RE era 


! : oe 
ee 


ata 
My 
a 


So at ae path 

Sta pot ote 

S 
f 


a 


ibat 


fi 
BS 
i 8 Gittins 
a aaa 


ia 


ei 
iat i 
a 


eh 


abs 
ty 


ve 


Oe es ale 
sar att 
tas sheds iy} 


arn 


vet 

ar 
att 

Hane 


Hy 


ir 


rm D) ie 


i es ete} 


i 


J 


4 
15 D273 639,94. 
[ss REPORT 


ON THE 


FRESH WATER FISH AND FISTIERTES 


INDIA AND BURMA, 


BY 


Suraron-Masor FRANCIS DAY, F.L.S. & F.Z.S., 


INSPECTOR GENERAL OF FISHERIES IN INDIA. 


CALCUTTA : 
OFFICE OF THE SUPERINTENDENT OF GOVERNMENT PRINTING. 
1873. 


INTRODUCTION. 


1. The following report is the result: of investigations 
made since 1867, into whether a wasteful destruction of the 
fresh-water fisheries is or is not occurring in India and 
Burma. It may be said to be composed of two elements, 
personal investigations and the result of enquiries made by 
European and Native civil officers in India and Burma. 

2. When personally enquiring in different districts, J 
found that such a large amount of valuable local knowledge 
existed that I proposed circulating a series of questions 
and deferring the compilation of the full report until answers 
had been received. 


3. The questions circulated were as follows :—For Col- 
lectors, (1).—Ave breeding fish and very young ones destroyed 
in your district to any great extent P (2).—If they are des- 
troyed, how, in what places, and at what seasons ? (8).—What 
is the smallest size of the mesh of nets allowed or employed 
in your district ? (4).—What difficulties are there against 
regulating the size of the mesh of the nets P (5)—What. size 
between knot and knot of the meshes of nets do you con- 
sider advisable ? (6).—What objections exist against prohi- 
biting the sale of the fry of fish in the bazars P (7).—Are 
there any objections against prohibiting the capture of fish 
in hilly districts, as the Himalayas or Nilgiris, during the 
first two months of the monsoon season when they are 
breeding P 

4. Those for Tehsildars or Native Officials were,— 
(1).—What number of fishermen are there in your range, and 


ave they only such, or do they pursue other occupations like- 
wise? (2).—What are the names of the fishermen castes in 
your district ? (8)—Are the local markets fully supplied 
with fish, or could more be sold ? (4).—What is the price of 
large and small fish in the bazar, and also that of first and 
second sort of bazar mutton? (5).—What proportion of 
people eat fish ? (6)—Have the fish increased, decreased, 
or remained stationary of late years? (7).—Are very small 
fish taken in any quantity during the rains; if so, how ? 
(8).—What is the smallest size of the mesh of the nets 
employed ? (9).—Avre fish trapped in the irrigated field dur- 
ing the rains? (10).—Enumerate the various sorts of fish- 
ing, and give the native names of every form of net, trap, 
or snare used in taking fish in your range. 

5. Many of the answers received have been most ex- 
haustive, and afforded me the opportunity of drawing attention 
to certain facts that L otherwise might not have so promi- 
nently brought to notice. Whenever possible, I have rather 
given the opinions of others than my own, provided the two 
were identical. Where so many reports are excellent, it would 
be invidious to draw attention to any particular one, especi- 
ally as all will be found collated in the appendix. 

6. All returns received prior to November 5th have 
been included, whilst due to the delay in some localities it was 
found impossible to even commence this work in June 1872 
as had been anticipated. The period during which answers 
were being waited for was employed in drawing up the:last 
three papers in the appendix, which it is hoped will add to 
the completeness and utility of the report. 


Manpras, 
December 5th, 1872. 


TABLE OF CONTENTS. 


Revorv on INDIAN FRESH-WATER FISITERIRS 9 . : 
Origin of enquiry—Previous workers on the subject of Tndian fishes— 
+ aan . x ve . . 
Mnquiries made in 1867—Where fresh-water fisheries exist. 


Rivers AND THEIR EXPANSIONS. S 0 : : 
Rivers of the Indian Empire—Hill rivers of India, some having Alpine 
sources—Those destitute of Alpine sources—Rivers of the plains— 
How these rivers shallow during the hot season until only a sue- 
cession of pools exist, and here large fish have to remain until the 
rains return—How some rivers have seasons of inundations, filling 
large lakes in the contiguous country—How lakes thus formed may 
be isolated or connected ones. . 


IRRIGATION WoRKS : . : : . 2 
frrigation weirs or bunds—Undersluices, either narrow or wide, the weirs 
impassable to ascending fish—Narrow undersluices—Wide under- 
sluices—Fishunable to ascend over weirs—Irrigation canals—Simple 
irrigation weirs—Irrigation and navigation canals. ILow fish are 
carried into irrigating canals and perish there, due to a want of 
water—Small rivers diverted for irrigation in Malabar—Mills 

worked by water destructive to fish. 


‘TANKS USEFUL AS FISIIERIES a . : . : 
Tanks used as fisheries—Jhils—How a natural protection may be afford- 


ed to fish. 


THY FISHES OF TIE FRESH-WATERS . . : . 
Iresh-water fish—Migratory and non-migratory species, some polygamous, 
others monogamous—Breeding season—Spiny rayed fishes, divisible 
into purely fresh-water and partially marine forms—Physostomatous 
order—Scalgless family, those of hills and plains—Their respira- 
tion—Family of Scombresocide and Cyprinodontidie—tThe carps, 
loaches—Sand-grubbers true carps—Carps of the plains, migratory 
or not so—Herring family, migratory or not so—Nels—Lophobran- 

chiate fishes—Plectognathi—Cartilaginous fishes. 


Respiration oF Inp1an Fisnes . 3 é 
Respiration of fishes—Water and compound breathers. 


JUSTIVATION OF FISH - 5 , 3 : . 
MIGRATIONS OF FIST 5 a é 5 A 
BREEDING OF FISIL : 


Breeding fish, migratory and non-migratory ones of the plains —Migra- 
tory and non-migratory ones of the hills—Breeding of migratory 
hill fishes—Non-migratory fish of the plains, some monogamous, 
others polygamous—Migratory fresh-water fishes of the plains— 
Migratory sea fishes. 


THE ERY OF FRESH-WATER FISH. 6 : c 
Fry how destroyed instead of being protected, 


Paar. 


15 


24 


28 
29 


31 


il 


Fist IN AN ECONOMIC POINT OF VIEW c 
The proportion of persons who use fish as food—Local markets insuffi- 
ciently supplied, 


THE FRESH-WATER FISHERIES : 
ITow wasteful injuries to fisheries commence—Breeding fish and fry 
wastefilly destroyed—The supply of fish in the waters decreasing — 
Yo whom the fisheries belong —Why British rules and regulations 
have a disastrous eflect on fisheries—Iow fisheries were worked 
under native rulers—How they are treated under British law. 


Tue Fisterwen 6 . ' 
Who the fishermen aro—Flow fisheries are worked. 


FixeD ENGINES 


What fixed engines aro—Those made of elastic materials—Those of 


non-elastic substances, and weirs—Fixed traps. 


MovrabLe VISHING IMPLEMENTS 
Composed of elastic or non-elastic substances—The smallest size of 
the mesh of nets employed—Seasons when different meshes are 
used—Hilect of regulating the minimum size of the mesh of nets— 
Damining waters for fishing purposes—Diverting rivers or streams-— 
Waters may be poisoned —Sometimes solely to obtain the fish— 
Minor modes of fishing. 


VERMIN WHICH DESTROY FISH : : 
Crocodiles as vermin—The fish-eating crocodile—The common crocodile— 
Otters as vermin—Minor fish- destroying vermin. 


OBJECTIONS TO LEGAL ACTION BEING TAKEN . 5 
Primary objections—Divine reasons—General objections—Leyal objec- 
tions—Regulations deemed unnecessary—Zoological objections— 
Political “objections—Soci: al objections —Fishermen’s objections— 
Trading objections—Result of want of regulations elsewhere. 


SUGGESTIONS AS TO WHAT LEGAL STEPS ARE NECESSARY 
Reasons why such are desirable—General reasons—Regulations pro- 
posed—A_ necessity for restricting the minimum size of the mesh 
of nets—Minimum size proposed—Prohibiting the sale of the fry 
of fish in bazars—Further proposals. 


Fisuery Laws or Great Brirain 


Fishery laws of Great Britain—Right of fishing Nature of right of 


fishing—Right of property in a fishery —F ishing weirs when lecral— 
Fixed engines—Size of mesh of nets in Wngland—Laws for the 
preserva ation of fry in England—Other illegal modes of fishing— 
Poisoning waters—Fish roe—Weekly close time—Close season and 
prohibition of fixed engines—Taking unclean Sebs Spawning 
salmon—All fishing amenable to the general laws—Boards of 
conservators—Weirs and fish passes—Remedies that have been 
tried— Beneficial results that have ensued. 


RESULTS OF THIS ENQUIRY 2 é 


PROPOSITIONS AS TO WITAT ACTION IS NECESSARY 
Legal action required. 


A Generat Fisnery Act 
One necessary—Skeleton of Act. 


Bys-Laws or Locat Acrs 
Local regulations—lence months— Regulating the minimum size of 
the mesh of nets—Minor modes of fishing —Vermin—Who is to 
pay for regulations, if any are to be carried out? 


Paau, 


37 


10 


80 


9b 


101 


110 


112 


113 


114 


PANwAn 


APPENDICES. 


Territory included and its physical geography— Ls popwlation—Mnquiry 


Reports from European Officials . . 


Sec 


Pepor . . . 
Peshawar Division, from Peshawar, Hariptir, Mausera, and Kobat— 


Sind 
Its 


on this subject in 1869 ‘and 1870—Proportion of population who 
consume fish—Local markets insufficiently supplied—Present state 
of the fisheries and destruction of breeding fish in hilly districts— 
Fisheries Government property, and how the Rajahs let them— 
Fishermen not dependant on this oceupation as a sole means of 
subsistence—Breeding fish and fry if destroyed, and the result of 
reculating the minimum size of the mesh of nets—Hish killed whole- 
sale in canals constructed for working mills—Diverting hill streams — 
Irrigation weirs and canals destructive to fisheries—Suggestions 
respecting prohibiting the sale of the fry of fish in bazars—Fence 
months advisable in hilly districts--Some pools in hill streams 
should be protected during the dry months—Trapping fish ohjec- 
tionable—Neighbouring native states should be asked to co-operate 
in. preservative measures—Present Panjib fishing regulations— 
Additional ones proposed. 


etary to the Panjab Government—Commissioner of Peshawar— 


Deputy Commissioners of Peshawar, Hazara, and Kohat—Commis- 
sioner of Rawal Pindi—Deputy Commissioners of Rawal Pindi, 
Jhilam, Shahptr, and Gujrat—Commissioner of Derajat—Deputy 
Commissioners of Bang, Dera GAzi Khan, and Dera Ismail Khan— 
Deputy Commissioners of Jhang, Muzaffargarh, Montgomery, and 
Maltan—Deputy Commissioners of Lahor and Gujranwalla—Deputy 
Commissioners of Amritsar, Sialkot, and Gurdasptir—Commissioner 
of Ambala—Lhe Deputy Commissioners of Ambala and Judhiana— 
Commissioner of Jalandar: Deputy Commissioners of Jalandar, 
Philltix, Hushiarptir, and Kangra—Commissioner of Hissir and the 
Deputy Commissioner—Commissioner of Delhi—Deputy Commis- 
sioners of Delhi, Gureon, Sarsa, and the Extra Assistant Comuis- 
sioner of Karnal—The Revd. Dr. Carleton’s observations on 
fishing as carried on in hilly districts. 


ts from Native Officials - 


, 


Rawal Pindi Division, from Rawal Pindi, Attock, Gujer Khan, Fathi 
Jang, Muni, Jhilam, Pind Dadan Khan, Chakwal, Talegang, Gujrat, 
Kharim, and Sahem—Derajat Division, from Banu, Isakhel, Mia- 
maoli, Lakki, Dera Gézi Khan, Sangarh, Réjanptir, Jamptir, Dera, 
Liah, Bhakkar, and Kolachi—Multan Division, from Multan, Ala 
Dal Khan, of Khangarh, Darogah Shere Shah, Mian Mahbab, Mu- 
zaffargarh, Kot Adu, Montgomery, Gugaira, Palcpatan, Riaz 
Hossain, Multan, Shoojabad, Lodhran, Mailsi, Seraie Saidhu—Lahor 
Division, from Lahor, Kasur, Chunia, Sharkpiir, Gujranwalla, Wazir- 
abad, and Hafizabad—Amritsar Division, from Amritsar, Reyah, 
Pasrur, ZaffarwAl, Sialkot, Shakergarh, Batala, and Pathankot— 
Ambala Division, from Ambala, Jagadri, Raossur, Kharar, Narayan- 
garh, and Pipli—Jalandar Division, from Jalandar, Philly, Nawa- 
shahr, Nacodar, Hushiarptir, Unah, Garhsankar, and Dasuha--IlissAr 
Division, from Hissdr, Hénsi, Fathiabad, Bhawani, and Barwila— 
Delhi Division, from Delhi, Larsauli, Ballabhgarh, Gurgfion, Rewari, 
Palwal, Nuh, Fazilka, Sarsa, Kurnal, Panipat, and Kaithal. 


(resh-water fisheries—River Indus—Tanks or dhfnds, isolated. or 
connected with the Indus, and their finny inhabitants—Canal fisheries, 
and proof that prohibiting the use of small meshed nets, small fish 
do not disproportionately increase over the larger sorts—Fishery in 
Indus mostly for Shad—Fresh-water fish, river and inundation 
descriptions—No preventible destruction of the immature fish appears 
to oblain—Fish universally eaten—Fisheries peculiar. 


Paar 


vill 


xix 


xxix 


Paar. 
Reporls from European Officials 5 0 ; . XXXi 


Commissioner of Sind—Collector of Shikarpdr—Collector of Karachi— 
Collector of Haidarabad. 


Reports from Native Officials . . . . Xxx 


Bombay 4 5 ; - . , F XXNili 


Its fresh-water fisheries—Reason why some returns are omitted—Rivers 
and inland tanks suitable for fisheries—Proportion of people who eat 
fish—Local markets insufficiently supplied—Comparative price of 
large and small fish—The amount of fish have decreased—Fisheries 
mostly Government property—Fishermen, asa rule, follow other 
occupations as well—Mature breeding-fish trapped and otherwise 
killed—Fry destroyed to a great extent—Modes of capturing fish— 
Size of the meshes of nets—Fish how trapped— Waters poisoned— 
Angling and line fishing—Conclusions as to the fresh-water fish- 
eries—Coast fisheries of less consequence than inland ones—Majorily 
of people eat fish—State of the fisheries—Which are Government 
property—Number of fishermen—Fish trapped during the rains— 
Fry destroyed to a great extent—Minimum size of the mesh of nets 
employed—Modes of fishing—Conclusions respecting coast fresh- 
water fisheries—Whether advisable to mitigate the present evils or 
let them continue—Objections to action being taken— Propositions as 
to what steps aro desirable —As to the proper minimum size of the 
mesh of nets—Opinions as to prohibiting the sale of the fry of fish 
in bazars—On the necessity or the reverse of fence months. 


Reports from European Officials c : : : sliii 


Chief Secretary to Government—Revenue Commissioners—Collector of 
Almedabad, Collector of Broach, and Assistant Collector—Collector 
of Kaira and Assistant Collector—Collector of Surat—Secretary 
to Municipality and Assistant Collector—Collector of Khandcish, 
Major Probyn, and Assistant Collector—Extra First Assistant 
Collector, Punch Mahals—Collector of Nasik-—Collector of Alhmed- 
nugger, Acting First Assistant, and Acting Second Assistant— 
Collector of Puna, Assistant Collector, and First Assistant Collector 
—COollector of Tanna—Collector of Colaba—Collector of Satara— 
Collector of Kaladgi—Collector of Sholapt—Collector of Belgaum, 
First Assistant Collector, and Assistant Collector—Collector of 
Dharwar and the Assistant Collector—Collector of Ratnagiri, Deputy ° 
Conservator, and Assistant Collector—Collector of Canara. 


Reports from Native Officials . ; : . cl lv 


Ahmedabad Collectorate, from Mamlutdars of Duskroee, Gogo, Purantey, 
Sanund, Dhundooka, Dholka, Veerumgam, and Morassa—Broach 
Collectorate, from Broach, Jumboosur, Ahmode, and Hansote— 
Kaira Collectorate—Khandeish Collectorate—Nasik Collectorate— 
Ahmednugeger Collectorate—Puna Collectorate—Colaba Collectorate, 
from Alibag, Penn, Roha, Mangam, and Mhar—Satara Collectorate 
—Kaladgi Collectorate—Sholaptir—Belgaum—Dharwar Collector- 
ate, from Dharwar, Petta Moogud, Hooblee, Nowlgoond, Dumbul, 
Eueaeae, Wangul, Ranebedume, Kurujghee, Rutghutghee, and 
Kode, 


Paar, 
Mavras—(First Report) 5 : : : : Ixiii 
Origin of answers—The fresh-water fisheries—Few perennial rivers— 
Rules suggested as only to affect perennial rivers—Majovity of 
people eat fish—Inland markets insufficiently supplied—Fish in 
waters has generally decreased—Fisheries Government property — 
Fishermen, with but few exceptions, only follow this occupation in 
addition to their usual work—Breeding fish destroyed—Fry killed 
in large numbers—Minimum size of the mesh of nets and inter- 
stices in ernives—Fixed engines, damming and poisoning waters— 
fonclusions based upon reports—Measures of amelioration which 
have been proposed—Personal propositions in 1868—Orders of the 
Madras Government and the Revenue Board—Fresh-water fisheries 
in Madras prior to Government investigations—Personal observa 
tions in the Presidency—Reply to an observation that regulating 
the minimum size of the mesh of nets would be evel to the poor— 
Further propositions—Proposal of Revenue Board to appoint two 
Inspectors of Fisheries. 


Reports, &c., from European Officials é é : 2 Ixx 

Proceedings of the Board of Revenue: their draft rules for fresh-water 
fisheries— Proposal for Draft Fishery Act—Circular orders in 1848— 
Instructions to Collectors—Collector of Ganjam, Collector of Viza- 
gapatam, Collector of Godaveri, and the Revd. Dr, Murpby— 
Assistant Collector of the Kistna districts, Executive Engincer, 
Acting Collector, &c.—Collector of Nellur and Major Clay— 
Collector of Bellary and Acting Collector—Collector of Tanjur— 
Collector of Trichinopoly—Collector of Cuddapah—Collector of 
Kurnal, the Assistant Collector, the Acting Head Assistant, the 
Deputy Collector of Peapally, and the Deputy Collector of Kurnal— 
Collector of Madras—Collector of Chingleput—Collector of Salem— 
Collector of North Arcot and Acting Collector—Collector of South 
Arcot and Sub-Collector—Collector of Tinnevelli—Collector and 
Acting Collector of Madura and Mr. Nelson—Collector of Coim- 
batore—Collectors of Malabar—Collector of South Canara—Experi- 
mental trial of pisciculture in South Canara. 


Reports from Native Officials . : : . d Xcik 
Ganjam Collectorate, the Tehsildar of Chicacole, Gumsur, and Berham- 
pore—Vizagapatam Collectorate, no answers—Godaveri Collectorate, 
from Ramachendraptir, Amalapuram, Narsapuram, Rajahmundry, 
Bhimavaram, Tanuku, Peddapuram, Ellur, Coconada, Tuni, Pitta- 
ptr, Yernagudem, and Coringa—Kistna Collectorate, from Tehsil- 
dars—Nellur Collectorate, from the Tehsildars—Bellary Collect- 
orate, from the Tehsildars—Tanjur Collectorate, no replies— 
Trichinopoly Collectorate, from five Tehsildars—Cuddapah Collect- 
orate, no replies—Kurnal Collectorate, from seven Tehsildars— 
Chingleput Collectorate, from six Tehsildars—Salem Collectorate, 
three replies—North Arcot Collectorate, no replies—South Arcot 
Collectorate, from one Tehsildar—Tinnevelli Collectorate, from 
eight Tehsildars—Madura Collectorate, from the Tehsildars —Coim- 
batore Collectorate, from ten Tehsildars—Malabar Collectorate, 
from one Sub-Collector—South Canara Collectorate, no replies. 
Mysorr anpd Coore c : : : . : ci 
Their fresh-water fisheries—At least half the people eat fish—Markets 
generally insufliciently supplicl—Fish decreasing — Fishermen also 
follow other oceupations—Breeding fish and fry extensively des- 
troyed—Every poaching mode pursued—Conclusions from the 
reports—Localities where fishing is carried on—Fisheries which 
have no perennial supply of water—Those which possess a peren- 
nial supply. 


vi 


Reports from European Officials é : : ; 
Officiating Secretary to the Chief Commissioner—Superintendent of the 
Nundidrug Division—Deputy Superintendent of Bangalur, Colonel 
Packle—Nagar Division, Deputy Superintendents of Shimoga, 
Chituldrug, and Kadoor—Deputy Superintendent of Tumkur— 
Deputy Stperintendent of Ivolar. 


Reports from Native Officials : : C : 

Nundidrue Division, from the Amildars—Astragam Division, from the 

© Awildars—Hassan District, from the Amildars—Nagar District, 
from the Amildars—Coorg, from the Amildars, 


HAIpARABAD. . : . 5 : : 
Fisheries in the assigned districts—Fish eaten by a large proportion of 
the people—Markets insufliciently supplied—Vish in the waters 
have decreased—Visheries Government property—Fishermen, as a 
rule, have other occupations as well—Breeding fish and fry 
destroyed to a great extent—Smallest meshes of nets used—Trapping 
and snaving, damming, lading, and poisoning waters practised— 
There would be but little difficulty in prohibiting the sale of 
fry in the bazars—Opinions as to the necessity for protective 
measures—How rules would affect fishermen—Proposals respecting 
regulating the minimum size of the mesh of nets—Conclusions 
from the reports—Fence months. 


Opinions of European Officials : : : 7 

Second Assistant Resident—Officiating Commissioner of West Berar— 

Deputy Commissioner of Akola—Deputy Commissioner of Bul- 

dana—-Assistant Commissioner of Bassim—Deputy Commissioner 

of Amraotee—Deputy Commissioner of Ellichpoor—Deputy Com- 
missioner of Woon. 


Opinions of Native Officials : . : 

Tehsilday of Akola—Tehsildar of Buldana—Tehsildar of Bassim— 

Yehsildar of Amraotee—Tehsildar of Mortizaptir—Tehsildar of 
Chandore—Tebsildar of Morsee—Of Woon District. 


CentTrat PROVINCES : “ : : “ 
Majority of people may eat fish—Markets how supplied—Whether fish 
in the waters have increased or decreased—Fishermen, as a rule, have 
other occupations—Breeding fish how destroyed Fry killed whole- 
sale—The smallest size of the mesh of nets—Other modes of 
fishing—Remedial measures proposed—As to regulating the mini- 
mum size of the mesh of nets—Whether the sale of fry in bazars 

ought to be prohibited— Fence months. 


Opinions of European Officials . 5 : 6 

Chief Commissioner. Nagptr Division, Collectors of Nagpur, 

Bhandara, Chanda, Wardha, and Balaghat—Deputy Commissioner 

of Jabalpir—Narbada Division, Collectors of Betul, Chindwara, 

Hoshangabad, Narsinghpur, and Nimar—Chhattisgarh Division, 
Collectors of Raipur, Sambalpuy and Bilaspur. 


Opinions of Native Officials : ‘ i % A 
Nagpur Division, from five Tehsildars—Jabalpur Divisions from five 
Tehsildars—Narbada Division, from five Tehsildars—Chhattisgarh 
Division, from three Tehsildars—Upper Godaveri District, from the 
Vehsildar of Sironcha. 


Paan. 


cil 


eyill 


ex 


exil 


exyil 


exxil 


vil 


RAJPuTANA 5 é : . . 
Opinions of Buropean Officials. 3 


Governor General’s Agent and Commissioner of Ajmir—Deputy Com- 
missioner of Ajimir. 
Oupu : : . . : : 
Opinions of Chief Commissioner—Large proportion of people _fish- 
eaters—Supply in markets unequal to demand—Fry largely killed 
during the rains—The smallest size mesh of nets—Breeding fish 
trapped in irrigated ficlds—Whether the sale of fry should bo 
prohibited. 


Opinions af European Officials : - 5 : 
Commissioner and Deputy Commissioner of Faizabad—Chief Gom- 
missioners—Commissioner of Faizabad—Those of the Collectors— 
Collector of Lucknow—Collector of Unas—Collector of Bara 
Banki—Collector of Sitaptiy and Captain Thompson—Collector of 
Hardui and of the Settlement Officer—Collector of Rai Bareli— 
Collector of Sultanptir—Collector of Pratabgarh. 


Opinion of Native Officials j : . . 

Faizabad Division, from Tehsildars—Luecknow Tehsildar—Unas 
Tehsildar—Suffeeptir ‘Tehsildar =Purwah — Tehsildar—Mohan 
Tehsildar—Kantha Rungit Singh Mara Wan, Ganga Sahib 
Bangermoro Gopal Singh—Nawabgunj Tehsildar—Futtehptir 
Tehsildar—Samahi Ghat Tehsildar—H ydergurh Tehsildar—Sitapur-- 
Hurdui Tehsildar— Shababad Tehsildar—Sundecla Tehsildar— 
Bilgram Tehsildar—Rai Bareli Tehsildar—Sultanptir—Putti— 
Pratabgarh Techsildar—Behar Tehsildar. 


Norti-Wrstern Provinces : : : : 

Area and population—Rivers, canals, and rainfall—Ganges and Jumna 

rivers how replenished—Fishes of North-Western Provinces—Impe- 

diments to fish-breeding, as canals, &e.—Fixed engines and damming 

streams—Majority of population fish-consumers—Markets insufli- 

ciently supplied—Fish decreasing in the waters—Fishermen, as a rule, 

also have other occupations—Breeding fish and fry destroyed— 

Modes of fishing pursued—Conclusions—Reasons given for inacti- 
vity—Advisable steps—Propositions for temporary measures. 


Opinions of European Officials 6 : c : 
Lieutenant-Governor—Commissioner of Meerut—Superintendent, of the 
Doon—The Collectors of Meerut and Mozuffernuggur—Commissioner 
of Rohileund—The Collectors of Budaon, Shahjehanptir, Bijnour, 
Moradabad, and Bareilly—Commissioner of Kumaon, Senior Assist- 
ant Major Fisher—Assistant Commissioner of Gurhwal—Superin- 
tendent, Terai—Commissioner of Benares—Magistrate of Goruckptir— 
Collectors of Bustee, Mirzaptir, Benares, and Ghazeeptir—Deputy 
Collector of Ghazeeptir—Collector and Civil Surgeon of Azimeurh— 
Commissioner of Jhansi—Deputy Commissioners of Jalom and 
Lullutptir—Assistant Commissioner—Commissioner of Allahabad— 
Collectors of Jomptir, Futtehptr, Allahabad, Huniptir, Banda, and 
Cawnpore—Commissioner of Agra—Collectors of Furruckabad, 
Etawah, and Agra—Mr. Adams—Collectors of Muttra and Etah. 


Opinions of Native Officiats : . : : 5 
Meerut Division—Rohileund Division—Benares Division—Jhansi Divi- 
sion—Allahabad Division—Agra Division. 


Beneat ( First Report) . ; C ‘ ‘ 
Province—Main rivers—Fish largely eaten—Local markets insufficientl 
supplied—Fish have decreased—The  fishermen—Breeding fish 
destroyed—Fry wastefully killed —Stocking ponds—Modes of fish- 
ing — Conclusions— Remedies proposed. 


Paar. 
CXXvi 


Cxxvi 


eXxvVil 


CXXxix 


OXXxill 


exl 


exlviii 


elxxii 


elxxix 


viii 


Opinions of European Officials 
Burdwan Division—Collectors of Midnapir, Burdwan; and Hooghly— 
Cooch Behar Division—Deputy Commissioners of Darjecling, Goal- 
para, and Garo Hills—Rajshahye Division—Commissioner of Orissa— 
Officiating Collector—Engineers of Irrigation Works—Assistant Ma- 
gistrates at Blfdruk and Balasur. 


Opinions of Native Officiais : : 
Tehsildars of Burdwan and Hooghly— —Assan. 


British Burma : . 
Its provinces—Native mode of letting ihe fisheries—River and tank 


fisheries—Its principal rivers—Tanks or Kengs—Burmese caters of 


fish—Usually boatmen and fishermen—Markets how supplied— 
Whether fish have decreased—Fisheries Government property— 
Breeding fish and fry destroyed. 


Opinions of European Officials 
Chief Commissioner—Personal observations—Moveable engines—Reasons 
fisheries are not depopulated—Letting fisheries chiefly useless to the 
consumers—Present propositions as temporary measures to obviate 
local objections—Answers to questions circulated in 1869 not yet re- 
ecived—Chief Commissioner's opinions and those of a committee of ex- 
perienced officers—Commissioner of Arrakan, Deputy Commissioners 
of Akyab, Ramree, and Sandoway—Deputy Commissioner of Thyet- 


myo—Commissioner of Tenasserim, Deputy Commissioners of 


Amherst and Shwégyen—Commissioner of Pegu, Deputy Commis- 
sioner of Rangoon, Senior Revenue Settlement Officer. 


Opinions of Native Officials ; : 
Akyab District—Ramree District —Sandoway District, from three— 
Thyetmyo District, from one—Amherst District, from four Myo-okes. 
Executive Engineer of Amherst respecting poisoning the waters— 
"Tavoy District, from one Myo- oke--Shwég yen—Mergui. 


Manpras (Supplementary Report) 6 5 ‘ 5 


Opinions of European Officials . 
Collector of Bellary, Subordinate and Head “Assistant Collectors —Collector 
of Trichinopoly—Collector of the Kistna, Head Assistant and Sub- 
Collectors—Collector of South Canara—Draft Fishery Act. 


Opinions of Native Officials : 
Trichinopoly Collectorate, from five Melisildars=—Kastar @ollestorate== 
South Canara Collectorate. 


Burris Burma (Supplementary Report) . 
Opinions of European Officials . ; 


Chief Commissioner—Commissioner of Beem Deputy Commissioners of 
Rangoon, Bassein, Deputy Collectors of Myanoung, Prome, and 
Thayetinyo. 

Opinions of Native Officials 


Pegu Commissionership, from Prome, Ragen, Pantanaw, Myoung 
Mya, Theegwen, Tsabai-yoon, Yay-gyee, Lay- mnyet-hna, and Shwé-loung. 
Benaat (Supplementary Report) : . . 
Opinions of European Officials . . . 6 : 
Commissioner of Assam, Deputy Commissioners of Durrung, Nowgong, 
and Seebsagur—Assistant Commissioners of Golaghat and Jorchat, 
Deputy Commissioner of the Khasi Hills—Collector of Tipper ah— 
Commissioner of Dacca—Ciyil Surgeon of Furreedpore—Commis- 
sioner of Chota Nagpore—Deputy Commissioners of Iazareebaugh, 


Singbhoom, and Maunbhoom—Comunissioner of Chittagong, Collect- 
ors of Noakhally and Chittagong, 


Pac 


clyxxil 


exel 


excill 


exevil 


ecix 


CCXiV 


cexiv 


CCXix 


eexxil 


cexxil 


COXXV 


cexxvil 


CCXXxVil 


Fish as food, or the reputed origin of disease 


ix 


On a fish diet—Deficiency of supply of animal food to natives of India— 


Fresh- 


Various estimations in which fish is held by the different races— 
General effects of a fish diet—Does such affect the procreative 
powers—Fish diet more suited than that of mammals to natives 
of the East—Large fish more valuable weight for weight than small 
ones—Tish as food may set up poisonous symptoms due to several 
causes—Spiny rayed fish as food, those having accessory breathing 
organs most esteemed by convalescents—Scaleless fish as food— 
Carps in hilly districts may set up deleterious effects— Herring family, 
members of it may be poisonous—Eels as food—Sclerodermi as food, 
or poisonous—Cartilaginous fishes as food—Diseases attributed to 
a fish diet—Skin diseases and scurvy—Wounds from fish spines, 
especially of Siluroids—Wounds from spiny rays of fishes. 


water fishes of India c : a ° 


What they consist of—Definitions of sub-classes, orders, families, 


” 


genera, and species of fresh-water fishes of India and Burma. 


Order Acanthopterygii, T 5 : c : 
Family Percide 

Pristipomatide 
Scienide c : . 3 : : 
Squamipinnes : . 
Carangide 
Mugilide . : 6 5 
Gobiidee . : : . 
Nandide ; 
Labyrinthici . : C c 5 3 
Ophiocephalide : : : : A 
Rhynchobdellide : : : i 
Chromides. a : : 


Order Anacanthini 
Family Pleuronectide 


Order Physostomi 
Family Siluride 


Scombresocidee 

Cyprinodontide 

Cyprinide 

Clupeide 9 

Notopteride . c 0 : : 
Symbranchide 

Murenide . 


Order Lophobranchit 


Family Syngnathide , 


Order Plectognathi 
Family Gymnodontide. : : : : 3 


Paag. 


. CCXXXVil. 


eexl viii 


cexlviii 
cexlviii 
eexlix 
ecl 

ecli 

ecli 
eclii 
eclii 
ecliv 
cecly 
eelvii 
celviii 
eclix 


eclix 
eclix 


eclx 
eclx 
celxxv 
eclxxv 
eclxxvi 
cexevili 
ccc 

cecil 


ecei 


eccii 


eecit 


eeciii 
ecciii 


Sub-class Chondropterygit ‘ c 
Order Plagiostomata . - 5 
Family Carchariide . : . 

3 Pristide a j 3 

. Trygonide . c 


On preserving specimens of fish 
On making preparations—Preserving fish in spirit. 


Paar. 
ecciv 


ecciv 
ecciy 
ccev 
ceev 


cecvi 


REPORT 


ON THE 


FREST-WATER FISHERIES OF TI INDIAN EMPIRE. 


I. In August 1867, the Secretary of State for India, 
ae inadespatch to the ‘ Madras Govern- 
rigin and progress of the 9” 47° : : 

present enquiry into the state of ment,” directed their attention to a 
eunaniene of the In- communication from Sir Arthur 
Colton, wherein he had stated he 
“should suppose that the injury to the coast fisheries must 
be very great, now that seven of the principal rivers on 
the Kast Coast’ are barred by irrigation works that had been 
constructed. On 27th May 1868, I received instructions to 
proceed to the anicuts or weirs in the Madras Presidency, in 
order to obtain more specific information than had up to that 
period been received. First, the districts to the south of 
Madras were inspected,* subsequently those to the north.t 
Having been directed to continue these enquiries, I went next 
to Orissa and Lower Bengal,{ afterwards to British Burma,§ 
and at the end of 1869 the Andaman Islands.|| Being 
compelled to proceed to Europe on sick leave in March of 
1870, due to an accident received during these investigations, 
I availed myself of the opportunity of visiting a number of the 
fish ladders existing in England, returning at the end of the 
year to India. At the commencement of 1871 these en- 
quiries were restuned; first, the North-Western Provinces{ 
and the Panjab** were inspected. On September 17tha brief 
synopsis of the result of the enquiries already made was drawn 
up, and a set of definite questions submitted for promul- 
gation to all European and Native officials in India and 
Burma, from which a considerable amount of the following 


* Report, to the Madras Government. 

+ Reports dated 17th November 1868 and 4th February 1869. 

t Report, 8th March 1869. 

§ Report on Fresh-water Fisheries and another on the Sea Fisheries, 1869. 

|| Report, dated February 1870. {| Report, dated July, ** Report, dated July. 


C2) 


details have been collated. Finally, Sind was visited,* and 
now the whole of these enquiries are brought together as 
briefly as possible, in order that individual investigations may 
be tested to the fullest possible. extent by the opinions of 
others, prior to any definite conclusions being arrived at. 
II. Respecting those who have previously worked 
Previous workers on thesub- amongst the fresh-water fisheries of 
ject of the fishes in India. India, our literature is exceedingly 
scanty. Dr. Hamilton Buchanan in 1822 published * ‘The 
Vishes of the Ganges,” his investigations into which com- 
menced in 1794. He considered the question of fish as one, if 
not the most important, which could be enquired into, and gave 
many interesting observations bearing on the subject. 
Dr. Mec Clelland in 1889 drew attention to the great benefits 
which might acerue in looking after the fresh-water fisheries. 
Cuvier, when writing to a correspondent in India, observed 
that he did not know a more interesting and important 
question that could arise in the Hast, than an enquiry into the 
fresh-water fisheries of Hindustan, In 1849, the late Dr. 
Jerdon published papers upon the fresh-water fish and fisheries 
of Southern India in the ‘Madras Journal of Literature and 
Science.” Jr. Blyth has given some descriptiont of these 
fishes in the “ Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,” 1859 
and 1860. In the ‘“ Fishes of Malabar,” published by myself in 
1865, area few remarks on the same subject, my attention, 
when collecting the fresh-water fish, having been drawn to 
the wasteful destruction then going on. (See para. 139.) 
Mr. Grant, Collector of Malabar, about this time suggested to 
Government the necessity of affording some protection to the 
fishes in the waters of his collectorate from the indiscriminate 
destruction to which he considered they were subject, but 
nothing was attempted. Two years subsequently, the late 
Colonel Haly revived the question, and since that period a 
mass of valuable information has accumulated. 
III. In 1867, some enquiries were made by the Govern- 
a ment of India, the replies to which 
Unquiries made by the Goyern- ° ° 
ment of India in 1867, and sug- may well be adverted to in this place. 
gestions as to what information ‘The Natural LHistory Secretary to the 
ven unavailable was required, Sane = : 
Asiatic Society of Bengal (21st 
January 1868) replied ‘ that the Council are fully aware of the 
great importance of the question at issue, and they consider 


* Report, March 1871. 

+ There are several authors who have written on the fresh-water fishes of India, but 
confined their remarks simply to descriptions with or without figures —Bloch., Russell, Sykes, 
Cuv. and Val., Gray and Giinther, whilst Hardwicke only gave drawings. 


(73) 


that the statement made by Sir A. Cotton, together with the 
strong @ prior? arguments that may be adduced, render it in 
the highest degree probable that the effects of anicuts or 
weirs across large rivers leads to a rapid destruction of many 
kinds of fish, which may ultimately lead to their extermi- 
nation, not only by interfering with their spawning in their 
accustomed localities, but by ‘Jeading to their accumulating 
in large numbers below the weirs, where they are not only 
captured in large quantities by man, but are exposed in an 
increased degree to the attacks of crocodiles and predaceous 
fishes.” Dr. Jerdon (9th November 1867) observed on 
* the necessity for adopting some restrictive measures for pre- 
venting the wholesale destruction of large fresh-water fish, such 
as the mahaseer, during the spawning season.” J/r. Grote, 
Senior Member of the Board of Revenue, Lower Provinces 
(15th March 1868), considered—* very little is known of the 
habits of Indian fish.” ‘It may be found advisable to 
legislate for regulating the exercise of the public right of 
fishing in all our navigable rivers. As yet we have been 
unsuccessful in our endeavours to curtail that right, or to 
enforce the claim of Government to levy a tax from those who 
have been in the habit of exercising it.” Colonel Strachey, 
Inspector General of Irrigation Wor rh s (23rd June 1868), pro- 
pounded the following enquiries :—‘‘ What are the fish which 
constitute a practically important portion of the food of the 
people? Of those fish, which are those which migrate for the 
purpose of depositing their spawn? Amongst the migratory 
fish, what are those which live entirely in the fresh-waters, 
and what are those which pass from the sea or brackish 
waters into the fresh river waters? What are the precise 
habits of each of these classes of fishes, as to their migrations, 
both in respect to their extent up the rivers and the season 
at which they occur? And what is the season at which the 
young brood of fish is developed, and when do they descend 
the rivers P With such knowledge, we should be in a position 
to form an opinion of some practical value on the question 
that has been put.” I now propose taking up all these and 
some other questions in detail, before entering upon the 
result of the investigations which have been made by others 
as well as by myself. 
IV. he fresh-water fisheries of India and Burma 
Where fresh-water fisheries eXtend from a sea level to almost 
exist. every place in which water exists in 
any quantity, even to high up amongst the hill ranges. 


ae) 


They are to be found in rivers, irrigation or other (chools) 
canals, lakes, tanks and jhils, and are of various degrees of im- 
portance, not only as regards the amount of fish residing in 
them, but likewise in accordance with the character of the 
contiguous people, as to whether they are fish-eaters or 
reject this article of food; also as to the sparsity or the 
reverse of the population. 


RIVERS AND THEIR EXPANSIONS. 


V. The rivers ef India and Dritish Burma possess 
certain peculiarities which tell, to a 
greater or lesser degree, upon the fishes 
that inhabit them—some of these being due to the season of 
the year, others to the amount of rain-fall. There are those 
descending from the hilly regions, as the Irrawadi in Burma, 
and the Indus in the Panjib and Sind. Besides which, 
there are certain differences to be observed when the rivers 
are in the hilly districts from what obtains in the plains, and 
these re-act upon the fishes which inhabit them. 
VI. The hill rivers of India, or, more properly speaking, 
Hill rivers of India; those those which take their rise in the hill 
having Alpinciongins, ranges, may be divided into (1) those 
which have, or (2) have not, Alpine sources. Generally speak- 
ing, the rivers which have Alpine origins, as those which de- 
scend from the Himalayas, have for their sources of replenish- 
ment (exclusive of springs) two most prominent ones. During 
the hot months, that derived from melted ice and snow is 
abundant, and a daily rise and fall in the amount contained 
in them may be observed at certain hours, corresponding 
to the distance from their snowy sources, and which is due to 
solar influence. Throughout the monsoon season, doubtless, 
the rains also assist in the melting of the snows : exclusive of 
this, however, they are sufficient to fill the rivers in what 
may be termed a spasmodic manner. Thus, in the commence- 
ment of March, the snow-floods begin in the Indus, the 
inundations of this river being more entirely due to the 
influence of the melting snows than to that of the rains, 
as in the Ganges and Jumna, owing to the rain-fall being 
greater in the upper regions of the latter rivers than in 
those of the former and its affluents. ‘These hill rivers con- 
sequently form torrents, rising rapidly and as rapidly sub- 
siding, more especially during the rains, whilst, having no 
contiguous tanks into which the fish could retire, their 


Rivers of the Indian Empire, 


(5) 


piscine inhabitants are peculiar, or have habits and means 
of support differing from what obtains in those residing 
entirely or nearly so in the rivers of the plains. During the 
cold season, these rivers, unreplenished by rains or melting 
snows, beeome in places exceedingly small. The beds of hill 
streams are more or less restricted into one or more sharply- 
defined channels, frequently passing over considerable heights, 
whilst they have become widened by casual changes of force 
and direction, insuflicient, however, to form lakes or even 
tanks. The wider or larger these rivers are, which pass over 
vertical falls of a given depth, the greater are the chances of 
fish being able to ascend. Many of the species which in- 
habit these regions are provided with an adhesive sucker, 
placed behind the lower jaw or on the chest, in order to 
enable them to retain their hold against rocks, and thus pre- 
veut their being washed away. 

VII. In rivers destitute of Alpine sources, as the Ner- 

Hill rivers destitute of Alpine budda, Kistna, Godaveri, and those 
SOUICES: taking their origin in the Western 
Ghats, Nilghiris, and other hill ranges, where snow but rarely 
reaches and never remains for months, we have a very 
different state of affairs. Amongst these must also be class- 
ed the sub-streams or affluents of the larger snow-fed rivers ; 
and it is in these places, where the water is warmer, that 
most of the hill fishes, excepting many of the loaches, breed. 

tivers unreplenished by melting snows are naturally destitute 
of the daily rise and fall throughout the hot months which is 
perceived in snow-fed ones. In the rivers of the Malabar Coast, 
most have their rise in the Western Ghats, receiving the full 
force of the south-west monsoon, which, commencing in 
June, rarely continues beyond three months, and it is only 
during this period that we see those sudden rises and falls 
which enable breeding-fish to ascend tothe hill ranges, for 
the purpose of depositing their ova in localities suitable for 
the rearing of their young. After the monsoon is over, the 
waters gradually subside, and the breeding-fish descend to 
the plains, leaving many of their young to be reared in the 
small pools remaining in the hill streams. 

VIII. The rivers of the plains of India are, of course, 
chicfly the continuation of those de- 
scending from the hills ; but even in 
those having Alpine sources, the daily rise from melted snows 
becomes less and less apparent the further they are from their 
sources. ‘These rivers may be divided into those (as the 


Rivers of the plains of India. 


(C76; *) 


Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra and Irrawadi) which have 
always a fair supply of water in them : and others (as the 
Sone, Godaveri, Kistna, Cauveri, &c.) that become com- 
paratively dry in the hot months, in some of which this defi- 
ciency is increased by water being abstracted from them by 
works of irrigation. ‘Their relative value as fisheries de- 
pends on several causes—some natural, others artificial. 
During certain seasons of the year, as in the height of the 
rains, and in those with snowy sources in the hot months, 
these rivers form impetuous torrents, absolutely precluding 
fishing being carried on, excepting at their edges. 
IX. Throughout the cold months, and generally until the 
How during tho dry months setling-in of the south-west monsoon 
in the majority of the rivers of jy, June, rivers are at their lowest 
Tndia, the waters shallow until 2 0 ; 5 q 
only a succession of pools exist, Whether examined in hill ranges or on 
connected by alarger or smaller the plains. Thus, in the hill streams 
stream, and here the larger fish =, : . 
must continue until the river in the Kangra District (see para. 
rises. 80), as the cold months commence, the 
amount of water shallows until there appears a succession of 
pools united by a more or less insignificant stream ; to these 
places all the fish that do not descend to the plains resort. In 
the cold months, they take refuge at the bottoms and 
under rocks, and are not easily netted, but as the 
warmer weather sets in (unless the river is snow-fed), 
easily fall a prey to the fisherman as the water steadily 
decreases. ‘The same thing oceurs throughout the length and 
breadth of Tlindustan: thus on the western coast of India, about 
August or September, as the south-west monsoon decreases, 
the rivers gradually diminish in size until the downpour of 
rain commences in June the succeeding year. As they sub- 
side, pools are left, in which the larger fish congregate. 
“Though there may be many pools in a river, there are only 
a few at intervals of four or five miles that are specially 
resorted to by the larger kinds of fish. These are generally 
the deepest and longest; they are sometimes as much as 
twenty feet deep and a quarter of a mile long. ‘They are 
generally cooler, from being overshadowed by trees, and 
more or less overhung with rocks. ‘Their very depth also 
would keep them cooler than the wide shallows extending 
for miles together, and in the height of the hot season, of a 
few inches only in depth, under a tropical sun.”’* 


* II. S. Thomas, Esq., on “ Pisciculture in South Canara,” p. 4. 


X. 


How rivers have their seasons 
of inundations, flood the country, 
and fill lakes or tanks termed 
Fens in Burma, and Dhdénds 
in portions of the Panjab and in 
Sind, 


very rapid, zero being commonly reached by November. 


ey) 


In some rivers, as the Trrawadi or the Indus, a 


rather different state of things is 
perceived. In the latter river its 
greatest height is about August, and 
this is the period of heaviest floods ; 
in September its subsidence is usually 
As 


a large tract of country becomes inundated during these 
periods of floods, the tanks, to wherever they extend, receive a 
fresh supply of water: in Burma, where this occurs, due to 
the risings of the Irrawadi or Pegu rivers and the downpours 
of rain, these tanks are termed Jens, whilst in a portion 
of the Panjib and in Sind, where the Indus extends, the local 
term Dihdnd is employed. 

XI. These tanks or dhdnds in Sind, that are useful to 


Dhands or tanks in Sind main- 
ly divisible into isolated ones, in 
which connection with running 
water only occurs during inunda- 
tions, and connected ones, which 
are extensions of running water 
into a tank, and their communi- 
ention continues throughout or 


fishermen, are of two classes: the 
first are isolated dhdnds, and in 
which communication with the Indus 
only occurs during periods of inun- 
dations, and mostly drics up prior to 
the next year’s supply; whilst the 


for.the)most part.of the year. second are connected dhands, being 


expansions of a river, small stream, or canal into a tank, and 
which, throughout or for the most part of the year, are con- 
nected with running water. Some of these dhdnds are 
without, others within, embankments, which have been 
constructed for keeping the inundation water within due 
limits, or bunding it in certain desired directions. 


TrriGgAtion Works. 


XII. Amongst the artificial causes affecting fisheries 
are anicuts, weirs, or bunds constructed for the purpose 
of irrigation or working mills. Jrrigation weirs have been 
erected across Various rivers in the Panjab, North-Western 
Provinces, Bengal, and Madras, in order to deflect a certain 
amount of water into canals constructed for its reception 
and dissemination. ‘These weirs are usually built in the 
form of stone walls across the entire breadth of rivers, 
and consequently form an obstruction, arresting the up- 
ward and downward passage of fish that are endeavouring 
to migrate, whilst, should it be sufficiently high, it entirely 
prevents their passing. On the bed of the river in front 
of it, or on its down-stream face, there is generally a stone 
pavement termed ‘an apron,” or this apron may be a gradual 
slope of rough or smooth stones extending from the summit 


Ce 3) 


of the walls to the bed of the river. Likewise on the up- 
stream face of these weir walls is a bund of stones, of 
greater or lesser extent, sloping down to the bed of the river. 
XIII. These irrigation weirs are of different forms, 
een; . Ley but all arrest the passage of fish, 
rrigation weirs, unday -sluices . . 
cither narrow or wide; no fish SOme temporarily, others entirely ; 
able to ascend through the andas a consequence those migrating 
; down-stream often pass into the 
irrigation canals. These weirs have openings of varying 
sizes termed “ wader-sluices,”’ constructed for the purpose of 
permitting the surplus water passing through the body of the 
weir, and on a level with the lowest bed of the river ; when 
rushing through with great velocity, it was expected large 
quantities of silt would be carried with it, keeping the 
general bed of the river washed out to its proper level. 
These under-sluices or complete gaps through the weirs are 
of different widths, and may be classed under two divisions : 
Jirst, the long narrow ones in Madras, the North-Western 
Provinces, and the Panjab; and, secondly, the wide ones in use 
at Cuttack, Midnapur, anc on the Sone River. These under- 
sluices are kept closed, except when there is an excess of 
water, as during the monsoon months: those of the A/adras 
pattern are from six to nine feet in width and several yards in 
length; they close by means of boards pushed down 
vertically into large wooden grooves, and these boards 
can be elevated, when it is desired to do so, by means 
of a capstan and windlass. As these narrow under-sluices 
are of many feet in length, there are generally two sets 
of grooves, one at each end, so that either can be made use 
of. ‘These narrow under-sluices carry such a rush of 
water through them that no Indian fish can ascend up 
when they are open. I thought this had been cléarly esta- 
blished, but as I see this belief again advanced, I must here 
digress in order to explain that such never oceurs. Fish, 
which are attempting to pass weirs in the course of their 
ascent up rivers, are chiefly those who are in a breeding con- 
dition, and are trying to reach their natural spawning grounds. 
Thus, when near the sea, the shad or hilsa is the most valu- 
able sort which becomes stopped by weirs without practicable 
passes, so they are unable to reach the only localities wherein 
their spawn or ova could come to maturity if deposited ; they 
consequently have to drop it in the water below these weirs, 
and here it cannot be fertilised, but inevitably perishes. The 
same occurs with some of the large carps in the more north- 
ern rivers (as of the North-Western Provinces and the Panjab) 


Cor) 


that are weired not far from the base of the Himalayas, the hilly 
streams of which are the natural breeding-places for some, 
as the mahaseer, &c. They descend over them before the 
cold months, when the rivers above contain too little water or 
are unsuited for their residence; and when attempting to 
return up-stream, find this stone wall an insuperable obstacle : 
thus their reproduction is likewise prevented. ‘These ques- 
tions will have to be considered more fully further on, but 
are only introduced here to demonstrate that it is fish heavy 
in roe which must have a free passage, at least if the 
fisheries are worth conserving, and such a ruinous course 
is not checked by sensible measures of restriction, irre- 
spective of the consideration that below these weirs or obstacles 
large accumulations of fish take place, and thus assist man 
and other predaceous animals in destroying them. Fish when 
heavy in roe are not so well able to jump any great heights 
asare some of the younger or barren ones. Standing at the 
period of freshes, on the bridge above one of the Madras 
weirs possessing these narrow under-sluices, it is interesting to 
see the numbers of fish, both large and small, which leap up 
against their walls: some strike against the piers of the 
bridge, others fall into the cascade descending over its summit ; 
but though I have passed hours watching them, I never saw 
one clear these obstacles, although I have seen thousands 
attempting it. The only rational reason that I can adduce 
for the jumping against the insurmountable weir walls 
whilst the narrow under-sluices are open, is because they 
find such to be impassable. Could they ascend through these, 
why do they not? The truth is that they are unable to 
do so. When these fishes were netted, many, especially the 
large ones, were bruised and _ scaleless in places, evidently 
due to injuries caused during their frantic but unavailing 
efforts to surmount the wall, or ascend through the open 
but narrow under-sluices. ‘Take the Coleroon River as an 
instanee. Since the construction of the lower weir, the shad, 
which formerly ascended high up to breed, and are now ex- 
tensively netted below it, lave never been taken above it 
(unless a breach has occurred), and this although there is 
a second weir nearer its source, where netting was permitted, 
and which was a further obstacle to ascent. At this second 
weir indiscriminate slaughter of fish was being carried on 
when Iwas there; merey was unknown; the amount of 
present spoil formed the only anxiety of the fisherman, 
whilst the injury being done to future years’ supply was 
entirely unheeded, 


( 10 ) 


XIV. Thus here was a weir with narrow under-sluices 
Weirs with narrow under. ab which the shad were being detained 
sluices, continued. endeavouring to ascend to their spawn- 
ing beds, although these under-sluices were open during 
freshes, and the floods were so great that a mere ripple on the 
surface of the river only marked the presence of a weir. In 
spite of all this, no fish have been found to pass this obstruc- 
tion, and surely did they do so, a solitary straggler might have 
been taken. ven a barren fish, in fact, a shad of any sort, 
had not appeared at Trichinopoly during the whole period 
that this construction has existed and been intact. Shad, 
or rather large fish, have been taken in these under-sluices, 
but only when they were closed at the up-stream end. It 
is true that a good current is then coming down between 
the boards which close these vents or narrow passages, but 
it does not prevent strong healthy fish from ascending as far 
as the boards, but these very boards form an effectual bar 
to their onward progress. The very use of the sluices is 
to force the water down with such impetuosity that, during 
high freshes when they are open, no Indian fresh-water fish 
could possibly ascend when the weirs are several feet in 
height: the water shoots down the openings and across 
the apron, bubbling and boiling a hundred yards or more 
down-stream. This torrent of about six feet in width is 
like a mill race, or as if it were shot out of an engine, 
carrying down stones, sand, &c., in its course, and which of 
themselves would be sufficient to injure fish attempting to 
ascend. From personal observation I am satisfied no fish 
could pass up them : persons locally employed on these weirs 
assert the passage of fish to be impossible: above such con- 
structions these migratory species attempting to ascend cannot 
be found; it must, therefore, be evident to any one who will 
consider the question, that weirs are effectual barriers to the 
ascent of fish, even although such possess narrow under-sluices 
that are left open during the periods of the freshes. 
XV. The wide uwnder-siuices, such as exist in the weirs 
Weirs having wide under. bt Cuttack and Midnapur, are con- 
sluices no impediment toascend- structed on an entirely different prin- 
ing fish when such are opens ~~ Ginle and pattern, forming free gaps 
of many yards in width, so that, when open, fish cannot have 
any difficulty in ascending through them. 
XVI. These weirs likewise, it is stated, may be topped 
Fish unable to ascend over by fish during heavy floods, as then 
weirs. they may ascend over them, especially 
when the summit of their wall is several feet below the 


( mw) 


surface of the water. But they do not appear to do so, or 
why are the shad entirely stopped at the lower Coleroon one ? 
In the Kistna the ascent of the fish usually occurs after the 
freshes have subsided, and when a wall of stone is built 
along the top of the weir, and through which water only 
trickles, this construction being indispensable for the irri- 
gation of the second crop of rice: fish, however, attempting 
to ascend during the freshes, one would at first sight have 
thought, could easily pass over the Bezwada weir, as it forms 
a long slope on its down-stream face, from its summit to 
the bed of the river. But such is not the case :* it is asserted 
that not a single marine species is caught there, or has been, 
since its construction. ‘Those which try to ascend up the 
rough stones, in the face of an impetuous current, apparent- 
ly become so bruised and injured that they are unable to 
cross, and even could they do so, their ova would probably 
be irretrievably ruined. But these rough stones do not 
exist in front of the under-sluices ; and as the river is 
frequently five feet above the level of the wall above them, 
it might be advanced that they could cross at that spot, but 
they apparently do not contrive to do so, which is most 
probably due to the great force of the current, for they would 
have to rise 16 feet at least to clear the wall. As they 
ascend along the river’s bed they find a wall and ascend to 
surmount if, but as they rise the strong current must take 
them backward down-stream, and thus they never reach its 
summit which the muddy condition of the water prevents 
their seeing, for it is only during freshes that the wall is 
covered. 
XVII. Besides the foregoing there are irrigation canals 
Irrigation canals simple or for Which have a bearing upon the 
trallic as well. fisheries of a district, and these may 
be divided (1) into those simply constructed for purposes of 
irrigation, or (2) those which are made for both irrigation 
and. navigation, These canals in some places, as the Roree one 
in Sind, are mere artificial streams, which, in some portions 
of their extent, exist in lieu of natural water-courses which 
have silted up. JHlere no great falls occur, and references 
to such are unnecessary. But irrigation canals, as a 
rule, are given off from one or both sides of a river, which 
has a stone weir thrown across it for the purpose of bunding 
up the water to a given height. At the head of each of 


* It is stated at Kurnal (p. Ixxxi) that aa are ti aken ab. the weir there; if so, 
they must cross the Beawada one. Having written to tho Collector, he is unable to say if it 
is the sable or not, so L have requested, bul not as yet received, a specimen, 


(az) 


these canals are head-sluices, where the amount of water 
entering can be regulated in accordance with local require- 
ments, or entirely cut off if necessary.’ 

XVIIL. Lnvigation weirs coustructed simply for irriga- 
tion are those in which boat-traflic 
cannot be also carried on, due to one 
or more vertical falls existing which are too great to permit 
such. ‘hese falls, which are sufficient to prevent traffic, 
are mostly also sufficient to entirely obstruct fish, which have 
once descended over them, from ever re-ascending. ‘These 
canals almost invariably have a high fall near their com- 
mencement, whilst below all overflows, and due to the action 
of descending water, are holes of a larger or smaller size in 
their bed, and being well adapted for feeding in, here large 
fish live and thrive so long as they are permitted. ‘The 
further the distance from the canal head, and as the amount 
and rapidity of the flow of water decreases, the falls are 
usually less and these holes are smaller; still, even there they 
are present, but are not so suitable for providing food for 
large fish. It will thus be seen that these canals form large 
receptacles which may be turned into traps for all fish which 
once obtain an ingress, unless there are tanks connected with 
them into which they could retire when the water is cut off 
and they become dried, or else that the holes in their beds 
retain a sufficient supply during these periods, so that the 
fish may remain in safety until the water is re-admitted. 
Vor at certain times every year, it becomes necessary to dry 
off these canals to enable the engineer officers to ascertain 
what repairs are necessary, and unless the fish have a safe 
place to resort to they might be easily taken. But, unfor- 
tunately, in some canals itis, or has been, the custom to allow 
the employés to kill all the fish at this period, and thus a 
simple irrigation canal becomes a vast trap for destroying 
fish. (See para. 12, p. v.) 

XIX. In canals which are constructed for both irri- 

Ivvigation and navigation gation and navigation, there are lochs 
Sok at every fall, that boats may be 
admitted and floated up to a higher level. At these lochs 
T have observed that fish can obtain a passage up or down 
stream, so they will not be further alluded to. 

XX. None of these canals contain gratings or other 

How fish are carried into ®PPliances at their commencement 
irrigating canals, and how they for preventing the ingress of fish, and 
BP a Bae an official in the North-Western 
Provinces (para. 334) observes upon having personally 


Simple irrigation weirs. 


(13 ) 


witnessed how, when water is re-admitted into these canals, 
shoals of fish are carried over falls up which none can re-aseend, 
and below which they are unable to breed. Thus, the water 
is cut off and the contained fish destroyed, the canal to be 
again replenished with a supply from the river, to be again 
and again exterminated several times during the year; and 
surprise is expressed that the fisheries are deteriorating. 
‘The oftener the canals are closed, and the longer the periods at 
each closure, the greater is the mischief (see para. 815.) But 
from either side of these main canals are given off side ones for 
the purposes of irrigation ; these, again, have no grating to pre- 
vent fish ascending them ; they go up, but, as they are mostly 
only filled every alternate week on either side, all that have 
gone up them invariably perish. In other districts fixed 
traps are permitted in all these small water-courses. 

XXI. Again, in Malabar (see para. 167), as the dry 
Small rivers diverted for irri: SCASON Commences and water is requir- 
gation in Malabar. ed to irrigate a second crop of rice, 
the rivers are of small proportions, and near their sources the 
farmers collect boulders of stones, lay them across a stream, 
and fill in the interstices with shingle, stopping up the cre- 
vices with bushes and mud. ‘This lasts until the next south- 
west monsoon sweeps it away, and whilst it exists, it diverts 
an entire river stocked with fry into rice-fields. Thus the 
young fish pass with the water into the irrigated fields, which 
have been levelled and partitioned with shallow embank- 
ments so as to economise the water as much as possible. 
Ifere, though predaceous fishes are excluded, man can 
do as he likes; the water, if it does not return to the river, 
may be entirely exhausted in these fields, and if every 
drop has been turned on, nothing can escape destruction, 
or else some may rejoin the river as waste water, and 
thus the young fish regain a locality suitable for their 
erowth; but at each outlet from every field exists a fixed 
trap which captures every one of the fry. Again, when the 
yearly rains naturally inundate the country, when rivers 
and tanks overflow, and fish move about to find suitable 
localities for breeding in, the small streams and outlets resem- 
ble the net-work of irrigation channels. Many species ascend 
up them to breed, but find appliances of destruction, invented 
by man, meeting thematevery turn. Persons may be watch- 
ing to catch them, or fixed engines and traps existing, 
and which are sure in their effects, or, should some 
breeding-fish contrive to ascend, they are usually trapped 
on their return: whilst the fry obtain no greater immunity, 


( 4 ) 


and this is said not to be ‘waste’ because they ar 
eaten | 
XXII. On the Himalayas grain is, in places at least, 
Mills worked by water-power; ground in mills moved by water-power 
small fish destroyed there. (para. 33), which is effected by 
constructing small canals, into which the water of streams is 
diverted as in irrigation works. Into these canals, termed 
kools, numbers of fry and even large fishes find their way, 
as there are no obstructions at the mouths of these kools to 
prevent their entrance. The mill-owner cuts off the water at 
his pleasure, and all the contained fish are left dry. 


TANKS USEFUL AS FISHERIES. 
XXIII. Of tanks (see para. XI), there are those 
which are always in connection with 
such running water as rivers and 
works of irrigation ; or those in which this communication 
only exists during the monsoon time: whilst others are 
entirely unconnected. Fis¢, there are those which are always 
in connection with running water, which are generally useful 
as breeding-places for the non-migratory forms of fishes, and 
merely require a little care to be taken as to how they are 
worked, in order to render them execcedingly valuable as 
fisheries. The second sort of tanks, or those in which com- 
munication with running water only exists during the 
monsoon time, are of two distinct forms: in the first, they 
always, or nearly always, contain water, whilst in the second, 
they are dry, or almost so, except during the rains. Fish 
obtain access to both these forms of tanks during the mon- 
soons and breed there; but in the last, so soon as all commu- 
nication with the running water has ceased, they become 
practically isolated, and unless they happen to be of such va- 
rieties as bury themselves in the mud (para. XLIV) during 
the dry months of the year, they must die, whether captured 
by man, killed by the lower animals, or destroyed by the sun 
as the water evaporates. Lastly, we have those tanks which 
are always unconnected with large pieces of running water, 
frequently due to their being situated upon an _clevated 
portion of the country, and these are generally stocked with 
fish by the owners. 
XXIV. In large jiils, where the screw pine, Pandanus 
Thils ; how naturally the fish O@Oratissimus, or many weeds as the 
in them may be protected from lotus or valisneria, cover their surfaces 
noting: and extend themselves through their 
depths, or where grasses spring from their beds, or the roots 


Tanks useful as fisheries. 


( 15 ) 


of trees grow into them, fishing has usually to be carried on 
by means of traps, angling, or spearing. 


Tue Fisnes or THe FResn-WAters. 
XXV. The fishes which are chiefly useful as food in 
the fresh-waters of India belong to 
the order Physostomi, especially in its 
siluroid, eyprinoid and herring families, as well as those which 
are included in the order Acanthopterygii, sub-divided by some 
authors into two. The other orders which furnish examples 
to the fresh-waters are only employed as food by the very 
poorest classes, or even entirely rejected. (A list of the 
fresh-water fishes is appended, para. 430). 
XXVI. Another mode of dividing the fishes which fre- 
ae _, quent the fresh-waters of India is into 
igratory and non-migratory 5 . 
fishes, Breeding ones polyga- the migratory and non-migratory. 
mous or monogamous. Seasons Some of the migratory forms (as 
of breeding, te] oie 
Barbus tor) ascend the hill streams 
from the rivers of the plains for breeding purposes: or 
those which never leave the plains, although they belong 
to this division, may be marine (as Clupea palasah): or 
entirely fresh-water species (as several of the carps). 
Migrations in adult fish are effected for breeding or pre- 
daceous purposes, or to obtain some peculiarly desirable 
description of food. ‘There are also, as already observed, the 
“ non-migratory” fishes both in the waters of the hills, as some 
loaches and small siluroids, or in those of the plains, as the 
Ambassis, &e. Lastly, the breeding-fish will have to be con- 
sidered, the majority of which appear to be polygamous, but 
some are monogamous: whilst the time of year at which they 
deposit their eggs varies with seasons and localities, the mi- 
eratory forms almost invariably sclecting the monsoon 
time. 
XXVII. In the sub-class Trinostet, the spiny-rayed or 
Acanthopterygian or spiny. AACANTILOPTERYGIAN orders of fishes, 
rayed order of fishes. are not found in any great numbers 
in the inland fresh-waters of India, but are mostly confined 
to the plains, either within or but a short distance removed 
from tidal reach, or above the sea level. The larger the river, 
the greater the probability of these fishes extending their 
range up it. There are some genera which possess species 
that are able to exist some time after their removal from the 
water, and even to dive down and remain in the mud of 
tanks during the dry scason, re-appearing with the returning 


Fresh-water fishes. 


( 16) 


rains. These hard-rayed fishes, which are taken in the fresh- 
waters, mostly belong to the following 18 genera, some of 
which are marine, others not so:—1, ZLates; 2, Ambassis ; 
3, Corvina ; 4, Mugil ; 5, Hquula; 6, Gobius ; 7, Huctenogo- 
bius ; 8, Pevriophthalmus ; 9, Hleotris ; 10, Badis ; 11, Nandus ; 
12, Catopra; 18, Anabas; 14, Polyacanthus ; 15, Tricho- 
gaster ; 16, Ophiocephalus ; 17, Rhynchobdella; 18, Masta- 
cemblus. 
XXVIII. The foregoing 18 genera are divisible into two 
Divisible into purely fresh istinct classes: jfirsé, those which 
water and partially marine forms. entirely belong to the fresh-waters 
(although some of the species of the same genus may have 
marine representatives) ; secondly, those which are marine, and 
only ascend rivers for predaceous or breeding purposes. Of 
the true fresh-water ones (2, as Ambassis Thomassi; 4, as 
Mugil cascacia; 6, as Gobius giuris; 7, as Huctenogobius 
striatus ; 8, as Periophthalmus Schlosseri; 9, as Hleotris 
nigra; 10, as Badis dario; 11, as Nandus marginatus ; 12, as 
Catopra nandioides ; 13, as Anabas scandens ; 14, as Polya- 
canthus cupanus; 15, as Trichogaster fasciatus; 16, as 
Ophiocephalus gachua; 17, as Rhynchobdella aculeata ; and 
18, as Dlastacemblus armatus)—some of these are monoga- 
mous, as Nos. 18, 14,15 and 16, and probably also Nos. 6 and 
7, all of which appear peculiarly adapted for tanks and jhils, 
as they live in the grass along their edges, where the larger 
varicties lie in wait for frogs or other animals on which they 
prey. Whilst the first fournamed genera being air-breathers 
(see para. XLITI) they have only to raise their mouths out of 
the water and take in their modicum of air. Others of these 
fresh-water genera are apparently polygamous, as Nos. 2, 10, 
11,12,17and18. Ofthose genera which possess marine repre- 
sentatives, some of which breed in the sea, whilst others ascend 
rivers for this purpose, are Nos. 4, 5, 6,7, 8 and 9. But some of 
these genera placed as polygamous, as the gobies, may even- 
tually prove to be monogamous. Of the whole of these 
Acanthopterygians but few are generally distributed through 
the inland tanks far from the sea level or beds of large rivers ; 
these exceptions are the little Aimbassis ; a goby, Gobius giuris ; 
the small Badis and pereoid Nandus; the walking fishes, 
Ophiocephalus, and the spined eels, namely, the Rhynchobdella 
and Jastacemblus. Of the second or marine division of this 
order of fishes, some (1, as Lates calcarifer ; 3, as Corvina 
coitor; and 5,as Mquula,) are marine, ascending rivers at 
certain seasons, as in the rains, in order to obtain food, 


( 17 ) 


sometimes going long distances up their course: thus, I have 
taken Lates calearifor at Mandalay in Upper Burma, about 
650 miles from the sea, evidently following the shoals of 
shad, Clupea palasah, for predaccous purposes. 
XXIX. Fishes of the order Puysosromt, or those in 
which the air-vessel communicates 
Physotomatous order of fishes, O 
or those possessing a connecting with the pharynx by means of a 
duet between air-vesscel_and pneumatic duct, contain the largest 
eee proportion of the Indian fresh-water 
fishes. One of these families (St/urid@) are destitute of 
scales, whilst they are present in the Cyprinide, which have 
no teeth in the jaws or palate, and also in the herrings 
(Clupeide), the majority of which last have a trenchant or 
cutting abdomen (as the hilsa, Clupea palasah), or generally 
a few minute teeth in the jaws or palate. The Notopteride, 
which also belong to this order, furnish some species which 
are esteemed by the natives. 
XXX. ‘The siluroid family, sitlurid@, are commonly 
Silurid or scalcless fishes, Known as cat-fishes, because they 
often termed cat-fishes, as they generally possess a number of long 
Buevally have Jong feelers: barbels, arranged around the mouth. 
These fishes mostly prefer muddy to. clear water, as such 
conceals their.presence. ‘The more developed and numerous 
these barbels, the better adapted these fish seem to be for an 
inland and muddy fresh-water residence; whilst on the con- 
trary, those which are strictly marine do not appear to be so 
well furnished with these appendages. Siluroid fishes are also 
generally armed with strong spines in the fin of the back 
and pectoral fins, and which, as arule, are serrated ; with these 
severe wounds are often inflicted, which renders the handling 
of them dangerous. ‘Tropical countries, which possess large 
and muddy rivers and tanks in their plains, such as Bengal 
and Burma, are more adapted for siluroids than such localities 
as Madras, where the rivers are smaller, and the waters 
clearer. Irrespective of being scaleless or unclothed (if we 
admit scales to be the clothing of fish), they would hardly 
appear to be suited for cold climates, and we find that they 
are much more numerous in tropical than in sub-tropical 
or temperate parts of the globe. ‘The siluroid fishes which 
are captured in the fresh-w raters mostly belong to the follow- 
ing 25 genera, excluding Chaca, some of which are marine, 
others aot so:—l, Ahysis ; 2, Lrethistes; 3, Macrones ; 
4, Rita; 6, Arius; 6, Pangasius; 7, Pseudeutropius ; 
8, Callichrous ; 9, Wallago; 10, Olyra; 11, Stlurus ; 12, 
Clarias ; 183, Saccobranchus; 14, Silundia; 15, Alia; 16, 


B 


( 18 ) 


Ailiichthys ; 17, Butropiichthys ; 18, Sisor ; 19, Gagata; 20, 
Hemipimelodus ; 21, Bagarius ; 22, Pseudecheneis ; 23, Glyp- 
tosternum; 24, Améblyceps, and 25, Hvostoma. Out of the 
foregoing 25 genera, some are residents in waters of the 
plains, also in rivers of the hills with or without Alpine 
sources. A nongst the 17 resident solely in waters of the 
plains, and not extendiny their range into hilly regions, we 
find that in eight, Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, the air-vessel 
is free in the abdominal cavity and not enclosed in bone; 
whilst in ten, Nos. 12, 18, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, it is 
more or less so enclosed. Amongst those residing in 
rivers of the plains, and extending their range into those 
of the hills which have or are destitute of Alpine sources, we 
perceive four, Nos. 22, 23, 24, 25, which are found in the 
waters of the plains as well as in the hill rivers with Alpine 
sources; all have their air-vessels enclosed in bone, the 
two first have a thoracic adhesive apparatus, whilst the last 
three have representatives in the next division, and Nos. 22 
and 23 are furnished with a thoracic adhesive apparatus. 
The remaining three genera, Nos. 1, 10, 11, are found in 
rivers of the plains, and also in those of hills destitute of 
Alpine sources, whilst in none is the air-vessel enclosed 
in bone. From the foregoing it appears that the majority 
of the genera of the Indian fresh-water siluroids have their 
air-vesscl enclosed in bone, whilst it is not so enclosed in any 
of the marine forms; that amongst the siluroids of hilly 
regions, those which ascend rivers having Alpine sources 
have the air-yessel enclosed in bone: whilst those which 
ascend rivers not snow-fed do not appear of necessity to 
have their air-vessel thus protected. 

XXXI. The fresh-water siluroids may be divided 
into those of the hills and those of 
the plains; the former, or those of the 
hiils, being small and often possessing a thoracic adhesive 
apparatus to enable them to adhere to rocks, and prevent 
their being carried away by descending torrents. The silu- 
roids of the plains ave very numerous, existing in almost 
every piece of fresh-water, whilst the larger rivers contain 
some, as the Pangasius Buchanani, Wallago attu, Silundia 
Gangetica, and Bagarius Yarrellii, which attain to several feet 
in length : in fact, up country, as in the upper portions of the 
Jumna and Ganges and in the irrigation canals, where they 
find abundance of food, and consequently grow to a very great 
size, they are erroneously termed “sharks.” None of these 
siluroids possess any adhesive apparatus unless they are also 


Siluroids of hills and plains. 


( 19 ) 


common to the hills as the Pseudecheneis and Glyptosternum. 
In some species which are thus provided, as the G'lyptoster- 
num striatum, not only is this thoracic apparatus very distinct 
whilst residing in mountain streams, but even their pectoral 
and ventral rays are plaited inferiorly; but these additions 
are indistinct or completely absent in specimens of the same 
species when their size is larger, and they have been captured 
in the rivers of the plains. 

XXXII. The respiration of these siluroid fishes is as 
varied as amongst those of other orders 
(see para. XLIII): thus, the Clarias 
and Saccobranchus, owing to the possession of accessory 
organs to their branchize, are compound-breathers, able 
to reside in the mud of tanks, and are much employed for 
stocking these places. Most of tie siluroids are very long- 
lived whilst out of the water, even when accessory breathing 
organs appear to be absent, as in some of the J/acrones and 
in species of the genus 2i¢a, which are very slimy fish. 
Asa rule, all which belong to this family are exceedingly foul 
feeders, more especially when there are but few small fish 
for them to prey upon; still for anglers who do not care 
whether the game affords play, these fishes give good sport 
when large, freely taking a frog or small fish. Some of the 
siluroids are migratory during the breeding season, and this 
is generally in the rains. ‘They appear to prefer muddy- 
bottomed tanks and sluggish rivers, whilst pebbly streams, 
especially if the waters are clear, are rather avoided by them 
in the plains. Some even of the larger ones reside during 
the dry months in places where there would be no means 
of subsistence for them were it not for a sufficiency of small 
fish, which likewise retreat there, and afford them sustenance 
until the rains re-commence, and they can again move about. 

XXXIII. In the family Scompresocivm, the Belone 
cancila is found throughout the 
rivers and tanks, in which it breeds. 
Amongst the CyprinopontIp® are several small fresh-water 
species as Cyprinodon Stolickanus in Katch, and several 
species of MHaplochilus in India and Burma, mostly in large 
rivers and near sea levels. 

XXXIV. The carps or Cyprinidae, as already observed, 
ne ms belong to the order Physostomi; 
Family of Cyprinids or carps. ° ge ° id : 

First sub-family or loaches, with this family are destitute of teeth in 
the sir-vessel moreor lessenclos- their jaws and palate, only possess- 

: ing them on their inferior pharyn- 
geal bones, whilst none of them have more than one fin 


Respiration of siluroid fishes, 


Family Scombresocidex. 


(-20%,) 


on the back. The family of carps is divided into threc 
sub-families; the little loaches, Cobitidineg, which extend 
throughout the length and breadth of the Indian and Burmese 
fresh-waters, from a sea level to many thousand feet above 
it, even breeding in places where the rivers are almost entire- 
ly replenished by melting snows. In all is the air-vesscl 
more or less enclosed in bone. In those species found 
high up amongst the hills and in snow-fed rivers when 
ascending up to near their sources, as in Nemacheilus, it 
appears to be invariably so: whilst in the larger Botia, which 
mostly is taken in the plains or bases of hills, the posterior 
portion of the air-vessel is wholly or partially free in the 
abdominal cavity, only its anterior portion having an osseous 
capsule. It is remarkable that the single genus of this sub- 
family which is found high up in the hill ranges, Memacheilus, 
is destitute of any offensive or perhaps defensive spine under 
the eye, but which is possessed by every genus in the plains, 
as Apua, Acanthophthalmus, Acanthopsis, Cobitis, Lepido- 
cephalichthys, Botia and Jerdonia. Misgurnus has been 
omitted as not found in India, but it has been taken in the 
hill ranges beyond Upper Burma; it has no orbital spine. 
Loaches form excellent food for the larger fishes, and are 
also esteemed for this purpose by the natives of India. 
XXXV. The second sub-family of the carps are the 

Second sub-family of carps, Sand-grubbers, Homalopterine: they 
Sand-grubbers, having no air- have no air-vessel, are insignificant 
vewel. in numbers and size, and reside under 
stones in streams along the bases of hills or at moderate 
elevations. 

XXXVI. The third, largest and most important sub- 

Third sub-fumily of carps, air family are the true carps, Cyprinine, 
raeeel rok enclosed in bone. which are generally distributed and 

1e hill carps sub-divided into 5 5 
non-migratory and migratory are most important as food: all have 
Sa the air-vessel free in the abdominal 
cavity. Very few are merely vegetable feeders; the barbels, 
Barbus, appear to be all carnivorous or omnivorous, and take 
the place in Indian rivers supplied by trout in the more 
northern climes. These carps are divisible into those of 
the hills and those of the plains. The hill carps, again, must 
be sub-divided into those which ‘ permanently” reside there, 
and those which are occasional or periodical visitants 
that ascend for the purpose of breeding, or to obtain a 
change in their food. Strictly predaceous fishes do not 
appear to be found in hiily districts. The non-migratory hill 
carps furnish some of the most valuable articles of food 


( 21 ) 


there for the resident population. Thus, the mountain 
barbel, Oreinas, often erroneously termeda “ trout,’ because 
it is sometimes spotted with red, the Oreinus sinuwatus is 
common in many of the Himalayan rivers; fishes of this 
genus possess a sucker on the lower jaw behind its broad 
mouth, by means of which it is able to adhere to rocks, and 
prevent its being swept away down stream; it is taken as 
high as Kulu, even to 5 or 6,000 feet blevation, and is 
common in the Ussun River, not above 4 or 5 miles from 
Simla. Also another small carp, Discognathus, exists in 
these elevated regions throughout the year (it is also found 
in the plains), and is furnished with a sucker in same 
situation as in Oreinus. As migratory hill carps, may be 
classed those which breed in the hills, but descend to the 
rivers of the plains, where they reside during the cold and 
drier months of the year, when the small hill streams would 
be unsuited for their residence, re-ascending to the base of 
the hills during the hot months, and, if possible, ascending up 
the rivers ante the Sub- Himalayan range, or those of bihier 
hills, as of the Nilghiris or the Western Ghats, with the first 
burst of the monsoon. 
XXXVII. Amongst the carps of the plains are a very 
Corps of the plains. Migra. large and varied number of forms, 
tory or non-migratory species. some of which are migratory, others 
not so; these migrations are mostly effected for breeding 
purposes, and generally take place during the 8. W. monsoon, 
but a few do so during the N. E.; but many of these latter 
are fish re-ascending towards their breeding-grounds to be 
ready for the 8. W. monsoon of the succeeding year. The 
numbers and varieties of these carps of the plains show as 
great a difference as was remarked upon in the siluroids 
(para. XXX). Commencing with Southern India, there 
are innumerable small species of carps in the plains, but a 
paucity of large ones. ‘This is not merely due to the 
universal slaughter which obtains there, but is also partly a 
consequence of smaller rivers and a hotter climate. As the 
Masulipatam District or the Kistna or Tambudra Rivers 
are reached, larger varieties of this sub-family come to notice ; 
many large Labeos and the Catla, unrecorded as existing 
further eayrit as towards Madras, can now be taken. 
Whilst in the rivers skirting the base of the Nilghiris, as 
those along the Western or Malabar Coast, very large species 
of barbels, termed mahascers, become apparent. ‘The finest 
“arps, as in the genera Labeo, Cirrhina, Catla, and the 


( 22 ) 


sub-genus Barbodesin Barbus, are mostly found in the larger 
rivers or pieces of water, whilst the latter are commonly 
perceived in those aflluents of the Indus, Ganges and 
Brahmaputra, and other rivers that are near the bases of 
hills. 
XXXVIII. The herring family, Clupeide, furnishes 
Herring family. Migratory examples of both migratory and 
Grid ion: Tiis raion ygr ona non-migratory forms to the fresh- 
waters of India, some being marine which ascend rivers 
solely for breeding purposes, whilst others are strictly fresh- 
water and non-migratory, generally breeding in tanks. 
The migratory herrings are those which ascend large rivers 
from the sea for the purpose of breeding in fresh-water, 
the most important of which is the shad, Clupea palasah, 
known also as the Hilsa or Elisha, the Palasah of the Telingis, 
the Ulum of the Tamils, the Pulla of the Indus, the Nga- 
tha-louk of the Burmese, and the sable fish of the Europeans 
in Madras. There seem to be two classes of this fish 
which ascend the large rivers: those below one year of age, 
and which do not appear to breed, or if they do, it is at the 
very end of the year, or commencement of the succeeding 
one; secondly, there are those which breed at the commence- 
ment of, or during the monsoon. In the Cauveri and 
Coleroon these fish ascend with the first burst of the 8. W. 
monsoon, and continue doing so the four succeeding months, 
but in diminished quantities, some evidently. being later 
breeders or younger fish. In the Kistna, which has a great 
velocity, the freshes commence in June and continue until 
the end of October, after which the river subsides, but 
it does not become fordable until the middle or end of 
January. A few of these fishes arrive at the end of Septem- 
ber, but it is not until the middle of October and the two 
following months that their main body appears to ascend, 
whilst they disappear by April. It is only when the rapidity 
with which the Kistna flows during the freshes commences 
to subside that they arrive in large numbers. In the neigh- 
bouring river, the Godaveri, which has a less rapid current 
than the Kistna, the fish ascend earlier, being most 
numerous from July to September, when the fishermen believe 
they migrate to the Kistna. In the Hoogli they continue 
ascending throughout the 8. W. monsoon, and many are 
found to be still full of roe in September. Mr. Blanford 
has observed them at Mandalay in Upper Burma at 
the end of the year. In Sind, this fish ascends from the 


( 23) 


sea about Sea! for the purpose of breeding in the river, 
from which if again descends to the salt- water about the 
end of Beeman or commencement of October, after which 
none, even young, can be found. ‘They are only taken in 
dhdinds, stagnant pieces of water or canals, due to some 
accidental cause or unnatural obstruction having obliged 
them to turn aside from their natural breeding-grounds. 
The main body of these fish swarm up the large rivers of India 
and Burma generally as soon as the 8S. W. monsoon 
commences, but not always at the same period, such ap- 
parently at times being dependant upon the rapidity of the 
current and other causes. That it is not solely due to the 
presence of rain-water is shown by the Indus and Irrawadi; 
in the former, the floods are mainly caused by melted snows 

at this period (see para. VI), whilst in the Ivrawadi these fish 
push on to Upper Burma, to which country the 8. W, 
moonson searcely extends, and there the inundations are 
also due to melting snows. One reason why periods of 
flood are selected as those for breeding, appears to be due 
to their being practically acquainted with the fact, that at these 
times the shallows are covered with water, rendering ascent 
practicable, consequently they now come up to deposit their 
ova, which is always done in the rivers, never in tanks or 
canals, Amongst the non-migratory herrings, some species, as 
Engraulis Chatoéssus and the Corica suborna, appear to breed 
in rivers or even tanks, 

XXXIX. There are also a few other fishes which, 
however, are not much esteemed as 
food, some of which belong to the 
order Physostomi. In the eel-like family, Symbranchide, 
but generally in fresh-waters or marshy places not far 
removed from the sea level, is found the curious Amphipnous 
cuchia, Amongst the true cels, Wurenida, there are several 
species which are taken in fresh and brackish waters, but it is 
only Anguilla Bengalensis that appears to live at some 
distance inland. 

XL. In the order Lopnoprancniy, a little pipe-fish 

Deeheeatentatey erie tee) o. OY commonly found in rivers, 

Aahea: andin some places is termed the cro- 

codile’s tooth, from an idea that it is 

the vivified tooth of one; of these reptiles, in other districts it is 

ealled the crocodile’s tooth-pick, from the use which it is said 

to be to those animals. It is the Jehthyocampus carce, and as 
food is useless. 


Eels, &e. 


( 4 ) 


XLI. In the order Precroanatitt, several of the 
family Gymnodontes are found ascend - 
ing rivers for some distance, espe- 
cially species of the genus Zetrodon, but they do not appear 
to be considered fit for food anywhere (except some sea 
species amongst the Andamanese). Still in Burma, a closely 
allied fish, Yenopterusnaritus, is extensively taken in the lower 
provinces, and esteemed as food by the people of the country. 

XLIT. In the Sun-Chass Cionprorreryen, order 
PLAGiosroMATA, there are some 
species which ascend rivers for preda- 
ceous purposes, but are not esteemed 
as food. Amongst the family of sharks, the Curcharias Gange- 
ticus ascends rivers, but not very often far beyond tidal influ- 
ence; however, I have seen it at Cuttack, and in the Pegu river : 
whilst a species of saw-fish, Pristis, is likewise found to pro- 
ceed as high; neither breed in the rivers. Amongst the 7rygo- 


nide, the T. warnak is also frequently found above tidal 
influence. 


Plectognathi, 


Cartilaginous fishes, 


RESPIRATION OF INDIAN FIsuEs. 


XLII. Before commencing the subject of the sudden 
appearance of fishes in Indian tanks 
after falls of rain, and how they mi- 
grate during periods of floods, a few 
observations are necessary upon how they respire, as some 
remarkable variations from the usual manner are observable, 
evidently to enable certain tropical forms to resist causes 
which are not in existence in most extra-tropical regions. 
Three modes of respiration are perceptible: jirs¢, the usual 
one of oxygen obtained, except under peculiar circumstances, 
from air in solution in the water, and which is separated 
at the gills; these may be termed for description, not defini- 
tion, “water-breathers,” as the carps, Cyprinine, or some of the 
siluroids, as Macrones, and they can live, as a rule, without 
rising to the surface. If any of these fishes are placed in a 
globe of water at a moderate temperature, with a diaphragm 
of net precluding their reaching the surface, their breathing 
remains unaffected. If, on the contrary, a bandage is 
stitched around the gill-opening, precluding their employing 
their gills, they rapidly become suffocated. This result in 
another form is perceived to occur in India, either artificially 
or naturally. Thus, when the water in which they reside 
becomes suddenly changed from clear to very muddy, their 
gills become choked, respiration is impeded, and death results, 


Respiration of fishes: water- 
breathers ; compound-breathers, 


( 25 ) 


In the Wfaidarabad Assigned Districts, the Tehsildar of 
Buldana (para. 238) observes that “disturbing the water 
of a stream, so as to cause it to become muddy, is said some- 
times to cause the fish to die.” Also in Oudh, the Commis- 
sioner of Faizabad (para. 276) reports fish being taken 
in village ponds and jhils, in the months of Jeth and 
Baisakh, by hand, the water being first mudded by gangs 
of from 50 to 60 men. This sudden fouling with mud, 
causing death to water-breathing fishes, is likewise observed 
during the monsoon months, where a sudden descent of very 
muddy water suffocates this class of fishes. ‘Che Collec- 
tor of anna (para. 101) remarks that, when the rivers 
become muddy at the commencement of the monsoon, 
fish die in large numbers, also when they become 
nearly dry at the close of the hot weather. Also (para. 
187) in Sittimungalum, it is observed of the Bhowany 
River that fish die when the water is mixed with mud to a 
large extent, as during the monsoons; this has also been 
observed in Malabar. Secondly, some species, which, although 
they toa limited extent are ‘ water-breathers,” are more 
essentially “air-breathers,” having a compound respiration, 
consequently muddy water hardly affects them. Thus, in 
carrying live specimens of Ophiocephalus from the plains to 
the Nilghiri hills, this was most successfully accomplished in 
water largely mixed with mud. ‘They never obtain oxygen 
for any length of time from the air in solution in the sur- 
rounding water, but inspire it direct from the atmosphere, no 
matter how cool and charged with air the water may be; and 
if unable to inhale atmospheric air, become poisoned by 
the carbon remaining in their circulation. The compound- 
breathers expire in a longer or shorter interval if un- 
able to reach the atmospheric air; amongst these are the 
climbing perch, Anabas scandens, and the species of the 
Acanthopterygian genera, Polyacanthus, Trichogaster, and 
Ophiocephalus, all of which possess a cavity above the gills 
for the purpose of the reception of air for respiratory require- 
ments. ‘The difference between the respiration of the “ water- 
breathers” and the “compound-breathers,”’ as defined, 
is very apparent when they are lying side by side at the 
bottom of an aquarium. ‘Thus, the J/acrones carcio has its 
gills in constant excited movement, whilst the Ophiocephalide 
scarcely move theirs, but at intervals rise to the surface, 
open their mouths, and take in air. This latter phenomenon 
of breathing the air pure, and not subsequent to its solution 


( 26) 


in the water, is especially visible in some species, as the 
Polyacanthus cupanus, which dart up suddenly to the 
surface, descending again as rapidly to the depths of the 
water. I instituted a considerable number of experiments 
(see Proc., Zoological Society of London, May IJ4th, 1868, 
p. 274) to investigate this question. Some live specimens of 
Ophiocephalus gachua were placed ina globe, which was 
filled two-thirds full of fresh water. A diaphragm of fine 
net was then stretched lightly across the inside of this globe, 
one inch below the surface of the water, thus effectually pre- 
venting them from ascending to the surface to obtain a direct 
supply of atmospheric air; death invariably ensued in a 
longer or shorter time, generally in accordance with whether 
they remained quiet or continued excited. A bandage stitched 
tightly around the gill openings, whilst it prevented their 
being used for respiratory purposes, did not appear to cause 
any inconvenience so long as they could inhale atmospheric air 
direct, and this although it was not removed for 24 hours. 
But it must not be considered that these fish are entirely 
prevented from decarbonising their blood if they are unable 
to obtain atmospheric air direct, as, although some died within 
the first 40 minutes, others lived 7 and one 17 hours whilst 
below the diaphragm. In wet grass, at the end of 3 hours, 
those placed there were found as lively as when first 
put there: one in a dry cloth lived for 3 hours and 25 
minutes. The Anabas scandens are kept four or five days 
alive by the fishermen in Calcutta in earthen pots destitute 
of water, using daily what they require, the fish continuing 
as lively as when captured. In Burma the fishermen 
appear to be practically acquainted with the fact of some fish, 
especially Ophiocephalide, being air-breathers; thus, after 
nearly all the water has been removed from the tank to be 
fished, leaving only about five feet of slimy mud, through 
which their bamboo net (gyan; has been drawn, they are 
aware that many fine fish still remain. <A large cloth is 
spread over the mud and left there two or three days, on remoy- 
ing which, the fish are seen stupefied and easily taken, their 
blood having become carbonised from a deficiency of oxygen, 
due to want of air for breathing. In short, my experiments, 
1 think, proved that these fishes died when deprived of access 
to atmospheric air, not from any deleterious properties either 
in the water or apparatus employed, but due to being unable 
to decarbonise their blood solely from the water, eerial respi- 
ration being indispensable. Also that they can live out 


( 27 ) 


of water in moisture for lengthened periods, and for only a 
short and variable time in water, provided they are unable 
to obtain air direct: that the cavity above the gills does not 
contain water, but has a moist secreting surface in which the 
air is retained for the purposes of respiration, whilst it seems 
probable that the air, after having been employed for this 
purpose, is ejected through the mouth, Some of the venous 
blood appears in these fishes to be oxygenated at the gills, 

and the remainder in the superbranchial cavity by means of 
air; but if they are kept under the water without being able 
to obtain direct access to it, this cavity, which is surrounded 
by bony tissue, becomes filled with water, which cannot 
be discharged owing to its almost non-contractile powers. 
Thus, there being no means of emptying it, and the contained 
water probably becoming carbonised, the whole of the respi- 
ration is thrown upon the gills. This accounts for the fact 
that when the fish is in a quiescent state it lives longer than 
when excited, whilst the sluggishness sometimes evinced, may 
be due to poisoned or carbonised blood. An analogous 
instance may be seen in an eel, Ophichthys boro, in which 
the gills are contained in a large cavity in either sido 
of the head, and which do not communicate with one ano- 
ther. The fish distends this reeeptacle with air taken in 
by the mouth. It appears to be able to respire either directly 
from the atmosphere, or by means of the air contained 
in the water. On its small gill-openings being kept closed, 

it takes in air by the aitarlihie ; should its mouth be era 
shut, it struggles until its head is released so as_ to 
be able to respire. If the gills are exposed by cutting 
away the outer gill-coverings, and it is then returned to 
the water, it begins to slowly move its branchize, and appears 

to feel little, if any, inconvenience in being unable to obtain 
air direct through its mouth. In some of the siluroids, there 

exists an accessory breathing apparatus; thus, the Clarias 
possesses a dendritic one on the convex side of the second 
and fourth branchiee, which has much the appearance of a 
bunch of red stick-coral; this is received into a cavity 
posterior to that existing solely for the gills. In the 
Saccobranchus or scorpion-fish, a long air-vessel of a pul- 
monic character (in addition to the air-vessel proper which 
is enclosed in bone) extends throughout the length of the 
muscles of the back, and anteriorly opens into the gill-cavity. 
In the eel-like Symbranchide, the Amphipnous cuchia has 
a pulmonic sac for the reception of air connected with the 


gill-cavity. This mode of respiration appears to be a wise 
provision of Nature, to enable fish in tropical countries, 
during periodic dry seasons or in the rains, to migrate from 
pond to pond in search of water wherein their natural food ex- 
ists. Also as they ascend small water-courses to breed during 
seasons of inundations, they are always liable to have the 
supply of water suddenly arrested, and then they regain 
rivers, &c., through muddy channels or moist pieces of grass. 
Thirdly, there are some fish which also appear to swallow ar, 
and perhaps absorb oxygen through the skin, as the loaches, 
Cobitidine, and the spined eels, Rhynchobdellide, but no 
special air-breathing apparatus has as yet been detected. 


