated to the park, where oaks FOREST OF COUNT CHOLTITZ. yd prevail, partly alone ami partly mixed with ash, maple, i)oplar, birch, aud locust. In the otber reviers, the Scotch pine prevails, either aloue or mixed with spruce. There are 950 iiietzeii Hochicald, 4-14: park, 335 coppice-wood, and 42 bushes and waste, (Bemisen.) The amount to be cut annually is fixed at 440 klafter,or 29,040 cubic feet. The planting in the park is with five and six year old deciduous trees ; in other reviers, with one and two year transplanted conifers from the nurseries. 126. Xeuliof. — The forests are divided into seven reviers ; the soil is loose sand, varying to a productive loam. The Scotch x)ine prevails ; in some reviers alone: in others mixed with spruce, oak, and birch. The pine reaches its perfection on the higher grounds in eighty aud in lower places in sixty years. In the total area of 2,650 acres, 2,125 is Hocliwald ; 197, coppice ; 107.O, unproducti%'e ; deer-park, 195 ; aviary for pheasants, 25 acres. The rotation is eighty and sixty years for the Hochwald, and thirty years for the coppice. The annual production is limited to 2,137 klafter. The reproduction is effected by planting, and large trees are set to avoid damage by the game ; these are grown in the nurseries. 127. BtloSic. — The forest-area of this estate amounts to 2G5 metzen, (7 miles,) of which but a small part is in conifers : it is chiefly oak-cop- pice, with a term of twenty years. The yearly product is about 2,600 cubic feet, or 37i cubic feet per acre. 128. Count Theodore Thun-Hohenst kin's estate Choltitz. — This embraces, in farms, meadows, lakes, and forest, 6,055 acres. A por- tion, which is on the boundary between Bohemia and Moravia, is mountainous ; the lower parts have a rich alluvium, stretching north- ward to the Elbe. The hedge-rows and the plantations, beside the ponds and the wooded slopes, give the whole a park-like aspect. The forest is divided into four reviers; in all, 2,467 acres, chiefly Hochwald, in which tir is most abundant ; next spruce and pine, then oak, and less birch. Home nur- series supply plants for the reproduction of the forests. 129. Prince Max Egan Furstenberg's domain Purglitz.— Lying westward from Prague, this large estate of 84,125 acres has 66,750 acres in forest, divided into 25 reviers. A large portion of this was natural production of the previous century. Beech occupies the greatest extent, partly mixed with fir ; then oak. In some reviers, the forest is chiefly oak ; in others, fir. Scotch pine •comes naturally in the oak-woods. Spruce was a stranger here, but, in y4 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, Ib73. later years, it is much extended ; next to spruce and fir comes the pine alone and mixed. Witliin fifty years, the larch has been introduced \\ith good success. Among the deciduous trees, the beech, hornbeam, and oak are most common. Some birch and aspen are found. Maple, oak, elm, linden, and mountain-ash occur on the hilly places ; alder, in the valleys. The forest may be divided thus : Hochivald, Avith spruce and fir, 34 per cent. ; pino and larch, 33 per cent. ; mixed deciduous and conifers, 18 per cent, j all deciduous, 13 per cent. ; coppice, 2 per cent. The oak succeeds remarkably well, alone, and mixed with beech and fir. In 18G7, the reckoning of the forest gave the following classes by age : Over 100 years, 7.8 per cent. ; from 80 to 100 years, 7.4 per cent. ; from GO to 80 years, 12.2 percent.; from 40 to CO years, 18.5 per cent. ; from 20 to 40 years, 18.1 per cent. ; from 1 to 20 years, 28.G per cent. ; unoccu- pied and cleared, 7.4 per cent. The average estimates of all these periods : Hocliwald. Klafter. Acres. Fir and spruce 2,060,480 22,776 Pine and larch 1,670,215 21,140 Mixed deciduous and conifers 787, 795 12, 437 Deciduous. 