AXSTIVATION OF F'IsH. 
XLIV. A curious phenomenon in Indian fresh-waters, 
and one which has never been satis- 
factorily explained, is the sudden 
appearance of healthy adult fish after a heavy fall of rain, 
and in localities which for months previously had been dry. 
When pieces of water inhabited by fish yearly dry up, what 
becomes of them? On 18th January 1869, when examining 
this question, I was taken to a tank, of perhaps an acre 
in extent, but which was then almost dry, having only about 
four inches of water in its centre, whilst its circumference was 
sufficiently dried to walk upon. The soil was a thick and 
consistent bluish clay, from which, and not nearer than 380 
paces to the water, five live fish were extracted from at 
least two feet below the surface of the mud. They consisted 
of two of the Ophiocephalus punctatus, and three of the Rhyn- 
chobdella aculeata. All were very lively and not in the 
slightest degree torpid ; they were covered over with a thick 
adherent slime. Amongst the specimens of fish in the 
Calcutta Museum is one of Amphipnous cuchia, which was 
dug up some feet below the surface of the mud, when 
sinking the foundation for a bridge. If when the water 
failed fish invariably died, the tanks would be depopulated 
the succeeding year, unless a fresh supply was obtained from 
some other source, whilst the distance from other pieces of 
water at which they re-appear excludes, in many instances, 
the possibility of migration, which must always to a certain 
extent be regulated by distance, time, and other local cir- 
cumstances. Some species, especially ‘* compound-breathers ” 
(para. XLITT), are able to live in liquid mud, which they 
cannot employ for the purposes of aquatic respiration. The 


Wstivation of fishes, 


practical question is, whether, when food and water fails, 
some fish do not wstivate until the return of a more 
favourable season. Natives of India assert that they do thus 
become torpid in the mud. As the water in tanks becomes 
low, the fishes congregate together in holes and places in 
which some still remains, where they may be frequently seen in 
numbers, huddled together with only sufficient water to cover 
their dorsal fins. If disturbed, they dive down into the thick 
mud, so that a net is often found ineffectual to take them. 
The plan employed to capture them is for the fisherman to 
leave the net in the water, and to walk about in the surround- 
ing thick mud; in time they come to the surface to breathe, 
and fall an easy prey. As the water gradually evaporates, 
the fishes become more and more sluggish, and finally, there is 
every reason to believe that some at least bury themselves in 
the soft mud, and in a state of torpidity await the return of the 
yearly rains, In Ceylon, Mr, Whiting, the Chief Officer 
of the western province, informed Sir Emerson ‘Tennent 
that he had accidentally been twice present when the villagers 
had been engaged in digging up fish. ‘The ground was firm 
and hard, and ‘as the men flung out lumps of it witha spade, 
they fell to pieces, disclosing fish from nine to twelve inches 
long, which were full-grown and healthy, and jumped on the 
bank when exposed to light.’ Many other animals which 
possess a higher vitality than fish eestivate during the hot 
months, as Batrachians, the Hmys, the Lepidosiren annectens, 
and some of the Crocodiles. Molluses and_ land-snails 
are commonly found in this state during the hot and dry 
seasons. 


MIGRATIONS oF Fisu. 


XLV. The subject of the migrations of fish during 
the periods of rain is of great practical 
importance, it being mostly effected 
for the purpose of breeding, but in some few instances 
is due to predaceous fishes being in pursuit of their weaker 
neighbours. At the commencement of the rains fish be- 
come very excited and disturbed; apparently unsatisfied 
with the localities they inhabit, they restlessly seek a 
change to other pieces of water. This may be owing to the 
same instinet which causes the migration of marine fish 
to the fresh-water, or the necessity of obtaining a suitable 
place in which to deposit their ova. It is generally at this 
season that some have been observed travelling on land, and 
it has been imagined that places which are only occasionally 


Migrations of fish. 


(308) 


covered by water become populated by fish after heavy 
showers of rain. ‘The possession of the means necessary for 
locomotion on land, combined with those for direct aerial re- 
spiration, frequently leads to the almost sudden appearance of 
fish in unexpected places, and has given rise to numerous 
arguments and theories—amongst them, spontaneous genera- 
tion, vivification of buried ova, migration, falling from the 
clouds, &c. Amongst persons testifying to having witnessed the 
migrations of fish is Mr, Morris, Government Agent at Trin- 
comalee, who in 1857 stated,—‘* as the tanks dry up, the fish 
congregate in the little pools, till at last you find them by 
thousands in the moistest parts of the beds, rolling in the blue 
mud which is at that time about the consistence of thick gruel. 
As the moisture further evaporates, the surface fish are left 
uncovered, and they crawl away in search of fresh pools. In 
one place I saw hundreds diverging in every direction from 
the tank they had just abandoned to a distance of fifty or 
sixty yards, and still travelling onwards. In going this 
distance, however, they must have used muscular exertion 
sufficient to have taken them half a mile on level ground, 
for at these places all the cattle and wild animals of the 
neighbourhood had lately come to drink, so that the surface 
was everywhere indented with foot-marks, in addition to the 
cracks in the surrounding baked mud, into which the fish 
tumbled in their progress. In those holes which were deep, 
and the sides perpendicular, they remained to die, and were 
carried off by kites and crows. My impression is that this 
migration takes place at night or before sunrise, for it was 
only early in the morning that I have seen them progressing, 
and I found those I brought away with me in chatties 
appeared quiet by day, but managed to get out of the 
chatties at night. Some escaped altogether, others were 
trodden on and killed.’ The dAnabas scandens is able to 
travel short distances on land, and has been seen by many 
Europeans whilst thus engaged. This migrating propensity 
of some of the fresh-water fishes of the Hast was no secret 
to the ancient Greeks, who frequently commented upon it, 
and although the truth of their statements were impugned 
by the Romans, the accuracy of their facts is above dispute. 
But the migrations of fishes during the rains is, perhaps, 
what is of most consequence in fisheries. In fields irrigated 
from rivers or tanks, breeding-fish swarm up all water-courses 
for the purpose of depositing their ova, and should be 
protected as much as possible. As regards the marine 
fish which ascend rivers, as the hilsa (para. XXX VIII), the 


(CD) 


weirs which span rivers bar their upward ascent, and thus 
cut them off from their breeding-grounds. 
Brueepine or Fisnes in FResu-wATers. 
XLVI. Closely allied, in fact, inseparably connected 
Breeding of fish in fresh. With their migration, is the question 
waters, Migratory and non- of the breeding of jfishes* in the 
migratory cuca sot Cheipiaie: fresh-waters, which may be treated 
of in the following order:—non-migratory and migra- 
tory fish of the plains; non-migratory and migratory ones 
of the hills. Apparently, the migratory forms produce the 
largest number of eggs, probably as a compensation for the 
increased chances of their destruction. Thus, in a migratory 
herring, Clupea palasah, there were computed to be 1,023,645 
eggs, and in a migratory barbel, 410,500 eggs, whilst carps 
in the hilly regions appear to have a larger proportion of 
ova than those in the plains. Amongst the non-migratory 
species, we likewise observe a difference: the monogamous 
not depositing so many as the polygamous, as a gencral rule, 
which is probably due to two causes,—/i7s/, in some localities 
the former appear to breed more frequently ; and, secondly, 
they protect their offspring. ‘Thus, a ‘* monogamous’”’ Ophio- 
cephalus had only 4,700 eggs, whilst a “ polygamous” non- 
migratory carp, Cirrhina reba, had 41,500, anda siluroid, 
Callichrous canio, 47,444. Amongst the shoals of hilsa which 
I bave seen, more female fish were captured than males. 
The marine fish breeding in rivers usually deposit their ova 
in the sand: the non-migratory fish of the plains generally 
amongst the grass at the sides of rivers and at small water- 
courses, or the margins of tanks, occasionally in the sand. Some 
of these fish, as the hilsa, appear to deposit their eggs at one 
time: others, as some of the barbels, &c., to do so at intervals. 
XLVII. Of the non-migratory hill fishes (see para. 
Breeding of migratory and VII) in the higher ranges, there 
non-migratory fish of the hills. gre two situations in which they may 
breed :—the first isin water wholly or partially obtained from 
melted snows; the second is in tributaries or aflluents of 
the main streams, as already adverted to (para. VII). It 
appears as if it were not mercly the fact of eleva- 
tion and difficulty of ascent which prevents more fish 
residing in the hill streams, but because some influence 
is exerted by the melted snow-water, deleterious at least 
In the upper ranges of 
_ * Whether fish, fall of spawn, eestivate, and consequently are ready to deposit their ova 


as soon as the rains commence, is a question not entered upon in this report. Unable to 
prove it by observed facts, I have considered it best to oinit its consideration for the present 


the Ilimalayas, personal enquiries lead me to believe 
that only the loaches, Wemacheilus, deposited and hatched 
their eggs in places where melted snow-water existed; however, 
no climate appears too hot or too cold for them. The moun- 
tain barbels, Ovretrus, and all non-migratory fish (see para. 
XXXVITJ), breed in small or large streams off the main snow- 
replenished ones, or even in rivers which contain snow-water 
in the winter months, as in those around Simla, but such is not 
present during the breeding season; whilst along with them 
were likewise many of the little loaches. ‘The parent fishes 
appear to ascend these side streams with the firstmonsoon floods 
(see para. XX X VIT), and having deposited their ova, to return 
to the main river as the amount of water diminishes, or their 
retreat to the rivers of the plains would be cut off. The eggs 
not hatching in sufficient time for the young to pass down in 
any quantities to the rivers, the later fry become detained 
in these side streams until the next floods. Thus, when 
examining these places just prior to the burst of the 8. W. 
monsoon, thousands were seen in every small rivulet, whilst 
probably, due to food being scarce, they seem to grow slowly. 
Consequently for the first year they remain very. small, until 
the monsoon rains enable them to descend to the larger 
rivers, when with the floods large quantities of food becomes 
washed down. 
XLVIII. Of the migratory hillfishes, or those which 
Breeding of migratory Lil ascend for breeding purposes (see 
fishes. para. VIT), the various forms of large 
barbels, Barbus, termed mahaseers, furnish good examples. 
These fish do not breed in the main snow-fed rivers, but do 
so in the side streams of the Sub-Himalayan range. On the 
slopes of the Nilghiris I have observed the same occur, but 
with this difference, that they can deposit their ova in the 
main streams there, because they are small and not replen- 
ished by melted snows. ‘The mahaseers after breeding return 
to the main rivers, but the young are not generally suffi- 
ciently grown to descend to the plains. The foregoing ap- 
pears to be the rule, to which, however, there are numerous ex- 
ceptions: thus, if the maiaseers are very large, they may have 
to deposit their ova in rivers near the base of the hills, due to 
their being unable to ascend higher; in these cases the young 
easily find their way into the main rivers of the plains. 
Mr. ‘Thomas has observed in South Canara that almost the 
whole of the rain-fall occurs during the S W. monsoon, 
which commences with June and lasts about four months, 
and from September the rivers continue steadily to subside 


( 88° ) 


till the following June. When the rivers commence being in 
flood, grown fish: are enabled to ascend to new feeding- erounds 
previously inaccessible to them, and ten-pound fish are to be 
seen half-way up the Mercara Ghit. In the high waters, the 
larger fish linger until the gradually subsiding | streams warn 
them to drop cently downwards. ‘The early spawners stay 
the longest to secure shallow water for spawning; this done, 
they keep dropping gently downwards with the continually 
decreasing waters, and before the {spawn they have 
deposited is hatched, they are probably completely cut off 
from their fry, so that, till the commencement of the same 
monsoon in the following year, they cannot return to devour 
them. The fry thus not only have the heads of the rivers 
securely to themselves, but they have them also beautifully 
accommodated to their puny strength, the impassable torrent 
having become a mere driblet of an inch or so in depth. 
(Report on Pisciculture in South Canara, pp. 11, 12). These 
fine fish having deposited their ova in the hill streams, and 
returned to the rivers of the plains, descend down their course 
in search of food, and if the upper portions of these rivers are 
not of much depth, their range is extended very far down: 
thus, I have seen numbers of mahaseer netted in the Jumna 
below Delhi whilst returning up river towards their breeding- 
grounds, A drove of mahaseers also descending rivers with 
weirs and irrigation canals, naturally turn into the latter, 
and having descended over one of the vertical falls, become 
unable to return to their breeding-grounds (see para. XVIII). 
XLIX. Of the non-migratory fishes of the plains, 
Non-migratory fish of the the monogamous and ubiquitous 
plains, some being monogamous, walking-fishes, OPILLOCEPIALID.A, are 
CSE ENON perhaps best known. Asa rule, these 
fish do not deposit such a number of ova as the migratory 
forms, but they appear to breed oftener. Some of them reside 
in tanks, others prefer rivers, where they livein deserted holes 
they find 4 in the banks. ‘The tank var ieties delight in lying 
in the grassy edges, where the water is only sufliciently deep 
to cover them, so that they have no difficulty in respiring at- 
mospheric air direct (see para. X LITT on air-breathing fishes). 
In Mysor, Colonel Puckle observed that the striated walk- 
ing-fish, Ophiocephalus striatus breeds twice a year, in June 
and December; the male constructing a nest with his tail 
amongst the vegetation, and biting off the ends of the weeds 
that grow in the water. Here the ova are deposited, the 
male keeping guard, but should he be killed or captured, 
Cc 


( 34 ) 


the vacant post is filled by his partner. When the fry are 
hatched out, they are defended by their parents with great 
courage. They may generally be perceived swimming just 
below the surface of the water in one or two lines a little 
above their progenitors. As they increase in size they are 
usually driven away by their parents, or are said to be even 
eaten by them if they do not disperse and search for sub- 
sistence for themselves. In South Canara, the Cphiocephalus 
striatus, O. diplogramme, and O. marulius, are stated to breed 
in December and January; the last also to again do so in 
June and July, at which period the O. gachua is believed 
to lay itseggs. Jf. Thomus observes—the Nandus mar- 
moratus and N. marginatus also build nests amongst the 
rushes at the margin of the water, deposit their eggs therein, 
and keep guard over them like sticklebacks. Some of the 
gobies, Golius, are probably monogamous, as they construct 
regular nests for the reception of their young. The polyga- 
mous non-migratory fishes of the plains are very numerous, 
but by ‘‘non-migratory’” must be understood that they do 
not migrate long distances for breeding purposes. The 
smaller carps are innumerable in places, as are also the 
siluroid magurs, Clarias magur, and the scorpion fishes, 
Saccobranchus fossilis. All these sorts during the rains pass 
up small water-courses or channels in order to deposit their 
eges in irrigated fields, flooded plains, temporary formed 
tanks, or along the grassy sides of rivers. 
L. Of the migratory fresh-water fishes of the plains, 
Migratory fresh-water fishes ON which do not apparently, as 
of the plains. a rule, ascend to the rivers of the 
hills to breed during the freshes, they are generally larger 
and stronger than the non-migratory. Amongst them there 
do not appear to be any of the spiny-rayed or Acanthoplery- 
gian order (see para. XXVITI). Amongst the carps, Cypri- 
nide (see para, XXXIV), a considerable number are 
affected by the monsoons, and at periods of inundation 
migrate for the purpose of breeding. A good illustration of 
this may be seen at the bridge over the Rohri canal near 
Sakkar, in Sind, and which is furnished with sluices, 
which can be kept open or closed in accordance with the 
amount of water which it is considered desirable should be 
permitted to enter. A little further on is a fall in the bed 
of the canal, which, however, becomes imperceptible when 
the water is high. As the yearly floods commence, many of the 
Dumra fish, Lubeo rohita, go down the canal into the dhdnds 


( 35 ) 


for breeding, but so soon as the waters begin to sub- 
side, as about September, and for one to one and half months, 
they attempt to return to the Indus, for which purpose they 
have to re-ascend the Rohri canal. Arriving near the bridge, 
the current is too strong, and they attempt to jump over 
the obstruction to their onward progress, and for 100 yards 
or more below the bridge they may be seen leaping out 
of the water. Unable to pass through the bridge, owing 
to the ereat force of water rushing through the under-sluices, 
they spring at the piers, and an apparatus resembling a 
native cot turned uspide down, or a cloth ora basket, or 
anything equally suitable, is hung over the sides of the 
piers, and into this they fall: thousands returning from 
breeding are thus captured. 

LI. Of the migratory sea fishes, they are divisible 

into those which ascend rivers in 

order to find a locality suitable for 
depositing their eggs: and the predaceous sorts that also 
enter rivers, but solely to prey upon their weaker neighbours, 
Of those which ascend for breeding is a Sciena, the S. coitor, 
some mullets, as JJugil corsula,: and more especially the 
hilsa or shad, Clupea palasah, already remarked upon 
(para. X XXVIII) as ascending the larger Indian and Burmese 
rivers during monsoon months for the purpose of breed- 
ing. At these times there is too much water below such 
weirs as those spanning the rivers in Madras or Orissa 
for this purpose, whilst, should they deposit their ova in 
shallows below them, they will be left high and dry as_ the 
floods subside, and their fertility be destroyed: the same 
destruction to their fertility would follow their being deposit- 
ed in the deep and rapid parts of the rivers. More than one 
official have questioned the aceuracy of this, and given the 
Opinion of native fishermen that the ova is deposited in the 
river water, and whilst being carried out to sea becomes 
vivified ; therefore, weirs cannot injuriously affect the annual 
supply of the hilsa fishes in the rivers. ‘The lower Coleroon 
weir, which was built in 1836, spans the river about 154 
miles below the town of Combaconum; its perpendicular 
height 8°38 feet, and its width at its base 8 fect. It possesses 
narrow under-sluices, up which these fishes cannot ascend, 
whilst the rapidity of the current or other causes precludes 
them from passing over it. Formerly the shad extended as 
high as 'lrichinopoly in quantities, and were even taken miles 
above that town ; the fishing, according to the Collector, prior 


Migratory sea-fishes. 


Cec6q ) 


to the construction of this weir, extended over 80 or 100 
miles of the river, instead of its being concentrated, as it 
were, on a single spot. ‘he fishing decreased until a breach 
occurred, when it almost locally ceased, owing to the fish 
being able to obtain access to their breeding-grounds, and 
not being stopped by the weir, and they were taken even 
above 'I'vichinopoly. It decreased, doubtless due to the fish 
being unable to breed: the year after this breach, when it 
had been repaired, a great increase was observed in the fish, 
evidently due to one season’s breeding. Fruitless to deposit 
their eggs below these constructions, when between the sea 
and their spawning beds, and unable to pass them, extermina- 
tion in such rivers will only be a question of time, should no 
remedial measures be adopted. his fish never breeds in 
tanks or canals. Amongst the predaceous sea fishes which 
are migratory, a large sea perch, Lates calcarifer, ascends 
sometimes hundreds of miles up large rivers as the Irrawadi, 
pursuing the shad. Sharks, Carcharias Gangeticus, and saw- 
fishes, Pyvistis, also ascend high up rivers, and a favourite 
resort for them is below weirs, where they find ample means 
of subsistence in the shoals of fish detained by those 
structures. 


Tue Fry or Freso-Water Fisn. 


LIT. The immature or the fry of fish, where they are 

Fry of fresh-water fishes, found, and their means of subsist- 
How, instead of being protected, ence, and opportunities of growth, 
Hcy ire:destroyed. are questions which it is very material 
to offer a few remarks upon. I have already observed (para. 
XLVITI) how the fry of fishes are protected from their voraci- 
ous parents in hill streams and rivers, by those localities being 
generally unequal to the supply of food for the mature or 
large fish, which migrate up these water-courses in order to 
deposit their ova: consequently, they drop down again into 
the rivers of the plains as the waters begin to subside, leaving 
the fry to descend with the next year’s rains. These fry, 
however, appear to likewise continue their descent in a very 
quiet and gradual manner, but when they have an oppor- 
tunity of going down-stream, they avail themselves of it. 
In the Himalayas numbers of these young fish descend into 
the kools or canals for turning mills (see para. XXTT), where all 
are captured, Those which reach pools in these streams appear 
to often continue there throughout the dry months, unless des- 
troyed, until the monsoon recommences. In the low country 


(3i) 


it is in irrigated or flooded localities that the fry most abound, 
and generally with the monsoon rains every little stream and” 
piece of water is resorted to by them to obtain food in, But 
by irrigated fields are not here included those irrigated by 
wells, but merely those in communication with running water 
and large tanks. In a large extent of irrigated country, 
the fields, which are divided off into embanked spaces in 
order to disseminate the water obtained from an irrigation 
‘anal, or embanked river or stream, the fry obtain an entrance 
along with the water which is kept at a depth which suits 
their puny size; whilst insect life abounds, excepting birds, 
they have but few natural enemies but man to contend with, 
If irrigation is carried on by dipping water out of canals 
at some depth, and this does not run off again into any other 
water-course, the fry of course must perish as the water dries 
up. But if the water is conducted from field to field, 
these localities should be excellent nurscrics for young 
fish, but, as has been observed (para. X XI), they are now, as a 
rule, more useful in destruction than in propagation, as man 
is allowed to place traps at every outlet (and sometimes at 
inlets), and destroy all the young fish as they drop down- 
wards towards the larger river. Fry also are found in 
abundance in sheltered spots at the edges of rivers and in 
shallow pieces of water, where there is no current to wash 
them away, and here an abundance of suitable food exists, 
but where, as will be shown, they do escape the search of 
the fisherman and man’s destructive greed. 


Fisu In AN Economic Point or Virew, 


LILI. Before enquiring into whether a wasteful destrue- 

What proportion of people tion of fish takes place in India, it will 
GED BOP Suge be as well to observe upon what propor- 
tion of people in India and Burma use fish as food, or rather 
can do so without infringing caste prejudices. Amongst the 
various races inhabiting India and British Burma, this article, 
as food, is held in different degrees of estimation, and in 
proportion to such must be its economic importance. In the 
Panjab, comparatively but few of the inhabitants are pro- 
hibited by their religion from consuming fish, but there are 
many Ilindus who reject it, as well as the rural population 
of some districts. But of those residing in towns and in 
hilly ranges, it appears that, if the Brahmans are excepted, 
the consumption of fish is only limited by the paucity of 
the supply and the cost of the article. ‘The price where fish 


( 38 ) 


is sold is stated, respecting the better sorts, to bear the same 
proportion to that of the best mutton, as the inferior 
does to that of inferior mutton, and varies from one-third that 
of mutton to an equal price with it. In Sind, fish is gener- 
ally eaten by the population of the province, whether 
Mussulinan or Hindu, except the Brahmans. Jn the North- 
Westein Provinces, containing about 28 millions of popu- 
lation (p. exliv), out of 20 returns received from native 
ollicials, 17 give more than half of the people as not for- 
bidden by religious scruples to eat fish. In Oudh, the 
majority of the people appear to eat fish, which seems to be 
more of a necessity than a luxury, whilst a larger number 
would consume it were the supply equal to the demand. 
In the Bombay Presidency, the returns appear to show 
conclusively that the majority of the inhabitants of the 
inland districts are consumers of fish when they can pro- 
cure it. In the Assigned Districts of Hlaidarabad, fish, as 
food, is esteemed by a very large proportion of the residents. 
In Mysor and Coorg, that at least half the people are fish- 
eaters when they are able to obtain this species of food. In 
the Madras Presidency great numbers are fish-eaters, the 
largest exceptions being Brahmans, goldsmiths, high-caste 
Sudras, the followers of Siva, Jains, &c. ‘The Collector of South 
Canara gives the proportion of fish-eaters at 89 per cent. ; 
advancing southwards into Malabar, this proportion appears to 
decrease. In ‘Vanjor and further towards Madras, exceptions to 
this strict carrying into effect of the rule of not consuming 
that which possessed animal life begins to be observed, but in 
many parts of the presidency salt-fish appears to be preferred 
to the fresh, more especially by the lower castes. In Orissa, 
all but the Brahmans and some religious fanatics seem to 
eat it, but not in its salted state. In Bengal Proper, from 90 
to 95 per cent. (p. clxxix), and in Assam and Chittagong, 
almost the entire population (see Bengal Supplementary 
Report, p. cexxvii). In Burma, the population, as Buddists, 
profess a religious horror at taking the lives of the lower 
animals ; but being universally fond of a fish diet, they judi- 
ciously condemn the fishermen to eternal perdition, whilst 
they consume their fish in the form of xga-pee. Without 
entering more fully into this subject, it may be fairly 
advanced that fish is more suitable asa general food to the 
natives of the Indian Empire than the flesh of village sheep, 
pigs, and fowls, whilst the majority of the people eat it when 
they can procure it. 


(e388 ") 


LIV. How are the local markets supplied with fish? In 

Local markets insufficiently sup- tho Panjab, out of 76 tehsils, in 
plied with fish. only 7 are they reported to be fully 
supplied, and in 48 insufficiently so throughout the year. 
Where fish are sold, the price of it bears a relative proportion 
to that of mutton. In Sind, markets near large dhdnds on 
the River Indus are fairly supplied. In the North-Western 
Provinces, the markets are sufficiently supplied in 18 locali- 
ties, insufliciently in 23, occasionally in 2, and doubtful in 2 
more. In the Doon the size of the fish brought is yearly 
decreasing; whilst in Nynee Tal and Almorah a decrease 
is very noticeable (p. cxlv). In Oudh (p. ecxxvii) 
three-fourths of the markets are stated to have a larger 
demand than supply. In the Bombay Presidency, every 
official who has answered this question, with the exception 
of one mamlutdar, asserts that the local markets are insuffi- 
ciently supplied with fresh fish. In the Assigned Districts 
of Haidarabad, 7 native officials report that they are in- 
sufficiently so, and the remaining | that the “weekly markets’ 
are well supplied, but that probably more could be sold, thus 
evidencing that the supply is unequal to the demand. In 
Mysor and Coorg, a generally insuflicient supply of fresh 
fish is obtained in the markets. In Madras, when within 
easy reach of the sea, they would appear to be supplied: but out 
of 39 tehsildars who report from inland, 4 state the supply is 
sufficient, and 35 that it is insufficient, or absent. In Bengal 
Proper, there is a deficiency of native returns (p. clxxix). 
At Burdwan, the supply does not equal the demand. In 
Hlooghly, the markets are said to be fairly supplied, but “the 
fishermen, however, try to keep up the market price by 
limiting the supply.” In Assam, the reports are contradictory ; 
in most places the amount sold is suflicient, but in some 
parts it is not. In Burma, only 18 returns from native 
officials have been received; 4 observe that the markets are 
fully supplied, 1 that they are fairly so, 2 that they are at 
times, 9 that they are insufficiently, and 2 that they are 
sold sometimes in sufficient quantities—sometimes more, some- 
times less. Thus, out of 243 returns received from native 
officials giving definite answers, 180 observe that the 
markets are insufficiently supplied with fish, 7 that they 
are occasionally supplied, 3 that they are fairly so, but 1 of 
these remarks that they are marine fishes; 45 consider they 
are fully supplied, but 9 state that the supply is chiefly of 
sea Species, often salted: the answers of 8 are doubtful. 


( 40 ) 


Thus the bazars fully supplied are not one-fifth of the total, 
and one-fifth of those which are so, obtain such from the sea. 


THe FRESH-WATER FISHERTES oF INDIA AND BURMA. 


LV. Where no regulations exist as to the method in 

How wasteful injuries to fish- Which fisheries should be worked, and 
CE METS a Es should other circumstances be equal, 
that country or district which is most populated by man will 
be the most denuded of fish. Individuals would sooner live 
by fishing than by agriculture, as the trouble of capturing 
the finny tribes is less than tilling the soil, being simply 
eatching without any idea of preservation. Naturally, fish 
have been endowed with certain means of increase, and 
protection, such as producing an enormous number of eggs or 
frequently breeding, or even by the action of periodic floods, 
when small-meshed nets cannot be used in rapid streams,* 
and by swamps covering a large extent of country, where 
shelter is afforded by grass, rushes, &c., rendering vain 
man’s attempt to depopulate. But, as inhabitants augment, 
watery wastes become drained and cultivated, predaceous 
man increases his methods of destruction, and then a de- 
crease of food becomes apparent. As the price of food rises, 
so that of fish increases, and if the fish-eating population 
yearly becomes larger, increased exertions are used 
to capture fish to meet their demands: the size of the mesh 
is decreased, weirs are augmented, and everything taken, 
no matter how small, as fishermen never appear to consider 
from whence the next year’s supply is to come, but only the 
easiest method to take at the present time all they are 
able. Commencing in Burma, we observe in sparsely 
populated districts fish abound, and in quantities amply 
sufficient for the adjacent people; but where the population 
is larger and the means of disposing of the captures greater, 
increased modes of destruction are called into existence: 
streams are dammed and laded out, weirs of various forms 
are erected, and the use of small meshed nets, and the 
destruction of fry is carried on, In Sind, the Indus may 
be considered one large preserve where fish are reared, for 
owing to the constant change in its course, its banks (except 
at certain places) are not well adapted for the permanent 
residence of fishermen, the surrounding land being liable 


* This amount of protection does not extend to any great extent to the fry of fishes, 
as they would be washed away by a rapid current, consequently they seek the shallows. 


(aie) 


to sudden and violent floods. The population near the river’s 
banks are small, and sufficient large fish is obtainable for them 
without destroying the fry, and thus, during the yearly 
inundations, they are carried into the dhdnds throughout 
the country. 
LVI. Before entering upon the various modes of cap- 
Breeding-fish and fry wastee ture, and omitting the questions of 
fully destroyed. taking migratory breeding, and the 
poisoning of fish, I propose examining whether fish are allowed 
to be wastefully destroyed either in the form of breeding 
ones or as fry. Many fish, as already pointed out (para. 
XLVI, &c.), during the seasons of monsoons and inundations, 
pass up small channels into irrigated fields for the purpose 
of breeding; at these times they appear to have lost much 
of their natural timidity, and are only solicitous to reach a 
suitable locality to deposit their ova. No portion of this 
enquiry, as regards the non-migratory forms of fish, is more 
important than this, and the following are the answers 
received :—In the Panjib, in a few tchsils the trapping of 
breeding-fish in the irrigated fields is recorded. In Sind, 
partly due to its almost absence of rain, this species of fish- 
ing can searcely be carried on. In the North-Western Pro- 
vinces, breeding-fish and the fry are destroyed in every division, 
in any way in which they ean be procured (p. exlvi); 
even if the simple destruction of fry is not waste, they are 
also shown to be killed, and in places left to rot (p. exlix), 
as in damming hill streams; or at fishing weirs (p. clxi), 
where the large fish only are sold, the young left to 
perish and decay: or standing weirs are permitted to span 
whole rivers, and as the waters from above become unwhole- 
some, fish attempt in vain to descend, but the owners of these 
weirs allow no passage, andas they die in myriads, cart 
them off as manure (p. clxii.) Out of 16 answers 
from native officials as to whether fish are trapped during 
rains in irrigated fields, 38 state they are not, and 13 that 
they are. In Oudh, some of the native officials assert 
that breeding-fish are not trapped during the rains, and 20 
assert that they are in their districts. In the Bombay 
Presidency, every Collector who has answered this question 
(except Kaladghi) considers they are destroyed, and a native 
official in the Kaladghi Collectorate states they are in his 
district during the rains. In the Haidarabad Assigned 
Districts, but one opinion appearsto prevail, namely, that 
they are taken in every possible way, but in some districts 


( 42 ) 


trapping is not employed. In Mysor and Coorg, the native 
officials consider that fish, irrespective of time or condition, 
are captured in every conceivable manner. In Madras, 
trapping breeding-fish and young ones appears to be the rule. 
Fishing weirs are permitted to extend across whole rivers, 
not allowing even fry to pass; there is no close time what- 
ever anywhere. Damming and lading out and poisoning 
waters are freely resorted to for fishing purposes. At Midnapur 
(p. elxxxil), breeding-fish are said to be destroyed to a great 
extent ; in Burdwan (p. elxxxiii), they are largely taken for 
consumption; in fact, they are killed, it appears from the 
answers, throughout Bengal, whether in Orissa or in Assam. 
The parent fish being thus shown to be slaughtered when- 
ever and wherever procurable, it is necessary to enquire 
whether the /ry fare any better. In the Panjab, prior to 
the introduction of the present rules regulating the mini- 
mum size of the mesh at 14 inches between each knot, large 
numbers of young fish were sold as chilwas; the destruc- 
tion is considered to be now diminishing. In Oudh, it is 
asserted that in twenty districts fry are captured in large quan- 
tities, but that this does not take place in two; the reports 
from four native officials give 68,300 maunds of fry as yearly 
killed in their districts alone. If fry are calculated at 
one grain each, a destruction in four districts of up- 
wards of 14,000,000,000 grains of young fish, which, 
in less than a year, would, taking an average of the sorts, 
weigh as many pounds— so the opinion that nothing need be 
done may be open to dispute. In Bombay, the fry of fish 
appear to be almost universally captured throughout the 
rains. In the Haidarabad Assigned Districts the same uni- 
versal destruction is reported, as is it also in Mysor and 
Coorg. In the Madras Presidency, the fry are wastefully 
destroyed whenever and wherever they can be obtained ; nets 
that will catch a “ black-ant,” or detain a mosquito, or even 
the eggs of fish are recorded, whilst the interspace of the 
substances forming traps is said to be less. In Bengal, fry 
are stated not to be wastefully destroyed, but only to be eap- 
tured whenever they can be caught, either for eating or 
storing tanks with (p. elxxxi) ; as observes the Commissioner 
of Rajshahye (p. clxxxvi), bamboo contrivances for fish- 
catching «are in use in every paddy-field; in Assam 
(p. eexxix), ‘many of the river fish, some of which attain a 
large size, come annually up the smaller streams and deposit 
their spawn, and the young ones of these are during the 


( 43) 


rains dispersed over the surface of the country in rice-fields, 
swamps, drains and ditches. ‘These endeavour subsequently 
to make their way to the large rivers, but the dangers which 
beset them on the roadare more numerous than those which 
Bunyan’s Pilgrim had to encounter. In the shallow waters 
in the rice-fields, women and children may be seen in crowds, 
fishing with baskets termed jakai, through the interstices 
of which a tadpole could not pass. Those that escape this 
danger, and, following the flow of the water, arrive at one of 
the innumerable little bunds separating the various paddy- 
fields, find their further progress barred by funnel-shaped 
bamboo traps, through which the water is made to pass, but 
whose outlets are so small that only the most minute fish 
can get through. Tscaping to the smaller water-courses, their 
dangers seem to increase. The Assamese divide the chan- 
nels into sections by erecting bunds, and from one of these 
they proceed to bale out all the water, capturing every fish, 
Jarge and small: they then bund off another portion, and do 
likewise. ‘The fish finally arrive at the smaller rivers, find 
their exit barred by weirs, which will let nothing pass, and 
not content with this, the Assamese will sometimes resort to 
poison.” In Burma at Rangoon (p. cexxii), it is observed 
that the right to catch breeding-fish only is rented out in 
some parts, separate from the fishery itself; so further re- 
marks on how these fishes are treated in that province 
appear unnecessary. 
LVII. Seeing that a fish diet is popular throughout 
The snpply of fish in the India, thatthe markets are not sufli- 
fies rater ic scrcasiue ciently supplied, that the breed- 
ing-fishes are trapped ascending to their breeding-grounds, 
and the fry by every conceivable device, the question arises— 
Is the supply of fish in the fresh-water increasing, decreasing, 
or stationary? In the Panjab, out of 78 answers from 
different talookas, an increase is reported in 13, a stationary 
state in 82, and a decrease in 83. In Sind, no alteration. 
In the North-Western Provinces, out of 17 answers 
(p. exlv), 6 report a statiorary state, 10 a decrease, but some 
think the fisheries are recovering. In Oudh, 21 tehsildars 
report an increase in 8, stationary in 10, a decrease in 2, 
and doubtful in 1. In Bombay, that the fish in rivers and 
tanks have generally decreased during late years. In the 
Haidarabad Assigned Districts, there is only one opinion, 
which is, that they have decreased. In Mysor and 
Coorg, the great majority of reporters give a decrease; 


( 44) 


the rest that they continue stationary. In Madras, out of 
64 answers, 6 give an increase, 12a stationary state, and 46 
a large decrease or a decrease. 
LVI. Whose are these fisheries ? Those which are 
Fisheries, whose property they leasedout by Government of course are 
ies Government property; those in per- 
manently-settled districts likewise would unquestionably 
belong to the owners of the soil. But these are not the chief 
ones in many places. In whole districts no rents have been 
collected for a longer or shorfer number of years on philan- 
thropic grounds,—a license which has been abused by the 
people, who have taken the advantage of slaughtering every- 
thing they possibly can. Can this license be considered equi- 
valent to Government having given up their rights, or can 
they resume them? Paterson in hislegal work. The Fishery 
Laws of Great Britain, observes respecting inhabitants of 
towns in claiming a right to fish, on the ground of ancient 
custom :—‘‘ In such cases the acts of such anglers are more 
likely to be referable to the license of the owner, who, if he 
pleases, may allow all the public or a portion of the public 
to angle there. But no length of time, during which such 
acts are capable of being explained on the ground of license, 
can prevent the owner putting an end to such license. He 
may resume his original rights at any moment and withdraw 
the license, for no man ought to have his rights abridged by act- 
ing liberally towards the public and his neighbour” (para. CV). 
LIX. I now propose tracing out, from such records as 
Why British rules and regu. @¥e available, how it is that British 
lations have had a disastrous yule appears to have had a most 
ae a a disastrous effect upon the fresh-water 
fisheries of the Indian Empire. Jassume that it cannot now 
be denied (see para. LVIT) that the amount of fish in the fresh- 
waters has decreased, and is yearly diminishing ; but many of 
the reporters, erroneously as I believe, advance the opinion 
that fishing is carried on as it has been from time imme- 
morial, consequently laws are not required for regulating the 
mode of capturing the finny tribes. I do not think that fishing 
isnow what it was dwing native rule, but I believe it can be 
shown that great and most destructive innovations have been 
or are being permitted, and that the British, with the most 
philanthropic intentions, have given to the people license in 
fishing that has been greatly abused, and is now destroying the 
fisheries. The natives evidently perceive this themselves ; tlius, 
in the Central Provinces, the Tehsildar of Sironcha (para. 266) 


( 45 ) 


states that a decrease in the tank-produced fish is believed 
to have occurred since the district’ has formed a portion of 
the British territory : previously the people were prohibited 
from killing fish in tanks unless they paid some fees or share 
of fish to the local talukdar. If nallas are completely 
swept of fish, it is certain that the amount in the rivers will 
likewise fall off. The Tehsildar of Nursingpur (para. 264) 
remarks,—‘‘it is to this wholesale destruction of small fish 
that the fish have deereased.”’ In Madras, the 'ehsildar of 
Bhimavaram (para. 173) observes, that it cannot be ascer- 
tained if the fish have increased or decreased, ‘as every one 
is allowed to fish as he likes since the abolition of the renting 
system.” In the North-Western Provinces, three tehsildars 
in the Benares Division (p. clxxvii) consider that fish have 
decreased, “owing to the indiscriminate destruction of the 
young.” 
LX. How were fisheries worked under native rule ?— 
Fisheries, how worked under 18 & question that but few have 
native rule. thrown any light upon; but still it 
appears that it is possible to ascertain this,* and that fisheries 
formed royalties, mostly let out to contractors, who alone in 
the districts possessed the right to sell fish, and that they 
permitted the people on payment (para. 7) to capture fish 
for their own consumption. In fact, it was a license on pay- 
ment resumable at will, as in the British law (see para. 88). 
temains of this custom still exist at Lahore (para. 27), and 
the leasing of fisheries is even now pursued in many portions 
of the Indian Empire. Thus, if the following reports are 
looked through, it will be seen that the Deputy Commis- 
sioner of Kangra (para. 30), in suggesting what steps are 
advisable in future with reference to the fisheries in his 
district, observes, these measures must be practically a system 
of Government preserves, such as was always in force in the 
time of the Rajahs, partly by giving licenses to monopolists 
to supply the market, and partly by licenses for fishing with 
small nets for home consumption and not for sale. At 
Lahore, as already remarked, the system still exists, and none 
but the contractor may obtain fish for sale, and no one is 
permitted to sell this article unless it goes through his hands. 
Also Burma, where it appears pretty clear (p. exciii) that in 
the time of native rule, this identical plan was carried on, there 


* A moat useful enquiry would be—how were fisheries under native rule worked in your 


district ? But the investigation would be troublesome, and probably trustworthy answers 
could not be obtained. 


( 46 ) 


were no free fisheries, but people were licensed to fish for home 
consumption on payment of a stipulated sum yearly to the 
contractor. In the Himalayas (p. clvii), it is observed that 
“ the right of erecting weirs was not, I believe, carried on to 
the same extent in former days asnow. They were not then 
so regularly or so generally made, and were not of the same 
impassible nature as those now erected.” ‘The people 
living high up one of our rivers, an affluent of the Alek- 
nunda, complained to me that, owing to the number of weirs, 
they found that very few fish can find their way ap as far as 
their villages” (p. elvi), In Mysor and Coorg, I was in- 
formed that under native rule indiscriminate fishing was not 
permitted: contractors held the fisheries, and those not fisher- 
men, who wished to capture fish for their own consumption but 
not for sale, had to pay forsuch license. It appears to me that, 
however beneficial our rule may have been in some respects, it 
is most disastrous to fisheries, and future generations will have 
even more reason to complain than those of the present time, if 
we do not revert to native precedent, modified by British law, 
not as proposed in India, but as existing in England. Lastly, 
I would draw attention to the fact, that even in places where 
Government permits an unlimited license, the native land- 
owners do not, but raise an income from if. ‘Thus, in Bom- 
bay (para. 97), it is stated in Wallubpurand Waree, which are 
on the banks of the Myhee, and are talookdaree villages, the 
Thakoos who are proprietors of them receive a third share of 
the fish caught within those limits. In the Central Provin- 
ces (para. 258), it is observed that in some portions of these 
provinces the land-owners claim the right to fishing in the 
rivers and streams running through their estates, and receive 
fees from fishermen resorting tothem. It seems to be held 
by some officials that, as of late years license to fish has been 
permitted without the exaction of rent, therefore this 
license may have obtained the force of right defensible by a 
civil action by “ the exercise of long practice having converted 
it into communal rights,’— an error in law, as it will be seen 
(para. 130) as no length of time can prevent an owner, in 
which position Government stands, from putting an end to 
such license. It will be perceived in the resolutions of the 
Madras Revenue Board that the fisheries may be thrown 
open to the public by their orders, and now the right of 
Government to interfere with this license is questioned, 
whereas, if it could have been legally permitted, why is it 
not legally resumable ? 


(us) 
LXI. How are fisheries worked under British rule ?— 


How fisheries aro worked Comes next for consideration. In 
onder British rule, permanently-settled estates, unless a 
stipulation exists, of course they go with the land. In some 
places the adjacent villagers or people are considered to 
possess certain communal rights with respect to them, in 
many cases, I suspect, through a misapprehension; thus, 
when proved that a land-owner has only received one-third 
or two-thirds of the proceeds, it appears to have been ruled 
that the remainder is the property of the neighbouring 
people, whereas in reality it only expressed the share of 
the fisherman in re-payment for his labour in taking the 
fish. It is the rule in India and Burma to remunerate by 
the proceeds obtained: sometimes the fisherman has to sell 
his share to the contractor or lessee at a given rate; more 
rarely the fish are sold, and he obtains a proportion of the 
money, or he may have it in kind. I do not propose enter- 
ing upon how the fisheries have been or are being Ict, but 
regarding any regulations which exist in regard to the pro- 
tection of the fish from wasteful destruction, and how license to 
capture the finny tribes has gradually crept in, until it has 
become a great abuse. In but few localities has it been 
stated that Government have never received some share of 
the fisheries, although such has been collected in different 
modes, either by selling direct, which is letting or leasing, or 
by a moturfau tax, which is clearly a license to net, either in 
the form of a capitation tax on the fisherman, or one on his 
implement of chase, identical with the tax now imposed in 
fishery districts in England, and has nothing whatever to do 
with letting the fishery. In fact, it is the same as a person who 
takes out a license to use a gun, but that license gives him 
no right to trespass on his neighbour’s property to shoot his 
game. It may be generally asserted that Government have, 
until of late years, exercised their right as landlord in letting 
their fisheries, but they have not regulated in any way how 
those fisheries should have been worked, and at Jast, in many 
places, came to the decision to permit an unlimited license, 
perhaps partly due to the deterioration in their value. Thus, 
in Madras, the moturfa tax was abolished, and this doubtless 
in districts was equivalent to, amongst the fishermen, 
permitting them to capture fish without payment in any of 
the Government waters; and by the orders of the Revenue 
Board in 1849, it will be seen (para. 146) many leased fisheries 
were given up to the general public. ‘This intended boon has 


( 48) 


eventuated in their almost depopulation, now termed “a free 
industry,” and with which it is proposed “no interference 
should be permitted,” although their almost ruined state 
must be evident in many localities where such license has been 
allowed. ‘The absolute giving-up of fresh-water fisheries to 
the people without any restrictions, experience, in every part 
of the globe, shows, always eventuates in their utter annilhila- 
tion. ‘These ‘ free industries’ would be more aptly termed 
“free poaching,” or ‘ wasteful destruction,” and as such, I 
consider, strongly to be condemned, and for the following 
reasons :—That numerous individuals now fritter away their 
time on these fisheries instead of working at their legitimate 
occupations, and, whilst doing so, are being permitted to poach 
the breeding-fish and fry as freely as they please—a license 
which they are not slow in availing themselves of. I assert 
that this is one of the chief causes of the present decrease of this 
description of animal food (para. LVII), and that it is not only 
unfair to the fisheries, but also to the legitimate fishermen, 
whose occupation in many places is now a thing of the past. I 
believe this free fishing has been one, if not the principal, cause 
why they are in such an impoverished condition, and that 
doing good to the fisheries will not only tend to augment the 
food-supply to the general good, but also to improve the present 
condition of the fishermen. If it is still decided that these 
fisheries shall be continued open to all, and their comparative 
utter annihilation is not wished for, restrictionsas to the use 
of fixed engines, poisoning of waters, and perhaps the size 
of the meshes of the nets employed, &c., will have to be laid 
down by authority, and to see them properly carried out, 
watchers or water-bailiffs would be necessary. It appears 
almost ludicrous, were it not lamentable, to observe many 
well-informed officials, who, in the following reports, have 
given their opinions, very strongly, that it will be hard on the 
people if Government issue any regulations to protect their 
own fisheries from a threatened destruction, and that the 
license now permitted and so grossly abused should be allow- 
ed to be continued in every species of poaching manner and 
without limitation. Ifrules are to be framed and carried out, 
who is to pay for them ?—if the general tax-payer, then the 
very existence of these fisheries would be a pecuniary bur- 
den. In Great Britain, this plan is not pursued,—there, local 
taxation (irrespective of rent) on the fishermen (a moturfa 
tax) is raised for this purpose. The Collector of Madras 
(para. 147) believes “the Secretary of State ruled that the 


( 49 ) 


right of fishing was not to be rented out, except where the 
practice had been previously in vogue ;”’ but as this rule was 
promulgated in 1849, ten years prior to the appointment 
of a Secretary of State for India, I am inclined to think it 
was the Revenue Board’s orders that were alluded to, as the 
despatch cannot be found. Lastly, Burma will be especially 
interesting as the country which has most recently come 
under British rule. The * Ben Thoogyee”’ was the contractor, 
who alone might obtain fish for sale, and he permitted the 
public, on a stipulated payment (generally, I understood, 
one rupee yearly for every house), to take fish for their own 
consumption, but not for sale. At the present time 
(p. ecix), creeks not claimed by the fishery lessees fall to 
the share of the villagers, who forthwith choke them up 
in all directions with small dams. It appears, under the 
Burmese Government, dams were not allowed in any of 
the main streams. In the year 1861, the fishery laws 
in Burma were passed, and from this date I believe 
injuries to fisheries may be chiefly dated. From this period, 
I was informed, the practice of employing fixed engines in 
irrigated fields and water-courses, untaxed, commenced ; weirs 
have largely augmented, any one being allowed to take fish 
any way he pleases, without payment, for home consump- 
tion, whilst no regulations were instituted for the protection 
of the fisheries from wasteful destruction. Irrespective of this, 
certain localities were set aside as free fisheries. The result 
is, that the fish are reported to be decreasing ; for, if it is for 
one moment considered as to what such a course inevitably 
eventuates in, surely it must be admitted that unlimited 
license will cause unlimited waste. If persons may help 
themselves as they please, they will take those captured with 
the least trouble, and thus breeding-fish and fry are destroyed 
where they should be preserved. The people cannot be 
blamed for this ; fishermen will do it, whether in Europe or 
in India, if so permitted. 

LXIL. The fishermen who carry on their occupations 
in the fresh-waters, or above where the 
tide ebbs and flows, are divisible into 
those who follow it out as a single means of livelihood, or 
merely as an occasional one, subsidiary to other employ- 
ments. The first question, then, for consideration is— /Vho 
are the fishermen? Here, again, great innovations have 
crept in. Under native rule distinct crafts or castes followed 
this occupation, at least in the plains, and still remnants of 
fishing classes, transferred from one portion of India to 

dD 


The fishermen, 


(50,5) 


another, can be traced. At Combaconum in Madras, “ tradi- 
tion asserts that this race of men were originally brought by 
some Hindu Rajah as bearers from Conjeveram.” At Broach 
in Bombay (p. lvi), two sub-divisions of the fishing caste have 
‘obtained their names from the villages whence they emi- 
grated.” Again, the moturfa tax in Madras affected all 
fishermen, being a species of capitation tax, or one on their 
trade or the implements with which it was being carried out, 
and the abrogation of this must have eventuated in many 
more persons following the occupation, especially as rents 
were also remitted in Madras. In the present day, “ there is 
scarcely anywhere a numerous and distinct class dependant 
this pursuit for subsistence ” (p. xx). That such is the case, an 
example is furnished in the Panjab, where taxes on fishing nets 
have been imposed, with the result that ‘ the new regulations 
are admitted on all hands to have had a good effect in presery- 
ing the fish, whilst the fishermen have decreased.” In Mysor, 
in the time of Hyder Ali, very stringent fishing laws existed, 
whereas now, we are informed, in the Nundidrug Division 
(p. ev), about two-thirds of the population fish occasionally, 
in addition to their other occupations. Nearly every ryot 
keeps a net, to be used as occasion or opportunity arises. In 
British Burma, fishermen must have increased since the 
period when every one has been authorised to catch fish,with- 
out payment, for home consumption, but not for sale, whereas 
formerly the contractor received payment for such. In 
short, in the time when districts were let, the contractors 
would not have been so short-sighted as to permit the genera! 
destruction now so freely carried on. At present every onc 
encroaches on the fishermen’s calling, who, seeing others 
slaughtering breeding-fish and fry, do the same: as 
remarked to mein Burma,—why should we save them if others 
kill them P—or in the Panjab, where they complained that 
their nets with 14-inch meshes could not take fry, whereas sucli 
were permitted to be sold in the bazar by people not fisher- 
men. The result has been in most parts of India that thi 
fisheries have become almost ruined, and amongst the argu. 
ments against action advanced in Madras exists this—that thi 
fresh-water fishermen ave amongst the most impoverished 
class of the community—a result to be anticipated, and i 
consequence of indiscriminate fishing. In fact, in some place: 
they have had to give up their calling: in the Central Pro. 
vinces (p. exxiv), many have ceased to follow their origina) 
occupation owing to the demand for well-paid labour develope 
by the railway. In Madras (p. lxxxii), “ fewer men are sai 


(7 LE) 


to fish than formerly, but the rise of wages has more to 
do with it than the falling-off of fish.’ In Assam 
(p. cexxviii), “fish has become of late years much dearer in 
Durrung ; the fisheries are falling in value, and many of the 
Dome fishermen are, in consequence, I believe, taking to 
agricultural pursuits.” The same is seen in Orissa. Fisher- 
men who follow this calling as a supplement to other means 
of support have no interest in protecting fisheries, but only 
in procuring for themselves as much as they can, and when- 
ever they can. Such are the fishermen of the Panjab 
(p. iv), where they are stated to number 10,450 (p. viii) : 
also of Bombay, in which presidency “few, if any, of 
the foregoing, numbering upwards of 50,000, are solely 
engaged in fishing, but they also follow other occupations” 
(p. xxxv). In Madras, the fishermen are, as a rule, 
agriculturists, palanquin bearers, small traders, coolies and 
others who carry on this pursuit when not engaged in their 
ordinary avocations, and as there are no restrictions, their 
only idea is to obtain what they can, when they can. 
Were all the fisheries ruined, it would not pecuniarily 
affect them, except in a secondary degree, as their living is 
not dependant upon fishing. The number of persons recorded 
as solely fishermen in the inland waters appears to be under 
200 persons (p. lxiv). In Mysor and Coorg, the fishermen 
who pursue that trade seem to be few, but those who fish in 
addition to other avocations appear to be very numerous 
(p. ci): the same may be said of Haidarabad (p. eviii): the 
Central Provinces (p. exv): Oudh (p. exxvii) and the North- 
West Provinces (p. cxlv). In Bengal (p. clxxx), the fisher- 
men, or people who fish, consist of three classes,—firsé, 
regular fishermen who are exclusively employed as such ; 
secoudly, the wives of the men of some castes who fish whilst 
their husbands pursue other occupations ; thirdly, the general 
population. Thus, in Burdwan, out of 20,000 persons com- 
puted as capturers of fish, one-third are stated to be exclu- 
sively employed as such: in Hoogli, there are considered to 
be 8,000 fishermen by trade. It is as we approach the sea- 
board, and where large fish can ascend from the ocean, 
and man has not yet managed to largely ruin the fisheries, 
that we find the greatest proportion of people exclusively 
fishermen. In Burma (p. exevi), the people are of necessity 
boatmen and by choice fishermen. ‘The present state 
of the fresh-water fishermen of India, as regards what 
would be the effect of legislation upon their calling, 
may be summed up in the words of the Officiating 


Commissioner, West Berar, (p. cx), “that whatever 
restrictiun may be imposed, no class of people will be so 
affected as to interfere with their means of livelihood.” If 
the fisheries are improved the fishing classes will be largely 
benefitted, and those localities possessing the best stocked 
waters (other things being equal) will have the most fisher- 
men as a distinct class, because following this occupation 
is easier than agricultural pursuits, although the exposure 
is perhaps greater. Fishermen are an improvident class, 
and in India, whether Hindus or Mahomedans, are low 
in the social scale, whilst in British Burma, as Bud- 
dists, they are charitably doomed by the more righte- 
ous of the sect to eternal perdition in the next state of 
existence. 
LXIII. The most economical way of working fisheries is 
Fishermen, how they work by persons who make fishing a distinct 
fisheries, occupation, provided there is a suffi- 
ciency of work. They may be divided into the contractors or 
lessees, who become tenants of rivers or portions of them, 
canals, tanks or jhils, often having sub-partners, who take 
shares in the fishery, and are remunerated by a proportion 
either of the captures, or else of the money received for such, 
after the payment of the rent and other expenses. Some have 
coolies or paid servants, who either receive a stipulated sum 
a day in money and fish, or else a certain or proportionate 
amount of the captured fish, which they dispose of: and these 
persons may be kept on regularly for merely the fishing sea- 
son, or only occasionally as more hands are required. Second- 
ly, there are those who, on payment of a license fee, are per- 
mitted to fish in the Government waters otherwise unlet. 
Thirdly, when the fisheries are declared free to all, and every 
one is allowed to capture the fish as suits his convenience best. 
Lastly, the general population may be given the right to take 
sufficient for home consumption where they like, and how 
they please, provided they neither sell nor preserve it. Con- 
tractors almost invariably give the workers a personal inter- 
est in the takes, and, whether sub-partners or coolies, they 
generally have to provide their own nets, and for this purpose 
the lessce or a banian advances money to purchase the raw 
material, and thus the coolie becomes irrevocably involved in 
debt. In some districts the fishing is free to every one with- 
out any restrictions. ‘his may be due to several independ- 
ent causes, such as tie difficulty in making the fishing 
remunerative, owing to the rapidity of the current in rivers 
or canals: to the paucity of fish, as in some hill streams and 


(putes) 


depopulated rivers: the depth of tanks, or the presence of 
foreign substances as roots, trees, &c., or the poverty of the 
general population. In most of such districts, it is usually 
seen that fishing is not followed out as a distinct employ- 
ment, whilst the mesh of the nets is as small as the rapidity 
of the current will allow to be used. Sometimes, even in 
districts where the fishing is, or was good, the general 
public have been permitted to act as fishermen, whether 
adults, throughout the year, or only during the rains, 
and even women and children assist, or a species of 
scramble occurs as to who shall get the most—a plan 
which soon eventuates in the poverty of fisheries, for only 
the conscience of the fisherman stands between them and 
their greed, the latter, as might be anticipated, rapidly 
gaining the mastery. With the deterioration of these 
fisheries the fishermen become poorer and poorer, unless 
they turn to other sources of earning money. At first, no 
doubt, pleased at not having to pay rent, and all restrictions 
being removed, they employ redoubled energy, and increase 
their profits; but soon the population find they may fish as 
well as the fishermen, and, taking advantage of this per- 
mission, the supply becomes temporarily augmented, the price 
slightly falling, At the end of one or two years, fish become 
much scarcer, and those who, for a time became fishermen, 
revert to their legitimate calling. As soon as the young fish 
are moving about, or shortly after the monsoons have set in, 
the wives of these men are sent out fishing, and they, with 
the aid of their children, obtain myriads of fry from every 
sheltered spot to where these small and immature fish retire 
for shelter and security, they not being able to face strong 
currents or live in deep waters. Every device that can be 
imagined is now called into action ; ee which will not 
permit a mosquito to pass, are employed; even the use of 
cloths is called into exercise. The sides of the rivers are 
denuded of fish, so far as human agency can contrive it. 
Neither are the agricultural population idle; they construct 
wicker-work traps, baskets, and nets; these traps do not 
permit anything to pass: a fish, once in, cannot return, as 
they resemble rat traps, having an easy entrance, but, once 
in, retreat becomes impossible. So soon as mature fish 
commence passing up the small water-courses at the sides of 
the rivers and streams, these traps come into play, and the 
breeding-fish are taken. The few which escape are not yet 
safe, for, as they return and the fry move about, these traps 
are reversed, so that every fish, down to those of the most 


( 54 ) 


minute size, attempting to pass down these water-courses 
towards the rivers or tanks, become entrapped. In irrigated 
fields, where it becomes necessary to throw water from a 
lower to the higher levei, a basket is fixed to receive it and 
through which it passes, thus acting as a strainer; all the 
fish in it become a prey to the agriculturist. Nets of the 
most divers forms are likewise employed, some being fixed, 
others held in the hand, but all uniting in one character—that 
they allow nothing to escape. In short, by not letting or 
regulating fisheries, there is no headman or lessee whose 
interest it is to prevent injury to his property, by the 
slaughter of the breeding-fishes and the destruction of their 
young: self-interest does not exist, the only certain cause 
to prevent their annihilation. In British Burma, this trap- 
ping of fish in the breeding season was locally sanction- 
ed, and in general use, without being taxed, it, as well as 
still more murderous forms, if possible, existed in 1869, 
and probably do so now. Even through the inundated 
paddy-fields, which are the known haunts of the fry of 
fish, the Burmese were being permitted to use an easy and 
very destructive apparatus. No distinct channels being 
present in which to place traps, while the ground was too 
rough for netting, besides the water being low, a large 
triangular-shaped basket was employed, and this, being 
harnessed to a pair of bullocks or buffaloes, was dragged 
through these muddy retreats of the fry. And how does 
this principle of throwing open the fisheries, without any 
restrictions, answer in practice? It results in decreasing 
the fish, and consequently diminishing the food of whole 
districts. Water should be as valuable as land for producing 
food, whilst indiscriminate farming is not permitted; were 
it, any farmer could easily foretell the result—how the strong 
would hold the richest lands, which, when exhausted, they 
would leave and move on somewhere else. There are districts, 
as British Burma, in which certain portions of the waters 
were set apart in every locality as free fisheries, where 
any one might fish, and these have been supplemented by a 
rule that any one may capture sufficient for home consump- 
tion, where they liked and how they pleased, provided they 
did not sell or preserve the spoil. Here we observe sucl: 
fishers could have no interest in the welfare of the fishery, but 
would be merely intent on capturing, with the least possibl« 
trouble, sufficient for household wants. During the monsoon: 
season they place traps in every likely run wherein breeding 
fish may pass up narrow entrances, in order to reach suitabl 


(Oe ») 


places wherein to deposit their eggs: they likewise slaughter 
the young fish by every simple contrivance when they begin 
fo move about, and thus extensive damage to fisheries is 
oceasioned. ‘To all persons possessing fisheries, the protec- 
lion of these young fish should be an object, so that in due 
season they may be able to recapture a remunerative number 
of adults: but seeing the fry generally destroyed, and aware 
that if they do not take when they can what they are able, 
as others are not so particular, they unfortunately often join 
in this suicidal occupation, thus assisting in the depopulation 
of fisheries, and, when too late, lament the state of affairs, but 
never admit that it is in a great measure owing to their greed, 
whilst the idea of their destruction they philosophically con- 
sider must affect the rising and not the present generation. 
Even when there are no restrictions, nor rent to be paid, 
lishermen after a time often discover the advantage of plying 
their occupation in concert, especially with other fishermen. 
[t is by no means unfrequent for large bodies of villagers to 
proceed at certain seasons of the year to rivers which can 
he easily bunded, and there to kill every fish they are able. 
Amongst all the foregoing classes of fishermen, amongst 
every caste and creed, the invariable rule appears to obtain, 
to get everything they are able to-day, irrespective of the 
season, condition, or size of the fish, and entirely oblivious 
to the next year’s supply. I do not, however, see that the 
natives, in acting thus, are more rapacious than fishermen 
have been or would be in England, were the fresh-water 
fisheries declared public property, and every one permitted 
to work them in any way he pleased, without any sort of 
restrictions being imposed. It becomes simply a scramble 
on the principle—‘ Should I not catch them, somebody else 
will.” Neither do I think the fishermen, as described, are 
more greedy than persons following other occupations: thus, 
it is stated by Colonel Campbell, respecting the Orissa 
range of hills:—‘ Of the science of agriculture the people 
know absolutely nothing ; they exhaust the soil with unin- 
termitted crops until the land is barren, then they abandon 
their fields, and clear fresh jungle for future crops.’ ‘The 
fishermen are not more far-seeing than the forester or 
the agriculturist, thinking of only to-day’s wants, regardless 
of to-morrow’s requirements ; they only carry out, when 
able, in the rivers the same description of misapplied energy, 
until nothing but small fish remain, and the young have to 
be raised from ova deposited by parents of two or at the 


( 56) 


most three years of age, the more mature ones having heen 
destroyed. And what is the result of this mode of treating 
fisheries, as regards the fisherman? Would prohibiting the 
wasteful destruction of breeding and young fish benefit or 
ruin their occupation P I am compelled to enter rather 
fully upon this question, as the well-worn epithet experience 
is so often advanced, and that without any arguments to 
back it, that the fisheries should be let alone, the fisher- 
men being permitted to continue fishing as they always 
have done, such having been in operation for centuries, and 
still fish being present in the fresh-waters. It will, however, 
be apparent that such arguments entirely evade the points 
at issue, as they asswme that the fishermen continue fishing 
as they have done from immemorial ages without any im- 
provement in their means of capture: it also takes for grant- 
ed thatthe captors of fish, the times employed in fishing, as 
well as the fish-eating population, have remained stationary ; 
and, lastly, that the fisheries are in an equally good condition 
under the sway of Europeans, who mostly do not notice the 
fresh-water fish, as they were in times gone-by, when natives 
ruled who esteemed this article of food, and doubtless gave 
protection to this legitimate source of revenue. The first 
assumption being improbable, the second, doubtless, incor- 
rect, and the last in well-populated districts being directly 
opposed to the result of recent investigations. Even the 
exponents of the let-alone system have not attempted to 
demonstrate that these waters, where small fish are being 
so wastefully destroyed, are insufficient to support a very 
much larger number than they now contain. Every practi- 
cal fisherman will assert they are, as a rule, insufficiently 
stocked, and if such is the case, as I have no doubt it is, 
and the fish were permitted fair play, a very much increased 
supply would be the result. And what, it may be enquired, 
would be the effect on the fisherman were restrictive rules 
sanctioned, as regards his prospects? Doubtless, many of 
the women and children, who now destroy myriads of 
fry and small fish, would have to cease such occupa- 
tions, whilst agriculturists also would be unable to trap the 
breeding-fish and fry in the paddy or irrigated fields. hese, 
however, would be temporary inconveniences, and would cease 
with the season. One of the important results would, 
however, be a vast increase in the non-migratory fishes, and 
a considerable augmentation in this article of food, more 
especially during the cold months. These rules being 


general would be equally fair to all, and complaints could 
not exist that the young fish, which were being protected 
in one part, were being destroyed in another. If the sale of 
the fry or fish under a certain size were illegal, much good 
might also be effected, especially in the breeding season; and 
this would not injuriously affect the regular fisherman, but 
quite the reverse. IEf fairly worked, the result must be an 
increase of the amount of fish in the fresh-waters, and with 
such at first the fisherman’s gains will be much augmented, 
because the price will not fall so rapidly as the fisheries im- 
prove. Perhaps an increased supply would at first cause 
decreased price; but such can never occur to any great ex- 
tent, where the price of fish in the bazar is regulated by the 
cost of mutton, which is unlikely to become cheaper; so the 
fisheries must improve in value in accordance with the care 
bestowed upon them, Should rent remain unraised, a great 
increase in prosperity ought to be in store for this, at present, 
poor class of persons, irrespective of the good which will be 
felt by the general community in having a considerable 
increase of wholesome animal food, and that obtained with- 
out any corresponding pecuniary outlay, but simply by 
making use of means now at hand, but at present left almost 
uncared for. 


Fixep ENGINEs. 


LXIV. Fixed engines employed in the capture of fresh- 
water fish are thus defined in the 
fishery laws of England,—* stake- 
nets, bag-nets, putts, putchers and all fixed implements or 
engines for catching or facilitating the catching of fish,’’ and 
“the section confers a power on any one of the public, 
whether interested or not, to destroy a fixed engine, and 
therefore he is not liable to an action for trespass for doing 
so.’ Fixed engines employed in India are mainly divisible 
into two varieties, (1) those manufactured of cotton, hemp, 
aloe fibre, coir or some such material; and (2) others con- 
structed of split bamboo, rattan, reed, grass or some more or 
less inelastic substances. 
LXV. Fixed engines manufactured of cotton or elastic 
Fixed engines of clastic IMaterials would include all stake- 
materials. nets, but when the meshes are of 
a fair size they may be considered as legitimate means 
when properly employed for the capture of fish, unless they 
are true fresh-water ones migrating for breeding purposes. 


Fixed engines. 


( 58 ) 


When these fixed nets have fairly-sized meshes their 
use does not call for notice, except so far as to deprecate 
their employment in weired rivers not far below those con- 
structions. But in some of these fixed nets the size of the 
meshes is so minute that no fish can pass; there it stands 
immoveably fixed across a whole water-way capturing every- 
thing, as the water is literally strained through it. ‘The 
meshes have been described as so minute that a big black- 
ant could not pass, or that they would arrest a tama- 
rind or a mustard seed, and several Europeans observe 
on their being about the size of mosquito curtain net. 
Thus (p. xiii) an instance is adduced in the Panjab of 
how a whole drove of mahaseer were captured by fixing 
a net across a river and dragging another down to it, which 
caused wholesale destruction, and as a consequence there was 
little or no rod-fishing that season. In fact, this mode of 
capturing all the fish in certain portions of rivers is common 
in India. In Amritsar, the moveable net is stated to be 
dragged as much asa mile to the fixed one (p. xxv): at 
Mettapolliam, in the Coimbatore district of Madras, an 
identical plan used to be pursued. In the Broach Collec- 
torate of Bombay (p. xliv), nets are fixed across the stream 
shaped like a wall: some have a bag in the middle. In 
Ratnagiri (p. liv) the practice of throwing nets across 
creeks and rivers has done much to diminish the number of 
fish. In the Central Provinces at Jabalpur (p. exxiv), two 
large nets are taken towards one central point, towards 
which the fish are driven by beating the water and noises 
of all sorts: or on a moonlight night a net is fixed 
across a stream and the fish driven into it (p. exxiil). 
Even the greatest adherent of “communal” and _ prescrip- 
tive rights, or for permitting unlimited massacre of small fish, 
must admit that a net which will arrest the spawn of a frog, 
permanently fixed across a whole water-way, down which the 
fry must descend with the receding floods, before they can 
obtain access to a river, can hardly be conducive to the 
prosperity of a fishery. But as it may be suggested that 
surely such wholesale destruction cannot be going on un- 
checked in many places, [ must here advert to where such 
practices are in vogue, and for this purpose, it will only be 
necessary to refer to a few of the appended reports. ‘There 
is hardly a district in India (Sind, portions of Burma, and 
parts of the Panjab excepted) where these fine-meshed nets 
are not employed as fixe engines. Likewise, as the floods 


( 59 ) 


subside, earthen banks are constructed across water-courses, 
each with an artificial opening cut for the current to pass ; 
here a purse-net with minute meshes is firmly fixed, and all 
the descending fish are captured ; this is employed in Bombay 
(p. xxxvil) : in Madras, in the Central Provinces (p. exxiii-iv), 
and in fact in every place where such is possible, unless 
wicker traps are preferred. Or these fine-meshed nets may 
be fixed to the sluice of atank (p. Ixxix), so that the 
water that is let out for irrigation purposes passes through it, 
all the fish being arrested. Or at the yearly subsidence of the 
floods which extend miles across the country, the water being 
stocked with fry, bunds are raised, with an opening for the 
escape of the water: but here a purse-net prevents any exit for 
the young fish, consequently, as the waters will be entirely 
drained off leaving the fields dry, the fry has only to select 
whether it will be captured in the purse-net, or perish in the 
drying-up fields. These nets of various forms and many 
names are likewise fixed in the supply channels (p. xevii) 
in irrigated fields, and nothing escapes them, especially as 
the water is not always flowing, so what is easier, when 
the channel is full, than to fix a fine net across its entire 
breadth, so that all the fish which have passed up for breed- 
ing or feeding purposes are unable to return as the water is 
being cut off? In the North-Western Provinces, “fish are 
lelied, more or less, throughout the year, but the largest 
numbers are taken towards the end of the rainy season. As 
the waters fall, countless lakes or pools of all sizes are formed 
on the low lands by the rivers. These, which were, during 
the floods, mere extensions of the streams, now become lakes 
with one narrow exit to the river. Across this, nets are 
stretched, or a weir of grass constructed, and every fish that 
has wandered up becomes a certain prey” (p. clx). 
LXVI. Fixed engines constructed of non-elastic sub- 
Fishing weirs of non-elastic Stances are, however, still more 
substances. How breeding-fish (destructive to fish than those made 
sroceoret of net, and which are more liable to 
rents. The different forms are so numerous, whilst so many 
are fully described in the appendix, that a reference to them 
is all that is needed, their general design being only neces- 
sary to allude to, before commencing ‘which, 1 may remark 
on the favour they are held in Europe. Fishing weirs, which 
prevent fish obtaining a free passage up a river, were pro- 
nounced by the Lord Chief Justice of England to be “ illegal 
and a public nuisance.” ‘The size of the interstices between, 


( 60 ) 


the substances of which weirs are composed, appears to be 
everywhere much the same, whether examined in the ghats 
of Canara, the yomas of Pegu, the Himalayas or the plains 
of India and Burma, and that size is about sufficient to 
permit water to flow, obstructing every fish attempting to 
pass. rst, ave the weirs in the hilly districts or contiguous 
localities erected simply for fishing ?—this is usually done 
as the violence of the monsoon floods subside, and the 
rush of the mountain torrent has decreased to that extent 
that these erections are not liable to be swept away. It is 
to the hills as already remarked (para. XXXVI) that some 
of the most valuable of the carps of India proceed to breed ; 
in fact, such are the only localities well adapted for the 
reception of the eggs of a few species, and where their young 
should be reared in quietude. Where irrigation weirs exist 
en route to these hills as I have already observed (para. 12), 
they serve to impede or arrest this upward progress of 
the fish, some entirely so (para. 12), others to a lesser degree. 
Even at some of these irrigation weirs trapping these fish 
goes on, and in fact, in many places they experience the 
greatest difficulty in reaching their spawning grounds. But 
some overcome the difficulty of ascent, a few deposit their 
spawn, and now the force of the water lessens ; it occasionally 
becomes a little clear, and one may as well follow the course 
of the parent fish trying to descend to the larger rivers of the 
plains. Here spearing; snagging, netting, angling, &c., are 
omitted, but only the existence of fixed engines will be investi- 
gated. Weirs are now raised every few miles, absolutely strain- 
ing the whole of the water of these hill streams, whilst in every 
one are traps. The probabilities are that the great majority 
of mahaseer that reach the rivers of the plains are the last 
year’s fry which have fortunately escaped destruction during 
the dry months, and with the first floods, when the standing 
weirs have been washed away, they have obtained a free high- 
way. But the breeding-fish are unable to descend owing to 
the present poaching practices permitted, and due to fishing 
weirs being allowed, as the force of the floods abate, to 
extend across all the streams in order to arrest their down- 
ward passage. In the Himalayas (p. clvi), ‘ weirs are erected 
as soon as the monsoon begins to cease, and they remain 
in existence till carried away by the first floods in the rains. 
They are placed usually at the tail of each pool, and there 
is almost always one at the junction of two rivers, thus 
entirely preventing fish running up till the weir is carried 


( 61 ) 


away by a flood” Another plan is to convert simple irriga- 
tion weirs into fishing ones as well (p. cliv), by placing at 
intervals from three to four feet, on such weirs, conical- 
shaped baskets, the point of the cone being below, and the 
open mouth of the cone on a level with the weir. This 
device is chiefly successful at night. The baskets are 
generally placed where the stream is strongest, and an 
unwary fish coming too close, finds himself hurled into a 
basket from which it is quite impossible to escape. But not 
only in the course of hill streams as they descend, but also 
after they have arrived in the low country, has the descend- 
ing breeding-fish to run the gauntlet of fishing weirs that 
have no open time, whilst interstices between its component 
parts would arrest the most minute fry. The following is 
the plan of these constructions above South Canara (p. xci), 
annually adopted by the Coorgs to capture the fish returning 
from spawning. <A lineof strong stakes is driven in across 
the full breadth of a river, the highway of these fish; split 
bamboos are interlaced, making it like a hurdle, and the 
whole faced with bushes; no fish whatever can pass, the 
water is merely strained through. Gaps, however, are 
formed, every one of which is fitted with a basket-trap 
or cruive from one to twelve feet in length. These are 
made on the mouse-trap principle, allowing an entrance, but 
having springy bamboo spikes projecting inside, which 
prevent any exit. Wicker traps are likewise placed across 
convenient rapids, and so constructed that no fish ean 
descend without passing into them, and these are examined 
twice daily. Or should there be no rapids, such are formed 
by laying stones in a V-shape across a stream, and at 
the apex of this is one of these traps. Or a mountain 
river is conducted down a slope into a large concave 
basket, so that descending fish are pitched into it, and 
speedily suffocated by the rushing water or other falling 
fish acting like a succession of blows, preventing their ever 
rising up again. In the Central Provinces (p. exxi), it 
is reported from Jabalpur that breeding-fish are taken 
in weirs thrown across the large rivers, and in the nar- 
rows of them before the monsoons: nothing can pass, 
whilst traps are also set up in shallow places. ‘The Magis- 
trate of Goruckpur (p. clix) gives a description of one 
which he examined. ‘'The dam resembles a screen made of 
common reed: the reeds are so close together that the 
smallest fry can hardly get through, and the dam is further 


plastered at its foot with mud, and strengthened with matting, 
so that no passage exists for anything. In mid-stream the 
screen opens into a long and narrow passage, walled and 
floored with the same materials, and this terminates in a 
basket, which is a hamper made of reeds, into which a small 
orifice in the side gives admittance to fish beneath the 
surface of the water, whilst the lid remains above the surface, 
and is opened from time to time for the removal of the spoil. 
As the water hardly finds its way through the interstices of 
the screen, it rushes in a strong current along the passage, 
carrying the fish with it, and a fall from the passage into the 
basket precludes all chance of escape.’ 

LXVII. In addition to large weirs and traps, there are 
minor sorts most extensively used in 
the plains—some to capture breeding- 
fish ascending up minor water-ways during the rains to 
deposit their spawn: others to arrest them and their fry at- 
tempting to descend to the rivers, as the flood-waters recede, 
and there is not a place, except perhaps in Sind, where fields 
become flooded in the monsoon months, that this mode of 
capture is not carried on. This trapping breeding and young 
fish appears to be considered an inherent right of the land- 
owners or tenants. In the Panjab it is considered in places 
as the zemindar’s property (p. xii). In Bombay, some 
reporters suggest the license that has existed may now be 
be claimed as a right. In Madras, the Revenue Board appear 
to be of the same opinion, more than hinting that long cus- 
tom may have converted it into communal rights, and without 
further quotations the same erroneous ideas have been ad- 
vanced almost everywhere. If the English law is the rule, 
license gives no right, but is revocable at will (p. xiv). And 
how has the British legislature treated this question in the 
British isles? In“ The. Salmon Fishery (Ireland) Act, 1863,” 
it prohibited bag-nets. “‘ within a distance of less than three 
statute miles from the mouth of any river,” and gave the 
owners of such the following time to remove them :—“ within 
fourteen days after the passing of this Act,” and, ‘ for each 
day of so placing or allowing the same to be continued, incur 
a penalty of not less than five pounds, and not exceeding 
twenty pounds.” Weirs without gaps might be removed at 
once, unless the owners undertook to erect a suitable fish-pass. 
Fixed engines were to be removed within fourteen days, unless 
a license had been paid, when they were permitted to the end 
of the year. Now, what do the reporters in the appendix 


Fixed traps for capturing fish. 


( 63 ) 


state of these small fixed engines in India—these devices so 
destructive that the British Parliament allowed fourteen days 
for their removal; these traps which were deemed a public 
nuisance that any one may destroy ?. Why, these contrivances 
are spoken of as communal and prescriptive rights, and_ their 
prohibition an interference with private property! I have 
already pointed out how universal is their use, and will now 
adduce a few examples of how they are used. In Bombay, fish 
in Nasik (p. xlvii) are “ caught in shallows, small pools, and 
irrigating channels, by nets, baskets, or funnel-shaped wicker 
traps, placed where there is a current of water”: in Puna 
(p. xlix), baskets are placed in openings constructed in arti- 
ficial dams which are roughly thrown across streams.” In 
Ratnagiri, that “banks are formed to make the fish pass 
through narrow channels: nets are employed, also baskets, 
and bag-like nets” (p. xliv). In Madras, the Revenue Board 
suggest (p. lxxii) that these traps should only be prohibited 
in rivers declared to be taken under Government conservancy. 
In Kurnal (p. Ixxxiv), the minimum mesh of the nets is 
given at 2th of an inch between each knot, but of the oodu- 
lu, or traps of wicker work, the interstices are of infinitely 
smaller dimensions, and these are placed in the smaller irri- 
gation channels (p. xevii). In Tinnevelli, baskets and traps 
ave used, whereby large numbers of fish are taken in a most 
unfair and destructive manner, and (p. Ixxxvi) that small fish 
are caught in baskets and screens at the rapids below waste 
weirs and sluices. In Coimbatore (p. Ixxxvi), fry are caught 
in wicker-work traps. In Malabar, baskets are placed in small 
streams in such a way as to secure every fish in them. In 
South Canara (p. lxxxviii), there are bamboo labyrinth weirs 
to entrap fish going up stream, and bamboo labyrinth weirs 
to entrap them going down stream, and these are set in every 
tempting run, all other ways being stopped. At each drop 
from rice-field to rice-field the cultivator places a basket 
made of finely split bamboos, having a wide mouth, a nar- 
row neck, and a wide bottom: it lets the water pass, but 
stops every single fry. In Mysor (p. evi), the native officials 
of the Astragam Division report that during the rains large 
quantities of fish are taken in baskets prepared for this pur- 
pose, which are made with the fronds of the cocoanut palm: 
these have large open mouths, whilst their floor is covered 
by means of lattice-work of strings; they are placed against 
a current of water, which, rushing in, passes through the 
interstices, leaving the fish deposited in the basket. In the 


(64>) 


Central Provinces, at Jabalpur (p. cxix), every little stream- 
let is dammed up, and woven bamboo weirs are placed in the 
dams. At Bilaspur (p. exxii), breeding and young fish are 
wantonly and indiscriminately destroyed in all rivers, pools, 
streams and tanks throughout the district, also in rice-fields : 
in the latter they are caught at the outlets when the water 
at the close of the rains is subsiding: it is impossible for 
the smallest fish to get out of some of these traps. The 
Assistant Secretary to the Chief Commissioner of these 
Provinces observed that “in the Sagar and Mandla Dis- 
tricts, extensive destruction of fish occurs, more especially 
of the sor, and mahseer and paru. ‘The occasion when this 
occurs is the beginning of the rains, which is the season for 
spawning ; and it is said that in Mandla at that season the 
fish, while making their way to spawn in tanks and rice-fields 
(the entries into which are small and narrow), are carefully 
watched, and that large numbers of all sizes are killed by 
the villagers ; while, again, on their return to the rivers, they 
are met at every outlet by nets, baskets, weirs and traps, so 
that few can get away altogether; some of them are so small 
as to be perfectly useless, and these are thrown away or left 
as food for dogs and crows.” In Haidarabad (p. exiii), fish 
are taken by means of goomlas, which somewhat resemble 
the straw envelopes for bottles; they are made of the reeds 
of the nurgood plant: these traps are placed in shallow 
streams in the rainy season; the fish enter, but it prevents 
their return. In Oudh, the same mode of using traps is advert- 
ed to. Small nets or baskets of various forms and shapes are 
hung over weirs just above the water; breeding-fish attempt- 
ing to ascend the river find this barrier in their way, try to 
overcome it by jumping, and many are captured by falling 
into these fixed contrivances. ‘The Commissioner of the 
Rajshahye Division in Bengal observes (p. clxxxvi) that 
bamboo contrivances for fish-catching are in use in every 
paddy-field. They are also employed throughout Orissa and 
the Midnapur Districts. Whilst in Assam, the Deputy Com- 
missioner of Durrung reports (p. cexxvill) that “ everything, 
from a weir to a basket, is used, and the meshes of the nets 
are so small that no fry can escape.’ Also in Seebsagor 
(p. cexxix) that “what with dams, traps, baskets and nets 
which the villagers use, very few fish escape to the larger 
streams.” In Jorehat (p.cexxx), the villagers, if left to them- 
selves, are very fond of damming streams at the end of the 
rains, when fish, large and small, are running down: this 


(EES) 


they do in such a way that scareely anything can escape 
the traps set in the dam.” In British Burma, at Bassein 
(p. cexxiii), “young fish are captured to a considerable 
extent by traps in the paddy-fields:” in fact, fishing weirs 
and traps are universally employed in this province, and of 
innumerable descriptions, whilst miniature ones were per- 
mitted in every small stream, irrigating channel or water- 
way to entrap fish ascending, and so finely constructed that 
even fry could not pass. I found agriculturists with as 
many as 60 or 80 traps in their possession, and working 
them daily in every water-way where ingress or egress for 
fish could occur (see p. exlviii). In short, ‘trapping br eeding- 
fish and fry is universal, wherever permitted, and nowhere is 
it prohibited. 
Moveanie Fisuine IMPLEMENTS. 


LXVIII. Nets or moveable implements (in contradis- 
Moveable engines for taking tinction to those which are fixcd), 
fish. employed in capturing or facilitating 
the capture of fish, are composed of two varictics—(1) those 
manufactured of cotton, hemp, aloe fibre, coir, or of some such 
material, and (2) others constructed of split bamboo, rattan, 
reed, grass. or other more or less inelastic subtances. 

LXIX. Large drag-nets with fair-sized meshes are used 
mostly during the dry months, and 
employed for the purpose of elcaring 
out the fish from pools in rivers to which they have retired, 
awaiting the next year’s floods. Thus, in the Godaverr 
(p. xlvii), they are remarked upon as 100 yards long: in the 
Kistna as 3 to 400 yards long (p. Ixxvi), their length and 
depth being in accordance with the waters they are going to 
be emploved in. But the moveable nets that do the most 
injury are those with small meshes, and which are employed 
for taking the fry pf fish as they are first moving about. If 
one just refers to the appendix to this report, we cannot but 
observe how such are most wastefully destroyed all over the 
country; this is accomplished with cast-nets of fine meshes, 
small wall-nets dragged up little water-courses, purse-nets 
similarly used; even sheets are thus employed. It has been 
pointed out, however, that some fish never grow to any size, 
consequently they will escape if nets with small meshes are 
prohibited, and a very good idea has been propounded that 
if such is the case, let them be captured after the month of 
October, so that the majority of the fry have become more 
able to take care of themselves. Jn Madras, the Revenue 

10) 


Composed of elastic materials. 


( 66 ) 


Board except casting-nets from their proposed regulations, 
overlooking the fact that if such are not open to supervision, 
a number may be joined together, and thus constitute a legal 
net. In Haidarabad several casting-nets are used joined 
together to stop up a stream, whilst others are employed 
above the obstacles (p. exii). In the Central Provinces 
(p. exxiv), pandi, or the smallest cast-net, is ordinarily about 
15 feet long, weighted with iron: when it is considered 
desirable to net a considerable breadth of stream, several of 
these nets are used fastened together, making one very long 
net: in this almost every kind of fish is caught. Another 
plan of using casting-nets is, for several fishermen to 
surround a pool, each armed with one, and they throw them 
all together, so few fish have a chance of escape. A specics 
of lave-net is also used and in various ways; their plan of 
construction is in a triangular frame. In Sind, the fishermen 
floats down the Indus on a gourd or hollow earthen pot, and 
this net is let down below him: as a hilsa fish, aseending up 
the muddy stream, strikes against the net, it is made to con- 
tract like a purse by means of a string the fisherman holds 
in his hand. These lave-nets are usually constructed of very 
minute meshes, and employed at the sides of rivers, ditches, 
irrigation channels or inimdated spots where fry are feeding, 
and the current is not strong, and here the poor people destroy 
a few thousands for a single meal (pp. lviii, exxiii, exxiv). 
LXX. Nets, orvaiher moveable contrivances of inelas- 
Composed of inclastic mate. tic substances, are more freely em- 
rials. ployed in some districts than in others. 
In Orissa, a salwua ov pytti consists of very fine split 
bamboos, bound together by means of grass, the interstices 
between each piece beiag equal to 1th of an inch or less. 
This putti is about five feet high, and is in the shape of a 
regular wall-net. It is taken to a tank, and placed in the 
water in a V-form, whilst the fishermen on either side 
extend themselves outwards, and by beating the water drive 
the fish into the enclosure. The two ends are now brought 
together, and the fish penned into a small space. The sides 
are advanced nearer and nearer until they almost touch, and 
the fish are removed by a hand-net, or by the hand alone. 
Besides this, there are contrivances for a single person to 
use ; thus, a peculiar form is cone-shaped, open at both ends; 
this is thrust down in muddy water in places where fish 
resort to, and the enclosed fish removed from the upper 
opening. It is used in the Panjab (pp. xxii, xxv), in the 
Central Provinces (p. exxiii)—in fact, throughout India and 


(Gi) 


Burma. Sometimes a line of men work a shallow piece of 
water with them, and then they become rather destructive : 
however, eels and walking-fish (Ophiocephalida) are the sorts 
most commonly captured thus. The triangular lave-net 
adverted to in the last paragraph is often made of split 
bamboo: it is used extensively for the purpose of capturing 
breeding-fish passing into irrigated fields as observed upon in 
Kurnal (p. xevii). In Burma, rattan or bamboo nets termed 
gyan (p. excix) have each piece fixed toits neighbour by grass 
or fibre in the place of string, the interstices being of various 
sizes from ;!;th of an inch to 1 inch. Yindoons are a species 
of lave-net made of closely-woven split bamboos, and affixed 
to a long pole; it is employed to clear out all small water- 
courses of the fry of fish; itis pushed along them, and raised 
every now and then. In some places fixed weirs are placed 
in a piece of water, and one of the gyans is gradually 
dragged up to the standing weir. 
LXXI. What is the minimum size of the meshes of 
The smallest size of the mesh #e¢8 in general use in India and 
pee amon aetemp loge Burma (excluding Sind), where no 
regulations exist declaring what such should be? I here 
append the answers received from native officials; 91 refer 
to inches :— , 


Size, in respect to inches, between knot and knot of meshes. 


qd a 
3 53 a |3|t | 3] 3] & [ae] ve | te | o's 
va Qa 

91 Native Officials ...| 6| 5/18] 6/24] 1] 6/18) 4] 2) 3] 1 


Irrespective of the foregoing 91, answers have also 
been reecived from 70 more, and they compare the minimum 
size as follows :— 


Size of finger or thumb dot oes 900 5 
» fing finger ... tee on oo 2 
As big as a broomstick con é 1 
Sizo of 3 a rupee ge wre ode os 1 
»  4-anna_ bit Ree on ao asa 1 
» + of an anna .. 600 ere 1 
» 2-anna bit én cic om ob 5 
9 & pie... ove 1 


Size of a grain of wheat, mothi, mucea, gram, dholl, Jamp-oil 
sced, barley, tamarind seed, or a small pea, Pence 
corn, large ncedle, bodkin, quill, coarse muslin, en- 
snare an ant, or hardly anything can pass von, 08 


( 68 ) 


The foregoing 161 reports from native officials give the 
minimum size of the meshes of nets employed in their 
districts, and if one just considers the sized fish such minute 
meshes will ensnare, it is impossible to avoid coming to the 
conclusion that an immensity of wee ones must be destroyed 
before they can attain a fair size. My own impression is that, 
were very exact returns sent in, the proportion of finer 
meshes would be even greater than is shown above. Although 
this question was not put to the European officials of these 
districts, some have observed upon the subject. My reasons 
for wishing rather to obtain this information from natives 
being, that it can hardly be expected civilians, who are 
worked all day in eutcherry, have time, even had they inclina- 
tion, to examine paddy-fields and inundated portions of the 
country during the rains, and whilst the young fish are 
moving about, in order to ascertain the smallest size of the 
meshes of nets which are employed, whilst observations 
made in the cold season would not afford the desired informa- 
tion. In Bombay; out of 10 who reply, 1 says less than an 
inch, and 1 at ;4,th, 1 at =,th, 1 at ~,th, 1 at J nd, 1 at the 
size of a grain of wheat, and 2 at that of a large needle. 
But some even place it at a smaller size, as in Khandeish 
(p. xlv), where, when small-meshed nets are not available, 
the Bhils use their sheets, saris and dhotars for the purpose 
of taking fish, In Ahmednuggur, pieces of cloth are used 
as nets (p. xlviii). In Madras, 21 observe upon this subject 
as follows :—1 places it at #th of an inch between each knot 
of the meshes, 1 at $, 3 at ¢th of aninch, 1 at 3th, 2 at $th, 1 
at ;!;th, 1 at=th, say the meshes are small, 7 that they 
are very small, of the size of a quill or red gram seed, 
and 2 that they resemble mosquito curtain net. In Mysor 
8 European officials give the size of the mesh of the nets as 
follows:—1 at 4 an inch between each knot, 2 at ith, 
2 at 4th, 2 as the size of mosquito curtain net, and 1 as 
small enough to take the spawn of fish. In Haidarabad 
1 Deputy Collector returns the minimum size employed at 
drd of an inch between each knot, 1 at $th, lat th, 1 
at =th, whilst in 2 they are stated to be too small to be 
measured. In the Central Provinces, out of 18 European 
reports, 3 give it at jth of an inch between each knot, 
1 at tth, 5 at $th,1 at jth, and 3 as the size of coarse 
muslin, a large needle, or very small. In Oudh, 9 EKuropean 
officials report thus:—1 that the minimum size of the 
mesh of nets employed is $th of an inch between cach knot: 


( 69 ) 


9, 1th: 2,ird: 2, 4th, and 1 that it will arrest a grain of 
harley ; thus, 67 European officials give the minimum size 
of the meshes of nets employed as follows:—from 3 to 1 inch, 
3: from ith to 3 an inch, 2: from 3th to }th of an inch, 10: up 
'o 3th of an inch, 25: small, 2: very small, 8: size of a grain of 
wheat or barley, 2: of a large needle, 2: of mosquito net or 
eoarse muslin, 7: too small to be measured, 4. In the 
N. W. Provinees, 16 European officials report as follows of 
‘he minimum size of the mesh of nets which are employed :— 
L at 4 an inch, 1 at 3th, 2 at ith, 3 at jth, 1 at 
‘th, 6 at so minute that the smallest fish are stopped, 1 at. 
the size of a grain of mucca, and 1 at that of a small pea. 
‘he Civil Surgeon of Azimgurh’s statement of 4 inches 
'etween each knot is of course omitted from the foregoing. 
In Bengal (p. elxxxii), 7 European officials answer as fol- 
lows:—1, that the meshes are minute: 1, ,th of an inch: 
1, ith: 1, 4th, and 3 as large as a grain of mustard seed, 
rice, or mosquito net. Although the above gives the minimum 
size of the mesh, it must not be overlooked that, when formed 
of wicker-work, still smaller interstices, when possible, are 
employed. In Burma, 10 European officials report as fol- 
lows:—2 give the smallest size at 4 an inch, 1 at $rds, 
(at ith, 1 at th, 1 at jth, and 4.as minute. 
LXXII. A few observations are here necessary upon 
Seasons when different meshes the meshes of the nets employed, and 
wre used. how it is that such different answers 
may be given by persons residing in the same locality, as to 
the minimum. size which is used, whilst each merely reports 
on what he personally observes. ‘The meshes of nets vary 
with the season of the year. Nets, whether used by one, two 
or more individuals during the rainy season, in inundated parts 
of the country, small water-courses, &c., have a very minute 
mesh; in fact, this is the period when those which will stop. 
a grain of wheat ensnare an ant, not allow a large needle 
lo pass, arrest the progress of a mosquito, or only permit 
water to go through, are called into play; now the fry are 
moving about, and secking food and security in shallows and 
away from strong currents. As the muddy monsoon water 
subsides a little, and fishermen are able to wade up to their 
waists without the fear of being carried away by the current, 
the size of the mesh is increased, for the fry are becoming lar- 
eer, roving further for their food, and the distance between knot 
and knot are found to have become as large as jth or rd of 


( “70° ) 


an inch. As the river begins to elear, in places where 
large fish may still be taken in the plains, the distance 
between the knots often reaches one inch, whilst in the dry 
season even a greater mesh becomes employed. In localities 
as Burma, excluding the free fisheries, still larger meshes are 
used ; likewise in Sind, where such would be considered an 
unwise procedure, but it will be found to be carried on else- 
where throughout the length and breadth of the plains, 
except where there is a lessee, whose interests would be 
affected thereby. 
LXXIII. Were the minimum size of the mesh of the net 
Effect of regulating themini- TegUlated, could such be a secondary 
mum size of the mesh of nets. cause of uyury to Sisheries ? Mr. 
Thomas, in his excellent report on the fisheries of South 
Canara, observes—the forbidding the use ofa mesh of less than 
four inches in diameter would be unfortunate, as ‘* the smaller 
sorts of fish, having an immunity from netting, must dispro- 
portionately increase on the larger netted sorts. Nature has 
arranged that the larger predatory fish shall balance the 
smaller, and thus maintain due proportions, but if one sort 
is netted by man and the other sort has immunity, the ba- 
lance is disturbed, and the larger fish are no longer able to 
maintain their position.” The Madras Revenue Board 
(Proc., July 13th, 1871), in their report on the foregoing, ob- 
serve of the small fish :-—‘‘ Ifa minimum of four inches be 
adopted, this quantity of fish will be, without any compen- 
sating advantage, entirely lost to the fish-eating population : 
further, the natural balance amongst the fishy tribes will 
be disturbed by killing only large fish, while the smaller kinds, 
which largely preponderate, are allowed by artificial protection 
to increase toan extent which must eventually cause certain 
kinds to disappear altogether.” Now, I cannot coincide in this 
‘belief; I think it to be incorrect, and the proofs adduced, accu- 
rate as doubtless they are, may not be analogous to the state of 
affairs in India. I will, therefore, first examine this question 
theoretically, and secondly, give the result of actual expe- 
rience in this country. It is a self-evident fact that amongst 
fish in the East, as in the other divisions of the animal 
kingdom, the forms which prey upon their neighbours are 
proportionately greater than in more temperate regions: 
Nature is on a vaster scale, but a few examples will make 
my meaning plainer. The wild-cat of Scotland is represent- 
ed by the tiger and cheetah: the species of eagles and 


s/h bee 


hawks of England, by ten times the number and of far larger 
sizes; the lizards swell into crocodiles; the dog-fishes of 
Turopean seas are scen in the form of many genera of sharks, 
some of enormous size ; whilst, lastly, the herbivorous barbel 
assumes the proportion of the predaceous mahaseer fishes 
(for there are many species), allof which belong to the 
identical genus of their European relative. In fact, the waters 
of India are stocked with predaceous fish, and the question is, 
whether, if the small herbivorous forms, up to six inches in 
length, obtained immunity, they would destroy the larger 
predaceous varieties, either as eggs, fry, or by consuming all 
the food. It is here assumed that the fact is proved (which 
I give no opinion upon) that, due to immunity from netting, 
the smaller fish in the Thames are injuring the fisheries ; also 
that minnows have starved out trout. It must be remem- 
bered that, due to indiscriminate netting, poaching, and the 
reception of filth in that river, salmon have disappeared and 
trout are now being artificially re-introduced; the state is 
abnormal. At Whitchurch, in Hampshire, I have seen the 
preservation of trout carried out so strictly that a sufficiency 
of food has not existed, and the fish have been starved. Like- 
wise the destruction of hen-pheasants in preserves has been so 
evergetically enforced, that the proportion between the males 
and females has been disarranged. But these are not anala- 
gous examples to what obtains in the East ; the influence of 
over-protection is here unknown, whilst food for the fish is 
always abundant. Excluding marine forms, which are com. 
paratively infinitesimal in South Canara rivers, we may divide 
the true fresh-water fishes as follows :—(1) large preda- 
ceous ; (2) large herbivorous; (3) small predaccous; and (4) 
small herbivorous kinds. Of the large predaceous ones we have 
two sub-divisions—those, as the mahaseer, which ascend to the 
hill streams to breed, leaving many of their young in the 
small pools there until the next year’s monsoon permits them 
to descend to the plains; and secondly, those varictics, as the 
Ophiocephalide, which deposit their eggs in side channels in 
the plains. None of these could be included amongst 
the fish a four-inch, in circumference, mesh would not 
take. As they augmented, due to preservation of their fry, 
an inereased supply of food would be desirable, and what 
could be superior to small fish which never attain any size ?P 
As to the large herbivorous ones, protecting their fry could 
not injure fisheries. We now arrive at the small predaceous 


Gr) 


and small herbivorous kinds, which do not attain six 
inches in length, and whose existence in quantities might 
“eventually cause certain kinds to disappear altogether.’ 
Now, the most valuable species spawn on the hills, and which 
of the small predaccous fishes that do not attain six inches 
in length are found there? ‘The solitary Vandus marginatus, 
Jerdon, usually rare and only seen in certain places. In 
the plains of Canara, are there more? Perhaps two, Bagrus 
Malabaricus and Belone cancila. Ibelieve that, owing to the 
spines in the fins of this first, and the long-toothed snout of the 
second, they would be easily taken, when adults, in nets 
having meshes of the size proposed. I do not know another 
amonest these low-country predaceous fishes, able to destroy 
many young fish that would not reach six inches in length 
when adult. Lastly, we arrive at the small herbivorous 
forms. Certainly, there are several, some very numerous, 
but to accuse them of destroying the predaceous forms is 
like the old fable of the wolf and the lamb. I now come to 
the consideration of whether experience in India shows that 
such a result occurs where a like minimum size of mesh as 
proposed has been actually tried. I will only adduce two 
examples : others will be found in the appendix. First I 
would point to Sind, where nets with meshes below this size 
are not apparently in use (p. xxix, para. 47), but the due 
proportions are maintained, fish abounding; in fact, as the 
smaller herbivorous forms increase, so do the predaceous, 
which then appear to consume their neighbours instead of 
their own young. Likewise in the North-Western Provinces 
(pp. exlix, cl), where, inadvertently having gone to a pro- 
tected river, I reported how full it was stocked, a result due 
to destruction of small fish having been prohibited, a state of 
affairs differing from what was observed in contiguous pieces 
of water. Which, then, is most practical—to prohibit the de- 
struction of small fish with the certainty of increasing the 
supply, or, fearing that if little fish were not taken, they might 
injurously affect or starve the larger ones, to permit their 
being freely captured ? Or if such did occur, why not per- 
mit the capture of small fish during such months as fry are 
not moving about P 
LXXIV. Damming waters may be done (1) for purposes 
Damming waters for fish- of irrigation, (2) for irrigation con- 
ing purposes. jointly with fishing, or (3) solely to 
obtain fish. Damming up waters for irrigation purposes has 


already been discussed (pp. 7-14), as has likewise the con- 
version of simple irrigation weirs into traps for the taking of 
fish, and irrigation canals into vast slaughter-houses, besides 
unduly obstructing fish proceeding: to their natural breeding- 
places, and by the use of fixed engines and traps in small 
water-courses, and at every drop from field, to field, forming 
a series of places for annihilation of fry. Here, therefore, 
the subject for consideration is damming waters for fishing 
purposes solely. 
LXXV. Waters, as rivers or streams, may be dammed 
Damming and diverting rivers or for fishing purposes with (1) or 
streams, &c,, for fishing. without (2) the assistance of weirs, 
or (8) hill streams may be dammed and diverted, or simply a 
a dam may be (4) employed to bund up, water, in order to 
facilitate the poisoning of fish. Yanks or standing pieces of 
water may be likewise dammed for fishing (5) as a common 
occurrence, or (6) else as the waters are drying up; (7) Holes 
may be dug at the sides of rivers with which a connecting 
channel is cut, the fish enticed in communication cut off, and 
the water baled out; or (8) small bunds be erected parallel to 
the rivers’ course, fry driven or enticed in, and all destroyed. 
Tlill streams may be dammed and diverted for fishing pur- 
poses—a plan which obtains in the Himalayas and elsewhere. 
The effects of damming up and diverting the minor streams 
into kools or channels for turning mills, and which is used 
as a fertile instrument of destroying small fish (pp. iv, xviii) 
has been already referred to. In the Panjab, at Kangra 
(p. xvi), the zemindars doa great deal of mischief in the 
early part of the rains, by bringing the fish into side streams, 
and then draining off the water and leaving them on dry 
ground: young and old are caught in this way. In Bombay, 
at Satara (p. lix), fish are taken by diverting the natural 
course of a stream so as to inake all the water pass through 
a large basket trap, or by throwing a bank of sand across a 
river or ralla and obtaining the fish in the usual way, viz., 
by baling. In Haidarabad, it is observed (p. exiii) that fish 
are taken by traps, which is done by erecting rough stone 
piles on both sides of a stream, then spreading a mat of the 
nurgood plant over the piles; the stream is then diverted 
so as to pour over the mat, on which, as the water falls, the 
fish are taken. Zi/l streams may be also diverted, and the 
modes employed are as follows:—In the Doon (p. exlix) 
from March to the beginning of the rains, streams are 
dammed and turned. In this district the mountain torrents, 


Gye) 


where they burst from the hills, have three or four different 
beds, all of which are full during the rains, but after- 
wards only one; one year the strcam is in one of these 
beds, another year another, and so on. The poachers choose 
a spot where the stream and an old bed are in close proxi- 
mity: both have good pools in them; they fix nets right 
across the stream, about a mile or more below this spot ; 
first nets with large meshes, and then nets with smaller 
meshes. These nets are kept to the bottom with heavy 
stones. When the nets are all ready, they dam up the 
stream, and open a water-way into the old bed: the force 
of the water soon cuts a deep way for itself, and then the 
late bed of the stream is left dry, except in the deep holes: 
all fish that try to escape down are stopped by the nets.” 
The large fish are taken away, the fry left to die as the 
pools dry up, and there they sometimes lie six or eight inches 
deep. ‘The poachers do the same lower down, and after a 
month or so begin again at the top of the hill river as before. 
This is also carried on in Rohileund (p. cliii). Or low- 
country streams may be dammed for poisoning purposes, 
as in Ratnagari (p. liv), in Belgaum (p. lii), or South 
Canara (p. lxxxvili): or for placing nets in artificial open- 
ings constructed in them, as in Puna (p. xlix): or to assist 
in baling them out, as in Nasik (p. Iviii), Colaba (p. lix), 
and Dharwar (p. liii and lxii) ; also in Madras, as at Kurnal 
(p. lxxxiv), or in the Kistna Collectorate (p. Xcv), as 
well as in Nellur (p. xevi). In the Central Provinces, as at 
Jabalpur (p. exix and exxiv), and in Oudh, as at Sultanpur 
(p. exxxvili). Yanks are drained at times solely for the 
purpose of obtaining the contained fish, as at Cuddalore 
in Madras; at Dharwar (p. lili): whilst at Tanjur it is 
said that it is only small tanks that are annually drained 
for the purpose of being filled with fresh-water from river 
channels, at which period advantage is taken to capture the 
fish in them (p. Ixxix). In some cases as tanks are drying 
up (p. elxxxix) a bank is thrown across them—first one 
half is baled out, and then the other, and so all the fish taken ; 
but this is said to be done to prevent them from dying in the 
mud (see para. LX VIT). Ioles are sometimes dug by the sides 
of rivers, as in the Panjab (p. xxiv), or Burma (p. exeviii) ; 
a connecting channel is cut; when fish have been enticed 
in, a bund is thrown across the connecting channel, the water 
in the hole baled out, and the fish captured ; this is also done 
in ITaidarabad (p. exiii). In Orissa (p. clxxxix), damming is 


(975; -) 


extensively practised; as the rivers commence drying up, 
earthen bunds are raised along its bed parallel with the 
course of the stream, but narrowing towards its lower end ; 
fish are driven in, the ends are stopped, and every one is 
taken. This bunding and lading takes place everywhere 
in India and Burma for the purpose of capturing fish. In 
the latter province (p. ceviii) streams are bunded into tanks 
by an carthen dam being thrown across them, which of 
course causes the water to collect above: next smaller ones 
are erected parallel to the course of the stream, and cutting 
off a portion of it from the main channel, The water is laded 
out, the whole of the fish captured, and this is continued 
portion by portion till not a fish is left. In making the 
earthen dam, two rows of strong stakes, six fect apart, are 
driven in across the stream ; the interval is filled in with grass 
and clayey mud. 

LXXVI. Waters may be poisoned without such being 
done for fishing purposes, but the 
effects of which are injurious or 
even destructive on fisheries : such may be (1) accidental or 
natural, as by monsoon floods washing a large amount of 
mud suddenly into rivers and causing the fish to perish, as 
in Coimbatore (p. Ixxxvii) and elsewhere; (2) with the muddy 
water some unwholesome agent may be conjoined, as decayed 
leaves of trees and shrubs, or other vegetable substances. It is 
observed in Satara (p. 1) that when the rivers become muddy at 
the commencement of the monsoon, fish die in large numbers, 
also when they become nearly dry at the close of the hot 
weather ; (3) such may also be due to the inherent poisonous 
nature of the fruit, leaves, or other component parts of trees 
or shrubs, which during the dry or cold season have fallen into 
contiguous streams, and there remaining, due to there being 
no current, have become an infusion of poison, which with 
the outburst of the rains is carried down to the main 
rivers. None of these causes appear susceptible of allevia- 
tion ; but it is observed in the North-Western Provinces that 
in the Koana River (p. elxii), standing fishing weirs are per- 
mitted to block up the whole of the water-way: as the water 
becomes poisoned or otherwise unsuited for fish-life, all the 
fishes up-stream endeavor to descend to the purer portions 
of the river. But an impassable fishing weir quite stops 
the way; the owner allows no passage, so there they are 
allowed to miserably perish, and, uscless as food, become 
earted away as manure. (4) In South Canara the refuso 


Waters may be poisoned. 


(eo) 


of the coffee pulpers is stated to be poisonous to the fishes 
of the rivers into which they are drained, but if no stand- 
ing weirs exist below them, the injury thus occasioned 
cannot be compared to that done by fixed engines permitted 
to span streams. Coir is extensively manufactured in Mala- 
bar by decomposing the outer shell of cocoanuts in large pits 
dug by the sides of streams and backwaters. Here, covered 
over by mud, they are left to rot, and when these offensive 
pits are opened into the stream, the fluid decomposed vege- 
table substance which is washed out is a cause of destruction 
to fish-life. It is remarkable that putrid water does not 
invariably destroy fish residing in it: near Berhampur, [ 
was shown a small tank in which the water was perfectly 
putrid, and the natives asserted that it had been so for months, 
but still fish resided there. ‘The smell was most offensive, and 
its bed was deep in dark slimy mud. After much persuasion 
the fishermen were induced to net it, and the fish were as 
numerous as in other pieces of water in the vicinity ; their 
colour was somewhat darker, but they were reported to be 
fit for food. However, the fishermen at last confessed that 
they did not intend personally to eat them, but proposed dis- 
posing of them in the bazar. 
LXXVII. Water or fish may be poisoned for the purpose 
Waters poisoned for fishing Of obtaining the finny tribes. ‘This 
paEpoaca. is mostly done in one of the following 
ways :—The use of poisonous substances, or by rendering the 
water unfit to sustain their lives, or preventing the fish 
access to air necessary for respiration. (1.) As regards poi- 
sonous substances employed, these are numerous, and most 
are detailed in the Appendix—milk bush, tobacco leaves, 
Cocculus Indicus, many poisonous jungle fruits, &c. This is 
usually carried on during the dry months of the year, when 
the pools in rivers are still, and hardly any current exists. 
It is very easy to collect the poisons, to throw them into a 
deep still pool, and quietly await the fish floating up intoxi- 
cated to the surface. It is immaterial that thousands of . 
immature fish and insects, &c., which form the food of adults, 
are thus slaughtered. The poacher is in no need of them; he 
obtains as much as he can bear away, totally unconcerned 
that his gains may be unwholesome, and the river water 
rendered poisonous to human beings, birds and cattle that 
imbibe it. He sells the proceeds of his nefarious work, and 
that without molestation, and, if spoken to, calmly terms such 
“a free industry” which is permitted by authority. In Oudh 


(aia) 


(p. exxxi), it is stated that fishing is carricd on by channels 
of water being enclosed, and powders obtained from a poison- 
ous wild fruit thrown in. An opening is cut to receive 
fresh-water, as the humane people think it wrong to kill all, 
and as the intoxicated fish float to the surface, they are beaten 
on the head with sticks or caught by the hands, and this 
wholesale destruction is done merely for sport, as those captur- 
ed are not deemed good to eat, 'Thesame is reported from the 
Central Provinces (p. exix), whilst the poison employed may 
render the water undrinkable for several seasons (p. lxxviii). 
Again, fish may be choked (2) by means of mud. As I have 
already explained (p. xl), some fish breathe by means of imbib- 
ing oxygen directly from the water; their blood goes to their 
gills; here the carbon formed by waste unites with the oxy- 
gen of the air in solution in the water, and the simple process of 
breathing is effected, Now, natives have discovered that if they 
stir up the mud, so as to thicken the water, and also frighten 
the fish they rush about, their increased movements require 
increased respiratory action, but the mud chokes their gills, 
and, half-suffocated, they become captured with ease. (8) Some 
fish are what I termed compound-breathers (see p. 24) ; they 
ean imbibe air direct, and these are the tropical ophiocepha- 
lidee (see p. 26), &c. The Burmese know that mud mixed 
with water will not affect them; they put their mouths above 
the surface and get what air they require. So here another 
plan has to be followed. As the water gets low and muddy, 
a large sail composed of cloth, split bamboo or anything of 
that sort is spread over the fluid mud where they are; this 
precludes their rising to respire, their carbon cannot unite 
with oxygen and be carried off; they become asphyxiated, 
and are thus captured. 

LXXVIII. Besides the foregoing modes of taking fish, 
there are many other minor plans 
pursued. Sheets have already been 
remarked upon as used to take the fry of fishes which have 
gone up small water-courses, or got into shallow water. 
They are also used as dip-nets, being sunk in the water and 
simply hauled up again when fry have swam over their 
surface, as in the Panjab (p. xx); or bushes may be placed 
over these cloths, especially in shallows; the fry seek shelter 
under them, and the whole are lifted up, as in Orissa; or 
those sheets as dip-nets may be baited with gram or bread, 
as in Bombay (p. lviii). Basket-work is also used by placing 
two rattans crossing one another in the middle; their ends 


Minor modes of fishery. 


CME) 


are bent down, and the two arches thus formed are secured 
by strings in the shape of a square; here a net is attached, 
and this is jammed down upon fish, as in Panjab (p. xxii), 
Orissa, and throughout the Hast. Fish may be simply 
frightened into permitting themselves to be captured: thus 
ropes, bones, as in Orissa, cocoanut leaves, as in Malabar, 
or other leaves, or the stalks of urbi or jowaree, as in Bom- 
bay (p. xlvii), or picces of pith (solah) or light wood, as in 
Bengal, or bundles of grass attached along their whole 
length, and by stretching such across a stream, and constantly 
jerking it, fish are driven into nets, or even take 
refuge under the rivers’ banks where they are captured by 
the hand. When tanks are drying up, fish are taken in the 
mud by the hand, as observed upon in Bombay (p. liv.). 
Snares are universally employed, and these of most varied 
descriptions are (see pp. |, lix, xciil, xciv, xev, cxiii, 
&c) used in rivers and zallas all the year round. Hooks 
for fishing are not employed in some parts, as inland in 
Orissa, or much in the hilly districts where poaching is pre- 
ferred as easier and more killing: but there are many modes 
of using hooks as barbarous as they are destructive. One 
method is to fix a row of hooks on a line in a pass in a 
hill stream (p. el) by which many fish ascending or descend- 
ing become foully hooked; some are thus caught, more get 
away horribly injured. Besides this, snagging is employed in 
the Himalayan rivers; in fact, such appears to have been sold 
to the villagers in some places by the British revenue 
authorities (p. clvi). This “ right or amusement” (p. cliv), 
which it is proposed should not be interfered with, consists 
of arming a cord with large iron hooks at intervals of two or 
three feet: by means of bits of wood they are retained with 
their points uppermost. This line is thrown across a stream 
and kept 18 inches or two feet below the surface: here it is 
held on either bank by a man, others drive the fish towards 
the spot, and, as one passes over this humane instrument of 
capture, the cord is jerked for a hook to transfix the game. 
Dexterity in the use of this line armed with hooks has 
resulted from constant practice, and many fish are thus 
captured. But if some are thus taken, very many more 
are merely wounded. The poachers endeavour to hook 
the fish by it under surface, but as may be anticipated, 
although some hooks enter sufficiently deep to obtain 
a firm hold of the abdominal walls, such is by no means 
invariably the case. ‘Lhe struggles of the wounded creature 


(12) ) 


often causes it to break away, usually with a portion of its 
intestines trailing behind it. If its gill-covers have been 
injured, respiration may be wholly or entirely stopped: if 
its mouth is much torn, feeding may be prevented. Thus 
crippled, it wanders away to sicken, and, unless death soon 
puts an end to its miserable existence, it becomes emaciated, 
and, should it be so captured, it is useless for food except to 
the lower animals. Baited hooks are sometimes affixed to 
lines which are attached to bamboos fixed in the bed of a 
river, or to bushes at its edge, and these are so placed that 
when a fish is hooked, the line runs out. Or a line is placed 
across a suitable spot in a river, floated by gourds, so that 
the baited hooks which are attached to it by short lines do 
not touch the bottom: these are visited every few hours, 
and are found to be very killing. In the same way, two 
posts are fixed, one on either side of a stream or piece of 
water, a rope stretches from one to the other, and short lines 
with baited hooks are strung every yard or so along its entire 
extent. Night-lines baited with frogs are employed in 
places. Spearing fish is also extensively practised by torch 
light, as in the Panjab (p. xx) or Bombay (p. Ivii): 
or in the day-time, mostly during the cold months of 
of the year when they are not very active, two persons 
usually punt about as quietly as possible over places where 
fish lie, and the one standing on the prow of the canoe spears 
the game below him: this is done in Sind, the Panjab 
(p. xxv), Madras, the Central Provinces (p. exxiv), and 
elsewhere. Shooting fish with guns is reported as carried on 
in Oudh (p. exxxviii), whilst the use of cross-bows for 
this purpose is not uncommon in Malabar. Breeding-fish are 
knocked on the head with sticks, as in Bombay (p. xi); and 
in the Himalayas “ breeding-fish are destroyed in the com- 
mencement of the rains in every conceivable manner: they 
at that time run up small streams, and are there killed 
with sticks, caught in nets, in baskets, in temporary cruives, by 
hooks fastened in great numbers on lines, and many other 
ways” (p. exlviii) ; or_as observed in Mysore (p. cii) by 
the amildars of the Nagar division, that fish are taken ) 

nets, traps, hooks, cloths, and by hand, by baskets of differ- 
ent shapes, by damming and draining off the water, by shoot- 
ing, by striking with clubs, with swords, or with choppers, 
by weirs and fixed engines; in short, by poaching practices 
of every kind, as well as by fishing with rods and lines, and 
by poisoning the pools of watcr. yen the cegs of fish do 


( 80 ) 


not escape this general hunt, to which the persecuted piscine 
tribes are subjected. In South Canara (p. xcii), men 
search in the rivers for hillocks wherein spawn has been 
left, gather the ova, and make it into cakes which are consi- 
dered a delicacy. Inthe North-Western Provinces (p. elix) at 
Goruckpur, the Mallahs and Kewats dig up the spawn of fish, 
and after having prepared it, either sell or consume it. 


VERMIN WuIch DESTROY FisH. 
LXXIX. What are the vermin which are inimical to 
jish? A difficulty arises in commen- 
cing this subject, as to whether to 
begin with those which are most destructive to them in their 
ova state as fry, or when more mature. One Commissioner 
(p. clxvii) considers that my proposition of _ offering 
rewards for crocodiles appears to him absurd, and that ‘it 
would be equally or more advisable to proscribe frogs and 
paddy-birds which eat the spawn and young fry, and probably 
destroy far more fish than the crocodile.” One step further, 
perhaps, might be suggested, that natives provided with 
microscopes should be entertained to examine all the spawn- 
ing beds of fishes, in order to detect and eradicate the micro- 
scopic vermin which destroy the fertility of the fish-ova: or 
peons armed with nets be sent to arrest the water-beetles 
that make a meal of fish-eggs. Setting aside, however, such 
ultra views, I propose commencing with the crocodiles, of 
which there are two distinct genera in the waters of India. 
The Assistant Commissioner of Delhi suggested one rupee per 
running foot be paid for them: whilst the Madras Revenue 
Board proposed a somewhat smaller scale (p. Ixxiv). Also 
in the Agra Division (p. clxxi), that “any effective measures 
for reducing the enormous number of crocodiles in our rivers 
would do much more, than any restriction on fishing, to 
increase the quantity of fish in them. The destruction of 
crocodiles’ eggs could no doubt be extensively effected by 
the offer of an adequate reward. But any such scheme, to be 
of use, would have to be carried out, not only in these pro- 
vinces, but all down the length of the rivers which traverse 
them : otherwise, so fast as the crocodiles were destroyed here, 
others would travel up and take their places from below.” 
Likewise the Officiating Collector of Etawah observes 
(p. clxxi) that, “if Government will give a reward for 
crocodiles’ eggs, there is no doubt that plenty would be 


brought in.” 


Crocodiles as vermin. 


Csi) 


LXXX. The true fish-eating crocodile, Gavialis Gange- 
The fish-eating crocodile. ticus, Gmelin, which attains upwards 
of 20 feet in length, is found 
throughout the Indus, Ganges, Jumna, °Brahmaputra, 
Mahanuddi and their aflluents, “also in some of the interven- 
ing rivers, but I have not observed it in Burma or Madras. 
This species has a long and slender snout, is usually timid 
of man, excepting when. the locality where its eggs are 
deposited in the sand is invaded. It does not appear to be 
a feeder on carrion, but fish, turtles and tortoises form its 
diet. In 1868 it was deemed one of the sights at Cuttack 
to watch these enormous reptiles feeding below the irriga- 
tion weir, which was impeding the upward ascent of breed- 
ing-fish. Their long brown snouts would be seen rising to 
the surface of the water, with a fish cross-wise in their jaws : 
they tossed their heads, the finny prey was thus flung up 
into the air, descending head foremost fellinto their ¢ captors’ 
comparatively small mouths. One could not. resist thinking 
that the crocodiles were attempting to teach the Muropeans 
and natives a lesson, by practically demonstrating to them 
the folly of permitting a wholesale waste of good 
animal food to nourish the carcasses of huge useless reptiles, 
and which might better be employed for the same purpose 
by man. ‘To show their fecundity, I may mention that the 
overseer in charge of the Narraje weir, meeting with a 
brood, destroyed 69 in three hours by shooting. At this 
place I obtained a young one which had become entangled 
by its teeth in a fishing net, and on enquiring of the fisher- 
men whether they ever killed them, they at once protested 
against such a course. ‘Their argument was—‘ are not we 
both of the fish-destroying races, rand how could we be so 
cruel as to slaughter them?” As to the destruction they 
occasioned, they “merely remarked that they would do the 
same if they could, and I can personally testify to their 
catching all they were able. However, it must not be ex- 
pected that fishermen will destroy those vermin when young 
neither will they shoot them when old, as they do not émploy 
guns. But will the native sportsman be likely to do this P 
Certainly not, as he has no inducement to do so, and he will 
never waste his ammunition on crocodiles, which would be of 
no advantage to him when killed. With fisheries that are 
deteriorating, the presence of these large fish-eating reptiles 
might be dispensed with, as they are not required to keep 
up the balance of Nature, neither are they uscful as 
. 


(S250) 


scavengers, whilst their destruction can only be effected by 
the offering of rewards for them or their eggs. 

LXXXI. The common crocodiles, Crocodilus palustris, 
Less., and C. porosus, Schn., ave found 
in most parts of India. These rep- 
tiles, although usually termed man-eaters or snub-nosed 
crocodiles, also assist in depopulating the waters of fish, 
and it may be that it is only when unable to obtain a 
sufficiency of the finny tribes, or carrion, that they attack 
man and large mammals; but having once tasted blood, they 
appear to be eager todo so again. In some of the irriga- 
tion canals one or more of these creatures may usually 
be seen below the lochs where there are pools stocked 
with fish, and when the latter fails, they turn their atten- 
tion to the cattle. ‘To show how these monsters in- 
crease in suitable localities, I may mention that in 
December 1868 I saw four at Cuttack below the 
large weir; six weeks subsequently they had increased to 
nine, besides many little ones. As it must be admitted that 
10 seers of large fish a day would be absolutely necessary 
for the sustenance of each of these nine adults, which mea- 
sured from about ten to sixteen feet in length, or 90 seers in 
all, whilst the bazar price at this period was about four annas 
a seer, we see that good wholesome food to the value of 
Rs. 22-8 was being daily sacrificed at this one spot. My 
suggestion of a reward of Rs. 5 each was disregarded, al- 
though the amount would have amply sufficed. If, for 
argument’s sake, we consider these nine have not increased, 
nor the young lived to grow up, and the daily amount con- 
sumed is computed to continue the same all the year round, 
what must be the result P As it is now upwards of 385 years 
since this saving, or rather non-expenditure of Rs. 45 was 
decided upon, and assuming the crocodiles’ appetites have 
only induced them to limit their captures to fish, we might 
have a loss or waste of Rs. 28,732 worth of fish used for 
their support. I merely give this as an illustration of which 
plan is the most practical. Of course there are many dis- 
turbing elements, as they occasionally vary their diet by 
eating a human being, horse, or cow, which would reduce 
the amount of fish consumed ; but the above figures are only 
intended to show the waste of food computed at the bazar 
rates as existing at the period I was at Cuttack. The Com- 
missioner of Assam observes,—‘ at all events, I have little 
doubt but that the number of fishes destroyed by the croco- 


The common crocodile. 


( 83) 


diles on the Brahmaputra is beyond all proportion greater 
than what is destroyed by man, and it would seem, there- 
fore, that the first duty of a system of fish-conservancy for 
that river would be the killing of the crocodiles.” The Col- 
lector of South Canara considers (Oct. 25th, 1872) that a 
most important subject is the destruction of crocodiles and 
their eggs, as well as_ otters. ‘* Much of the preservation 
of fishes will be in vain if their natural enemies have liberty 
to feed and increase on them.” Also in the North-West 
Provinces (p. elxiv), that “there is no doubt crocodiles de- 
stroy large quantities of fish, and might themselves be de- 
stroyed with very little trouble.” Their destructiveness 
is also referred to at Jhansi (pp. elxvi, clxvii). Doubt- 
less crocodiles have a redeeming quality, being the na- 
tural scavengers of rivers (p. eclxxii), but against this 
may be placed the destruction of the lives of human beings 
and cattle yearly caused by them. If the fisheries become 
much further depopulated, from whence are these reptiles 
to obtain food? Human beings are no longer permitted to 
immolate themselves at the side of the Ganges, nor are 
relatives allowed, as a last filial duty, to fill their expiring 
parents’ mouths with mud from its sacred bed, neither are 
corpses interred in that holy stream, so food must be dimi- 
nishing. If fish likewise become insuflicient, these reptiles 
will be compelled by the natural law of sclf-preservation to 
help themselvesto cattle from the neighbouring country, or else 
feed on such human beings as unwarily approach too close 
to the waters they reside in. And this is no fancy sketch, but 
the simple fact. I will only adduce two instances. At Cullara, 
five miles below Kendraputna in the Nuna river, is a hole 
to which crocodiles resort in the dry season. Of course the 
fish in such pools are soon exhausted, and a short time 
before I was there in 1868 these monsters had carried off five 
adults. Near the Baropa weir two women and one horse 
were carried off in a single month by crocodiles in the 
Mundapur tank. Jowever, taking all things into consi- 
derations, rewards for the destruction of crocodiles, usuaily 
termed man-eaters, might be fairly offered in certain 
localities for them or their eggs. Small rewards for the 
latter, it is observed (p. cli), would aid in the extermina- 
tion of the reptiles, and this could be easily arranged for. 
Another result would be gained by demonstrating, and 
may be convincing, even those who are now averse to 
believe that destroying the eggs and the young, as well as 


( 84 ) 


killing the adults, may in time eventuate in a decrease of a 
breed of animals, even in India. : 

LX XIf. Otters do an immensity of injury in some 
rivers, especially in those of hilly 
districts; and when they have ex- 
hausted the fish, some turn their attention to frogs. Along 
the Himalayas they abound, but at Gurwal are reported not 
to destroy fish in the proportion man does, and offering 
sufficient rewards would be very expensive (p. clvili). In 
Jhansi they are included amongst the real enemies to fish 
(p. clxvi), and that they destroy the large ones in the deep 
pools of the rivers (p. clxvii). In Kumaon they are said to do 
some little injury (p. ely), also in Malabar and elsewhere ; 
but until the more serious evil of standing fishing weirs and 
traps are dealt with, perhaps the otters might be left alone. 
An otter is not a fair eater: he prefers fish, but being an 
epicure, he limits himself to their most tasty portions, of 
which he takes a few mouthfuls, and, returning to the water, 
repeats the operation. Where fisheries are protected, and 
not wastefully fished, these animals would certainly form 
good objects for rewards: thus, amongst the excellent rules 
proposed by the Dehra Doon Association, exists one of rewards 
for otters. In Malabar otters form an article of food to 
some of the lower castes. : 

LXXXIII. There are other vermin destructive to fish, 
but for which I do not propose any 
rewards should be offered; there are 
birds of many sorts too numerous to mention in this place. 
Likewise sakes, which luxuriate in irrigation canals, and 
revel at large weirs. At the Upper Coleroon weir, as the freshes 
began to subside, and only a little water was passing over the 
apron, I could plainly perceive them watching to capture the 
fish which were vainly endeavouring to ascend. I should 
imagine that I never saw less than twenty every evening on 
the down-stream face of this weir. I was present when the 
water was cut off from the Eastern Jumna Canal, and num- 
bers of large snakes were then to be seen. Tortoises and 
turtles likewise are fish-consumers, whilst predaceous fishes 
prey on their weaker neighbours, amongst which fresh- 
water sharks are frequently mentioned as at (pp. clv, elxvi). 
Near Ganjam an official informed me that he went out one 
night to see how murrul, Ophiocephalus striatus, Bloch., 
were captured, ‘The native fisherman had provided himself 
with a long flexible bamboo as a rod, whilst his look was 


Otters as vermin. 


Minor vermin which kill fish, 


( 85 ) 


baited with a live frog. Tardly had the frog splashed into 
the water, when a moderately sized murrul seized and 
swallowed it. Desirous of observing what would next ensue, 
the fish was left as a bait. Before long a large water-snake 
was perceived swimming towards it, and soon had the fish in 
its capacious jaws, thus the three were pulled out of the 
water at once, and the snake despatched. The porpoise, 
Platanista Gangetica, is stated likewise to be very destruc- 
tive to fish (p. elxxi). 


OBJECTIONS To LEGAL ACTION BEING TAKEN. 


LXXXIV. Objections have been advanced against any 
General objections to action action being taken upon the present 
being )peken- mode of working the fresh-water 
fisheries of India, and that by many officials. Some appa- 
rently judge from the district they are in; others from single 
localities, or the report of a subordinate, whose very observa- 
tions demonstrate his ignorance. A wide and general en- 
quiry appears necessary before giving any definite opinions, 
and those of others who have any knowledge upon the sub- 
ject deserve most careful consideration. I, therefore, propose 
shortly adverting to the various reasons that have been ad- 
duced by those who advocate leaving matters alone, and 
such may be arranged under the following heads :—(1) Op- 
posed to Divine laws. (2) General objections. (3) Legal 
objections. (4) As unnecessary. (5) On zoological grounds. 
(G) On political grounds. (7) For social reasons. (8) As in- 
terference with old customs. (9) Interference with trade. 
LXXXV. First, prohibiting unrestricted capture of fry 
Divine objections to prohibit- One Official considered would be in 
ing the capture and sale of fry. pposition to Divine laws, but, as he 
does not advance such to be contrary to the “laws of Nature,” 
one can only quote a recent writer’ s observation—* The 
laws of Nature are the voice of God.” In Bombay at Kaira 
(p. lvii), the common superstitious belief is that the deities of 
the river have been displeased by the withholding of the offer- 
ings formerly made by travellers who crossed it in carts previ- 
ously to the opening of the railway. As a consequence, 
Divine anger has shown itself in decreasing the fishes in the 
Mhye. Hindus think it better to take the life of one lar ge fish 
than many small ones p. xiv), as observed in the P: wnjab. 
LXXXVI. Secondly, general objections. The Offi- 
General objections to legal cCiating Chief Commissioner ~of 
seston: Oudh (p. exxix) deprecates legislative 


( 86 ) 


e 
interference with the capture and sale of fish, as it seems to 
him such can only be justifiable when it can be demonstrat- 
ed that, unless the Legislature step m, the existence of that 
important article of diet will cease altogether. A contrary 
opinion to that advanced in 1868 by the Officiating Chief Com- 
missioner, and it may perhaps be open to discussion whether 
waiting until fish have almost been exterminated is a wise and 
prudent course. In Oudh, three-fourths of the markets are 
said to have a larger demand than supply, and that fry are 
extensively destroyed. The Chief Commissioner of the 
Central Provinces (p. exviii) considers that, should legisla- 
tion be decided upon, a very wide discretion should be 
given to Local Governments in framing the rules, leaving 
such to be adapted to the case of each district and river. 
Whilst it has been proposed in the Panjab that (p. xvi) every 
Deputy Collector should be left to his own devices to stop the 
destruction of fish, but it is here overlooked that they might 
have done this before now, but apparently have neglected 
the subject ; consequently, if no rules are framed, what 
grounds exist for anticipating an improved state of affairs ? 
It has been observed in Bombay that a general Act would 
be unworkable, therefore it would be better to have one 
which could be applied, when considered necessary, to 
particular rivers and localities favourable for fish-breeding 
(pp. xliii, xlvili), a subject which will have to be more 
fully considered. In the North-Western Provinces, that 
the irritation caused would be serious (p. exlvili), al- 
though no such result has followed identical regulations in 
the Panjab (p. exlvii), whilst in the Doon, in the North- 
West, the zemindars (p. exlix) have carried out the pro- 
positions to prohibit nets with meshes having less than 13 
inches between each knot, and stopped the damming and 
turning of streams for fishing purposes. In Burma, the 
Chief Commissioner is satisfied “that any attempt to pro- 
hibit the capture of small fish would be as impolitic as it 
js unnecessary.” J inancial reasons have also been adduced 
that a loss of revenue would at first be a consequence of 
regulating the minimum size of the mesh of nets (p. xii), 
‘although it is probable that it would recover itself as large 
fish increased in numbers, and the fishermen become accus- 
tomed to the system.” That in Bombay additional police 
would be rendered necessary (pp. 1, li), also in Madras 
(pp. Ixxxii, lxxxvii), and Oudh (p. exxi). Iowever, in the 
Panjab it is observed that for carrying out such a scheme 


(. Si") 


(p. ix), no separate establishment is proposed; and in 
Haidarabad (p. exi) that no establishment would be ne- 
cessary. 

LXXXVII. Thirdly, legal objections. Ilere, however, 
such difficulties are advanced that 
they can scarcely be replied to. The 
principles of English law are entirely absent from some of 
the reporters’ replies, and statements are advanced so utterly 
incorrect, that it has appeared better to reply to them where 
raised, and to give a short’ synopsis of what the British law 
really is: only drawing attention to the fact that license 
gives no right (p. lxiv), but is revocable at will. ‘The Col- 
lector of Puna remarks—no private rights really exist, but 
that of prescription may be claimed (p. xlviii). Without 
reference to such being invalid by the law of Great Britain, 
I here give the observations of an officer in the North- 
Western Provinces (p. clv) on this subject :—‘ The preserip- 
tive rights of the people will possibly require legislative 
action, but it is quite time that the common-sense principle 
was declared, once for all, that no people in the world, other 
than savages, who do whatever pleases them, have a pre- 
scriptive right to do anything which destroys or diminishes 
a spontaneous source of food. The same principle has been 
applied in the use of water and timber; why should it not be 
applied to so important an article as human food? * * Pre- 
scriptive right to do wrong things, or injudiciously exter- 
minate a natural source of food-supply, has only existed 
until now, because there has not been a Government strong 
or civilized enough to control it. Thus ‘suttee,’ ‘thuggee’, 
‘human sacrifices’ were all prescriptive rights in their way, 
and had, moreover, a certain amount of legal sanction, and 
yet, because they involved loss of human life, they were very 
rightly swept away, and so can this right of wanton de- 
struction of human food be.” Rights exist, according to the 
Madras Revenue Board (p. xe), for people to catch fish how 
they please in their own fields, a right not admitted by the 
British law, but highly punishable ; even if such is legal, as 
observes the Collector of South Canara,—* I cannot but think 
that the time has arrived when intelligence should interfere 
between ignorance and waste.” Communal rights are ob- 
served upon (p. Ixxviii), as existing amongst village commu- 
nities to fisheries within the limits of their own villages ; 
whilst the Collector of Tanjur (p. Ixxix) remarks that the 
right to the fishery of all tanks, as well as village 


Legal objections. 


(fier) 


channels in his district, belongs to the merassidars having 
been conceded to them in the orders of Government of 
11th June 1857. The Commissioner of West Berar, on 
the other hand (p. ex), says fishing rights do not exist, 
for under a ryotwari settlement, all fisheries are com- 
mon property, indeed, belong properly to Government. 
Finally, a curious legal objection to a law regulating 
the minimum size of the mesh of nets is propounded 
(p. lxxxili) as follows:—“I do not believe any Magis- 
trate would convict except under peculiar circumstances,” 
and as this opinion comes from a gentleman, who, I believe is, 
invested with magisterial powers, it deserves attention, as it 
will hardly be of use framing rules if convictions under such 
are unobtainable. 
LXXXVITT. Fourthly, that regulations are. unneces- 
That regulations areunneces- Sary. ‘This plea is advanced under 
sary. numerous heads. Thus, as remarked 
upon bythe Collector of Kurnal (p. lxxxi)—* if anything could 
repress their destruction to any extent, it would be the for- 
bidding to catch fish with roe; but this would be tantamount 
to depriving the people of a wholesome and pleasant diet, and 
interfere with the great traflic in fish-roes that now takes 
place.” Whilst objections exist against prohibiting the sale 
of the fry of fish as they are more tasty (p. xiv), and that an 
esteemed delicacy are the fry of large fish (p. Ixxv); that 
temporarily they form an important article of food for a num- 
ber of the poor classes, and stopping such an enjoyment would 
be ahardship. It would be cruel (p. lxxxii) to stop the catch- 
ing of little fish (p. lxix). hat, of course, fishermen will 
protect them in leased fisheries, elsewhere their destruction 
is immaterial (p. cexxii). That regulations are unnecessary, 
as the fish in districts are valueless, so it does not matter 
what becomes of them (p. xlvi); insignificant, so do not re- 
quire protecting (p. lxxiv). That the supply of fish is said 
to be inexhaustible in Bellary (p. Ixxix), and their capture 
requires encouragement, although the tehsildars consider a 
decrease already apparent, and the demand always greater 
than the supply (pp. xevi). That in the Kistna in the 
Kurnal Collectorate (p. lxxxii), “let man use any appli- 
ances he can think of for taking fish, he will never be able 
to affect the supply in any appreciable way as regards 
this district ;” whilst the Tehsildar of Ramalkota (p. xevii) 
remarks of the same river in the same place, “that it is 
asserted by all the fishermen of whom [ have enquired that 


(° °89: ) 


the river stock has considerably decreased of late years.” 
That in Rohileund (p. eli), ‘the size and areas of water in 
the main streams of India are so great that the amount of 
fish taken out is nothing as compared with the stock remain- 
ing, and they need no protection.” ‘That it is locally unne- 
cessary, as in portions of Sind, due to the paucity of popula- 
tion, the rapidity and dangerous character of the River 
due, and owing to the security the immature fish obtain 
during the inundation season. The same is also observed 
in Burma, where it is remarked that if the people may not 
kill the little fish, a large number of persons will stop fishing 
(p. cexxii). Or that any such regulation would possibly de- 
prive a poor man of his dinner (p. cexxiv), Or that it is 
no use legislating for perennial pieces of water as they do 
not dry up, and fish may take care of themselves (pp. Ixxxii 
and xlvi); whilst it would be equally uscless legislating 
for those that are not perennial, because as the water 
dried up the contained fish would perish (pp. xi, xviii, 
xxxli, xli, Ixxviii, Ixxxi, lxxxv). In fact, it may be 
doubtful whether it is advisable or not to pass any rules 
as regards the minimum size of the mesh of the net 
which may be used in waters that yearly dry up, and 
after all communication has been naturally cut off from 
large contiguous tanks or running streams or rivers. No 
irrigated field is perennial whilst fish and their fry can- 
not be prevented from extending their range into such 
localities. A general destruction of fry is pointed out by 
some native officials as the cause of the present deteriora- 
tion of the fresh-water fisheries (pp. exxiv, exxy, elxxv) of 
India. One Huropean, however, observes upon the following 
strong reason for not regulating the minimum size of the 
mesh in future “that another class of poor people would 
be pestered with orders and regulations, which they and 
their neighbours would not understand” (p. Cxix). 
LXXXIX. Vifthly, zoological grounds are adduced why 
Zoological reasons against prohibiting the capture and sale of 
netion' being taken. the fry of large fishes could not be 
enforced. The ignorance of the common policeman is ad- 
verted to as unable to discriminate between fry and adult 
fish (p. exxxi); whilst in Bengal, Madras, and Burma the 
want of a work on the fishes of the Indian E Impire is spoken 
of. Certainly, such a law, if passed, would be execedingly 
dificult to work until a comprehensive and illustrated 
treatise is in the hands of executive officers. Thus, the term 


 ) 


mahaseer includes several of the large sorts of barbel, of 
which India possesses upwards of sixty species. 

XC. Sixthly, on political grounds, regulations, it 

Political reasons against ac- 1S surmised, might in the Panjab 
EER ESE (p. 1x) give rise to irritation amongst 
a border population; or in Bombay, amongst the Bhils 
of Kandeish (p. xli), the forest rules having curtailed 
their privilege of cutting and selling timber from the 
jungles. ‘That such might cause discontent, as regulating 
the minimum size of the mesh would be unpopular 
in Bombay (pp. xlvii, 1), occasion great dissatisfaction 
in Madras (pp. Ixxxvi, Ixxxvili), or be fraught with 
annoyance and vexation to the fishing classes, or unpopular 
(p. Ixxi) in the Central Provinces (p. exvili), Or that 
regulations might set up alarm, due to “ the natural dislike 
and prejudice of the rustic population against any innova- 
tion whatever in their implements for carrying on their 
craft (p. exxxil), and that innovations would be opposed 
by prejudice (p. xl). That prohibiting catching fry would 
be interfering with a “free industry” (p. lxxi), and the 
prohibition of destroying fish-in-roe would interfere with the 
present traffic in fish-roe (p. Ixxxi), whilst stopping the 
sale of the fry in the bazars would be a measure ‘ obnoxious 
to sellers and consumers, and at present seems quite uncalled 
for.” If fry are not permitted to be publicly disposed of, it is 
suggested that they will be privately sold or kept for home 
consumption (p. exii). In the North-Western Provinces, 
that “ the Tharoos who live in the Turai spend much of 
their time in the rains in catching small-fish (fry), and would 
be very discontented if their fishing were interfered with.” 
So it is proposed to let them do it in any way (p. cliii). 

XCI. Seventhly, regulations are disliked for social 
reasons :—thus, in Bombay at Almed- 
abad, it is considered better that some 
fry be destroyed than that further opportunities should be 
afforded to the lower grades of Government servants, and 
to bigotted IHindus, to turn the intentions of Government to 
their own profit (p. xlii). In the Central Provinces (p. exviii), 
that close and constant inspection would be necessary to 
keep the nets up to the standard, and the uses to which the 
opportunities thus given to petty officials would be put, can 
easily be imagined. In Madrasat Kurnal (p. lxxxi), that the 
only way in which Government could interfere would be by 
means of an establishment of subordinates, who would avail 


Social objections, 


@ 91") 


themselves of their authority to practise extortion and op- 
press the poor, and never really repress the destruction of 
fish. That the police would find in such a law the means 
of extortion in Oudh (p. exxxi). ‘That in the North-Western 
Provinces, their caste is so good that they could not be 
expected to interfere regarding fish, except to cause op- 
pression (p. cli). In Mirzapur (p. elxiii), that to carry out 
rules, the police or revenue establishments who might have 
to see to it are so venal, that they would expect to obtain 
fish without payment. In Azimgurh, that any establish- 
ments ‘ would be mere engines of oppression and extortion” 
(p. elxv). One official (p. clxx) considers the State has now 
enough to do “ in carrying through public measures that are 
not supported by the opinion of the country ;”’ therefore, regu- 
lating the fisheries should be postponed: another (p. elxx), 
that it is undesirable that the public mind should be disturb- 
ed “by gratuitous interference on the part of an alien ad- 
ministration, enforced by not very trustworthy agency.” In 
short, several of the officials of this province consider the 
police, and subordinate natives under their supervi- 
sion and control, are so very untrustworthy that regulations 
would eventuate in unlimited extortion! That it would be 
unkind to the very poor to prohibit the capture of fry, and 
enjoy the fish whilst obtainable without trouble; thus, in 
Madras, in the Coimbatore Collectorate (p. Ixxxvii), ‘the 
Collectors, out of consideration for the poorer classes, have 
refrained from letting out tanks and streams,” doubtless com- 
mendable in a philanthropic spirit, if to-day’s requirements 
irrespective of to-morrow’s wants is the only question, but, 
unfortunately, permitting unlimited license has ended in un- 
limited waste. The fishermen in Madras (p. Ixxviii) are 
said to be an impoverished class, so they will consider that 
were renting re-imposed it would be a grievance: their 
position in the social scale is not high in the Central Provinces, 
so it is a question whether improving the fisheries will lead 
to their condition being bettered or the reverse. 

XCII. Highthly, that the fishermen ply their trade as 
they always have done, consequently, 
as fish still remain in the waters, no 
interference is desirable (p. exxx). This, however, is an 
assertion much similar to those answers which the Govern- 
ment received in 1868, that the supply of fish was hardly 
decreasing anywhere ;in fact, that in some places it was 
augmenting,—general replies, in fact, which, unfortunately, 


Fishermen’s objections. 


more minute enquiries have shown to have been usually de- 
rived froni erroneous impressions. ‘This subject, therefore, 
has been more fully dwelt upon elsewhere. 

XCIli. Ninthly, that doing anything would be an 
interference with trade (p. Ixxxi, 
&e.) or “free industries” (p. Ixxi) ; 
and doubtless if the present wasteful mode of fishing in some 
parts of fndia is regulated, it will be an interference perhaps 
with trade, certainly with poaching. It can hardly be denied 
that a certain comparison may be drawn between fish and grain 
employed as food. In the North-West Provinces (p. clxxv) 
the poorest classes eat small fish instead of meal or 
flour of any kind. It is observed in the Panjab that the one 
is exchanged for the other (p. xxv): thus, when grain is 
cheap, it obtains double its weight : when dear, an equal pro- 
portion, Also (p. xxvii) that fish are not sold, but when- 
ever the zemindars feel inclined to eat it, they generally 
give the fishermen some grain in repayment for catching it. 
In Bombay at Kandeish (p. xiv), that in a bad season 
when grain is scarce and dear, fish forms a large proportion 
of the food of the Bhils. In Madras, the sub-engineer at the 
Dowlaisheram weir reported :—‘ The fish procured at the ani- 
cuts in great numbers formed a great part of the food to 
many poor classes of people in the late famine years” (before 
1868). In Orissa, the Commissioner observed to the Famine 
Commissioners:—‘ While the condition of the residents of this 
place, where my camp is, is somewhat easier as living by 
their fisheries, they are not so affected by present circum- 
stances.” Now, if fish not only can be, but is, substituted in 
times of scarcity for grain as food, surely it is an important 
consideration whether a judicious interference which would 
augment this source of nutriment, would be a politic or an 
impolitie act. I cannot think that much would be believed 
of a farmer’s sagacity, who, desiring fish, the cost of which 
was in accordance with the weight of grain, cut green 
corn in exchange: neither do I think he would be much 
more foolish than the. fishermen who capture the fry or 
young, whose food costs nothing. The Burmese suggested 
that, if wrong, Government should stop it, and how could this 
class of people be expected to leave immature fish alone, 
when they would be liable to be taken in the next field or 
piece of water. Tf, then, killing the fry is folly, does such 
rest wholly with the fishermen? In an English magazine 
(June Ist, 1867) occurs the following :—‘* Sometimes fice trade 


Trading objections, 


( 93 ) 


in pearl-fishing has been advocated, but this would lead to 
an exhaustion of the banks by reckless fishing. The har- 
vest of cinchona in South America, and that of teak timber 
in the Malabar forests, are known to have been injured by a 
greedy eagerness to bring as much to the market as possible, 
to kill the goose that lays the golden egg.” It may be asked 
—is the use of fry as manure (p. exxxvii) a free industry ? 
If the man who makes two grains of wheat grow where only 
one was previously raised is a benefactor to his race, in what 
position are we to place that individual in India, who, aware 
how fish can be substituted for grain, not only connives at 
but argues that its wasteful destruction should be freely per- 
mitted? Surely waste, when it is not wilful, is as a rule 
the offspring of ignorance or prejudice, much as developing 
the resources of an Empire ought to be the natural conse- 
quence of matured investigations and conclusions based 
upon careful scientific enquiries. 
XCIV. ‘The result of fishing without reeulations has 
Result of fishing without ree generally been found to be destrue- 
gulations elsewhere. tive to fresh-water fisheries, so much 
so that in Great Britain and elsewhere most stringent rules 
are enforced for their protection, as liberty unrestrained 
eventuates in license, which last degenerates into destructive 
waste. Jl. Soubeiran, in an excellent paper on this subject, 
remarks that, although normally the fresh-waters of the 
United States contain a large number of excellent fish, they 
have for many years lost their old fertility, greatly due to 
the erection of weirs, mill-dams and other obstacles that have 
been constructed for the purpose of facilitating navigation 
or manufactures. ‘The chief cause of depopulation he holds 
to be the very common employment of fixed engines, which 
but too well fulfil their purpose. The salmon have almost 
disappeared, and all-destructive man, in his greed, has 
succeeded but too surely in depopulating the waters. Now, 
the different States have officers whose duty it is to re-stock 
the rivers. In Canada, the same decrease is observed, due 
to the same cause. In Nova Scotia, Mr. Knight in 1867 
observed of the river fisheries, that one can without exag- 
geration compare them to the mines of Golconda, so far that 
man has at his disposal an inexhaustible wealth, on the 
sole condition of following the laws of Nature. Instead 
of this, obstructions have been erected, destructive im- 
plements of capture brought into use, and the fisheries 
allowed no rest. Now, depopulation of those waters has 


( 94 ) 


begun, and the people demand conservative and not further 
destructive measures. Both the public and the fishermen 
complain and call for legislation for the purpose of re- 
stocking the waters, which they have been at such pains to 
depopulate. 


SUGGESTIONS AS TO WHAT LEGAL AcTION SHOULD BE TAKEN. 


XCV. Having now brought forward the various 
Reasons for legal action being reasons that have been adduced for 
taken. leaving the fresh-water fisheries alone, 
and permitting the present mode of working them to con- 
tinue, on the general principle enunciated by one official 
(p. xlvi) that perhaps the next generation will be riper for 
protective legislation, it becomes requisite to examine the 
opinions of those who consider action is now necessary. The 
Secretary of State observed (p. Ixvili) that the conservancy 
and control of the fisheries, and the measures suggested for 
the improvement of pisciculture throughout India, constitute 
subjects which certainly deserve attention. ‘The Governor- 
General in Council (p. lxxii) remarked,—Is the present plan 
of non-interference likely to ensure to future generations the 
fullest possible supply of this food staple ? Isit even such as 
to ensure their inheriting a supply equal to that which now 
exists ? ‘he Governor-General in Council apprehends that 
both these questions must be answered in the negative: and 
that not only is thero no prospect, as matters now stand, of an 
increased supply hereafter, but that, owing to the absence of 
precautionary measures and reasonable restrictions, the exist- 
ing supply is diminishing. Ilis Excellency in Council be- 
lieves, on the other hand, that it would be possible, by the 
adoption of such measures and restrictions, to increase the 
supply very largely ina few years. If this is so, it would 
clearly be the duty of the State to take the necessary mea- 
sures. In Canara, the Acting Collector (p. lv) considers,—By 
the principles of the Jus gentiwm, large rivers belong to all 
the people of the country : in other words, are the property of 
Government which represents all the people of the 
country, so far as such rights are concerned. Where 
the fund of wealth is unlimited, it is better to leave 
the right of using it unlimited: but where this is not 
the case (and it is presumed all will admit it is 
not the case with river or tank fisheries), some restricting 
regulations are necessary. If the above statement be correct, 
the sooner the Legislature takes the fisherics of this district 


( 95 ) 


under its cognizance the better. As regards the present 
destructive modes of fishing, he continues, if these practices 
be continued, the rivers of the district will soon be swept 
clear of fish ; a means of innocent sport for some, and of 
sustenance for many, will be stopped, and the chance of 
Government ever deriving any revenue from the fisheries, 
which, if they were protected, would be quite practicable and 
might be desirable, will be lost. The principle of protecting 
fish during the breeding season is too well known to need 
comment (p. xiv), and fish might be augmented, “ adding to 
the food and comfort of the poorer classes, whose interests in 
this particular point have been hitherto neglected” (p. liii). 
Whilst in the North-West Provinces, the Commissioner of 
Meerut (p. exlviii) considers “ there is a fear that, unless the 
reckless system of wholesale destruction is stopped, the fish- 
supply may become scant.’? There are two main causes 
which lead to it: the facilities afforded by irrigation 
works, and the absence of any check in respect of rivers. 
The opinions will be collated in much the same way as those 
of the officials who hold contrary views, excepting that Divine 
laws have not been commenced with, although it might be 
observed that this article of food was probably intended for 
our use, not abuse, whilst destructive waste can hardly be 
brought forward as a Divine command. 
XCVI. Lirst, general reasons for action being taken. 
BS e. Seranenneen ae a Bombay, the Officiating Revenue 
being recommended. cer of the Northern Division 
(p. xliii) observes that it is a question 
whether protective laws of moderate stringency would not be 
very advisable. More officials, however, hold that a general 
Act would be unworkable (p. xlviii), and would rather 
have one which could be applied, when considered neces- 
sary, to particular rivers and localities favourable for fish- 
breeding. That if such were commenced in_ selected 
localities, considerable light might be thrown on the question, 
and the advisability of extending such operations to other 
places, or not doing so, would be more clearly established 
(p. xliiit}. It is well observed that attempts should be made 
to remedy great rather than lesser evils (p. xv); but what are 
those greater evils? The remedy proposed is to make it eri- 
minal to use a net witha mesh below a certain size. In 
Assam (p. eexxviii), it is remarked that, if the supply of fish 
is to be kept up, fishery laws are necessary. Ou other grounds 


( 96 ) 


also local action is proposed ; that only perennial lakes and 
second-class rivers should be subject to legal restrictions in 
Oudh (p. exxx), but that large rivers should be left alone 
(p. exxxii), but protection afforded in small streams to the 
spawning and young fish. In Madras, that certain rivers be 
taken under Government conservancy (p. lxxii), and officials be 
absolutely prohibited from interfering with minorchannels, &e. 
In fact, amongst those who propose that legal action should be 
taken, most are in favour of an Act which might be modified 
to suit different localities, the same as in Great Britain, where 
certain principles are laid down which cannot be deviated 
from, but minor questions, which are subject to local varia- 
tions due to local causes, may be dealt with by district boards. 
Some oflicials propose protecting the second-rate and smaller 
rivers, leaving the larger ones to take care of themselves ; 
others would merely protect the larger ones, but not the 
smaller channels, &c. 

XCVILI. The regulations proposed are exceedingly 
varied, some being simply as appli- 
cable to hilly districts, whilst others 
refer to the whole country, and local modifications have 
been prominently adduced as desirable for certain places. 
«© Fence months” have been proposed to be generally instituted, 
in order that fish might be allowed to breed in security, as in 
Bombay (pp. xliv, xlvii), but it is remarked that they would 
probably be evaded. A close season is likewise observed to 
be desirable in Ahmednuggur (p. xlviii) and the Central 
Provinces (p. xevii). At Sambalpur, two months’ cessation 
from fishing is also recommended (p. exxii), provided it could 
be enforced, whilst at Seoni it is proposed that such should 
be from July to September inclusive (p. exx). At Ratna- 
ghiri, a close season of two months in the hilly districts is 
advised (p. liv); it is also proposed in Mysore (pp. civ, ev), 
in Haidarabad, at Buldana (p. exi), and Akola (p._ exi), 
although in this last locality this is said to be the best fishing 
season in the district. In the Central Provinces, at Sagar 
and Jabalpur (p. exx), a close season for the first two months 
of the monsoon, whilst in Berar, July and August are recom- 
mended as most suitable for this purpose. Again, close 
seasons have been proposed as locally desirable; thus, in the 
irrigation canals when the young of marine species, as_ the 
shad, are escaping down to the sea, it is thought that they had 
better have a free highway, so it is suggested that October to 


Regulations proposed, 


9) 


February are suitable (pp. Ixxix, Ixxiv) for then the 
floods have subsided, and the bulk of the fish are 
caught on their return to the sea: this period, however, is 
considered as too long by the Madras Revenue Board. 
Again, it has been suggested that in localities where the 
water becomes very low in the rivers during the dry season, 
certain pools should be protected, as the whole of An fish 
can be swept out of them with the greatest case. This is 
especially recommended in hilly districts in the dry (not 
cold) months of the year in the Himalayas (pp. vii, xiv, xvi) : 
also in 'Trichinopoly and Tinnivelli, in pools of rivers below 
eee weirs whenever a good stream does not exist 
(pp. Ixxx, Ixxxv): and in South Canara (p. xci). The 
measures stated to be necessary in the Kangra District of 
the Himalayas are, amongst others, « partially a system of 
Government preserves, such as was alw: ays in force in the 
time of the Rajas” (p. xvi). In some places, as the 
Ilimalayas, it has been proposed that the young of 
certain fish should be locally protected: also in Bombay 
(p. lii) and in Madras (pp. Ixxii, xcii), but, as has been ob- 
served,—who is to decide what are the young P 
XCVIIT. Omitting weirs, fixed engines and bunding 
On the necessity of tesakee. Wael he we been separately dealt with, 
ing the minimum size of the the next most prominent question is 
spat obec: the necessity of regulating the mini- 
mum size of the mesh of the nets, on which subject very con- 
tradictory opinions have been advanced. Commencing with 
the Panjab, in parts of which such have been tried, twenty- 
one answers from European officials have been received : 
seventeen (pp. X, Xi, Xi, Xili, xiv, xvii) consider that no 
objections exist, although one believes such to be unnecessary 
(p. x), and another (p. xvii) that it is unadvisable. Out of 
the four that object, one does so on account of a contiguous 
and evidently unruly border population (p. ix) : a second, 
due to the want of a legal enactment, coupled with a direct 
loss of revenue which might acerue (p. xi): a third, that 
supervision would be impossible in the hills (p. xiv): and 
a fourth, that if the people might not eat the fry, what were 
they to obtain at that season P “(p. xiv). Inthe Central Pro- 
vinees if is observed that regulations must be legalised in 
order to be carried out (p. 1.) 
XCIX. Of those who have proposed that a minimum 
Minimum imesh of net pro- size should be fixed by law, or 
posed: that if such were so decided upon, 


G 


IBF +) 


what would be most desirable, the following answers have 
been received :— 


2 a 
Size proposed rg | A Sa 
between knot o : a ; E = ‘ 
and knot of 2 2 2 iB E rs 3 ; Actes a a 
ameshes, t=) EB 3 Ea 5 E58 | ee Ey z 
Ce ene let lie se || Ole eOumips a | «a 
2 inches 3 od) m as ees ie 
ids . ae ee eile Be ala ke 
Wed eee 3 re 1 ri eee Re 
Tes ay 4 1 1 3 He see 
1 - 3 3 1 1 Ay 5 3 1 owe 4 
Ans 0 ses a ies es ae 1 nn es 
2g 1 ae saa, |) one 3 2 00 ae 1 
2 ies 1 Gia lus leee. 2 1 
+ » 608 | x69 an 1 
es 1 ss 2 a ‘ 
2 grains of barley}... ante oe $5 ack Bc 1 


One official (p. xv) observes that only large meshed 
nets ought to be permitted in the hills during the breeding 
season. Village officers, it is suggested (p. lxxviii), should 
be made responsible for the size of the meshes employed, or, 
if regulations are merely to affect leased fisheries, the size 
might be inserted in the contract (p. lxxix). 

C. As to whether any difficulties exist as to prohi- 

Prohibiting tho sale of fry biting the sale of the fry of fish 
in bazars. in the bazars. Highteen answers 
from Panjab officials have been received. Seventeen see no 
difficulties (pp. vili, ix, xi, xii, xiii, xiv, xv, xvii), but one 
considers that persons might be permitted to sell small fish 
between April 15th and May 15th, also during the month of 
September (p. xiii). A second that, although such might be 
stopped within municipal limits, elsewhere a legal enactment 
would be necessary (p. xvii). One gentleman (p. xviii) 
considers such an interference with fishermen whose tempers 
might be ‘irritated so much that they might relinquish their 
trade, and consequently the little fish would escape. In the 
Bombay Presidency, out of eight answers, six see no difficulty ; 
one would rely upon regulating the size of the mesh of nets, 
and one denounces such an idea as an arbitrary interference 
with trade! In Madras, such an order would cause conster- 
nation in the Vizagapatam Collectorate, whilst at Nag- 
pur, in the Central Provinces, the tehsildars are all unani- 
mous in reporting that the sale of the fry of fish in the 


(G2oo8.) 


hazars might be prohibited without causing any injury, 

and the prohibition would have the effect of causing larger 
fish to be brought to market, In Mysor, it is sug- 
gested (p. civ) that if they might not be disposed of, 
the people who caught them would eat them at home. In 
the Nerbad&i Division two Collectors give their opinions : 
the first considers such a rule (p. exxi) would be a 
beneficial one; the second, that it would reduce the sales 
by one-half, apparently overlooking the fact that if half 
the amount of fish sold are merely fry, what a waste- 
ful destruction must be taking place; for, as observed in 
South Canara of fishes of this size captured for eating,—‘ I 
saw one day some thousands as fine as a straw within. the 
compass of one earthen pot: they were to form the meal for 
one labouring man, whereas they might have sufliced to 
stock a lake or feed a town” (p. Ixxxviii). Objections have 
been raised to prohibiting the use of a mesh under a certain 
size: one reason brought forward being, that some 
species of Indian fish are always of a small size, and 
you would thus prohibit their capture, to the great 
loss of this sort of food to the people of the country. 
Exclusive of the natural answer—that these are the young or 
the food of the larger sorts, so should be preserved—other 
propositions have been advanced. ‘Thus chilwas and moree 
nets (p. li.), it has been suggested, should not be regulated, 
or all these fish will escape. ‘The Chief Commissioner 
of the Panjab observed—chilwa nets were not approved of, 
as such might be employed to take the young of larger fish 
(p.1i). Chilwas are said to be taken in Peshawur (p. ix). The 
Deputy Commissioner of Lahor (p. xi) observes that this 
fishing is carried on during July and August, the exact 
period when young fish are moving about, and it would be 
an extraordinary coincidence did these fish appear suddenly 
at this period, and were absent during the remainder of the 
year; the fact being that the vast majority of chilwas are in 
reality the fry of larger species of fish. The Extra Assistant 
Commissioner of Phillur suggests that chilwa fishing might 
be permitted in the early spring when fry are not moving 
about (p. xv); or in Kangra that taking chilwas might be 
allowed in those streams to which larger species of fish 
never resort (p. xvi). It has also been proposed that only 
during certain fixed periods may small fish be disposed of, 
whilst in Kangra (p. xvi), licensed fish-stalls, under a Govern- 
ment official, have been advocated. In short, that even were 


( 100 ) 


the proposition admitted, that small fish ought to be allowed 
to be taken, why not permit such during the first four or 
five months of the year during the time when the vast 
majority of the fry of the more v valuable sorts are not moving 
about ? The destruction of the fry of fish, as already observed, 
some native officials appear to deem the root of the present 
evil (pp. exxiv, exxv), if a deercase of fish is one, as scems 
to be doubied by some reporters (p. xlvi) ; one native official 
volunteers the opinion in Madras (p. xevii) that ‘ nets 
and traps ought to have holes large enough for a 2-anna 
piece to go through” (, ths of an inch in diameter). In the 
Panjab (p. xi), “ Mian Mahbub Dhony, Magistrate, who is a 
great sportsman, thinks the mesh should not be less than 
nine inches all round,” 

CI. It has also been proposed that the use of nets 
within a certain distance of weirs, 
&ec., spanning rivers and streams be 
prohibited. That measures be taken to prevent indiscri- 
minate destruction of fish in irrigation canals as will be 
alluded to further on. That the use of loaded hooks be ille- 
gal, also the poisoning of waters (pp. Ixxii, lxxiv, lxxv, Ixxx, 
Ixxxvi, exvii, exx), drainage of tanks (pp. Ixxiv, Ixxv); that 
the amount of captures be restricted (p. xvi), as well as tho 
number of days in which fishing is permitted (p. xvi). That 
monopolists be allowed to rent fisheries and the sale of fish 
in districts (p. xvi), whilst the rulers of foreign States, 
whose territories are contiguous to those of the British, and 
through which the same rivers run, be requested to join in 
any plan adopted by the Legislature (p. xiv). That money 
obtained from fisheries, by leasing out those now permit- 
ted to run to waste and ruin, be applied for the protection and 
extension of their importance and usefulness (pp. li, bxxii), 
and the destruction of vermin, &c. Thus, as observed by the 
Madras Revenue Board, that “ with care a large prospective 
income may be relied on from this source,”’ and to obtain such, 
care will be necessary, and waste must be stopped. Whilst as 
in severa! districts the whole subject is inadequately attended 
to,” anew régime must commence, not by introducing foreign 
fish and killing their fry as well as the old as soon as intro- 
duced, not by persecuting to destruction the indigenous races ; 
not by artificially breeding fry to be indiscriminately destroyed 
as soon as turned into the water, refusing to kill vermin, and 
considering the poacher’s interest as vested rights, but by 
applying the English law in a modified form to Indian 


Further proposals. 


( 101 J) 


waters, and considering the good of the fish-consuming 
millions as superior to that of the wasteful few. 


Fisuery Laws or Grear Britain. 


CII. In several of the following reports, such 
exceedingly incorrect assertions have 
pecnery Laws of Great een advanced respecting the Mishery 
; Laws of Great Britain that I consider it 
advisable to give a few remarks on what really exists, unless 
lately altered, and that with but few comments on my part. 
Salmon and trout are not found in the fresh-waters of India, 
their place being supplied by carps and perhaps herrings. 
The reason why most of the laws in Great Britain appear to 
allude to salmon, appears to be as stated in the law of Scot- 
land that “salmon fishing is a paramount right to which 
other fresh-water fishing must yield.” Here, there being no 
salmon, protective laws should embrace all fresh-water 
fish. Whilst the fresh-water fisheries may be considered 
briefly as such which exist in fresh-waters which are not 
within tidal influence. ‘There are four descriptions of 
fishery. A common fishery is that kind of right which all 
the public have alike to fish in the sea or a navigable 
river. <A several fishery is the right of an individual to 
fish exclusively in a particular water, and it is not 
necessarily united with the right to the soil, though origin- 
ally all owners of the bed of a river or water must have 
had a several fishery in such water as a constituent part of 
the right of property until they parted with it to another. 
A. free fishery is the right of fishing along with other 
individuals in a water. A common of fishery is tho right of 
a person to fish in waters of which the soil belongs toa 
different person. 

CIII. “The next question is—Who is the persott who 
has the legal right of fishing for 
trout [in India the word would 
be ‘fish, not ‘trout,’ for the reasons specified in the last 
paragraph | generally, é i. e., with nets and other compe- 
tent means? The answer is, that all riparian owners 
have this right as an incident of ownership. Where 
the owner has, however, let the land to a tenant, the 
question may arise, whether the owner or the tenant 
is to enjoy the trout-fishing. If the lease expressly 
lct the fishing to the tenant, there is an end of the question ; 
but the difficulty ariscs W hether, when the lease is silent, 


Right of fishing. 


the right of fishing is in the tenant also.’ This point was 
decided (Duke of Richmnod vy. Dempster, 14th January 
1860, Jusi. c. 88, sc. Jur. 133.) The Court of Justiciary, 
consisting of five Judges, per Inglis, C. J., came to the 
following conclusion :—‘* We are of opinion that an agri- 
cultural tenant has not, as such, any right to fish in a stream 
running by or through his farm, with any net of any kind 
or description” (Paterson)—a decision said to be open to 
question. 

CIV. “The nature of a right of fishery proper is an 
incorporal hereditament, and as such 
cau be conveyed only by deed. A 
license of fishing is distinct from the right of fishery, and 
is at most only a justification for what would otherwise be 
a trespass. <A license is revocable at will, and in order to 
be binding, even for an hour, must be granted by deed” 
(Paterson, p. 57). A “fishery may be let by verbal agree- 
ment; and even where no rent has been agreed upon, the 
landlord is entitled to sue the tenant for a reasonable rent 
under an ivdebitatus count for use and occupation” (p. 67.) 
«The purchasers of a fishery in the River Galway and Lough 
Corrib petitioned the Court of Chancery to be quieted in 
the possession and enjoyment of their several fishery. The 
defendants were represented by ten persons, who were paupers, 
who set up as a defence that the river was, except in a cer- 
tain specified portion, open to the public, and had been so 
from time immemorial. | Evidence was given on both sides, 
and the plaintiffs, who produced grants from the Crown, 
and evidence of user, contended that the evidence of user 
on the part of the defendants was evidence merely of a 
succession of trespasses. ‘There had been a trial of an issue 
some years previously which settled the right to the fishery 
in the plaintiffs, The M. Kk. accordingly, without put- 
ting the plaintiffs to any further trial, granted the decree 
declaring the petitioners’ rights and continuing the injunc- 
tion (p. 117-8). 

CV. ‘* Property is essentially an exclusive thing, and 
the incident of fishing is also so. 
All other persons, therefore, except 
the owner of the soil beneath, or the riparian owner, have 
no more right to fish in his water, than they have a right to 
seize any other perquisite of fhe soil. Whether a stranger 
fishes with a net or a rod can make no difference in point of 
law; it is the taking of the fish, not the manner of taking 


Nature of riglit of fishing. 


Right of property in fishery. 


(103 > : 


it, that is important” (p. 120). “ Sometimes an owner 
is careless of his rights, and tolerates strangers, who, 
knowing this lenience, invade his fields to angle or fish 
with nets, especially to angle. This, however, is a gratuitous 
concession on his part, and he can at any moment, without 
notice, resume his rights, and treat all such intruders as 
trespassers. Whether the land on which the trespasser goes 
is waste or cultivated, fenced or unfenced, it is equally 
a trespass for him to go there without the owner's permis- 
sion. This has always been the law, and is still the law, as 
regards all rivers and streams whatever” (p. 120). ‘ Some- 
times the inhabitants of a village or town set up a claim 
to angle in a part of a river or water on the ground of 
of ancient custom. * * * In such cases the acts of such 
anglers are more likely to be referable to the license of the 
owner, who, if he pleases, may allow all the public, ora 
portion of the public, to angle there. But no length of time, 
during which such acts are capable of being explained on 
the ground of license, can prevent the owner putting an end 
to such license. He may resume his original rights at any 
moment, and withdraw the license, for no man ought to have 
his rights abridged, by acting liberally towards the public 
or his neighbours.” ‘It may happen that after a number 
of years’ use by the public promiscuously of the angling 
in a particular water or river, the public may begin to claim 
as a right what at first was merely a license, and litigation 
may arise as to whether the public have acquired the right 
or not. ‘There seems, however, no trace of any such right 
being established in this way.” 
CVI. ‘ 'The chief substantial interference with a 
a ‘ _ common fishery is where a weir or 
mieitae Ee Maecenas similar contrivance exists. As already 
so prior to Magna Charta. De- stated, such weirs are, primd facie, a 
ciainnuimeceanirssiies nuisanco and illegal” (p. 108). 
* Lord Ellenborough, C.J., said:—the 
erection of weirs across rivers was reprobated in the earliest 
periods of our law, and they were considered as public nui- 
sances. Magna Charta and subsequent Acts so treated them, 
and forbad the erection of new ones, and the enhancing, 
straitening, or enlargening of those which had aforetime exist- 
ed” (p. 89). ‘ No fishing mill-dam or fishing weir is legal, 
except it be ancient, and even ancient fishing weirs must 
have a free gap, and ancient fishing mill-dams must have 
a proper fish-pass, and no fishing is allowed at.the head or tail 


( 104 ) ; 


of amill, or within fifty yards below a dam, unless these have 
a fish-pass. As already stated, no weir or dam for fishing is 
legal unless its origin can be presumed to be older than 
Magna Charta” (p. 147). ‘A fishing weir is defined by the 
Act (section 4) a dam used for the exclusive purpose of 
catching, or facilitating the catching of fish. In all fishing 
weirs that are legal (%. @., which have had a legal origin 
before Magna Charta), and which at lowest water extend 
more than half-way across the stream, a free gap must be 
made of a size and form and _ situation prescribed by 
the statute, which can only be departed from by authority 
of the Home Office. The owners of such a weir were 
bound, within twelve months after 1st October 1861, to 
make such a gap under a penalty of £5 per day. The gap 
must also be maintained under a penalty of £1 per day ; and 
any alteration or obstruction, or contrivance to deter the fish 
from entering the gap, is punishable by a penalty of £5 and 
upwards, ‘The boxes and cribs used in fishing weirs or fish- 
ing mill-dams (¢. e., dams used partly for fishing and partly 
for milling purposes) must be of a certain situation, and the 
bars or inscales of the heck or up-stream side shall not be 
nearer each other than two inches, under a penalty of £5 
per day, and the same must be maintained under a_ penalty 
of £laday. Spur-walls, &c., more than 20 feet from the 
upper or lower side of the box or crib are always prohibited, 
under a penalty of £1 per day” (p. 159). ‘In all dams 
made in salmon waters after 1861, or raised or altered after that 
date, which obstruct salmon, a fish-pass of a form approved 
of by the Home Office must be made at the expense 
of the person making or altering the dam” (p. 158). 
In Scotland, respecting fixed engines, it is stated—‘ indeed 
the general rule has been repeatedly laid down that fishing 
by means of any fixed machinery, or apparatus whatever, 
or in any way except by net and coble, is illegal” (p. 179). 
CVII. “It is an offence to use fixed engines of any de- 
Fixed engines, irrespective of S¢Yiption in any waters for the purpose 
fishing weirs or fishing mill. of catching salmon. ‘Theengine is 
dams; regulations Iu Euglnd. Foy feited as well as the salmon caught, 
and a penalty of £10 a day is incurred besides. ‘This section 
has nothing to do with fishing weirs and fishing mill-dams, 
which are dealt with in section 12. All possible waters which 
salmon frequent are comprehended in the phrase, inland or 
tidal waters. Fixed engines by the interpretation clause, 
section 4, include stake-nets, bag-nets, putts, putchers, and 


all fixed implements or engines for catching or facilitating 
the catching of fish. Where there is no several fishery, but 
the public generally are entitled to fish, they are prohibited 
by this section from using fixed engines, whether they have 
been accustomed to do so from time immemorial or not” 
(p. 146). “That both weirs and fixed nets and all other 
apparatus which prevent fish passing to and fro are illegal at 
common law, and form a good ground of action, seems to follow 
on principle. A fishery is merely one of the natural uses 
of the water to which all riparian owners are entitled” (p. 4:2). 
* TIence even independently of any statute, any fixed appara- 
tus in ariver or stream, which prevents the fish going up 
to the other riparian owners, is a good cause of action at 
common law, as it deprives him of one of the natural ripa- 
rian rights” (p. 43). 
CVIII. ‘No person, whether the owner of a fishery or 
Size of mesh of nets in Eng- @ poacher, is entitled to fish salmon 
On with a net less than two inches from 
knot to knot, otherwise he forfeits the nets, and incurs a 
penalty of £5. The offence consists either in taking or 
attempting to take salmon with illegal nets. The nets and 
tackle become forfeited, provided a conviction takes place” 
(p. 145). 
C1IX. “Another illegal obstruction to fisheries was 
a the practice of attaching nets to the 
zaws for the preservation of . 
the fry in England, and prohi- posts on river banks, by day and 
biting their passage being ob- night, across rivers, which destroyed 
structed. Set z 5 ° 
. the brood and fry of fish” (p. 41). 
“Tt is an offence to take, destroy, buy, sell or possess, 
obstruct or injure the young of salmon, or disturb a spawning 
bed. There is no definite age implied in the expression 
‘young of the salmon,’ which is defined in section 4” 
(p. 150). “The third offenee— placing a device obstructing 
the passage’—is difficult of interpretation. It must mean a 
substantial obstruction, but the device need not extend to the 
whole width of the stream, noris there any restriction as to 
where the device is to be put. ‘The object in view was pro- 
bably to render illegal all gratings put across the tributary 
streams of salmon rivers which would have the effect of ob- 
structing the young salmon from going upwards. In order 
to convict of the third offence, it is not necessary to prove the 
actual obstruction, if in the ordinary course of things the de- 
vice is calculated so to obstruct young of salmon coming there” 
(p.150). Penaltics for taking young salmon, or having them 


¢ 106 ) 


in possession,—to forfeit all the young of salmon found in his 
possession ; all rods, lines, nets, devices and instruments used 
in committing any of the above offences: and shall for each 
offence pay a penalty not exceeding £4. 

CX. “No person, whether the owner of a salmon 
fishery or a trespasser, is permitted 
to fish with lights, spears, galls, stroke- 
halls, snatches, or the like instruments, or even to have such 
things in his possession with the intent to catch salmon” 
(p. 143). 

CXI. ‘The section primd facie subjects to a penalty 
all who knowingly put poisonous 
matter into waters containing salmon 
or any tributaries thereof. Therefore, the waters include 
the sea, mouths of rivers, and even tributaries where 
no salmon may usually be found. The test of poison- 
ing is one of quantity, and of course the quantity of matter 
must be greater to poison fish in a large river than in a small 
stream. But it is not necessary that the fish be actually 
killed, if the quantity was reasonably calculated to kill fish 
which at the time might be there” (p. 136). “ If any fish 
are killed, whether salmon or not, this is conclusive evidence 
of the killing power of the quantity put into the stream” 
(p. 187). “The tributary need not contain salmon in order 
to be protected” (p. 187). “The common law gives no right 
to any person to pour offensive matter into streams so as to 
prejudice the rights of those living nearer the sea’ (p. 138). 
Penalty—first conviction, not above £5; secona, not exceed- 
ing £10, and £2 for every day during which such offence is 
continued; on third or subsequent conviction, £20 per day 
during which such offence is continued, commencing from 
the date of the third conviction. 

CXII. “It is a criminal offence for any fisher, whether 
the owner of a fishery or a poacher, 
to use fish-roe for fishing, or to buy 
or to sell or have salmon roe in one’s possession.”’ ‘Scientific 
and other legitimate purposes are expressly excepted.” “Ifa 
person were to buy some salmon roe, offer to sell some to A, 
then sell some to B, and keep the rest, it seems he may be 
guilty of four offences in one day” (p. 145). 

CXIII. ‘ During the open or fishing season, a space of 
nearly two days is given, 7. e., from 
12 noon on Saturday to 6 A. M. on 
Monday, for fish to have a freerun. Hence no fishermen are 


Other illegal mode of fishing. 


Poisoning waters. 


Fish-roe. 


Weekly close time in England. 


( 107 ) 


alowed to fish for or catch fish during this weekly close time, 
by any means whatever, except rod and line. The penalty is 
a forfeiture of the net or moveable instrument used, and a 
penalty of £5 and £1 per fish taken” (p. 156). ‘ The 
owners of putts or putchers are not obliged to draw them up 
during weekly close time, but they must let down a net 
or other device, so as to put them out of gear during those 
hours, and the owners of all fisheries where fixed engines are 
lawfully used shall leave all their cribs, boxes or eruives 
open during the weekly close time” under the above penal- 
ties. 

CXIV. ‘“ The close time for salmon fishing is fixed by 
the statute, and it is illegal to fish sal- 
mon between the 1st day of September 
and the Ist of February following, 
inclusive, or for anglers to fish between 2nd of November 
and Ist of February following, both inclusive. he fish are 
forfeited, and the penalty increases with the number of fish 
caught.” ‘* All proprietors of fixed engines must remove their 
apparatus of boxes, cribs, &c., within 36 hours after the com- 
mencement of the close season, 7.e., of Ist September, so as 
to allow the fish free course, otherwise the engines are forfeit- 
ed, and £10 per day is the penalty” (p. 155). 

CXV. ‘No person, whether the owner of a fishery or 
or not, is allowed to take, buy or 
sell or possess unclean or unseasonable 
salmon, excepting accidents and scientific purposes.” * *'To 
take’ does not imply manual possession of, or dominion over, 
the fish. ‘The buying seems to be one offence, selling another, 
&c., even though in reference to one and the same individual 
fish, and the penalty attaches on each fish bought, &c.; thus 
cumulative offences may attach to one fish” (p. 149); penalty 
for each offence, £5. 