617,270 8,801 Coppice wood 118,415 1,307 5,260,175 66,470 130. Forest-culture. — The spruce is largely planted ; next come the pine, larch, and deciduous trees, of which class are oak, maple, ash, alder, elm, and locust. In the last three years, an average of 1,812 acres have been planted with — Spruce, two to three years old, nursery 3, 400, 000 Pines, one year old, from seed-bed 1, 300, 000 Larch, two to three years, nursery 560, 000 Deciduous, three to six years, nursery 250, 000 Total 5, 510, 000 Seeds sown in open ground, in rows, and seed-beds : fir, 40 hundred- weight; pine, 10 hundred-weight; fir, 200 metzen, (pecks;) acorns, 100 metzeu ; beechnuts, .50 metzen ; various deciduous, 20 metzen. The seed-beds and nurseries cover thirty-two and a half acres. There were used at the sowing 20 hundred-weight spruce; 10 hun- dred-weight pine; 5 hundred-weight larch ; 50 hundred-weight decidu- ous seeds. Four million and two hundred thousand seedlings are annually trans- planted in the nurseries; and the average number of plants on hand is 12,000,000. 131. I'ROPERTY OF A. E. RiTTER VON KoMERS, MosTAU. — Situated near Eger, and on the Eger Iliver, not far from the western border of FOREST OF RITTER V. KOMERS. 95 Bohemia. The surface is various, being in the valleys aud on the hill- sides; so also the soil varies from a rich alluvium to sandy loam, under- laid by rock aud clays, the latter of line quality for pottery. The estate covers 965 acres, of which 302 are woodlaud. The forests had been cleared off, and are now being reproduced with great care. Fir and sjjrnce are the favorites, aud, on poorer land, birch, pine, and larch are cultivated. The plantations are being made chiefly on the clearings of the former woods. On the whole property, there is not a rod unfit for other crops that is uot to be occupied by trees. Thirty thousand plants, large and small, are set yearly from the nursery, which has an average of 80,000 plants, and 1.5,000 more are purchased. A hasty survey of these estates is all that can be given, aud, indeed, all that could be obtained iu a rapid transit by rail through parts of some of these properties; but the figures are reliable, and are giveu on the authority of A. E. Ritter vou Komers, the Counsellor and Central Director of Estates for Bohemia. CHAPTER V. FOREST-SCHOOLS. Gkxeral ohcanizatiox of schools of fokkstuy; German kmi'ir?:; Prussia, Ba- varia, Saxox, WCrte.mberg, Bruxswick, Saxe-Weimar, Hesse-Darmstadt, Badkx; Mixor schools; Austriax empire; Schools established by the state; Marienbruxx, Weisswasskr, Extexberg, Kreuz, Hixterbruhl; Other Euro- I'EAX schools. 132. FoREST-sciinoLS. — Forestry is considered so important an in- terest in most parts of Euroyje that especial attention has been bestowed to advancing the proficiency of those who are to be engaged in the care of this branch of agricnlture. Forest-schools have been organized in varions countries, and sylviculture is taught in the agricultural schools. A brief notice of some of these establishments will now be given, so tar, at least, as they were brought to my notice by the Exposition and its associations. 133. German empire. — Here, as might have been anticipated, the greatest attention has been paid to this kind of instruction. In rnissia, there are two important forest-schools, one at Miinden, the other at Neustadt-Eberswalde. The latter was founded in 1821, under the care of Alexander Humboldt. It has been presided over by I'feil, by Griinert, and more recently by Dankelmann. Here is situatedthechiefforest meteorological station of all Germanj-. The course occupies two years and a half. There are a director and two professors, one of whom conducts the labors of the experimental sta- tion. Then there are a professor of natural sciences, with his assistant, a superintendent of the physico-chemical station, a teacher of zoology, a professor of botany, one of geology, one of mathematics and of juris- prudence, and finally one of architecture ; making eight professors. This academy costs the state 12,500 thaler, ecjual to about $9,375 annually. Captain Walker, in his report,* refers to the admirable museum con- nected with this school. It is now under the care of Prof. Dr. Altum, the successor of the distinguished entomologist and author, Katzeburg,t its founder. "It is rich in specimens of all sorts of birds, animals, ami insects found in the forests, very neatly arranged. In case the animal or insect damages the tree, specimens of the branch, bark, •Report of Foreet M.auageineiit of Germany, Austria, and Great Britain, by Capt. C".inij»lM-lI Walker, F. K. G. S.,