CXVI. ‘The wilful disturbance or catching of salmon 
when spawning or near their spawn- 
ing beds is punishable with a fine of 
£5; but catching salmon for scientific purposes is excepted” 
(p. 151). 

CXVII. From the foregoing extracts it will be seen 
“that the fishing that a subject hath 
in this-or any private or public river 
or creek, fresh or salt, is subject to the laws for the conserva- 
tion of fish and fry, which are many” (Hale). Paterson 
observes respecting the fishery law—‘‘ the chief object of the 


Close season in England, 
Fixed engines prohibited. 


Taking unclean fish. 


Spawning salmon. 


Fishing amenable to the laws. 


( 1108" +) 


statute is to prevent owners of fislicries from doing what 
they like with their own, that is, it prevents them from kill- 
ing salmon at certain times and by certain kinds of means, in 
order to secure fair play to the fish and to the adjoining own- 
ers, and with a view to the public interest. It may be safely 
assumed that the law, as previously stated, applies equally 
to salmon as to other fish. except so far as varied by what 
follows in this statute” (p. 186). 

CXVILI. ‘For the better protection of the proprictors 
of salmon fisheries, it is provided that 
the Justices in general or Quarter 
Sessions, may appoint conservators or overseers for the pre- 
servation of salmon and enforcing the provisions of the law 
within the jurisdiction of such Justices—24 & 25 Vic., ec. 109, 
s. 33. ‘They may apply to the Home Secretary and have 
a fishery district formed, and the committee is to elect the 
chairman and they appoint a Board of Conseryators.” Con- 
servators, appointed under “The Salmon Fishery Act, 1865,” 
have power within their district to appoint a sufficient 
number of water bailiffs; * * to issue licenses for fishing 
as provided in the schedule; * * for removing such weirs 
or other fixed engines as are illegal; and generally to do 
such acts as they may deem expedient for the improve- 
ment of the salmon fisheries (“ Baker, p. 44.”) In any 
fishery district, subject to the control of conservators, licen- 
ses are to be granted at fixed prices to all persons using rod 
and line for fishing for salmon, and in respect of all fishing 
weirs, fishing mill dams, putts, putchers, nets or other in- 
struments or devices, except rods and lines, whereby salmon 
are caught: and the produce of such licenses is to be applied 
in defraying the expenses of carrying into effect in such 
districts ‘* he Salmon Iishery Acts, 1861 and 1865” (28 & 
29 Vie; ¢. 121 s233): 

CXIX. From the foregoing it will be seen that in Eng- 
land fishing weirs are considered a 
nuisance, and, even if legal, must 
have a fish-pass in them or free gap: that other fixed engines 
are illegal: that the size of the mesh of nets and interstices 
between substances forming weirs is laid down: fry are 
protected, the yery possession of them being a punishable 
offence: unfair modes of fishing are prohibited as well as 
poisoning of waters: a weekly close time is insisted upon to 
allow a free passage for the fish, whilst, during certain months 
of the year, all fishing with nets or at weirs is illegal, and 


Boards of Conservators. 


Weirs and fish-passes. 


( 109 ) 


even the disturbing of spawning fish, or the possession of 
unseasonable ones. ‘lo carry this ont, District Boards of 
Conservators are appointed, who levy a license tax on every 
one who fishes for salmon, whether with a rod and line, net, 
weir, or any other appliance whatever. 
CXX. Having now enumerated the various opinions 
Respecting any remedies that Of those who hold that the present 
may have beon tried. mode of working the fresh-water 
fisheries of India is causing their deterioration, and of others 
who deny such, it appears desirable, prior to summing up 
the lessons which these reports seem to convey, to ask these 
questions :—Have any remedies been attempted by those who 
advocate them? If so, what has been the result of such 
attempts ? Even did no wasteful destruction now take place, 
could it be clearly demonstrated that a great augmentation 
of animal food must be ensured by moderately and well- 
considered restrictive measures, the strongest advocates for 
the prescriptive right of the people to ruin fisheries, and 
thus diminish their neighbours’ food, and the philanthropists 
who denounce fishery laws as engines of oppression and 
instruments of cruelty, surely must pause, and accord this 
enquiry that attentive consideration it so well deserves, but 
unfortunately does not always appear to obtain. It is not a 
subject in which assertions should convinee, or statements 
unbacked by facts be allowed much weight. It is not merely 
in one quarter of the globe that the ruinous mode in which 
fresh-water fisheries have been worked, has escaped the 
observations of legislatures and even of their owners: in 
short, it is only of late years that mankind has commenced 
being aware that his mode of treating these fisheries may 
be, and probably is, based upon error. ‘The license accorded 
by “man” is not invariably in accordance with the laws 
ordained by “ nature ;”” and we have now to enquire whether 
any conservative measures have beon attempted, and, if so, 
with what result. 
CXXI. The measures for the protection of the fresh- 
Restrictive regnlations have Water fisheries of the Indian Empire 
had a beneficial result locally may be divided into two. First, those 
tae which are natural ones, as described 
in Sind (pp. xxix—xxxii), and, consequently, do not call for 
further remarks. Secondly, those carried out by human 
agency. Fortunately, we are able to examine the reports 
from officials who have attempted such in two widely 
separated localitics,—the one in South Canara in Madras, 
the other in the Doon in the North-Western Provinces, 


(@ 1d Op) 


Consequently two attempts have been made; if no destructive 
waste was occurring prior to these experiments, no aug- 
mentation of the fish in the fisheries would be apparent : 
if moderate restrictions had extensively beneficial results, 
such might lead to the enquiry whether it would not 
be possible to extend such elsewhere, and give to others 
benefits now confined to small localities, and due to 
the individual exertions of single officials. In South 
Canara, Mr. I. S. Lhomas observes, that (p. lxxxix) it may 
be doubted whether poisoning rivers, or the wholesale destruc- 
tion of fry, is most injurious to fisheries ; whilst prohibiting the 
former, and also the closely woven bamboo cruives “ has been 
that the most ignorant, and, therefore, the most obstinate 
opponents have been convinced by the testimony of their 
own senses, and have exclaimed to use their own words, ‘ truly 
the river is everywhere bubbling with fry;’ and what is still 
more to the point, their practice has not belied their words, 
for they have taken to fishing on grounds that were before 
considered profitless. * * * ‘lwo years’ discouragement of 
poisoning, and one year’s discouragement of fine cruives, has 
worked such a change, that it has been demonstrated, 
beyond the cavil, even of the ignorant and of the most inter- 
estedly opposing, that marked advantages can be reaped from 
the adoption of these two simple measures alone.’’ ‘This is 
also interesting, because the Madras Revenue Board especially 
selected South Canara (p. lxxi) as one of the two Collectorates, 
wherein they urged Government to do nothing. In the 
Doon, A. Ross, with the consent of the landowners, has 
limited the size of the mesh of the nets employed to not 
less than 14 inches between each knot, and also prohibited 
the damming and turning of hill streams for the purpose of 
capturing fish. I went to the Song River in 1871, and was 
astonished at the amount of fry in it, reporting that “ I never 
saw so many yearlings in the plains of India in sucha 
small volume of running water.’ When I wrote this, I was 
in entire ignorance that any conservative measures were 
being carried out (p. cl). The foregoing showing that 
restrictive regulations tend largely to an inerease in the fish 
supply, and are again arguments that some are generally 
necessary, if this description of animal food is deemed worth 
increasing, and its still further diminution undesirable. 
CXXII. What are the results of thisenquiry ? Herel 
propose briefly bringing together what 
conclusions appear to me to be shown 
by personal investigations, or from the answers received from 


Results of this enquiry. 


(eb 


the European and Native officials of the British Empire in 
India and Burma, several of whom have evidently taken 
considerable pains in obtaining the desired information. 
It appears that—(1) all the people of Sind, Assam and Burma, 
and the majority of those residing in other parts, are not 
precluded by their religion from eating fish (para. LITT); (2) 
that from the returns received (excepting Sind) more than 
half the markets are insufficiently supplied with fresh fish 
when away from the sea (para. LIV); (8) that breeding- 
fish and their fry are indiscriminately destroyed throughout 
the British possessions (para. LVI) ; (4) that the supply of 
fish in the waters (excepting Sind) is generally decreasing 
(para. LVII); (5) that the fisheries are mostly Govern- 
ment property (para. LVIII) ; (6) that non-regulating the 
fisheries under British rule has had a disastrous effect (para. 
LIX) ; (7) that the natives let out tracts of the country to 
contractors, who alone might dispose of fish, and certain 
conservative measures were likewise in existence (para. LX) ; 
(8) that the contractors under British rule have in many 
places been abolished, every one being permitted to pro- 
miscuously fish as he pleases, great innovations have crept 
in, and fixed engines are now universally employed, whereas 
they were not previously generally permitted (para. LX1I) ; 
(9) that the fishermen, as a rule, unless in the vicinity of 
tidal rivers, are only thus engaged in addition to their other 
occupations, so are not dependant for their living on fishing 
(para. LXII) ; (10) that regular fishermen in places have 
been compelled to give up this trade, and turn to other 
means of gaining a livelihood (para. LXIJ); (11) that fish- 
ing weirs and fixed engines obstructing waterways, the 
high roads of fish, are everywhere employed, from entirely 
spanning rivers to every outlet in each irrigated field from 
whence water is flowing, whilst the mesh employed is so 
minute that the smallest fry cannot escape (paras. LXV, 
LXVI, LXVII) ; (12) that fishing nets with meshes of the 
most minute size are used for the purpose of letting nothing 
escape, and this in every district where the water will permit of 
it (paras. LXTX, LXX); (13) that, as a rule, more than half 
the minimun sized mesh of the nets is less than one-fourth of an 
inch between each knot, but even coarse cloths are employed 
to capture fry with (para. LXXI); (14) that rivers and 
streams are dammed and the water laded out for fishing pur- 
poses (para. LXXV); (15) that waters are poisoned almost 
everywhere to obtain the fish (para. LXXVI); (16) that 


(1198 ) 


the minor modes of fishing are most numerous (para. 
LXXVIII), destructive and wasteful; (17) that fish are in 
some places only killed to be thrown away, or carted off as 
manure, and that in localities where the supply does not 
equal the bazar demands (paras. LXXVI, LXXVIT); (18) 
that irrigation weirs are largely destructive by impeding the 
ascent of fish to the waters where they breed, or the downward 
passage of those attempting to descend (paras. XII—XYV); 
(19) that irrigation canals are exceedingly injurious, if 
they have vertical falls in them, up which fish are unable 
to ascend, for, as the old ones descend down stream to feeding 
grounds, they find a stone wall in their way, but a fine stream 
of water not so obstructed which leads them into one of these 
canals and once over a fall, they cannot re-ascend, but are 
destroyed there every time the water is cut off; (20) that the 
same destructive plan exists in nearly every irrigated field in 
India; (21) that there are certain vermin very inimical to 
fish, as crocodiles and otters, whose destruction would be most 
advantageous ; (22) that in Great Britain and other civilized 
countries, the poaching of fish is forbidden (paras. XCVIT, 
CXIX); (23) that where local restrictions on poaching fish 


have been tried in India, the result has been most beneficial 
(paras. CX X, CX XT). 


PROPOSITION AS TO WHAT ACTION IS NECESSARY. 


CXXIIII. The result of this enquiry has, unfortu- 
Proposition that legul action nately, given but too good reasons 
DOT STEELS for believing that fish are wastefully 
destroyed as breeding ones or their fry, and the fisheries are 
almost everywhere deteriorating. The causes which have 
apparently led to this have been traced as closcly as 
materials have permitted, and the remedies suggested have 
been as fully recorded. I now propose offering my single 
opinion on these points, premising that destructive waste 
seems to be proved, and a supply insufficient for the wants 
of the people to be brought for sale to the bazars. Ttespect- 
ing the carrying out of remedial measures, much will depend 
upon the cordial co-operation and tact of local officers: sud- 
den and too stringent regulations would appear to be injudi- 
cious, as the folly of years cannot be entirely grappled with 
at once. In fact, in places it may be desirable at first to 
leave some breaches in regulations unnoticed, until the bene- 
ficial results of partial measures are clearly discernible. ‘The 
natives, judging from the native officials’ replics and personal 


(7 113" ) 


enquiries, appear more alive to the destructive waste in the 
fresh-water fisheries that is now being carried on than do the 
Huropeans. Such might be anticipated ; if comes more home 
to them, whilst a very little trouble would disarm their oppo- 
sition. 

A Genera Fisuery Act. 

CXXIV. It would seem then that, if any action is 
taken, a “‘ Fishery Act” will be neces- 
sary. Here the question arises at the 
outset—should such be one adapted for all India? Should it 
be made applicable to certain places P Or should the general 
principles be laid down, leaving details to Local Administra- 
tions? In practice, it would probably be most efficient to fol- 
low the spirit of the British law, considering each “ Local 
Administration” as a “board of conservators” who could 
enact bye-laws, and so modify general rules as to meet each 
different district. 

CXXV. Should any such general skeleton Act be con- 
sidered necessary, I would propose 
that its action should be simple, 
but still feel confident that if only a modicum of trouble 
is taken in carrying its provisions into effect, the re- 
sults must be most beneficial. Jirsé, that poisoning of 
waters for fishing purposes, or permitting any poisonous sub- 
stance entering into pieces of water so as to become delete- 
rious to fish, be generally prohibited. Secondly, that all fixed 
engines be declared illegal. This probably will meet with 
some opposition, but fixed engines are at the root of 
the destructive waste which is proved to be going on in India. 
‘They are now used where previously they were never per- 
mitted (para. LX and LXI) ; whilst, due to there being no 
lessees or fishery contractors in large districts of country, the 
agriculturists are employing fixed traps in every irrigated and 
inundated field. Nothing is now spared. But whilst deciding 
that weirs and fixed traps are generally illegal, modifications 
or exceptions might be allowed by Local Governments with 
this proviso, that no fixed engines (excluding fishing weirs 
that are subject to rent in Government waters, or situated 
in permanently settled estates) may be employed between 
ist June and Ist December, whilst, to be legal in the remain- 
ing six months of the year, a license must be obtained from 
the civil officer of the district, that, if destitute of a fish- 
pass, they should never entirely obstruct a water-way, and 
that 1 inch at least exists between the substances forming 

iM 


A Fishery Act necessary. 


Skeleton of General Act, 


(eta) 


the traps fixed in fishing weirs, whilst a notice of all sanc- 
tioned should be yeurly given in the district gazettes. 
Thirdly, that the bunding and turning of streams for fishing 
purposes, especially in hill-ranges, be entirely prohibited, 
which rule should also (subject to local exceptions) be applicd 
to tanks in the low country, ‘unless they yearly dry up, but 
it should only then be allowed after all communication with 
running water has naturally ceased. Fourthly, that every 
irrigation weir spanning a river have a practicable fish-pass 
in it ; and that all irrigation canals have either a grating 
or other contrivance at their entrance to prevent fish goiny 
down them, or fish-passes at every fall, and gratings at each 
distributary, whilst the killing of fish during such periods 
as the canals are closed be absolutely interdicted. 


Bye-Laws orn Locan Acrs. 


CXXVI.—Loeal Acts or bye-laws will be most essential, 
in order to suit the requirements of 
districts, and here I propose adverting 
to what such seem to me to be necessary, and how some which 
are now approved of, I cannot think will work well when 
practically tried. In the appendix under the heads of the 
various Governments, I have observed upon such local regu- 
lations as appear to be desirable: so, here only general re- 
marks are necessitated. 

CXX VII. —Fence months, seasons, times, or in respect 
to species of fish, whether in the hills 
or in the plains, appear to find many 
advocates, and may be briefly examined under the following 
heads. first, in the plains ; secondly, in the hilly regions ; 
thirdly, in certain peculiar localities as at the tail of irriga- 
tion or other weirs ; fowrthly, as the institution of stock-pools 
in rivers; and, lastly, as regards certain species of fish, of 
which it is proposed to declare it illegal to be possessed of 
their fry or young. Of course, the first local enquiry shoul: 
be,—will the imposition of fence month act injuriously on the 
health of the people at large by depriving them at certain 
seasons of a necessary article of diet? Secondly, will the 
entire occupation of fishermen be cut off, leaving any num- 
ber of them without any means of subsistence? If we now 
examine the five enquiries which I have suggested, the first 
(1) is the policy or necessity of instituting fence months in 
the plains of India, Iam unable to see how such could be 
practicably imposed, except at excessive cost, and if not 


Local regulations. 


Fence months. 


( 115 ) 


practicable, the use of issuing such a prohibition appears 
still more questionable. ‘The period, were one imposed, 
would of course be that of the breeding season, from about 
June to November inclusive, but it is during this period 
that the shad ascends from the sea to breed, and it is only 
prior to such time that it is in good condition as food. That 
fixed engines with small meshes at this period ought to be 
abolished no two opinions are possible, but, that all netting 
should cease, is, I think, open toa grave doubt, and would 
not propose such a course. Secondly (2), in the hilly re- 
gions, during the breeding season the mahaseer and other 
large carps which ascend to breed (irrespective of the dry 
season) most certainly need some protection : at any rate, 
weirs spanning streams to arrest breeding-fish going up, or 
capture them, or the most minute fry coming down, should 
be prohibited as destructive to the general fish-supply of the 
country at large. Whilst to protect the shad, one day 2 
week might be kept free from fishing anywhere within 13 
miles below an irrigation weir spanning a river up which 
they ascend to breed. Also, lines armed with hooks should 
not be allowed in passes in hill streams, as they not only 
capture some ascending breeding-fishes, but wound others 
that only escape to die a lingering death. ‘Thirdly (8), there 
are certain localities in which netting, or fishermen engaged 
in the process, or servants employed by them, should be 
prohibited, as within a reasonable distance of irrigation weirs 
which span rivers. What this reasonable distance may be, 
must depend upon the character of the under-sluices, and 
the existence or the reverse of fish-passes. ‘I'he same pro- 
tection is also necessary in the canals. Fourthly (4), certain 
pools in rivers during the dry season of the year should be 
protected from being fished, except by anglers; this would 
keep up a stock of breeding-fish in certain localities where 
now the larger fish obtain no immunity. Lastly (5), as 
regards rendering it penal to capture or possess the fry of 
certain kinds of fish. his is a subject which is most inter- 
esting, and one in which, could all informers and magistrates 
be quite clear about, I would urge should be the law 
as in Europe. But I fear that very great difficulties 
will arise in defining what fish are alluded to. Thus, 
it is easy to decide that aamahaseer under 1 or 2 lbs weight 
should be an under-sized fish. But what is a mahaseer? Of 
course, the reply is thatit isa carp of the genus Baréus, but, 
unfortunately, several of the large species of this genus 


( 116) 


come under the generic name of mahaseers. Near Simla, 
in the Girri, the Barbus hexastichus is a mahaseer; in the 
neighbouring Ussun River, the &. Himalayanus is thus 
termed, whilst in the Hurriapore River, only a few miles off, 
the B.° tor is so called. All of these are closely allied 
together ; so, perhaps,it might be considered that such distire- 
tions are immaterial. In answer to this is the reply that 
there are upwards of 60 species of this genus in India, 
some of which never exceed a few inches in length. 
This is not a solitary case; the genus Ophiocephalus offers 
equal difficulties (see page ccv). Seeing the obstacles in 
England where every fish that is protected has a very pecu- 
liar and distinct fin, which does not exist in any of the 
other sorts found there, I doubt if such rules could be carried 
out in India where no such distinct peculiarity demonstrates 
which fish it is that is to be preserved until it attains a cer- 
tain age. 
CXXVIII. Respecting the necessity, or the reverse, 
Regulating the minimum size Of regulating the minimum size of the 
of the mesh of nets employed. meshes of nets, is another very im- 
portant question that can be locally dealt with. Opinions vary 
so widely that, to disarm opposition, I think local Civil 
authorities might fix it, in doing which it should be 
remembered that it is in hilly districts during the breed- 
inz season that small-meshed nets are doing an immensity 
of injury to breeding-fish and their fry; also, thatin the 
plains myriads of very minute fish are captured by this 
poaching practice. In the Panjab, 1} inches between each 
knot of the meshes as the minimum size is found to work 
well, whereas amongst the propositions received from [uro- 
pean Civil Officers (p. 98), we observe that in Oudh, meshes 
of the size of two grains of barley, in Mysoré, } of an inch, in 
the Central Provinces, } of an inch are suggested. ‘There can 
never be a necessity of having the distance between each 
knot less than } of an inch; and even were such a minute 
minimum size decided upon, it would in certain districts 
do an immensity of good. A medium course is likewise 
open, instead of stopping all fishing during the breeding 
season to prohibit the use of fixed engines entirely span- 
ning pieces of water, and regulating the minimum size 
of the mesh of nets from June Ist to November or De- 
cember Ist only, so that the capture of fish which never 
attain any size be permitted during those months when 
the fry of the larger sorts have grown and are able to 


take care of themselves. Nothing will be gained in regulat- 
ing the size of the mesh of nets in waters that yearly dry up, 
and after all communication with running water has naturally 
ceased. Neither should regulations extend to private ponds 
that never communicate with running water, and stand in 
the light of fish ponds in Europe. Moveable contrivances 
(para. LXX) made of inelastic substances, as fine split 
bamboos fastened together and forming a sort of net, are most 
destructive, and regulations regarding the interstices between 
each piece of the substance of which they are formed are 
desirable. 

CXXIX.—tThere are other local means of destruction 
pursued (para. LX XVIII), several of 
which are most reprehensible, and 
may well be made penal by local bye-laws, especially fixing 
hooks or lines and snagging or snatching at fish. But many 
of the plans pursued which are considered poaching in Kurope, 
I would suggest, should not be interfered with, at least at pre- 
sent. ‘The greater evils had first better be grappled with, 
leaving the minor ones for future consideration. 

CXXX.—Vermin, as crocodiles, are most injurious 
(paras. LX XIX to LX X X11) and their 
destruction very desirable. If the fish 
are preserved, these great foes to them should not be permitted 
to live upon this species of food which is adapted for human 
beings; also otters are very ruinous to hill fisheries and those 
in their vicinity. 

CXXXI.—Lastly, I would shortly draw attention to the 
following question that,—if anything 
is done to i improve the fisheries, who is 
to pay forit? Are the fisheries to be 
improved for the good of the fishermen at the public expense, 
and are they to pocket the inereased numbers of the finny 
tribes, but not pay towards such aresult ? In Great Britain, a 
tax (the moturfa) has been imposed for this purpose on all 
instruments used for taking fish, but in India angling may 
well be left free. There are three chief modes by which 
funds may be raised for this purpose,—(1) by again letting 
the fisheries, as of old, to contractors under certain specified 
stipulations, such as the size of the mesh of the nets to be em- 
ployed, the protection of certain stock-pools, &e., and leaving 
them to protect the fisheries ; this will save a great outlay, but 
to be effectually carried out, ‘leases of from three to five years 
will be necessary ; (2) nets may be licensed, as in the Panjab, 


Minor nodes of fishing. 


Vermin, 


Who is to pay for regulations, 
if any are to be carried out. 


C as? ) 


where the payment of the fee permits the fisherman to use his 
implement of capture in any Government waters, but the mini- 
mum size of the mesh of the nets is restricted to 1} inches. 
There is this objection that there are no overlookers as there are 
when contractors lease the waters; (8) Government may 
permit any one to fish, under certain conditions, keeping a staff 
of water bailiffs at the public expense to see their orders 
carried out—a plan which probably would fail in practice, 
and certainly be very expensive. But the modes in which 
free fisheries are worked deserve the most attentive con- 
sideration, as they are almost invariably carried on in a waste- 
ful and destructive manner, 


APPENDICES. 


PANJAB. 


1. The territories under the Government of the Panjab and its 
Dependencies, excluding independent States, 
comprise the Cis and Trans-Sutlej Districts, 
placed under a Chief Commissioner in 1845 ; 
the Panjab Proper annexed in 1849, and the Delhi territories transferred 
in 1858, the whole lying between the 28th and 35th parallels of north 
latitude, and the 70th and 78th degrees of east longitude. It is com- 
puted at 102,001 square miles: bounded on the north and north-east by 
the Himalayan mountains; on the east by the river Jumna; on the 
south by the North-Western Provinces, Rajputana and the river Sutlej; 
on the west by the Sulimani hills and Afghanistan, The large rivers 
afford water communication for 2,902 miles, but the channels are shallow, 
sandy, and shifting, whilst during the rains the currents are very rapid. 
‘The river Jumna, as already observed, forms the eastern boundary of this 
province, as it emerges from the Sewalik range of hills, and between it 
and the Indus, on the extreme west of the Himalayan range, are five 
intermediate rivers, the Sutlej, Bias, Ravi, Chenab, and Jhilam, all of 
which eventually find their way into the Indus. These rivers are the 
drainage lines of the Himalayas, containing their least amount of water 
during the cold season, and subsequently increasing up to the monsoon 
time, owing to the increased heat augmenting the melting of the snows 
at their sources. “A remarkable feature in the topography of the 
province is the number of large rivers, which after pursuing their course 
for hundreds of miles in the valleys and glens of the mountain ranges to 
the north, debouch on to the plain country, dividing it into Doaés, and 
flov on in a direction generally southerly to the ocean. These rivers 
usually overflow their banks, sometimes to the extent of miles during 
the seasons of the heavy rains, and contract in the dry season till the 
slender stream is spanned by a bridge of a few boats, leaving dry beds 
of sand or mud on either side, which are brought under cultivation. 
Such being the character of the Panjab rivers, changes in their course, of 
ereater or less extent, are not infrequent.’ Certain hollows or holes in 
the rivers, which are only united with the main stream during the inun- 


Territory under the Panjrb Go- 
vernment. Physical geography. 


11 


dation season, are termed ‘ Boodhs,’ whilst © Dhunds’ will be alluded to 
in Sinde. Besides these rivers and streams large irrigation works are 
being or have been constructe! in the province. 
"2. Of the people of the Panjab, but few comparatively are abso- 
Ponulation of theme Panjubs lutely prohibited by their religion from con- 
those in towns or in hills great- suming fish; still there are many Ilindus, 
er consumers of fish than those particularly large zemindars,who have scruples 
in rural districts. on the subject, and these re-act upon the 
general rural population (always more superstitious than an urban one, 
and therefore more amenable to priestly craft), especially those depend- 
ant on and living around them. ‘Thus the ‘Deputy Commissioner of 
Delhi’ observed (1870) of the people of the district, “none of the Hindu 
zemindars eat fish, whilst the Mahomedaus are very much Hinduised in 
their habits. Hindu zemindars object on religious grounds to fish being 
caught in their village waters, and hotly contend with any Delhi fish- 
ermen caught poaching in their village ponds.” But of those residing 
in towns and in the hilly districts, it appears as if, excluding: the Brah- 
mins, the consumption of fish is only limited by the paucity of the 
supply and the cost of the article. 
3. In 1869-70 an enquiry was made into the fisheries of this pro- 
vince, as to whether a wasteful destruction of 
Enquiry in 1869-70 as to fish was taking place, and, if so, the best 
whether a wasteful destruction ae 2 Z "6 
of fish existed. Prohibition of means to diminish any causes of injury for 
fixed engines, and the damming the future. The various reports gave the 
of hill streams. Tutroduction jmpression that a large amount of immature 
of a license system for nets, fae Ip lelleduitontooduibed tl 
Guile sh were yearly killed for food before they 
had been permitted to attain a fair size; and 
that this destruction was in many places being effected in Government 
waters, which had, or had not, been leased out for fishing purposes : con- 
sequently action was taken on the matter. In the Kangra valley thi 
system of catching fish by means of dams, weirs, and stake-nets wa: 
prohibited, as being the chief cause of the destruction and diminution o| 
the fish in the narrow hill streams, whilst throughout the Panjab a heens: 
for nets was ordered to be introduced gradually into localities where no 
revenue was derived from fisheries ; the only description of net sanctioned 
being that which could be thrown from or held in the hand, the meshes o| 
which were not less than 14 inches between knot and knot, or 5 inche: 
all round, ‘The license tax was proposed at Rs. 5 yearly for large nets 
and Rs. 2 for small ‘ Chilwa’ nets (see para. 18), but a discretion wa: 
left as to the amount with the local civil authorities. It was remarke 
that ‘ Chilwa’ nets were not approved of, as such might be employed 11 
taking the young of large fish. The license empowers the holder to fis! 
generally, whether in Government waters or on private estates. Io. 
fishing in Government waters no further fee would be payable, but 1: 
enable him to fish on private estates, the holder would have to make hi. 
own arrangement with the landowner. By this plan, every person whi 
professed to fish would require to hold a license. ‘The license could onl) 
extend to fishing by net, and some officials insert in it th: 
minimum size of the mesh that may be used; others have the net 
brought to be inspected at the time the license is issued. 


ill 


4. With reference to the questions issued with my letter of Septem- 
afl ; ber 17th, 1871, the following is a synopsis of 
What is the proportion of the the answers received. First, as fo the propor- 
general population who consume 5 ; 
fish P tion of the general population who would eat 
jish could they obtain it? Out of 41 native 
officials who have replied, the following are the figures given— 


5 per cent. eat fish in 1 Tehsil. 


12 ” ” ” ” ’ 2 ” 
20 pm om im mem = 
33 ” ” ” ” ” 2 ” 
Ad, of om old | 
50 Hm m a mil 4 
66 ” ” ” ” ” 5 ” 
75 ” ” ” ” ” 7 ” 
80 ay) Sp ep Sy ate re 
6 


90 to 95 ” ” ” ” 


Irrespective of these, in 10 ‘the majority of the people,’ in 5 ‘a small 
proportion,’ and in 1 ‘none’ of population are said to eat fish, but in the 
last, the reason given is, ‘ because there are none to eat.” The Mahomedans, 
except the Sheeas at Jalandur, as a rule do so, unless prevented by local 
objections (see para. 2): most of the Hindus in towns or along the banks 
of large rivers, unless they ave Brahmins, whilst the rural population is 
more averse to if. 


5. Low are the local markets supplied with fish ? is a question 
J r answered by some Tehsildars directly ; by 
insufficiently others more indirectly. Seventy-six give de- 

finite answers, which may be thus divided : 
in 7 tehsils the markets are fully supplied; in 2 they are moderately so; 
in 10 sufficiently only during the cold season; in | only during the 
rains; in 48 insufficiently all the year round, and in § not at all. In 
Iushiarpur there are said to be no markets, the people only capturing fish 
for their own consumption; in 2 tehsils fish are exchanged for grain, 
Where fish are sold, the price of the better sorts bears the same pro- 
portion to that of the best. mutton, as the price of inferior fish to that 
of inferior mutton, and varies from one-third that of mutton to an equal 
price with it. Salt-fish does not find much of a sale. 


6. lave the fish increased, decreased, or remained stationary ? is 
replied to by 78 Tehsildars, an increase being 
pep ceoy Sate Of Cheatieaee. reported by 13, a stationary state by 32, and 
hilly districts. a decrease by 383. A cause of decrease is 
stated at Delhi to be the Okla weir, which 
crosses the Jumna near that city, and does not possess any fish pass in 
it (see para. 43). In the Sialkot Division the wholesale destruction of 
Mahaseer by means of fixed nets is adverted to in the aflluents of the 
Chenab. ‘Colonel Macpherson’ observes, that he “can testify to the 
fisheries in the Ganges and Jumna having deteriorated very greatly in 
the last eight years. * * One can hardly see fish moving now-a-day, 
whereas in the years I have mentioned (1861—63) we used to hear and 
see shoals of large mahaseer on the feed, three or four times a day.” 


Local markets 
supplied with fish. 


. 


1V 


7. ds to whose the fisheries are? is, I conclude, a question which, 
though raised by some persons, scarcely ad- 
The fisheries the property of mits of an argument. The residents, doubt- 
Soran LSE less, have the same claims in respect to them 
as they have to the land, but no license gives 
a vieht. In the Panjab, under native rule, the fisheries are stated to 
have been annually let to a contractor, but whether he was bound to see 
the fisheries were not impoverished, there appear to be no records to show. 
‘The Deputy Commissioner of Kangra’ observes, when proposing pro- 
tective measures, that they must be partially a system of Government 
preserves, such as was always in force in the time of the Rajahs, partly 
by giving: licenses to monopolists to supply the markets, and partly 
by licenses for fishing with small nets for home consumption, and not 
for sale. 
8. The fishermen of this province do not appear to follow this 
occupation alone, but only as a supplement to 
Panjab fishermen not depend- 4¢her means of support, so none have an 
ant upon this occupation as a. = S eat ; = 
salovinuidia Oe eu liatenees interest in protecting: the fisheries, but only in 
procuring as much as they can, and whenever 
they can, for themselves. Consequently, regulations would not interfere 
with any sole means of subsistence affecting a class. 
9. Are breeding fish or fry destroyed ? isa most important enquiry. 
Ave breeding fish or fry de- Previous to the introduction of the present 
stroyed? Result of regulating rules into the Panjab, of regulating the mini- 
the minimum size of the mesh yum size of the mesh of the nets at 1} 
pS SORE inches between each knot, large numbers of 
oung fish were sold as ‘ Chilwas.’ Since this time in many of the dis- 
tricts this destruction has been partially stopped ; in others the regulations 
have not as yet been carried out. ‘The Officiating Deputy Commissioner 
of Ambala’ observes, that the restriction as to the size of the mesh of 
the net has only been held to apply to rivers, whilst in fields, tanks, 
and hollows, the smallest mesiies are used ; indeed, sheets are employed. 
In a few tehsils the trapping of fish in irrigated or inundated fields is 
recorded. he regulation as to the minimum size of the mesh at 14 
inches between the knots appeats a very good one, and does not entail 
much difficulty in being carried out. 
10. The modes of fishing pursued are exceedingly diversified, and 
; the wholesale ones may be first adverted to. 
Perse a A aes In Kangva the zemindars are stated to do a 
are constructed for working good deal of mischief, in the early part of 
mills. Impediment to their the rains, by bringing the fish ito side 
entrance should be imperative streams, then draining off the water and leav- 
on the mill-owners. : S) 
ing them on dry ground ; young and old are 
caught in this manner. Mr. Carleton observes, that the grain in the 
Himalayas is ground by hundreds of mills moved by water power, canals 
are constructed into which water is diverted to turn these mills, and into 
these, numerous small fishes, especially the young of the more valuable 
sorts, find their way. By shutting off the water from these ‘kools’ or 
canals, the fish become left on dry ground, and are thus captured. Person- 
ally I tried this mode of taking fish between Kutla and Kangra: by stopping 
the flow of water into this miniature canal, fish were seen struggling 


Vv 


upwards to attain the head of this ‘kool,’ or else left in its dried-up bed : 
one native stands at the head of the channel, and by making a great 
splashing he frightens the fish from coming up to the stream, and thus, 
without using a net at all, numerous small fishes are taken, whilst these, 
or most of them, ought to be for the next year’s supply. This mode of 
destruction must be very injurious to hill fisheries, but could be easily 
remedied, by compelling the owner of each canal to make a matted grat- 
ing of boughs or bamboos or a similar obstruction at the head of each, 
which, without impeding the water, would prevent the entrance of the 
fish. 
1l. Analogous to the foregoing, is the diverting of hill streams 
Diverting hillateeutias dame and thus capturing all the fishes therein, 
ning them, the erection of weirs also damming them up and lading them out, 
and barriers and poisoning the and the existence of weirs oat impassable 
SEMEL barriers, which are made instrumental in the 
capture of fish, and it was properly decided in the Kangra valley that 
“the system of catching fish by means of dams, weirs, and stake-nets was 
prohibited, as being the chief cause of the Gestntouon and diminution of 
the fish in the narrow hill streams.” Poisoning streams is not reputed 
to be carried on in the Panjab. 
12. Another mode of destroying large numbers of fish in the 
Panjab, is the existence of irrigation weirs 
Irrigation weirs and canals without fish passes, across large rivers, and 
as at present existing, destructive P : i . 
eorfishiontea! which permit valuable fishes, as the mahaseer, 
which breeds along the bases of the hills, to 
descend, but prevents any return to its breeding places as already de- 
seribed. Worse, if possible, probably, are the irrigation weirs which have 
impassable falls up which fish cannot ascend, but over which they may 
descend, and so become trapped. Thus the mahaseer go down these large 
channels, but cannot return. It has been suggested that they might 
continue their descent, and thus find an exit at the lower end, but this they 
will not do. As the canal becomes shallower towards its termination, the 
falls are lower, the holes formed below them less deep, and there is not so 
much food, consequently they will not be found there. ‘This is not a 
theoretical! opinion, but deduced from actual observation made when a 
canal was dried off. These canals are emptied at certain periods for 
repairs or other causes, and at this period many fish are left diy in the 
bed and are easily killed, but a large number retreat into the holes which 
exist and contain water. In some of these canals a custom obtains to 
permit the employees to kill all they are ahle, in any manner they can ; 
in other places this is more or less prohibited; whilst in some the fishing 
is let out and every living fish destroyed, no matter how small; and as 
none can ascend out of the canals, the destruction is enormous and suffi- 
cient to ruin any fisheries. ‘Dr. Allen,’ of the 2nd Ghurkas, thus 
observed on these constructions :— The fisheries are certainly decreasing 
as regards the number of fish, both in the Ganges and Jumna rivers. 
The chief cause of this, | believe, to be the drain on them caused by 
the canals. Mahaseer, rohoo, kalabeinse, &e., abound in all the canals 
both from the Jumna and Ganges. The mahascer are very plentiful 
in the Jumna canal (Kurnal branch, which runs down to Hansi and 
Hissar) and in the Ganges canal. When these canals silt up, or the 


vi 


water is cut off from their head, for cleaning, repairing, or other pur- 
poses, hundreds of thousands of fish of all kinds and of all sizes are 
destroyed. When the water shallows sufficiently, men and boys go into it 
with sticks, and kill the fish in thousands, and this occurs every year. It 
must be very evident that so great a drain as this must decrease and injure 
the supply of fish in the main streams, as before the canals were cut, 
the whole of those now entering them remained in the Ganges and 
Jumna rivers and their tributary streams. The tributary streams may 
be netted and bunded, but such an amount of injury to the fishing from 
this cause would not happen in a series of years, as is produced in one 
year by the indiscrimmate slaughter in the canals, when fish from a 
maund in weight downwards are destroyed through a hundred or more 
miles of country.” 
18. Respecting the prohibiting the sale of the fry of fish in the 
s : : _ 6azars.—This question opens up the enquiry— 
uggestions respecting pro- Q = 
hibiting tho sale of the fry of what are chilwas? as these small fish are 
fish in the bazars, or whether it largely sold throughout the Panjab, and are 
should be only from June until asserted never to attain any size. That 
November, so that chilwas might 2 2 d 
be taken during the cold season, Many such small fish do exist, is not open to 
doubt; in fact, chilwas may be defined, as 
any scaled fish not above a span in length, and which does not attain 
a larger size. I personally witnessed young mahaseer being taken as 
chilwas, and the young of other species of large and valuable fishes. 
There is a great difficulty doultless in its being very clear to every one 
which are young fish and which adults of small sorts; and to obviate 
pressing rather unduly on all classes by prohibiting entirely the sale of 
small fish, one gentleman proposes that the fry of fish should not be 
allowed to be sold in the bazars from June to November, and this would 
certainly embrace the months when the young are moving about. At 
Ambala the fishermen complained that it was very hard that they might 
not capture small fish, whilst other persons who were not fishermen were 
allowed to sell such in the bazars. Twelve Huropean officials would 
prohibit its sale entirely, one would not interfere. In several districts tt 
is observed that such a regulation would be useless, as no fish is publicly 
sold. ‘The possession of salmon fry is illegal in England. 
14. Respecting the applicability or the reverse of close months.—- 
Fence months ; its advisability ‘hey appear to be generally considered as 
for two months during the rains desirable, more especially in the hilly ranges 
in the hilly districts. to which mahaseer and other valuable fish 
resort to breed, ascending rivers to the bases of the hills, in order to 
reach their breeding grounds with the filling of the mountain streams 
due to the commencement of the monsoon, generally in the first half of 
the month of June, Then ascending the larger streams, they turn aside 
into the tributaries, which are not replenished by melted snows, to deposit 
their ova, which are hatched out but do not generally descend to the 
plains until the next season. Now it seems desirable that these breeding 
fish should have free ingress and egress, and it is only by declaring a close 
season for these districts that such could be effected. The range wherein 
this should be carried out, and the time at which these two months 
should be insisted upon, about July and August, could be well left to the 
local civil authorities. 


Vil 


15. It has also been suggested, that certain deep pools in which 
Aree esq pools im kill atrencae: fish take shelter during the dry (not cold) 
it is proposed, should be selected months of the year should be protected in 
and preserved during the dry the hills, as they are very easily netted there. 
(not cold) months in the hill fy, Carleton proposes that certain streams 
streams. : 

should be considered preserves and kept for 
the breeding of the fish. 

16. Trapping fish in irrigated fields ought to be most strictly 

Trapping fish objected tos at prohibited, at least during the monsoon 
least from April to November, Months, as an immense amount of injury 
Size of interstices should be the mustoccur by destroying all, both young and 
eam asic mete. old. If this mode of using fixed engines is 
to be permitted at all, the interstices between the materials of which 
such traps is composed should be at least 1} inches, or that laid down 
for the meshes of fishing nets, whilst they should be prohibited from 
April to November. 

17. Ithas, in addition to the foregoing, been suggested in the 

iii eaggy ie tet a ee district’ (paragraph 28) that the 
those of Bilaspur and Sialkot Government of Cashmere be keenly urged 
to be requested to assist in pro- to carry out whatever system of preservation 
tecting valuable fish ascending jg decided upon for India, as efforts in our 
their hilly streams to breed. . : . 

territory to preserve this main staple of food 
must be considerably retarded without their support, because the affluents 
of the large rivers up which the fish ascend to breed are out of our dis- 
tricts. ‘Mr. Carleton’ also observes that the two States, Bilaspur and 
Sialkot, remain without a single restraint as regards fishing. Those 
States situated on the Sutlej occupy its finest fishing ground, and some 
of the best, if not the very best, streams for fish breeding, and no hill 
people are more addicted to fishing than those living within these two 
territories. He continues :—I have lived three seasons along the head 
waters of the Ravi at Chumba, and five seasons along the head waters of 
the Bias at Kulu, and traversed over the Sutlej valley for ten years as far 
as Rampur, and nowhere have I seen such destruction of fish as in 
those two States, especially Sialkot. * * Many of the people have 
little close hand-nets, with which they regularly clean out the gorges of 
young fry.” 

18. Throughout the various portions of India which I have visited 
in investigating the fish and fisheries, in none 
have such excellent rules been framed as in 
this province, embracing as they do protection 
to the immature fish by prohibiting the use of nets having a mesh less 
than 14 inches between each knot, disallowing the use of dams, weirs, 
and stake-nets, and only permitting in the hill streams the employment 
of such nets as can be held by or thrown from the hand. 

19. The further regulations which it is suggested by the ‘ Officiat- 
ing Secretary to the Panjab Government,’ 
are, prohibiting the sale of the fry of fishes in 
the bazars or mahaseer under Ilb. weight; a close season during July 
and August; the establishment of breeding tanks in connection with 
the irrigation canals, and by gratings or otherwise to prevent the fish 
going down these canals. 


Present Panjab fishing regula- 
tions. 


Further ones proposed. 


Vili 


20. In addition I would suggest to the foregoing (paragraphs 10 
and 33), the owners of mills in hill streams 
should male obstructions, as matted gratings, 
at the commencement of their ‘kools’ or canals, which would prevent the 
entrance of young fish now so extensively destroyed therein. I*ish-passes 
should be placed in all ascents in irrigation canals or at weirs, and the 
destruction of fish when the canals are closed should be strictly prohibit- 
ed. Close seasons would probably only be required along the hilly ranges, 
and netting might be prohibited in a few deep pools in the hill streams 
during the dry months. Trapping fish, or having fixed engines for taking 
them, should be prohibited, at least between April and November, and 
even then the interstices in substances forming traps should be equal to 
the minimum size permitted between the knots of the meshes of nets. 
21. The following are condensed from the opinions of the Huropean 
Contents of the following sy- nd Native officials of the Panjab, received 
nopsis of papers received from either in 1869-70, or else in answer to the 
the Panjab. questions circulated in September 1871. 
22. The Officiating Secretary to the Government of the Panjab 
(July 16th, 1872) reports that there are 10,450 
Officiating Secretary to the fishermen in the province, but in no district 
Rae me eae eed they seem to follow fishing as their sole 
local officials of the province, occupation. ‘The fishermen castes are mostly 
Jewars, Machis, Kahars, and Kashmiris: those 
who also engage in fishing are Jats, Sunnias, Mains, Jhils, Singharis, 
Maithans, Pakhiwaras, Julahas, Jhabails, Sukkais, Mullahs, Dindars, 
Magus, Dhunniahs, Beluchis, Rahras, Pathans, Khokars, Bhattis, 
Manjris, Jhabals, Panwars, Patries,and Mahanas. Tish are largely eaten, 
the cost of the better sorts bearing the same proportion to that of the 
best mutton, as the price of inferior fish to that of inferior mutton, and 
varies from one-third that of mutton to an equal price with it. Under 
the present licensing system 1} inches square is the smallest size of 
mesh permissible to use; previous to its introduction large numbers 
of young fish were sold as “chilwas,” and met with a ready sale. 
ven now in some districts very fine meshed nets are locally employed. 
The greatest destruction takes place after the rains, when the floods 
subside, leaving large quantities of small fish in the fields. It is 
generally considered that prohibiting the sale of fry in the bazar 
would entail no difficulty and but little hardship. The markets as a 
rule are well supplied (see para. 5), the new regulations are admitted, on 
all hands to have had a good effect in preserving the fish, whilst the 
fishermen have decreased. Probably due to the late hot seasons, no 
marked increase has yet. been observed in the amount of fish. Several 
officers advise a close season during July and August. One and a quarter 
inches between knot and knot of the meshes of nets is generally con- 
sidered the smallest that should be allowed. On the whole the reports 
show that the present system of licenses is working well, 
though the following additional measures might with advantage be 
taken for the preservation of the fisheries. To enjoin two close 
months, July and August; in districts where fish are very plentiful, 
to impose some limit on the amount of fish which may be caught 
under each license ; to prohibit the sale of fry in the bazars, and that 


Additional ones suggested. 


1d.¢ 


of ‘mahaseer’ of less than one pound in weight; to establish breeding 
tanks in connection with the canals ; and by gratings or otherwise to pre- 
vent the fish from going down the irrigation canals. 

The Commissioner of the Peshitwar Division observes, that he does 
not think fishermen do so much i injury to the 
fish in his district as he has seen done in 
rivers down country; still he considers that it 
would be very right to give the fish a better 
chance of multiplying by insisting on the stoppage of all kinds of fishing 
during the close months, for carrying out which no separate establish- 
ment is advised. The size of the mesh of nets might be reeulated to 
protect the fry, which, however, are not taken to any extent by the people 
of the country; but the Hindustani and Panjabi kahdrs in the military 
stations make for themselves casting nets with which they catch ‘ chilwas.’ 
The Deputy Commissioner of Peshdwar states, that breeding fish and very 
young: ones are destroyed in his district tio a great extent, and at all sea- 
sons, by means of nets, fish-hooks and sheets, in the Indus, Cabul and 
Swat rivers, andin Lotaie and Barah streams and the Boodnee canal, the 
smallest size of the mesh of the nets being + of an ineh between 
knot and knot. No difficulties would exist in regulating the minimum 
size to be employed, which he proposes should be $ of an inch for small 
fish, and 1 inch for large sorts. ‘There would be no objection to prohibit- 
ing the sale of the fry of fish in the bazars. Zhe Deputy Commissioner 
of Hazara gives the smallest size of the mesh of the nets employed at 
about $ of an inch square. If the minimum size were regulated, it would 
give rise to irritation amongst a border population, and require an estab- 
lishment to see it carried out; but fishing might be prohibited for two 
months without much inconvenience. Zhe Deputy Commissioner of 
Kohat considers that breeding fish and very young ones are not destroyed 
to any great extent in his district, and the smallest mesh employed is 4 
of an inch between knot and knot; that there would be no difficulty in 
regulating its minimum size, but has no opinion as to what that should 
be. As fry is never sold, its sale might be prohibited. 

24. The Commissioner of Rawal Pindi observed in 1870 that “ fish- 

ing licenses are the only check we have upon 


Peshawar Division.—Opinions 
of the European officials of 
Peshawar, Hazara and Kohat. 


Rawal aes Division the wholesale destruction of young fish, and I 
Answers of the uropean off vould on no account relax them.” The Deputy 
cials of Rawal Pindi, Jhbilam, atin - nails f 
Shahpur, and Gujrat. Commissioner of Rdwal Pindi reports that 


breeding and young fish are not destroyed to 
any perceptible extent. The usual nets allowed have a mesh of 14 inches 
between knot and knot, but two licenses are given for ‘ chilwa’ fishermen 
who use a much finer mesh for the purpose of taking small fish which 
never grow to any size. There are no difficulties in “yegulating the mi- 
nimum size of the mesh, 1 inch between knot and knot. is recommended. 
The people of these parts do not depend upon fish as their food ; a very few 
touch it, therefore prohibiting the sale of the fry in the bazar would 
be a wholesome measure and strike at the root of the evil. There 
would be no objection to having a close season for two months in the hilly 
ranges. The Deputy Commissioner of Jhilam states that breeding and 
young fish are not destroyed to any great extent, as care is talent that 
the meshes of all nets have 14 inches between knot and knot. The 


x 


hill streams termed ‘kus’ dry up during the greater part of the year 
and are not fished, whilst there are no jhils or pools. In the river 
along the Pind Dadun Khan tehsil, 45 miles in length, no fishing is 
practised, due to there being no markets for the sale of fish, as the 
natives will not eat them. The Officiating Deputy Commissioner of 
Shahpur yeports, that neither breeding nor young fish are destroyed in 
his district ; only one license was taken out, and that to supply fish to 
officers and Babus in the station. The Deputy Commissioner of 
Gujrat reports, that breeding and young fish are not destroyed in his 
district, whilst there are no breeding fish so low down the river. The 
minimum size of the mesh of nets employed is 4 of an inch; no difli- 
culties exist in regulating it, and 14 inches is proposed as suitable. 
Respecting what objections exist against prohibiting the sale of the fry 
of fish in the bazars? he remarks, “the fry of fish is not understood. 
Jheewurs, ‘ Hindus, commonly sell fried fish in the bazars, and I hear 
of no objection to it.” He considers that two months close time 
in the hilly districts might be introduced. 
25. Dhe Officiating Commissioner of the Derajat Division merely 
forwards papers received. Zhe Officiating 
Derajat Division —Answers of Deputy Commissioner of Bani reports that 
aay crn ar as an breeding fish and very small ones are not 
Temachnne ; destroyed to any extent in his district; that 
the smallest size of the mesh of nets is } of 
an inch between knot and knot, whilst, as very few fish are caught, it is 
unnecessary to regulate the minimum size of the mesh employed. No 
fish are sold in the bazars. The Deputy Commissioner of Dera Gazi 
Khan observes, that very little fish are canght in the northern part of the 
district ; the local market is well supplied, but by fishermen belonging 
to the Muzaffurgarh side of the Indus. A certain quantity of fish is 
caught in Jampur, but they are principally taken in the cold season 
in dhunds left by the subsidence of the Indus. A considerable amount 
of small fry is captured, and minute-meshed nets are in common use. 
There would be no difficulty in regulating the size of the mesh to be 
employed, but such restrictions are considered to be unnecessary. He 
continues that gulls take more small fish than fishermen! Zhe Officiating 
Deputy Commissioner of Dera Ismail Khan observes, breeding fish and 
very young ones are not destroyed to a great extent. The smallest size 
mesh of the nets is 4 an inch between knot and knot. There would be no 
difficulty in regulating it, and 4 an inch between knot and knot is 
proposed as the minimum size. ‘he fry of fish are said not to be sold 
in the bazars. 
26. Lhe Officiating Deputy Commissioner, Thang, observes, that he 
thinks there is a tendency to destroy breeding: 
Multan Division.—Answersof and very young fish in the rainy season 
ep aan at CE by the use of small meshed nets, but in his 
Multan: district the evil is not general, owing to the 
fishing population consisting of but few 
persons. The meshes of some of the nets are as small as about one-eighth 
of an inch square, and no difficulty stands in the way of the enforeement 
of any enactment on the subject of regulating the minimum size to bo 
employed, which it 1s proposed should be one inch square. No objections 


Xl 


Whatever exist against prohibiting the sale of the fry of fish in the 
bazars. The Officiating Deputy Commissioner, Muzafjargarh, reports 
that there does not appear to be any very “extensive destruction of 
breeding and young fish, as fishing is chiefly carried on in pools formed 
by inundations, which soon dry up after the river subsides. Nets are 
not used with a mesh less than 14 inches between knot and knot, which 
might be increased by further regulations to 2 or even 3 inches. “ Mian 
Mahbub Dhony, Magistrate, who is a great sportsman, thinks the mesh 
should not be less than 9 inches all round.” ‘There is no difficulty in 
regulating the minimum size of the meshes of nets; the sale of fry by 
fishermen should be prohibited, for, if they have been purchased by the 
retailers, it will be difficult to interfere with them. In 1870 the Deputy 
Commissioner of this place reported: “there is a great and wanton de- 
struction of young fish by men with purse nets of small meshes,” which he 
considered should be prohibited during June, July and August. The Officiat- 
ing Deputy Commissioner, Montgomery, states that breeding fish and very 
young ones are destroyed to some extent in ‘ boodhs,’ or hollow places in the 
rivers, which, during the rainy season, are united with the stream, but be- 
come detached as inundations cease. About + of an inch between knot and 
knot of the nets appears to be the smallest size employed, and there seems 
no difficulty in regulating what it should be; 14 inches is proposed for 
this purpose. No objections exist against prohibiting the sale of the 
fry of fish in the bazars. Zhe Officiating Deputy Commissioner of 
Multan replies, that breeding fish and very young ones are destroyed to 
a considerable extent. Various kinds of traps and snares are employed in 
the district during the cold season in the ‘dhunds’; a species of basket 
is commonly in use. ‘Lhe smallest size mesh of nets used is 4 an inch 
square, but these are rarely employed, they being generally from 1 to 2 
inches. No difficulty is anticipated in regulating the minimum size to be 
sanctioned, which it is suggested should be 2 inches between knot and 
knot, and thus destruction of young fish, which is at present considerable, 
will be avoided. No objection exists against prohibiting the sale of the 
fry of fish in the bazars, which is considered to be desirable. 
27. The Deputy Commissioner of Lahor reports, that breeding 
us fish are not destroyed to a very great extent, 
Lahor Division—Answers of oe. owing to the period fish breed being in 
the European officials of Lahor 2 que : . 
and Gujranwala, the rains, the current of the river is such, 
that netting is difficult. ‘ Chilwa’ fishing is 
earried on in July and August, and small fish of all kinds are taken by 
hand-nets. ‘ Breeding fish and their young are caught in July and August 
in the Deg, and in the chumbs and ereeks connected with it; the former 
in ordinary nets, and the latter in small hand-nets with fine meshes. 
The zemindars catch the small fish in the chumbs in a variety of ways, 
with baskets or cloth bags, or fine nets, &e.” 'The smallest size of the 
mesh of nets employed is about that of a pea. “The difficulties about 
regulating the size of the meshes of nets are mainly two: the legal 
difficulty in enforcing any rules on the subject; at present forfeiture of 
the license is the only penalty. Secondly, the financial difficulty : any 
attempt to introduce the license system or to regulating the size of the 
meshes would be attended with an immediate loss of revenue. It is 
probable, however, that the revenue would in time recover itself as large 


xi 


fish imereased in numbers, and the fishermen become accustomed 
to the system. As already stated, the attempt was made in this 
district, but had to be abandoned on financial grounds.” [I must 
here point out that other local reasons exist at Lahor, the fishery 
at this place being let in a peculiar manner at Rs. 2,228 yearly, 
and the mode was thus described by the Officiating Commissioner 
in February 1870: ‘The lease is current for the financial year, and 
is put up annually to auction. It embraces the Deg nullah, the 
river Ravi, and the jhils and creeks connected with those rivers. 
Zemindars owning land on the rivers’ bank may, without hindrance 
from the lessee, catch fish for their own consumption, but they are 
not allowed to sell any fish. Practically also, any one may fish with 
a hook, provided only he does not. sell the fish which he eatches. 
None but fishermen, authorised by the lessee, are allowed to catch fish 
with a net. The fishermen are well known; they congregate in a few 
villazes near the river, and carry on their calling in gangs. Hach 
fishing party is accompanied by a servant of the lessee, iccek duty it is 
to see that all the fish caught are brought to the market which the lessee 
has established for the sale of fish at Data Gung Buksh, in the vicinity 
of Lahor, and that none are sold elsewhere by the fishermen. The fish, 
when brought to the market, are sold wholesale to dealers for what they 
will fetch. ‘The sale proceeds of fish caught im the Deg are divided 
equally between the lessee and the fishermen; but as regards fish 
caught in the Ravi, the lessee’s share of the proceeds is only 4 annas 
in the rupee, while the fisherman’s is]12 annas. These rates were, 
however, altered thus in 1561; it was agreed that the following should 
be the lessee’s share:—FVish from the Deg, 84 annas in the rupee ; 
from the Ravi, 64 annas in the rupee; from other districts, 43 annas 
in the rupee. Fish are sometimes brought to Lahor from Montgomery 
by rail, and from other districts. In this case they are brought to 
market and sold through the lessee, who charges a commission of 14 
annas a rupee on the sale proceeds. In the Lahor District, it is 
chiefly from the Deg that fish are caught; a considerable number 
are caught from jhils and chuppurs fed from the Deg. These jhils and 
chuppurs are regarded as the private property of the zemindars, with 
whom the lessee makes his own arrangement in regard to being 
allowed to fish in them, * * * Netting in the Ravi is a difficult 
operation, and is seldom attempted. The fish, which are taken nominally 
from the Ravi, are caught almost entirely in the nallas and pools left 
after the floods of the rainy season have subsided.” Thus it can 
hardly be considered that it is simply the fisheries that are let, but 
fichenes and an octroi duty on fish that is disposed of. ] Oneand a quarter 
of an inch is suggested as the proper minimum size at which the meshes 
of nets should be ixed, and there exists no objection to prohibiting the sale 
of the fry of fishes in the bazars. The Deputy Commissioner of Gujrau- 
walla observes, that in the Chenab very young fish known as ¢ chahil’ 
are largely caught; the smallest sized mesh employed is 3 of an 
inch, There would be no difficulty in regulating the minimum size to be 
employed in future, “but the small meshed nets already in existence 
would continue to be used until worn out.” No objections against 
prohibiting the sale of the fry of fish are known. 


xiii 
28. The Officiating Deputy Commissioner, Amritsir, does not con- 
: nf sider that breeding fish are destroy ed to any 
Sts Gaeta a ee deleterious extent ; a large number of young 
ritsar, Sialkot, and Gurdaspur. Ones are killed during the rains in irrigated 
fields, the smallest mesh employed being 
1 inch square. There are no objections to prohibiting the sale of 
the fry of fish in bazars; it could be easily carried out. Numbers of 
fish are said to be destroy ed here in the irrigation canals, whenever they 
are dried off, irrespective of size, whilst all the holes are netted. ‘The 
presence of a few tanks, it is suggested, connected with, but lower 
than the bed of, the eanal, would not ‘only enable many fish to escape the 
annual slaughter, but be valuable for fishing purposes throughout the 
year. The Deputy Commissioner, Sialkot, reports, that he does not think 
very young fish to any great. extent are destroy ed in the rivers and nal- 
las of his distriet; but he holds the opinion that the fishermen net (as 
indeed do all native fishermen) indiscriminately and without considera- 
tion as to breeding time, and considers that it would be most necessary to 
enter a strict prohibition in the licenses against their fishing at all 
during breeding months, v7z., July and August. ‘The meshes of the nets, 
since 1870, have not been used smaller than 1} inches between knot 
and knot, and no difficulties exist respecting regulating the minimum size, 
which he proposes should be 14 inches in future. Ile would advocate 
that as the bazar demand is great at times for the smaller or fry of fish 
(which are more of a luxury than an actual neeessary ele of food) 
licenses be given for their sale between April 15th and May 15th; and 
again between September Ist and October Ist, but would prohibit their 
being sold in the markets or elsewhere during any other time. ‘The 
following opinion of an officer of the district, “who has much indulged 
in fishing, is enclosed: “ First, if the proposal (of only permitting the 
employment of such nets as can be held by the band) were carried into 
effect, nothing more need be done in these parts. In the Chenab, which 
encloses tivo sides of this district (north and east), the ‘mahaseer’ run 
in shoals, and are thick at one particular spot, and perhaps are not to be 
found for a distance of 10 miles. They abound ehiefly where a tributary 
runs in, and where the water is usually warmer and there is good feeding. 
In the spring rains, they ascend these tributaries to breed, returning in 
the monsoons. If there i is no depth of water where the tributary joins 
the Chenab, they probably drop in the winter into the deeper pools. I re- 
member one instance in this district which was brought to my notice in 
1869, and shortly after my arrival here. ‘There was a large school of fish 
collected at the junction of the ‘Tavia,’ running from ‘Rajowri (in the 
Cashmere Ilakah) and the ‘Chenab’. This could be easily netted, and 
the consequence was, a large net of about 40 to 60 yards in length was 
placed across the stream, and another dragged down the river for about 
100 yards. Thus an innumerable number of fish were caught, and the 
result was, there was little or no rod fishing that season, whieh toa 
certain extent demonstrates the fact that the place had been denuded of 
fish. I have drawn the attention of the Cashmere authorities to the evil 
of this wholesale system of destruction in the tributaries of the Chenab 
within that territory, and I have also prohibited the practice as much as 


XIV 


possible in this district. There is no doubt that even now the mahaseer 
especially are a persecuted fish, particularly at that season of the year 
when the water is low (just before the rains) and especially in the hillstreams 
(where they are spawning), when they are nearly all destroyed. I would 
strongly advocate, as regards this district, that the Government of Cashmere 
be keenly urged to carry out whatever system of preservation Government 
intends to enforce, as our efforts to preserve this main staple of food 
must be considerably retarded without their support.’ he Deputy 
Commissioner of Gurdaspur states, that since licenses have been issued 
the destruction of breeding and very young fish has diminished, but 
that the capture of fry during the rains is still carried on; they are taken 
with baskets, cloths, &c., in all shallow places in streams, after the. rains 
have subsided. The minimum size of the authorized mesh is 14 inches. 
The impossibility of supervision is the chief difliculty in regulating the 
size of the mesh. ‘This can only be met by finding out all men who 
make any part of their living by fishing and compelling them take out 
licenses, The recorded license-holders could be visited periodically, and 
their nets examined year by year, thus the fishing of the rivers could be 
brought more under control. The objection against prohibiting the 
sale of the fry of fish in the bazar, is, that they are more tasty; but 
on the other hand, Hindus think that it is better to take the life of one 
large fish than of many small ones. ‘The principle of protecting fish, 
and in fact all game, during the breeding season, is too well established to 
need comment. Should it entail any hardship on the population of the 
hills, it seems to me that they must bear it, as the fish are protected in 
the interests of the community at large.” 
29. Lhe Commissioner of Ambala forwards the following from the 
Officiating Deputy Commissioner: that he 
Ambala Division.—Answers of — thinks breeding and immature fish are de- 
the Europein officials of Ambala Oo yi0 
Fae IG TEI stroyed to a great extent ; that the restriction 
as to the size of the mesh of the net has only 
been held to apply to rivers, whilst in fields, tanks, and hollows, the 
smallest meshes are used; indeed, sheets are employed. No difficulties exist 
against regulating the minimum size of the mesh of nets; but if the sale 
of fry is prohibited, it would simply deprive the public of a valued 
article of food. No objection obtains against prohibiting the capture of 
fish in hilly districts during the first two months of the monsoon season 
when they are breeding ; in fact, he considers the suggestion expedient. 
The Deputy Commissioner, in 1870, stated, that “there are numbers of 
kahars and others, who at different seasons of the floods, when at leisure, 
catch great numbers of small fish, which appear principally to be washed 
down from the hills, and which if uncaught must perish in the drying 
up of the water. hese fish form an important article of food temporarily 
for a number of the poor classes, and any attempt to prevent them from 
enjoying this article of food would be a hardship.” Zhe Officcating 
Deputy Collector of Ludhiana considers, that the breeding fish and very 
young are not destroyed to any great extent in the district, since the size of 
the mesh of the nets has been regulated. It is considered expedient 
to prohibit the sale of the fry of fish in the bazars. 


XV 


30. The Commissioner of Jalandar observed in 1870—“T would 

hfe) remark that there is the most wanton de- 

Neen Reber re ate struction of fish in some of our jhils, which 
dar, Phillur, Hushiarpur, should I think be put a stop to.” The De- 
puty Commissioner, the same year, stated— 

“T inspected some nets now in use: one was brought to me used for 
fishing in ponds, nine of whose meshes went to a square inch.” Zhe 
Extra Assistant Commissioner, Philiur, reports that breeding and very 
young fish are not destroyed ‘wantonly’ in this district to any extent’; 
if they are at all, it must be in the rainy season, or a short time before, 
and then only by being caught in common with other fish ; 14 inches 
between knot and knot of the meshes is the smallest size employed, and 
there is no difficulty in regulating this or any other minimum size. 
When a chowkeydar sees a man fishing, he looks at his license and ex- 
amines his net. Would propose that only large-meshed nets are per- 
mitted during the breeding season, but in the early spring when ‘ chilwa’ , 
fishing is carried on, would permit one inch between knot and knot. 
Respecting prohibiting the sale of the fry of fish in the bazar, he remarks— 
“ Considered merely as an article of food, there is no objection to the 
fry of fish being sold in the bazar; but I think it would tend to an in- 
crease of the supply of large fish in the markets if the fry were not 
allowed to be sold.” Zhe Deputy Commissioner of Hushiarpur observes 
that his replies must be accepted in a general way, and are not intended 
as touching upon the customs of his district alone, but the result of 
experience obtained in several. In the ponds and jhils left in the course 
of the Bizu river through the Jalandar district, and in similar 
places in other districts, there is a great destruction of young fish by 
netting with sheets, &e. Prior to the issue of the cireular in 1870 regulat- 
ing the minimum size of the mesh at 1} inches between knot and knot, 
great destruction with fine-meshed nets was personally witnessed. The 
only difficulties in regulating the size of the mesh of the nets are such as 
are general in preventing smuggling and poaching. ‘he sale of the 
fry of fish is so small that itis hardly worth interfering with ; its capture 
is generally effected for home consumption ; what was sad to witness, was 
the huge numbers of very small fish dragged up with the weeds, &e., and 
left to perish as useless. In all out-lying villages fish are caught by 
men who require to eat them, not as a luxury, but as a ifecessary article 
of food; and if deprived of this, other means of subsistence should be 
provided for them, which would be no easy matter, if at all practicable. 
Attempts should be confined to the remedy of great evils rather than to 
an interference with small ones, which could be done by making it erimi- 
nal to use nets with meshes smaller than prescribed. Ue Deputy Commis- 
stoner of Kangra reports, that he believes that young fish used to be caught 
and breeding checked until the new rules about licenses and limiting 
the size of the mesh were introduced. Doubtless, the Jeewun and 
Kahar castes catch fish by stealth all over the district, as there are no 
means of preventing this. The places in which they used to be most 
destroyed, were in those streams which become very shallow during 
the dry months, leaving, however, some deep pools in which the fish 
take shelter as the floods decline, and where they are easily netted. 
By way of testing the quantity and breeds of fish in one of these pools 


xvi 


opposite Haripur in the river Ban-gunga, one was dragged. The fish 
were all driven into a corner, and there they swarmed ; round hand-nets 
were used to catch them. Some four or five maunds were taken in a 
very short time; any number of nets were produced immediately they 
were asked for, but all, except hand-nets, had 14 inches between knot 
and knot of the meshes. Diz ag-nets are prohibited, but steps should 
be taken to preserve these pools. Would propose keeping a watchman 
at this place out of the license fees, which should be raised to Rs. 20 per 
annum, the number of fishing days to be restricted, as well as the amount 
captured on any one day. Each Deputy Commissioner should be left to 
his own devices to stop the destruction of fish. Arrangements should be 
made to bring the fish to market, which now is never done. By-and- 
bye we should find out what succeeded and what failed, and be able 
to frame some defined rules for the district. It is in the dry months 
that fish are destroyed, and in the early rains, rarely in the winter, when 
., they take to the bottom and under the rocks, and are not easily disturbed. 
From March to July poaching goes on to the greatest extent. There 
are no difliculties im regulating the size of the mesh of nets. When 
licenses are granted the nets have to be produced ; 1} inches is consi- 
dered a very good size for the minimum; it certainly should not be less. 
Small ‘chilwa’ nets might be allowed in streams never frequented 
by the larger kinds of fish. So few fish are brought into the markets 
that no measures are necessary for prohibiting the sale of the fry. 
Would like to have a licensed fish stall under the supervision of 
Government officials at each chief market town, and take such steps 
from tire to time as may be necessary for preventing the sale of fry. 
No objections exist to stopping fishing during the breeding season, 
except for special purposes under a special license. The zemindars do 
a great deal of mischief in the early part of the rains by bringing the 
fish into side streams and then draining off the water and leaving them 
on dry ground; young and old are caught in this way. The system 
of poaching fish and game wholesale should be made a penal offence, 
and district officers will soon find that other measures can be dispensed 
with. There are still abundance of fish in all the chief rivers, the 
Bias, Ravi, Chaki, Ban-gunga, Auvale, Nigeul, and some others ; but 
doubtless measures are necessary to prevent the population from reckless 
systems of netting them. These measures must be, partially, a system 
of Government preserves, such as was always in force in the time of the 
Rajahs, partly by giving licenses to monopolists to supply the market, 
and partly by licenses for fishing with small nets for home consumption 
and not for sale. 
31. The Officiating Commissioner of Hissar (January 16th, 1872,)sug- 
Hissdér Division —Answersof %eStS wire gratings at the top of the first fall 
the Officiating Commissioner aud in the canal to arrest the downward progress 
Deputy Commissioner. of large fish, if practicable in an engineer- 
ing point of view; if not, that fish-ladders should be placed at the canal 
falls. He continues with reference to constructing fish-ladders at weirs 
spanning rivers; “ I took up this suggestion some time ago when Deputy 
Commissioner of Delhi, and ascertained from the Superintending Engi- 
neer of the Agra Canal, that the construction of a fish-ladder would not 
cost more than Rs, 800 or Rs. 1,000. If it is found, when the weir in 


Xvi 


the Jumna at Okla is finished, that the bed is not dry below the weir at 
seasons during which fish ascend and descend the river, I think a fish- 
ladder should undoubtedly be made. The original cost of outlay and 
the extra loss of water entailed by fish-ladders are hardly to be set 
against the benefits to be derived from them. With reference to the 
construction of breeding tanks in connection with canals, I would remark 
that in this division there are tanks in direct communication with the 
canal, suitable for the breeding of fish at the following places (enumerat- 
ed) which are sufficient for this division. Similar breeding tanks should 
be formed in connection with canals in other districts where they do not 
exist. At present the Engineers of the Western Jumna canal in this 
division prohibit fishing in the cana itself, but allow it (except during 
the breeding season) in the tanks, on payment of a fee of Re. 1 per 
net. I think this course should be reversed. I would permit fishing 
in the canal provided the meshes of the nets used are not smaller than 
24 inches from knot to knot, but would prohibit fishing in the breeding 
tanks altogether. These tanks should not be disturbed, and fish should 
be allowed to freely escape into them when the water in the canal is 
turned off, and the tanks themselves should not be drained of water.’ 
The Deputy Cominissioner of Hissér reports, that breeding fish and very 
young ones are not destroyed to a great extent; but, as a general rule, the 
fishermen pay no attention to the condition of the fish. The smallest 
size of the mesh of the nets employed here is 4 of an inch between knot 
and knot of the meshes. No difficulty is apprehended in regulating the 
size of the mesh of nets, although there would naturally be a tendency 
on the part of the licensees to reduce the size to their own standard for 
catching small fry as well as large fish. From 2 to 24 inches be- 
tween the knots of the meshes is proposed as the minimum size that 
should be permitted. Fish being so rarely bought and sold, owing to 
its scarcity and want of appreciation, save by a very small percentage of 
the population, no objections are anticipated against prohibiting the sale 
of fry in the bazars. 
32. The Commissioner of the Delhi Division (March 14th, 1872) 
Delhi. Division—Answers of forwarded reports from the following officers, 
the European officials of Delhi, observing, that instructions have been issued 
Gurgaon, Sarsa and Kurnal. this day, that for the future, no licenses to 
use nets of meshes below 14 inches between knot and knot shall be 
granted. The Officiating Deputy Commissioner of Delhi states, that 
many young fish are no doubt destroyed, but few breeding ones owing 
to the paucity of breeding grounds. The time at which the young fish 
are destroyed, is in the river from the first monsoon inundations until 
the month of November or later. No restriction exists as to the size 
of the meshes of nets employed, which is about + of an inch between 
knot and knot. If the taking of small fish is to be prohibited, there 
would be no difficulty in regulating the size of the meshes by a clause 
in the license, and } of an inch between knot and knot is recommended. 
No objections exist against prohibiting the sale of fry within municipal 
limits, elsewhere legal sanction would be necessary, where the sales, 
however, are insignificant: would prohibit the use of small-meshed 
nets from June to November, so that the taking of those sorts which are 
mature, when of small size, would not be prevented. The Deputy Com- 
missioner of Gurgdon replies, that as the Jumna is the only river in his 


b 


XVili 


district, people are not given to fishing as a rule, and no destruction to 
breeding fish takes place ; neither are the fry destroyed. The smallest size 
of the mesh of the nets being } of an inch between knot and knot, 
no difficulties exist against regulating it, but he does not consider 
interference advisable. Fry are not sold in the bazars. The Officiating 
Deputy Commissioner of Sarsa reports, that breeding Hah and very 
young ones, are not destroyed to any great extent; 7% of an inch 
between knot and knot of the meshes is the smallest size employed ; and 
he considers, ag to what difficulties there are against regulating its size, 
that itis as well that all the fish in pools which dry up should be caught, 
but that one inch between knot and knot is advisable for nets used in waters 
that do not dry up. The objection against prohibiting the sale of fry 
is, that they are chiefly taken in pools which dry up, and would die if 
left uncaught. No reasons exist against a close season of two months 
in the hilly districts. The Hatra Assistant Commissioner of Karnal 
states, that breeding fish and very young ones are destroyed, but 
not to any great extent, the latter are taken in larger quantities than 
the former. In the Jumna, in tanks and jhils, very young ones are 
captured in the ray season and floods, and large ones in all seasons 
when procurable. The smallest meshes employed in nets are from } to 
4 an inch in circumference, and are used for taking prawns. ‘The only 
difficulty against regulating the size of the mesh of nets is, that it would 
interfere with the fishermen, and, probably, many would give up their 
occupation if not permitted their own discretionary powers in keeping 
nets to their own liking. The size proposed is 1} inches between knot 
and knot of the meshes, leaving nets for taking prawns as they are. 
The fry of fish are said not to be generally used, as their sale would not 
be profitable. As to whether there are any objections against prohibiting 
the capture of fish in hilly districts for the first two months of the 
monsoon season when they are breeding, it is stated: “ Capturing of 
breeding fish in hilly districts in the spawning time will, in a certain 
extent, decrease their generation.” 
33. The Revd. W. Carleton, of the American Mission, who has been 
The Revd. W. Carleton’s ob. %€ or eleven years amongst the people of the 
servations on fishing in the hilly Himalayas, and paid consdemble attention 
districts, and how fry are de- to natural history, was good enough to 
etroyed i satllsireatie. favour me with his independent views re- 
specting the fisheries of the hill streams at the Kangra valley and 
elsewhere. He observes that the laws or regulations that “have been 
introduced to preserve the Himalayan fish, do not meet the real difficulty 
in the way of making the products of the Himalayan rivers an abundant 
source of food? “I do not,” he continued, “write in the interests of 
Government, so much as I do in behalf of the common people, who, fond 
of meat, get at present a scanty supply from the rivers; while, if a 
proper conservancy of the fish could be introduced, there would be a very 
good supply of food for the poor or common people. There are two or 
three species of fish of remarkable fecundity in the Himalayas, which, if 
they were properly cared for when young, would yield yearly a great 
supply of food. But there is one custom in many parts of the hills, 
which, more than any others, is ‘ruinous’ to the natural growth of these 
fish, and which the present laws about fishing do not in the slightest 
degree affect. The grain in the Himalayas is all ground in little mills 


Xix 


moved by water. These mills are all situated on the hundreds of small 
streams in the hill gorges. To get a good water power, the peopie 
construct small canals, or ducts, on a higher level than the streams, and 
by erecting adam across the stream, ‘most of the water is diverted into 
these canals, and carried along until a ‘good head is attained, the fall of 
which carries or puts in motion these mills. Now the most valuable 
species of fish breed in these gorges, and the young do not enter, in any 
considerable numbers, the large rivers till after one or two years, 
and as these little canals are numerous in all the gorges, and at 
seasons take in nearly all the waters of the streams, the young 
of these several species of fish naturally find their way into these 
canals, and whether the men who own these canals have nets or not 
to catch fish, all they have to do when they want a meal of fish, is to 
shut off the water from: their ‘ kools’ or canals, and in twenty minutes 
it becomes dry, and they can go along and pick up the fish that were in 
it. <A few years ago I wished to collect the species of fish in the Mandi 
river, a branch of “the Bias, which enters the Bias at the city of Mandi. 
I had but two hours to stay at that place, and I ealled a fisherman, an 
old man, and told him to take a close net to a small stream and bring 
me any living thing he could obtain from if; in less than an hour he 
brought me a basket-full of life, the sight of which would have eladdened 
the heart of a naturalist, six species of fish, and several sorts of 
aquarium insects, shells, crabs, &e. I wondered how he alone got that 
basket-fall. He told me he owned a mill, and all he had to do was to 
shut off the water from the ‘kool’ and pick up his basket-full from dry 
land.” One species was Oreinus sinuatus, Heckel, “ the most valuable 
for food to the common people on account of its wide limits of distribu- 
tion and great fecundity. An intelligent native on the Bias river observed 
that it went up to the high hill gorges in the early summer to feed on 
rich food and returned in the cold season down the rivers very fat. 
* * * T have known females of 3lbs. in weight to ascend small 
streams 8 miles, in a few hours, after the first heavy shower of the rainy 
season.” | As a corroboration of this I may mention, that on going across 
the Himalayas from Chumba to Choaree, I stopped at a little mill that 
formed small pools here and there, and in which were numerous immature 
fish. Having a net with me I procured a few, some were young 
loaches, Nemacheilus rupecuta, Me Clelland, but the majority consisted 
of the fry of the mountain barbels, Oreinus sinuatus, Heckel, whilst 
none could he that year’s fish. The locality was upwards of one hundred 
feet above the main stream, with a very steep ascent, and sufficient rain 
not having fallen so as to permit fish ascending so high, they must have 
been the fry of the preceding season ; and from observations made in diff- 
erent places, if appeared to me most probable, that rapid growth does not 
commence until the presence of rain water in the rivers, winch it is said, 
and probably correetly, brings down some peculiarly nourishing food.) 
34. In the Peshdwar Division the Zehsildar of Peshdwar reports 
Peshéwar Division—Answers there are 190 fishermen who also pursue 
of native officials of Peshawar, other occupations; their castes ave Jhewurs, 
Haripur, Mausera, and Kohat.  Jhubal, Afghan and Meen. Local markets 
are not fully supplied with fish ; more could be sold. About 10 percent. of 
the people are fish-eaters. ish have decreased of late years, very small ones 
are taken during the rains in nets made of thread, and occasionally 


xXx 


with sheets ; these last are spread out and sunk in the water and raised 
when filled with fish. The smallest mesh of the nets is } of an inch 
between the knots. Fish are trapped in the irrigated fields along the 
banks of rivers, during the rains. Zhe Tehsildar of Haripur observes, 
that zemindars and others fish when not otherwise occupied ; the markets 
are not fully supplied, more fish could be sold. A small proportion 
of the people eat fish, the supply of which has slightly decreased. 
Tmmature ones are not caught in the rains, the smallest mesh being 1 inch 
between each knot of the meshes. Tish are not trapped in the inrigat- 
ed fields ; some are speared by torch-light. The Vehsildar of Mausera 
reports, that there are 160 fishermen, but they follow other occupations ; 
the markets are not fully supplied ; more fish could be sold; the majority 
of the people eat it, but more as a luxury than a staple of food. The 
supply has decreased of late years. During the rains quantities of the 
immature are taken, but breeding fish are not trapped in the irrigated 
fields. Zhe Tehsildar of Kohdt states, that only a few Kahars of the 
regiments in garrison occasionally net fish, and boatmen on the Indus 
capture some with hooks and lines. The consumption of fish is small, 
and confined to the city and cantonments, a very few of the general 
population being fish-eaters. 
35. In the Rawal Pindi district, the five Tehsildars report as fol- 
Pitre strates lows :— In Rawal Pindi there are 30 fisher- 
Rawal Pindi Division An men, in Attock 26, in Gujer Khan 0, in Fathi 
swers of ‘I'ehsildars of Rawal : : 
Pindi, Attock, Gujer Khan, Fathi Jang 4, in Muni 1, all of whom follow 
Jang, Muni, Jhilam, Pind Dadan other occupations. All the Kahars, the 
Khan, Chakwal, Talegang, Guj- Machi, and Bhuttiara castes fish, and the 
rat, Kharim, and Sahem. 2 ; Z 
Jhewurs and Mullas amongst the Mahome- 
dans. The supply is insufficient or absent in four tehsils, and sufficient 
in one. In Rawal Pindi 75 per cent. of the population eat fish, in 
Attock (being Mahomedans) nearly the whole, the same in Gujer 
Khan and Fathi Jang, but only 10 per cent. in Muni. In Rawal 
Pindi and Muni the supply is stated to have decreased, in Attock 
to be stationary, and in the other two tehsils to have slightly increased. 
At Mouzah Gungal in Rawal Pindi, fish are said to be trapped to a 
limited extent. In the Jézlam district, four Tehsildars state, that in Jhilam 
there are 15 fishermen, but in the other three tehsils fishing is merely carried 
on in addition to other occupations. In Jhilam, only, are the markets 
fully supplied, and there about three-fourths of the population eat fish, 
the remaining 25 per cent., whoare chiefly Brahmins, never do so; in 
Pind Dadan Khan 4, (eight-tenth ?, this being the proportion of Mahome- 
dans to Hindus,) eat fish. Hindus have an aversion to it. In Chakwal it 
is not touched. In Talegang the people in the vicinty of the Soan river 
eat fish. In Jhilam fish are said to be increasing; in Pind Daédan 
Khan to have decreased, but to have remained stationary in the two other 
tehsils. Small ones are said to be taken in Jhilam during the rains. The 
minimum size of the meshes of nets vary from 1 inch between the 
knots in the larger nets, to from 3} to $.an inch in the ‘ chilwa’ nets. 
Fish are not trapped during the rains in the irrigated fields. In the 
Gujrat district, the three Tehsildars report as follows: in Gujrat there are 
7 fishermen, in Kharim 2, and in Sahem 1, all of whom follow other 
occupations. ‘The local markets are not fully supplied, more fish could 
be sold. In Gujrat more than half the people eat fish, in Khérim 


Xxl 


nine-tenths, S&hem one-fourth. In two of the tehsils fish ave said to 
have decreased of late years, and in one to have remained stationary. Small 
ones are caught during the rains, the minimum sized mesh employed 
being from } to 4 an inch between the knots. Fish are not trapped 
during the rains in two tehsils, but ave in the remaining one. 

36. Inthe Derajat division, the four Tehsildars of Bani report as fol- 
lows:—There are no regular fishermen, the 
zemindars occasionally catch fish, as do also the 
Mahomedans for their own eating: the mar- 
kets are not supplied. The Tehsildar of Bani 
reports that fish is very little eaten in his 
tehsil; in Isakhel that all the Mahomedans 
will when they can procure it; in Miamaoli that most classes will eat it 
when they happen to get it, but they do not take any trouble about 
it; and at Lakki that no one eats fish because there are none to eat. 
The supply appears to have remained stationary : very small ones are not 
taken in any quantity during the rains. The minimum size of the mesh 
employed is about $ an inch between knot and knot. Fish are not trapped 
in the irrigated fields during the rains. The four Teshildars of Dera 
Gdézi Khdn state that in Dera G4zi Khan and Sangarh there are no fisher- 
men, in Rajanpur there are 125, in Jampur 16, they follow other occu- 
pations. The markets in two tehsils are moderately supplied, but insufli- 
ciently so in the others, still in most more could be sold. In Dera G&zi 
Kh&n most of the city people are said to eat fish when it is in season ; 
in Rajanpur three quarters of those who are within reach of the markets ; 
in Jampur the majority. The supply has decreased in Dera Gazi 
Khan, but largely increased in Rajanpur and Jampur. Small fish are not 
taken during the rains, neither are breeding ones trapped in the irrigated 
ficlds. ‘The minimum size of the meshes of nets employed is $ an inch 
between the knots. In Dera Ismail Khén the four Tehsildars stated that 
there are 40 fishermen in the Dera tehsil, 10 or 12 in Liah, about the 
same number in Bhakkar, but only 4 or 5 in Kol&chi. During the hot 
weather, as the river rises, all cultivate land: they are of the Jat caste, 
section Muchiarrah. The local markets are not fully supplied, and 
much more could be profitably sold. The proportion of people who 
eat fish is not large, even in the town of Dera Ismail Khan, and few 
depend on it in the district as asource of food. They have decreased 
this year owing to the heavy floods of last season. The smallest mesh 
employed in the netsis $ an inch in size. Fish are rarely trapped during 
the freshes of the river. 


Derajat Division.— Answers of 
the Tehsildars of Band, Isakhel, 
Miamaoli, Lakki, Dera Gazi 
Khan, Sangarh, Rajanpur, Jam- 
pur, Dera, Liah, Bhakkar, Kola- 


chi. 


387. In the Multan 


Multan Division.—Answers of 
the Tehsildars of Multan dis- 
trict; Ala dal Khan, Honorary 
Magistrate, Khangarh: Daro- 
gah Shere Shah (Iyatolla Khan); 
Mian Mahbab Garhmani; the 
‘Vehsildars of Muzaffargarh, Kot 
Adu, Montgomery, Guguira, Pak- 
patan, Riaz Hossnin, Multan, 
Shoojabad, Lodhran, Mailsi, Se- 
raie Saidhu. 


Division the Tehsildars report that there are 
28 fishermen, all of whom are Mahomedans, 
and follow other occupations. Fish are never 
sold in the markets, although about 50 per 
cent. of the people eat them; the supply in the 
waters is more this year than last season. 
Fish are not taken during the rains, as it is a 
popular belief that if used as food at this period 
they occasion sickness. The smallest mesh 
employed is Ath of an inch square. Tish are 
not trapped in the irrigated fields. There 


XXI1L 


are three sorts of fishing: 1s¢, by means of baskets covered over by a piece 
of net termed ‘kw’; 2ud/y, by means of hooks ‘ kundee’; and dasély, by 
nets. In the Aluzaffargarh district, Ala Dal Khan, Honorary Magistrate, 
Khéngarh, replies that the fishermen caste are Jhabel ; the supply of fish is 
insufficient; the population as a rule eat it, but the Mahomedans more so 
than the Hindus. Darogah Shere Shah (Hyatolla Khan) reports that 
there are 128 fishermen on the Chenab, all of whom cultivate land. The 
markets are insufficiently supplied with fish, but it is generally eaten by 
the people. Fishing is not carried on during the rains ; the smallest mesh 
used is $ an inch square. Mian Mahbdb Garhmani replies, that there 
are 60 fishermen in his ilaqa; they fish during the cold season, and 
cultivate in the hot weather ; their castes are Jhabel, Mahana, Sumer 
and Manjri. The markets are insufficiently supplied, although most of 
the people eat fish, especially the Mahomedans. The supply remains 
stationary. Fish are not taken during the rains. The smallest mesh used is 
Linch square. The Tehsildar of Muzaffargarh states that there are 50 
fishermen, who also employ themselves in cultivation. The markets are 
very insufliciently supplied, although two-thirds of the people eat fish, the 
supply of which has continued stationary. Fish are not taken in any quan- 
tity during the rains, nor trapped in the irrigated fields ; the smallest mesh 
employed is 1 inch between the knots. The Tehsildar of Kot Adu 
replies that there are 826 fishermen who have likewise other occupa- 
tions, The local market is not sufliciently supplied. The population 
generally eat fish ; none are captured during the rains, or in the trigated 
fields; the smallest-sized mesh employed is 15 inch between the knots. 
In the Montgomery district, the Tehsildar of Montgomery observes, that the 
fishermen are of the Jhumail caste, and they likewise cultivate land. 
The local market is fully supplied ; some fish are exported to Lahor; the 
supply has remained stationary during the last few years: very small 
ones are taken in the rains ; the minimum size of the mesh of the nets is 
3 of an inch between the knots ; a few fish are trapped in the irnigated 
fields during the rains. The Tehsildar of Gugaira reports, that there are 
125 fishermen who also follow other occupations. The local markets 
are not fully supplied, although two-thirds of the population eat fish. Very 
small ones are captured during the rains, with nets having minute meshes, 
and also by sheets ; the minimum size of the meshes is $ an inch between 
the knots ; a few fish are trapped in the irrigated fields durmg: the rains. 
The Tehsildar of Pdkpatan replies, that there are 45 fishermen in his 
range, but they are also cultivators. The markets are insufliciently 
supplied with fish, although 90 per cent. of the people eat it. The 
amount in the waters has decreased until last year; a few small ones are 
taken during the rains ; the minimun size of the mesh of the nets is 1 inch 
between the knots ; a few fish are trapped in the irrigated fields during 
the rains. The following are the modes of fishing: ‘kanta’ or ‘kooudi :’ 
*koorli,’ which is similar in shape to the ‘khancha’ or ‘tapa’ used for 
keeping fowls. Nets, ‘jal, of the followmg descriptions :—“ttar,’ 
‘soomhi, large net called ‘kuchh’ or ‘leva, and ‘sathwan. ZA: 

Vehsildar of Riaz Hoossain reports 60 fishermen in his range; they 
follow other occupations, and all are Mussalmen. The local market; 
are not fully supplied with fish, although about +éths of th. 
population eat it; the amount in the waters has decrease 


Xxili 


of late. Very few small fishes are taken during the rains, nor 
are large ones trapped in the irrigated fields; the minimum size of the 
mesh of the nets is 1 inch between each knot. The jive Tehsildars in the 
Multan district report 95 fishermen, viz., 6 in Multan, 13 in Shoojabad, 
35 in Lodhrén, 26 in Mailsi, and 15 in Seraie Saidhu ; they also pursue 
other occupations. During the cold season the markets are fully supplied 
with fish, which are eaten by 90 per cent. of the Mahomedans and |4 
per cent. of the Tlindu population. The fish supply has remained 
stationary of late years; small ones are not taken during the rains, nor 
are any trapped in the irrigated fields; the minimum size of the mesh 
of the nets is 4 an inch between each knot. The local names of nets 
and traps employed for taking fish in this district are ‘jals,’ ‘ koor,’ 
“koondees :’ the last is of three descriptions which are termed ‘khatha,’ 
‘nurra,’ and ¢ satla.’ 
38. Ln the Lahor District, the Tehsildar of that place states there 
are 150 fishermen who also follow other call- 
Lahor Division.—Answers of jngs, ‘The markets are not fully supplied with 
tneidctilidare ob Tabor, Kapa fish, which species of food is eaten by five-sixths 
la, Wazirabad, Hafizabad. of the population. The amount in the waters 
has decreased of late years, due toa defi- 
ciency of rain; very small ones are taken during the rains with nets called 
‘satna,’ the minimum size of its meshes about equal that of a grain of 
gram. Fish are not trapped in the irrigated fields during the rains. The 
Tehsildar of Késur states, that in his range there are 50 fishermen of the 
‘ Main’ caste, who do not pursue any other occupation. The markets are 
not fully supplied. The amount in the waters is said to have decreased 
until this year, when an increase is reported. Very small fish are taken 
during the rains with a net termed ‘sumbi;’ the minimum size of the 
meshes employed is 4 an inch between each knot; none are trapped in 
the irrigated fields. The Tehsildar of Chunia reports 25 fishermen in 
his range, they also have other callings. The markets are insufficiently 
supplied ; about half the population eat fish ; the amount in the waters has 
decreased until the present year, when it has increased, due to the opening 
of the ‘ Kabora’ canal. Very small fish are not taken during the rains, 
nor trapped in the irrigated fields; the minimum size of the mesh of 
nets employed is $ an inch between each knot. Zhe Tehsildar of 
Sharkpur states that there are 50 fishermen in his range, all of whom 
pursue other callings; the markets are insufliciently supplied ; 
95 per cent. of the population are fish consumers. The supply has decreas- 
ed; small fish are not taken during the rains, but large ones are trapped 
at this season in the irrigated fields; the minimum size of the mesh of the 
nets is given at 14 inches between each knot. In the Gujranwalla dis- 
trict, the three tehsildars give the number of fishermen at 105, viz., 
Gujranwalla 50, Wazirabad 25, Hafizabad 30, all of whom follow other 
occupations. None of the markets are sufficiently supplied. All the Mus- 
sulmen and generally two-thirds of the Hindus are fish-eaters, but the 
Brahmins and women usually reject it. In the first-named tehsil the 
fish are said to have decreased, but to have remained stationary in the 
other two; small ones are stated no longer to be taken during the rains ; 
in one tehsil it is believed that they are unwholesome at this period. The 
minimum sized mesh of the nets employed is } of an inch between 


Xxiv 


the knots at Wazirabad, and 4 at Hafizabad; in this last tehsil only are 
fish said to be trapped in the irrigated fields during the rains. 
89. In the Amritsar district, the tehsildars and two Extra Assistant 
: ne Commissioners yeport, that in the whole of 
of Te alin adbvtta Ahtaat the district which is bordered by two rivers, 
Commissioners of the Amritsar there are from 80 to 90 fisherman of several 
district ; of the Tehsildars of castes, viz., the ‘ Machees’ and ‘ Jheenumrs,’ 
Reyah, Pasrur, Zaffurwal, Sial- ho are also bakers and water-carriers; the 
kot, Shakergarh, Batala, and © Mallas’ ae Z . oe 
Prcnankowe ullas’ or boatmén; the ‘Jhubhail, who 
also trap birds, and the ‘Summi, who are mat- 
makers. During the cold season the markets are generally well supplied, 
but Amritsar is insufficiently so. All the Mahomedans and half the 
Hindus eat fish, the supply of which is considered to have remained sta- 
tionary. Fish are trapped in the irrigated fields during the rains, and 
numbers of small ones are also taken at this period ; the minimum size of 
the mesh of the nets is given at 1 inch between each knot. The fol- 
lowing modes are employed for taking fish :—Rods, nets, harpooning, 
digging holes in rivers’ banks and allowing them to fill from the river, 
then cutting off communication with the stream, and lading out the 
water; also with baskets and ghurras and various sorts of nets. In the 
Sialkot district the Tehsildar of Reyah replies, that there are 70 fishermen 
in his range, all of whom follow other callings : they are Pukheewarahs, 
Machees and Kahars. The markets are insufficiently supplied with fish, 
which are eaten by two-thirds of the population. The amount in the 
waters has decreased of late years ; many small ones are not taken during 
the rains; the minimum size of the meshes of nets are 14 inches between 
each knot. he Tehsildar of Pasrur reports, that there are 29 fishermen 
in his range, and that they all follow other occupations. The markets are 
very insufliciently supphed; some 11,000 Hindus out of 244,397 per- 
sons, or about 1 in 22, do not eat fish, the supply of which in the waters 
has decreased. The smallest, sized mesh of nets employed is 14 inches 
between each knot. Zhe Tehsildar of Zaffarwdl states, that there are 
84 fishermen in his range, all of whom pursue other callings. The 
local markets are not sufficiently supplied with fish, which article of 
food is consumed by half the population. The minimum size of the 
mesh of nets employed is $ of an inch between each knot. The Teh- 
sildar of Sialkot veports, that there are 534 fishermen in his district, 
all of whom have other occupations. The markets are very badly sup- 
plied with fish, which are eaten by three-fourths of the population. Fish 
have decreased of late years; they are taken during the rains, but to no 
great extent, by the construction of dams across nalas, which are then 
netted ; the minimum size of the mesh of the nets is one-third of an inch 
between the knots. Fish are not trapped in the irrigated fields during 
the rains to any extent. Jn the Gurdaspur district, the Tehsildar states, 
that there are 80 fishermen in his range, who have also other occupations. 
The bazars are insufficiently supplied with fish, which is used as food by 
all the people, except Bunias, Bhabras, and Hindustani Brahmins. The 
amount in the waters has greatly decreased during the last ten years, for, 
owing to the scantiness of rain, the chumbs and pools have not been 
replenished from inundations of the rivers, which is a great impediment 
to their spawning. During the rains small fish are caught toa gyeat extent 


XXV 


by hand-nets, the minimum size of the meshes being } of an inch 
between the knots. ish are also trapped in the irrigated fields during 
periods of inundation. The modes of fishing are, by large and small nets, 
baskets, traps, spears and rods. ‘ Mahajal’ or drag-nets are worked by 
several persons, who drag it as much as a mile to where another net has 
been previously kept stretched across the river which is weighted below, 
and floated above by bundles of grass. ‘ Goodur jal’ is fastened at the 
mouth of a pool or stream asa purse net. ‘ Veera jal,’ or hand-net, is 
like a ‘gughra’ having iron rings all round the lower end, it is thrown 
by hand, and then gently pulled out of the water. ‘ Kooncha’ or 
© koorlee’ is madeof reed or bamboo in the shape of a cone with the two 
ends open, this is jammed down in shallow water, and the fish removed 
by the hand from the upper end. Spearing is pursued during the winter 
months when the fish are less active and the water still, the fisherman 
rows about in a small boat from which he uses his spear. ‘ Chip’ is made 
in the shape of a chick, itis placed over the mouth of an outlet of a 
pool, the fish finding an obstruction there, fall back into a hole which 
had been previously due on the side of the outlet, and are there taken | 
by the hand. The Tehsildar of Shakergarh reports, that there are 
104 fishermen who pursue other callings as well; the supply of fish in 
the towns is scanty, but they are generally sold in the villages to a large 
extent or rather exchanged for grain, when the latter article is cheap it 
obtains double weight, when dear equal proportions. Half the population 
eat fish, the supply of which has increased during the past year. Small 
ones are taken during the rains by nets and sheets: the minimum size of 
the mesh of the former is given at 1 inch between each knot. Fish are 
also trapped during the rains in the irrigated fields. Te Tehsildar of 
Batala replies, that 23 licenses have been granted to fishermen (Jhee- 
wurs) during the year; besides these there are several persons who take 
fish as well as follow other occupations. The supply in the 
market is sufficient ; one-third of the population eat it, but its amount 
has lately decreased owing to deficiency of rain, whilst the mini- 
mum size of the mesh of the nets is 3 of an inch between each knot. 
The Tehsildar of Pathankot reports, that there are 130 fishermen in his 
range, they also work as laborers. The supply in the bazars is equal to 
the demand ; three-fourths of the people eat fish, the amount of which has 
remained stationary during the past few years. Small ones are taken toa 
great extent during the rains, but none are trapped in the irrigated fields. 
40. In the Ambala Division the six Tehsildars report as follows : that 
there are 357 fishermen divided thus : Ambala 
Ambala Division.—Answers 30, Jagadri Irrigation Canal 75, Raossur 
of the Tehsildars of Ambala, 30° Kharar 28, Narayangarh 94, Pipli 100, all 
Jagadri,  Raossur, Kharar, ? Z 5 A cd 
NarAyangarh, Pipli, of whom follow other occupations. In the 
first five tehsils the markets are not fully sup- 
plied ; in the last they are said to be so. The following are the propor- 
tions of the population who eat fish: Ambala one-fifth ; Jagadri two-thirds; 
Raossur one-fourth; Kharar two-thirds; Nar&éyangarh only the Maho- 
medang, and the Kutrees and Kyuts amongst the Hindus; whilst in Pipli 
very few do so. They have decreased in tehsils Nos. 1, 3, 4, increased in 
Nos. 2 and 6, but remained stationary in No. 5. Small fish and those in 
irrigated fields are not destroyed during the rains in Ambala and Raossur, 


XXV1 


but are in Jagadri; whilst young only are in Khavrar, Narayangarh and 
Pipli. The minimum size of the meshes of nets employed, is given at 
agave and Naévayangarh about sufliciently large to allow a grain of 
wheat to pass; at Pipli about 4 of an inch between the knots; at Jagadri 
3 an inch, and Raossur 5 fingers. 
41. In the Jalandar division, Tehsildar Futteh Deen Khan of 
Jalna Dive Julandar reports that there are five fishermen 
atanday Division,—Answers 
of the Tehsildars of Julandar, 1 the tehsil who also follow other occupa- 
Phillur, Nawashahy, Nacodar, tions. The local markets are only well supplied 
Pe Unah, Garhsankar, during the rains. 'The whole of the population 
: eat fish, except Brahmins, Bhabras, Banias, 
Vishnus and Mahomedan Sheeas. The amount in the waters has 
decreased : small ones are captured during the rains, and some are trapped 
in the irrigated fields. Lhe Tehsildar of Phillur reports that there are 
four Ag Wana | in his tehsil who hold licenses, and others who do not. 
The markets are not well supplied. Five per cent. of the people eat fish. 
The amount in the waters continued stationary for a few years, but 
latterly it has decreased. Small ones are netted during the rains, 
but none are trapped in the irrigated fields; the minimum size 
of the mesh of the nets is 1 inch between each knot. The Tehsil- 
dar of Nawashahr reports, 120 fishing licenses have been taken out, 
these fishermen likewise pursue other callings. The supply in the 
markets is not one-fifth of the demand; 83 per cent of the people eat 
fish, which has increased of late. During the rains fishes are taken in 
the fields. The Tehsildar of Nacodar states, that prior to the introduc- 
tion of the license system, there were about 200 fishermen, now there 
are only 8 license-holders; they hkewise engage in other work. The 
markets are not half supplied. Vifty per cent. of the population eat fish : 
the amount in the waters has much decreased of late, in fact scarcely 
any can be found, Small fish are not taken during the rains, but large 
ones are sometimes trapped in the fields. The minimum size of the 
mesh of the nets is 1 inch between each knot. Zhe Tehsildar of Hu- 
shiarpur veports, that there are no regular fishermen in his range, there 
being no large river, but the Kahars and Bhatis generally net the small 
streams for the purpose of procuring fish for their own consumption, but 
their regular occupation is working mills. There are no local markets, 
but any quantity of fish offered is sure to find a ready sale, as three-fourths 
of the population are fish-eaters. The supply in the waters has remained 
stationary ; small ones are not taken during the rains. The minimum 
size of the mesh of the nets is } of an inch between the knots. The 
modes of fishing pores are as fallow :—By ‘maha jal,’ which is em- 
ployed for taking large fish, and is worked by five or six persons jointly ; 
by a smaller net, which is used by a single man, and one rather larger 
used by two men. The local names of the nets in use are ‘ sittawan jal,’ 
‘dundaiwala jal,’ ‘tup, ‘koondi, ‘moon, ‘douruh gulli,” ‘chadur? 
The Tehsildar of Unah replies, that there are about 387 licensed fishermen ; 
the supply of fish is insufficient: about one-fourth of the population, 
mostly Mussalmen, eat it. The amount in the waters is stated to have 
increased ; small ones are not captured during the rains. The minimum 
size of the meshes of the nets which are used is 14 inches between the 
knots. Lhe Tehsildar of Garhsankar reports, that there are 7 fishermen 


XXxVii 


in his range ; the supply of fisb is insufficient for local requirements. 4 It 
is eaten by 90 per cent. of the people. The amount during Jate years has 
been stationary. Some small fishes are trapped in irrigated fields during 
the rains. The minimum size of the mesh of the nets used is ? of an 
inch between each knot. The Tehsildar of Dasuha replies, that about 
200 persons fish in addition to other occupations; the supply is in- 
suflicient for local requirements ; 75 per cent. of the population are fish- 
eaters ; the supply has decreased of late years owing to a diminution of 
rain. Small ones are not taken during the rains ; no nets are used with 
a mesh less than 1 inch between the knots. Some fish are trapped in 
the irrigated fields during the rains: they also are taken by diverting a 
stream through a narrow opening in which a net is fixed, and by 
spearing. 
42. In the Hissar division, the Tehsildar of that place states, there 
FPP gs ee ey ee is only one fisherman in his range, and who 
of the Tehsildars of Hissdr, so has other work. Out of a rural popula- 
Hansi, Fathiabad, Bhawani, and tion of 107,442 persons, only one-third could 
Barwalo; eat fish, but not 2 in 1,000 are fond of it ; 
at this rate there are not more than 70 individuals in the tehsil who 
care to eat it. The supply in the waters remains stationary. The only 
net has above 1 inch between each knot of the meshes. Zhe Tehsildar of 
Hénsi replies, that there is only one fisherman in his range ; 10 per cent. 
of the population eat fish, the supply of which has remained stationary. 
The Tehsildar of Vathiabad reports, that there are 13 fishermen in his 
range, all of whom have other occupations as well. Only the Mussal- 
men eat fish, but they are not very fond of it; about one-eighth, out of 
a population of about 82,047, consume it. The supply continues 
stationary ; small ones are not taken during the rains ; the minimum size 
of the mesh of the nets employed is 4 of an inch between each knot. Zhe 
vhsildar of Bhawani states, that there are no fishermen and no fish. 
The Tehsildar of Barwdla replies, that there are 10 fishermen, all of 
whom follow other occupations. Fish are never sold, but whenever the 
zemindars feel inclined to eat it, they generally give the fishermen some 
grain in repayment for catching it. About one-eighth of the people 
may eat fish, the supply of which remains stationary. 
43. In the Dethi division, the Tehsildar of Delhi gives the number 
be : of fishermen at 4,810, only pursuing this 
PER Ace agar ee occupation during the winter and summer 
sanli, Ballabhgarh,Gurgéon, Re- months, whilst during the rains they are 
wari, Palwal, Nuh, Fazilka, dooly-bearers. The castes are Sheikhs, 
Se Kurnal, P4nipat, and pathans, Mullas, and Kahars. The local 
aithal. z nitis ; 
markets are sufliciently supplied ; the demand 
in the summer and during the rains decreases, and during the winter 
from 2 to 24 maunds is consumed. The fish-eating portion of the 
population is given at 96,268 out of 608,450 [a _proportion widely 
differing from that given in 1870 by the ‘ Deputy Commissioner,’ who 
reported that 4: per cent. of the people were fish-eaters, when the price 
was sufficiently low to enable them to obtain it]. Fish are stated to be 
decreasing, due to the Okla weir across the Jumna. Immature fish are 
not taken in large quantities during the rains: the minimum size of the 
mesh of the nets employed is } of an inch between the knots. The 


XXVili 


zemindars do not permit fish to be taken in the irrigated fields. The 
Tehsildar of Larsauli states, that the Dheewur caste, to the extent of 
1,061, catch fish, and otherwise subsist by labour. Out of 167,857 people 
the fish-eating community is 56,914. The supply is stationary ; none are 
taken in the irrigated fields. The Tehsildar of Ballabhgarh replies, that 
the Dheewur or Kubar castes, of which some 520 inhabit the tehsil, 
during the summer catch fish for their own subsistence. The markets 
are insufficiently supplied ; 50 per cent. of the people can eat fish ; the 
population is 132,657. The amount in the waters has decreased. Jn 
the Gurgaon district the four Tehsildars veport as follows :—In Gurgéon, 
Rewari, and Palwal no fishermen live, but there are 15 in Nuh. Fish are 
not sold. In the first-named tehsil 5 per cent., in the second no answer, 
in the third one-third or less, and in the fourth two-thirds of the population 
can eat fish ; the amount in the waters has increased of late in the first two 
tehsils, decreased in the third, and apparently the fourth. The minimum 
size of the mesh of the nets mentioned is $ of aninch In the Sarsa District, 
the Tehsildar of Fazilka veports 15 fishermen, who pursue other occupa- 
tions. ‘The local markets are not fully supplied with fish ; all the people 
living along the river eat it, so do those in the towns, except the Brah- 
mins and Mohajuns: it is not much eaten in rural districts away from 
the river, whilst Baguries reject it as food. The supply has decreased. 
A quantity of small ones are taken during the rains ; {3, of an inch is the 
minimum size between each knot of the meshes. A few fish are trap- 
ped during the inundations in the irrigated fields. The Vehsildar of Sarsa 
states there are 18 fishermen in his range, who also have other occupa- 
tions; they are Mullas and Deendars. The supply of fish exceeds the 
demand ; they are generally exchanged for grain. Less than 5 per cent. 
of the people eat fish, the amount of which in the waters, continues 
stationary. One inch between the knots is the smallest-sized mesh used. 
In the Kurnal district there are 42 fishermen, all of whom have other 
means of livelihood; in the Kurnal Tehsil there are 22, in Panipat 10, in 
Kaithal 10; the castes are Mayo and Jheewur Mussalmen. The supply in 
the markets is enough in Kurnaland Kaithal, but insufficient in Panipat, 
owing to a paucity of fishermen. In Kurnal half, in Panipat one-fourth, 
and in Kaithal a little above one-fourth, of the population may eat fish. 
The amount in the waters is reported as stationary. Small fish are taken 
during the rains with nets having minute meshes, whilst the poorer classes 
use cloths: the minimum size of the meshes of nets is 4 of an inch 
between the knots. Fish are not trapped in the irrigated fields. 


XX1X 


SIND. 


44. The fresh-water fisheries of this Province are mainly divisible 
into those which exist in the river Indus, or 
are formed by its yearly inundations, these 
last being principally in Upper and Central Sind. The portion of the 
river between the right bank of the Indus and the ‘Phut’ is slightly 
concave, owing to which circumstance, when the river overflows, the Shete 
of this part of the country becomes more or less inundated. The © Phut’? 
is the tract of land along the base of the hills which divide Sind from 
Beluchistan, it averages about nine miles broad, and irrigated by water ob- 
tained from the hill ‘streams, which is arrested by bunds and diverted into 
irrigation canals. The inundations on the left bank of the Indus do not 
appear to be so extensive as those on its right. 

45. The river Indus is usually at its lowest in January or February : 
at the commencement of March the snow- 
floods begin, and its rise continues spasmodi- 
cally until about August; whilst in September the subsidence is usually 
very rapid, and by November zero 1s attained. The floods, as a rule, may 
be expected to subside about the middle of September, when, or shortly 
subsequently, fishing commences. 

46. The tanks or ‘dhdnds,’ as they are locally termed, are chiefl 

of two sorts as regards their relationship to the 

Tanks or dhénds, isolated or Tndus, viz., the ‘isolated’ and the ‘ connected.’ 

connected with Indus; their 
finuy inhabitants. In the for mer, weeds rapidly spring up form- 

ing a refuge for the fish. In the connected 
dhands weeds are not so numerous, and the finny tribes appear to vary : 
if the water is very muddy, the siluroids abound, whilst the Dumra, Ladco 
rohita, a fine carp, although not so plentiful as in the dhAnds where it is 
clear, still is rarely absent. In places where the water is clear, the 
largest amount of ‘dumra’ are to be seen: thus at Trigarti I found the 
connected dh&nd in the river quite dark with them. “Tanks useful for 
fishing extend in Upper Sind over a large extent of the country, and 
appear to be most valuable as affording animal food to the population 
inhabiting these malarious districts. 

47. As to canal fisheries, the capture of the finny tribes is here pro- 

Gani fichason” Preote. hee ie hibited, to obviate the chance of the canals 
amall-meshed nets are prohibit- being injured ; thus a most excellent opportu- 
ed, the little fish do not dispro- nity \ was afforded of testing the correctness 
Perey inerease over the oy the teverse of the opinion advanced by the 
aa Auk Collector of South Canara, in his exhaustive 
report on the fisheries of that district, that were a minimum-sized mesh 
of four inches in circumference instituted, “the smaller sorts of fish, 
having an immunity from netting, must disproportionately increase on the 
larger. netted sorts. Nature has arranged that the larger predatory fish 
shall balance the smaller, and thus maintain due proportions ; but if one 
sort is netted by man, and the other sort has immunity, the balance is 
disturbed, and the larger fish are no longer able to maintain their position.” 


Fresh-water fisheries of Sind, 


River Indus. 


xxx 


Theoretically this may be very correct, but how is it practically ? 
Tn Sind, nets for capturing fry do not exist, but still Nature maintains the 
due proportions, of which I will adduce one instance out of several that 
I have personally witnessed. At Muhu, the canal from the Indus joins 
the bed of the old Narrah, and fishing was prohibited. A deep hole 
existed at the confluence of these two pieces of water, and fish were most 
numerous. The muddy water of the Indus here joined the compara- 
tively clear stream from the old Narrah, for, due to its more circuitous 
route, much of its mud and silt had become deposited. If a small fish 
appeared, it seemed to be at once disposed of by the large siluroids. At 
the first throw of a cast net, 10 of these fish weighing about 30 Ibs. were 
captured: having crossed the old Narrah, in one more throw into the 
conjoined stream, 18 more were taken, weighing about 50 lbs. The same 
is seen in the thinly populated districts in Burma. Larger fish prey 
upon the smaller ones ; thus I have taken a barbel out of a hard-rayed fish, 
Nandus marmoratus, that was one-third the length of its captor. 

48. As to the fishing in the Indus itself, this chiefly consists in 
capturing the shoals of shad, which ascend 
from the sea for the purpose of breeding, 
about February, and return to the salt water 
about the end of September, for, ‘‘ owing to the dangerous character of the 
river at all times, but especially during the inundations, there are 
strong contending currents,’ and other fishing is but little resorted to. 
Another reason that the river is but slightly fished, is, that the population 
in its vicinity is scanty, for, owing to the constant and occasionally 
sudden variations in its course, the neighbourmg land is always liable 
to be ruined by the silt deposited upon it during inundations, and villages 
are in danger of being swept away. 

49. The fishes in the fresh waters of Sind are mainly of two 

descriptions—/ir'st, theriver fish common to the 
_ Fresh-water fishes consist of Panjab, and the pulla, which ascends from the 
river and. inundation sorts. No so for breeding purposes, and it is this latter 
preventible destruction of the 3 2) Bas 
immature appears to obtain. only that is much sought after by fishermen ; 

secondly, the inundation fish, which are of two 
descriptions: (1) river fish, which have been carried by the overflowing 
of the Indus over the neighbouring country; (2) tank fish, which, 
from the same cause, have in like manner been distributed everywhere. 
No undue and preventible destruction of small fish appears to exist in 
Upper and Central Sind—/is¢ due to the paucity of population ; secondly, 
because of the rapidity and dangerous character of the river Indus and 
the constant variations in its channel; and ¢Airdly, owing to the security 
the immature fish obtain during the inundation season. 

50. As to the proportion of people who eat fish ?—Its use is almost 
universal, and here the Mahomedans do not 
object to the scaleless forms, under the belief 
that, if they have gill openings, it is a proof that they are allowed to the 
faithful, as the prophet cut their throats, 

51. The markets seem to be sufficiently supplied dure: certain 

oe i seasons of the year. ‘The amount of fish 

a Fisheries peculiar. _Wasteful appears to be stationary; breeding ones are 
estruction not observed. a 4s 2 

not destroyed, as fishing has to be suspended 


Fishery in Indus, mostly of 
shad. 


Fish universally eaten. 


XXxi 


during the inundation season; for like reason the fry escapes. Minute 
meshed nets are not employed, so far as I could ascertain, by the inhabit- 
ants of Upper and Central Sind, as it is found more profitable to permit 
the young fish to attain a fair size before capturing them. As the waters 
in the tanks subside and food begins to decrease, then netting is carried 
on. Owing to the peculiar character of the fisheries of this province and 
the smallness of the population, remedial measures do not appear at present 
called for (see Report on fisheries of Sind, March 18th, 1872). 

52. The Commissioner of Sind (September 9th, 1868) reported, “ the 

: Mi pulla [Clupea palasah, Cuv. & Val.) is the 

seqneport by the Commissioner On]y description of fish caught in the river. 

i Their appearance is restricted to a particular 
season, from March until September; they are not local, but come up 
from the sea to spawn, and are secured in nets capable of catching not- 
more than one, tivo, or three ata time. Owing to the dangerous charac- 
ter of the river at all times, but especially during the inundations, 
when there are strong contending currents, fishing of any other descrip- 
tion is never resorted to. In the ‘dhdnds’ and hollows, considerable 
quantities of fish are caught in drag-nets; these are consumed by the 
inhabitants in adjacent towns and villages, and the residue is salted and 
sold in remote localities ; but during the inundations these receptacles be- 
come very deep and extensive, when the use of nets is abandoned, and 
the supply of fish becomes renewed. Some loss of small fish is no doubt 
oceasioned when the hollows dry up after the inundation has subsided ; 
this, however, is unavoidable in consequence of the isolation of many 
places from their main feeder (the Indus), and cannot therefore be con- 
sidered as a wanton destruction of fish.” 

53. The Acting Collector of Shikarpur reported (1871), that the 
fisheries in the Collectorate are of two kinds, 
those on the Indus and those in the ‘dh4nds’ 
or depressions which are supplied with water 
every year from the overflow of the Indus or the larger canals. All 
fisheries, with the exception of a few included in some jaghirs, and those in 
the territory of His Highness Meer Ali Morad, Chief of Khypur, are the 
property of Government, and the farm of Government fisheries is sold 
yearly to the highest bidder. The revenue from this source varies but 
little from year to year; in 1869 it was Rs. 32,023-7-6 for the whole 
Collectorate. In the Indus the fishing is restricted to that for the pulla, 
which annually ascends from the sea to breed, appearing about the end 
of February; it returns to the sea in September. The fishermen or 
Mahanas now resort to the dhands to ply their occupation. Many of 
these dhinds dry up before the annual rise of the river replenishes the 
supply of water in them, others again are sufficiently deep to retain water 
all the year round. With the yearly inundations are brought a number 
of fish which are sufficient for the year’s supply, so no system of pre- 
serving these fisheries seems necessary. 

54. The Collector of Kurachi observed (March 15th, 1872), that 
the rights of private parties in the fisheries 
have never been accurately defined, but that 
such rights exist by immemorial custom is 
well known. The Government right is to levy one-third of the fish 


Shikarpur Collectorate ; its 
fisheries. 


Kurachi Collectorate ; its fish- 
eries. 


XXxil 


caught. It cannot, however, be said that even this has been accuratel 
defined, but whenever a dispute has arisen between the Mahanas and the 
farmers, it has been ruled by the Reyenue authorities that one-third of 
the fish was the limit of the latter’s right. This third has never, so 
far as he is aware, been levied direct. The fishery revenue of the 
Kurachi Collectorate for a cycle of five years ending 1870-71 has aver- 
aged, for ordinary fish, @. e., dhand fishing, Rs. 13,593-6-0; for pulla 
fish, 7. e., river fishing: in the Indus, Rs. 20,746-10-9 per annum, 

55. The Collector of Haidarabad (May 27th, 1871) replied, that 
numbers of breeding: fish, the pulla, are des- 
troyed from Kebruary to August in the Indus. 
Capturing these herrings, however, will not 
decrease their numbers if there are no weirs in rivers, and they can 
ascend to their breeding grounds. The fry of other sorts of fish 
are, however, met with in the shallow lakes of water left in many 
places, and are consumed by the people; these form but a minute 
portion of what the great river must always contain; and, more- 
over, as all such lakes, termed ‘dhands, dry up, these fish, if left, 
would die; consequently their consumption is not hurtful. It is not 
advisable to regulate the size of the mesh by law: jirstly, because 
no necessity exists, secondly, because of the difficulty there would be in 
carrying out such rules, if made. Jor the same reasons the sale of the 
fry of fish should not be prohibited. The fisheries in this Collectorate 
consist, firstly, of the Indus itself; secondly of tanks or dhands; and 
Government has a prescriptive right to a share of all these, ranging 
according to custom, from one-third to one-fifth. Private rights in these 
fisheries have also been long settled and prescribed by custom. ‘The 
fishermen almost always belong to, and fish in, the limits of their own 
‘meanees’ or fisheries: and even on the river Indus, no fisherman is 
allowed to encroach on the limits of a fishery to which he does not belong. 
The farmers arrange with the fishermen as to the payments to them, 
representing the Government shares. As regards fisheries in jaghir lands, 
unless the sunnud contains a special grant, the produce of such is credited 
to local funds, and is not enjoyed by the jaghirdar. 

56. In the Haidarabad Collectorate the native officials compute the 
fishermen at 3,230; they are also almost inva- 
riably cultivators of the soil and labourers. 
The common name of fishermen is ‘ Mahana,’ 
but others who are not actual fishermen, as the ‘ Khebranees,’ use the 
hand-nets in canals. The markets are well supplied with fish in the 
season of the pulla, and during the remaining five months, only those in 
the neighbourhood of the lakes or tanks obtain it. The whole popula- 
tion, Mussulmen and Hindu, except Brahmins, are eaters of fish, the sup- 
ply of which is as abundant as ever, whilst Sind being in a rainless zone, 
young fish are not captured during the rainy season. The following are 
the usual modes of fishing :— koondee,” hook and line; “yar,” a cast 
net; “matlee,’” a pulla pot; “sumbokee,” a pulla net ; “bhun,” a cast 
net used from a boat; “korree,’ a basket net, besides fishing stakes 
and weirs. 


Haidarabad Collectorate ; its 
fisheries, 


Opinions of native officials in 
the Haidarabad Collectorate. 


XXXil 


BOMBAY. 


57. The following are the Returns of the European and Native officials 

respecting the ‘fresh-water’ fisheries of the 

Fresh-water fisheries of Sa Bombay Presidency, those of Sind having 

Pome Presidency, excluding toon given separately (see ante). Thus limited, 

these fisheries may, for the sake of convenience, 

he sub-divided into two fishery districts. rst, the inland ones, the rivers 

in which, north of the city of Bombay, have mostly a westerly direction ; 

whilst those to the south, many of w hich are tributaries of the Kristna, 

take a more easterly course. Secondly, the coast ones, viz., those bordering 

or near to the sea, which form a narrow strip from the Gulf of Cambay to 

Bombay itself, and are continued down the Concan and Canara, and might 

properly include those Madras districts which extend along the Malabar 

Coast to Cape Comorin. 

58. Some Returns have been excluded from the following analysis, 

as not being direct answers to “questions ; ; 

Some few Returns omitted. likewise those in which the official, although 

sending in a reply, appears not to have 

made full investigations, considering it ‘premature to harass the fisher- 
men by enquiries into the size of the mesh now used in their nets.” 

59. The inland fisheries of Bombay, as above limited, do not possess 
such fine rivers as Northern and Eastern India ; 
still in many places, those which exist are 
evidently well adapted for the rearing: of fish, 
and’ partially supplying the local markets with this wholesome article of 
food. Its numerous tanks are also well suited for the same purpose. 

60. The first consideration which arises must be, what proportion of 
the people eat fish? In this enquiry, it is not 
the proportion that now do so, but what it 
would be could they obtain it. Unfortunately 
some answers specify the number of individuals in the talookas that do so, 
whilst the total of the population i is omitted, and some replies are 400 

vague to be of any service. It appears, howev er, that the proportion of 
fish-eaters to the remainder of the population is, in the Collectorate of 
Satara, from 25 to 96 per cent. ; in Puna the majority ; in Nasik, from 5 
to 66, 75, or even 94 per cent. ; whilst in one district, inhabited by Bhils 
and Kolis, all do so, except the Brahmins; in Ahmednugger 66 per cent. ; 
in Khandeish 75 per cent.; in Sholapur 33 per cent.; in Kaladgi 25 per 
cent.; in Belgaum 20 per cent. In Darwar the numbers of fish-eaters are 
given inseven talookas at 205,000, whilst in an eighth talooka 20,000, or half 
the total of the population, consume fish. The foregoing figures appear 
to show volclaat vey that the majority of the inhabitants of the inland 
districts of the Bombay Presidency are consumers of fish, when they can 
procure it. 

61. Are the local markets sufficiently supplied with fresh fish to meet 
the local demands? is the next question for 
investigation. LEvery official who has answered 
this question, except one mamlutdar, asserts 


The rivers and inland tanks 
suitable for fisheries, 


Proportion of people who eat 
fish, 


Local inland markets insuffi- 
ciently supplied with fish. 


c 


XXXiv 


that the local markets are insufficiently supplied. In some, however, 
there is a fair supply of salted or dried fish from the coast, but this does 
not affect the general enquiry. In short, it is self-evident that the local 
markets are either entirely unsupplied, or inadequately so, with fresh fish, 
except occasionally, as during the rains, when young ones and those breed- 
ing can be destroyed by traps or any clumsy contrivance. 

62. As regards the market prices of large and small fish? it is 
quite clear that the latter, weight for weight, are 
not nearly so valuable as the former. As a 
general rule, with the increase in the size of a 
fish, its value per pound largely augments; the smaller the fish, the less is its 
price per pound. Although the comparative price of mutton and fish 
appears in some districts to have a relative value, such does not seem to be 
the case in all. 

63. As it has been shown that the majority of the people would 
eat fish could they obtain it, but that the 
markets are insufficiently supplied to meet the 
local demands, the next enquiry that suggests 
itself is, have the fresh-water fish in the rivers and tanks increased, 
decreased, or remained stationary of late years? "Twenty-two distinct 
answers to this question have been received from the native officials, 
comprising’ one who considers they have increased, fourteen who report 
they have decreased, and seven who assert they have remained sta- 
tionary. In Ahmenabad one reports an increase, one a decrease, and two 
a stationary state of the fisheries; in Khandeish, Nasik, Ahmednuggur, 
Satara, and Sholapur, only a decrease is given; in Belgaum one asserts a 
decrease, another that the fisheries are stationary, which latter is also 
the report from Kaladgi: whilst in Darwar seven report a decrease, and 
three a stationary state of affairs. Thus in nine Collectorates we have 
the following results :— 


Comparative prices of fish, 
large and small. 


The amount of fish have de- 
erensed, 


Nine Collectorates, Supply increased. Supply decreased, Supply stationary. 


In 6 Collectorates ...] 9 ...... 5 * 

ap il » nde Lt 1+ 2+ 

py il D on Bass lft ING p 

» 1 » we 200 0 1* 

= aval i" Bs : 7+ 3+ 
Total 9 ses on | 1 14 7 


* Collectors’ Reports. 
+ Mamlutdars’ Reports. 


Prom the foregoing it appears to be very evident that the supply of fish 
in the fisheries is generally decreasing; only one out of twenty-two 


XXXV 


reporters asserts an increase, whilst two-thirds of the remainder consider 
the supply to have decreased. 

64. Whose are these fisheries? is a question for consideration. With 
some very immaterial exceptions, the whole of 
those in the inland waters of the Bombay 
Presidency appear to be the property of Gov- 
ernment, which, however, for many years at least, has not disposed of the 
same, but permitted the adjacent villagers to capture the fish in any 
method which has best suited their convenience ; so that every poaching 
practice known. is freely carried on without check. In Nasik the people 
adjacent to fisheries consider them as their property, not to the exclusion 
of Government rights, but as against strangers netting these waters. 
Also in certain places there are religious objections raised against cap- 
turing fish, by the Brahmins, either on account of the sacred character of 
the locality or else of certain of the species of fish inhabiting a given 
piece of water, and which are fed in honour of a Hindu idol. The sup- 
ply of fish from the rivers and tanks having thus been shown to have 
decreased in these Government fresh-water fisheries, the next question is, 
how has this injury to the fisheries been occasioned ? This may be examin- 
ed under the following heads :—/irst, who are the fishermen ? secondly, 
are mature breeding fish destroyed, and if so, how ? and éas¢/y, are the fry 
killed to any great extent when they are first moving about in the shal- 
low waters ? 

65. Who are the fishermen ? is the first enquiry, and is fishing con- 
fined to any distinct class of the people, or is 
it general? In answering this question, one 
official, in summing up the answers of the 
mamlutdars, includes “ women and children” amongst the 1,000 “ fisher- 
men :” these numbers will consequently not find a place in the following 
analysis, but it seems to show that fishing in Sholapur is not confined to 
one class. In Ahmenabad the question is not answered. In Khandeish 
the number of fishermen is given at 23,600, Nasik 4,000, Ahmednuggur 
2,000 to 3,000, Puna 800, Satara from 5 to 700 in each talooka, Kaladgi 
400, Belgaum 435, Dharwar 17,393, exclusive of two talookas in which 
the numbers are omitted. Besides these, during the rains, many of the 
labouring population join in. Few, if any, of the foregoing, numbering 
upwards of 50,000, are solely engaged in fishing, but they also follow other 
occupations. In fact, there appear to be very few persons indeed who 
live solely by capturing fresh-water fish. 

66. Are mature breeding fish destroyed, and, if so, how? Vivery Col- 
lector who has answered this question (except 
of Kaladgi) considers they are destroyed ; but 
as the native official of the Indi Talooka of 
the Kaladgi Collectorate reports that fish are trapped there during the 
rains, it becomes evident that breeding fish do not even obtain an 
immunity there. The principal and easiest mode of taking breeding 
fish, is by placing wicker traps during the rains in the small streams and 
irrigation channels up which they ascend for the purpose of depositing 
their eggs. Where ‘ well-irrigation’ is employed, there would not be any 
opportunity for breeding fish to ascend into such irrigation channels, 
and in these districts of course this mode of taking fish is not employed, 


The fisheries mostly Gov- 
ernment property. 


Fishermen, asa rule, follow 
other occupations as well, 


Mature breeding fish are trap- 
ped and otherwise killed. 


XXXVi 


simply because it would not be of any avail. In the various Collec- 
torates the following are the returns:—In Khandeish, Nasik, Sholapur, 
and Belgaum, fish are reported to be so trapped during the rains. In 
Ahmenabad they are in two talookas, not so in one. In Dharwar 
they are in five, not so in five others. In Ahmednuggur, Satara, and 
Puna, they are asserted not to be trapped, but the Assistant Collector 
of the last district reports the use of basket traps, so it may be 
considered doubtful whether they are not employed to take breeding 
fish should opportunities occur. The other modes in which these fish 
are destroyed in the inland waters of the Bombay Presidency will come 
under consideration with the implements employed in capturing’ fish. 

67. Are the fry killed to any great extent when they are first 
moving about in the shallow water? The 
majority of Indian fresh-water fishes breed 
chiefly during the rains, at which time the 
adults deposit their eges at the sides of rivers and tanks where the 
water is shallow, or in small channels or water-courses. The delicate 
fry can only inhabit such localities, due to two principal causes, the 
first is for the purpose of procuring food, and secondly, to prevent 
being carried away by a strong current. Now are these young: fish 
thus situated protected or destroyed ? Every Collector who has answered 
this question (except of Kaladgi) reports that they are destroyed to a 
very great extent during the rains. If we examine the returns from 
the Kaladgi Collectorate, we find that nets are stated to be employed 
for fishing, having meshes the minimum size of which only equals that 
of a grain of wheat: it consequently follows that fry must also be des- 
troyed in Kaladgi, because there is no mature Indian fresh-water fish 
that requires such a small mesh for the purpose of its capture. 

68. What are the various modes resorted to for capturing fish ? 
is a question upon which very full answers 
have been received. They may be divided into 
netting, trapping, damming, poisoning’, &e. 
As regards nets, the first subject that presents itself, is, not their size and 
form, but the minimum size of the mesh employed for the capture of 
fish. It is clearly manifest that if a very small one is freely used, very 
small fish must be extensively captured. The following returns have 
been given of the minimum size of the meshes of the nets employed, 
measured between knot and knot :— 


The fry are destroyed to a 
great extent. 


Modes of capturing fish ; size 
of the meshes of nets. 


= 
= 3 SIZ OF MESH BETWEEN KNOT AND KNOT IN 
Ss Ee INCHES. 
A ca 
2 o 
to 
OrPIciALs. a 4 Less 
Ain ig than 
a 3 
Ss os bo cel) ts |p aa lle Peake eae ed 
ae a5 
a a 
Kuropean ... bot 2 1 |r 1 LSS cetera | erected eee 1 
Native... ne 4 9 La ee Wall san Pe 22), OG, El 


XXXVii 


Thus, out of 32 returns, 16 reporters give the minimum size of the 
mesh of the nets to be that of a grain of gram or wheat or less, whilst 
14 more state it to be one-third of an inch or less between knot and 
knot of the meshes, and two below one inch. But if the reports of 
those who assert that; about an inch, or less than one, exists between 
knot and knot of the meshes are examined, one must be led to the 
conclusion that some error has occurred, as they state that very small 
fish are captured during the rains. In many places where the fish are so 
minute, that a net however small cannot capture them, a cloth is 
employed, and, as one official observed, this may be said to have no mesh 
at all. Consequently, if any fry do escape, it must not be attributed 
to the will of the fishermen, but rather to their inability to capture 
them. 
69. Trapping fish is carried out in various ways, but the most 
common one appears to be by wicker cages 
Breeding and young fish resembling rat traps, into which a fish having 
trapped in various forms of . : ml 
Geiiees entered cannot obtain exit from. These are 
made of such a fine texture, that the most 
minute cannot escape through the interstices of the various pieces of 
wicker work of which they are formed; even fry are taken in them. 
The course of streams is also sometimes diverted so that all the water 
has to pass through a wicker cage or over a wicker platform, by which 
means all the fish are captured. Damming streams or portions of tanks, 
emptying out the water and thus obtaining all the contained fish, is also 
carried on. On a dam being raised, an artificial opening is cut in it, 
and a wicker cage or an apparatus of bamboo and net is made use of, to 
take all the fish which are carried down in the current with the escaping 
water. 
70. Poisoning fish docs not seem to be unknown in the Bombay 
Presidency. It is reported in Khandeish 
Waters are poisoned to ob- by means of hinganbet, yathil, gir, and 
tain fish in some of the Collec- ; : . PA * 95 
artes thor; in Nasik by the “soopli,” tobacco 
leaves, and the milk bush, as well as by the 
fruit of the “jel phul;” in Ahmednuggur and Dharwar by the milk 
bush; whilst in Nasik it is observed that this mode of taking fish used 
to be very common, but every attempt has been made to put down the 
objectionable custom. They are also reported to poison fish in the Puna 
and Belgaum Collectorates, but in the Gokah Talooka, in the latter, it is 
stated that the practice has to a certain extent been stopped, owing 
to the rules of the Forest Department, under which it is prohibited to 
cut the small twigs and leaves from which the stupefying drugs are 
made. ‘This is a destructive method of obtaining all the fish in a nearly 
or quite stagnant pool or piece of water, which, irrespective of destroying 
old and young indiscriminately, cannot be supposed to obtain the 
proceeds in so wholesome a state, as if they had been taken by means of 
nets. ‘Lhe water itself is thus sometimes rendered deleterious to human 
beings and cattle that unwarily partake of it. 
71. There are other modes of fishing which are carried on by 
' : . various means, as employing hooks and lines 
Angling and line fishing. . ra 
either suspended to poles in the water or 


used merely by anglers. 


¥XXViil 


72. Before passing on to the second set of fisheries of Bombay, 
; ‘ I think the following must be admitted :— 
oattiny tuniiolana, peaeees (1) that the majority of the inhabitants of 
finlcriges the inland districts would eat fish could they 
obtaim it; (2) that the markets are not 
sufficiently supplied to meet the local demands; (3) that the fish in the 
rivers and tanks have generally decreased of late years; (4) that the 
fisheries are Government property; (5) that every one fishes how he likes 
and where he pleases; (6) that breeding fish are extensively trapped ; 
(7) that fry are killed whenever they can be obtained ; (8) that nets with 
very minute meshes, and even cloths are used, wherewith to capture the 
immature fish; (9) that traps are also employed, made of wicker work 
of such fine texture that the most minute fish are killed ; (10) that 
streams and tanks are dammed and every fish destroyed; (11) that 
poisoning whole pieces of water in order to obtain the fish is practised in 
many of these inland Collectorates. Whether it is or is not worth while 
to do anything to mitigate this evil, is a question I propose considering 
further on. 

73. The coast fisheries, viz., those bordering on or near to the sea, 

must not be considered as consisting entirely 

Coast fresh-water fisheries of of sea-coast and marine or estuary fishes, 

less consequence than the in- z f aa eT ae ee RR a e z 

lawa ones: as some of these Collectorates extend some 

distance inland; and it is in such localities 

that distinct fresh-water fisheries exist. But, as a rule, the value of such 

is not of much consequence, when there is a well-stocked and regularly 

fished sea-board within easy distance. These fresh-water fisheries on 

the coast may be briefly examined in the same manner as the inland 
ones have been. 

74. As to the proportion of persons who consume fish to the general 
population ? It is set down in Broach at 
from one-third to one-fourth; in Kaira at 
one-sixth; whilst in four talookas in Colaba it is given thus, in one at 
seven-eighths, in two at three-fourths, and in one at one-half. As a 
rule, in the other Collectorates the questions were not circulated to the 
native officials, or at least the answers have not been received; consequently 
some details are not so full as they might have been. The Acting Collector 
of Kaira, for instance, observes, “the majority of the population being 
vegetarians,” &e., but does not furnish the mamlutdars’ answers. 
However, it would seem from the reports that fish are not consumed so 
largely by the population on the sea-coast as they are along the inland 
districts of this Presidency. Some of the local markets appear to be fully 
supplied with salted and dried sea-fish, in others the supply is less than the 
demand, whilst from the majority of the talookas the returns are a blank. 

75. Whether the fresh-water fish have inereased, decreased, or re- 

mained stationary, there are only eight an- 
State of the fisheries. swers, which report a stationary state in six, 
and a decrease in two. 

76. All these fisheries, with but very few exceptions, appear to be 
Government property, but no right has been 
exercised over them for a long period, owing’ 
to their being of little or no pecuniary value. 


Majority of people eat fish. 


These fisheries Government 
property. 


XXXIX 


From this, however, must be excluded the fresh-water fisheries along the 
sea-coast south of Bombay, some of which appear to be valuable; and 
the Collector of North Canara reports that they are Government pro- 
perty, except in those tanks formed by private persons at their own 
expense. 
77. As to the number of fishermen, the answers again become 
vague, except in Broach, where they are com- 
Number of fishermen. puted at 390. 
78. ‘The mature fish are said to be trapped in the irrigated fields 
; during the rains, except where only ‘ well-irri- 
Fish trapped during the rains. sation’ is employed. 
79. The fry also are reported to be destroyed to a large extent 
during or after the rains, in most of those 
ah af dcemoyed @ tone) (ereay talookas from which answers have been re- 
ceived. 
; 80. The following returns have been 
Smallest size of the mesh of given of the minimum size of the mesh of 
nets that are employed. 
nets employed :— 


Sizo of mosh between knot and 


Size of a large needle knot in inches, 


Orrictats. or mosquito net. 
t 3 | 4 
European ene on on ane 2 1 1 0 
Native ... om ove can oo 1 1 3 1 


Thus out of 10 returns, three reporters give the minimum size of the 
mesh of the nets to be about that of mosquito nets, and all the rest 
at or less than one-third of an inch between knot and knot. 
81. The modes of fishing in the fresh waters of these sea-coast 
districts hardly vary from those more inland. 
Modes of fishing. Nets of all forms and sizes are employed, some 
being fixed, others not so. | Dams are erected 
and openings made, where nets or basket traps are placed, so as to capture 
every fish. In the Colaba, Rutnaghari, and North Canara Collectorates 
fish are also said to be killed by poison, whilst in Kaira torch-fishing by 
night appears to be carried on. 
82. It would appear from the foregoing that in the fresh-water 
Resumé of conclusions res. fisheries of the coast districts (1) the propor- 
pecting the coast fresh-water tion of people who eat fish is less than in 
fisheries. the inland districts; (2) that the markets 
which are sufficiently supplied with fish obtain them from the sea; (3) 
that the fresh-water fish appear to be stationary or decreasing; (4) that 
the fisheries are Government property; (5) that there are no restrictions 
as to the modes of fishing; (6) that breeding fish are trapped; (7) that 
fry are killed wherever obtainable; (8) that nets with minute meshes 
are employed to destroy small fish; (9) that wicker traps are in use ; 
(10) that streams are dammed; (11) that waters are poisoned, and (12) 
that torch-light fishing is pursued, at least in one Collectorate. 


xl 


83. Having thus briefly analysed the opinions given in the ensuing 
returns, they all more or less clearly show the 

Conclusions. great use to which the fresh-water fisheries 

might be tured; their present impover- 

ished state and inefficiency to meet the demands of the local markets, 
owing to which thousands of persons who would eat fish, could 
they obtain it, are now entirely deprived of this wholesome article of 
food, That this appears to have been produced by the permission of 
reckless and indiscriminate fishing in fisheries the property of Govern- 
ment, and how the slaughter of the breeding fish and the destruction 
of the fry by every conceivable means, even to nets with such fine 
meshes, and wicker traps the interstices of which will not permit even 
the passage of a fish’s egg, down to damming streams and standing 
pieces of water, trapping the breeding fish and the fry, and even 
poisoning the fisheries by which everything is obtained to the most 
minute, the latter of which being sometimes killed only to be thrown 
away. Lastly, thatthe fishing classes, as a rule, do not solely pursue this 
occupation for a living, but only as an addition to their ordinary means 
of livelihood, so that the passing of any measures which might even tem- 
porarily put a check to this pursuit could not bear hardly upon any class. 

84. Having thus briefly adverted to the present state of affairs, the 

consideration arises, would it be better to leave 

Is it advisable to let matters matters alone and trust to chance, or might 

th eT ans Dies oan it be advisable to put a stop to the present 

Pratap wasteful manner in which these fisheries are 

being worked, and by some simple, but effective, 

measures permit the adult fish to breed in peace, and the young to grow 

out of their babyhood before being caught, and thus to afford a very 
largely increased amount of animal food to the poorer classes ? 

85. It will be well first to examine the views of those who would leave 
these deteriorating fisheries alone, the prin- 
cipal reasons which are adduced for such a 
course being as follows:—The Assistant Col- 
lector of Khandeish denies that inland fisheries in small rivers have ever 
proved of any economic or commercial advantage, unless protected as 
private property, &c., therefore it is no matter what becomes of them in 
Khandeish and the Deccan, whilst in the larger rivers the fish may take 
care of themselves ; and with such views, would give out the fishery tenures 
as far as possible to those who now employ themselves in these fisheries, 
and thus at one stroke render them private property, &e. Thus, without 
placing any limitation on the minimum size of the mesh of the nets 
made use of, he would give the monopoly of these fisheries, without any 
restrictions, to some of the very people who are now impoverishing them 
by every means which their ingenuity can suggest. In Ahmenabad it 
is considered “ better that some fry be destroyed than that further oppor- 
tunities should be afforded to the lower grade of Government. servants 
and bigotted Hindus to turn the intentions of Government to their own 
profit.” In Kaira it is considered that restrictions, if imposed, would be 
of little or no benefit. In Nasik that such would be unpopular and 
difficult of enforcement in outlying districts. In Tanna no restrictions 
are recommended, whilst any would render additional police necessary. 


General and local objections 
to interfere. 


xli 


In Dharwar it is thought that it would be extremely difficult and un- 
popular to regulate the minimum size of the meshes of nets employed 
in those small tanks which dry up every hot season, because, as the water 
subsides, the fish are taken in the mud even with the hands. In Khan- 
deish it would be impossible to curtail the present privileges of the Bhils 
by regulating how the fisheries should be worked, because the forest rules 
have “deprived them of one source of livelihood, vie. the sale of timber 
eut in the forest; but that prohibiting the poisoning of water-courses 
for fishing purposes should be the only first step taken. ‘Thus the general 
objections appear to be that the fisheries are of little, if any, economic 
value at present, and no benefit would acerue from trying to improve them, 
whilst any regulations respecting the nets would be difficult to carry out. 
The local objections against regulations are, that it would be impolitie as 
in Khandeish ; in Dharwar that such should not extend to tanks that 
yearly dry up; whilst in Ahmenabad that they would be used as a means 
of extortion by the lower grades of Government servants. 
86. On the other hand, the following opinions have been advanced, 
: by those who would do something to improve 
_ Proposals to interfere and yhose fisheries and render them more economic- 
increase the importance of the pipers z 
fisheries: ally useful. The Acting Collector of North 
Canara observes that the fish are the publie 
property, the publie being represented by Government. Were these 
fisheries an unlimited fund “of wealth or inexhaustible, it would be better 
to leave the right of using them unlimited; but as they are not inex- 
haustible, but are deteriorating, restrictions have become necessary. ‘The 
Acting: First Assistant Collector of Ahmednuggur considers that legisla- 
tion will be the only effectual stop to the present mode of depopulating 
the fisheries, but that a general Act would be unworkable, therefore it 
would be better to have one which could be applied when considered 
necessary to particular rivers and localities favourable for fish breeding. 
The Second Assistant observes that a prohibitive measure regulating the 
size of the mesh of the nets would not be unpopular. In “Satara that 
no difficulties exist against regulating the size of the meshes of the 
nets, except the want of some legal provision by which offenders might 
be punished. In Broach that there would be no objection in regulating 
the minimum size of the meshes of the nets to be henceforth used, 
beyond the prejudices of the fishermen. The Collector of Ahmednuggur 
considers that, if an Act were passed, one or two years’ notice would be 
necessary, as the nets with smaller meshes would become useless. In 
Kaladgi and Rutnaghari the only objections appear to be the difficulty of 
detecting infringements of any regulations that may be decided upon, 
In Belgaum that there would be no ‘trouble, but prawn and ‘moree’ nets 
should be exempted; the Assistant Collector likewise sees no difficulty 
in regulating the size of the meshes of the nets to be used at different 
seasons. The Acting Collector of Dharwar considers that there would 
be difficulties, but in no degree insuperable ones, to regulating the mini- 
mum size of the meshes of nets used in the rivers and in the large 
tanks that do not dry up. Thus some legislative interference to stop 
the present mode of depopelating the fisheries appears to be consider- 
ed necessary by the majority of the Muropean civil officials who have 
given their opinions, and regulating the minimum size of the meshes 


xlii 


of the nets to be employed, appears to be looked upon as the most 
effectual measure. It is said that such will be difficult to be carried out 
in some districts, and it is suggested that a general Act applicable to the 
whole of India would be wnworkable, and it would be better to have 
one which may be applied (with modifications) to particular rivers and 
localities. 

87. Should any regulation be enacted defining the minimum size 

of the mesh of the nets to be hereafter used 
Opinions as to what the in any fresh-water fishery, the following are 
minimum size of the mesh of ae 5 Z = As 
nats should bet the opinions of the various European officials 
as to what that size should be. Hight answers 
are given : one proposes from half an inch to one inch ; asecond, half an inch 
for bag-nets, and one inch for drag-nets ; three others suggest half an inch, 
and the remaiming three 1 inch. Such propositions would of them- 
selves be sufficient to show to how small asize the mesh of the nets in this 
Presidency has dwindled down, One inch between knot and knot, 
however, appears to be the most generally approved size. 

88. Along with the size of the mesh of the nets, must be considered 
the question as to whether it is advisable to 
prohibit the sale of the fry of fishes in 
the bazars, or those which could not be taken 
in the legal nets, and so must have been obtained by unfair means. Zhe 

Assistant Collector of Surat denounces the idea as “an arbitrary inter- 
ference with trade, such as could not be enforced save by a penal statute 
of an obnoxious character.” “No such restrictions are enforced any- 
where in Hurope that I am aware of.” [No person is allowed wilfully to 
take or destroy the young of salmon, to buy, sell, or expose for sale, or 
have in his possession the young of salmon, to place any device for 
obstructing their passage, to wilfully injure them, or to disturb any 
spawning bed, or any bank or shallow on which the spawn of salmon 
may be; and any person acting in contravention of these provisions is 
-liable to ferfeit all the young of salmon found in his possession, as well as all 
rods, lines, nets, devices, and instruments used in committing any of 
such offences, and to incur a penalty not exceeding five pounds for each 
offence.” (Laws relating to Salmon Fisheries of Great Britain, J. Baker, 
1868.) ] The Collector of Puna also objects, but on the grounds, that 
instead he would rely on regulating the size of the meshes of the nets. 
The Collectors of Broach, Nasik, Ahmednuggur, Satara, and Belgaum, as 
well as the Assistant Collector in the latter district, see no objections to 
this prohibition. 

89. As regards fence-months, more especially in the hilly districts, 

Opinions reapscting themeeea: in the rivers of which localities the larger 
sity or the reverse of fence. Sorts of fish, as the Mahaseers, resort for 
months, and poisoning of waters breeding during’ the first few months of the 
fons Sabine SBOE oes: monsoon. In Kaira it is observed a fence 
season would be no hardship. In Nasik and Rutnaghari that no objec- 
tions exist against prohibiting the capture of fish for the first two months 
of monsoons in the hilly regions where they are breeding, except the 
difficulty of carrying out such a regulation. The Collector of Ahmed- 
nuggur considers a close season desirable. As regards poisoning waters 
to obtain the fish, this is universally condemned where practised, but 


Opinions as to prohibiting 
the sale of the fry of fish. 


xliii 


nore stringent laws appear to be necessary before it can be put a 
‘top to. 

90. The Chief Secretary to the Government of Bombay, in forward- 
ing the returns from which the following 
were compiled, observes that very little is 
known regarding the fresh-water fisheries of 
‘his Presidency, or the practicability of increasing and developing this 
cource of food supply ; whilst it is clear that a great deal of wasteful 
lestruction takes place. 

91. The Officiating Revenue Commissioner, Northern Division (Oc- 
tober Ist, 1868) stated :—“TI believe a large 
destruction, both of fish and of small game, is 
caused more or less throughout India by net- 
ling during the spawning and breeding season, and it is a question whe- 
ther protective laws of moderate stringency would not be very advisable. 
* * The subject is not without importance, and I think it would be 
advisable to prohibit netting, both fish and game, during the spawning 
and breeding season.” The Acting Revenue Commissioner, Southern Divi- 
sion (October 9th, 1868) observed :— I consider that it would be almost 
impracticable to enforce laws for the preservation of fish throughout 
India; but that if certain localities were selected for preserves, and ouard- 
ed under a legal enactment for the purpose, considerable light might be 
thrown upon “the question, and the advisability of extending such opera- 
tions to other places, or not doing so, would be more clearly established 
than at present.” 

92. The Acting Collector of Ahmedabad reported (June 10th, 1871) 

if ; thet fish exist in the Saburmuttee, the Meshwa, 

Opinions of European officials tae : 

‘nthe Ahmedabad Collectorate, 20d the Kharee rivers, also in the Bokh and 
in all the larger tanks. In the rivers and in 
the Bokh they are often of a large size, but in the tanks their average 
weight is half a pound, although large fish are also caught there. 
There are no private rights im the fishing. The Acting Collector (Febru- 
ary 20th, 1872) merely observed that there are no fisheries proper in his 
district, and that he deprecates any attempt to regulate, as suggested, the 
capture of fish, considering that it is better that some fry be destroy ed 
than that further opportunities should be afforded to the lower grades of 
Government servants, and to bigotted Hindus, to turn the intentions of 
Government to their own profit. 

93. The Acting Collector of Broach reported (May 26th, 1871) 
that there are fresh-water fisheries in the 
Nerbudda, the Mhye, and the Dhadur, but no 
special rights are enjoyed by any class of 
people or the Government, the fisheries being open to all persons wishing: 
to make use of them. The defing Collector (March 8th, 1872) observed 
that as the fisheries of the district are open to all persons wishing to 
make use of them, and every sort of net is used, there is reason to believe 
that breeding and very young fish are destroy ed to a considerable extent. 
This destruction occurs chiefly in the Nerbudda during the rains, and 
within about five or six miles of Broach both up and down stream ; it 
also takes place at Hansote on the same river. The smallest size of the 
mesh of the nets used is one-sixth of an inch in diameter, but there 


Opinion of the Bombay Gov- 
rmment, 


Opinions of the Revenue Com- 
missioners. 


Opinions of European officials 
in the Broach Collectorate. 


xliv 


would be no difficulty in regulating its size for the future, beyond the 
prejudices of the fishing communities, who have never been subjected to 
any restrictions in the exercise of their calling. There would be no ob- 
jection to prohibit the sale of the fry of fish in the bazars. The First 
Assistant Collector reported that at Alhmode there are different ways of 
catching fish :—(1)—By a net termed nadi by the Bhoees, and bhandar 
by the Waeris; it is fixed across the stream, shaped like a wall, and 
strengthened at intervals by stakes; these stakes are not stuck into the 
ground, but tightened by a couple of ropes at either end; it is sometimes 
dragged by these ropes along the river. Another very similar one has a 
bag in the middle; it is termed soopra-jhal by the Bhoees and beheri 
by the Wagris. The ordinary cast-net is called hath-jhal by both 
castes. 

94, The Acting Collector of Kaira (¥ebruary 7th, 1872) reported 
that the rivers in which fresh-water fisheries 
exist, are the Mhye, Watruck, Sheree, and 
; Meshwa. The majority of the population 
being vegetarians, the principal fish trade is with Baroda, and mostly 
confined to marine fish which are taken in the tidal waters. The Assist- 
ant Collector observed, a certain quantity of fry are destroyed, but the 
supply exceeds the demand. The fishermen claim no exclusive right to the 
fisheries, and would easily submit to any restrictions imposed by Govern- 
ment in the way of a“ fence season,” &e., and such would be no hardship 
to them. He continued that he is disposed to think that such restrictions 
would prove of little or no benefit to any one, and are therefore not desir- 
able. Moreover, he is of opinion “that until the gexeral principles of 
interference in the fisheries of this country are settled, it would be 
premature to harass the fishermen by enquiries into the size of the mesh 
now used in their nets.” “ My own opinion is, that we know too little 
as yet of the habits of the fresh-water fishes of India to devise any 
scheme of interference which would be practically operative, oO ee 
it is necessary to ascertain iz what months the fish of particular dis- 
tricts spawn,” and this, he continued, he is unable to ascertain, so is 
opposed to fence-months. 

95. The Collector of Surat reported (May 25th, 1871) that there 
are no regular fresh-water fisheries in his 
zilla, fish being captured in most of the rivers 
running through the talookas, and also in 
some of the larger tanks. The amount of fish taken is stated to be incon- 
siderable, Dooblas and other Kallipuruf people of the low aboriginal castes 
being the chief fishers; but they do not confine their operations to any 
particular part of the river, nor do they fish for trade purposes. 
“ Machees” (fishermen by caste) fish generally for retail sale. Govern- 
ment derive no rent or revenue, as also there are no private rights. Sub- 
sequently (March 12th, 1872), whilst forwarding the opinions of the 
Assistant Collectors, he observed that they contained all the information 
which he had on the subject owing to want of local experience. The 
Secretary to the Surat Municipality stated that between Variov and the 
camp there is so little fishing carried on that he is unable to say whether 
breeding: fish or fry are destroyed, but judging from those brought to the 
markets, he considers they are not. The size of the mesh of the prawn nets 


Opinions of the European offi- 
cials in the Kaira Collectorate. 


Opinions of the European offi- 
cials in the Surat Collectorate. 


xlv 


is one quarter of an inch. The Mirst Assistant Collector reported that all 
lish ave taken indiscriminately in nets, but owing to the proximity to the 
sea, fresh-water fish are not much sought after ; those captured in the 
rivers and tanks are mostly taken during the monsoon and autumn 
months. The minimum size of the mesh of the nets is one-fourth of an 
inch in diameter ; it would be difficult to regulate such, owing to the close 
supervision of the fishing classes which would be entailed, but one inch 
hetween knot and knot of the meshes is considered to be a fair size. Pro- 
Iibiting the sale of the fry of fish in the bazars “would be an arbitrary 
interference with trade, such as could not be enforced save by a penal 
statute of an obnoxious diprnalae no such restrictions are enforeed any- 
where im Europe that I am aware of” (see para. 88). The Asszstant 
Collector observed that in these districts there seems to be a very small 
trade in fish except at Mandvi; the fishermen generally using all they 
catch for home consumption. The chief places for fishing in Bardoli are 
upon the Mindhola, which runs past Kamalchool and Bardoli Kasha. In 
Walod fish are caught at Buhari, Walod, and Banjipura or Kamalehool; 
in Mandvi only in 1 the Tapti. In Bardoli the fry appear in July, but are 
let alone until the end of September or beginning of October, and are 
then taken. In Walod there are more fishermen than i in Bardoli, and the 
destruction of young fry is very great. The nets used are extremely fine- 
meshed, some containing four meshes within the space of three quarters 
of an inch. The people chiefly eat all they capture, but send any large 
ones to Gundevi. However, they say they cannot catch mature ones, so 
they get the fry. In Mandvi and Bodhon they eatch fish down to ‘the 
aeonlect fry, and therefore use the very finest meshes. There must be 
large fish in the 'Tapti, but the people say they cannot get hold of them, 
and therefore destroy the fry. The latter come up in May and Septem- 
her, and are caught indiscriminately. ‘These people live entirely by fish- 
ing, and could “not. be willingly induced to allow the fish a chance of 
stocking the waters before they are killed. 
96. The Collector of Khandeish reported (April 22nd, 1871) that 
= : there are no fresh-water fisheries in the dis- 
on ne ih Cea trict; but that fish exist in all the rivers, 
and are caught by the Bhils and low castes, 


forming an important article in their food, but that they are not of suffi- 
cient importance to be called fisheries, and Government has never exercised 
any control over them. On April 22nd, 1872, he reported that breeding 
and very young fish are destroyed wherever they can be obtained, in the 
few rivers and streams that yield fish, by means of nets, baskets, weirs, 
traps, cloths, poison, and in fact anyhow. As regards what is the mini- 
mum size of the mesh of nets, this question may perhaps best be answer- 
ed by stating that when small-meshed nets are not available, the Bhils 
use their sheets, saris, and dhotars for the purpose of taking fish. This 
may be said to be no mesh at all. Respecting what difficulty exists 
against regulating the size of the meshes of nets, the Collector forwards 
the following opinion of Major Probyn, in which he fully concurs :—“ The 
objection to interference at present is, that the fish caught by the Bhils, 
in all but the large rivers, forms a great portion of their food, espeei ially 
in a bad season when grain is searce and dear, and it is the more neces- 
sary to avoid curtailing their privileges in this matter, because our forest 


xlvi 


rules have deprived them of one source of livelihood, viz., the sale of 
timber cut in the forest. The catching of fish by poisoning the water- 
courses, causing’ the most wholesale destruction of spawn and everything 
else that should be spared, if put a stop to, will be a first and great 
step towards the preservation of fish, without causing alarm to the Bhils, 
which would probably follow any more pointed measure of fish conser- 
vaney.” The Assistant Collector observes :—“ In no country have inland 
fisheries in small rivers ever proved of any economic or commercial im- 
portance, except when such fisheries were protected by rights of private 
property, special legislation, and special police, besides possessing’ the 
advantages of markets, transport, available capital, and means of pre 
servation. Not asingle one of these advantages is possessed by thi 
fisheries of Khandeish and the Deccan, and consequently it is very litth 
matter what becomes of them.” [Without giving any opinion on this 
statement, I would point out that the native officials report that three- 
fourths of the people eat fish, that there are 23,600 fishermen in thi 
district, and the markets are not fully supplied] The Assistant Collecto: 
continues, “in the case of large rivers like the Tapti and Nerbadda, thi 
fish will take care of themselves against any onslaught likely to lx 
made by the miserable Bhils (professional fishermen) of this generation, 
and perhaps the next will be riper for protective legislation. If, however 
Government are bent on protecting the fish, two courses are open ti 
them ; either to apply the Survey Act to water as well as to land, giving 
out the tenures as far as possible to those now employed in the fisheries 
and thus at one stroke rendering all fisheries in the country privat 
property, and applying the most powerful stimulus to improvement 
known to economists; or else to give the District Officers power to cal! 
the fishermen together, and frame rules for the fisheries separately 
after the practice obtaining in Ireland, and I believe in Scotland and 
England.” [This is all a mistake.] “ Disobedience to rules so framed 
might be made punishable by fine and forfeiture of the instrument; 
and fish.” 

97. The Acting Extra First Assistant Collector in charge of thi 
Punch Mahals veported, on May 6th, 1871 
that no fisheries exist in the district, a: 
there are no large rivers except the Myhee 
which runs on the western frontier, and only touches two or thre 
villages. In these there are no fishermen who earn a living by catch 
ing fish, and the few who reside there generally catch them mon 
for home consumption than for sale. The tank at Godra contain: 
fish of small size. Government in connection with fishing has neve) 
exercised any restriction, because, owing to the demand being: limited 
they are only taken to a small extent, and not for trade. In thi 
villages of Wullubpur and Waree, which are on the banks of the Myhec 
and are talookdaree villages, the Thakoos who are proprietors of them 
receive a third share of the fish caught within those limits. The Hedr 
First Assistant observed (March 11th, 1872) that the district produce 
few fish or fishermen. ‘There is no fish market whatever, and the ver 
small number of mud-flavoured, worthless fish caught in the tank 
and half-dry rivers of the country are really not worth being reporte 
on, 


Opinions of European officials 
in the Punch Mahals. 


xlvii 


98. The Collector of Nasik reported (June 14th, 1871) that there 
are no organized fisheries in the Collectorate, 
though almost every river is more or less 
fished by the villagers residing on its banks. 
The principal fishermen are the Bhils and Kolis, and also the Bhoees, 
and they fish principally for the purpose of providing food for home 
consumption, but not for sale. In the Godaveri, there are in some of the 
pools vast numbers of fish. Although there are no defined rights as regards 
fisheries, the people of villages look upon the fishing places adjoining 
their domiciles as belonging to them, not to the exclusion of fishing on 
behalf of Government, but as against any other villagers with large - nets 
fishing within their boundaries. Indeed in some places they object to 
even a small net being thrown by any stranger. In a later report 
(April 10th, 1872) the Collector observed that breeding and very 
young ones are destroyed to a great extent. Fish are caught all the 
year round, and little or no regard is paid to breeding seasons, nor are 
any, however small, ever returned to the water. They are destroyed in 
the pools in rivers and in tanks by means of large drag-nets. He observes 
that he has seen a net of nearly one hundred yards long, used for the purpose 
of dragging a large pool in the river Godaveri ; after it had been stretched 
across this river, one end was gradually taken round, thus enclosing a 
considerable space. While the dragging was going on, many fish com- 
menced jumping over the net, when men with smaller nets placed behind 
the larger one, caught them as they jumped, Cart-loads were taken in 
this el and of many kinds. Smaller nets are more numerous than 
drag ones, especially cast, purse and other varieties. Fish are also caught 
in shallows, small pools, and irrigating channels, by nets, baskets, or 
funnel-shaped wicker traps placed where there is a current of water. 
Poisoning used to be very common, but every attempt has been made to 
put down this objectionable custom. But there are many other ways of 
catching fish. Bhils fish in the following manner :—At every six or eight 
feet of a long rope, a piece of the stalk of kurbi or jowaree is tied. The 
rope is then stretched across the river, the men holding it going up stream, 
and three or four others coming after the rope beating the water. The 
fish take refuge under the river’s banks, whilst other Bhils catch them 
with their hands. These fish are generally under two inches in length. 
Dams are also used in shallow waters, and the places so enclosed are dragged 
with cloths or baled out, and all the fish taken. The meshes of some of 
the nets are very small, as any are permitted, Government never having 
attempted to frame any rules or to interfere in any way. ‘There would be 
considerable difficulties in regulating the size of the mesh of nets: first, it 
would be unpopular with a large class who gain their livelihood by catch- 
ing small fish, and no one would interfere to prevent breaches of the law ; 
secondly, there are so many out-of-the-way places that it would be difficult 
to enforce any order if issued. The sale of fry might be prohibited, 
and this would be effective as regards bazars in large towns, but not in 
the majority of the villages. No objection exists to prohibiting the cap- 
ture of fish in the hilly districts during the first two months of the 
monsoon, when they ascend there for breeding purposes, execept that such 
an order could not be enforced. ‘The Bhils and others would endeavour to 
evade it, and there would be no way in the hills to compel obedience. 


Opinions of European officials 
in the Nasik Collectorate. 


xlvili 


99. The Collector of Ahmednugger reported (July 8th, 1871) that 
the rivers Bheema, Seena, Godaveri, Goor, 
_ Opinions of European officials Pyoura, and Moolla, which pass through or 
in the Almednuggur Collec- Aas d : : 5 
een border the district, contain considerable quan- 
tities of fish, which, however, are mostly of 
an inferior description, and have little market value. The ‘ Dohs” or holes 
where the fish congregate are fished by all persons without restriction. 
No rights in the fisheries, in opposition to those of Government, are 
known or acknowledged, and it is not likely that the right of Government 
to sell or restrict fishing would anywhere be disputed. The Collector 
subsequently (February 22nd, 1872) observed, that the rivers in the 
Collectorate are dragged and fished by all persons without restriction as 
to season, and there is no doubt that destruction of small fishes is the 
consequence. The Acting First Assistant Collector reported as follows :— 
“ As far as my own knowledge goes, I am sure that in places where fish- 
ing is carried on to any extent, there is a great and indiscriminate des- 
truction of spawning and under-sized fish. I do not see that there is 
any way of preventing this except by legislation, and even then consider- 
able difficulties would arise, for any general Act would be unworkable, 
and must in most parts of the country remain a dead letter. It would, 
TI think, be better to have an Act which could be applied, when considered 
necessary, to particular rivers and localities favourable for fish breeding.” 
The Acting Second Assistant Collector remarked as follows :— From con- 
versation with fishermen here, I have ascertained that they are quite 
aware that the quantity of fish in the rivers is less than it was, and that 
a prohibitive measure regulating the size of the nets would not be un- 
popular, and I do not think any great hardship would be caused by 
closing the fisheries during breeding time, as the greater number of the 
fishermen are then employed in agriculture or other pursuits. I think 
some measure for the conservation of the fish is necessary.” The Codlector 
likewise observed :—‘ No doubt very young fish are destroyed in nallas, 
shallows, &e., by persons who are not regular fishermen, and at all seasons 
with nets, pieces of cloth used as nets, &e. The smallest mesh of the 
nets is less than an inch; it has never been attempted to regulate their 
size, but such might be done; still one or two years’ notice should be given 
beforehand, as the nets with smaller meshes would become useless ;_ the 
minimum size might be from half an inch to one inch between knot and 
knot. The sale of fry might be prohibited, and a close season is desirable.” 
100. The Collector of Puna reported (June 30th, 1871) that in the 
pry ; district there are two large rivers, viz., the 
fOr ot ee oa Bheema and the Neera ; the former has seven 
large affluents, viz., the Pooshpawuttee, Kook- 
ree, Meena, Goar, Bhama, Indrayunee, and Moola Moota; the latter has 
one, viz., the Kurra: each of these has its large and small feeders. Most 
of these streams retain large pools during the hottest season; in some the 
water flows perennially. ‘The fisheries are generally appropriated by the 
villages within which they are situated. Government have hitherto never 
claimed rent. No private rights really exist, but that of prescription may 
be claimed. [License, however long enjoyed, gives no right according to 
the British law. J The Assistant Collector at the same time observed that 
the natives of the Deccan refuse to eat crabs, turtles and tortoises for reli- 


xlix 


gious reasons, whilst the Kolis eat both. The turtles or tortoises are put into 
wells where they eat up any rubbish that may fall in, and keep down the crabs, 
who are great enemies of all masonry work. Although only Government 
rights in respect to the fisheries exist, there is half an exception in the 
case of so-called sacred fish at Wozre Talooka, Indapoor. A similar case 
is at Wozer in the Joonere 'Talooka, a village belonging in Dewusthan 
Inam to a temple of Gunputi. The inhabitants objected to any persons 
catching fish in their pool of the Kookree river, and first brought false 
accusations against the Joonere fishermen of poisoning the water. After- 
wards they said that the Joonere Mussulmen who came to fish insulted 
the women drawing water. On a personal investigation, it came out 
that “ these fish are fed j in honour of our god, and we do not like their being 
lulled.” At Chinchwad, where the village on one side belongs to the 
god who does not even pay joodee, and the other shore is his inam 
garden, the Karbharee stated the god claimed no proprietary right in 
the fish fed from the temple steps. The existence, however, of a 
few sanctuaries is probably useful to the fisheries. The Lirst Assistant 
Collector of Puna (April 10th, 1872) remarked that there is a strong 
Brahmin element in the district, which is suflicient to deter fishermen 
from plying their trade in many places. When, however, they are not 
interfered with, they catch fish in all seasons by every means in their 
power, chiefly by netting, sometimes by poison, and less frequently by 
baited hooks. In the large rivers fishing cannot be carried on during 
heavy floods, and throughout the year the priestly influence, above noted, 
greatly protects the fish. Breeding and very young ones are caught to 
some extent, whilst, on the subsidence of the floods, bag nets and baskets 
are placed in openings constructed in artificial dams which are roughly 
thrown across streams. During the rainless season, the large deep pools, 
which abound in the rivers, are netted. These rivers cannot be said to 
be perennial, so far as the fish are concerned, for in many places the 
stream that flows during the hot weather isso slender as to be useless 
for them, and occasionally merely oozes through the gravelly bed of the 
river. No size of the mesh of nets is disallowed ; the minimum size 
obtained is ;!,th of an inch between knot and knot (sample enclosed). As 
regards the ‘appropriate regulation-size for the mesh of nets, it should 
not be less than half an nich between knot and knot for baw nets, and one 
inch for drag nets. LHe objects to prohibiting the sale of ‘the fry of fish 
in the bazar at first, but would rely upon regulating the size of the 
mesh of the nets. 

101. The Collector of Tanna reported (August 12th, 1871) that no 
large fresh-water rivers exist in his district, all 
of that description being large streams formed 
as natural outlets for the rainfall flowing 
from the Ghats and high lands. During the monsoon months these 
rivers are full, the body of water floying down these outlets towards the 
sea with great foree. During the dry weather the beds of these rivers are 
dry, excepting where large and deep reaches exist. Here fish are found, 
and fishing is resorted toby the various villagers dwelling in the vicinity ; > 
in hardly any instance, however, have they any right in such fisheries, 
other than that of a prescriptive one. At Callian there is a place into 
which fresh water pours during the rains. The right of fishing is held 


a 


Opinion of the Collector of 
Tanna. 


by a Parsee, who pays five rupees a year, and has done so since thie 
time of the Peshwas. The rights in all instances, except in that at 
Callian, appear to be of custom, and in respect to which the parties can 
claim none under documentary title, Government has never exer- 
cised its right, simply because the fisheries are of little, if any, value; to 
now do so would no way benefit the State, and would merely lead 
to discontent. Subsequently (January 6th, 1872) the Collector observed, 
that his being a sea-coast district the fresh-water fisheries are but small, 
the only waters being in the rivers Bheema and Seena. No distinction is 
made between breeding: fish and others, whilst the young are also caught. 
There is no restriction whatever, none is recommended, whilst any restric- 
tive law would render additional police necessary to prevent its infringe- 
ment. 
102. The Collector of Colaba (March 23rd, 1872) observed, that, owing 
Lae to the flatness of the country, the tides run so 
Svinte of the Collector of fay up the different creeks that the fresh- 
olaba. 2 2 3 
water fisheries are very restricted and of little 
value. A Statement appended shows the rights of Government and 
private parties with respect to the fresh-water fisheries in the Collectorate. 
Sheets of water, more or less deep, formed in a hollow in the bed of a 
river, are termed ‘ Doho’s.” All these fisheries belong to Government, 
but any one is allowed to fish in them without payment, with the excep- 
tion of two small ones in the talooka of Peun which are the property of 
the Inamdar of the village. Breeding and very young fish are destroyed 
to a great extent by snares both in rivers and nallas during all seasons 
of the year. The smallest size of the mesh is one which will just admit 
a large needle. One inch between knot and knot should be the minimum 
size, but the fishermen would not obey any such regulation unless it were 
legalised. 
103. The Acting Collector of Satara reported (June 22nd, 1871) 
Ke . : that fish of about fifty kinds are caught in 
se re aene oe Raropean ticiale the larger streams in the district, viz., the 
Kvistna, Yeana, Cormooree, Tarla, Koina, 
Warna, Yerla, Maun, Neera, and Bheema. They are chiefly taken in the 
long deep reaches of the larger streams in which there is always water. 
No rights over particular spots are legally reserved either to Government 
or to the villagers, but the inhabitants of each village fish in the con- 
tiguous waters. In certain places on the Kristna, near temples, the 
Brahmins, on religious grounds, prevent any fish being caught. The 
Collector observed (March 16th, 1872) that breeding and very young fish 
are destroyed to a considerable extent by means of nets in pools both in 
great rivers and in nallas. When the rivers become muddy at the com- 
mencement of the monsoon, fish die in large numbers, also when they 
become nearly dry at the close of the hot weather. ‘The smallest size 
of the mesh of the nets varies from three-quarters to one-eighth of an 
inch in circumference (3;ths to ;4nd of an inch between knot and 
knot of the meshes). No difficulties exist against regulating the size 
of these meshes, except some legal provision in order to punish offenders. 
Half an inch between each knot is proposed. There are no objections 
i any weight, against prohibiting the sale of the fry of fish im the 
bazars. 


104. The Collector of Kaladgi reported (March Ist, 1872) that it is 
believed breeding fish and very young ones 
are not destroyed to any great extent in his 
district, but the smallest size of the mesh 
of the nets is about equal to a grain of wheat. There are no persons 
who are strictly fishermen, nor are there any considerable fisheries, and, 
were the size of the mesh of the nets regulated in future, it would 
probably be difficult. to detect’ any infringement, as it would not be easy 
to discover in which part of the river the people were netting. Beyond 
this, there is no reason why the size of the meshes of the nets should 
not be regulated, and half an inch between each knot is proposed as the 
minimum size. Fry of fish are said not to be sold in the bazars. 

105. he <deting Collector of Sholapur reported (May 24th, 1871) 

that there are two rivers in the district, the 
ollector of ~Bheema and the Seena. The right to net fish 

in these rivers or in other places ts not sold 
by auction, because of their not containing fish enough to render it 
worth while for people to become purchasers. Subsequently (February 
7th, 1872) he reported that fishermen take every sort and size of fish 
without distinction, that no restriction exists as to the size of the mesh 
of the nets employed, and he does not recommend any for the future, 
as additional police would be necessary, and the necessity for such a 
prohibition is not apparent to him. 

106. The Collector of Belgaum reported (May 25th, 1871) that 
fish in abundance, but for the most part small 
and of inconsiderable value, are caught in the 
Mulpurbha, Tambraparni, Gataprabha, and 
Markundya rivers. As regards fisheries, the respective rights of Govern- 
ment and of private parties have never been determined. Neither 
Government nor private individuals reserve rights, and the inhabitants 
of any of the villages on the banks of the rivers are in the habit of 
catching the fish for their own consumption. The Collector subsequently 
(March 19th, 1872) submitted a report compiled from information 
furnished by the TVirst Assistant, the Assistant Collector, and Deputy 
Collector, who are severally in charge of districts. He observed that 
there would appear from the various reports to be no difficulty 
in regulating the size of the meshes of the nets used, ruling that 
none smaller should be employed except for prawns and ‘ moree” 
fishing. Moreover, by doing this, there would be no inconvenience caused 
to fishermen. There exists no objection against prohibiting the sale of 
the fry of fish in the bazars. The First Assistant Collector observes 
that breeding and young fish are not systematically destroyed, although 
fishermen have no compunetion in slaughtering them when they come 
to hand. In consequence, however, of the Mulpurbha, the only river of 
any size in the district, being flooded during the rainy season, fishing is 
suspended at this time, which is the breeding period for fish : consequently 
they become spared to a certain extent. Breeding fish and young ones 
are caught in nets, and no fisherman ever thinks of throwing them 
back on account of their condition or puny size; the fishermen in the 
villages on the hanks of the rivers throughout the district being equally 
glad to catch them at any time in hauling their nets, Bottom-fishing 


Opinion of the Collector of 
Kaladgi. 


Opinion of the C 
Sholapur. 


Opinions of European officials 
in the Belgaum Collectorate. 


is carrial on by persons from the banks throughout the year, and a number 
of breeding fish must be victimised in this way. However, the mis- 
chievous practices of poisoning the waters and trapping the fish appear to 
be unknown. ‘The smallest distance between the knots of the meshes 
of the nets, it is considered, should be half an inch ; the public sale of the 
fry does not appear to be EAR, they being’ consumed by their takers, or, 
should there be a surplus, being privately disposed of. The Assistant Cob- 
lector remarked of his district, that in addition to fishing by means of nets 
and trapping, nallas, rivers, and tanks are in the hot weather dammed up 
with bunds, and poisonous drugs are thrown into the water, so that the fish 
either die, or, becoming stupefied, float on the surface, and are easily caught. 
Angling is occasionally resorted to, but only, as a rule, where the water 
is too deep to admit of a bund being erected. he practice of 
poisoning: fish has, to a certain extent, been stopped in the Gokah Talooka, 
owing to the rules of the Forest Department, under which is prohibited 
the cutting the small twigs and leaves from which the stupefying drugs are 
made, The size of the mesh of the nets does not seem to vary very 
much in the different talookas, the smallest being from one-sixth to one 
quarter of an inch between the knots. In Belgaum, however, and 
the neighbourhood, a net with even smaller meshes is used for the purpose 
of catching prawns and a small fish called “ moree.” Nets with minute 
meshes are used, asa rule, during the rains, and with larger meshes during: 
the cold season and hot weather, but this is not strictly observed. No 
difficulty is considered to exist, in organising a scheme to prevent the 
present wholesale destruction of fish, by regulating the size of the small- 
est mesh of the nets that will be permitted, by determining at what 
seasons nets with different sized meshes may be employed, by pro- 
hibiting the sale of the fry of fishes in the bazars, and forbidding the 
capture of fish at any rate during the first two months of the breeding 
season. 
107. The Acting Collector of Dharwar (March 29th, 1870) propos- 
ae ed selling the fisheries by auction, either 
asen Fins ete te Jpunaean yearly, or for a period of three or four years 
torate. ata time, in order to give the lessee tinie to 
improve them. He observed that a former 
Collector on several occasions had done so at Seerburdghee in Bankipur 
Talooka; selling that in one tank for 200 rupees, for others as much 
as 80 to 100 rupees have been given. There are, taking the district 
all round, upwards of two hundred tanks in which the right to net 
fish might be sold. There should be strict rules as to the size of cer- 
tain fish that should not be allowed to be removed, but beyond fixing a 
minimum of mesh, and protecting the young of certain descriptions, other 
restrictions are not advocated. The money collected from this source 
would, in this Collectorate, probably yield about 16,000 rupees per 
annum, and should be eredited to local funds, to be expended on the 
tanks which afford fishing. Ji many cases, steps might be taken to 
provide an inner and deeper tank into which the fish might be driven on 
the water becoming very low. Thus, not only the tanks would be im- 
proved, but the amount of fish might be augmented, adding to the 
food and comfort of the poorer classes, whose interests in this partioular point 
have been hitherto neglected. Subsequently (November 29th, 1871), the 


litt 


Acting Collector reported that the fresh-water fisheries existing in the 
eleven talookas in his district are as follows :—In Nowlgoond and Roan 
fish are caught in the Mulprabha river, which skirts the northern bound- 
ary of these talookas. Im Dharwah fish are taken in some of the 
large tanks which retain water all the year round; in a few they 
are large and plentiful, chiefly the “ murrell” and ‘ ‘parah.” In Hooblee 
there are no streams from which fish are to be had, but they are found 
in large tanks which do not dry. In Dumbhull they are obtained from 
the ‘Toongbhudra river which skirts its southern boundary, and 
also in the larger tanks that do not dry up. In Kulghutghee they are 
found in one or two small streams, also in the larger tanks which do not, 
become dry, v7z., Devikope, Budneeguttee, and Tumboor; these always con- 
taina large supply of fish, In Bunkapur there are numerous tanks contain- 
ing fish, but those of the largest size and the most numerous are found in 
those which retain water all the year round. In Kurujghee numerous fish 
are obtained in the rivers Wardah and Toongbhudra, as also in a few of the 
tanks. In Hangul the river Wardah and numerous tanks and ponds that 
are perennial contain them, likewise in similar ponds and tanks in Kode and 
Raneebednore ; in the former talooka is also the Toongbhudra skirting its 
southern boundary, and in the latter the same river forms its eastern 
limits. The only private right of fishing is in the Bunkapur Talooka at 
Nagpoor, which the Collector i in 1832 declared belonged exclusively to 
the Wuttundar Patel of Husan Aga. In Kurnjghee formerly, the 
fisheries in some of the tanks and in ie Toongbhudra river used to be 
sold by Government by auction, but this has not been done of late years. 
In a third Report (March 28th, 1872) it is observed that fishing in the 
talookas is carried on all the year round in the rivers and large and small 
tanks. Tish are caught wherever they can be found ; whatever is brought 
ashore by the net is kept. The minimum size of the mesh is very small ; 
in some samples appended, it varied from one-tenth to one-thirteenth of 
an inch between the knots; even the very smallest fry cannot escape. 
In the larger rivers, the Wardah and Toongbhudra, fishing is continued 
throughout the year, except when they are in flood. In the smaller 
rivers which soon dry up, it is carried on during the rains. It is 
also continued all the year round in the large tanks that do not become 
dry ; ; such, however, are rare in the black soil districts of Dharwar, Nowl- 
goond, Roan, and Dumbul. Fish appear to exist in larger quantities in 
tanks situated in red soil. Besides the long nets dragged by a number of 
men, cast-nets with very fine meshes are used in “the rivers. In the 
tanks, besides nets, night lines are employed, and people daily visit them 
to secure the captures. In some cases the tanks are drained, or nearly 
so, and then everything that can be caught is taken ; thousands, not one 
and a half inches in length, being captured by various sorts of nets b 
the hand, and by fishermen throwing a large sort of basket-net over them. 
There is no limit either by law or custom as to the size of the meshes of 
the nets, fishing not being interfered with. Were it proposed to regulate 
the size of the meshes of the nets, there would be difficulties, but i in no 
degree insuperable ones, the chief being in the supervision that would 
be required. The Acting Collector observed, that he concurs in the Assist- 
ant Collector’s views on this subject, namely , that it would be extremely 
difficult and unpopular to fix the size of the meshes of nets to be employed 


liv 


in catching fish in the small tanks which dry up at every hot season, 
and it would be of little use, because the fish are caught by the hand 
even in the mud as the water subsides, and the quantity captured by man 
is small in comparison to the enormous numbers destroyed by the large 
flocks of birds that prey upon fish. The Cod/ector continues, that in 
large tanks that do not dry up and in the rivers the mesh might be re- 
gulated by law, but in tanks and rivers that dry up during the hot sea- 
son it is proposed that nets should not be interfered with. For the 
former localities the minimum size of the mesh proposed is one inch 
between knot and knot. To attempt to make a larger limit would be very 
unpopular, because there are so many descriptions of fish that are eaten, 
and which never grow to any great size. 
108. The Acting Collector of Ratnaghari, with his report of June 
16th, 1871, enclosed one from the Deputy 
Opinions of the European (Conservator, who stated that he had obtained 
officials of the Ratnaghari Col- Palate. : : » 
Tectorate: good fresh-water fishing in the Jog river near 
Dapoolee. No private parties exercise any 
exclusive rights in regard to such fisheries. One reason probably 
why the fish are so few in number, is that they are caught in vast numbers 
when they have only just spawned, as is thus deseribed by the Assistant 
Collector. The people in this part of the country are not in the habit 
of catching fish either by means of lines or nets. In some places they 
rnise dams across streams, which do not allow the water to run off, and 
into the pools thus formed they throw the juice of the hoora plant, 
which blinds the fish, after which they are easily taken. The usual 
method, however, is by placing baskets im convenient situations in 
the current. Such a system of capturing fish newly spawned, and the 
practice of throwing nets across creeks and rivers, has done much to 
diminish the number of the fish in this country. The deting Collector 
subsequently (March 20th, 1872) observed that there are no fresh-water 
fisheries, properly so called, in his zilla. The chief fisheries, exclusive of 
the sea ones, are those up the numerous creeks or arms of the sea, which 
penetrate inland for several miles along the whole length of this coast dis- 
trict. Far inland, in depths too shallow for navigation, at low tides and 
during the monsoon, some parts of these creeks contain fresh water, and in 
regard to them, both breedig and very young’ fish are destroyed to a great 
extent. The rivers are swept with close nets at all seasons of the year 
from their source, and principally by Bhoees, but also by the villagers 
generally. Banks are formed to make the fish pass through narrow 
channels; nets are employed, also baskets and bag-like nets. Fish of 
avery small description are caught all the year round, but the principal 
time for this pursuit is during July and August. There is no doubt that 
breeding’ fish and very young ones are not spared. Any sized mesh is used 
which the fishermen choose, and the difficulty in regulating the minimum 
to be employed in future is the want of supervision in remote vil- 
lages. Half an inch between the knots of meshes is proposed as the 
smallest legal size. Fry do not appear to be sold in the bazars, but 
used for home consumption. Prohibiting the capture of fish in hilly 
districts for the first two months of the monsoon season, when they are 


breeding, would be of great advantage to the country, but rules would 
be difficult of enforcement. 


lv 


109. The Acting Collector of Canara observed (January 13th, 1872), 
the fisheries may be roughly divided into 
tanks and running streams. ‘The former exist 
in considerable numbers and size above the 
Ghats; below the Ghats they are neither so large nor so numerous. The 
principal rivers in the district are the Kalanuddee, Gungawutty, Yuddry, 
and Sirawutty; itis the last named which forms the Geirsoppa falls. 
There are other small streams where fish are to be found, but not in such 
numbers asin the rivers above mentioned. The Kalanuddee and Sira- 
wutty in particular, with their deep pools and large rocks, afford a shelter 
for fish not to be found in smaller streams. There is a general agreement 
amongst those who have given their opinions on the subject, that the 
rivers and nallas, and the greater number of the tanks, are the undoubt- 
ed property of Government. Tanks have been constructed by individuals, 
at their own expense; some are attached to temples and other religious 
edifices; the right of private parties to the fish therein contained would, 
I apprehend, be admitted. But the fish in tanks constructed by Govern- 
ment, at the public expense, are morally and legally Government: property. 
As a further proof, it is stated that Major Peyton has known in Canara, 
when the tanks became low and likely to dry up, the tehsildars and 
mamlutdars selling on account of Government the right of catching fish. 
By the principles of the Jus gentium, large rivers belong to all the 
people of the country; in other words, are the property of Government 
which represents all the people of the country, so far as such rights are 
coneerned. Where the fund of wealth is unlimited, it is better to leave 
the right of using it unlimited; but where this is not the case (and it 
is to be presumed all will admit it is not the case with river or tank 
fisheries), some restricting regulations are necessary. If the above state- 
ment be correct, the sooner the Legislature takes the fisheries of this 
district under its cognizance, the better; not only do the fishing class of 
natives use nets fitted to catch everything, from a quarter of an inch 
upwards, but they continually kill by poison the whole of the fish in a pool. 
The bark of certain trees, such as the Chapal karu, Garooda, Koorada, 
&e., is pounded and thrown into the water; the fish come to the surface 
floating on their backs, and are carried off. If this practice be continued, 
the rivers of the district will soon be swept clear of fish; a means of 
innocent sport for some, and of sustenance for many, will be stopped, and 
the chance of Government ever deriving any revenue from the fisheries, 
which, if they were protected, would be quite practicable and might be 
desirable, will be lost. 

110. In the Ahmedabad Collectorate cight native officials have sent 
in returns, and those who have answered the 
first question have apparently considered the 
“number of fishermen” as the “ number of 
castes of fishermen ;” consequently it does not appear how many persons 
following this employment would be affected by any new rules. How- 
ever, it is evident they must be few. The Mamlutdar of Duskroee reports 
the Mahomedans, Purdessees, Bhoees, and Boochas as the fishermen 
which are in his district, amongst whom the Bhoees are also employed 
as palanquin-bearers and the Boochas as grass-cutters. The local fish 
markets are not fully supplied ; more could be sold. As regards the pro- 


Opinion of the Collector of 
Canara. 


Opinions of native officials 
in the Ahmedabad Collectorate. 


b} 


lvi 


portion of people who eat fish? it is remarked that Brahmins and high- 
caste Hindus do not, but the rest, who are allowed by their religion, do. 
The fish are said to have increased, and that very small ones are not: 
captured during the rains, but the minimum size of the mesh of the nets 
will only let a needle go through, whilst fish are trapped in the irrigated 
fields during the rains. The d/amlutdur of Gogo observes that Kharwas 
and Bhugwagurees take fish; the former do not engage in other occu- 
pations ; the latter do, being sailors. ‘The markets are sufficiently supplied 
with fish. A list of several castes is given, as the proportion of people 
who eat fish, the supply of which article of food is said to have decreased. 
Very small ones are taken during the rains by means of hand nets; the 
minimum size of the meshes will allow ‘half the last finger” to go 
through. Fish are said not to be trapped in the irrigated fields during the 
yains. The Mamlutdar of Purantey says, the fishermen are Kolees and 
Bhoces, who also pursue other occupations. The markets are not fully 
supplied with fish. The proportion of the population who eat fish is not 
given, but a few castes are, termimating with “and such others eat fish.” 
The supply of late years has been stationary. Very small ones are captured 
by children during the rans. A finger can go through the minimum 
sized mesh of the nets. Breeding fish are trapped by children in the 
irrigated fields during the rains in a cage called “ Jako.” The J/amlut- 
dar of Sanund reports an absence of fishermen, a market insufficiently 
supplied with fish, the quantity of which in late years has remained sta- 
tionary; notwithstanding, he continues, very small fish are captured with 
cloths during the rains, whilst the smallest sized mesh of nets that are 
employed is almost of the size of a toour seed. The Mamlutdar of 
Dhundooka observes that there are neither fish nor fishermen. ‘The 
Mamlutdars of Dholka, Veerumgam and Morassa give such vague returns 
that an analysis of them is of no practical use. 
111. In the Broach Collectorate, the Mamlutdars veport that there 
bet ; _.., are about 110 fishermen in Broach, 100 in 
eunon Sh a a ip Jumboosur, 40 in Admode, and 150 in Han- 
sole ; besides fishing they all twist coir ropes, 
build and repair houses, and work as day-labourers. he following 
are the castes of fishermen in Broach ; Dheemar maichee, Maktomporia 
machee, Hansoteea machee, the last two having obtained their names 
from the villages whence they have emigrated. In //ansote the fishermen 
are by caste Talabda coolies, or Jumboosur méchee, &e., and in Admode 
Wagris and Bhoees. The markets in Jumboosur, Broach, and Hansote 
are fully supplied with fish, and large quantities, both salt and dried, are 
exported; in Ahmode and Anklesur the supply is less than the demand ; 
between one-third and a quarter of the population of the Broach’ District 
would appear to consume it. ‘he supply at Broach and Ahmode has 
decreased of late years, whilst that in Jumboosur and Hansote has remained 
stationary. Little fish during the rains are captured with small nets at 
Broach and THansote, but not elsewhere at that season. The smallest size 
of mesh employed in Jumboosur at the seaward end of the net is one inch, 
landwards half an inch: at Ahmode one quarter of aninch, and in Broach 
one-sixth of an inch. Breeding fishes ave not trapped in the irrigated 
fields, during the rains, as a rule. In Broach and Hansote nets are fixed 
across the stream where the water is shallow. Cuast-nets are likewise 


lvii 


used in deeper water. Large nets supported at intervals by light hollow 
gourds are stretched out in the river, one end being attached to a 
boat. 

112. The Mamlutdars of the Kaira Collectorate report that it is 
difficult to give the exact number of fisher- 
men, as they are, as a rule, agriculturists hke- 
wise, and often employ themselv es during the 
monsoon in plying ferry-boats on the larger rivers. On the banks of the 
Mhye there are probably about 500 persons employed in supplying the 
Baroda market with fish, both fresh and salt. The only fisherman caste 
is the “ Machee,” but many coolies and Mussulmen engage in fishing as 
well. There is stated to be little or no demand for fresh fish in the local 
markets. Possibly about one-sixth of the population have no religious 
scruples about eating it, but few comparatively use this food from 
choice. It is supposed that the supply of fish in the Mhye has decreased 
of late years. ‘The common superstitious belief is, that the deities of the 
river have been displeased by the withholding of the offerings formerly 
made by travellers who crossed it in carts, previously to the opening of 
the railway. Fishing is common during the rains; all sorts are captured ; 
the nets allow none to escape ; the minimum size of the mesh is about one 
quarter of an inch in ‘diameter. Fish are not trapped in irrigated fields 
during the rains, as irrigation is chiefly derived from wells. The following 
are the principal implements employed in fishing: rod and line “ gul” ; ; 
torch-fishing by night, “ Ook”; hand nets, ‘ ‘hath jhal”; or cast-nets, 
(“fulolw’) ; and large nets, “ maha jhal” 

113. The Mamlutdars in the Khandeish Collectorate report that 
there are 23,600 fishermen in the whole of 
the district, but they do not depend upon fish- 
ing alone as a means of livelihood, as they 
also pursue different occupations. The names of the fishermen castes are 
Koli, Pardi, Kokné, Wanjari, Bhui, Mahar, Baradi, Bhil, Diwar, Kotil, 
Mussulman, Mawaché, and Thudwi. The local markets are insufficiently 
supplied with fish, that captured being principally for home consumption. 
Three-fourths of the people eat fish, the amount of which in the district 
has decreased of late. During the rains many small ones ave captured in 
every possible way. The smallest mesh employed is down to one quarter 
of an inch, after which a cloth is used, or no mesh at all. Fish are 
trapped in the irrigated fields during the rains. The different means used 
for capturing fish are jali, nets; basket traps; gul, a hook used only 
in the rains, cloth, poison of sorts as follows, “hinganbet, yathil, gir 
and thor. 

114. The Mamlutdars of the Nasik Collectorate report that there 

nb. ; ; are about 4,000 fishermen in the district, but 

Opinions of native officials . 

sens Nasi Callantarate. some only are at times solely thus employed, 

as they are also agriculturists and day-labour- 
ers. The fishermen castes are Maratha, Bhoce, Kahar, Koli, Bhil, Taroo, 
Taral, Kokné, Warli. Many Mussulmen and Koonbees also fish. None 
of the markets are sufficiently supplied. With respect to the propor- 
tion of persons who eat fish, the reports vary, in some talookas only 
one in twenty-two of the population are stated to do so, in others two- 
thirds or three-fourths, or] even fifteen-sixteenths do. In the Penit State, 


Opinions of native officials in 
the Kaira Collectorate. 


Opinions of native officials in 
the Khandeish Collectorate. 


lviii 


chiefly pa by Bluls or Kolis, all but Brahmins are said to eat fish, 
Of late years the amount in the waters has decreased ; small ones are 
taken in reateE or less quantities everywhere during the rains, by means 
of small nets, baskets placed under water with bread and gram in them, 
basket traps fixed in currents, and by hooks. The smallest mesh of the 
nets employed 1 is of the size of a grain of gram. Breeding fish are trap- 
ped in the irrigated fields during the rains in some of the talookas. The 
modes of taking fish are given as follows ; nets of sorts, as drag-nets for 
the pools in then rivers, ¢: ae nets of various sizes, also others somewhat simi- 
lar to shrimp nets, termed “ Chabha” and “ Pelne, ” namely, those fixed 
to a triangular frame of wood, with a handle for fishing; these are 
used in the shallow streams. Basket traps, ‘ Malai,” are of the usual 
kind, or the rat-trap principle, so that no fish once in can get out. Large 
cloths, “ Jholes,” are often used as a substitute for nets. Poison is frequently 
had resort to in order to kill or stupefy fish. The leaves of a plant called 
“ Soopli,” Clitorea turnatea, ave much used for this purpose, also tobacco 
leaves and the mill bush, as well as the “Gel Phul” or fruit of the 
Vangneria spinosa, which is powdered and thrown into the water. Dams 
are also constructed in small streams; the water laded out and_ the fish 
captured, or else after the completion of the dam they are driven into traps 
or nets of different kinds, 
115. The Mamlutdars in the Ahmednuggur Collectorate report that 
=) _ there are from 2 to 3,000 fishermen in the 
Ree ee eames district, but they follow other occupations 
besides that of fishig, such as cultivation, 
day-labourers ; &c. ; their castes are Bhoee, Koli, Kahar. The markets 
are said to be insufficiently supplied. Onan average two-thirds of the 
population will eat fish, but it does not, unless they are fishermen, form 
a portion of thei regular diet. The number of fish are said to have 
decreased of late years owing to the deficiency of ram. The minimum 
size of the mesh of the nets is stated to be equal to that of a grain of 
gram. Tish are said not to be trapped in the irrigated fields during the 
rains. Besides the use of nets and hooks, waters are poisoned with the 
milk bush. 
116. The xative officials in the Puna Collectorate state that there 
ms F é are about 800 fishermen, but they do not confine 
Opinions of native officials of ~thomselves to fishing for a livelihood ; their 
the Puna Collectorate. = =e =a 
castes are Murathu Bhoee, Kolis, Kongadee 
Bhoee, Kar Bhoee (Purdesee), Wuradee Bhoee. The markets are in- 
sufficiently supplied. There is nothing to prevent the majority of the 
people eating fish. Many small ones are captured during the rains, but 
they are not trapped in the irrigated fields, as there are but few of such. 
The implements employed are a large casting net, “ Pagur ;” a small drag- 
net with poles attached resembling a cricket net, “ Zilla ; ;? small nets 
termed ‘ Bhoosta”’ and “ Waoree ;” large drag nets “ Pundee” and 
“ Tuhowkaree ;” “ Tivree,” which resembles the Bhoost, but has a larger 
mesh; “ Patee” and “ Challum,’ made of bamboo and net, and placed 
at the opening in a dam constructed across a stream; “ Ganjwa” is 
a sort of drag-net, and ‘ Surkee,” a small net; “ Basgul, 9 « Chhudigul,” 
and “ Lumdore” are recls containing different lengths ‘of line with baited 
hooks attached. 


lix 


117. The native officials in the Colaba Collectorate report as 
follows :—The Mamlutdar of Alibog gives the 
fishermen at 2,000, the majority pursuing other 
occupations; their castes are Koli and Bhoee, 
both Marathas. Fresh-water fish are not brought for sale; one-half the 
population eat fish, whilst the supply has remained stationary. Very small 
ones are taken by snares, by “ Bhokshee,” a round cane basket with a hole 
at the top; Koin, Bugadee, and Buggala, whilst the smallest mesh of the 
nets is only suflicient to admit a large needle. Fish are trapped in the 
irrigated fields during the rains. The various modes of fishing employed 
are, killing with sticks, damming up and lading out water, snaring, 
poisoning, and netting. The Mamlutdar of Penn states, the fishermen 
are 4,000, most of whom pursue other callings as well; their caste is Koli. 
The local markets are fully supplied with sea-fish ; seven-cighths of the 
people are fish-eaters, the supply of which has remained stationary of 
late. Very small ones are captured to a great extent during the rains 
by snares and basket traps. The smallest mesh of the nets is given at 
one-quarter of an inch. Fish are trapped in the irrigated fields during the 
rains. Damming is reported to be carried on in this talooka. The 
Mamlutdar of Roha observes that there are 200 fishermen, who mostly 
pursue other occupations in his talooka; their castes are Koli and Bhoce, 
both Marathas. Fresh-water fish are not brought to market ; one-half of 
the population eat fish, the supply of which has remained stationary. The 
smallest sized mesh of the nets is one-third of an inch, and fish are trapped 
in the irrigated fields during the rains. The Mamlutdar of Mangam 
computes the fishermen at 500, most of whom have also other employ- 
ments ; they are Koli and Bhoee, both Marathas. Fresh-water fish are not: 
brought to market ; three-fourths of the people eat fish, the supply of 
which has remained stationary of late. Very small ones are captured 
during the rains in cane baskets, whilst the minimum mesh of the nets 
is one-quarter of an inch. Fish are trapped in the irrigated fields 
during the rains. The Mamlutdar of Mhar gives the fishermen at 100, of 
the Bhoee caste. 'The local markets are fully supplied with marine fish ; 
three-quarters of the people are fish-eaters ; the supply of late years has 
remained stationary. Very small and other fish are trapped and caught 
during the rains ; the smallest sized mesh is given at one inch (in cireum- 
ference ?) 
118. The Mamlutdars of Satara report that the number of fisher- 
ahi i ., . men in the several talookas of the district 
pcpinione of native once m varies from 5 to 700, most of whom follow 
other occupations as coolies and agricultural 
labourers, and their castes are Bhoees and Kolis. Sometimes Mahomedans 
and Conbus also take fish for their own use. The local markets are not 
fully supplied with fish, and the proportion of people who consume it 
varies in the different talookas from 25 to 96 per cent. The amount of 
late years has decreased ; small ones are taken in large quantities during 
the rains by netting, hooks, &c., whilst the minimum mesh of the nets 
is one-eighth of an inch in circumference (one thirty-second part of an 
inch between knot and knot). Fish are not trapped in irrigated fields 
during the rains. Fishing is carried on by various descriptions of nets, 
by angling, and by diverting the natural course of a stream so as to 


Opinions of native officials in 
the Colaba Collectorate. 


lx 


make all the water pass through an open receptacle resembling a large 
basket, also by erecting a bank of sand across a river or nalla and 
obtaining the fish in the usual way. 

119. he xative officials in the Kaladgi Collectorate report that 
there are about 400 persons who follow fish- 
ing in conjunction with other occupations, 
but there are likewise distinct fishing castes. 
Fish are but rarely sold in the bazars; about one-quarter of the people 
are fish-eaters; the supply of late years is considered to have remained 
stationary. Very small ones are not taken in any quantity during the rains, 
whilst the minimum mesh employed is about the size of a grain of wheat. 
Tn the Indee Talooka fish are trapped during the rains in the irrigated fields. 

120. The xative officials at Sholapur give the number of fisher- 
men in the district at 1,000, includme women 
and children! The Bhoees are the fishermen 
caste; they are also palkee-bearers. The 
markets are insufficiently supplied with fish ; one-third of the population 
eat it when obtainable; the supply is said to have decreased of late ; 
very small ones are captured with nets and baskets, the latter of which 
are of such a fine texture that nothing can escape through the interstices. 

121. The Mlamlutdars of Belgaum report through the Assistant 
Collector as follows :—J/r. Stewart states that 
in his district there are only about 250  fisher- 
men, who also engage in other occupations ; 
they are chiefly of the Bhoee, Koli, and Takur castes, but a few Mussul- 
men likewise carry on this pursuit in a small measure, mostly for home 
consumption. The markets are glutted with salt-fish imported from Goa 
and the sea-coast, there being but a slight demand for fresh fish ; 
but if the opportunity were given to the natives to purchase fresh fish 
cheap and good, there could be no doubt that the use of this wholesome 
article of consumption would be more wide-spread. The relative price of 
fish and mutton is much the same in the different talookas, but the cost 
of the former is considerably more than that of the latter. About 20 
per cent. of the population eat fish, the supply of which has remained 
stationary of late years, but very young ones are not destroyed during 
the rains to any great extent. dr. Feet states that in his district there 
are about 60 fishermen of the Bhoee, Madrassi Holler, Koli, and Takur 
castes in Belgaum and its neighbourhood, whilst there are from 25 to 30 
in the Gokak Talooka of the Kabalgé, Mussulmen, and Rajput castes ; 
most of them are likewise palkee-bearers or Hamals. The Belgaum 
market is insufficiently supphed with fish, but in the Gokak Talooka the 
supply equals the demand ; the same may be said of the other two talookas. 
The supply in the rivers has seriously diminished of late years, due to 
inereased demand and decreased rainfall. Many very small ones are 
captured during the rainy months ; fish are very generally caught with nets, 
or trapped in the fields that are permanently irrigated. Mr. Luemon 
Jagoonoth reports that there are fifteen villages in his district on the banks 
of the rivers, and which contain about 125 fishermen, chiefly of the 
Maratha, Mussulmen, Kidbodee, Bagaee, and Bhoee castes. A large num- 
ber of very small fishes are captured during the rains with nets having 
minute meshes. 


Opinions of native officials in 
the Kuladgi Collectorate. 


Opinions of native officials in 
Sholupur. 


Opinions of the native officials 
of the Belgaum Collectorate. 


Ixt 


122. In the Dharwar Collectorate the native officials report as 
follows:—In the Dharwar Talooka there are 
600 fishermen, who likewise pursue other occu- 
pations; their castes are Surdur Bhoce, Village 
Bhoees, Maratha, Bedur, Wudurs, Mussulmen, Maratha Dhobies, Gungi 
Makalu, Kuber, and Amiger. The local markets are fully supplied with 
dried sea-fish imported from Goa, but very insufficiently with fresh fish. 
About 50,000 persons eat it, the supply of which has decreased of late 
years owing to diminished rainfall. Very small ones are taken during 
the rains, ‘the minimum size of the mesh of nets employed being about 
equal to ‘that of a grain of gram; fish are also trapped in the irrigated 
fields during the rains. The modes of taking are “ Gana,’ hook and 
bait;  Bis-buli,” casting net ; “Tatabuli,” and “ Khandelbuli,” drag-nets ; 
&§ Keoni,” wicker baskets ; ; also by hands. The Wudurs make use of 
dams. In the Petta Moogud Talooka there are about 32 fishermen, who 
also pursue other occupations; most are of the Bhoee caste, but the 
Rajputs and Mussulmen catch fish occasionally. The local market 
is not fully supplied; half the population (which is about 20,000) 
are fish-eaters. Small ones are taken during the rains; the minimum size of 
the mesh of the nets employed is equal to that of a grain of gram; fish 
are not trapped in the irrigated fields: the means for catching them 
are by “'Toputti,” a triangular casting net with minute meshes, and which 
is extensively employed ; « Bis-bul, oa casting net with larger meshes ; 
ss Khandelbuli, 7 Sand) “Gana,? this last being of two kinds: “ Want 
wana” is a pole to which a line having a hook and bait is suspended ; 
© Dawani gana” consists of two poles which are fixed in the ground in 
the water at some distance apart; a string connects the two, and from 
this, lines with hooks and baits are suspended and descend into the water. 
In the ooblee Tulooka there are three professional fishermen, but 50 other 
persons occasionally join in; the castes are Bhoee, Mussulmen, &e. The 
local market is insufficiently supplied; the fish have decreased of late 
years ; the minimum size of the meshes of the nets is equal to that of a 
grain of gram ; fish are not trapped in the irrigated fields ; they are taken 
by nets and baits. In the Now/lgoond Talooka there are 150 fishermen, 
but they also follow other occupations ; the castes are Bhoee and Mussul- 
men. ‘The fish supply has remained stationary of late; very small ones 
are taken during the rains, the minimum size of the meshes of the nets 
being about equal to a grain of gram; fish are not trapped in the 
irrigated fields. In the Dumbul Talooka there are about 50 fishermen, 
who also pursue other occupations; their castes are Bhoee, Mussulmen, 
Ambiger, Killikyat, and Boodboorki. The local market is not fully 
supplied with fresh fish, but salt fish is imported from the Bellary 
District. About 10,000 persons in this talooka are said to eat fish, the 
local supply of which is decreasing, Small ones are taken during the 
rains, but are not trapped in the irrigated fields. In the tanks and 
nallas in the Doni hills the Lumbanees poison the waters with the 
milk bush. In the Bunkapur Talooka there are about 6,000 fishermen, 
who also pursue other occupations ; their castes are Bhoee, Aree, Wudur, 
Killikyat, Dombaru, Bedur, Gungimakalu, Mussulmen, Boodboodkeroo, 
pee aes Korwaroo, &e. The local market is not fully supplied with 
fish, whilst about 50,000 persons eat it; the supply of late has remained 


Opinions of native officials of 
the Dharwar Collectorate. 


stationary ; very small ones are netted during the rains, the minimum size 
of the mesh being equal to one-fourth of an inch between knot and knot ; 
fish are also trapped in the irrigated fields. In the Hangut Talooka there 
are 9,000 fishermen, who also pursue other occupations; the castes are 
Areroo, Golaroo, Telaga sunajageroo, Yeeleegerroo, Lumbani, Mucheejar, 
Hulépaki, Rungari, Oopar, Rajput, Mussulmen, Hunamarroo, Kamatti, 
Kuber, Wudur, Mahars, Dhors, Koorbus, Chetreroo, Dasroo, Byadroo, 
Jataroo, Korwaroo, Telgaroo, Kotagar, and Erguntti. The local fish 
market is fairly supplied, especially with marine sorts. About 30,000 persons 
eat fish, the supply of which has decreased of late ; very small ones are 
taken during the rains, the minimum size of the mesh of the nets being: 
equal to that of a grain of gram; fish are also trapped in the irrigated 
fields and poisoned with the milk bush and powder of Mungari-kai. In 
the Ranebedume Talooka there are several castes that fish, Mussulmen, 
Koorbur, Tulwar, Ambiger, Telgaroo, Sabroo, Madgeroo, Areroo, 
Rungareroo, Neikaroo, Bhoee, and Wudur. The local markets are not 
fully supplied with fresh fish, but during the hot months salt-fish comes 
from Coompta. 'Three-sevenths of the population (of 70,000) eat fish, the 
supply of which has decreased of late years; very small ones are taken 
in quantities during the rains, the mmimum size of the mesh of the nets 
being only equal to that of a grain of gram; none are trapped in the 
irrigated fields. Inthe Kurwghee Talooka there are 1,000 fishermen, but 
they also follow other occupations. The local market is fully supplied 
with salted marine fish from Coompta; about 15,000 persons are stated to 
be fish-eaters, the supply of fresh-water ones has decreased of late ; very 
small ones are captured during the rains, the minimum size of the mesh 
of the nets equalling that of a grain of gram; fish are not trapped 
in the irrigated fields. In the Rutghutghee Tulooka there are about 150 
fishermen, who also pursue other occupations; the castes are Gungimakaloo, 
Gowreemakaloo, Wudur, Maratha, Mussulmen, Hubsi, Chundi, Mydar, 
Korwarroo, Ioleroo, Lumbani, Kuber, and Byad. The local market is 
fully supplied with salted marine fish which are brought from Coompta, 
whilst the supply of fresh-water sorts has remained stationary of late. 
About 25,000 persons are said to be fish-consumers; very small ones 
are captured during: the rains ; the minimum size of the mesh of the nets 
is given at one inch in circumference; none are trapped in the irrigated 
fields. Wicker traps are employed for taking fish; they are likewise 
poisoned by the mill bush and the powdered fruit of the Mungari. Dams 
are also erected, and water laded out in order to obtain all the fish. In 
the Kode Tulooka there are about 500 fishermen, who also have other 
occupations ; the castes are Mussulmen, Kuber, Wudur, Bedur, Killikyat, 
Holer, Chulwadi, Arer, Lumbani, and Korwar. The markets are 
insufficiently supplied with fish, whilst there are about 25,000 persons 
who eat it ; the supply is decreasing ; very small ones are captured during 
the rains; the minimum size of the meshes of the nets are said to be equal 
to a two-anna silver piece, and even less; fish are trapped in the 
irrigated fields. 


MADRAS. 


128. The following reports from the European and native officials 

Ay of the Madras Presidency are mostly the 

pa Pad aera eet result of enquiries made in the years 1867, 

Madina: 68, 69, the questions circulated in 1871 having 

only been replied to by two Collectors, As, 

however, the two series were rather similar, this summary has not 

been further delayed awaiting them. In some of the Collectorates full 

answers, in others only a few, from the native officials have been received, 
whilst insome they have been entirely omitted. 

124. The fresh-water fisheries of this Presidency may be divided 

Ma Se into those of rivers and tanks in all their 

The fresh-water fisheries being yayious forms and sub-divisions; some of 

of rivers and tanks. ‘ : 

which are perennial, others not so, a most 

important consideration with respect to the following draft instructions 

for the guidance of Collectors, issued by the Revenue Board (December 

18th, 1869) :—* Collectors will understand that these orders apply only to 

tidal estuaries of considerable extent, and to inland tanks and streams, 
which, as a rule, retain water throughout the year.” 

125. The rivers of Madras are not of that large size observed in 

: : the west of India, as the Indus: or to the 
ee Bes ee east, as the Ganges, Brahmaputra, Irrawaddi, 
respecting the fisheries. and Salween in Burma, and few retain a 

perennial supply of water. These rivers are 
chiefly the Godaveri, the Toongbhudra, Kristna, Cauvery, and those 
of Malabar, most of the remainder being more or less dry during the hot 
months. As the Board of Revenue objects to making any order applica- 
ble to the rivers that are not perennial, so the Collectors, as of Kurnal and 
Malabar, object to anything being done for those which are so, consider- 
ing they should be left alone. 

126. Respecting tank fisheries, those existing in inundated 

districts and in irrigated fields, the above- 
ay at prea ig Reeve quoted instructions (para. 123) direct that “it 
tanks that do not dry up. is not intended to interfere with the usual 

practice of catching fish in small tanks which 
do not retain water throughout the year, nor with any rivers excepting 
those possessing a perennial supply of water,’ and even here large 
exceptions appear to be admitted. 

127. The first consideration is, what proportion of the people eat 
Jish ? or perhaps, may do so without infringing 
caste prejudices, could they obtain it? It 
will be seen from the following answers of both European and 
native officials, that the great majority of the population can 
eat fish, the largest exceptions being Brahmins, goldsmiths, high- 
caste Sudras, the followers of Siva, the Jains, &c.; that fresh fish is 
usually chosen in preference to the salted article, except in some 
few talookas, whilst low-caste people aud Mahomedans in some districts 


Majority of people fish-eaters. 


lxiv 


prefer salt-fish to fresh. Even at Bellary there appears to be a good 
demand for salt-fish, but in a few of the inland talookas it cannot be sold. 
This seems to have reference in some places to the proportion and caste 
of the Hindus. 

128. dre the markets well supplied? Along the coasts and in places 
within easy reach of the sea they would 
seem to be so, but not inland. Out of 39 
Tehsildars of Collectorates not, or only slight- 
ly, bordering on the sea, the following are the replies, that the markets 
are sufliciently supplied in 4: insulliciently or hardly, if at all, in 35. 

129. Have the fish in the fresh waters increased, decreased, or remain- 
ed stationary ? Omitting vague answers, 64 
Tehsildars’ replies have been received; they 
are as follows :—6 report an increase in the 
amount in their talookas ; 46 either a large decrease or a decrease ; and 
-12 that the supply remains stationary, or else that no decrease is perceived 
this year. 


The inland markets ‘insufli- 
ciently supplied. 


Fish supply in the waters has 
generally decreased. 


130, Whose are the fisheries ? is a question adverted to by some of 
ahs the reporters, and it appears to be almost uni- 
oe Government pro-  Versally considered that those existing in inland 


waters, with a few exceptions, are Government 
property, but doubts are entertained by the Revenue Board whether the 
“ sanction of a legal enactment may not be necessary to enable the Gov- 
ernment to interfere with the exercise of practices which long custom may 
have converted into communal rights.” [Paterson, ‘ Fishery Laws of 
Great Britain,’ observes of persons who claim right of fishing due to long 
custom— “ no length of time during which such acts are capable of being 
explained on the ground of license, can prevent the owner putting an 
end to such license. He may resume his original rights at any moment 
and withdraw the license, for no man ought to have his rights abridged 
by acting liberally towards the public or his neighbours.” ] How and 
when numbers of the fishery rents ceased to be collected is adverted to in 
para. 146. 


131. 


The fishermen, with but few 
exceptions, only, follow this 
occupation in addition to their 
usual work. 


they can, when they can. 


The fishermen, 


asa rule, are the agriculturists, palanquin- 
bearers, small traders, coolies, and others, who 
carry on this pursuit when not engaged in 
their ordinary avocations, and as there are no 
restrictions, their only idea is to obtam what 
Were all the fisheries ruined, it would not 


pecuniarily affect them, except to a secondary degree, as their living is not 


dependant upon fishing. 


In some districts, as Rajahmundry, Chingle- 


put, Combaconum, and a portion of Coimbatore, some few persons exist, 
who appear to be entirely dependant on this occupation. 


182. 


Breeding fish are destroyed 
by irrigation weirsurresting their 
progress, being trapped whilst 
ascending to breed or returning 
tothe rivers, by weirs and other 
fixed engines, and by poison. 


due to the want of fish passes. 


Are breeding fish destroyed, and, if so, how ? 


In every dis- 
trict this can be said to be earried on, 
principally in one of the four following 
manners :—Firsé, irrigation weirs which detain 
breeding fish ascending or descending, and 
their being allowed to be netted at those 
places; this seems to be considered unavoidable, 
Irrigation canals, where there are deep 


Ixv 


falls, without passes, likewise exereise the same deleterious efleets ; also 
drying off irrigation eanals. Secondly, fish during: the monsoon time 
frequently migrate for breeding purposes, and often into ponds that 
are not perennial ; it consequently oceurs that should the floods cease 
before they ean regain the rivers, their retreat is cut off, and with the 
evaporation of the waters they are captured. Thirdly, and much more 
effectually, by the use of fixed enginesas cruives or traps made of 
wicker work, and placed in every run where fish are likely to ascend to 
breed or to return after having done so. Or in the form of fishing weirs 
across whole streams and minor rivers in which not a single means of 
passing is left, the only gaps being where a eruive or trap is fixed. 
fourthly, by poisoning the water both in rivers and ponds. 

133. Are the fry killed to any extent when just moving about ? 
Evidently they are, and in every district, by 
the second, third and fourth means by which 
the breeding fish (para. 132) have been stated 
to be destroyed. Besides this, nets of minute meshes are employed, and 
what should be the succeeding year’s supply is cut off. In some irrigated 
ficlds, if there were not fixed traps in every opening and fall, these fry 
might return to the rivers in the waste water, provided open channels were 
left permitting them to do so (see para. 169); in other places the water is 
entirely expended on the field, and if the fry once get access, they must 
he destroyed as evaporation takes place. 

134. As to the various methods resorted to for capturing fish, they are 
almost innumerable. Without describing the 
different forms of nets, an important question 
is, what is the minimum. size of the mesh- 
es of those employed in the fresh waters? As 
far as can be ealeulated from the answers received from 48 Tehsildars 
or subordinate officials, either the minimum size of the meshes in use 
. the usual size may be thus tabulated :—the size of a finger or thumb 
1: of a pie 1; of one-fourth of an anna 1; of a two-anna hit 1 ; of one- 
fourth of arupee 1; of half a rupee 1; of one inch 3; of half an inch 6 ; 
of one-fourth of an inch 8; of one-eighth of an inch 8; of one-tenth of 
an inch 1; of one-sixteenth of an inch L; of the size ofa grain of 
dholl, gram, a pepper corn or tamarind seed, 11; such as would 
ensnare an ant 1. In most of the portions of the Madras Presideney 
I have visited, the meshes of the nets used for capturing fry during 
the monsoons would be almost or quite sufficiently minute to be 
employed as mosquito curtains. The eruives or traps may be defined as 
sullicient: to only permit water being strained through. Weirs have but 
little wider interstices between the substances of which they are con- 
structed. Simply the prohibition of poisoning the rivers in South Canara 
for two years and forbidding the employment therein of cruives the 
interstices of which would not permit a finger (}ths of an inch) to pass, 
resulted in a vast extension of the fish and “fisheries (see para. 169). 

135. Trapping breeding fishes and young ones appears to be the 

rule ; fishing weirs exist in many places, 
p¥oirs, Sxcilcngincs.daniming especially across those streams which are in 
and lading out picees of water, ital . 
snd the use of poison. the vicinity of or upon hills, because many 
species of fish resort there to deposit their eggs 


e 


Fry destroyed in large quan- 
ilies; modes enumerated. 


Minimum size of the mesh of 
nets employed and interspaces in 
eruives. 


Ixvi 


and return again to the larger rivers of the plains before the advent of the 
dry season would impede their descent. Damming and lading out pieces 
of water for capturing fish occurs in several parts. Whilst poisoning: is 
reported as existing in the Collectorates of Nellur, Trichinopoly, 
Kurnal, Chingleput, Salem, ‘innevelli, Coimbatore, South Canara 
and Malabar. 
136. The following reports will, I conceive, render it conclusive, 
: that (1) the great proportion of the imhalit- 
Perna upon the ants of the Madras Presidency are fish-eaters, 
generally preferring it fresh; (2) that the 
markets, as a rule, are insulliciently supplied ; (8) that the amount of 
fish in the fresh waters has generally decreased; (4) that the fisheries 
are Government property; (5) that the fishermen, as a rule, do not 
follow this occupation as a sole means of support, but rather in addition 
to their regular occupations; (6) that breeding fish are trapped and 
otherwise netted (as at irrigation weirs) when migrating for breeding 
purposes; (7) that the fry are wastefully destroyed whenever and 
wherever they can be obtained; (8) that nets with the most minute 
meshes are employed; (9) that fixed engines, as eruives and weirs, 
are unfairly and largely made use of; (10) that damming up and 
lading out waters, is in existence, in order to procure fish; (11) that 
poisoning is also resorted to for this purpose. 
137. And now the consideration arises, as to what measures of 
amelioration have been proposed on these 
Measures of amelioration oints by the various officials of the Madras 
which have been proposed in Prosido Alindmit aha “ox N. 10 
Mrdcast residency. admit that whenever Nos. 
and 11 exist they should be prohibited, 
leaving only for enquiry how the unfair destruction of breeding: fish 
should be lessened, the general massacre of young fry diminished, as well 
as the best method of treating the question of nets and fixed implements, 
At the onset, it may be observed that the Revenue Board would leave 
matters as theyare, as they “cannot but view with reluctance the 
necessity of State interference, with what are at present free industries.” 
138. I proposed (December Ist, 1868), after having examined many 
ie feite: . Of the fisheries, that ‘free fishing,’ if I may so 
as propositions iN degeribe it, should be abolished on economic 
grounds, my reasons being that the effect of 
giving up the fisheries to the public free of cost had resulted in their 
being almost destroyed ; that letting them out would cause the lessee to 
look after them; that no lessee could oppress the fishermen, for if they 
refused to work, he would be powerless to obtain the fish. I suggested 
yearly auctions (which, however, have been objected to by various offi- 
cials), which would, after five years or so, show the value of the fisheries, 
and subsequently they might be leased out for five years ata time. (I 
never contemplated yearly auctions to be continued, as appears to be 
supposed) ; that the minimum size of the meshes of nets should be four 
inches in circumference; of course, this would include the interstices 
between the substances employed in ecruives, weirs, and all fixed imple- 
ments; the desiruetion of vermin, as crocodiles and otters; the slaughter 
of snakes at irrigation weirs, and the construction of fish passes at these 
places. 


xvii 


139. Phe Madras Government (30th April 1869) directed that all 
picces of inland waters should be leased out 

Orders of the Madras Govern. 12 order to give a distinct interest to some 
ment and of the Revenue Board, person in preventing indiscriminate fishing, 
that provision should be made in the con- 

tracts, for the protection of fish in regard to the size of the mesh used, 
viz., four inches in cireumference, the periods and localities for fishing, the 
draining off water in tanks and the poisoning of rivers ; that fish passes 
should be constructed at anicuts, and rewards given for the destruction 
of vermin that destroy fish, and the prohibition of fishing during certain 
inonths, October to February inclusive, in the irrigation channels through 
which the young fish pass down to the sea; and that such should come 
in foree on July Ist, 1869. These orders also included the prohibition 
of the use of nets within 100 yards of anicuts and such like masonry works 
extending across streams. The Revenue Board (May 28th, 1869) 
considered that headmen of villages should hold the fisheries at a 
small royalty, or that protective rules should be embodied in a brief, 
Fishery Act. They neither approved of an inch between the meshes of 
nets, nor prohibiting the taking of breeding fish detained near irrigation 
weirs. Zhe Madras Government (June 25th, 1869) saw no reason why pro- 
{ective measures should be deferred, but would not object to the details 
being modified as regards letting the fisheries, and the minimum size of 
the mesh of the nets. Zhe Board of Revenue (August 27th, 1869) again 
objected, stating that 13 Collectors agreed in reporting that no wanton 
destruction of fish takes place, and that no protective measures are needed. 
Lhe Madras Government decided “no orders are necessary on these 
papers.” The instructions to district officers were called for. The 
Board of Revenue (October 23rd, 1869) stated that no detailed orders on 
the subject were issued. Zhe Madras Government (November 19th, 1869) 
observe, “ that they saw no reason why the protective measures suggest- 
ed should be deferred, but permitted some of the details to be partially 
modified as proposed by the Board. On the receipt of this last com- 
munication, it was clearly the duty of the Board to have immediately 
issued the necessary orders to Collectors, but this itappears has not been 
done. ‘The Board will, accordingly, now be instructed to give effect to 
the orders which should have been brought into operation on the Ist of 
July last.” On December 18th, the Board issued their instructions 
(para. 148), modifying the minimum size of the mesh of nets to three 
inches (instead of four) all round, and offering certain rewards for vermin 
killed within one mile of irrigation weirs. Fish were to be passed over 
weirs (see para. 152), whilst the subsidiary orders partially nullify the 
original propositions. Z'he Acting Secretary to the Madras Government 
(October 5th, 1869) reported to the Seeretary to the Government of 
India that “the Government have already decided on adopting the 
protective measures advocated by Dr. Day for fresh-water fisheries.” 
Finally (July 12th, 1872), on being asked for “information showing the 
results from letting the fresh-water fisheries from July last year” (1871), 
the Acting Sub-Secretary to the Board replied, “the Board are not aware that 
any special measures have been adopted in the matter of leasing fisheries 
during the past revenue year;” from which it would almost appear 
doubtful if the foregoing instructions have yet been brought into oper- 


Ixviii 


ation. The Secretary of State for India (June 17th, 1869) observed, “ that 
the conservancy and control of the fisheries, and the measures suggested 
for the improvement of piseiculture throughout India, constitute subjects 
which certainly deserve attention from your Government, (that of India) 
and I fully approve of the arrangements that have been made. * * In 
carrying out your views, much will depend on the interest that is taken 
by local officers.” 
140. I may here mention that prior to the commencement of this 
enquiry, I observed in the ‘ Madras Medical 
Fresh-water fisheries in Ma- J ouynal’— Amongst the animal productions 
dras, prior to the commencement a a = ipa 
of this investigution. of India, fish meet with the least sympathy, 
and the greatest persecution, especially as 
regards the fresh-water tribes, which have to struggle for bare existence 
in rivers that periodically diminish to little streams, and often dry up 
during the hot months; or in tanks from which the water totally dis- 
appears. Besides these and many other disadvantages, they have their 
natural enemies in the ova state, in youth, and maturity; but amongst 
these foes mankind is perhaps the greatest. A fish diet is much esteem- 
ed and procurable at a comparatively cheap rate, because these unfor- 
tunate creatures are captured by every one who gets the chance : 
the larger species are killed irrespective of time and season; the young 
ave destroyed for curries ; water-courses are poisoned for the purpose of 
obtaining them in large quantities for saltmg and transmission to distant 
markets ; whilst they meet with no protection even from inferior foes. 
Now that every article of consumption is increasing in value, the propa- 
gation of fish must become a subject worthy of great consideration, 
especially as they live in places which are otherwise unserviceable to man 
in the production of food, excepting in a secondary manner; whilst no 
grain is required for their support, but little trouble for their protection, 
and they thrive in places which but for them would be deserted wastes. 
Were it not for the vast number of eggs which fish deposit, the probabi- 
lities are that, long ere this, they must have been exterminated in India, 
excepting in thinly populated or uninhabited districts, for man allows 
them no law, and were they noxious reptiles, could not more anxiously 
compass their destruction * *, But now the piscine tribes seem to have 
fallen on evil days, being only protected in or near Hindu temples, for in 
fact elsewhere they appear to exist solely beeause man has been unable 
to destroy them.” 
14]. Since the foregoing was written, I have visited several of the 
Per ._. ., districts of the Madras Presideney to investi- 
ersonal observations in dis- : ° 
tricteletndeaa: gate the present state and future prospects of 
its fresh-water fisheries, and extract the fol- 
lowing from my reports. Across the Kistna river is the Bezwada irri- 
gation weir, which on its first construction by preventing the ascent of 
breeding fish, caused them to be detained below it, where they were netted 
in numbers. Since these first two years there has been a gradual dimi- 
nution of the shad, as wellas of all other kinds of fish, whether strictly 
fresh-water or partially marine ; whilst the fishermen complain that they 
‘annot now (1868) supply half the local demand. Abusing the anicut as 
the cause of this, they will not perceive that they are doing quite as much 
mischief by destroying the fry of the fresh-water species. I saw little 


Ixix 


boys sent out to fish whose duty it was to bring home a daily supply for 
their families, the size being no object, and a sufficient amount the only 
criterion. Hundreds of small fry are thus daily destroyed by the nets of 
these little urchins, whilst the adult fishermen also assist in this work of des- 
truetion. At Rajahmundry, above the weir, the price of fish in the bazar was 
reputed to have risen 100 per cent. in seven years,and a great decrease of fish. 
Ilere the fry and immature fish were being captured in myriads. At Comba- 
conum I sent out some fishermen for two days to see what specimens they 
could collect for me, and during that time they brought me upwards of 
5,000 young fish, these being, : as they stated, the qui ality they were cap- 
turing in and near the station. That the destr uction of fry is carried on to 
an excessive extent must be patent to the most casual observer who travels 
during the monsoon months. It appeared to me that the principal reason 
for the decrease of fish, was that the fry were captured i in excessive numbers 
owing to the minuteness of the size of the meshes in nets; that irriga- 
tion weirs and falls in canals arrested the ascent of breeding fish, which 
were also trapped in irrigated fields and water-courses ; and lastly, that 
indiscriminate fishing was disastrous. 
142. One official (para. 158) having remarked upon my _ proposi- 
Observation on an opinion tions, —“ I believe any. law regulating the 
that prohibiting the destruction size of the mesh would be inoperative in this 
of fry by regulating the mini- country; it would be eruel to the poor people 
mum size of the meshes of nets who for the most part live on small fish,” 


vould 1 1 to tl . 
pS a a as Tam unable to see the erve//y in attempting 


to augment the food supply of the poorer classes. I have examined mag- 
nificent pieces of fresh-water in the Madras Presidency not containing 
sufficient fish for the few inhabitants alone their banks. In large dis- 
tricts any one may fish in whatever way best suits his individual views, 
and ignorant natives, who never look beyond to-day’s wants, take what 
they are able irrespective of size, and fish where they please no matter 
how. As the large fish are cleared off, smaller meshed nets are employed, 
until at last the fry, as a rule, become the sized fish which are taken. 
A. staff of water bailiffs would be expensive, but if fisheries are let, the 
lessee becomes their keeper : his people the watchers. Self-interest would 
never allow his permitting every little boy to have and use a net where- 
eh he is destroying the fry. It is sometimes esserted that it would 
be hard on the poorer classes not to permit them to capture these little 
wee fish: if seems to be thought that fish come of themselves, are not worth 
protecting when young, but ‘should at all times be game in every manner 
to the whole of the population, But how have these pscudo-philan- 
thropic views answered in practice? By decreasing the fish and con- 
sequently diminishing the supply of food in whole districts. Thus, when 
famine years come round the waters will be found depopulated, the 
little fish have been eaten by the poorer classes, and consequently 
larger ones will be sought for in vain. I deny the philanthropy of such 
proceedings, but on thec contrary hold that practically although unintention- 
ally, when carried out, they will be found amongst the most erve? in their 
clfeets of any that could be devised. At first permitting any one andevery one 
to fish as they please, temporarily inereases the quantity captured, but at 
a permanent injury to the fishery, by deereasing future years’ supply, and, 
if continued, almost annihilating them. Water should be as valuable as 


Ixx 


land for producing food, and indiscriminate farming is not permitted : 
forests have been vuined in this country by the same ‘free forestry’ having 
been allowed as is now destroying the fresh-water fisheries, and much the 
same objections were raised against preventing the poor people cutting 
fuel when, where, and how they pleased ; the result is too well known to 
comment upon. 
143. Lastly, my propositions, in addition to those in paragraph 
138, are to interfere as little as possible with 
the natives, excepting to prevent unfair 
fishing. Whether the fisheries ave let for this purpose or a net tax is 
instituted, does not appear so material, as that a certain minimum distance 
be declared shall always exist between each knot of the meshes of nets, 
or in the interstices of substances forming weirs, traps or cruives, 
or in any fixed trap or traps used in the capture of fish. This distance, I 
would suggest, should be one inch, but this isa detail that might be modified 
to suit different districts. No fixed fishing weirs should be permitted to 
exist entirely barring a stream; a free passage should be imperative. 
Cruives or wicker traps, or those formed of wire or any other substances 
used as fixed traps, should only be permitted on a written authority, and 
the month in which they are permitted to be employed should be stated. 
In Great Britain they are absolutely prohibited in fresh waters. Either 
immature fish should be prevented from entering irrigated ficlds, or a 
free passage permitted as proposed by the Collector of South Canara, 
Fence-months in hilly regions I consider highly desirable, during such 
periods as large fish are ascending to breed or returning to the rivers in 
the plains. This might be fixed at a period, not exceeding two months, 
to be selected by the local authorities. 
144. The Madras Revenue Board suggest the appointment of two 
Proposal of Revenue Board to Inspectors of Fisheries with establishments, 
appoint two Inspectors of but prior to this being carried out, it would 
Eihoaee. appear desirable to decide, whether any mea- 
sures are going to be taken to preserve the fresh-water fisheries of that 
Presidency, and, secondly, what are those measures to be, if any are 
adopted ? 
145. In the Proceedings of the Board of Revenue of Madras (May 
: 2th, 1869), with reference to fisheries in 
ee eae mane we waters above tidal reach, it is observed that 
fresh-water fisheries: there is scarcely anywhere a numerous and 
distinct class dependant on this pursuit for 
subsistence, thongh the Godaveri river may furnish an exception. As 
regards prohibiting the use of nets below a certain size, it appears to the 
Board impossible to forbid the use of a mesh of less than four inches in 
circumference (or one inch between each knot of the meshes), for they 
believe that whiting [Siddago sihama, a marine fish at Madras, is so termed, 
and here is an objection made which is capable of being proved or disproved. 
This fish is as wide as high, and its height is one-sixth of its length; 
now it is well known no whiting under 10 or 12 inches is fit for the 
table ; such would only just escape a net with 2 inches between each knot of 
the_meshes] of the average size, and all the smaller mullet [also a sea- 
fish] could pass through meshes of that size, to say nothing of prawns, im- 
mense numbers of which are consumed in Madras and elsewhere, and which 


Further personal propositions. 


Ixxi 


are taken in fine-meshed casting nets. The total prohibition of fishing near 
the anicuts (weirs) does not appear necessary to the Board, although it 
might be well that a sufficient time should be allowed to enable the fish 
to ascend the ladders (where such are provided) unmolested, after which 
the fishing could be unrestricted. It is very desirable that unfair and 
wholesale destruction of breeding fish at the anicuts and elsewhere should 
be prevented, and that a stop should be put to the poisoning of water 
and drainage of tanks for the purpose of eatching fish. In a further 
report of proceedings (dated December 18th, 1869), “ the Board cannot 
admit the correctness of Dr. Day’s assertion, C My assertion was based 
on an extensive enquiry amongst the fresh-water fishermen ; also the 
Collectors of the Godaveri District and of Coimbatore say six months: the 
Collector of the IKiséna and the Lead Assistant Collector of Kurnal 
observe one year’s notice will be sufficient: the Collectors of Neliur, of 
South Arcot and Madura likewise suggest one year’s notice : the Collector 
of Bellary that no notice is absolutely necessary, but merely a stipulation 
in the contract: and these include the whole of the answers to the 
question, “ How long notice do you consider it would be necessary to give, 
provided it were deemed advisable to prohibit fishing with very small- 
meshed nets in waters which are let?” and itis to be presumed, that 
before replying, an enquiry was made,—how long do nets last ?] in para, 
40 that fishing nets only last a year. At least the Board would 
recommend the proposal be so far modified as to substitute three inches 
for four as the limit for the size of the net’s mesh, and to exempt casting 
nets and prawn nets altogether from the restriction. The Board enter- 
tain some doubts whether the sanction of a legal enactment may not be 
necessary to empower the Government to issue orders which greatly 
interfere with the exercise of practices which long custom may have 
converted into communal rights, (see para. 130) maintainable by a 
civil action, The Board would also draw the attention of the Govern- 
ment to the letter from the Collector of Malabar [This appears to be a 
mistake; it was the Officiating Collector who raised these objections, 
November 5th, 1859, being unable to see the injuries going on in the 
fisheries which had been adverted to by the Acting Collector, February 
12th of the same year, preferring the opinion of a Sub-Collector whose 
acquaintance with fish and fisheries does not appear to be very extensive, 
judging from his letters], who deprecates the introduction of orders into 
his district as unnecessary and likely to be highly unpopular, and would 
beg to suggest that the application of these rules cither to Malabar (see 
para. 167) or South Canara (see para. 168) should be suspended. 
In further proceedings (dated July 13th, 1871) the Board observe 
upon Mr. Thomas’ report, on the result of one year’s experimental trial of 
protecting fish in South Canara, my reports on the Madras fresh-water 
lisheries, their own former proceedings, and the orders of the Madras 
Government, and continue, “ the Board cannot but view with re- 
luctance the necessity for State interference with what are at present 
free industries, and deprecate the conversion of measures attended alike 
in the interests of the people and the Government, for the conservancy 
of an important article of food, into a means of raising revenues for the 
gencral purposes of the State.” [The Government of India observed, 
October 2nd, 1871, “The real point for consideration is this :—Tishes, if 


Ixxii 


properly preserved, are susecptible of becoming an important, because 
abundant, cheap, and wholesome article of food. Is the present plan of 
non-interference likely to ensure to future generations the fullest possible 
supply of this food staple? Ts it even such as to ensure their inheriting 
a supply equal to that which now exists? The Governor General in 
Council apprehends that both these questions must be answered in the 
negative: and that not only is there no prospect, as matters now stand, of 
an increased supply hereafter, but that, owing to the absence of precau- 
tionary measures and reasonable restrictions, the existing supply is dimi- 
nishing. His Excellency in Council believes, on the other hand, that it 
would be possible, by the adoption of such measures and restrictions, to 
increase the supply very largely in a few years. If this be so, it_ would 
clearly be the duty of the State to take the necessary measures.” } 
146. The Revenue Board continue—< they think that they cannot 
now but recommend Government to prepare a 
Proposal for draft fishery Act. draft, Act, drawn in accordance with the spirit 
and provision of the Land Acquisition Act, 
X of 1870, to enable them to undertake the conservancy of all waters 
to which its provisions may be extended, with due provision for inviting 
and deciding counter-claims and rights by the Collector or Courts, and 
for compensating the owners of such rights or easements where such 
rights are interfered with or resumed.” The Board proposed the Act 
should contain provision that tanks and streams not perennial be free [a 
provision sfrongly to be deprecated, as most of the Madras rivers are 
so, more especially as the Board suggest only prohibiting traps in rivers 
declared to be taken under Government conservancy, but permitting 
every species of poaching (except damming and poisoning) in fields, 
minor channels, and ponds, } That in rivers and tidal estuaries it shall be 
declared lawful for Government to levy a tax on fisheries in such waters, 
either in the form of rent, or of fees on implements of fishery; the col- 
lection of such fees to be kepi directly under the management of Gov- 
ernment or farmed out. That poisoning of waters for the purpose of 
eatching fish, and the pollution of waters by the refuse of coflee-pulpers 
and other deleterious works be interdicted under heavy penalties. ‘That 
the minimum size of the mesh of nets be defined by law at two inches in 
circumference in fresh waters, and that immature fish, the description and 
size of which are to be determined and notified by Government, captured are 
to be returned to the water under penalty, That the interruption by dams 
and traps of the entire waterway of public rivers, and the use of cruives 
and the like devices be prohibited in rivers declared to be taken under 
Government conservancy. That no interference is intended or to be 
permitted with the existing rights of the people to catching and retain- 
ing fish in their own fields, minor channels, and ponds, but that it shall 
be lawful for the officers entrusted by law with the conservancy of fish- 
eries, to insert gratings in the head of any channels leading to such fields. 
That rod and line-angling be untaxed. ‘That a separate fishery depart- 
ment be constituted under the Board, who suggest that all rents derived 
from fisheries should for the present constitute a fund for the protection 
and improvement of this industry. These now amount, on the average of 
five years, to Rs. $0,000, with a steady upward tendency. It must be 
borne in mind that, practically, nothing is eredited under this head in the 


statements for the districts of Vizagapatam, Godaveri, Nellur, Cud- 
dapah, Kurnal, Canara, and Malabar, and in’ several distriets the 
whole subject is inadequately attended to. The Board think, that with 
care, a large prospective income may be relied on from this souree, while 
the taxes and licenses may be kept so low as to be anything but 
oppressive. 
147. With regard to the districts from which no fishery rents are 
emiet “Oiler ne arena reecived, it will be necessary tio refer, as a 
Board in 1848, as to what reason, to the Cirenlar Orders of the Board of 
fisheries were to be let, and what Revenue. On November 27th, 1848, Collect- 
HR ors were requested ‘to take measures to 
introduce, in future, the system of disposing of village, tank, and channel 
fisheries on rent, should such a course not have been hitherto adopted.” 
But to the ¢ Collector of North Arcot, on receiving his letters of Decem- 
ber 8th and January 29th, 1849, the Board observed, they ‘ will not 
press the extension of the renting system in respect to ‘the tank fisheries 
of North Arcot, but will leave it. “to the discretion of the Acting Collector 
to continue the management of that branch of revenue in the manner 
which appears to him best suited to the cireumstanees of his district.’ 
In reply to a letter from the Collector of Guntur, dated January 29th, 
1849, the Board did “ not consider it advisable to revise the practice of 
renting the tank and channel fisheries in Guntur.’ The Agont in 
Kurnal was directed “ not to take any measures for renting the “fisheries 
of his district,” whilst the Collector of Bellary was “not to make any 
demand on this head upon fisheries that have not heretofore been subject 
to tax.” Again, in 1862, the following was cireulated to all Collectors :— 
“ The Board are decidedly opposed to any extension of the fishery rents, 
and more especially so where involving in any form the re-imposition of 
the burden from which the abolition of the moturpha tax relieved the 
poorer classes.” [The Collector of Madras, Junc 14th, 1869, observed, 
“it appears that some years ago it was ruled by the Secretary of State, 
that the right of fishing was not to be rented out, exeept where the 
practice had been previously i in vogue. I have not the Secretary of 
State’s despatch to refer to, but I suspect that i was really intended to 
apply only to inland fisheries, such as village tanks, jungle streams, and 
channels, and was done probably in recognition of the prescriptive rights 
of the inhabitants to enjoy the fish within their limits without any tax.” 
148. As already observed, the Board objected to a 4-inch mesh 
being introduced; so they were allowed 
Instructions from Revenue {> modify the order, and they considered a 
Board to Collectors respecting — ¢ 
Ae frenerattas falterioas 3-inched mesh cocina small as a mini- 
mum, and on December 18th the following 
instructions were issued to Collectors with reference to fresh-water 
lisheries :— Notice should be given that, from the Ist July 1870, the 
right of fishing in all Government tanks, rivers, and streams having a 
perennial supply of water will be let by public auction for a period of 
three years. Renters will be called to enter into agreements to abide by 
the general rules for the regulation of fisheries that may be passed hy 
the Board, and to any orders issued hy Collectors in reference to speci: ul 
localities. The use of all nets having meshes less than three inches in 
cireumference (casting nets and prawn nets exeepted) should be prohi- 


Ixxiv 


bited ; this prohibition to take effect from the Ist July 1871, and to be in 
force ‘in all waters, both salt and fresh, classed as Government fisheries. 
The draining of all tanks, the property of Goverument, for the purpose 
of catching ‘fish, and the poisoning of water for the purpose of catching 
fish in all tanks, rivers, and streams, should be strictly prohibited. Notices 
should be issued that persons detected in the last-named practice will be 
proceeded against criminally. All fishing with nets or loaded-hooks 
within 200 y: rards of any anicut or other masonry work extending across 
a Government stream should be prohibited. All fishing in irrigation 
channels, the property of Government, which communic ate with the sea, 
from October to February, both inclusive, should be prohibited. The 
following scale of rewards for the destruction of vermin should be offered 
if killed within one mile of an anicut or masonry dam :—each alligator 
[crocodile was the animal for whose destruction I suggested rewards should 
be offered, and the Madras Government agreed to. I hardly think it 
would be of use giving them for ad//igators, as those reptiles are peculiar 
to the American continent] 6 feet long and upwards, Rs. 5; from 
2 to 6 fect, Rs. 2; under 2 feet, Re. 1; every egg, 2 annas ; each 
otter, Re. 1. Collectors should submit a list of the loc: alities in 
their respective districts where they would recommend that rewards 
should be given. Collectors of Godaveri, Kistna, and Tanjur will take 
measures for passing a certain number of fish over the anicuts by netting 
them in the manner proposed by Lieutenant Vibart, x. z. Collectors will 
understand that these orders apply only to tidal estuaries of considerable 
extent, and to inland tanks and streams which, as a rule, retain water 
throughout the year in suflicient quantity to keep up a constant supply 
of fish, and are the property of Government. A list of all such estuaries 
and fresh-water reservoirs and streams as Collectors consider should be 
classed as Government fisheries, should be submitted without delay. It 
is not intended to interfere with the usual practice of catching fish in 
small tanks which do not retain water throughout the year, nor with any 
rivers but those possessing a perennial supply of water. Channels, 
however, such as those under the Godaveri and Kistna anicuts, which, 
although dry for certain seasons, communicate with rivers and back- 
waters having a perpetual supply of water, may be included. 

149. Whe Acting Collector of Ganjam (June 14th, 1870) observed 
that no protective measure in respect to fish- 
eries appear to be necessary in his district, 
as the rivers have little or no water in them 
save when the freshes come down; most of the tanks are also in the same 
condition for some months in the year. The water is never poisoned or 
drained for the purpose of catching the fish. The practice of renting 
out the right to fish in rivers, tanks, ‘tamparas’ (large lakes), back- 
waters, &e , for a term of years already obtains in the district. 

150. The Collector of Vizagapatam (July 17th, 1869) remarked, that 

a the fresh-water fisheries of the district are 
eta the Collector of utterly insignificant; the rivers are mere hill 
streams, dry for the greater part of the year, 

and there are few tanks of a suflicient size to make fishing in them of 
any consequence, Until the abolition of the moturpha, a tax was levied 
upon fishermen which might perhaps be called a rent for the right of 


Opinion of the Collector of 
Ganja. 


Ixxv 


fishing, but which was in fact a capitation tax on the eastes that exercised 
the fisherman’s calling. At the permanent settlenient, the amount of this 
tax was set down at Rs. 3,463-2-9, but this sum included the tax on 
sea fishermen, from whom by far the greater portion of it was collected, 
as appears from the incidence of the tax falling almost entirely on the 
estates on the coast. “ With reference to Dr. Day’s proposition to pro- 
hibit the use of nets with meshes under four inches in circumference, I 
believe the result of such an attempt would be to put a stop to fresh- 
water fishing altogether. The fish that form the favorite food of the 
fish-eating community are small, and not larger than white bait. I do 
not profess any knowledge on this subject, but have heard it stated that 
the above delicacy are the fry of large fish ; and yet I have never heard of 
any proposition to prevent their capture in order to increase the general 
fish-supply. Such an attempt could not create greater consternation at 
Blackwall, than Dr. Day’s measures for preventing the capture of small 
fish would throughout the Presidency.” [[These conclusions appear to be 
based on the proposition, that preventing the massacre of the fry of 
fish will not augment the fish-supply ; as regards Blackwall, it is difficult 
to tinderstand how views entertained at any locality in Europe within tidal 
influence can have any bearing upon what measures would be most 
efficacious in India to prevent the extermination of fishes in fresh- 
waters above the influence of the tides.) “The practice of poisoning 
water to obtain the fish is not employed in these parts; but that and 
draining tanks for the purpose of securing all the fish in them might be 
properly prohibited.” 

151. The Collector of the Godaveri District (October 28th, 1869) 
observed, that the fisheries in his Collectorate 
formerly realised from 3 to 10,000 rupees 
yearly, but for the last few years rents have 
not been taken. To re-open the renting system would oppress the fisher 
class, 2. e., those who live by fishing alone. If the returns proved good, 
the leases would be taken by outsiders, and sub-let by them at a higher 
rate to the fishermen; and if small, a class who make but at most a 
suflicient livelihood now, would be heavily taxed. The introduction of a 
Fishery Act would certainly entail the necessity of an establishment to see 
its provisions carried out, for the closest supervision would be needed. 
Draining or poisoning tanks for fishing purposes is not practised in the 
district. Renting out the fisheries “will certainly result in the re- 
imposition on the fishing class of the abolished moturpha, though in 
another shape, and be in my opinion a backward step in our legislation.” 
[If renting waters for fishing is a backward step, it is difficult to see how 
the renting of land can be justified, or charging for the use of water for 
the purpose of irrigation, thus, as remarked by the ‘Chief Commissioner 
of British Burma’ in 1853, “they who gain their livelihood from 
working the waters, may with equal justice pay tax, as those who obtain 
it from the lands, and fishing may be looked on as the most profitable 
employment of the two.” Ifthe money raised by these rents is to be 
used for the purpose of improving the fisheries, as is that received from 
taxes on fishing nets and angling in Great Britain, and so to largely 
augment the food of the public and consequently lower its price, the 
objection to collecting the Government rents appears to vanish, exeepting 


Opinion of the Collector of 
the Godaveri districts. 


Ixxvi 


{hat at the first. the price of fish will be raised to pay the rent, but as 
fish augment, it must fall.] ‘fhe Collector also reported that there are a 
few zemindary estates over which Government do not possess the right 
of fishing. There would be an objection to leasing out fisheries in tanks 
and channels employed for irrigation and drinking purposes, as they 
would be spoilt by using nets in them, as it would continually stir up 
the mnd and foul the water. If fisheries are let, they should be for at 
least three years at a time. ‘There is one irrigation weir at Dowlaishweram 
across the Godaveri river. At firstafter its construction the take of fish 
below it was enormously inereased, and diminished above; this effect 
continues to the almost total destruction of the fisheries above the weir ; 
below it the large takes continue as the ascent of fish is arrested. 
[here is apparently some error in this answer, as the same official observed 
on September 11th, 1867.—“ The fishermen say that they do not catch 
the sable in such abundance now as they used to do, immediately after the 
anicut was built,” and the result of personal investigations was the same. 
The Rend. Dr. Murphy wrote, in 1868, that the fish had decidedly 
decreased since 1861, and one of the causes was, “the universal and un- 
restricted capture of the fry in the rivers and irrigation channels.” ] 
That young fish are largely destroyed, the size of the mesh of the nets 
being very small; but there would be considerable difficulty in regulating 
its minimum size in fisheries which are rented out, but were such done, 
fishermen should have six months’ notice. There is no reason against 
prohibiting all fishing, exeept with hooks and lines, within 100 yards 
of all anicuts, weirs, dams, locks, or masonry works extending across 
streams or canals of fresh water. 

152. The dAeling Mead Assistant Collector of the Kistna District 
observed (October 21st, 1867) that fish ascend 
the Kistna river, after the freshes are over, 
as clear water flows, or about November. 
Prior to the construction of the Bezwada weir which spans it, they 
ascended in large number to 50 miles higher up where they spawned ; 
now the shoals are arrested. The local fishermen employ small nets, 
but those from Dowlaishweram bring some 3 or 400 yards long, and 
12 to 14 feet deep, and the largest quantities are taken in the deep 
pools below the weir, the net being first fastened or fixed at one end, 
then taken round a wide sweep, and gradually drawn in. The sable 
is locally termed ‘ yekkudi chakka’ from its perseverance in attempting 
to surmount the weir and ascend the river, from the Telugu word 
‘yekku’ to climb. Unable to pass, the whole shoal is taken at the weir, 
either by nets or hanging baskets near the edge of the water, so that 
those which jump fall into them. The fishermen unanimously assert 
that these fish do not spawn between the weir and the sea. “Ido not 
think it would be possible to contrive any means to enable the fish to 
ascend, without interfering with the damming up of the river water, which 
in November and December is necessary to ensure the rice crop.” The 
Fvecutive Engineer (November 5th, 1867) observed, ‘ the shoals of Palasa 
come up from October to April, while the river is low. * * * The fish 
could easily pass through the under-sluices, [this is a mistake; they are 
unable to pass through, even if they were open), but when the river is 
low, it is of importance that these should be kept closed during the 


Opinion of the Collector of 
the Kistna District. 


Ixxvii 


wrigation season. Doubtless, temporary ladders might be formed to 
allow the fish to pass over the anicut; but during the months of Novem- 
her, December, and January a stone bund is placed across the anicut, and 
Wi Stan as faras possible, prevented from flowing over the anicut. It has 
heen sugeested to me that Government should institute an establishment 
to catch the fish below the anieut and place them in the river above.” 
The deting Collector (November 12th, 1867) continues, ‘should Govern- 
ment approve of the proposals for conservaney of Messrs. Stuart and 
Vibart, [ have the honor to request that sinetion for a sum of not more 
than Rs. 200 may be given for the purpose.” The Aladras Revenue 
Board (January 28th, 1868) observe, “ the Board are inclined, however, 
rather to favor the plan proposed by Mr. Stuart * *, namely, the enter- 
tainment of anestablishment of fishermen, for catching the fish below 
the anieub and putting them in again above, The Gniecton of the 
Godaveri District (Rebruary 7th, 1868) continues, “Ido not think the 
idea of employing fishermen to catch spawning fish below the anicut and 
put them into the river above it a good one. I think that the fish 
will very probably be injured in so doing. ” The Madras Government 
(May 27th, 1868) observe, “ the proposal - to employ an establishment of 
fishermen to transfer fish from below to above the anient docs not com- 
mend itself to the judgment of Government.” I reported (December Ist, 

1868) on those HEE SS) which die almost as soon as they are removed 
from the water: “at the Kistna is no bridge across the anicut, and 
fishing must be cantied on for at least 250 yards below that Blenchure? 
therefore, the fish would have to be captured, landed, and earricd up above 
the anicut. Doubtless, some would survive the proeess if a suflicient 
number were taken, but the ova would be injured, and probably almost 
inehzevably: so. Vor anything to succeed 16 must be a natural pass.” 
The Revenue Board (December 18th, 1869) direct that “ Collectors of 
Godaveri, Kistna, and Tanjur will take measures for passing a ecrtain 
number of fish over the anieuts by netting them in the manner proposed 
hy Lieutenant Vibart.” The Officiating Collector of the Kistna District 
(November 10th, 1868) observes, that the introduction of the system 
of renting out the fisheries should be gradual, so as to avoid causing 
hardship to those who have hitherto enjoyed the rights of fishing 
without restriction. The meshes of the nets in use are [rom one to two 
inches in cireumference, and the fishermen assert that larger meshes will 
not take most of the fresh-water fish. This is an error, as the great 
majority of the fish in the Kistna river attain to a large size, 
although seeing those as now captured, one would be led to 
suppose they could never grow large. There are not above two sorts 
of all the siluroids or sealeless fish, which at six or eight months 
of age would go through a mesh of four inches in cireumference, 
and some of those whose fry I witnessed being taken in the Kistna attain 
several feet m length. The same remark applies to most of the carps. 
A list of 88 species which I collected in that district exists in Proeecd- 
ings, Madras Government, February 4th, 1869. The /Zead Assis/ant in 
June 1869 reported, “no doubt here, as in other districts, there is 
much destruction of young fish by the use of nets with small meshes.” 

Ife continues that in the district all channels and tanks dry up in the 
hot weather; consequently even those larger kinds of fish can only 


Ixxviti 


grow for a short time, and if they are not caught before the water is 
exhausted they must perish, unless they bury themselves. It is conse- 
quently proposed that two inches should be the minimum size of the 
mesh of the nets. The village officers should be made responsible for 
carrying this rule into foree, under the general supervision of the Police 
and Talooka officials, and punishment in cases of breach of the rule 
brought to notice would ensure its being generally observed in a short 
time. Fishing in tanks of drinking-water should be forbidden. The 
destruction of small fish and fry is more likely to be carried on if the 
fisheries are let by the year, than if they were for a longer term: in the 
latter case they will not be destroyed every year, as the contractor 
knows that the benefits to be reaped from preserving them would be his; 
but in the former case he would never feel sure of getting the fishery 
next year, and would therefore do his best to get all the fish he could, 
whilst he had the opportunity. Besides, contractors prefer renting for 
more than one year, as it is more difficult to settle with sub-renters 
or fishermen every year in good time. The Bezwada weir on the Kistna 
has proved itself to be a great bar to the sea-fish going up the river 
for breeding, and those above this construction have decreased. Besides 
small-meshed nets, baskets are used which have the smallest interstices. 
Fish, when very young, are undoubtedly destroyed to a great extent. 
There would be no difficulty in regulating the minimum size of the mesh 
of nets in all fisheries that are rented out, but it should be done gradual- 
ly, and one year’s notice will be sufficient ; two inches in circumference is 
proposed ; no objection exists to prohibiting netting within 100 yards of 
weirs. On April 20th, 1871, a list of the fisheries which it was proposed 
to let out was sent to the Levenue Board, who direct “that special pro- 
vision may be made for ensuring that villagers shall, as far as possible, be 
allowed to retain the fishery rights of all waters within the limits of 
their villages.” 

158. he Acting Collector of Nellur (October 26th, 1869) reported 
that the right of Government to let the 
fisheries in this district has not been fully 
exercised as yet, and has not been called in 
question in the few cases in which it has ; some fishermen will consider 
having to pay rents a grievance, while the revenue would be insignificant, 
and press hardly on an already impoverished class. There is an irriga- 
tion weir on the Pennair in Nellur, and it is supposed that fish have 
decreased in consequence; they have also diminished above the anicut, 
and their ascent is arrested by it. No particular care is taken not to 
destroy the fry. There would be great difficulty in regulating the size 
of the mesh of nets; a year’s notice should be given. Alajor Clay, Assist- 
ant Engineer (October 17th, 1867) mentions a case in which “a small 
eunta was poisoned by some Mussulmen with a view of taking the fish, 
No fish have been seen in the pool since, and the effect of the poison on 
the water seems, in the opinion of the natives, to be such, as still to pre- 
vent them using the water ;” and this was two years subsequently. 

154. The Collector of Bellary (July 17th, 1869) states, he is 
not of opinion that the introduction of any 
measures, such as those proposed, is either 
necessary or advisable, The only localities 


Opinions of European officials 
in the Nellur Collectorate. 


Opinions of European officials 
in the Bellary Collectorate. 


Ix xix 


in which fish are oblainable in numbers are the river Toongbhudra, 
which bounds the district on the west and north, and some eight or ten 
of the large tanks seattered through the colleetorate. The single tank for 
lishing is at Darogee, situated within 19 miles of Bellary. The only 
mode resorted to for catching fish, is that of placing a net across the 
mouth of the sluice, and thus capturing all those that are foreed 
through by the pressure of the water. The size of the mesh of the 
net thus used is of no consequenee, as all fish escaping this net must 
of necessity die within a short time afterwards by the drying up of the 
channels. In the river the want of large markets along its banks will 
probably prevent fishing in it from being a profitable speculation for 
some time to come. The fishery here may be regarded as practically 
inexhaustible, and it does not appear necessary to place any restrictions 
on it. It would rather seem to need encouragement. It is not consi- 
dered that the right of Government to let any fisheries in the district 
would be disputed. No rule exists why they should not be let, except 
that it is not probable that any persons would be found to bid for them ; 
letting by a term of years is preferable to annual auctions, so that the 
contractor has an opportunity for recovering in a good year what he 
may have lost in a bad. Fish, when very young, are not destroyed to 
any great extent. The nets used in fishing are usually of a small mesh, 
but they are, asa rule, cast nets, and merely catch those small fish that 
lie in shallow water [this is exactly the place where the fry are to be 
found. ] The nets used in the Toongbhudra are generally of a large 
mesh. If it were deemed advisable to prohibit the use of small-meshed 
nets, it would merely be required to insert it as a stipulation in the con- 
{tract ; no notice is absolutely necessary. The Acting Collector (June 
Ath, 1870) propose to let out the fishing of seven tanks, but he considered 
it impossible to give out that of the river on lease, and reported that 
no protective measures were necessary. 

155, The Collector of Tanjur (November 15th, 1867) observes 
that previous to the construction of the 
lower Coleroon anicut in 1836, the sable fish, 
Clupea palasah, was caught in the neighbour- 
hood of Trichinopoly, but since that year it has, according to general 
report, disappeared. It comes up stream from June to the middle of 
August. On July 26th, 1870, the same official reported, that the night 
to the fishery of all tanks as well as village channels in this district 
belongs to the Merassidars, having been coneeded to them in the orders 
of Government of June 11th, 1857, No. 576, paragraph 29 ; and if, there- 
fore, it is intended to prohibit the draining of the tanks for catching fish, 
he thinks it must be done by legislative enactment. In a previous letter 
dated August 17th, 1869, the Collector observed that all rivers in his 
district are let by auction, and that this does not appear to entail any 
hardship on the fishermen classes ; it is only small tanks that are annually 
drained, for the purpose of being filled with fresh-water from river channels, 
at whieh period advantage is taken to capture the fish in them. Waters 
are not poisoned in 'Tanjur. Fishing near anicuts is forbidden on engincer- 
ing considerations; a close month in irrigation canals from October to 
Vebruary is approved of, because it is after October, when the floods have 
subsided, that the bulk of the fish are caught on their return to the sea, 


Opinion of the Collector of 
Tanjur. 


Ixxx 


156. The Collector of Vrichinopoly (October 12th, 1869) observed 
that in Trichinopoly the supply of fish is al- 
together unequal to the demand ; “thus I re- 
member last year catching with a live bait a 
Killatay, Maerones aor, of about four pounds, and a Deloyet at once 
exclaimed ‘that would fetch a high price in the fort;? in fact any 
amount of good fish could be sold in the town, or indeed elsewhere, at 
remunerative rates. In order to have a firm hold on the fishermen 
and their actions, we should certainly rent out fisheries under prescribed 
conditions, and it might even be necessary to have a legal enactment. 
No doubt the size of the mesh should be regulated; five inches in 
circumference would be a proper minimum. One only difficulty arises ; 
there are daily brought to market basketsful of exceedingly tasteless, 
small fishes called ‘ Vellichay,’ Chela clupeoides, and they never grow 
bigger than three or four inches, and are largely purchased by the 
poorer classes to eat with their rice. By limiting the size of the mesh, 
we virtually prohibit the capture of these ttle creatures, and thus eut 
off an article of food. But then arises the natural question, is it worth 
while losing the salmon for sake of the gudgeons? Poisoning should 
certainly be prevented; it is a barbarous kind of usage. Tanks are 
not often drained for mere fish; the water is too valuable :? would allow 
fishing in the pools near irrigation weirs only to a limited extent, as 
when all of them are connected by a good stream; because at certain 
seasons, especially when the waters are very low, fish are congregated in 
them, and can all be captured with the greatest ease. The deténg Col- 
lector of Trichinopoly (July 80th, 1870) reported, that with the exception 
of the Cauvery, its branch the Coleroon, and the Vellyaur, which form 
the northern boundary of the district, there are no running: streams of 
such permanence as would come under the category of rivers; the 
Tyaur and others‘being mere jungle water-courses which are filled only 
after local rains, and subside as rapidly as they fill, The supply of fish 
within the limits of the district, as an article of local consumption, is 
therefore very limited ; and, such being the case, he does not consider that 
any very extensive measures for the conservancy thereof are either neces- 
sary or called for. (That the supply of fish in the Coleroon and Cauvery 
is insignificant, is the very reason why some remedial measures 
appear to be called for. About 10 miles from Trichinopoly, where the 
Cauvery divides, it is 1,466 yards broad, and becomes separated by the 
island of Serungum into two parts, the most southern or smaller being: 
666 yards wide, retaining the name of the Cauvery; the largest is 800 
yards wide, and is termed the Coleroon. As a weir exists here 750. yards 
broad, divided by a small island 216 yards wide into two portions, bund- 
ing up the river to from five to seven feet in height, it ean hardly be conceded 
that such a stream should be almost destitute of fish, especially as much 
of the district is frecly irvigated.] “According to Dr. Day’s proposi- 
tion, fishing should not be allowed during the time the rivers are in com- 
munication with the sea, and this time he fixes between October and 
February ; here, however, this could not apply, and I have, therefore, 
fixed the season during which fish are not to be taken, between the 15th 
June and the 15th September. [It is evident my views have been mis- 
understood in this report, my wish being to allow the young and spent 


Opinion of European officials 
in the Trichinopoly Collectorate. 


Ixxxi 


breeding fish to escape to the sea, as so fully understood by the Collector 
of Tanjur in the last para. Stopping fishing during the periods specified 
would appear to show most conclusively that the sable fish now no longer 
comes into this Collectorate during the freshes, as it did prior to the con- 
struction of the lower Coleroon weir.] The Acting Collector continues, 
* T agree with the Board in thinking, at present, no restrictions as lo the 
size of the meshes are necessary or desirable.” [As the supply of fish 
in this, for the south of India, well-watered district, is said to be “ very 
limited,” whereas it was formerly abundant, it is to be regretted that the 
period at which restrictions are proposed to be commenced has not been 
recorded. 

157. The Collector of Cuddapah (July 24th, 1869) reported that 
as the average rainfall of the district is only 
17 inches, and the rivers and tanks annually 
dry up, there are next to no fish. Consequent- 
ly it does not appear necessary to record any other reply to Dr. Day’s string 
of questions. No revenue has ever been attempted to be raised here from 
fish, nor is Cuddapah once mentioned in his reports. [The question is 
not one of revenue, but of food supply. The reason the district is not 
mentioned by me, is due to not having as yet had the opportunity of per- 
sonally examining it; but it is to be regretted the Collector has not given 
his personal experience by replying to the questions on its fish and fish- 
eries.} On November Ist, 1869, the same officer observed that there are 
no fisheries to speak of in the district ; so he has taken no measures on 
the Government orders respecting letting them; and on March 7th, 1872, 
that there are no perennial streams in his collectorate, and with but few ex- 
ceptions no water in any tank all the year round ; consequently there are 
few fish and no means of improving the breed. Legislation is uncalled for ; 
and therefore he had considered it unnecessary to collect the information 
which has been called for. 

158. ‘The Collector of Kurnal (February 25th, 1869) reported that 

at : the chief rivers in his district are a part of 
_ Opinions of European officials, the Kistna, a part of the Toongbhudra, the 
in the Kurnal Collectorate. : ay Coe: ‘ D mie 

Hindry, and five others which, with the excep- 
tion of the two first, dry up more or less during the hot season. There is 
a long extent of the Kistna which has no villages on its banks, and which 
is never fished in. This reach may be looked on asa large breeding 
place, which is seldom approached by man, and where the fish are undis- 
turbed. ‘I would deprecate in the strongest terms any measures being 
taken by Government to interfere with the fish-supply of the inha- 
bitants of this district. The only way in which Government could inter- 
fere, would be by means of an establishment of subordinates who would 
avail themselves of their authority to practise extortion and oppress the 
poor, who are generally the only people who fish, and never really repress 
the destruction of fish. If anything could repress their destruction to 
any extent, it would be the forbidding to catch fish with roe. But this 
would be tantamount to depriving the people of a wholesome and pleasant 
diet, and interfere with the great traffie in fish roes which now takes 
place. Some fish, too, are only good for eating when heavy with roe, such 
as the sable, caught extensively by means of baskets hung over the water as 
il falls over the Toongbhudra weir. I would strongly recommend leaving 


f 


Opinion of the Collector of 
Cuddapah. 


Ixxxii 


the natives alone regarding the fish and its means of capture, and I think 
I may safely say that, considering the extraordinary re-productive- 
ness of fish and the fine reaches of the Kistna, let man use any 
appliances he can think of for taking fish, he will never be able to 
affect the supply in any appreciable way as regards this district. [The 
Tehsildar of Ramatkota (see para. 180) observes on the decrease, and that 
it is asserted by all the fishermen of whom I have enquired, that the 
river stock has considerably decreased of late years,” and that this is 
due to the weir across the Kistna.] The same officer (November 6th, 
1869) observed that no fisheries are let in his district. The rivers Kistna 
and Toongbhudra divide it from the Nizam’s territories; consequently, 
it may be doubtful in such localities as to the proportion of the 
fishery which belongs to the British: in all other waters they belong 
exclusively to Government. “If fisheries are let, there would be a 
greater inducement to destroy fish, than allowing things to be as they 
are. The renters would naturally use their utmost endeavours to catch 
as many fish as possible to make their rents profitable. They would 
in a few years do more damage than the present occasional fishermen 
do inacentury. Ido not advocate their being let at all. The effect 
of the anicut is not appreciable [see Tehsildar’s answer, para. 180.} Pewer 
men are said to fish than formerly, but the rise of wages has more to 
do with it than the falling off of fish.” [The Collector here appears 
to chiefly examine this question respecting whether renting out fisheries, 
hitherto unlet, will exercise a good or prejudicial influence on the fish. 
I would point out that it is the preservation of the fry and stoppage of 
the use of very minute meshed nets that is one of the chief alterations 
that appears desirable, and letting out fisheries would give the lessee an 
interest in protecting such immature fish. When I was stationed at 
Kurnal a few years since, I liad two large mahaseer brought to me one 
day ; the first weighed 38lbs, the second 14lbs. On the same evening I 
saw the fry of these fish being caught ina minute meshed net, whilst 
the adult was stated to attain 50 to 601bs weight; and at this period 
a great scarcity of fish was being complained of, whilst they were said 
to be diminishing. I suspect this was so; for, as wages have risen in 
the district, the price of fish would have increased also; as more people 
could afford to purchase it.] Is unable to say if fish have decreased 
above the weir, but they are stopped by it. Men are seen catching them 
in a sort of landing net as they try to leap over the anicut, which is 
impossible, because the weir at Sunkesula (a few miles above Kurnal) 
is vertical and has no curtain; many fish are caught below the weir. 
Young fish are destroyed toa great extent, but more perish from the 
drying up of rivers and tanks than from any other means. Nets are 
employed whose meshes do not exceed the size of open mosqnito cur- 
tain material. There would, however, be no difficulty in regulating the 
minimum size to be employed, except that carrying out such a regulation 
would require a water police establishment, the cost of which would 
probably exceed the rents. The Assistant Collector (July 26th, 1569) 
reports that very young fish are destroyed to avery great extent with 
nets, the meshes of which are not larger than those of mosquito curtains. 
“T believe any law regulating the size of the mesh would be inopera- 
tive in this country ; it would be cruel to the povr people, who, for the 


Ixxxili 


most part, live on small fish. I do not believe any Magistrate would 
convict except under peculiar circumstances. This is the case at home.” 
The enquiry appears to be misunderstood. Here isa district in which 
the fry of fish are caught to a great extent, and how preventing such 
destruction and so increasing food would be ‘ cruel, it is difficult to see. 
As to Magistrates refusing, except under peculiar circumstances, to ad- 
minister the law if one existed, is a question I need not enter upon : 
but Mr. Turner is mistaken as regards fishery districts at home, as may 
be perceived by turning over the files of any newspapers devoted to 
practical natural history, sport, and law. ] The Acting Head Assistant 
Collector (March 16th, 1869) reported, “ the rivers within my division are 
inconsiderable in size; but from what I can learn, I believe that both 
in them and alsoin tanks when the water is low, the people catch, by 
means of nets and buskets, fishes of various sizes indiscriminately : the 
mischief of this practice being, that fish are caught whilst still very 
young and before they have attained their full growth.’ He continued 
that he had frequently seen taken “just whatever they could get, some 
of the fish caught being only an inch or two, and some a foot and up- 
wards in length.” That the fish were poisoned, and “it seems very ad- 
visable that some measures should be taken for the protection of the fish 
against such destruction.” He subsequently (September Ist, 1869) ob- 
served that it seems highly desirable that the measures proposed for the 
prevention of unfair and wanton destruction of fish should be adopted. 
“The letting to certain individuals the exclusive right of fishing in all 
large pieces of water and rivers not navigated by sea-goinge vessels, seems 
to be the most effectual means of preventing the wanton destruction 
of fish. It might be as well not to limit in all cases the period of renting 
to one Fusly (year), but the fisheries might sometimes be let for lengthen- 
ed periods, such as for two or three or even for five years ata time, though 
at first, I suppose, it would be advisable to let them for more limited 
periods. I do not think the headmen of villages ought to have any 
priority of right above others. I do not think the letting by auction would 
have the effect of giving the fisheries into the hands of outsiders, as I 
believe the competition would generally be limited to the inhabitants of 
the villages where the fisheries are situated, or of adjacent villages. It is 
doubtful whether the profits would be sufficiently large to attract persons 
from any distance.” Four inches as the minimum size of the mesh of 
nets is considered too large. Irrigation weirs must have decreased the fish 
above them, as no ladders exist; fish descending over them are now 
unable to re-ascend. Fry are destroyed to a great extent by poisoning 
the waters generally by a substance called ‘mallum,’ the bark of 
the ‘Bill’ tree, and also by small-meshed nets. There would be 
some difficulty at first in regulating the minimum size of the meshes, 
hut it would cease after some time; a notice of six months, ora year 
at most, would be sufficient. The Acting Head Assistant observed 
(January 15th, 1872) that breeding fish and very young ones are 
not killed to any great extent, but that in the hot season fish 
of all sorts are destroyed. A very small mesh is used, and it would 
be impracticable to regulate it. The fry of fish are not sold, but 
only captured for individual consumption. The Deputy Collector of 
Peapally remarks that the fish in tanks are indiscriminately destroyed, 


lxxxiv 


whether they are breeding or young ones. The smallest-sized mesh of the 
nets is one-fourth of an inch. As the fish are small, regulating the mini- 
mum size would prove a failure to the pursuits of the fishermen, but half 
an inch between the knots of the meshes is considered an advisable restric- 
tion, and as it is desirable to prevent the destruction of very small fish, the 
sale of the fry in the bazars may be prohibited. The Deputy Collector 
of Kurnal veports (April 16th, 1872) that breeding fish and very young 
ones are destroyed to a great extent, principally between April and June, 
as the water in the larger tanks fails, Nets of various sizes and traps of 
wicker work are used during December and January ; weirs are set up 
across the streams and the fish captured. Sometimes earthen dams are 
raised across streams, and the water baled out to eatch fish. The 
smallest sized mesh employed is three-eighths of an inch between each 
knot: of the ‘Oodulw’ or traps of wicker work, the interstices are of 
infinitely smaller dimensions; five-eighths of an imch between the knot 
of each mesh is proposed as a fair size; as the fishes from the hilly dis- 
tricts are mostly small, it is suggested that prohibiting the sale of fry 
might cause the poorer classes to sulfer. 
159. The Acting Collector of Madras (June 23rd, 1870) observes 
=: that the fresh-water rivers in his district are 
gecpinion of the Collector of dry, except during seasons of inundation. 
The fisheries in the smaller tanks are enjoyed 
by the village communities, subject to the payment of a nominal rent ; 
whilst those in the larger tanks, or tanks irrigating several villages, are 
put up to public auction, whenever the right of fishing in them is 
considered worth being let. The smallest meshes employed are three- 
fourths of an inch in circumference or even less; there is no objection 
prescribing in each lease the size to be employed, of which one year’s 
notice would be sufficient, and two inches in circumference as a minimum 
size would be a good limit. 


160. he Acting Collector of Chingleput (April 18th, 1872) reports 
a that all tanks and rivers in the district are 
Gaieee. the Collector of ysually dry in the hot weather, with the 
exception of the larger tanks, and these ocea- 
sionally dry up. Fishes of all sizes and in every state, if good for food, 
are caught whenever possible. In the hot months, as the water becomes 
low, all the fish are caught, the district being dependant yearly on those 
brought down in the annual floods or on ova or other vitality remaining 
dormant in the mud of tanks. No restriction as to size of mesh of nets 
is necessary. Fence months in hilly districts would be advisable where 
useful fish exist. 
161. The Collector of Salem (November 5th, 1869) considers 
Penne ; leasing fisheries for five years and upwards, as 
Ba eae the Collector > .cferable to annual auctions, and would let. as 
such all tanks that have an ayacut of not less 
than 25 acres. ‘“Tagree with the suggestion of my Sub-Collector that 
in such tanks as yield the chief supply of water for drinking purposes 
to large towns or villages, the fishing should be prohibited, as tending to 
preserve the purity of the water.” Objects to a 4-inched mesh being 
the minimum size, as too large. 


Ixxxv 


162. The Collector of North Arcot (October 26th, 1869) observes 
that there are no perennial rivers in his district, 
and the tanks, even the largest, ave either dry or 
so low at intervals of two and three years that 
very fish in them, great and small, is caught. He continues, “I 
have collected materials with a view of submitting my views on 
the whole subject at an early date” [not forwarded.] The Acting 
Collector (June 6th, 1872) reports, ‘that there are no perennial 
rivers in this district, and that the tanks are either dry or so low at 
intervals that nearly every fish in them, great and small, is caught. 
It has, however, been ascertained that there is no wanton destruction of 
lish in this district.’ 

168. The Collector of South Arcot (January 6th, 1870) replies 
that as the streams for the greater part 
of the year are almost entirely dry, he does 
not see any actual need for establishing fishing 
monopolies. In this district tanks are leased permanently at a fixed 
annual rent, and the villages, where such leases exist, enjoy a common 
fishery puttah in recognition of this right. There are seven irrigation 
weirs in the district, but is not aware whether, asa rule, fish have or 
have not decreased above them. Tish are caught and disposed of 
indiscriminately, and those of small size are never let go. Doubtless, 
the proportion of small fish caught to large ones is great by comparison. 
The average size of the meshes of nets employed is about one inch square, 
and it would be practicable to make the size of the mesh of the net a 
condition in all leased fisheries ; one year’s clear notice should be given. 
There would be no difficulty in prohibiting fishing within 100 yards of 
all weirs, and no doubt it would prevent the wholesale destruction of 
fish where such now takes place periodically. The Sud-Collector 
(November 16th, 1867) observes that the only sea-fish which ascend the 
Coleroon in any numbers are the shad and the mullet, termed madavai, 
the former arriving from May until August, and, being arrested by the 
lower weir, are captured there; the madavai (mullets) spawn from 
October to December, and ascend the Coleroon from September to 
Apnil. 

164. The Acting Collector of Tinnevelli (Vebruary 22nd, 1870) 
replied that, as far as protection of fish in 
tanks, rivers, and estuaries is required, he 
would institute a close season, to vary in 
different districts, of two months in each year, during which all fishing 
should be prohibited ; and in his Collectorate June and July are proposed 
for rivers and back- waters, and from the 15th of October to the 15th of 
December for tanks. The indiscriminate and unfair way of taking 
fish at the various irrigation weirs when the water becomes low, it is 
proposed, should be entirely prohibited, and no net fishing be permitted 
within 200 yards of them, whilst fish ladders should be constructed. 
The meshes of the nets employed varies from two to four inches in cireum- 
ference. If close months were adopted, regulating the minimum size 
of the mesh of the casting nets, it is considered, would be unnecessary. 
© What I would put down entirely is the use of baskets and traps, whereby 
large numbers of fish are taken in a most unfair and destructive 


Opinions of the Collectors 
f North Arcot. 


Opinions of the Collectors of 
South Arcot. 


Opinion of European official 
in the Tinnevelli Collectorate. 


Ixxxvi 


manner.” Considers that the shad do not get up the river as they used 
‘to do before the irrigation weirs spanned them, since which period fish 
have decreased in the rivers above these constructions. When fish 
can neither ascend on account of the weirs, or return to the sea on 
account of the shallowness of the river, they are generally caught in 
the pools. It is all fish that comes to the fisherman’s net. He would 
consider it a most unwise proceeding to return the small fry on which 
he makes a good and immediate profit. The size of the mesh employed 
is very small, but regulating it would cause great dissatisfaction. The 
Collector (March 27th, 1872) reported, “ small fish are caught in baskets 
and screens at the rapids below waste weirs and sluices, and large: 
fish are canght with the hook. In the small rivers, channels, and 
tanks, the water left in the pools in the dry season is baled out and 
the fish caught.” 

165. he Collector of Madura (dated December 18th, 1869) 
observes that the tanks and rivers are dry foi 
the greater part of the year. Fish are taken 
without regard to age; nets with meshes ol 
all sizes are used. Were the minimum size regulated, one year’s notici 
would be necessary. The Acting Collector (May 17th, 1872) reports 
that breeding fish and very young ones are destroyed to a great extent ; 
all are caught that can be caught, in nets with meshes of all sizes ani 
by placing baskets in streams. No regard is had to season or age 
he ordinary mesh is rarely below half an inch in circumference, but baskets 
and other arrangements for capturing the smallest fry are freely 
employed. In fisheries rented out, the size of mesh of the nets might 
be fixed ; in other places legislation would be necessary, but in tanks ani 
channels that are dry during the greater part of the year the destruc- 
tion of the fish could not be prevented. Proposes the size of the mes] 
to be one inch between knot and knot. Jr. Nelson observes “ that thi 
repair of tanks, or, at all events, the more important ones, seem to havi 
been executed by Government, and to have been paid for out of thi 
proceeds of the fishery of the tanks when drying up. <A letter dated 
1713 states that the fishing of a single tank produced oceasionally 2,00\ 
crowns, and that sums so realised were invariably applied to the execution, 
of repairs.” 

166. The Acting Collector of Coimbatore (May 7th, 1869) stated 

oA i a considerable destruction of small fry, chiefly 
tte aude ea of the Gendai, Barbus, takes place ; poisoning 
the water is carried on ; fry are caught ui 

wicker-work traps, and by the erection of dams across shallow waters 
Owing to the constant netting, fish are driven from their natural feeding 
grounds to seek shelter in deep holes to obtain protection from thi 
ravages of the net. ‘The erection of dams and poisoning of thi 
streams should be peremptorily forbidden, the size of the meshes shoul 
be regulated, and an annual close time allowed.” Subsequently, the A clin, 
Collector (December 20th, 1870) reported that the fish have increase: 
since the construction of irrigation weirs across the rivers, which ar 
believed by the fishermen to have multiplied the fish [this i is evidentl\ 
a misapprehension ; doubtless the fish are cheeked in’ ascending an 
descending, so that at such places, owing to the existence of an obstiruc 


Opinions of officials in the 
Madura Collectorate. 


Ixxxvii 


tion, more are congregated than was formerly the ease], which, when 
young, are destroyed to a great extent, the smallest mesh used being one- 
fourth of an inch in circumference. There would be a difficulty in reoulat- 
ing the size of the meshes of nets to be used, as a preventive service 
would be necessary; but were they regulated, a six months’ notice 
should be given. One inch in diameter is quite large enough, 6” 
circumference=1'91 [one inch in diameter or between knot and knot 
multiplied by the four sides=4 inches in cireumference. ] Considers it 
would be a great hardship to prohibit fishing near irrigation weirs, &e. 
On February 4th, 1871, he observed, ‘ that the Collectors, out of eon- 
sideration for the poorer classes, have refrained from renting out tanks and 
streams, except in such places where the right of fishing has always 
been leased out. * * I would add that I do not think Dr. Day has suc- 
eceded in showing that there has been any sensible diminution of the fish- 
supply in fresh waters.” [See para. 128, anté’.] The Collector (July 9th, 
1872) replied, fish of all sizes of and ages are caught and eaten when and 
wherever they can be’; the smallest mesh used is one- eighth of an inch. 
Mr. Grant, a former Collector, about 1864, intimated to the Government 
the necessity of protecting the fish in the waters of this Collectorate 
from the indiscriminate destruction to which he considered they were 
subjected. Zhe Collector (May 7th, 1869), observed, “ the means of 
destruction consist of nets, casting and seine, and poisoning. Small fry 
are caught in wicker-work bashers very much like an eel trap eut in two; 
and are also destroyed by the erection of dams across shallow water.” 
167. The Acting Collector of Malabar (Vebruary 12th, 1869) 
stated, “many of the nets used are so small 
in the mesh as to spare none, however small. 
Baskets are placed in small streams in such a 
way as to secure every fish in them. In these ways, no doubt, myriads 
of fish are uselessly destroyed, that is, destroyed in the form of ova, and 
before they have attained to anything like maturity.” ‘The rivers are 
oceasionally poisoned, and on these occasions, no doubt, large numbers of 
fish and possibly vast quantities of ova are destroyed. ‘ I conclude the 
poisoning of rivers may be dealt with under the Penal Code, but I do 
not see how we can interfere with baskets and small meshes without 
special legislation.” The Officiating Collector (November 5th, 1869), 
observed, ‘before it is decided to lease the fisheries, the expediency of the 
step must be shown. In districts where the practice has obtained from 
{ime immemorial, there can be no possible objection to its continuance; 
In this district the right has never been exercised since our acquisition of 
the country, we have derived no revenue from fisheries, and I have not 
been able to find from the records any precedent for the introduction of 
the system. A moturpha tax was formerly levied from fishermen, both 
by our Government and by that of the native rulers of the country, but 
this tax is far different in its nature to the measure now proposed” of 
renting the fisheries. fi Renting them (fisheries) out will certainly 
result in the re-imposition on the fishing classes of the abolished motur- 
pha, though in another shape.” Collector of the Godaveri Districts, para. 
151.—“ Fisheries have always formed one of the items of moturpha reve- 
nue.” Deputy Collector of Nundial.| Under a moturpha, every fisher- 


Opinions of European officials 
in Malabar. 


Ixxxviii 


man paid a tax on his profession, and could exercise it without hin- 
drance.” As regards the necessity for the measure, the opinion of the 
District Officers does not coincide with that of Dr. Day,” and this Sub- 
Collector (for only one opinion is forwarded) is averse to the fisheries 
being let. No further legislation is necessary respecting poisoning 
waters. He doubts if leasing fisheries would tend to their conservation, 
and, if carried out, will be “most unpopular aud give rise to great dis- 
content, 

168. The Acting Collector of South Canara (March 5th, 1869), 
observed, ‘ every contrivance that the inge- 
nuity of man can suggest is so actively 
employed against the fishes of the district, 
that one is driven to the unavoidable conclusion that the poorer classes 
are eagerly aiming, with one accord, to accomplish at an early date the 
extermination of the species. z ts * The large still pools in 
the rivers are annually poisoned with a mash made of croton oil seeds, 
soap nut, cocculus Indicus, chillies, fowl’s dung,*and other deleterious 
substances, which destroy not only the larger fish preserved for food, but 
also a multitude of small fry, only killed to be thrown away. * a: 
The pools in which, when the rivers are at their lowest, the fish are 
chiefly congregated, are thus thoroughly depopulated, and the stream is 
tainted for some way down, and thus rendered unwholesome, not only to 
fishes and insects, but also to men, beasts, and birds that unwarily drink 
of it. A regular time is fixed, and the villagers unite to dam the stream, 
collect poisons, and gather the fish. Then there are wall-nets, and cast- 
nets, and stake-nets, and Chinese-nets, and purse-nets, and trawl-nets, 
and drum-nets, and shrimp-nets, nets with large meshes, and nets with 
very small meshes. There are bamboo labyrinth weirs to entrap fishes 
going up stream, and bamboo labyrinth weirs to entrap them going down 
stream, and these are set in every tempting run, all other ways being 
stopped. Their name is legion. Smooth paths are made for little fish 
to glide into pleasant places, which end in a purse-net, or are dammed 
up and baled out. The myriads of small fry that are thus destroyed is 
beyond all computation. I saw one day some thousands as fine as a 
straw, within the compass of one earthen-pot; they were to form one 
meal for a labouring man, whereas they might have sufliced to stock a 
lake and feed a town. I have also seen basket-loads of fish about the 
size of a man’s thumb,—fish of a sort which I know grow to the size of 
a man’s thigh. Small fry of many sorts is sold by the seer. * * * 
Even the crocodile, with its cruel eye, is wiser, less suicidal, and less 

wantonly destructive than man ; it is not so short-sighted as to commit 
wholesale massacre of the small fry. * * * T cannot but think 
that the time has arrived when intelligence should interfere between 
ignorance and waste. It is so obvious that the beneficent arrangements 
of Nature have been ordered, with the express view of the intelligent 
interference of the Lords of Creation, that it really seems nothing but 
indolence of thought, or indolence of action, that prevents us from reap- 
ing the intended advantage, more especially as the almost ineredible 
reproductive powers of fish place it in our power to redeem in the course 
of four or five years the folly of a ceutury.” 


Opinion of the Collector of 
South Canara. 


Ixxxix 


169. On November 28th, 1868, the Madras Government sane- 
tioned Rs. 3,000 (2,000 was only expended) 
towards carrying out a year ’s sxperumental 
trial of pisciculture in the rivers of South Ca- 
nara, concerning which the Codlector (August 7th, 1870) reported in full. 
Many of the rivers descend from the Ghats of Mysore and Coorg, and 
their origins and portions of their course are in foreign territory. The 
poisoning of fish is popular, and has been lessened with great difficulty, 
more especially as it is freely resorted to in Mysore and Coorg, and thus, 
irrespective of the immediate injury they cause, the rivers become tainted 
for miles below. During the season of the coffee erops the pulpers are 
always at work, and fei refuse runs into the head of the Puiswani 
river, defiling it for miles and apparently killing the fish, which is said 
not to be a necessity. It may be doubted whether poisoning rivers or 
the wholesale destruction of fry is most injurious to fisheries; and 
although it was found impossible to obtain exactly accurate information 
upon the number of small-meshed cruives employed in the districts, suffi- 
cient data existed for concluding that there were at least 1,050 on the 
Netravaty river and its affuents, and calculating that every one of the 
cruives captures on an average 3,000 fish in a day, then there are as 
many as 94,500,000 tiny fry destroyed for no adequate purpose, in a 
single month, in one river alone. These closely-woven bamboo cruives 
were forbidden and vigorously hunted out of the rivers, and the result 
of these two steps alone, of prohibiting poisoning and the use of these 
small eruives in the rivers, “has been, that the most ignorant, and there- 
fore, the most obstinate opponents have been convinced by the testimony 
of their own senses, and have exclaimed, to use their own words, “ truly 
the river is everywhere duddling with fry,” and what is still more to the 
point, their practice has not belied their words, for they have taken to 
fishing on grounds that were before considered profitless. * * * 
Two years’ discouragement of poisoning, and one year’s discouragement 
of fine cruives, has worked such a change, that it has been demonstrated 
beyond the cavil even of the ignorant and of the interestedly opposing, 
that marked advantages can be reaped from the adoption of these two 
simple measures alone. * * * While the south-west monsoon 
prevails, the ample rainfall on this coast supplies abundant water for irri- 
gation purposes, and the rivers are the while too turbulent to be diverted. 
But as the dry season commences, and water is wanted for the irrigation 
of the second crop of rice, the rivers have settled down to more manageable 
proportions, and near their sources, it becomes an easy matter for the 
farmers to collect the boulders in the stream, lay them in a line across 
it, and after filling in the interstices with shingle from the bed, to stop 
the whole with clay and bushes from the banks. A temporary and in- 
expensive, yet effective dam, is thus run up annually by every farmer 
that has ground conveniently situated for irrigation, though it is com- 
pletely swept away by the first flood of the next south-west monsoon, 
it lasts throughout the hot weather, throughout the life-time of the fry, 
and _ the river or rivulet being thus completely cut off, is diverted entirely 
into an irrigation channel. ” The fry gliding down the stream pass 
with the water into the irrigation channel and so into the rice “ fields 
that have been carefully levelled by man, and partitioned with narrow and 


Experimental trial of pisei- 
culture in South Canara. 


XC 


shallow embankments, so as to economise the water and spread it over 
the largest possible area. From a piscicultural point of view, the whole 
stretch of rice-fields has the appearance of a vast and admirably constructed 
nursery. A whole river or rivulet has been turned on, a river, too, that 
has been stocked with ova, the water has been economised to the utmost, 

the depth regulated to exactly suit the fry, large predatory fish thorough- 
ly exeluded, the whole manured, ploughed, and planted so as to provide 
the maximum of insect life, with the desired modicum of varying’ shade 
under the growing rice, and the area of the nursery is measured, not by 
the inch and foot, , but by the acre or square mile. In this extensive 
nursery therefore, which costs the pisciculturist nothing, the fry thrive 

admirably, and still following their instinct, go feeding, “dawdling down- 
wards with the stream. This takes them leisurely from rice-field to rice-field, 
and in the direction of the waste water, which of itself not unfrequently runs 
into the river again, or might almost always be contrived so torun. But 
at each drop from rice-field to rice-field, the cultivator places a basket, 
made of finely split bamboos, having a wide mouth, a narrow neck, and 
a wide bottom. It lets the water pass, but stops every single fry, 
and what was an admirable nursery, becomes one vast trap for destroy- 
ing the majority of the fry in the river. So highly are these juicy morsels 
appreciated, that no peasant fails to place a basket at every outlet.” [The 
Madras Revenue Board consider that a fishery Act should contain, amongst 
other things, provisions to the following effect :— “(6). That no inter- 
ference is intended, or is to be permitted, with the existing rights of the 
people in regard to catching and retaining fish in their own fields, minor 
channels and ponds, but that it shall be lawful for the officers entrusted by 
law with the conservancy of fisheries to insert gratings in the head of 
any channels leading to such fields.’ Thus the vast traps now existing 
for fry, and so ably ‘described by Mr. aoe should continue unchanged. 

The Burmese were wiser than this, taxing highly the use of bamboo 
traps and such like contrivances for capturing fish.] The Collector con- 
tinues, “ This is not unavoidable or accidental destruction, but is wilful, 

reckless, and preventible. Some of these fry, it will be remembered, are 
capable of becoming fish of 10 or 20 pounds in weight.” [If this destrue- 
tion is forbidden, the Revenue Board appear to consider that such would 
be a grievance to the proprietors of fields, and would allow such to con- 
tinue as vested rights: \sut would not that ignore the great loss to the 
public at large in the fearful waste of animal food.] But “it would 
seem that they have very little, if any more right to complain than has 
the English miller. They are like each other in diverting the rivers for 
their own benefit, and of each of them the request made of them would 
be the same, namely, that they should do it without injury to the fish- 
eries. The Indian farmer may, like the English miller, claim that he 
has a prescriptive right to the water, and that it is no part of his 
business to protect the fry. Ithas, nevertheless, been decided against the 
English millers equally with the companies or persons in charge of artifi- 
cial channels for navigation, or for supplying towns with water, and that 
they shall put gratings so as to prevent the passage of salmon fry to 
their destr uction, and that failing to do 80, “they shall incur a_ penalty 
not exceeding five pounds for every day” of delay, and “ a penalty not 
exceeding one pound for every day” during which they may fail to main- 


xei 


tain them when erected. If, as already described, the Indian farmer diverts 
the whole stream in places, “the option might be given him, ‘ either 
you must leave a fair passage in the river for the fry, and put a grating 
before your own artificial channel, or if you must needs have every drop 
of water in the river run through your own fields, then you must leave 
that passage unobstructed to the fry, so that eventually, if possible, 
they may rejoin the river by means of the waste water.” Some fish spawn 
below these dams, other young fish remain in the pools above, conse- 
quently all are not destroyed, and stock pools, it is proposed, should be 
conserved in ail these rivers. The fixed engines, in use in South Canara, 
are closely-woven cruives termed ‘ Kuri,’ which is a basket made on the 
same principle as the mouse-trap, with narrowing entrances, and springy 
bamboo spikes projecting inwards, preventing any exit, and from one to 
twelve feet in length; the smaller ones are placed in irrigated fields, the 
Jarger ones in main runs. The ‘ Voddw’ or ‘ Woddu,’ or fishing weir, is 
like a large hurdle the full breadth of the river, a line of stakes being 
driven in across a river, split bamboos are interlaced, aud the whole faced 
with bushes, so that the stream passes, although all fish are stopped. Gaps 
exist, and here eruives or ‘ kuris’ of 10 or 12 feet in length are fixed. The 
Coorgs annually place these Woddus at the heads of the Canara rivers to 
intercept all the fish returning from spawning. The ‘ KaAndari’ is just 
like a large kuri with the addition of an upper lip extended forwards 
and upwards at an angle of 45 degrees. It is placed in a natural 
run in the river, between boulders of rock, filing up the whole 
passage, minor ways having been blocked up. The long protruding 
lip ascends above, and prevents fish passing over the trap; thus every 
descending fish is captured, and twice daily it is examined. Where 
there are no convenient rapids, they are artificially constructed in the 
shallows, by placing long lines of stones in a V shape across the river, 
the apex being fitted with a ‘kandari. The ‘yépu’ and ‘béikuri’ 
are on the same principle, but better adapted to falls. The first is a 
platform made of bamboo, somewhat bellied so as to hold the stream, 
and propped up so as to Jead ladder-wise from the top to the bottom 
of the waterfall at an angle of 45°. The fall is thus broken, and con- 
ducted with a rush into the béikuri, or wide-mouthed kuri, the con- 
struction of the baikuri being very similar to that of an ordinary kuri, 
and the rush and concentration of the water being heavy, fish once 
down cannot re-ascend, but are quickly beaten to the bottom and 
smothered by other fish. ‘The yépu is a less elaborate adaptation of 
this last contrivance to smaller falls. The ‘kunjol’ also is a rude sort 
of kun. If a few stock pools are reserved, and poisoning and the use 
of fixed engines prohibited, a close time may be dispensed with. The size 
of the mesh employed is from three-fourths of an inch in cireumference 
and upwards. Prohibiting the use of nets with meshes of less than four 
inches in circumference is deprecated, on the ground that the smaller fish 
having immunity from netting must disproportionately inerease on the 
larger netted sorts. [‘l'o show that this is not the case, I would refer to the 
Sind fisheries, para. 47; and to those of the sparsely populated dis- 
tricts in British Burma. The Thames fisheries are not analogous to those 
of India, as in this last country the majority of the finny tribes, even the 
most of the carps, are grecdily carnivorous, but this is not the ease in the 


xeil 


Thames.] A minimum of two inches is proposed, and that all of the 
following fish, when less than nine inches in length, should be returned to 
the water :—Labeo calbasu, ‘arta’ [which attains 3 feet in length]; Labeo 
nigrescens, Which is said to attain 18 inches in length; Barbus pulchellus, 
‘katladi, attains upwards of 17 inches; Barbus Carnaticus, ‘Té-min,’ 
growing in Canara to 18 inches; Barbus Mysorensis, ‘ Parli,’ taken to 
18 inches; B. mosaé and B. tor, ‘meruval, both said to grow to 86 inches 
in Canara. [They attain to even above 90]bs. in weight where they are 
allowed to grow, and are the famous mahaseer]; OpAcocephalus striatus, 
‘viral,’ growing to 24 inches [it may be taken in places to three feet or 
even more] ; Ophiocephalus diplogramme, ‘kuch-chi, attaining 20 inches; 
Ophiocephalus marulius, ‘lival,” growing to 24 inches, and the spined 
and common eels. Otters and both the crocodiles and their eggs, it is 
proposed, should be destroyed. ‘‘ Men search in the rivers for hillocks 
wherein spawn has been left, gather the ova, and make it into cakes, 
which are considered a delicacy. The eggs of the ‘kari,’ Labeo calbasu, 
and ‘kalmuni,’ Discoguathus lamta, ave highly prized oe Fixed engines 
should be prohibited, and certain river pools protected from netting ; these 
should be selected, not only with a view to their being convenient to the 
fish and fry, but also with some reference to their being easy to 
protect; consequently those in the neighbourhood of the land or house 
of the head of the village would be preferable. He also observes, with 
reference to the construction of reservoirs, that instead of making them, 
as at present, to drain out the very last drop of water, it might be 
wiser in all fresh constructions, and when possible in repairs, to follow 
the example of Hyder, who so placed the sluice that after all the water 
available for irrigation purposes had been drawn ofl, there was still seft 
in the reservoir some six or ten feet of water at the embankment, and 
this water served in the dry season, and more especially in times of 
drought, the purposes of feeding wells, and thus supplying drinking 
water to men and cattle, as well as keeping alive a nucleus of fish where- 
with to re-stock it on the return of the rains. — [‘This, it has been proposed, 
should be done in the Bombay Presidency from fishery rents (see para. 
107) ; of course no fishing should be permitted so soon as the level of the 
upper edge of the reservoir were attained. ] 
170. The reports of the Native and subordinate officials of the 
: _. Madras Presidency are nearly all compiled 
Reports of Native officials in fo4) the answers which were circulated in 
the Madras Presidency, ae ¢ 5 ; 
1868, which, it will be observed, are not com- 
plete, as from some districts no answers have been forwarded. 
171. In the Ganjam Collectorate, the Tehsildar of Chicacole re- 
7 Sy ae. orts that some of the fishermen have culti- 
Sea Ceca: a ™ vation as well, and others work for daily hire 
as labourers. The Meela, Pully, Khandra, 
Jalary, and Neyala castes fish in the fresh and back-waters. There is 
generally, but not always, asufficient supply in the local markets: the fresh 
{not salted) are most approved of; 250,000 persons consume it; the 
amount in the watvrs appears to be stationary, The Tehsildar of ‘Gum- 
sur states that pe.sons of the Nolia, Tiyaro, and Kevuti castes fish in 
the fresh waters. The loeal market is insufficiently supplied; about 
130,000 persons in this talooka, of all castes except Telugu Brahmins 


xciil 


and Gavara Comoties or Banians, eat fish, either fresh or salted. The 
amount in the waters remains stationary. The usual size of the mesh of 
nets will allow the little finger to be introduced. The Tehsiddar of Ber- 
hampore observes that some of the fishermen are engaged in cultivation ; 
some work at ferries, others are also labourers. The eastes that fish in the 
fresh waters are the Tero, Kevuti, Kandra, and Mila. The local markets 
are fully supplied, but more are not captured than could be sold. About 
200,000 persons of all castes, exeept Telugu Brahmins and Comoties, a 
few of the Oriya Brahmins and Ranguni and Pattusali (a set among 
weavers) eat fish, but they prefer it fresh. The usual size of the mesh of 
the nets is as large as a two, four, or eight-anna piece. 


Vizngapatam Collectorate, no 172. In the Vizagapatam Collectorate no 
answers. returns from subordinate Native officials, 


173. Inthe Godaveri Collectorate, the Tehsildar of Ramachendra- 
ee ree .,. pur reports that fishermen are likewise em- 
Opinions of Native officials in J 1oved as boatmen, servants, and coolies. The 
the Godaveri Collectorate. ploy: 5) , e 
Pallevallu and Bestavallu fish in back and 
fresh waters. The local markets are insufliciently supplied. The num- 
ber of the fish-eating population cannot be correctly ascertained, but 
all castes do so, except Brahmins, Banians, and some of the gold- 
smiths; both salt and fresh are equally appreciated. The supply in 
the waters has not increased of late years. The Vehsildar of Amalapuram 
states that the fishermen employ most of their time at fishing, while 
a few are engaged in cutting firewood, making and selling nets, or as 
boatmen. Fish are only sold at the weekly fairs. About 141,927 
persons of all castes, except Brahmins, Banians, Goldsmiths, and a few 
others, eat fish, preferring it fresh. The amount in the waters has 
decreased of late years. he size of the mesh of the nets is from half 
a rupee to one rupee in circumference. Basket traps are used for fishing. 
The Tehsildar of Narsapuram reports that the fishermen known as 
Pallevallu and Bestavallu, also the Vaddi caste in certain villages, fish 
in rivers and back-waters, but besides fishing they employ themselves as 
boatmen for hire. ‘The fish-eating population is 58,846. The markets 
appear to be well supplied; fresh and salt are indiscriminately eaten. 
The supply of fish in the waters has decreased of late years. The usual 
size of the mesh of the nets varies from one-fourth of an inch to 12 inches 
in circumference. The Zehsildar of Rajahmundry observes that the fisher- 
men do not otherwise employ themselves. All except Brahmins, 
Banians, and some of the goldsmiths, eat fish, about 70,000 in number ; 
the local markets are insufliciently supplied except at certain seasons 
[when the shad ascend the Godaveri and are stopped at the Dowlaish- 
weram weir.}] Fish have decreased of late years. The size of the mesh 
of the nets is from one-fourth to three inches in circumference. The Zehsil- 
dar of Bhimavaram states that the fishermen are also employed as cultiva- 
tors. About 70,000 persons of all castes, except Brahmins, Banians, and 
a few goldsmiths, eat fish, preferring it fresh. It cannot be ascertained 
if the fish have increased or decreased, “as every one is allowed to fish 
as he likes since the abolition of the renting system.” The size of the 
mesh of the nets varies from one-fourth of a rupee toa rupee. Basket 
and other snares are used in fishing. The Zedsiddar of Lanuku replies 


Xciv 


that the Vaddi are the fisherman easte, but Sudras eatch fish for 
their own eating. ‘The fishermen are also cultivators. About 120,000 
persons of all castes, except Brahmins, Banians, goldsmiths, and oilmen, 
eat fish, preferring it salted ; the local markets are insufficiently supplied, 
and the amount in the waters has decreased. The usual size of the 
mesh of the nets varies from half to two inches in circumference. Basket 
snares are used for fishing. The Tedsiddar of Peddapuram answers that 
the fishermen are also boatmen and eoolies. Seven-eighths of the people 
eat fish, preferring it fresh ; the markets are insufficiently supplied, and 
the amount in the waters has decreased. The minimum size of the 
mesh of nets employed “ will be the size of a red gram” seed. Baskets 
and snares are used for fishing. The Zedsiddar of Ellur observes that the 
fishermen are also palanquin-bearers. About 89,029 persons of all 
castes, except Brahmins, Banians, oilmen, goldsmiths, and afew Bindilos 
or Rajputs, eat fish; the markets are not well supplied ; salt-fish is pre- 
ferred to fresh, and of late years the amount of fish in the waters has 
largely decreased. ‘The size of the mesh of the net is about that of a 
grain of Bengal or cow gram. Baskets and basket snares are employed 
in taking fish; some are caught in irrigated fields. The ZeAsildar of 
Coconada states the fishermen also act as boatmen. About 50,000 per- 
sons eat fish, preferring it fresh ; for half the year the markets are well 
supplied, not so in the other half; the amount in the waters has 
decreased during the last four years; the circumference of the mesh of 
the nets equals one-fourth of an anna. Basket or wicker-work snares are 
employed for fishing. The ZeAsiddar of Tuni replies that the fishermen 
are also employed as coolies. The local markets are supplied; 89,370 
persons of all castes, except Brahmins, Banians, some of the goldsmiths, 
and the Jungum sect, eat fish, whether fresh or salted. The size of the 
mesh of the nets equals a pie. The Vehsildar of Pittapw answers that 
the fishermen are also coolies; 69,000 persons eat fish, the Sudras_pre- 
ferring it fresh, whilst the Pariahs, &c., like it salted. The amount in the 
waters has decreased of late years. Baskets are used for fishing. The 
Tehsildar of Vernagudem observes that the fishermen are also agriculturists 
and collect lotus leaves (? seeds) from tanks and sell them. About 
90,000 persons of all castes, except Brahmins and Banians, eat fish, pre- 
ferring the salted article. The weekly markets are supplied ; the amount 
in the waters appear to “ have increased in former years.” The meshes of 
the nets are half an inch in cireumference. Netting, baskets and basket 
snares are employed. The Yedsildar of Coringa states that some of 
the fishermen have also other trades. About 18,000 persons of all 
castes, except Brahmins, Banians, and goldsmiths, eat fish, generally 
preferring it fresh ; the local markets are fully supplied, and the amount 
in the waters has increased of late years. Of the mesh of the nets, the 
smallest in use would ensnare an ant. Baskets are used in fishing. 
174. In the Kistna Collectorate, the Tehsildar of Ni arsarowpeta 
Opinions af NutivacoAletalein replies that fishermen are also agriculturists ; 
Ehabicickua Colleton tes very few people eat fish, and they do not care 
whether it is fresh or salt ; the local market is 
not supplied ; the amount in the waters decreased until this year when, 
owing to large falls of rain, they are again abundant. The ZeAsiddar of 
Bapatla answers vaguely to the first few questions, continuing that 


XCV 


fish have decreased of late years. Nets used for tank-fishing “ have meshes 
of one ineh or half inch.” Fish baskets, fish snares, and fishing stakes 
are employed in taking fish. The Zehsi/dar of Bunder observes that 
the fishermen are also agriculturists and coolies. About 2,000 persons cat 
fish ; the markets are not sufficiently supplied, but generally are so when 
there i is a fair, The amount in the waters are not increasing. The mini- 
mum size of the mesh of the nets is one-fourth of an inch. ‘The Zehsitdar 
of Repalli replies that the Palla, Mutrachulu, and Besta are fishermen ; 
they also engage in other work. About 600 people eat fish; in fact all 
castes, except Brahmins, Vysyas, goldsmiths, and carpenters, preferring 
it, however, fresh. ‘The local markets are never supplied ; 10 or 12 baskets 
of small fish are brought for sale once a week. ‘The minimum size of 
the mesh of nets is that of the ring finger. The ZeAsildar of Gudewada 
observes that fishing baskets, fishing stakes, and snares are employed ; 
water also is dammed up and baled out. The Zehsildar of Sattenapally 
answers that the fishermen only are engagedin this work fora portion of 
the year; during the remainder they ‘employ themseves in other trades, 
About 20,000 persons of all castes, except Brahmins, Komaties, and 
Kamsalies or goldsmiths, eat fish, preferring the salted article. Fish are 
only brought to market to a small extent; the amount in the waters has 
decreased of late years ; the smallest sized mesh employed is one-tenth of 
an inch, the largest one inch. A basket snave termed ‘Ota,’ and a snare 
ealled ‘Mayu,’ are used for fishing. The Zehsiddar of Palnad observes 
that the fishermen are likewise agriculturists and coolies; none earn 
their living by fishing. All castes eat fish, exeept Brahmins, Komaties, 
goldsmiths, and Linga Balijalu. The local markets are not sufficiently 
supplied ; the amount in the waters has continued stationary ; the usual 
size of the mesh of the nets is from one pie to a4-anna piece. Fishing bas- 
kets and other wicker snares are employed. The Zedsildar of Bezwada 
replies that the Waddies and Jalars catch fish in the rivers. Persons of 
all castes, excepting Brahmins, Komaties, Linga Balijis and Kamsalies, 
eat fish, with which the markets are insufficiently supplied ; the fresh is 
preferred to the salted. The amount in the waters has decreased. The 
minimum size of the mesh of the nets will admit one finger. [This 
is incorrect; I have seen nets used there which would not permit a fly 
to go through.] Basket and wicker-work snares are employed. The 
Lehsildar of Guntur answers that the fishermen are also agriculturists ; 
all castes, with the exceptions previously noted, eat fish, ‘preferring it 
salted. The markets are very insufficiently supplied, and the amount 
in the waters has decreased. ‘The smallest mesh of the nets employed 
is one-fourth of an inch. Baskets are used in fishing. The Tehsildar 
of Vinukonda observes that there are no regular fishing castes, but that 
agriculturists and others capture fish. About 200 persons of all castes, 
with the exceptions previously noted, eat fish, preferring it fresh; the 
markets are not sufficiently supplied ; the amount in the waters continues 
to be stationary. Fishing baskets are employed in this talooka. 

175. In the Ned/ur Collectorate, nine Tehsildars report that the 
fishing population employ their time at this 
occupation when fish are to be had, and 
at other times act as agriculturists, labourers, 
palanquin-bearers, coolies, &c., and only a very few live exclusively by 


Opinions of Native officials in 
the Nellur Collectorate. 


xevl 


fishing. The chief time for catching fish is when the water in the tanks 
is very low, and the labourers have been allowed to capture them in com- 
pensation for their performing kudimaramut ; whilst by fishing, the water 
in the tanks becomes filthy and unfit for use. With the exception of 
Brahmins and Komaties all castes are said to eat fish. In the talookus of 
Nellur, Ongole, Kandukur, Atmakur, Udayagiri, and Gudur, fresh fish 
is preferred to the salted; both are indiscriminately used in Kanigiri 
Rapuru, and Kavali. In all the inland markets the bazars are insulli- 
ciently supplied, the amount of which in the fresh waters is said to have 
considerably deereased. The minimum size of the mesh of nets given 
is one-fourth of an inch. Fish are generally captured by means of 3 nets, 
fish-hooks, wire or baskets called ‘ Kodama,’ fishing baskets termed 
© Uta,’ and sometimes by breaking a fruit called ‘Mang: akayw, which 
thrown into the water poisons them. Spearing is also resorted to. In 
three talookas tanks are reported to be sometimes emptied to obtain the 
fish. 

176. In the Bellary Collectorate, the tehsildars reply, generally 

; _., that the Boya are the fishing caste, but they 

Opinions of Native officialsin fave also other trades. The great majority 

the Bellary Collectorate. % ej JO ? 

of the people, with the exception of the 

Brahmins and Komaties, eat fish, the demand for which in the markets 
is always greater than the supply. Traps are reported as used. 

177. From the Yunjur Collectorate no 

Tanjur Collectorate no answers. answers to the questions for Tehsildars have 

been forwarded. 

178. In the Trichinopoly Collectorate five Tehsildars answer, the 
Mavilliars, Valayers, Abulkars, and Lubbay 5 
besides being fishermen, more especially when 
the water in the reservoirs are low, are also 
employed as agriculturists and palanquin-bearers. The Sembaders, 
about 30 in number, in one talookas are stated to be exclusively fishermen. 
All the people, except Brahmins and the followers of Siva, eat fish; the 
number in four talookas who do so is estimated at 557,682, and the fifth, 
15-1Gths of the population. In two, fish is indiscriminately eaten, whether 
fresh or salted ; in two, the fresh is preferred; in the remaining one the 
salted article. In three the markets are stated to be insufliciently sup- 
plied, The amount in the fresh waters has decreased in four districts, 
and increased in one. The minimum size of the mesh of the nets em- 
ployed is given asa grain of dholl in one, halfan inch in another talooka. 
Basket traps are used for taking fish, also baited pots. Poisoning the 
water by means of the milk hedge is reported as obtaining in three of 
the talookas, but is not resorted to in the other two. 

179. From the Cuddapah Collectorate no 
answers to the questions for Tehsildars have 
been forwarded. 

180. Inthe Kurnal Collectorate seven Tehsildars report that Bestas, 
Boyas, Telugus, most of the low caste 
Hindus and Mussulmen fish, but they also 
have other occupations, as agricultural labour- 
ers, palanquin-bearers, &e. All the people, except Brahmins, Visyas, 
Komaties, Linga Balijas, blacksmiths, carpenters, aud a few others, are 


Opinions of Native officials in 
the ‘I'richinopoly Collectorate- 


Cuddapah Collectorate, no 
answers. 


Opinions of Native officials in 
the Kurnal Collectorate. 


Xxevil 


said to eat fish, the number of whom in six talookas is estimated at 
390,389 persons; in six fresh fish are preferred, in cne the salted article. 
The local markets, except that of the town of Kurnal, are said, by those 
who have answered this question, to be insufficiently supplied, whilst the 
amount in the waters is reported as stationary by three, and decreased by 
four, The Tehsildar of Ramalkota observes that “ after the construction 
of the anicut (weir) at Sunkesula, and the opening of the irrigation 
canal, wages have so greatly risen at and near Kurnal, and the fishes in 
the river have so perceptibly diminished, that fishing has become, more or 
less, a secondary occupation. Bearing palanquins and working on the 
irrigation canal for hire form their chief oceupation. The fish have 
undoubtedly deereased since the construction of the anicut in 1861. 
Their ascent during the spawning season is barred by the anicut, and 
they are captured in roe, just below it, at Kontalapad and the villages of 
the Nizam situated on the opposite bank. It is therefore asserted ‘by all 
the fishermen of whom I have enquired that the river stock has consi- 
derably decreased of late years, except, of course, at Kontalapad, where 
the fishes are now caught in comparatively greater numbers than before, 
in the Madugus (deep holes) in the river to which they return after 
repeated attempts to get over the anicut. and also at the sluices. ‘The 
Curnum of Kontalapad assures me that in the best fishing season there 
are not more than eight or ten men who go out fishing.’ The usual size 
” the mesh of the “nets is variously given from that of a grain of dholl, 
+ Bengal gram, or tamarind seed, or pepper corn, or one-eighth of an 
en to the size of the thumb or larger. Vishing baskets and wicker 
traps are stated to be employed. Tle subsequently suggested that nets 
and traps ought to have holes large enough for a Q. anna piece to go 
through (six- tenths of an inch in diameter). The Tehsildar of Markapur 
observes that small fish are caught during the rainy season, in the 
supply channels, and in the calingulahs when the water runs a span deep, 
a conical shaped net, ‘ Kodimay,’ is kept against the current, constructed 
with small split bamboos, having’ holes large enough for a big black ant 
to pass through. Its mouth is covered in a similar manner with fine 
split bamboos inwardly woven, leaving a space to allow the fish enter ; 
once in, they cannot return. It becomes filled with small fish if kept for 
about three hours in the water. The size of the smallest mesh of nets 
is equal to that of a grain of Bengal gram. ‘The ‘ Udw’ or conical 
basket is employed for capturing breeding fish as they are seen ascending 
into irrigated fields. 
18l. In the Chingleput Collectorate six Tehsildars report that in 
ee ' _., some places the fishermen do not follow any 
ii Opinions of Native officials in other occupation, but, as a rule, they are also 
1e Chingleput Collectorate. 5 c 2 é a C 
agriculturists, palanquin-bearers, boatmen, 
coolies, and petty traders and artizans. All the people, excepting Brah- 
mins, Komaties, Jains, Sivites, and a few others, eat fish, the numbers 
being computed at 694,147 persons; salt or fresh are indiseriminately 
taken in three, but fresh are preferred in two. The markets in the viei- 
nity of the sea are stated to be well supplied, whilst the amount in the 
fresh-waters is asserted to have decreased in all the talookas. [Since 
this was written, the Acting Collector (April 18th, 1872) has reported that 
the Native officials assert that the supply of fish remains stationary, but 


I 


sae 


xXCViil 


{hat it should be noted that all tanks and rivers are dry during the hot 
season. ] The minimum size of the mesh of the nets employed is given 
by one 'fehsildar as equal to a grain of gram, another as one-sixteenth 
of an inch, and by two at one-eighth of an inch. Baskets or basket 
traps are spoken of as existing in four talookas, poisoning of the waters 
to obtain fish in three, and doubtful in a fourth. 

182. In the Salem Collectorate the three Sué-Magistrates or Teh- 

ee i _._  stldars observe that all persons who engave 

Opinions of Native officialsin iy fishing have other occupations as well. 
the Salem Collectorate. c 5 : 
All the people, excepting Brahmins, Komaties, 
and a few others, eat fish, the numbers in two talookas being estimated 
at 250,000, and in the third at four-fifths of the population. The fresh 
is preferred to the salted. The markets are sufficiently supplied in one, 
small quantities are sold in another, whilst in the remaining: talooka sulli- 
cient 1s not obtainable. The amount in the waters is stationary in one 
district, whilst it has decreased in the other two. The minimum size 
of the meshes employed are from one-fourth to halfan inch. Baskets 
are reported as employed for taking fish, and poisoning of the waters for 
this purpose as resorted too at Oossoor, 

183. Fromthe North Arcot Collectorate 

no answers to the questions for Tehsildars 
have been forwarded. 
181. In the South Arcot Collectorate the replies appear to be from 
one Tehsildar, who has also answered thie 
queries put to Collectors. He observes that 
there is a tax annually which includes 
fish, grass, and the other productions of tanks which is charged to the 
village in a lump sum, and paid by the village community in certain 
specified shares, Fish are caught as soon as bred, and not allowed to 
remain for any length of time; large and small are indiscriminately 
taken ; the mesh of the nets being as small as one-eighth of an inch in 
diameter. How much soever fresh fish is brought to the markets meets 
a ready sale, but it does not keep long in this country, but putrefies 
within a few hours of its capture, more especially the smaller kinds. The 
fishermen are Pullies, who are known as Shemdavars; they are agricul- 
turists, and fishing is a subsidiary occupation. About 90 per cent. of the 
people eat fish, the Brahmins, Sivites, and Jains excepted; the fresh is 
most esteemed; the supply is quite inadequate to the demand; the 
amount in the waters has decreased. 

185. In the Zinnevelli Collectorate eight Tehsildars report as fol- 
lows :—The chief castes that fish in the fresh 
waters are Savalakarars, Paravars, and Lub- 
bays, but they all have other occupations, as 
agriculturists, coolies, arrack-distillers, musicians, &e. The majority of the 
people, excepting Brahmins and high-caste Sudras, eat fish, the amount 
being computed in seven talookas at 800,685 persons, and in the remain- 
ing talookas at three-fourths of the population. Vish is preferred to 
fresh ; in six talookas the markets are insufficiently supplied ; in two suflici- 
ently ; a decrease of the amount in the waters is reported in four talookas, 
an increase in three; no distinct answer in the remaining one. ‘The 
minimum size of the mesh of the nets varies from the size of a grain 


North Arcot Collectorate, no 
answers. 


South Arcot opinions of Na- 
tive officials. 


Opinions of Native officials in 
the Tinnevelli Collectorate. 


XCLX 


of dholl to one-cighth, one-fourth, halfan inch up to one inch. Wicker- 
work traps and bamboo labyrinth weirs appear to be generally employed, 
and the poisoning of water by tobacco and other substances for the pur- 
pose of obtaining fish is reported by two Tehsildars. 

186. In the Madura Collectorate the answers from the Tehsildars 
are given as follows (May 17th, 1872). 
There are very few professional fishermen 
in the district, except in the town of 
Madura, but all have other occupations. The local markets in large 
towns are not fully supplied with fish, and at certain seasons they are 
very searce. During the season the supply in many villages is suffi- 
cient, but more could always be sold in the larger towns; SO per 
cent. of the people eat fish. ‘Che amount in the waters has continued sta- 
tionary of late years. Very small ones are caught in considerable quanti- 
ties, chiefly i in baskets. The minimum size of the meshes of nets is 
about half an inch in circumference. Fish are not generally trapped in 
irrigated fields during the rains. They are caught in baskets of two 
kinds. In shallow water, when tanks are drying, they are baled out in 
various ways. 

187. In the Coimbatore Collectorate, the replies from ten Tehsildars 
are as follows:—The fishermen, as a rule, 
have other occupations, the exceptions being 
that 40 families in the Dharapuram talooka, 
100 in the Perindoray talooka, only employ themselves in fishing, whilst 
in Coimbatore 156 fishermen also act as:palanquin-bearers, The majority 
of the people, excepting Brahmins, Komaties, Sivachars, and high- caste 
Sudras, eat fish, the amount being estimated at 11,37,924 persons; it is 
preferred fresh in seven talookas, it is immaterial in two; whilst in one it 
is stated the Hindus prefer it fresh, the Mahomedans salted. [Ze Act- 
eng Collector (Webruary 4th, 1871) observed, “another point which I 
think has been lost sight of, is, that the consumption of fresh fish by 
the people of the country, as ‘compared with that of salt-fish, is execeed- 
ingly small.” But that such is a@ fact docs not appear to be coincided 
with by the native officials. That it is more largely consumed may be 
al times due to the absence of fresh-water fishes owing to the waste« 
ful destruction which now appears to be existing, apparently due to an 
absence of proper precautionary measures.) In one talooka the local 
market is stated to be sufliciently supplied, in the remaining nine that 
they are not so, or else that more could be disposed of if brought, th ue 
amount of fish. in the waters is said to have decreased in six talooka 
remained stationary in two, inereased in one, and no definite answer is 
given from the remaining Tehsildar. The meshes of the nets employed 
appear to vary from one-eighth of an inch upwards; basket traps are re- 
ported as in use for fishing, and poisoning of the water in order to obtain 
the fish as noted by seven out of the ten Mehsildars. In Suttimungalum 
it is observed of the Bhowany river that the fish die when the water is 
mixed with the mud to a large extent as during the monsoons, and due 
to this cause large fish are scarce. This was also reported upon by Mr. 
P. Grant, a former Collector; it also oceurs in Malabar, and the mixing 
of mud with water is stated to be employed in erder to facilitate the 
capture of fish, 


Opinions of Native officials in 
the Madura Collectorate. 


Opinions of Native officials in 
the Coimbatore Collectorate. 


Cc 


188. In the Malabar Collectorate the reply of a Sub-Collector, 
_,. apparently who has not seen the questions 
eae: of a Sub-Collector in Gi culated, has been received. He observes, 
; “so faram I from thinking that any steps 
should be taken to prevent the destruction of fish in these rivers, that 
Tam of opinion it would greatly benefit the country if Government 
took steps to procure superior engines for their capture, and instruct 
the people in the use of them.” [T'vom personal observations I can endorse 
the former Acting Collector’s views. that the most minute fry are destroyed 
by every poaching practice in Malabar. Perhaps it isintended to mean 
that the supply is very deficient, the markets bemg insufficiently supplied, 
surely such would be a reason for some remedial measures being employ- 
ed.] Poisoning of the waters occurs in Malabar, 

189. From the South Canara Collectorate no answers from the 
Native officials have been received, but Mr. 
Thomas’ reports are so full as to leave but 
little to be desired on that head. 


South Canara, no answers, 


MYSORE AND COORG. 
190. In the elevated table-land of Mysore and the hilly district 


of Coorg exist some fairly-sized rivers, and 

Fresh-water fisheries in Mysoro many more which in comparison may be 

and Coorg. termed streams. Besides these in Mysore 

there are a considerable number of lakes 

and large tanks that rarely dry up, and many of asmaller size, estimat- 

ed at 20,000, which, either during the hot months or on the occasion 
of any Consider rable drought, become entirely or nearly dry. 

191. Respecting the numbers of the population who eat fish? they 

are reported to be as follows :—In the Nundi- 

At least half the people of dyn division two-thirds, Astragam half; i 10 

pee and Coorg are fish-  Frassam district 95 per cent., Chituldrug 5 bb; 

Shimoga 65, Kadoor 50; whilst in Coorg they 

are computed at three-fourths of the population. In short, it may be fairly 

assumed that at least half the people of Mysore and Coorg are fish-eaters, 
when they are able to secure this species of food. 

192. As to whether the markets are sufficiently or insufficiently 
supplied with fish? the following are the 
reports in the Nundidrne division : local 
markets near large reservoirs are fairly sup- 
plied so long as the water lasts. In ‘the Astragam division six 
markets are stated to be insufliciently supplied, and four others to 
be well supplied. In Hassam the markets in six of the talookas are 
insufliciently supplied, and in one only is it sufficient. There is an 
insuflicient supply of fresh fish in all the markets in the Nagar and 
Coorg districts, but in the latter salt-fish are imported from the coast. 
In short, a generally insuflicient supply of fresh fish obtains in the 
markets of Mysore and Coorg. 

193. Lespecting whether the amount of fish in the vivers and tanks 

have increased, decreased, or remained station- 

Fish are decreasing. ary? In two of the Mysore divi isions they are 

reported by all the amildars to have decreased 
of late years owing to the drought, whilst in the third division the 
majority of the native officials give a similar report, and the remainder 
assert that they have remained stationary. This question appears to 
have been overlooked in Coorg. It appears, however, that in all but a 
few talookas, wherein the supply is stationary, the amount of fish in the 
rivers and tanks is reported to have decreased. 

194. The fishermen who only pursue that trade seem to be few, 

but those who fishin addition to other avo- 

Fishermen also follow other cations appear to be very numerous. In 
occupations, Nundidrug these are computed at two-thirds 
of the population, nearly every ryot keep- 

ing a net to be employed as occasion or opportunity arises. In the 
Astragam division, Hassam, and Nagar they are given at 171,359, but 


Markets generally are in- 
sufficiently supplied with fish. 


Cll 


they also engage in other occupations ; whilst in Coorg all the ryots 
are saul to fish more or less, but none are strictly fishermen. 

195. Respecting whether mature breeding fish or immature fry are 
destroyed to any great extent? If one looks 
at the reports of the whole of the officials, 
one cannot help observing that fish are taken 
in every possible mode without regard to breeding season or the size of 
the immature fish, even down to the fry when they are just moving 
about. Nets with very small meshes appear to be universally employed. 
In the Nundidrug and Astragam divisions the size between knot and 
knot of the meshes is given at one-sixteenth of an inch ; in Nagar that its 
minimum size will not permit the smallest fish to escape ; in Coorg that 
the meshes are so small as to allow only the water to pass through ; 
whilst weirs, spanning streams and rivers, as well as poisoning waters, is 
freely resorted to. (See Report of Collector of South Canara, para. 169.) 

196. The modes of fishing employed may be summed up as 
reported by the amildars of the Nagar divi- 
sion, by nets, traps, hooks, cloths, and by hand ; 
by baskets of different shapes, by dam- 
ming and draining off the water, by shooting, by striking with clubs, 
with swords or with choppers, by weirs and fixed engines ; in short, by 
poaching practices of every kind, as well as by fishing with rods and 
lines, and by poisoining the pools of water. 

197. Considering that at least half the population of this district 
eat fish when they can obtain it, that the 
markets are insufficiently supplied, and the 
fish are decreasing; taking also into consideration that the fishermen 
only pursue this avocation, as a rule, in addition to their ordinary occupa- 
tions, that in Coorg the whole of the ryots are said to be fishermen, and 
in Nundidrug that nearly every ryot keeps a net to be used as occasion 
or opportunity arises, whilst breeding fish and fry are indiscriminately 
slaughtered by nets or traps with the smallest meshes or interstices, the 
next consideration is whether it is worth while to do anything. 

198. There appear to be two classes of localities where fishing is 
earried on: firstly, those tanks which dry up 
at certain seasons of the year, and in which 
the fish would only die if not captured ; 
secondly, rivers, running streams, and such of the large tanks as retain 
a supply of water throughout the year. 

199. Firstly, tanks that dry up. It seems to be assumed that, under 
the above circumstances, no regulations should 
be applicable to the small tanks that yearly dry 
up, as the fish in them must die, or be eaten 
by lower animals, if not captured by man. A little difficulty appears 
to have escaped notice, that if nets, with the most minute meshes, 
are permitted in these places, the excuse for their possession would always 
be that they were only kept for tank-fishing; in fact, such could 
hardly be interdicted. So long also as these tanks possess water 
communications with rivers, streams, or large tanks, the small fish can 
obtain an exit to where they could grow. Practically speaking, it is of 
course but little use prohibiting: fishing in any way people choose in tanks 


Breeding fish and fry are ex- 
tensively destroyed. 


Every poaching mode of fish- 
ing pursued, 


Conclusions from the reports. 


Localities where fishing is 
carried on, 


Fisheries which have no peren- 
nial supply of water. 


cli 


that yearly dry up, and a/ler all water communications between them and the 
second class of waters (now to be referred to) has naturally ceased, pro- 
vided such would not create a difficulty as regards regulating the size of 
the mesh of nets throughout the ¢ country (by allowing the existence of 
those of minute size,) supposing it is considered advisable to do so. 


200. Secondly, with respect to reculating the modes employed in 
Fishe fishing in rivers, running streams, and such 
isheries in which a peren- > . 
nial supply of water oxists. of the large tanks as retain a supply of water 
throughout the year. The Chief Commis- 
sioner observes that the right of fishing in a few of the large tanks has 
been already brought under reoul: ation. with satisfactory results, As 
regards this second description of pieces of water, no objections are raised by 
any one against regulating the size of the meshes of nets, ete., and the prohi- 
gan against standing weirs and poisoning the water. Likewise of 
the five who answer the question as to whether any objections exist 
against prohibiting the sale of the fry of fish in the bazar, they appear 
to seeno difficulty in it. Respecting fenece-months during the com- 
mencement of the monsoon in the hilly districts in order to prevent the 
destruction of breeding fish, this also appears to be called for, especially 
in Coorg and the hill ranges. 


201. The « Officiating Secretary” to the Chief Commissioner of 
Mysore and Coorg observes that the Chief 
Commissioner is disposed to think that the 
suggestion made to revive the practice of 
farming out the right of fishing is not undeserving of consideration, as 
recards rivers and running streams, and such of the large tanks as 
retain a supply of water throughout the year, and that the erection or 
use of barriers to prevent fish passing up and down the running streams 
should be altogether interdicted. But with regard to the larger number 
of tanks in Mysore that dry up at cer tain seasons of the year, estimated 
at upwards of 20,000, Colonel Mead is of opinion that the case is 
different, and does not require consideration in connection with the 
question at issue, and that these tanks might be left without any rules 
being framed for the regulation of their fisheries. It may be added that 
the right of fishing in a few of the larger tanks has been already brought 
under regulation with satisfactory results. 


Opinion of the Chief Commis- 
sioner of Mysore. 


202. The Superintendent of the Nundidrug Division observes that, 
as tanks and channels become dry, small fish 
in large quantities are taken in baskets and 
nets, “the smallest mesh of which is one- 
twelfth of an inch; that as only a few tanks retain water during the dry 
weather, itis of no use regulating the size of the meshes to be employ ed. 
There would be no difficulty in prohibiting the sale of fry in bazars if 
such a measure is thought proper. 


203 The Deputy Superintendent of the Bangalur District considers 
that very small: fish and breeding ones are 
not destroyed to any large extent, but that, 
when tanks discharge “during the rains, 
young fish are caught by means of baskets and closely-meshed nets. 
They are also taken. during the irrigation season in the channels for 
water. The mesh of the nets is stated to be about the size of coarse 


Opinion of the Superintendent 
of Nundidrug. 


Opinion of the Deputy Super- 
intendent of Bangalur. 


ClV 


mosquito curtains; there would be no difficulty in regulating it; but he 
considers it would not be of much use, as the little fish would get into 
the fields and die, or be eaten by birds, but the smallest size he proposes 
for tank-fishing is half an inch. If selling the fry of fish is prohibited, 
it is surmised the catchers would eat them themselves, to the loss of the 
fish-eating community of towns, whilst accustomed means of livelihood 
and food-supply should not be lightly interfered with. 

204. Colonel Puckle, ina report to the Chief Commissioner (July 
17th, 1869), observed, respecting the fish 
market at Bangalur, that large-sized fish are 
often bought by the European community at a dearer rate per pound than 
butcher’s meat, and that the natives buy large numbers of small carps 
for the merest trifle, amongst which are always a considerable quantity 
of the immature fish of a large kind. That netting goes on all the year 
round. Drag, wall, cast, and purse-nets of every size of mesh are used, 
and in some of them it is so small as to resemble a coarse mosquito 
curtain; whilst, owing to their indiscriminate use and other poaching 
practices, the food-supply is out of all proportion to the natural fecundity 
of the fish. 

205. Inthe Nagar Division, the Deputy Superintendent of the Shimoga 
District yeports that breeding fish and very 
young ones are not destroyed to any great 
extent. The minimum size of the mesh of 
nets is so small that even spawn of fish is taken. There are no objections 
against prohibiting the sale of the fry of fish in the bazars. The 
Deputy Superintendent of the Chituldrug District observes that there are 
not many tanks or reservoirs wherein large numbers of fish are to be 
found, but of the few that are to be found, the fishermen as well as 
other classes catch indiscriminately fish of all sizes, both for home con- 
sumption and for sale. Most fish are taken during the hot season, when 
the tanks and pools are becoming dry: damming and draining off the 
water is employed for this purpose. The smallest size of the mesh of the 
nets employed is one-cighth of an inch in diameter. No difficulties exist 
in regulating the minimum legal size of the meshes to be employed, but 
does not anticipate any benefit following such a course; neither are 
there any objections against prohibiting the sale of the fry of fish in the 
bazars. The Deputy Superintendent of the Kadoor District considers 
that breeding fish and very young ones are destroyed to a great extent. 
Dams are constructed across rivers and channels where the water collects, 
and also in natural pools in the rivers. Fishing is carried on at all times 
during the hot weather; also in irrigated fields fine wicker baskets are 
placed at the outlets, so as to take the smallest fish. The nets generally 
employed have a mesh of half an inch. There appears to be no diffi- 
culty in regulating the minimum size of the mesh of nets to be employ- 
ed in future, and one inch between the knots is proposed for this purpose. 
No objection seems to exist against prohibiting the sale of the fry of 
fishes in the bazars, or forbidding the destruction of breeding fishes 
during the first two months of the monsoon in the hilly ranges. 

206. The Deputy Superintendent of the Tumkur District says, a 

As great number of fish are destroyed, but the 
_ Opinion of the Deputy Super- Quantity of breeding fish and young ones 
intendent of Tumkur. 5 F 5 

amongst these cannot be ascertained. When 


Opinion of Colonel Puckle. 


Opinions of European officials 
in the Nagar Division, 


CV 


the tanks are low, fishermen employ a particular kind of basket, as well 
as nets, the smallest size of the mesh of which is one-cighth of an inch 
square. ‘There would be no difficulty in regulating the size of the mesh, 
and he proposes one-eighth of an inch for small fish, one inch for the 
second kind, and from an inch and a half to two inches for the largest 
size. As regards prohibiting the sale of the fry of fish seareely any 
objections exist, but some of the poorer classes will sufler by being pro- 
hibited from selling it. 

207. The Deputy Superintendent of the Kolar District observes 
that breeding and young fish are des- 
troyed to a great extent, except in private 
wells, where they are taken care of by the 
owners. The principal times when young fish become destroyed are 
when tanks overflow in the rains or dry up during the hot months. The 
smallest size of the mesh of nets used is about one-twelfth of an inch. 
As the tanks are shallow and periodically dry up, regulating the size of 
the mesh of the nets is considered to be unnecessary. As regards pro- 
hibiting for the first two months of the monsoon the capture of breed- 
ing fish in.the hilly regions, he sees no objection to it “if arrange- 
ments can be made to provide means of livelihood to those living 
upon fishing solely.” 

208. Inthe Nundidrug Division the reports of the Amildars are 
condensed. About tWo-thirds of the popula- 
tion are stated to fish occasionally in addi- 
tion to their other occupations. Nearly every 
ryot keeps a net to be used as occasion or opportunity arises. ‘The pro- 
fessional fishermen are few in number, and all pursue other occupations, 
except near Bangalur, where their time is well occupied in supplying 
the large local demand. The Besturs, Palligars, Voklagars, and 'Tighurs 
are the regular fishing castes. The local markets in proximity to large 
reservoirs are fairly supplied, but the supply fails as reservoirs dry up ; 
and except for large towns like Bangalur, or where there are the head- 
quarters of a district, the people principally fish for their own consump- 
tion. Nearly all classes eat fish when they can procure it, or when it 
happens to be cheap. The amount of fish depends upon the quantity 
of water, as when the latter is plentiful, the fish multiply extremely 
rapidly. The smallest size of the mesh of the nets is given at one- 
sixteenth of an inch. During the rains the practice of trapping fish is 
almost universal. Every form of net, snare, and basket are used, but 
poisoning the water is never resorted to. 

209. In the Astragam Division the Amildars report that the 
amount of fishermen in the various talookas 
is 36,448, but fishing is not the only occupa- 
tion of the number of people above enumerates 
ed, as they also engage in agriculture, commerce, ete. The fishermen 
castes consist of Besturs, Thorayer and Oopaligur, as well as Mussulmen. 
The markets of the talookas of Mysore, Chamrajnugger, Astragam, 
Pariapatna, Heggadadevenkote, and Nanjengode are not fully supplied, 
whilst those of Mallavelly, Gundlupete, Yedatori, and Muddur are 
well supplied. The proportion of the fish-eating population is given at 
above half (444,011 out of 736,041). In some places the fish have 


Opinion of the Deputy Super- 
intendent of Kolar. 


Opinions of the Native officials 
of the Nundidrug Division. 


Opinions of Native officials in 
the Astragam Division. 


evi 


deereased owing to the droughts, whilst in others they have remained 
stationary. All the Amildars report that a great quantity of small fish 
are caught during the rainy season by means of different kinds of nets, 
rods and lines, and baskets prepared for this purpose which are made 
with the fronds of the cocoanut palm; these have large open mouths, 
whilst their floor is covered by means of a lattice work of strings; 
they are placed against a current of water which, rushing in, passes 
through the interstices, leaving the fish deposited in the basket. They 
all likewise give the smallest mesh of the nets at one-sixteenth of an 
inch. The different modes of fishing are rods and lines and baskets. 
The following are the native names of every form of net in use: Beesoo- 
balay, Yelabal: ay, Thadalabalay, Seegadibalay, Bidubalay, Thadubalay, 
Gooroobalay, Urjoonabalay, Hayabalay, Kybalay, Hlappanabalay. 

210. In the Hassan District the Amildars report that the fisher- 
men are generally known as Bestharoo; they 
trade and cultivate besides, whilst their num- 
bers are recorded as 128,239, exclusive of 
Manjarabad, where it could not be ascertained. The names of the fisher- 
man castes given are Bestharoo, Byadarn, Vakaligaru, Wooparroo, 
Koramaru, ‘’eclugaru, Agasaru (Dhoby), Mussulmen, Myadam, Madigaru, 
Tfoliaru, Koorabara, Waddaru, Voolitigalaru, Edigara, Dasrees, Lumba- 
nee, Swalparu, Jabataru, Jengalarm, Landroo, Ganigaru (Oilmongers), 
Karachooneha, Koombarroo, Kalikarroo, Goller Bylakisalaru, Native 
Christians, Teliga Hajamer (Barbers), Jettiroo, Devarroo Tigalaru, and 
Koracharu—Devangadavaru Gijjegaru, Jelagaroo. The Amildars of Haru- 
kalli, Magamangala, Maharajendurga, Narsipura, Bailuru, and Arha- 
lagudu, state the bazars are insufliciently supplied with fish, but in Hassan 
only is the supply sufficient. Salt-fish is also imported from Mangalore, 
but not in large enough quantities for the demand. The population 
of fish-eaters is given at about 95 per cent. (404,807 out of 

422,539). The Amildars universally say fish are decreasing owing 
to drought. Breeding fish are trapped in the irrigation channels during 
the rains, and also in some localities in the paddy- “fields as well. They 
are likewise poisoned by earagooli, date-thorn, eachel moolloo, and gorway. 
They are also ta\cen by the Sigadi net (for small fish), Harajana net, 
Beesa net, Aga et, Balla net, Bida net, Gorkooli, Barjakooli, Grankooh, 
Sumrakooli gana, Kolu Kolli, Karay Kayee, Balu Goomkay leaves, 
cooked leaves of Sawe, Kodamay net, Gana dadee net, Kadala net, small 
Kooli, Baju bees net, Katoo net, Serpent net, Golaga net, and hooks: 

211. The dmildars in the Nagar District report that the num- 
bers of fishermen aggregate 6,672, but they 

carry on other trades, as manufacturers of 
chunam, whilst there are also boatmen and 
bearers amongst them. The fishermen castes are ‘ Bestur,’ and likewise 
others are termed Gungemakalso, Koboligaroo, Haloy Bhoces, and 
Kabbaru. The markets are insulliciently supplied with fish, partly due 
to a want of rain and partly to a want of rest for the fisheries. ‘The 
proportion of the fish-eating population is about 55 per cent. in the 
Chituldrug District, 65 per cent. in Shimog @a, and 50 per cent. in Kadoor. 
Fish are decreasing owing to the absence of rain, and are captured by 
means of hooks, different forms of traps, and by placing funnel-shaped 


Opinions of Native officials in 
the Hassan District. 


Opinions of the Native officials 
in the Nagar District. 


ae 


CVil 


bamboo baskets in streams and waste weirs of tanks; small purse-shaped 
nets are also employed. ‘The minimum size of the meet of the nets used 
will not permit the smallest ones to escape. Fish are trapped in the irri- 
gated fields during the rains. The modes of fishing are as follows; by 
nets, traps, hooks, cloths, and by hand; by hackets of different shapes ; 

by damming and draining off the water ; ‘by shooting, striking with clubs, 
with swords or choppers ; in short, by poaching practices of ever y kind, 

as well as by fishing with rods and lines, and by poisoning the pools 
until the fish float to the surface of the water. 

212. The Amildars of Coorg report that nearly all the ryots fish more 
or less, none are strictly fishermen, but 
these last are known as Boyees or Besturs 
(bearers). ‘The bazars are insufliciently sup- 
plied with fresh fish, but fully with dried ones from the coast. The price 
of aseer (weighing 274 rupees) of large fish is two annas, of small ones 
half an anna, of a scer of first sort ‘of mutton (weighing 80 rupees) 
6 annas, for second sort 5 annas. Three-fourths of the people eat fish. 
During September, October, and November, large quantities of small 
fish are captured, whilst the meshes of some of the nets are so small 
as to allow only the water to pass through. During the rains breed- 
ing fish are trapped in the irrigated fields. One mode of fishing pur- 
sued is by throwing a jungle fruit about the size and shape of a 
green walnut into the rivers and streams. The effect of this is to 
stupefy the fish, and they come up to the surface and turn on their 
backs, when they are easily canght. This practice has been strictly 
prohibited, and is not now openly earried on. The nets are ealled 
Cunneebale, Beesoohale, Jadibale, and Goribale, whilst the traps are 
termed “ Coolies” and ‘ Podas.” 


Opinions of the Native officials 
in Coorg. 


Ccvill 


HAIDARABAD. 


213. In the Assigned Districts the rivers are not of any large size, 

whilst the constant droughts of the last few 

Fisheries in the Haidarabad years are considered to have done much to 

cease ae impoverish such fisheries as exist in these 
smaller rivers and tanks. 

214. Lhe proportion of people who eat fish if they can obtain it is thus 
given by the various Tehsildars:—in Bul- 
dana nine-tenths, in Bassim two-thirds, in 
Akola one-third, in Amraote and Mortizapur 
one-quarter, and in Woon at seven per cent; these figures clearly show- 
ing that fish as food is esteemed by a very large proportion of the resi- 
dents. 

215. ds to how the markets are supplied with fish? Seven native 
officials assert that they are insufficiently so ; 
and only the Tehsildar of Bassim that the 
“ weekly markets” are well supplied, but that 
probably more could be sold, conclusively demonstrating that the market 
supplies do not equal the demands. 

216. Whether the Jish have increased, decreased, or remained station- 

Amountin the water decreas. @7Y ? There is only one opinion, which is that 
ing. they have deereased. 

217. As regards whose these fisheries are? In West Berar, it is 
stated that fishing rights do not exist, for 
under a ryotwari settlement all fisheries are 
common property, indeed belong to Govern- 
ment, and there do not appear to be any village tanks where the right of 
reserved fishing could be claimed. 

218. Lhe fishermen, or the class who mostly indulge in it, are the 

Bhoees and sub-divisions of that caste, mum- 
bering in the eight Tehsildarships 8,289 per- 
sons, most of whom, however, pursue other 
occupations, 
219. Respecting whether breeding fish and fry are destroyed but one 
opinion appears to prevail, namely, that they 
are, in every possible way, although in some 
districts trapping is reported not to exist, 
and fry only to be taken in small quantities ; but as from the same dis- 
tricts it is stated that stopping the sale of fry would be a little unpo- 
pular amongst fishermen and fish-eaters, it seems very evident that the 
amount captured cannot be very small. 

220. If we examine the various minimum sizes of the meshes of the 
nets employed, we find the six Deputy Com- 
missioners report as follows :—In two they are 
too small to be measured, in one one-eleventh of an inch, in one three-eighths, 
in one one-eighth, in one one-third of an inch between knot and knot of 
the meshes, 


Fish esteemed by a large pro- 
portion of the population, 


Markets insufficiently sup- 
plied. 


Fisheries Government _pro- 
perty. 


Fishermen have, as a rule, 
other occupations, 


Breeding fish and fry de- 
stroyed toa great extent. 


Smallest meshes of nets used. 


cix 


221. Trapping fish is reported by two Tehsildars; one observes 
that this does not take place in his district, 
Trapping and snaring, dam- but on this point the others are silent. Snares 
ming up and Inding out waters, appear, however, to be universally in use. 
eer okeouing thai is Damming and lading out, or poisoning pieces 
of water in order to obtain the contained fish, is 

almost universal. 

222. As regards prohibiting the sale of fry in the bazars, the 

f : Deputy Commissioner of Akola considers it 
GLIneeantblice tiorenerae ee would be difficult to discriminate which were 
snithelbneane: the fry ; on that head alone he would rather 

regulate the mesh of the nets. In Buldana 
it is considered that at first it would be unpopular, but the advantages of. 
this restriction would soon make themselves apparent to all; in the other 
districts that no difliculties exist, except that it would temporarily de- 
crease the gains of persous who make a livelihood by catching fry during 
the rains. 

223. The following opinions have been advanced respecting 
whether there is or is not a necessity for a 
measure of protection to be afforded to the 
fish. The Officiating Commissioner, West 
Berar, considers there is nothing to prevent the imposition of rules for 
the preservation of the immature and breeding fish, and that some of 
a general kind are called for. In Akola it is doubted whether it would 
be worth while to legislate on these points, as fish are so scarce; but there 
would be no difficulty in regulating the size of the meshes of the nets. 
The other five Deputy Commissioners observe that there would be no 
difficulty im such regulations. 

224. As rules of a general kind appear to be desired, the next 
question is, how would such affect the fishermen 
classes? he Commissioner of West Berar 
observes, “ whatever restrictions may be im- 
posed, no class of people will be so affected as to interfere with their 
means of livelihood, nor does any portion of the community depend on fish 
as an article of food ; therefore remedial measures found necessary will not 
even be hard or distressing to any class of people.” This opinion, how- 
ever, varies from some of the Deputy Commissioners who consider that if 
fence-months were introduced, some of the fishermen would be put to great 
hardships. 

225. As regards the minimum size of the mesh of the nets that 

_, should in future be permitted, four of the 

Proposals regarding the mini- officials consider that it should not be less 
mun size of meshes of nets that - 

een herallGted: than one inch between the knot and knot of 

the meshes, and one that the minimum size 


Opinion as to whether protec- 
tive measures are required. 


How would rules affect the 
fishing classes. 


should be 14 inches. 

226. These reports appear to show, (1) that a considerable propor- 
tion of the people would eat fish could they 
obtain it; (2) that the markets are insufli- 
ciently supplied ; (3) that the amount of fish 
in the rivers and tanks is deereasing ; (4) that the fishcrics are Govern- 
ment property ; (5) that the fishermen, as a class, have other avocations as 


Conclusions from the follow- 
ing reports. 


Cx 


well; (6) that mature breeding fish and the immature ones are destroyed 
at all seasons of the year and in every possible way; (7) that nets with 
very minute meshes are employed ; (8) that fish are trapped in some 
districts and snared in all; (9) that waters are dammed, laded out, and 
even poisoned in order to take the fish; (10) that there would be no 
difficulty in prohibiting the sale of the fry of fish in the bazars; (11) 
that some protection to the fish is called for; (12) that such would not 
affect the fishermen to any appreciable extent unless fence-months were 
instituted ; (13) but that these appear to be necessary in the hilly districts 
during the first two months of the monsoon; (14) that the minimum 
size of the meshes of the nets should be one inch between knot and knot ; 
(15) that the poisoning of waters to obtain fish should be prohibited. 

227. The necessity of fence-months in the riversof the hilly dis- 
tricts during the commencement of the 
monsoons when large fish ascend for breeding: 
purposes appears to be apparent. “ This is,’ one Deputy Commissioner 
observes, “ the best fishing season,” the breeding fish in fact at this period 
easily falling victims to the most clumsy contrivances. 

228. Poisoning waters to obtain the 
fish is universally condemned. 
229. The Second Assistant Resident, Waidarabad, remarks that 
the class chiefly devoted to fishing in this 
part of India are the Bhoees, who do not, 
however, confine themselves to this occupation 
only, but seek their living also as domestic servants, and monopolize what 
remains in this part of India of the work of palkee-bearing. Through- 
out the Assigned Districts fishing is pursued free from any restrictions, and 
all sorts of fish are indiscriminately captured in all possible ways. 


230. The Offiiciating Commissioner, West Berar, reports that as 
fishing is quite unrestricted, every sort of fish 
is captured in every possible manner, and 
those too small for use are thrown away. The 
class chiefly concerned in fishing are the Bhoees, but the trade is incon- 
siderable, and they pursue other occupations. Moreover, other classes 
also engage in it when the fish are sufficiently plentiful to attract them. 
It follows, that whatever restrictions may be imposed, no class of people 
will be so affected as to interfere with their means of livelihood, nor does 
any portion of the community depend on fish as an article of food, there- 
fore any remedial measures found necessary will not even be hard or dis- 
tressing’ to any class of people. Turther, fishing rights do not exist, for 
under a ryotwari settlement all fisheries are common property, indeed 
belong properly to Government, and there does not appear to be any village 
tanks where the right of reserved fishing could be claimed. Tence there 
is nothing to prevent the imposition of rules for the preservation of the 
immature or breeding fish, and some of a general kind are called for 
under the state of things exhibited in these reports. The rules proposed 
ave, (1) the proiibition of fishing during July and August, and if need 
be also September ; (2) the interdiction of the use of nets with the knots 
of the meshes nearer together than one inch ; (8) declaring it illegal to 
poison the water with the object of killing the fish, 


Fence-months, 


Poisoning waters condemned. 


Opinion of the Second Assist- 
ant Resident. 


Opinion of the Officiating Com- 
missioner, West Berar, 


CXL 


231. The Deputy Commissioner of the Akola District observes, the evils 
alluded to by Dr. Day exist in this district 
equally with other parts of India. There 
being, however, no large lakes or rivers, the 
amount of harm done is proportionately less. Breeding fish and very 
young ones are destroyed so far as it can be made to repay the trouble 
expended, but not being plentiful, what is not worth catching elsewhere 
is worth something here; thus being a luxury, and not a staple article of 
food, it fetches a ‘high price. They are destroyed in every way, at all 
places and in all seasons, and Senn cane the great drought of the last and 
those of preceding years, which must have hi ad a direct effect i in diminish- 
ing the quantity of fish in these rivers and streams, and the numbers 
yearly caught by snares, nets, poisoning, &e., the only wonder is how any 
fish have survived. There are no orders respecting the size of the mesh 
of nets, and they are used as small as one-eleventh of an inch, but there 
could be no difficulty in regulating their size. As it would be difficult to 
discriminate fry of fish, he would rather its sale were not prohibited, 
but that the size of the mesh of nets were regulated. Poisoning fish he 
proposes should be unlawful, and fishing should be stopped in certain 
months. ‘To carry out these two methods no establishment would be 
necessary, but if remains an open question whether it is worth the trouble 
to introduce legislation on these points in a country like Berar where 
fish is so searee.”” As regards the question whether there are any objec- 
tions against prohibiting the capture of fish in the hilly districts for the 
first two months of the monsoon season when they are breeding, he 
replies, “ Not that I know of, except that this is the best fishing season 
in this district.” 

232. The Deputy Commissioner of the Buldana District reports that 
breeding and young: fish are not destroyed to 
any great extent. The smallest size of the 
mesh of the nets employed is one-third of an 
inch; there are no difficulties against regulating it authoritatively, and 
there ought to be 12 inches between knotand knot. As regards prohibit- 
ing the sale of the fry of fish in the bazars, he continues that such might be 
alittle unpopular amongst fishermen and fish-eaters, but the advantages 
of this restriction would soon make themselves apparent to all. Also as 
to taking breeding fish in hilly districts duving the first two months of 
the monsoon, he remarks it would cause the temporary loss of employ- 
ment to those who fish at this season, but they would soon learn to regard 
the restriction as a wise one and become reconciled-to it. 

233. The Assistant Commissioner in charge of the Bassim District 
observes that owing to the great want of rain, 
all the tanks of the district have dried up ; 
many of them were full of large fish, all of 
which have been entirely destroyed. Such a drought has not been 
known in the memory of man. Cart-loads of fish have been earried 
away, and it will take years to re-stock the tanks. These remarks also 
apply more or less to the rivers. Most of the tanks are but small, but 
there are the remains of very large ones in the district which might be 
repaired and restored at a small expense, affording irrigation to a consider- 
bale quantity of land, aud consequently would be very remunerative if 


Opinion of the Deputy Com- 
mnissioner of Akola. 


Opinion of the Deputy Com- 
missioner of Buldana. 


Opinion of the Assistant 
Commissioner, Bassim, 


exii 


Government would sanction the repairs. They might easily be stocked 
with fish. Both breeding fish and small fry are caught without any 
regard to size and in great numbers at all seasons, and until some laws 
are passed nothing will prevent it, Hooks are used, also netting, poison- 
ing, and damming of streams and small pools where the water is sluggish 
or stagnant. The nets vary in size ; casting ones are generally used, and 
sometimes several are joined together to stop up a stream, whilst other 
casting nets are employed above the obstacle. The meshes may be said 
to be as small as can possibly be produced ; no objections exist to regulat- 

‘ing the size of these meshes, which is most desirable. One inch from 
knot to knot would not be too small. Objections do not exist to prohibit- 
ing the sale of the fry of fish in the bazars, laws for which must be framed 
and breaches of them punished. 

234. The Deputy Commissioner of Amraotee District remarks that 
breeding fish and young ones are destroyed 
to a considerable extent ; that the smallest size 
of the mesh of the nets is from one-eighth 
to half an inch; that no difficulties exist against regulating it, except 
that he believes people who gain a precarious livelihood thereby will par- 
tially starve; that meshes of nets should not be below an inch ; that 
no objections exist to prohibiting the salt of the fry of fish in bazars, 
but if the fishermen might not bring the fry of fish for sale, they would 
retain them for home consumption, and it would be very difficult to en- 
force any prohibitory order. 

235. Lhe Officiating Deputy Commissioner, Bllichpoor District, says 
that it is believed breeding fish and very 
young ones are destroyed to a great extent 
by means of fine nets, poisoning the waters, 
and by basket weirs used at all seasons except the height of the monsoon. 
The great majority of the smallest sized nets are one-third of an inch in 
mesh, but there are even smaller, whilst there are no difficulties against 
regulating the size, and the only objection against prohibiting the sale 
of the fry of fish in the bazars would be lessening the livelihood of the 
fishermen, 

236. The Deputy Commissioner of the Woon District reports that 
breeding fish and very young ones are not 
destroyed to any great extent, because there 
is not much fishing carried on, but nets with 
small meshes are used in rivers and tanks during the monsoon. The small- 
est size of the mesh used is three-eighths of an inch, and there would be 
no difficulty in issuing orders regulating it, except in seeing them obeyed. 
The meshes should have one inch between knot and knot. As regards 
prohibiting the sale of the fry of fish, orders should be issued, and 
precautions taken against catching them; therefore the prohibition of 
sale would as a matter of course result. 

237. The Tehsildar of Akola places the number of fishermen 

Opinion of Nativey oaicaliae within his range at 1,480 ; they belong to the 
Nea Bhoee and sub-divisions of that caste. The 
local markets are not fully supplied with fish ; 

it is a luxury, anda large amount could be sold. Its cost is very uncer- 
tain owing to the limited supply. It is difficult to say what is the 


Opinion of the Deputy Com- 
missioner, Amraotce. 


Opinion of the Deputy Com- 
missioner, Ellichpoor. 


Opinion of the Deputy Com- 
missoncr, Woon. 


exili 


proportion of people who eat fish, but probably one-third if they could 
get it. The supply has decreased owing to their having been more 
sought after and the late droughts. Large quantities of very small fish 
are taken i in nets during the rains, the smallest size of the meshes being 
one-eleventh of an inch. Breeding fish are not trapped in the fields 
during the rains. The various sorts of fishing carried on are netting, 
trapping, snaring, and poisoning. The nets are common to those em- 
ployed elsewhere in India; their local names are as follows :—Pelue, 
Suwale bhuwar, Pagajall, Furukjall, Mahajall, Mullputty, Helku, Khu- 
wara, Nahootree. 

238. he Tehsildar of Buldana states that there are about 3,000 
fishermen in the district, amongst whom a 
very small number restrict themselves to 
fishing : their castes are Mulharkollee, Bebe- 
kkollee, Bhoee, Bhamtee. The local markets are not fully supplied with 
fish; there is a demand for more. The costof fish is for large sorts four, 
and for small eight scers for a rupee ; for mutton first sort four, second sort 
six seers a rupee. Nine-tenths of the population are fish-eaters. The 
supply has decreased of late years owing to the droughts. Very minute 
ones are taken in small quantities during the rains by means of nets and 
cloths. The minimum size of the mesh of nets employed is one-third of 
an inch, ish are not trapped during the rains. ‘The various sorts of 
fishing are as follows: first by means of nets termed “ Ji alla;” secondly 
by hooks called “ gull ;” thirdly by traps, “Hssara,” which is done by erect- 
ing rough stone piles on both sides of a stream, then spreading a mat of the 
UG Nurgood” plant over the piles ; the stream is then diverted, so as to pour 
over the mat, on which as the stream falls the fish are taken. This 
mode is resorted to when the water is as deep as the knee. Fish are 
also taken by means of “ Goomlas,” which somewhat resemble the straw 
envelopes for bottles ; they are made of reeds of the “ Nurgood” plant ; 
these traps are placed i in shallow streams in the rainy season into which 
the fish enter, but it prevents their return. Another plan is to make a 
pit in the bed of a river, then to cut a channel into it from the stream ; as 
the water yoes in the fish enter withit. Disturbing the water of a stream 
so as to cause it to become muddy is said sometimes to cause the fish to die. 

239. The Zehsildar of Bassim states there are 500 fishermen 
known as Bhoees in the district, but they all 
have other occupations ; fishing, however, is 
not restricted to a particular class, for ex- 
eluding the Brahmins, men of all other castes at times join in it. The 
weekly markets are well supplied with fish, but probably more could 
be sold, two-thirds of the people being fish- eaters. Fish are indis- 
criminately caught in all seasons without regard to size. ‘The smallest 
size of the mesh of the nets may be described as so ver y minute as not 
to admit the escape of any but the very smallest fry.  Vish are taken 
by, hook, “oull;” nets, ‘jhalur ;” damming streams, and by means of 
poison, « jher,” futenoiotler traps or snares are in general use. 

240. The Zehsildar of Amraotee gives 80 fishermen, « Bhoees,” all 
of whom follow other occupations. ‘The mar- 
kets are insufliciently supplied. ‘The cost of 
fish is, for large, 8 annas, and for small, 4 


Pp 


Opinion of Native official at 
Buldana, 


Opinion of the Native official 
of Bassim. 


Opinion of Native official of 
Amrnotee, 


xiv 


annas a seer: of mutton first sort 4 annas, second sort 8 annas a seer. 
One-fourth of the population eat fish, the supply of which has decreased. 
Very small fish are captured by nets in large quantities during the rains, 

241, The Zehsildar of Mortizapur gives 175 fishermen, ‘ Bhoees” 
and Mahomedans. The markets are insuffi- 
ciently supplied; large fish obtains 6 annas, 
and small 8 annas a seer; first sort mutton 
4 annas, second sort 8 annas a seer. One-fourth of the population eat 
fish ; the supply has decreased ; very small ones are taken during the rains 
in large quantities. 

242. he Zehsildar of Chandore gives 546 fishermen, consisting of 

its ’ ; Bhoees, in his district. The markets are in- 
cg oninion of Native official of sufficiently supplied with fish; the cost of 
andore. : ° 
which is, for large sorts 6 annas, small sorts 
3 annas a seer ; whilst first sort mutton realises 4 annas, and second sort 
3 annas a seer. 

243. he Tehsildar of Morsee gives 648 Bhoeesand Mahomedan 
fishermen in his district. The markets are 
not fully supplied with fish ; the larger sorts 
cost 4 annas, and the smaller 3 annas a seer ; 
whilst the first sort of mutton also obtains 4 annas, and the second sort 
3 annas a seer. 

244. The Native official of the Woon District observes that there 

is , Len are 1,560 fishermen of the Bhoee and Deemur 
woe of Native official of ¢astes in the district, but they also pursue 

oon, . ¥ . . 

other avocations. ‘The local markets are in- 
sufficiently supplied with fish, the larger sorts selling at 5, and the smaller 
at 6 seers the rupee: whilst the first sort of mutton costs 4 scers, and the 
second 5 seers the Rupee ; but this latter article of diet is but little con- 
sumed in the district. Abous 15 per cent. of the people are said to 
occasionally eat fish, but these creatures have decreased of late years. 
Small ones are taken during the rains, but not in large quantities, the 
minimum mesh of the nets being about three-eighths of an inch. Fish 
to a small extent are trapped during the rains in the irrigated fields. 
The names of the nets, &c., used are Bhowt jall, Julee, Burdee, Maah 
Jall, Thickuttake, Maleuse thagnee, and Murwuth. 


Opinion of Native official of 
Mortizapiir. 


Opinion of Native official of 
Morsee. 


CXV 


CENTRAL PROVINCES. 


245. Itappears from the following reports, that in the 19 tehsils 

The majority of the people in from which answers have been received, in 

the Central Provinces may eat four 50 per cent. of the people eat fish, in 

Beh eight from 50 to 75 per cent., in three from 
80 to 90 per cent., and in four upwards of 90 per cent. 

246. Whether the markets are sufficiently supplied ? is thus answered 
by 20 tehsildars, as sufficiently so in 8, in- 
sufliciently in 12. 

247. Respecting whether the amount of fish in the waters has in- 

} creased, decreased, or remained stationary ? 
eeerher, tlic Soh in 4 be seven consider it to be stationary, in two 
ed: if appears doubtful, whilst nine report a 

decrease. 

248. Respecting the number of fishermen ? they are given at 80,928, 

: but the women and children belonging to 
Sar cere er rule, have their families are included by some of the 
tehsildars; one evidently adds in those who 
used to be fishermen, as he remarks that ‘many have ceased to 
follow their original occupation, owing to the demand for well-paid labor 
developed by the railway.” Out of these persons, all are said to follow 
other occupations, with the exception of 200 persons in the Upper Godave- 
ri district. 
249, The opinion appears to be unanimous, that breeding fish are 
5 destroyed to a large extent by fixed nets, b 

Breeding fish how destroyed. = i, eae Siholo avers arrestin ieee 
whilst they are ascending to breed, especially at a little prior to the 
commencement of the monsoon, and likewise stopping their downward 
progress as they return to the larger rivers; by traps in irrigated fields, 
capturing them as they try to reach good spawning grounds; by netting 
in every possible way the pools in the rivers in the dry season, and by 
poisoning the waters. Various forms of traps, nets, &c., are also employed. 

250. Fry appear to be destroyed to a great extent when just 

moving about, and in every possible way. 

aa yauestrosion Suclessle: One tehsildar computes the destruction in 
his district alone at 25,000 maunds (2 millions of pounds), and the 
tehsildar of Nursingpur says, that “it 1s to this wholesale destruction 
of the small fish that the fish have decreased.” Traps of fine split 
bamboos appear to be placed at every outlet in irrigated fields, and 
netting is carried on universally, as well as the use of dams, weirs, and 


Markets how supplied. 


poison. 


exvi 


251. The smallest size of the mesh of the 
nels employed is thus recorded by the Kuro- 
pean and Native officials :— 


The smallest size of the 
mesh of nets. 


OF AN INCI IN DIAMETER. . 
Size of coarse muslin, a grain 
REPORTERS, of wheat or barley, a large 
A needle or very small. 
Sealesvaliat $ EY] ob 


13 Europeans ... B86'|{, 900 Bal} apel LN) Ge) al 3 
18 Natives... coy) db) I) Ty a | Gf al 3 


of the various Native officials. Weirs exist 
permitting nothing but water to go through, 
detaining all the fish; fixed traps are placed in every run where young or 
old are likely to pass, even at each opening through which the waste 
water in the rice fields flows from a higher to a lower level ; streams are 
dammed and laded; poisoning is freely resorted to. Every form of net 
appears to be employed, from large-meshed to small-meshed ones, fixed or 
moveable, whilst rivers are swept by a number of cast-nets being con- 
nected together and dragged their whole width; night lines and day 
lines ; baits fixed to bamboos inserted into the beds of rivers; torch-light 
netting and spearing; in short, every mode of poaching is said to be 
freely employed. 

253. ds to remedial measures which have been proposed, the Chief 
Commissioner suggests that poisoning waters 
should be prohibited, and no great opposition 
would be encountered in attempting a close season, but deprecates any 
action as to regulating the minimum size of the mesh of the nets to 
be employed ; still if Government legislates, he urges a very wide dis- 
cretion be given to local Governments in the framing of the rules. Per- 
sonally I would also wish to see the local Administrations deal with the 
evils which exist, and provided they will do so, that regulations res- 
pecting the minimum size of the mesh of nets be left to their decision, 
only recommending that it never be permitted to be less than half an inch 
between each knot of the meshes. In fact this would be in the spirit 
of the British law, considering each local Administration in the place 
of a ‘ District Fishery Board’ at home, and only subject to certain regula- 
tions, which I have already proposed. Forbidding any fixed engines as 
weirs or eruives, at least durmg breeding months, and the poisoning of 
waters, and the protection during the dry season of a few pools, would, 
I am convinced, at once show how easily remedial measures improve 
the condition of fisheries and augment the food-supply of the people. 

254, Respecting regulating the smallest size of the mesh which may 

Ne a Sie SN ee be employed, one European official suggests 
Sinaia iain OE Mota that it would not be easy to do so in 
and what such ought to be. tanks and ponds, but that he sees no diflicul- 

ty in rivers and nallas ; four others considei 


Other modes of fishing. 


Remedial measures proposed. 


exvil 


if inexpedient, mostly because a large preventive establishment would be 
required, one “that another class of poor people would be pestered with 
orders and regulations, which they and their neighbours would not 
understand,” and ten do not see any objections. The following are the 
ininimum sizes proposed ; }th of an inch between the knots of the meshes 
by 2; 4 aninch by 3; }ths of an inch by 2; 1 inch by 5, 1} inches by 
lis 14 ‘inches in rivers and nallas by 1. 

255. Should the sale of the fry of fish be prohibited : ? is answered 
by ten; seven are in favor of it, three see 
objections. ‘They consider such might lead 
to oppression, and small fish, which are not 
lry, might be considered as such. ‘This rule might be modified thus, 
that no small fish are to be sold during the breeding months, to be 
decided in each district; if the young are thus destroyed, the. supply 
during the rest of the year can hardly be expected to materially increase. 

256. Respecting fence seasons in the hilly districts during two 
months of the monsoon, when fish are as- 
cending to breed or returning to the rivers of 
the plains, they appear to be generally approved of where they can be 
carried out. All weirs and fixed engines of every description should be 
prohibited at these periods if any are now permitted. 

257. The Assistant Secretary to the Chief Commissioner, Central 
Provinees (August 22nd, 1872) observes of 
the replies received from his districts to the 
questions which were cireulated :—“ The fol- 
lowing facts are very clearly brought into 
view :—(1) that in these Provinces there are more than 80,000 persons 
who gain a livelihood, either in whole or in part, from fishing; (2) that 
from 60 to 75 per cent. of the population consume fish as an article 
of dict; (3) that no restrictions whatever exist, either as to the time 
or mvde of fishing, or to the size or age of the fish caught, and that 
much indiscriminate and wanton destruction of fish takes place, not 
only by netting and trapping, but also by the very reprehensible prac- 
tice of drugging and poisoning pools; (4) that notwithstanding all 
this, the markets are generally not fully supplied; (5) that every 
where the price of fish per seer is very much below the price of second 
class bazar mutton. In some districts it is alleged that there has been 
« decrease in the number of fish, but of this there is no very satis- 
factory proof. In the districts of Jabalpur and Seoni it is said fish 
deereased very perceptibly owing to the drought of 1868-69, but that 
they are now again on the increase. ‘The facts elicited by the present 
enquiries, seem to the Chief Commissioner to indicate very clearly the 
necessity for some regulation of the fisheries in these provinces, and 
I am row to confine myself to an expression of the Chief Commissioner’s 
opinion as to the restrictions which should be imposed. The practice 
of poisoning and drugging pools should certainly be puta stop to, 
and it is probable that no ver y great, opposition would be encountered 
in attempting to appoint a “ close season’ ? during which the fish might 
breed in security. The object of a restriction of this nature would be 
obvious to all, and such a restriction could also be enforeed with com- 
paratively small difliculty. Theoretically, a regulation of the size of 


Ought the sale of the fry of 
fish to be prohibited P 


Fence-months. 


Opinion of the Chief Com- 
missioner of the Ceutral Pro- 
vinees. 


meshes of nets is desirable, but any introduction of such a regulation 
would be so fraught with annoyance and vexation to the fishing classes, 
that Mr. Morris would deprecate any action in the matter. Like all 
measures necessitating minute interference, it would be made an engine 
of petty oppression “and annoyance, independently of the direct injury 
to the trade. Close and constant inspection would be requisite to keep 
the nets up to the standard, and the uses to which the opportunities 
thus given to petty officials would be put can easily be imagined. 
Moreover, it does not appear that, as yet, there is any decrease in the 
number of fish, and it may be that a very considerable number of the 
small fish caught are not young fry, but full-grown fish of small 
species evidently possessing a remarkable power of reproduction. In 
ease, then, the Government of India deems that legislation in the 
matter of fisheries is called for, the Chief Commissioner would most 
strongly urge that very wide discretion be given to local Governments 
in framing of rules. No attempt, he thinks, should be made to embody 
such rules in the Act. The amount of hardship attendant on such 
restrictive measures is only known when the measures come into force, 
and if local Administrations are left unfettered, the rules can be adapted 
to the case of each district or river. In some portions of these provinces 
the land-owners claim the right to fishing in the rivers and streams 
running through their estates, and receive fees from fishermen resorting 
to them. No enquiry has been made as to the nature of such rights, 

to the period since which they have been exercised. It may be 
necessary to do so if the Government should determine on legislative 
regulation of the fisheries. 

258. he Collector af Nagpur believes that breeding fish and very 
young ones are destroyed to a great extent, es- 
pecially during the rains or immediately after. 
The smallest-sized meshes in use is about one 
fourth of an inch in circumference, he considers that there would be little 
if any difficulty in regulating the minimum size that might be employed 
and would recommend that it should not be less than three-fourths of an 
inch between knot and knot, but it would be more advisable to take oni 
inch as the fixed standard. ‘ The Tehsildars are all unanimous in reporting 
that the sale of the fry of fish in bazars might be prohibited without caus- 
ing any injury, and the prohibition would have the effect of causing large: 
fish to be brought to the market. In this I concur.” The Collector 0, 
Bhandara observes, that breeding and very young fish are destroyed to : 
great extent im tanks, nallas, and rivers, especially in large numbers during 
the months of April and May, and for the first six weeks of the monsoon 
The smallest mesh employed is one-sixth of aninch. There would be difli 
culty i in regulating the minimum size of the mesh of nets to be employe 
in tank fishing, but not so much in rivers and nallas ; that to be used in th: 
latter places might be laid down at 1} inches. There would be m 
objection to prohibiting the capture of fish in rivers and nallas durin; 
the first two months of the monsoon, at which period alone is fry brough 
to the markets for sale. The Collector of Chanda replies, that breediny 
and very young fish are destroyed to a great extent in all the large: 
and smaller streams, in the tanks, jhils, and temporary pools made }) 
damming up rice-fields and nallas in the rainy season, Small fish ar 


Opinion of the Collector of 
the Nagpur Division. 


CX1X 


eaught in the rains chiefly by nets, hooks, jhinkars, and bamboo derias. 
The nets which have meshes of a very small size are dragged across 
the water. Dhimarsdo not usually use hooks, but in the larger rivers 
during the monsoons they not unfrequently place a rope across the 
stream, the rope having hooks with different kinds of baits at a distance 
of about a cubit apart attached to it, and resting upon pumpkins, they 
examine it every few hours. Weirs are stretched across water-courses. 
The Goonds are reputed to poison fish ; in fact they are destroyed indis- 
eriminately at all times of the year, including the breeding season, 
The smallest sized mesh in use takes five meshes within one inch, but there 
would be considerable difficulty in regulating it, unless the police force were 
augmented: however, were it regulated, would propose three-fourths of an 
inch between each knot. No valid objections exist against prohibiting the 
sale of fry in the bazars, the supply being above thedemand. Zhe Collector 
of Wardha answers, that breeding fish and young ones are destroyed to the 
same extent as in the rest of India, being captured most readily during 
the breeding season. ‘The breeding fish often linger in the pools before 
the rains commence, and there fall easy victims to all sorts of people. The 
smallest size of the mesh used is between one-fourthand one-tenth ofan inch 
square, but even cloths are extensively employed ; the only difliculty in re- 
culating the minimum size in future is “that another class of poor people 
would be pestered with orders and regulations, which they and their neigh- 
bours would not understand.” ‘If any regulation is considered necessary, 
it should be a simple prohibition to use cloths or nets of a smaller mesh 
than three-fourths or one inch square for the capture of fish.” Prohibiting 
the sale of fry would be useless; “if the mesh of nets is regulated, and the 
rules really enforced, there would be no necessity for it; if nets are not in- 
terfered with, the fry will be caught and disposed of privately, as the greater 
portion is now.” The Collector of Balaghat replies, that breeding fish and 
young ones are destroyed toa great extent, mostly in the rains, by means of 
nets with very small meshes, in the rivers, smaller streams, rice-fields, and 
tanks. Fine bamboo-matting is also used, as well as sticks and cloths. 
The smallest meshes of nets are less than one-fourth of an inch ; regulating 
their size would be useless, no orders could be carried out, and would not 
recommend prohibiting the sale of the fry in the bazars. 
259. The Deputy Commissioners’ answers of the Jabalpir Division 
are amalgamated. In Jubalpur fish are said to 
Opinions of the Deputy Com- ye taken all the year round regardless of season. 
missioners of the Jubalpir Br ooding and immature ones are destroyed to a 
Division. 5 A ° és 
great extentin Mandla and Seoni, but not so in 
the Sagar District. In Damoh it is considered that breeding fish are not des- 
troyed wholesale during the hot season, — Spawning lish appear to be gener- 
ally taken whilst migrating up stream in June or July for breeding pur- 
poses, and the fry in September or October whilst attempting to pass from 
the shallows where they are bred to the deeper water. ‘The modes are 
thus described in the Seoni District. “ Every little streamlet is dammed 
up, and the fish are baled out in thousands, by people standing in the 
water. Those escaping this attack are caught in the woven bamboo 
weirs of the dam. In some of the wilder parts of the district, the 
poisoning of stagnant pools, and_ of temporarily dammed water, is 
resorted to in the hot weather. Not only are all the fish in the pool 


cCXxx 


killed, but when there is an overflow, the stream below is often infected 
for some distance, and many of the fish killed. Cattle coming to drink, 
and human beings also, are liable to suffer. ‘The fish thus killed are 
said to be unpleasant to the palate and unwholesome.” In Damoh, after 
the monsoon is over, nets of all sorts, with meshes to one-fourth of an inch 
or less in width, are employed; drag-nets are used, and split bamboo 
weirs are constructed across favourite runs. As the streams begin 
to dry, the pools are drugged with a fruit called ‘ Aka’ pounded and 
mixed with flour. Rivers and tanks abound with turtles, tortoises, and 
crocodiles, which destroy large quantities of fish. The smallest size mesh 
of nets is given at one-eighth of an inch in Mandla and Seoni, one-fourth 
in Jabalptry and Damoh, and so small that no fish can pass in Sagar, All 
the Deputy Commissioners consider there would be but little difficulty 
in regulating the minimum = size of the mesh of nets, but the 
one of Damoh considers discontent would be caused, not only amongst 
the fishermen, but the consumers, as little fish are in great demand, 

and meet with a ready sale. The Deputy Commissioners would adopt 
the following as the minimum size: Seoni and Damoh half an inch 
between the knots, Mandla one inch at the base, and two inches or more 
higher up, Sagar one-fourth of an inch in diameter for general fishing [a 
pencil would almost be arrested in such a mesh], Jabalpiir one inch. The 
general impression is, that the only valid objection to prohibiting the sale of 
fry in the bazar, is the loss of income to the fishermen, and irritation amongst 
native fish-eaters, who ordinarily belong to the lowest and least intelligent 
class of the population. As regards fence-months, the Deputy Commissioner 
of Seoni would have them from July to September inclusive, in the districts 
of the Satpura Range, as then the greatest destruction takes place. ‘I'he 
Deputy Commissioners of Sagar and JabalpGr would condemn the 
capture of fish during the two first months of the monsoon. The Depu y 
Commissioners of Damoh and Mandla give no definite opinions, owing 
to not having had any experience of the kind in hilly districts, to which 
the question solely referred. 

260. In the Narbada Division, the Collector of Betut observes, that 
there is no check to the destruction of breed- 
ding fish and fry, which, it is said, are des- 
troyed in large numbers by nets, baskets, 
and poisoning the water. The smallest size mesh of nets employed is 
about one-eighth of an inch square ; does not apprehend any difficulty in 
regulating the minimum size or prohibiting the sale of fry in the bazars. 
The Collector of Chhindwara answers, that what fish are caught are captured 
irrespective of whether breeding ones or fry ; the smallest mesh in 
use Is about one-fourth of an inch ; there would be no difficulty in regulating 
the minimum size provided there were a law, which he would propose at 
one inch ; there would be no objection to prohibiting the sale of fry. Zhe 
Collector of Hoshangabad reports, that breeding and very young fish are 
destroyed to a great extent by means of nets, funnel-shaped baskets, 
and poisoning pools, Fry are caught in small streams and in the shallows 
of large rivers, especially during June and July, by narrow-meshed nets and 
baskets, and in stagnant water by poisoning the whole pool. The smallest 
meshes of nets are one-eighth of an inch in diameter; there would be no 
difficulty in regulating them except in the distant wild parts of the district, 


Narbada Division. Opinions 
of the Collectors, 


exxi 


and one inch in diameter would be advisable. There is no objection to 
prohibiting the sale of the fry of fish in the bazars, or fixing a close 
time in the hilly districts. 7e Collector of Narsinghpur observes, that 
breeding and young fish are destroyed in considerable numbers. The 
breeding fish are taken by weirs thrown across the large rivers, and in 
the narrows of them, before the monsoons, nothing can pass, whilst 
traps are also set. upin shallow places. Waters are poisoned in the 
smaller streams during the two first months of the monsoon, whilst the 
fish are spawning. Not only are the fry taken in every conceivable 
way for food, but they are also wantonly and usclessly destroyed by 
village children. These causes have impoverished the fisheries, and de- 
creased the supply. The smallest mesh of nets in use is one-eighth of an 
inch ; there would be but little difficulty in regulating the minimum size, 
which it is suggested should be 1} inches between each knot. Close 
months in hilly districts, it is suggested, could not be enforced, instead 
“yegulating the size of the mesh of nets to protect. the fry, and pro- 
hibiting the snaring of fish altogether in the breeding season, or the 
prohibition of weirs and traps on any river or stream during the breed- 
ing season, unless sufficient openings were given to enable a proportion 
of the breeding fish to reach suitable places to deposit their eggs, would 
be suflicient to improve the fisheries, rendering them more valuable to 
the fishermen, and more productive of food;’ would prohibit the sale 
of fry in the bazars as “beneficial to all districts; fish eaten at such 
seasons are the reputed originators of disease, with what truth I am 
unable to say.” The Cod/ector of Nimary replies, no distinction is ever 
made as to whether the fish is breeding or young; they are destroyed in 
pools, tanks, streams, and rivers; in fact in every place where they can be 
got and in all seasons, except during very heavy rains, when fishing is 
unprofitable; the smallest mesh employed is one-eighth of an inch. No 
difficulties exist in regulating the size of the mesh of nets, except that 
such might reduce the supply, whilst the only objection against prohibiting 
the sale of fry is, that such would reduce the sales one-half. A fence 
season of two months in hilly districts could be casily carried out, whilst 
the people would understand the reason. 

261. Chhattisgarh Division —The Collector of Raipur reports, that 
breeding and young fish are indiscriminately 
taken, the latter to a greater extent than the 

¢ former. The capture takes place a month 
or two previous, also during the rains, in nallas, tanks, and small pools, 
by nets, traps, eross-bow bolts, fouling the water of pools, and angling. 
The smallest-sized mesh of the nets employed is one-fourth of an inch; 
the difficulty in regulating the minimum size would be in its evasion, as 
the majority of the people would sympathise with the fishermen, render- 
ing a large protective establishment necessary : but the minimum size 
should not be less than one inch. Prohibiting the sale of the fry would 
“deprive the poorer classes of the enjoyment of this kind of animal food, 
which has hitherto been procurable with ease by fishermen, and is 
cheaply placed within the reach of the buyer’s means: but the ease would 
be different when the large fish alone are to be caught.” Zhe Collector of 
Sambalpur considers that breeding fish and very young ones are not 
destroyed to any great extent, as during the rains the rivers cannot be 


Chhattisgarh Division, Opi- 
nions of Collectors. 


exxil 


netted, whilst the country contiguous to them is covered with dense 
jungle, and but sparsely populated. Numbers of small fish are captured 
during the monsoon months in the rice-fields, and sometimes in 
creeks filled by the back-waters of the rivers in flood; in_ the rice-fields 
wicker baskets are placed at the drainage openings of the fields, and those 
in the creeks and estuaries are taken by a net which is lowered into the 
water and raised after an interval of a few seconds by means of a long 
bamboo pole. The smallest-sized mesh of the nets is one-eighth of an 
inch ; regulating it Would require “an immense and expensive establish- 
ment, which would probably prove a greater evil than that which it is in- 
tended to provide against.” If a minimum were fixed, it should be one 
inch between knot and knot. It would be impossible to prevent the sale 
of fry, as “ they are chiefly hawked about by the boatmen from house to 
house, or purchased by the people at the river side, as the boats pass up.” 
No objections exist to a fence season in hilly regions during the first two 
months of the monsoon, provided such could be enforced, which appears 
to be impossible. The Codlector of Bilaspur states, that breeding and 
young fish are wantonly and indiscriminately destroyed, in all rivers, pools, 
streams, and tanks, throughout the district, also in rice-fields ; in the latter, 
they are caught at the outlets when the water is no longer required in 
the fields. Wholesale destruction takes place at the close of the rains 
when the waters are subsiding. In shallow streams, traps of various 
devices—baskets, bamboo weirs, and funnel-shaped nets whose meshes are 
as close as those of coarse muslin—are used. It is impossible for the 
smallest fish to get out of some of the traps. Waters are also poisoned. 
The smallest-meshed nets in use would just admit of a fly crawling 
through. No difficulties exist in regulating the minimum size of the 
mesh of nets, which he would place at one-fourth of an inch. Objections 
might arise in prohibiting the sale of fry, as advantage could be taken of 
such an order for the purpose of oppression. 
262. In the Nagpir Division, the five Tehsildars report 35,377 
ie. & fishermen, but in two tehsils the families 
Nagpir Division. Opinionof oye included; all of them likewise carry 
Native ollicials. 5 
on other occupations. The fishermen castes 
are Palwar, Kahar if Pardasis, Bendura, Bhanara, Mashide, Telang, 
Kevat, Dhimar or Bhogis, Binjawars. Respecting the supply of fish in 
the markets, the Tehsildar of Nagptr reports that it is sufficient in 
two markets, and insufficient in two others. In Bhandara, Chanda, and 
Balaghat, that it is sufficient; and in Wardha, that it is not so during 
the hot season. The comparative cost of mutton and fish cannot be 
ascertained from the replies veceived. As to the proportion of the 
population who eat fish, it is given in Nagptr and Chanda at 75 per 
cent., in Bhandara at 92 per cent., in Wardha at 86 per cent., and in 
Balaghat at 80 per cent. The amount of fish in the waters is said to 
have remained stationary in two tehsils, and to have decreased in three. 
Large quantities of fish are said not to be taken in one tehsil during 
the rains, but to be so in the remaining four. The smallest-meshed 
nets are given by three at one-fourth of an inch, by one at one-fifth, and 
the remainder at one-sixth. In four tehsils fish are said to be trapped 
during the rains, in the fifth not to be so. The following are stated to be 
the modes of fishing employed: nets termed ‘Jale’ or ‘ Bhoi Jale,’ 


CXXIil 


small fish hooks, ‘gal;’ by ‘ tatti’ or ‘pinjra,’ which is generally placed 
against a running stream of a nalla, the water passes through, but 
the fish that are carried away by the current of the water are 
driven into the crevices of the tatti, and are thus entrapped ; by 
‘phanta,’ when a screen is placed against the current in a shallow river 
or a nalla, on one side it has a sheet of cloth attached to it, whilst on 
the other a net is spread, as the current is arrested by the screen, the 
fish, in attempting to pass, leap over it, and fallinto the nets spread on 
the other side; ‘Pailni’ is a triangular-shaped net (lave-net) on a pole 
used for catching fish in shallow water; ‘ Bhovasent,’ a circular net 
about 18 feet in diameter; ‘Tagoi,’ a net from 90 to 175 feet in 
length; the ‘Jhorti’ is very similar, but with a larger .mesh; the 
‘Topari’ is another species of net; ‘ Bhewar jal’ or cast-net; the 
‘ Kothla’ is a bag-shaped bamboo trap, and is generally used in irrigated 
fields; snares termed ‘Phas;’ poisoning water by ‘milk bush,’ ‘hin- 
ganbet? or ‘meni. In Balaghat the following plans are likewise 
reported :—‘ Dupka,’ a conical bamboo coop ; ‘ Lamdora,’ a night line baited 
with a frog; ‘ Kunkur,’ a spear; ‘ Dawan,’ night-lines with several hooks 
on one string ; ‘ Tepon,’ another form used during the day-time ; ‘Surki,’ 
fine bamboo chicks, as are also ‘ Chunga’ and ‘ Maindhar.’ ‘ Dhaer,’ or 
apiece of large hollow bamboo three or four feet in length, open at both 
ends, is left in running water: its weight sinks it: it is suddenly lifted, 
the two ends being closed by the two hands. ‘Chapa,’ by lights at 
night, when the fish jump on to a piece of bamboo matting. ‘Ooran,’ 
a large net, which is stretched across a stream in a moon-light night, 
and the water is beaten towards if by men in canoes. 

263. In the Jabalpiir Division, five Tehsildars reply, that there 
are 10,923 fishermen, who almost invariably 
pursue other occupations; the names of 
the castes are Dhimars and Khevats. The 
local markets are fully supplied in three tehsils, but not so in 
two. Respecting the amount of the population who eat fish, it 
is given as follows :—Seoni three-fourths, Mandla all but Brahmins and 
Banias, Sagar and Jabalptir half; Damoh two-thirds. As regards the 
amount of fish in the waters, in Seoni and Jabalpur it is stated that 
they were abundant previous to the drought of 1868-69 when numbers 
died, now again they are increasing; in Damoh they are stationary: in 
Mandla and Sagar they have decreased. In Sagar small fish are 
not taken in any quantity during the rains, but they are in the four 
other districts, at the end of the rains, by damming and lading, by 
taking those left by receding waters in hollows and rice-fields, and by fine 
nets ; in fact, at Mandla about half of the young fry may be said to 
be so caught. The smallest-sized meshes are thus given in four 
districts; one at half an inch, two at quarter of an inch [in one it 
is subsequently observed of the Pilna net, that it has “fine meshes 
through which a needle for sewing gunny can with difficulty be passed], 
and one at the size of a grain of wheat. Young and old fish are 
taken during seasons of irrigation, in the fields, by means of traps 
set at the outlet of every enclosure in three of the districts, but 
in the remaining two no fields are irrigated at this period, but 
wherever there is any overflow, the people destroy the fry how they can. 


Jabalpfr Division. Answers 
of the Native officials. 


CXXiV 


The following are the modes of fishing recorded :—‘ Pilni,’ or smallest net 
of all, chiefly employed for taking prawns ; it isa hand (lave) net fast- 
ened to a triangular bamboo frame. ‘ Pandi,’ the smallest casting net, 
this is ordinarily about 15 feet long, weighted with iron; when it is 
desired to net a considerable breadth of stream, several of these nets are 
used, fastened together, making one very long net, in this almost every 
kind of fish is caught; the substance of which it is composed is three or 
four threads of cotton which forms a very fine cord ; it is a heavy net, re- 
quiring three or four men to drag it. The ‘ Mahajal,’ or great fishing net, 
is resorted to in large streams, &e., generally used out of boats: two are 
taken from different directions towards one central point, the fish being 
driven by beating the water and noises of all sorts, to the point where they 
are caught, between the two Mahajals. The ‘ Kamni’ or ‘ Kawria’ is a net 
fixed opposite the opening in a bund or dam, into which all the fish are 
swept by the stream : in some localities the dam is of stone, and a net stops 
the openings ; in other places the dam is a bamboo screen, and the orifices 
are lined with tatties, leading the fish into a bamboo-grating enclosure 
(eruive) which allows the water to pass, but retains the fish. In the 
‘Kurar’ fishing, a funnel or cone-shaped bamboo net is put down, 
extinguisher fashion, from a boat passing over a shoal of fish. ‘ Ulechna’ 
means ‘to bale out;’? in this mode of fishing a channel of the river is 
dammed up with stones, which permits the water to flow through, but 
detains the fish; as the water gets low, the fish are baled out in flat 
bamboo baskets. ‘ Pahao’ is a trap made of wood and bamboo cuttings, 
it is placed in narrow and shallow streams, the water flows through 
it, but the egress of the smallest fish is prevented. ‘ Dauni’ is a baited 
night or day line. ‘ Kankur’ is tish spearing. Most of the other plans 
have been already referred to in the last paragraph. 

264. In the Nerbadu Division, the five Tehsildars reply as follows : 
there are 5,659 fishermen, all of whom have 
other occupations ; in one tehsil it is remarked 
that “many have ceased to follow their ori- 
ginal occupation, owing to the demand for well-paid labor developed by 
the railway.” They are mostly Dhimars, a term applicable to boatmen 
and sellers of parched gram; Kahar, Bhoce, applicable to palki-bearers, 
Singhrora or sellers of the Singhara nuts, and Mussulmen. ‘The local 
markets are stated to be sufficiently suppliedin one district, but insufli- 
ciently so in the remaining four. In two districts about 50 per cent. of 
the people eat fish, in one from 50 to 75 per cent., in one 75 per cent., and 
in the remainder upwards of 85 per cent. In two districts, the amount 
of fish in the waters has continued to be stationary of late years, 
whilst it has decreased in the remaining three. In all the tehsils, a great 
destruction of fry is recorded as occurring during the rains. The Teh- 
sildar of Narsingpur observes, “it is to this wholesale destruction of the 
small fish, that the fish have decreased.” The minimum mesh of the nets 
in use is given in all five districts at one-eighth of an inch ; in four of the 
districts fish, large and small, are trapped in the irrigated fields. The modes 
of fishing are similar to those described in the two last paragraphs, in addi- 
tion to which the poisoning of the water is reported in Chhindwara, 
Hoshangabad, and Minar: also a lighted torch is taken in a canoe 
over deep water; the fish collect near the light and are netted. 


Nerbada Division. Opinions 
of Native officials, 


CXXV 


265. In the Chhattisgarh Division, three Tehsildars report as 
follows :—that there are 24,728 fishermen, all 
of whom have other occupations, they are of the 
same castes as in the other divisions; the 
markets in all of the three districts are insufficiently supplied, except during 
the rainy season, when a considerable amount of fry is taken and disposed of. 
In two tehsils 75 per cent., and in one 95 per cent., are said to be fish- 
eaters ; the amount in the waters is stated to be stationary in two districts; 
no answer from the third. Large quantities of fry are reported to be cap- 
tured during the rains, computed i in one tehsil at nearly 25,000 maunds 
(2,000 ,000Ibs, reckoning the maund at 80Ibs.] In two tehsils the smallest 
mesh of the nets employ. ed is given at quarter of an inch; in the remain- 
ing one at the size of a grain of barley. Fish are extensively trapped in 
the rice-fields in all the three districts. The modes already alluded to 
in the other divisions are in existence in this, and poisoning of the water 
is stated to occur in two of the tehsils. 

266. Inthe Upper Godaveri District, the Tehsildar of Sironcha 
reports 4,241 fishermen, but few indeed of 
this number, perhaps 200, are solely depend- 
ant on the taking of fish for a livelihood ; 
their castes are Dhimar, Gollawal, Orawal, Bestwal! and Benarwal. Fish 
are only bartered; 97 per cent. of the people would eat it could they 
procure it. A decrease in the number of the tank-produced fish is be- 
lieved to have oceurred since the district has formed a portion of the 
British territory. Previously, the people were prevented from killing 
fish in tanks, unless they paid some fees or share of fish to the 
local 'Talukdar. The quantity in the rivers is not known to have 
decreased, but if the nallas are completely swept of them, it is most 
certain that the amount in the rivers will likewise fall off, and therefore 
it is thought that there must be a decrease, Large quantities of fry are 
destroy ed in the rains; the meshes of the nets are about a qui arter of an 
inch in width. There are no irrigated fields, except from wells, in this 
district, but fish are trapped. 


Chhattisgarh Division. Opi- 
nions of Native officials, 


Upper Godaveri District. 
Opinion of the Tehsildar. 


Cxxvi 


RAJPUTANA. 


267. The Secretary to the Governor General’s Agent in Rajputana 
forwarded two letters, with enclosures, from the 
Rujputana. Opinion of the — Cy,» ysioner of Ajmir, who observes that there 
Commissioner of Ajmir. ea el ; rune Derce ; 
are no perennial streams in his district, but four 
perennial tanks or lakes, viz., Anasagur Lake, in which the supply of fish 
is most inadequate, and some of the better descriptions, as the Rohoo, 
Cirrhina rohita, ave not found; the Pushkar, a holy lake, where neither 
the lives of fish or crocodiles can be taken, though probably there would 
be no objection to the eggs of the latter being destroyed ; the Ramsur, 
where the fish supply is good, provided water exists, but this was so 
deficient last year that it only contained a cupfull; lastly, the Nearan, 
which, when full, has a fair amount of fish; however, it was quite dry 
in 1871. Sometimes there is a fifth at Bhir. The rivers Bunas and 
Khari are perennial streams, which, whilst passing through the British 
territory, contain no fish. 
268, The Deputy Commissioner of Ajmir veports that water only 
an _ exists in the streams in his district for a 
Cee ae oe Commis: few days during the rainy season, and that 
they do not contain edible fish. The 
Khari Nuddi, and Bunas on our borders, are the only streams in which 
fish could be bred and preserved, but the localities are not in our district, 
but in (1 believe) the Jaipur State.” The fishing in the Ramsur and 
Nearan tanks are generally leased out, as water is usually present all the 
year round, and a fair supply of fish is afforded to the cantonment of 
Nusirabad. “This year the lease has been taken up by a banker of 
Ajmir with the avowed purpose of preventing the catching of fish.” 
This preservative process, it is suggested, will bring up the supply again 
after the loss sustained by the late drought, whereby the Nearan tank 
became quite dry, and that at Ramsur had only about a cupfull of 
water left in it. He observes that “ were we to be provided with reservoirs 
holding water all the year round, it would bea great boon to have them 
stocked with good edible fish, and they could be readily preserved. Till 
such time as we have reservoirs of this kind, it will be useless to attempt 
to preserve fish in the district.” Crocodiles are only found in the Ana- 
sagur tank (except the sacred Pushkur one), and their destruction he 
considers perfectly feasible at a small expense; if sanctioned, they could 
be killed by Shikaris, and rewards offered for their eggs. 


OW D.. 


269. In Oudh the Officiating Chief Commissioner gives his 
opinion, that fish have neither increased nor 
deereased in the province ; that legislative 
interference is unnecessary, and in fact can 
only be justifiable when it is demonstrated that, unless the Legisla- 
ture steps in, the existence of that important article of diet will cease 
altogether,—an entirely contrary opinion to that of the Chief Commis- 
sioner in 1868. But itis likewise observed that there would be no diffi- 
culties in rerulating the size of the meshes of the fishing nets, if desirable, 
or prohibiting the sale of little fish in the bazar, but the last, it is 
stated, would be obnoxious to both buyers and sellers, besides being 
uncalled for, 

270. Amongst the replies forwarded from this provinee are those 
of 25 Tehsildars and Native officials, &e. ; all 
but the one at Sitapur answering the ques- 
tion as to “what proportion of the people 
eat fish ?? Whilst the numbers at Unas and Suflipur are computed at 
85,000 in either place, the amount of the general population is not 
recorded. At Kantha, Bangermore, Putti, and Pratabgarh, the fish-eaters 
are given as half the people; at Purwah, Mohan, Faizabad, Baraich, 
Gondah, Hurdui, and Rai Bareiliat two-thirds ; at Sundeela and Sultan- 
pur at three-fourths ; at Bileram, Shahabad, and Behar at from 80 to 
974 per cent., and at Lucknow all; whilst at Nawabgunge, Vathipur, 
Sanalughat, and ILlyderghur, it is asserted a large proportion of the 
people eat fish, and more would do so could they obtain them. The 
foregoing shows that a fish-diet is most important to, and isin fact not a 
luxury, but a necessity, amongst, the people of Oudh, and that more 
would be fish-eaters were the supply egual to the demand. 

271. The next consideration is, whether the supply is really unequal 
to the demand? Whether the fish inhabit- 
ing the waters have inereased, decreased, or 
remained stationary, appears to be a disputed 
point, but it ought to be easily demonstrable whether the supplies in the 
bazars are equal to the demands of purchasers. Rather contradictory 
accounts are given from four. In one the bazar is said to be fairly 
supplied ; in one well supplied, but only during the rains; in two to be 
fully supplied, and in eighteen to be insufficiently so. Thus, three- 
fourths of the markets are stated to have a larger demand than supply, 
apparently demonstrating that, were the quantity of fish brought to 
market more considerable, it would be to the advantage of the people 
at large. 

272. <As the fish-eating population is very considerable, and the 
bazars are not fully supplied, we arrive at the 
question as to whether very small fishes are 
taken in any quantities during the rains ? In 
twenty localities if'is asserted that very small fish are so captured in large 


Opinions of Officiating Chief 
Commissioner. 


Large proportion of people 
are fish-eaters. 


Supply in markets unequal to 
demand. 


Fry killed largely during the 
rains, 


CXXViil 


quantities, and in two it is stated that this doés not oceur, It, of course, 
is difficult to prove without a personal visit, whether the small fish sold 
in the bazar are the fry of larger sorts, but as all fish breed in the 
rainy months, when little fish appear to be most largely sold in 
the bazars or used as manure in the fields, it must be conceded 
that a strong presumption is raised, that immature fishes are very 
largely destroyed in Oudh. In Baraich alone 8,000 maunds; in 
Unas 10,000 maunds; in Suffipur 300 maunds; in Purwah some 
hundreds of maunds; in Putti 40,000 maunds, are reported as 
being killed during the rains, and only in the Tehsil of Fathipur 
and Sanalughat are they stated not to be so captured. Thus nearly 
75 millions of ounces weight of small fish are stated in 4 Tehsils alone 
to be taken during the rains, and it is very evident that the destruction of 
small fish, when the fry are about, is the rule, not the exception. 

273. What is the smallest size of the mesh of the nets employed ? is 
a very important question, because it can 
hardly be asserted to be judicious to massacre 
the young of any species of fish, much less of 
those of the largest sorts. We have two classes of reporters ; first those 
who assert that the size of the smallest mesh employed is from a 
quarter of an inch to aninch square. In these localities but very little 
interference could be asserted to be occasioned by prohibiting the minimum 
size being less than one inch between knot and knot. At Hurdui and 
Shahbad, however, it is observed that a grain of gram will be stopped ; 
at Sultanpur that hardly anything will pass; and at Putti that a grain 
of mothi cannot go through. If all the immature fish are to be destroyed 
in this manner, it seems impossible that the markets could be fully 
supplied. As regards regulating the size of the mesh of the nets for 
the future, an objection is raised that it will be unpopular, because 
of the natural dislike and prejudice of the rustic population 
against any innovation whatever in the implements, for carrying on 
their. craft. But no innovation is proposed, only prohibiting the use of 
very minute meshes in their implements ; and the general opinion of the 
Oudh officials is, that one inch between knot and knot should be the 
smallest legal size. 

274. Are fish trapped in the irrigated fields during the rains ? is 
another very necessary enquiry, for it is 
at these periods that many breeding ones 
ascend to deposit their eggs. Some of the 
native officials say they are not destroyed, but 20 assert that they are ; 
and if young ones are so ruthlessly massacred as in Oudh, it does not 
appear very probable that the adult would meet with mercy. Besides 
this, what do the officials report? At Faizabad, that all breeding fish 
are indiscriminately netted; at Hurdui that breeding and young fish are 
destroyed without discrimination and toa great extent. That, as at 
Deogaon, waters are poisoned, and the large fish, when intoxicated, are 
beaten on the head with sticks and thus destroyed, whilst they are not 
considered good to eat. That in Sitapur, waters are dammed to obtain 
the fish; at Hurdui, that traps are used to collect fish of the smallest size. 
At Rai Bareli the destruction of all sorts of fish is considerable ; and at 
Sultanpur and Pratabgarh breeding fish and young ones are destroyed, 


The smallest size mesh in- 
use, and that proposed. 


Fish trapped in irrigated fields 
when breeding. 


CXXix 


Further extracts are not required to demonstrate how breeding fish and 
their fry are ruthlessly destroyed in Oudh ; and it may be questionable, 
whether wantonly poisoning fish, and destroying them in a manner that 
renders them uneatable, or else dangerous to health if employed as food, 
or whether indiscriminate destruction, as damming waters in order to 
kill all the fish in them, are not proceedings that should be prohibited, 
when it is shown that the fish supply is not sufficient for the wants of 
the people. The same also applies to weirs and trapping breeding fish 
in irrigated fields. 
275. In answer to the enquiry about prohibiting the sale of the fry 
of fish in the bazar, the objections are that 
Gai, he crohibited of the fry of the Police would interfere, and make such a 
means of extortion, especially as they could 
not discriminate between mature small fish, and the immature of the 
larger sorts. This may be obviated by prohibiting the sale of fish that 
will not easily pass through the meshes of the net of a regulated size, 
leaving it to local committees to pass bye-laws for the preservation of 
the more valuable kinds. 
276. The Commissioner and Deputy Commissioner of Faizabad 
Ae consider that any interference should be con- 
Faizabad Division. Opinions fined to the control of perennial lakes and 
of the Kuropean officials. a a 
second class rivers and streams, as it would 
not be of any use to legislate for jhils and pools which dry up, or such 
large rivers as the Ganges and Ghogra, as they may take care of 
themselves. 
277. The Officiating Secretary to the “ Officiating Chief Commis- 
sioner” 7x Oudh (May 14th, 1872) observes, 
a Opinions of the Officiating «the general tendency of the answers, how- 
Chief Commissioner nnd Finan- Ch id . : 
cial Commissioner, &c. ever, go to show that if the fish in this 
province have not inereased, neither have 
they decreased ; and as far, therefore, as Oudh is concerned, the Officiating 
Chief Commissioner would deprecate any legislative interference with 
the capture and sale of fish. Such interference, it seems to Sir C. Cowper, 
ean only be justifiable when it can be demonstrated that, unless the 
the Legislature step in, the existence of that important article of diet 
will cease altogether.” As regards whether objections exist to prohibiting 
the sale of immature and small fish in the bazars? it is observed 
“that such a measure would be obnoxious to sellers and consumers, and 
at present seems quite uncalled for.’ ‘There are no difficulties to the 
introduction of the measure” of regulating the size of the mesh of nets 
“if it be thought desirable.’ ‘Nothing can be ‘more easy than to 
increase the size of the meshes, and to prohibit the sale of fish below a 
certain specific size in the bazar, though it would not be so easy to 
distinguish between full-grown little fish and the fry of larger fish.” 
The Lnancial Commissioner (September 18th, 1868), in answer 
to the enquiry whether any wanton destruction of fish takes 
place in Oudh, and if any protective measures are necessary? replied by 
giving the opinions of several of the civil officers that such does take 
place, and concludes thus :—“ my own opinion is, that such measures, 
though not positively necessary, are at least very desirable.” The 
Secretary to the Chief Commissioner (September 22nd, 1868) was directed 
i 


Cxxx 


to state “that the Chief Commissioner concurs in the opinion expressed 
by the Commissioner of Sitapur that there is great destruction 
from ignorance, not from wantonness, and that the measures of 
protection required are, the publication of the breeding seasons for the 
various kinds of river and tank fish, the institution of close seasons, and 
the prohibition of fishing during those seasons.” 
278. The Commissioner of the Faizabad Division, in forwarding the 
er Deis replies from the Deputy Commissioners of 
eee aM ae Answers of Waizabad, Baraich, and Gondah in letter 
m sist No. 1202 of April 1872, considers there is 
no reason to anticipate a rapid increase either in the number of fishermen 
or of the fish-consuming population, that the fishermen carry on their 
occupations as they have done from time immemorial, and that 
their operations have not led to a sensible decrease in the supply; con- 
sequently no special legislation appears to be called for at present, and 
that such would be unpopular ; but he thinks “ that the question is a very 
important one, and that it should not be lost sight of, but that periodical 
enquiries should be made, with the view of ascertaining beyond a doubt 
whether the fish supply is inereasing, decreasing, or stationary.” He 
observes that “if we are to have legislative interference, I concur in the 
opinion of the Deputy Commissioner of Faizabad, that it should be 
confined to the control of perennial lakes and second class rivers and 
streams, as it is not worth while to legislate for jhils and pools which 
dry up, and in such rivers as the Ganges and the Ghogra the capture of 
fish cannot perceptibly affect the supply.” The remedies he points out 
as “likely to be most efficacious and feasible in this province are the 
regulation of the size of the mesh of nets for use in minor streams and 
perennial lakes, and the prohibition of capture of fish during the breeding 
months and of the sale of fry in the bazars.” 
279. Colonel Reid, the Commissioner of Faizabad, also observes 
that the replies of the Collectors are of a 
general nature. All breeding fish or fry are 
indiscriminately netted; there is no restriction 
in the size of the mesh employed, which is about one-third of an inch. 
It is considered difficulties would arise in regulating the mesh of nets owing 
to difference in the size of the various mature fish inhabiting the same 
Jocalities ; that it would not answer to prescribe different sizes of meshes 
for netting small, middle-sized, and large fish, but at the same time the 
present minimum is smaller than is required to catch the most minute 
fish, and that it might be increased to half or three-fourths of an inch at least. 
It is observed that prohibiting the sale of the fry of fish in the bazars might 
occasion loss to the owners of waters which would reduce the fishermen’s 
gains, and prevent the present purchasers of fry obtaining their accustomed 
food, as full-grown fish are considerably dearer. On the other hand, it is 
observed these objections might be only temporary, and an augmentation 
of food and decrease of price be the result after two or three years. 
* Very small fishes are caught during the rains, principally by nets ; in 
Gondah it is estimated that the weight of small fishes so caught 
annually is about 8,000 maunds, of which 500 maunds are dried and 
sold to the Nepalese after the rains.” “Tish are trapped in the 
fields when streams and tanks overflow, and the water from them 


Faizabad. Opinion of Com- 
missioners and Collectors. 


CXXxI 


pours into the fields, but not (I believe) in merely irrigated fields.” 
“The smallest size of the mesh of the nets employed is about one- 
third of an inch between knot and knot.’ “ Wishing is carried on iz 
rivers from boats by casting and dragging nets, spears, lines, rods, and 
hooks ; in village ponds and jhils, in the months of Jeth and Baisakh, by 
hands, the water being first mudded by gangs of from 50 to 60 men. 
Large fish are sometimes killed by lathis. The Talukdar of Deogam 
states that drains full of water are sometimes enclosed on both sides, and 
powders obtained from a poisonous wild fruit’ named “ Bistend or 
Kuhar” thrown in. A channel is then cut to receive fresh-water in the 
enclosed drain, sc as to save the fish from wholesale destruction. ‘The 
large fish get disturbed (intoxicated or poisoned) and float, when people 
beat them on the bead with lathis or catch them with their hands.” But, 
he adds, the fish taken in this manner are not good to eat. The principal 
implements of fishing are detailed as follows: 1, Khancha (a sort of 
basket net); 2, Tap; 3, Mahi; 4, Pukhai (for small fish) ; 5, Chatbri ; 
6, Chilwar; 7, Laga; 8, Tappura; 9, Dudhi; 10, Kurail; 11, 
Chutur; 12, Ganj; 18, Bhukha; 14, Palni; 15, Chitta (for large 
fish); 16, Unghi; 17, Jhagri; 18, Lukia. 

280. The Collector of Lucknow reports, “the tanks and rivers 
are netted without restriction throughout 
the year, and necessarily fish, breeding or 
not breeding, big or small, are taken as 
they come to the net. The greatest destruction takes place just 
before the end of the cold season when the tanks are drying up. 
There is no restriction as to the size of the mesh of the nets; the 
smallest’ size employed is about a quarter of an inch, but regulating 
it in any locality would be objectionable until there existed a well 
ascertained want for the passing of such a measure, as all unnecessary 
interference with the people is to be deprecated.” Still, he continues, 
one-inch regulation between knot and knot of the meshes of the 
nets seems to be really necessary. ‘The objections advanced against 
prohibiting the sale of the fry of fish in the bazar are ignorance 
of the ordinary Policemen, who, being allowed to interfere with the 
fish-hawkers, would find in such a law ameans of extortion, besides being 
unable to discriminate between fry and adult fish. 

281. The Collector of Unas reports, very small fishes are destroyed 
during the rains, and cultivators use them 
as manure. The smallest size of the 
mesh of nets is one-sixth of an inch; no 
difficulty existing regulating such, and one inch between knot and 
knot he considers advisable. If the sale of the fry of fish in the 
bazar is prohibited, both owners and fishermen, it is considered, will 
suffer. 

282. The Collector of Bara Banki considers that breeding and 

ity young fish are not killed to any great extent ; 
el aan of Collector of Bara any which are destroyed are Hien got in 

tanks. Three-quarters of an inch is the 
smallest mesh of nets employed; no difficulty exists in regulating such, 
and he proposes three-quarters of an inch as the legal size. No fish 
are brought for sale in the bazars. 


Lucknow. Opinion of the 
Collector, 


Unas. Opinion of the Collec- 
tor. 


CXxXxii 


283. The Collector of Sitapar says, young fish are caught, but not 
to any great extent ; they are taken by dam- 
ming in the smaller streams during the dry 
weather, and in irrigated fields during the 
rainy season. The minimum size of the mesh of nets employed is about 
a quarter of an inch; no difficulty exists in regulating its size, which 
might be fixed at one inch. THe opposes altogether prohibiting the sale 
of the fry of fishes, observing—“ no real harm is done by catching 
young fish in tanks, jhils, or irrigated fields, for these fish, if left alone, 
would never find their way back to the river? Captain Thompson, in 
1865, reported from this place— fishing goes on at all seasons of the year, 
and there can be no doubt that in the smull rivers and tanks the supply 
would be materially increased by a short ‘close time. Still I hardly 
think that the protection is necessary in the large rivers, But the narrow 
and shallow streams of this district can be well nigh cleared of fish with 
the net, and the supply is scanty in consequence. In such rivers the pro- 
tection of the spawning fish would, no doubt, have a very good effect.” 
284. The Collector of Hardui reports, breeding and very young fish 
are destroyed without discrimination and to 
a great extent. They are caught in nets 
and baskets in jhils, tanks, and rivers at all seasons, but in greater 
quantity during the rainy season, and especially at its close. The 
smallest size of the mesh of nets employed is one-sixth of an inch. 
Traps are also used to collect fish of the smallest size, and are made of 
reeds. Were it politic, there would be no difficulty in regulating the 
size of the mesh of nets, but as he does not consider such a time has 
arrived, he refrains from suggesting what size of meshes he should 
consider advisable in his district. When fish are scarce in “ hilly 
districts, and as well elsewhere, there appears to be no objection against 
prohibiting their capture fora limited period when they are breeding.” 
The Settlement Officer of Hardui in 1868 complained that there “is no 
close season for fish here ; they are caught every day of the year. 
Further, the meshes of the nets are made of any size, and occasionally 
fish are intoxicated or half-poisoned by a jungle fruit termed mainphul, 
but this can only be done in still water, ponds, and the like. Some 
land-owners preserve fish and guard them, but the bulk of the proprietary 
bodies certainly do destroy fish wantonly. They take every fish they 
ean catch at all seasons, whether the females are breeding or not, and 
whether the males are what is called ‘spent fish’ or are in full condition.” 
285. The Collector of Rai Bareli considers the destruction of all 
Ouiniomier Cuineenerene sorts of fish as considerable, the principal 
Bareli. season for fishing being in the hot weather 
and during the rains. In the former the 
big fish are mostly trapped ; during the latter the smaller fish are more 
extensively caught than at other seasons of the year. ‘lhe smallest size 
of the mesh of nets employed is from a quarter to one-third of an inch. 
The difficulties in regulating the size of the mesh of the nets consists in the 
natural dislike and prejudice of the rustic population against any innova- 
tion whatever in the implements for carrying on their craft, so he deprecates 
such, and gives no opinion as to what size he considers advisable. 
The fry of fish, he observes, are not sold separately from the fish in 


Opinion of the Collector of 
Sitapur. 


Hardui. Opinion of Collector. 


CXXXiiL 


this district, and therefore the prohibition of the sale of the fry would 
be superfluous. 

286. The Collector of Sultanpur observes that breeding fish and 

=) young ones are destroyed, but not to any 
Co} Sultanpur. Opinion of the Great extent. Those taken are from tanks 
ollector. 5 : 
and marshes fed by the rain, or filled by the 
overflow of rivers such as the Goomti. The meshes of the nets are 
small enough when so required to catch fish about the size of a gudgeon. 
Interference is not considered desirable, because there would be a difliculty 
at first in the novelty of making regulations laying down the size of 
the mesh of nets, and he refrains from answering what size he considers 
advisable. As arule, the fry of fish are reported not to be sold in 
the bazar, and he would avoid all novel regulations suitable for European 
countries, interfering with property and old customs. He considers no 
objection exists to a close season for breeding fish in hilly districts. 

287. The Collector of Pratabgarh reports that breeding fish and very 
young ones are destroyed indiscriminately, 
and to a very great extent, from April to the 
end of June and from September to October, 
wherever they can be captured in rivers, jhils, tanks, and nallas, by means 
of nets, traps, or by hand. The minimum size of the mesh of nets will 
admit of a corn of barley passing through it, and nothing larger. There 
is no difficulty in regulating the size of the mesh of nets except the un- 
willingness of the people to let even the smallest fish escape them, and he 
proposes at first, as an experiment, to double the size now in use. There 
can be no objection to prohibiting the sale of the fry of fish in the bazars, 
or any other reasonable measures being adopted to arrest the senseless des- 
truction of breeding fish and of the very young ones now going on. Some 
restriction also should be put on the capturing of fish in the breeding season. 

288. The Zehsildar of Faizabad reports through the Commissioner 

: : that there are about 700 fishermen, 4:2 of 

pu Palssbad reports from Native hom only have no other occupation; whilst 
1,500 are given as at Baraich and 2,830 at 

Gondah, all of whom follow other occupations; in the last locality the 
boatmen and palkee-bearers are included, which augments the total. 
In the periodical fishings of village tanks, many persons not included as 
fishermen join in. ‘The names of the fishermen castes are given as follows : 
Gooriyas, Mullahs Chakees, Khowieks, Kuhars, Coniyas, Gharooks, 
Jhabjhaliydés, &e. Wish are said to be only sold in the large bazars ; some of 
the Faizabad markets are fully supplied, others are not, asin Baraich, where 
the supply is not equal to the demand, whilst in Gondah contradictory 
accounts are given. he relative prices of fish and mutton are as follows :— 


Opinion of the Collector of 
Pratabgarh. 


Faizabad, Baraich. | Gondah, 
eee of Ne 12s Rs. A 124. RSS eAsnenie 
Fish, large, per seer coe |) @ 1 0 0 1 3 0) 1 3 
po seamoalliis. aa 0 0) 9 0 10) 9 0 0 9 
Mutton, Ist class cD 0 2 0 0 it 6 0 2 0 
an 2nd ,, tie 0 al 9 0 il 6 0 iL 9 


CXXXiV 


The price of fish is not regulated by the price of mutton, which is 
mostly consumed by Europeans ; some kinds of the former are said to obtain 
considerably higher prices than the above. Generally about two-thirds 
of the population are fish-eaters, but oecasionally the proportion is lower. 
As regards the increase or decrease in the numbers of fish, reports differ 
materially. In Faizabad, a slight increase is given as compared with 
the preceding year. In Baraich and Gondah generally they are said 
to have doubled. In some places the increase is reported to be confined 
to the small fish, the number of large fish remaining stationary. In 
one Tehsil in Baraich, a decrease is reported ; in another an increase ; 
both said to be due to heavy rains. One Teshildar in Gondah givet 
an increase owing to floods during the rains, whilst two Tehsildars repors 
that from the same cause many fish have been carried off to the larger 
rivers. 

289. The Tehsildar of Lucknow can give no approximate number 

aa bec ro TIA ER of the fishermen, for this occupation is not 
pOptsione ensues owe yarsued by many as their sole business, but 

principally by boatmen, Passis, Mussulmen, 
labourers out of employ, and Kahars in their spare time. The fisher- 
men castes are Kahars, Mullahs, Koris, Kanjars, Jhabihalias, and Pathans. 
The supply of fish equals the demand; large ones realize two annas 
a seer, and small fish one anna; bazar mutton two annas a seer. 
The small fish are eaten by all classes, the supply of which by all accounts, 
has remained stationary. Large numbers of very small fish are taken by 
children in shallow pools and lesser streams. The smallest nets have 
about a half-inch mesh. Tish are not trapped in the irrigated fields 
during the rains. Fishing is carried on by rod and line, casting-nets, 
drag and hand-nets. The local names are Sukhani, Pailni chinta, Pandi, 
Khara, Jhunsti, and Halka, the various names referring to the same 
nets only differing in size one from another. 

290. The Yehsildar of Unas considers the fishing population at 

se ; about 1,000, but they also follow other occu- 

DOE OTe eet pations. They Bontiee of Kahars, Lodhas, 
and Passis. The market is tully supplied with fish, the cost of the larger 
sorts being from one anna to one and a half annas a seer; of the smaller, 
from 9 pie to one annaanda half. The first sort of mutton is two 
annas a_ seer, the second one and a half annas. About 85,000 
people in this Tehsil are reported fish-eaters. he fish are stated 
to have increased. About 10,000 maunds of very small ones are said to 
be taken during the rains. The smallest size of mesh of nets used is 
given at half an inch, and fish are trapped in the irrigated fields during 
the rains. ‘The native names of the traps and nets used are Pandi, 
Chhata, Lokari, Chowruhi, Bisari or Ulgi, Kanta (hook), and Tapa made 
of reeds and rushes, Kurwar and Halka. 

291. The Lehsildar of Suffeepur calculates the fishermen at about 

a Le 300, but they alse pursue other occupations. 
ne Ce SENSED EL ERIE They are aie Lodhas, Dhanhus, Passis, 

Chamars, Kurhers. The markets are not fully 
supplied. The price of large fish is from one-half anna to one annaa 
seer; of small fish, from one pie and a half to three pie; whilst the first 
sort of mutton is two annas, and the second one anna and a half per seer. 


CXXXV 


The number of the fish-eating population is set down as the same (85,000) 
as in the Unas Tehsil. ‘The fish are also reported to have increased, and 
about 300 maunds of very small ones are stated to be caftght during the 
rains. The smallest mesh is given at half an inch, and fish are said 
to be trapped during the rains, but not to any great extent. The imple- 
ments enumerated as used in fishing are the same as in Unas, to which 
has to be added a small net termed Dhebeea. 

292. The Tehsildar of Purwah considers that about 2,000 fishermen 
reside in his Tehsil, but they follow other 
occupations as well, and are of all castes. 
The local markets are not fully supplied. The price of large fish is 
from one-half to one anna aseer; of small ones, from three to nine 
pies. ‘'T'wo-thirds of the population are considered to be consumers of 
fish. The supply has increased during the last year. Some hundreds of 
maunds of small fish are taken during the rains. The minimum size of 
the mesh of nets used is given at three-quarters of an inch, and fish are 
said to be trapped in irrigated fields during the rains. The descriptions 
of nets given are Pandi, Pailni, Khadar, Chhata, Halka, Kurwar, Tap, 
Tapa, Dugun, and Shist. 

293. The Zehksildar of Mohan reports about 300 fishermen in his 
Tehsil, all of whom likewise follow other 
occupations ; they are Kahars, Passis, Koris, 
Lodhas, &e. The bazars are not fully supplied. 'The cost of large fish 
is six pie, and small ones three pie aseer. About half the population 
eat fish, whilst the supply has remained stationary. Some hundreds of 
maunds of small fish are taken during the rains, whilst the mesh of the 
nets is stated to be one inch. Tish are trapped in irrigated fields during 
the rains. The nets employed are Dokari, Chhinmari, Pandi, Bilni, 
Kurwar, Shist, Tapa, and Halka. 

294. Lungit Singh, Talukdar of Kantha, observes that cultivators 
and others catch fish, but are generally 
people of the following castes, Kahars, Passis, 
Koris, Lodhas, &e. The market is not fully supplied. The price of large 
fish is half an anna, and of small ones a quarter of an anna a seer. 
About half the population are fish-consumers. The supply has remained 
stationary. Small fish are taken, but not to any great extent. The mesh 
of the smallest nets employed is half an inch. Tish are trapped in the 
irrigated fields during the rains. he following are the nets and traps 
used :—Haluka, Kuruar, Tap, Kuttra, Jal, Koena, Khowra, Phutka or 
Supa, Garie ulurna, Kagurna, Lokarel, Sahjurya, Ghughuroah. 

295. Ganga Sahib, the Manager of the Mara Wan Istate, reports 
199 persons as fishermen, but they also follow 
other occupations. They are Kahars and 
Passis. The bazar is not fully supplied with 
fish ; the cost of the large ones is from one to one and ahalf annas, and 
of small ones, from a quarter to half an anna a seer; 14 out of 15 of the 
population eat it. The supply has remained stationary. About 150 
maunds of very small fish are taken yearly, whilst fish are trapped during 
the rains in the inundated fields. The traps and nets employed are 
Haluka, Bansi, Khuroar, Jal, Tapsa, Phutka, Jhutjhal, Juduria, Kuruar, 
Kutia. 


Purwah. Opinion of Tehsildar. 


Mohan. Tehsildar’s opinion. 


Kantha, Talukdar’s opinion. 


Mara Wan Estate. Opinion 
of the Manager. 


CXXxvi 


206, Chowdry GopalSingh, Talukdar of Bangermoro, gives about 
sal the same proportion of fishermen as the fore- 
Bangermoro. Opinion of the oing ; they are Kahars, Kadhairs. The 
Talukdar. gong ; Yi 'S 
bazar is not fully supplied. Large fish sell 
at from six to nine pies, and small ones at two and three pies a seer. The 
supply has remained stationary ; very small fish are taken in quantities 
during the rains. ‘The minimum mesh of the nets is given at three-quar- 
tersof an inch. Fish are said to be trapped in the irrigated fields during 
the rains. The following are the nets and traps used Jal, Pindi, Pansa, 
Bissiari, Lokuri, Khuwur, Kanta. 
297. Barabanki, Tehsildar of Nawabgunj, reports there being 200 
Re ORG RAS Te 300 persons who fish, but all pursue 
SURES aes other occupations. The fishermen castes are 
Gurias and Kahars. Very few fish, and only 
in the cold season, are sold in the weekly markets, the larger sorts at one 
anna, and the smaller ata quarter of an anna a seer ; whilst first class 
mutton fetches three annas, and second class two annas a seer. A 
larger proportion of the population, it is observed, would eat 
fish if they could obtain them. The supply has not increased. The 
smallest mesh of nets is given at half an inch square. Tish are trapped 
during the rains in the irrigated fields. Nets and implements for taking 
fish are Katia, Balbi, Shist, and Tappa. 
298. The Tehsildar of Futtehpur states that no persons give them- 
Muttchipurs.¢ Opinion, ofa th selves up to fishing as a sole pursuit, but 
SAF ake ie ° the castes that fish are Guryas and Kahars. 
The weekly market is stated to be sufficiently 
well supplied, the cost of large fish being one anna, and small fish half 
an anna aseer. A larger proportion of the people, it is asserted, would 
be consumers of fish could they obtain it. The supply has not increased, 
and the size of the smallest mesh of the nets is given at one inch or 
thereabouts. Tish are trapped in the irrigated fields during the rains. 
The implements used in fishing are Jal, Tappa, Halka, Paihra, Daggan- 
shist, Barbat, Choundhi, Chan, Dor pauri, Khowri. 
299. In the Zehsid of Samahi ghat, it is stated that there are about 
Samaht’ phate Opinionoethe 200 Guryas and Kahars who eatch fish, but 
Tehaldae ee that they also pursue other occupations ; 
that a sufficient amount is brought to the 
bazars “to give the vendors means of subsistence.” Rohoos obtain 
two annas a seer, other large fish one anna, and small sorts three pie. A 
larger proportion of the people would eat fish if they could get it. The 
supply has not increased. Young fish are said not to be captured at all, nor 
fish trapped in irrigated fields during the rains. The size of the smallest 
mesh of the nets is given at about three-quarters of an inch square. 
The nets and implements employed are Pakla, Chunda, Barour, Pandi, 
Chilband, Nadhni, Kuttya shist. 
300. In the Zehsid of Hydergurh there are about 200 Kahars who 
_— ae rd fish as well as pursue other occupations; the 
=a pinion cf Tah markets are at oal supplied at mM with fish ; 
. : more could be sold. The small ones realize 
nine ples a seer, A larger portion of the population would eat it could 
they obtain it. Very small fishes are taken with nets, the mesh of which 


CXXXVI11 


is three-quarters of an inch. Fish are also trapped in the irrigated fieids 
during the rains. 

801. At Sitapur the Native official observes that the Kahars and 
Guryas take fish at certain times, but their 
regular occupation is agriculture. The local 
markets are not fully supplied. Large fish 
obtain two annas, small ones one anna a seer; mutton two anias a seer, 
Ie is unable to give the proportion of fish-eaters. ‘The general opinion is 
that fish have increased, due to several consecutive -years of floods. The 
smallest size of the mesh of nets is given at a quarter of an inch. Fish 
are trapped during the rains in the irrigated fields. The native names 
of the nets and traps in use are Pundi, Jal, Locari Jal, Maha Jal, 
Kharia Jal, Patia Jal, Pailna Jal, Tapa Jal. 

302. The Tehsildar of Hardui gives the fishermen at 2,000, all of 
whom are said to also follow other occupations, 
their castes are Kahars and Bourias, especi- 
ally the latter. The local markets are insufficiently supplied with fish ; 
more, it is observed, could be sold. The large sorts realize from one to 
one and a half annas a seer, the small from six to nine pies a seer, and 
mutton two annas for the same quantity. Two-thirds of the population 
are stated to be fish-consumers. The supply is asserted to have in- 
creased ; very small ones are taken in large numbers in nets and baskets 
of various sorts, whilst the minimum size of the mesh of the nets will 
not allow a grain of gram to pass. Fish are also trapped in inundated 
fields during the rains. The nets employed are Tapa, Dhundhi, Katia, 
and K hanchas. 

803. The Zehsildar of Shahbad computes the Kahar fishermen at 
2,126, all following other occupations. The 
markets are insufliciently supplied, whilst 
about 90 per cent. of the population eat fish. The supply in the waters 
has remained stationary. Very small fish are taken in large numbers, 
whilst a grain of gram will not pass through some of the nets. Fish are 
also trapped in inundated fields during the rains. 

304. The Zehsildar of Sundeela gives the fishermen at 250, consisting 

HA of Kahars, Passis, and Arakhs. The market 

seal Opinion, of the: 3, insufficiently supplied. Large fish obtain 

: from six to eight pies a seer, and small ones 

from three to six. Three-fourths of the population are reputed to be fish- 

eaters. The supply in the waters has remained stationary. Large 

numbers of very small fish are captured, whilst the mesh of the nets 

will arrest a grain of gram. Tish are also trapped during the rains in 
inundated fields. 

305. The TZehsildar of Bilgram states there are 200 Kahars, 

: ae Araths, and Bouriah fishermen. The markets 
eer: Spinionichthe lS aeare insufficiently supplied with fish, the 
larger ones of which obtain nine pie, and 

the smaller six pie a seer ; 80 per cent. of the population eat fish. The 
supply has deereased. “ More fish are caught in this Tehsil than in any 
other. They are exceedingly plentiful in Sandi, where small fish are 
often used as manure, and fry are sold in quantities for little or nothing ; 
the smallest mesh of the nets will not pass a grain of barley.” Fish 


Sitapur. Opinion of Native 
official. 


Hurdui. Opinion of Tebsildar. 


Shabbad. Opinion of Tehsildar. 


CXXxvili 


are rarely trapped during the rains. The nets employed are, besides those 
enumerated, Pandi Kahar, Ghunghia, Kaut, Bahana, Chaunghi, Phatka. 
806. The Zehsildar of Kai Bareli says there are about 1,825 fisher- 
a men, but who also have other occupations; 
Rai Bareli. Opinion of the they are Kahars, Passis, Lodhas, Mullahs, 
ee Kunjrahs, Khatiks. The markets are generally 
well supplied, but more could be disposed of during such seasons as grain 
is scarce. Large fish realize from three-quarters to one anna, and small 
ones from a quarter to half an anna a seer ; first sort of mutton two annas, 
and second sort an anna and a halfa seer. About two-thirds of the 
population eat fish. Many very little ones are yearly netted, the smallest 
mesh of the nets being from one-sixth to one-fourth of an inch, but very 
few fish are trapped in inundated fields during the rains. The nets and 
traps are Surkuta, Tapka, Supa (for small fish), Chutta, Chowndhi, Phik- 
wa or Chappa, Pailni, Lowkari or Murhar. 
807. At Sultanpur, the Native official estimates the fishermen 
hs : at from 900 to 1,000, all of whom have also 
Euienpur Opinion of Native  6¢her occupations ; they are Mullahs, Kahars, 
Sige Kewats, and Guryas. The markets are said 
to be fairly supplied with fish, the larger sorts obtaining from an annaand 
a quarter to two annas a seer, and the smaller from three-quarters to one 
anna and a quarter a seer ; whilst the bazar mutton obtains from one 
and a quarter to two annas a seer. Three-fourths of the population are 
said to eat fish. The amount in the Goomti are said to have decreased of 
late years. Very small ones are netted and taken by a trap called 
‘Puhra’”’ The mesh of the nets ‘is so small, hardly anythine can 
pass.” Fish, but not to any great extent, are trapped in the inundated 
fields during the rains. Streams are dammed and fish thus taken; 
various sorts of nets, traps, and hooks are also employed. 
308. In the Putti Tehsil it is observed fishing is not confined 
to one class, but Kahars, Lunias, Kewats, 
_ Putti Tehsil. Opinion of Na-  passis, Kurmis, and Kori, all follow it, as well 
Hyeoiciel. as other occupations. The markets are not 
fully supplied with fish ; the larger sorts obtain two annas, the smaller 
one anna and ahalfa seer, and mutton two annas; about half the popula- 
tion are stated to be fish-eaters. The amount in the waters is said to have 
increased this year. About 40,000 maunds of very small fish are annually 
netted, the mesh of some of the nets being “ so small that a grain of mothi 
cannot pass through it.” Boys generally trap fish in fields during the 
rains. Fish are destroyed by Akhsah ; the names of nets and traps are 
Jal, Kuryar, Halka, Chahtur, Khore, Choundhi, Pahrah, Tap, Harya, 
Punchkhi, Pailni, Bissari, Gunj, Tameri, Kantiya.” 
809. The Tehsildar of Pratabgarth observes that fishermen are 
uy generally Kahars, but some are Lunias. 
_,Pratabgarth, Opinion of Teh- ‘he markets are not fully supplied with fish ; 
sildar. the price of the larger sorts is seven pie, 
smaller sorts four pie, and mutton two annas a seer. About half the po- 
pulation are stated to eat fish. The supply in the waters this year has 
increased. Very small ones are taken by means of nets. “ Fish are shot 
with guns, and caught by means of Tap, Tengali, and Pahra, and by hand 
when the water dries up in the month of Jeth.” 


CXXXix 


310. The Tehsildar of Behar observes, Kahars and others follow 
the occupation of fishing in addition to their 
regular work ; besides these, there are Kewats, 
Kunjrahs, and Passis. The bazars are not sufficiently supplied with fish ; the 
larger sort fetch one anna, the smaller three-quarters of an anna a seer ; 
whilst the first sort of mutton realises two annas, and the second one anna 
and ahalfa seer. Upwards of 97 per cent. (97°78) of the population, it is 
asserted, are consumers of fish, the supply of which has increased this year. 
Very small ones are taken in large quantities by means of nets with very 
minute meshes, the size of which is equal to a grain of barley. Fish are 
not trapped during the rains in the inundated fields. The following are 


the nets used: Patli, Pahrah, Packkhi, Tilheri Jal. 


Behar. Opinion of Tehsildar, 


ex] 


NORTH-WESTERN PROVINCES. 


811. The North-West Provinces, according to the census and 
Reh een an, a statistical account taken in 1865, contains 
North-West Peesintee an area of 25,375,327 acres, out of which 
22,293,819 are cultivated, and 3,081,508 are 
unassessed. Some changes in the province have occurred of late years, as 
in 1858 a greater portion of the Delhi district, including 2,195,180 persons, 
was transferred to the Panjab, the Pergunnah of Lonee, on the left bank 
of the Jumna, alone being retained, and it was merged into Meerut. In 
Mr. Probyn’s report, it was observed that the North-West Provinces 
have an avea of 216,152 square kilometres, with an average population 
of 139-30 to the kilometre, the density being thus amongst the highest 
on record. Of the 30,110,615 persons who were present in 1865, the 
agricultural class numbered 21,342,403, or two-thirds of the whole 
amount. “'The extremes of density (1865) in the sub-divisions, into 
which the districts of the North-West are divided, vary from 6,773 to 
the square mile in Dehat Amanut of Benares (which contains the city 
of that name), to 37 to the square mile in Agoree, Robertsgunge, in the 
Mirzapur district. * * The Agra division is the most thickly popu- 
lated, containing 474 to the square mile; next in order is Gouchpur, 
with 465 tothe square mile. Benares stands next with 447 to the square 
mile ; then Rohileund with 440; last in order are Meerut 415, Jansie 
198, Ajmere 160, and Kumaon 58 to the mile.” Nearly 26 millions 
are Hindus, and 44 millions Mahomedans, the latter being most nu- 
merous in Meernt and Rohileund, where they comprise one-fifth of the 
population, whilst more than half of these reside in the northern dis- 
tricts. There are 560 castes or sub-castes of Hindus, irrespective of 
Christians, Mahomedans, Parsees, Bengalees, Madrassees, Thibetans, 
and Chinese, raising the number to 574. The Brahmins number 3,541,692, 
and have 70 sub-divisions; the Kshatryas 2,827,768 with 175; the 
Vaisyas 1,091,250 with 65; the Sudras 18,304,309 with 230; those 
unnoticed 12,336; Sikhs 1,425; Jains 49,983; other sects 195,977 ; 
Christians 87; Mahomedans unclassed 2,207,576; Sheiks 1,140,108; 
Pathans 515,526; Syuds 170,248; Moguls 41,748; Parsees 76; Bengalees 
1,148; Madrassees 26; Thibetans 67, and Chinese 37. 
312. The most important rivers in the British territory are the 
Ganges and Jumna, which, arising in the 
Rivers and Canals in the Himalayas, pass down through the Sub-Hima~- 
ewe Provinces; also the Javan Sewaliks, and joining at Allahabad are 
: continued into the Lower Provinces. ‘These 
rivers, near their sources and first parts of their course, receive numerous 
hill affluents, many of which are not snow-fed, and these warm streams 
are the natural breeding-grounds of most of the important species of fish, 
especially the mahaseer ; irrespective of this, however, very many of the 
sorts which, though despised by Europeans, are consumed by natives, find 
here the natural locality in which to deposit their spawn. All, or nearly 


exli 


all, the affluents, coming from the east to the Ganges, likewise take 
their origin in the Himalayas, and they are equally the breeding- 
places of fish. The Ganges and Jumna do not appear to normally 
extend, during the monsoon time, in a lateral direction, over the 
contiguous country, to the same wide extent as do rivers in some 
portions of India, as the Indus in Sind; the low lands or “khadirs” 
being generally bounded by higher ground, termed “bangur,” beyond 
which floods rarely pass. Both the Ganges and Jumna rivers, near 
the places where they emerge from the Sewaliks, have irrigation weirs 
across them, diverting water into the Ganges canal at Hurdwar, and the 
Eastern and Western Jumaa canals near Karrah; lower down below 
Delhi exists the Okla weir across the Jumna, diverting water into the 
Agra canal. The rainfall in five years ending 1869-70 is stated to 
have averaged 33:4 inches. 

3138. The Ganges and Jumna rivers are replenished from two 
prominent causes, exclusive of springs ; during 
the ,hot months the supply is derived from 
the ice and snow at their sources which, having 
accumulated during the winter, now becomes melted by the action of the 
sun; andin the Ganges at Hurdwar, a daily rise of about 14 inch 
and a corresponding fall are distinctly apparent. During the monsoon 
season, the supply comes directly from the rains, flooding all the 
small aflluents, or indirectly due to their action on the snows; the 
rivers consequently at these periods are filled in rather a spasmodic 
manner. During the cold months, unreplenished by rains or meltin 
snows, and much of their water being required for irrigation canals, the 
volume flowing down them is in places very small. 

314. The fishes of the North-West Provinces are divisible into 

: those of the hills and those of the plains, some 
Fishes of the North-West : ci Sires 
Pains. of each of which classes are migratory, whilst 

others are not so. Upon the non-migrator 
hill-fishes no remarks are here needed. Amongst the fishes of the 
plains calling for observation are the migratory ones, especially such carps, 
as the mahaseer, which reside in the low country rivers during the 
cold months when the hill-streams are too small and too cold to afford 
them sustenance; but when the rains re-commence, they migrate 
to the Julls, and ascending some distance up the cold waters of the 
larger rivers, turn aside for breeding purposes into their warm side- 
streams. ‘Thus, these side-streams, unreplenished by snow water, are 
the natural breeding-places of most of the more valuable fish of the 
carp family residing near such places, and anything preventing their 
aceess to these spots, or destructive of the fry raised there, must neces- 
sarily injure the fisheries. A large majority of the young remain in 
the hill-streams until the next year’s rains (see para. 168). There are 
likewise migratory marine fishes, as the hilsa, ascending for breeding 
purposes, and barriers across rivers must impede their progress ; but in 
this province these fish, in an economic point of view, are of much less 
consequence than the mahaseer. The local non-migratory fishes pass 
up small water-courses and channels, depositing their eggs in irrigated 


fields, flooded plains, temporary formed tanks, or the grassy sides of 
rivers or lakes, 


Ganges and Jumna rivers how 
replenished, 


exlil 


315. Having thus briefly enumerated the rivers and waters used 
as breeding-places, and the fishes inhabit- 
ing them, the consideration arises—do any 
causes exist which impede their carrying’ out 
in a satisfactory manner these natural instincts? First, we have irri- 
gation weirs across the two large rivers, which, unfurnished with fish 
passes, entirely preclude the re-ascent of fish having once passed over 
them, or happening to be below them. ‘This must arrest every marine 
migratory fish ascending to breed, so they are rendered practically use- 
less for increasing their species. Next, all the migratory carps that have 
passed over them during the cold months in their pursuit of food cannot 
re-ascend—they also become hors de combat. And, lastly, of the irrigation 
works, there are the canals which act in precisely the same way. Perhaps 
it will be well to give facts as witnessed by others. Ze Collector 
of Muttra (para. 334) observes,—“I have watched the first rush of 
water let in, and have been astonished at the shoals of fish brought 
down by it. < os In the Meerut district I saw hundreds of 
mahaseer come down; they were all carried over the fall as they had 
been over a dozen higher up between that point and Hurdwar, not one 
of which could by any possibility have got back again up the canal.” 
(See para. 12 on irrigation weirs and their effects.) ‘These canals thus 
form traps on a large scale wherein fish are destroyed wholesale 
whenever the water is cut off, and that this is not seldom, I adduce 
the following figures to prove. In the Eastern Jumna canal the number 
of times and days it has been without a supply of water are as 
follows :— 


Tmpediments to fish breeding 
in the North-West Provinces. 


4 years ending December 31st, 1840. No. of times closed, 58 No. of days closed, 203 
5 »” » ” 1845. ” ” 53 ”» ” 356 
6 on 33 1850. si 35 48 " - 194 
5 ” ” ” 1855. ” ” 47 ” ” 265 
6 ” ” ” 1860. ” ” 36 ” a3 267 
‘Si: ne Dy 1865. 1 os 3L 55 pf 240 
5 ” ” ” 1870. ” ” 14 ” ” 216 


If we now examine as to the comparative number of days on 
which the canals have been closed, we find the longest period from 29th 
October 1845 to December 15th, 1845, or 47 days, and the shortest a 
single day, thus— 


During the first 4 years closures averaged 34 days each. 


> next 5 ,, % 63 5 
” ” 5 , ’ 4 ” 
” ” 5 ” ” 54 ” 
” ” 5 ” » dies ” 
” ” 5 ” ” 8 »” 
” » 5 ’ ” 15 ” 


The frequent closure of canals must be destructive to fish, unless they 
are able to retire into deep holes or contiguous tanks, where they may 
remain quiet until the canal is refilled ; but of course should the canal 
be left dry for very long periods, as over eight or ten days, the probabilities 
are that the water will have become so foul that the fish will die. Out 
of 287 times this canal was closed between January 1837 and December 


1870, we find as follows regarding the times closures occurred, with 
reference to the number of days— 


From 0 to 10 days, 238 times. 
 LOltor200 5) 3, 
my AD) BO ry we ep 
= 80'to/400",, Bip a, 
» 40tob0 ,, 3 


In the Ganges eanal slaughtering all the fish, whenever it was 
closed, was carried on when I was there, the numbers of times and the 
days such has occurred during the last 15 years being as follows :— 


5 years ending December 81st, 1860. No. of times closed, 38. Days 27 
5 » 5) 1865 +) sh 10 » 156 
5 ” ” 1870 % ~ 7 » 160 


Thus, in round numbers, this canal during the last five years has 
had six times more days without water than in the first five years under 
review; whilst the period of time it has been kept dry have risen as 
follows :— 


Ist. 5 years—No. of days dry at each closure, 9 
2nd 5 ” ” ” ” 15 
3rd 5, 9 » Fr 23 


316. We now come to the fixed engines permitted to exist in 

J : ' these provinces, as shown by the local civil 
Beni ae eal officers. First, fishing-weirs spanning hill- 
damming streams, &c, streams, up which large carps are attempting 
to ascend to breed. In those of Kumaon 

(see para. 330) “practically it requires a very clever fish to go up for 
breeding purposes, and return to the point started from uninjured ! for 
it has to cross and re-cross several of these weirs, both on its journey up 
and down streams.” Again in Gurwal, “the rivers are so dammed up 
by weirs made on purpose to catch fish, that they cannot always ascend 
to their spawning grounds, and fall an easy prey to the people who are 
on the watch for them.” ‘ Weirs are erected as soon as the monsoon 
begins to cease, and they remain in existence till carried away in the 
first. flood in the rains. They are placed usually at the tail of each 
pool, and there is almost always one at the junction of two rivers, thus 
entirely preventing fish running up till the weir is carried away by a flood.” 
Then in the plains, as the yearly floods begin to subside, when the fish 
which have bred, and the young which awe been raised, try to obtain an 
exit to the rivers with the falling waters—what is it that is done? 
Weirs are constructed across the little streams which are the natural drains 
into the rivers down which they are striving to go; thus, it is stated at 
Bustee (para. 331) that “fish are killed more or less throughout the 
year, but the largest numbers are taken towards the end of “the rainy 
season. As the waters fall, countless lakes or pools of all sizes are 
formed: on the low lands by tlie rivers. ‘Those which were during the 
floods mere extensions of the stream, now become lakes with one narrow 
exit to the river. Across this, nets are stretched or a weir of grass 
constructed, and every fish that has wandered up becomes a certain prey, 
being either caught at the weir, or left exposed as the waters fall. The 
same process takes places on a smaller seale in every field that is under 


exliv 


water ; the exit is closed, and countless small fishes are taken.” In fact, 
fixed engines are everywhere employed, even across some of the rivers as 
in Goruckpur and Bustee, capturing everything. But this is not all: 
some fish are taken, as at Bustee, only to be wasted ; and likewise the 
following is reported in the Koana river—“ there is a trap under every 
bridge that spans it, where fish are caught and slaughtered in numbers ;” 
the water having become poisoned from some natural cause, “the fish 
sickened and died in thousands; on the up-stream face of each of these 
bridges and traps, you would see millions of fish eager to get down past 
the obstruction, and escape from the poisoned water. In a hundred yards 
or so the river was a mass of living heads. The fish sickened and died in 
a day or two, and birds of prey came from all parts to devour them. I 
saw this myself, and heard that it was not of infrequent occurrence, and 
that the dead fish were so numerous on these occasions that they were 
carted off as manure.” Then another amusement of the hill-people, or of 
fishermen who resort there to ply their poaching trade, is thus detailed :— 
«The poachers choose a spot where the stream and an old bed are in 
close proximity; both have good pools in them; they fix nets right 
across the stream about a mile or more below this spot. First, nets 
with large meshes, and then nets with smaller meshes, and these nets 
are kept down to the bottom with heavy stones, When the nets are 
all ready, they dam up the stream and open a water-way into the old 
bed; the force of the water soon cuts a deep way for itself, and then the 
late bed of the stream is left dry, except in the deep holes; all fish that 
try to escape down-stream are stopped by the nets. The poachers then 
take away all the fish they want, and leave tho rest to perish gradually as 
the pools dry up. I have sometimes seen the small fry lying dead, six and 
eight inches deep, in these holes. The poachers ina day or two do the 
same thing somewhere else lower down, and after a month or so, when the 
fish have become accustomed to the new bed, they commence at the top 
again, and return the stream into its late bed,” &c. These extracts will 
suffice to show the causes of the asserted decrease of fine fish in this part 
of India; of course, with such wholesale poaching not only connived at but 
approved of by some of the senior local authorities, other modes, as small 
meshed nets, snatching, fixing ropes covered with hooks across streams, 
&e., find few legal opponents. Thus the Commissioner of Kumaon 
observes on prohibiting breeding-fish being unfairly captured during the 
spawning’ season by the institution of close-months in the hills—* I do 
not perceive how the hill-people would be benefited by allowing them 
to go, as they would only come up to the hills during the close season ;” 
and as all are eaten, he considers no waste occurs, whilst the rights and 
amusements of these tribes should not be interfered with. 

817. What is the proportion of the generat population who would 
eat fish could they obtain it? Owing to only 
a few of the answers to the questions sent to 
the Tehsildars having been received, the 
figures are not so complete as they might have been. In the Meerut 
division, the ‘Tehsildars of Bulundshuhur compute them at 60 per cent. ; 
of Allyghur at 50 per cent.; in Bijnour 50 to 60 per cent.; in Bareilly 
and Rohileund 75 per cent.; and all but high caste Hindus in Shah- 
jehanpur; in Kumaon apparently all the hill-people, and in the Turai 


Majority of Population may 
eat fish. 


exlv 


most of the inhabitants. In the Benares division, the Tehsildars of Mir- 
zapur compute the numbers at 60 per cent.; those of Goruckpur and 
Benares at 75 per cent.; of Bustee at from 75 to 90 per cent.; of 
Azimgurh at 80 per cent.; whilst those of Ghazeepur give them as 
follows :—ove at 50 per cent., four at 75 per cent., and one at 80 per cent. 
In the Jhansi division, there are no replies from the native officials to this 
question, but the Huropeans state it is not a staple article of food with 
the people at large. In the Allahabad division, the Tehsildars of Banda 
give them at 50 per cent.; of Futtehpur at 60 per cent.; of Hurripur 
at all but Brahmins, Banias, and some Thakoors. In the Agra division, 
the 'Tehsildars of Mtawah compute them at 75 per cent., whilst in Mut- 
tra the greater proportion of people are forbidden to do so by their reli- 
gion. If we consider districts in which all the Tehsildars’ replies are 
given in a single figure as 1, we arrive at the following results :— 


In 3 Tehsildarships 50 per cent. of the people. 
pal ” 50 to 60 ” wo” ” 

” 3 ” 60 ” ” ” ” 

” 8 ” 75 ” ” ” ” 

” 1 ” 75 to 90 ” 992199; ” 

” 2 ” 80 ” moo” 

ye. 3 all but high caste Hindus, 


Thus, out of 20 returns, 17 give more than half the people of the North- 
West Provinces as not forbidden by their religion to eat fish, 

318. How are the local markets sup- 
plied with fish ?—Is thus replied to by the 
native oflicials— 

Sufficiently in 13 

Insufliciently ,, 23 

Occasionally ,, 2 

Doubtful ne 
Whilst in the Doon, it is observed that the markets are fairly“ supplied, 
but the size of the fish brought is yearly decreasing. Those districts 
where fish are not to be obtained have been omitted. Amongst the 
European officials, in the Nynee ‘Tal and Almorah markets a decrease, as 
compared with former years, is said to be very noticeable. 

319. Have the fish in the waters increased, decreased, or remained 
stationary? Out of 17 answers, 6 report a 
stationary state, and 10 a decrease, but some 
of these latter consider that, owing to late heavy rains, the fisheries are 
recovering themselves. I should mention that heavy rains wash away 
fixed engines, which is the cause why fisheries in the years succeeding 
floods are always found better than in previous seasons. ‘Three Tehsil- 
dars give, as a reason for a diminished amount, that it is “ owing to the 
indiscriminate destruction of young fry.” In the Etawah Collectorate, 
the fish in the Jumna are said to be decreasing, due to the irrigation 
weir near Delhi. In the hilly districts, a very general decrease is reported 
by the local Huropean officials. 

320. The jishermen of this province appear but rarely to follow 
this occupation as a sole means of subsist- 
ence, but merely as subsidiary to other 
occupations. 


Markets insufficiently suppli- 
ed with fish. 


Fish in waters decreasing. 


Fishermen, ns a rule, also pur- 
sue other occupations. 


exlvi 


321. Are breeding-fish and fry de- 

stroyed ?—They are evidently, and in every 
division, taken in any way they can be 
procured. 
322. The modes of fishing are very diversified ; at para. 315, I have 
enumerated some of those which are pursu- 
ed ;—weirs across streams which are, or ought 
to be, the highways for breeding-fish and their fry, both in the hills and 
in the plains; screens, fixed nets, and traps capturing breeding-fish and 
their fry attempting to find an exit to rivers as the yearly floods subside ; 
the damming of whole rivers in the hills diverting their courses, and 
taking out the large fish, leaving the fry to perish. The placing of 
strings armed with hooks across the usual run of fish so as to capture 
some, but injure many; the use of lies thus armed for the purpose 
of snagging breeding-fish by which some are taken, but far more, barba- 
rously wounded, wander away to die; by knocking breeding-fish on the 
head with sticks, or capturing them by any poaching practice as they go 
up small streams in order to deposit their eggs. In short, by the taking 
of fish from breeding to the most minute im every possible way,—a plan 
which is said not to be waste, because they are eaten. 

823. The foregoing appear to show—(1) that more than half the 
people of the North-West Provinces might 
eat fish could they obtainit; (2) that the 
markets are not sufficiently supplied; (3) that the fish in the waters, 
especially of the hills and in the Jumna, are decreasing; (4) that there 
are no restrictions against the most destructive and barbarous modes of 
poaching; (5) that breeding-fish are trapped everywhere ; (6) that fry 
are killed, often wantonly, wherever obtainable; (7) that fixed and 
unfixed nets with most minute meshes are used to destroy immature 
fish; (8). that weirs and wicker traps with very fine imterstices are 
employed wherever they can be fixed, without any close time; (9) 
that waters are dammed to obtain the fish, and (10) that they are 
sometimes poisoned. 

324. We now arrive at the reasons that have been advanced 
for permitting matters to continue as they 
are, and which would probably come under 
one of the following heads :—(1) that fish 
are not employed to any extent as food, consequently are not worth 
legislative interference. This proposition is disposed of in paragraph 
817, which would show that above half the population, which in 1865 
comprised nearly 28 millions of people, might eat fish could they obtain 
it. (2) That no wasteful destruction of fish occurs, so remedial measures 
are uncalled for. This likewise cannot be maintained, as even were the 
destruction of fry not waste, they are shown to be killed, but left to rot in 
places, as in damming streams in hills, m weirs as in Goruckpur, and by 
keeping up standing weirs, as in the Koana River, preventing the fish es- 
caping from poisoned waters, and which, when so captured, could only be 
used as manure. However, some officials admit waste, but (3) consider such 
as a prescriptive right attained by long usage. ‘To this, omitting the legal 
question which comes under the next head, I will only answer by quoting 
the opinion of one of the local officers ;— Prescriptive right to do wrong 


Breeding-fish und fry de- 
stroyed. 


Modes of fishing employed. 


Conclusions. 


Reasons for masterly inacti- 
vity. 


2xlvil 


things, or injudiciously exterminate a natural source of food-supply, has 
only existed, because, until now, there has not been a Government strong 
or civilized enough to control it. Thus ‘suttee,’ ‘thuggee,’ ‘human 
sacrifices’ were all‘ prescriptive rights’ in their way, and had, moreover, a 
certain amount of legal sanction, and yet, because they involved loss of 
human life, they were very rightly swept away, and so can this right of 
wanton destruction of human food be.’ (4) It is assumed that the 
proved wasteful destruction of fish is a legal right obtained by license. 
If the British law holds good, license gives no title, but is revocable at will 
(see paragraph 12). (5) That anyhow, it had hetter be left alone for political 
reasons. If such reasons do not exist in the Panjab, it is remarkable that 
they should in the North-West Provinces, more especially as the Superin- 
tendent of the Doon reports that the native land-owners are carrying out 
restrictive measures with great success. (6) That the remedies are 
impracticable. This being a matter of opinion, I do not propose advanc- 
ing my own in opposition to some of those which have been adduced. 
(7) That the police are such high-caste people, and the subordinate 
natives, who would have to be employed, are so untrustworthy, they 
would exercise unlimited extortion. This, being a matter of fact, must 
likewise be left to the local officers, who have the supervision and control 
over them. 
325. I will now enter upon what measures would doubtless prove 
Narisabie’staps most effectual, and I would suggest might be 
; earried out in the North-West Provinces. 
Fixed weirs, traps, or nets should be prohibited: in fishing-nets the 
mesh should never be less than t inch between each knot; damming 
waters for fishing purposes, whether hill-streams or flooded fields, 
should not be allowed; fish passes to be placed in all irrigation weirs, 
and the destruction of fish in all canals prevented whilst the water is 
not flowing; snagging or poisoning of waters be likewise interdicted, 
and some pools in all hill and minor rivers to be kept solely for 
anglers; no netting allowed within 200 yards of all weirs across 
rivers ; vermin to be destroyed. As regards close months, if they are 
instituted in the plains, the first two or three months of the monsoon 
are considered the most appropriate, but, with the abolition of fixed 
engines, &e., they might be dispensed with, at least for the present. In 
the hills it is different, and from July Ist to October Ist are considered 
the most appropriate months. 
326. As some officials oppose these steps, I would suggest, as an 
Lee intermediate plan for the present, what 
Pea al for ECR might modify the evils Which exist. No weirs 
or fixed engines of any description to be used in 
the waters from June Ist to November Ist inclusive, but when permitted to 
be so, such must be in writing as a license, and that they never have 
less than 1 inch between the knots of the meshes of nets, or the interstices 
of the substances of which they are composed: irrigation works, as in the 
last. paragraph; damming, lading, diverting streams, or poisoning waters 
for fishing purposes, to be prohibited : close months from net fishing to be 
instituted in hilly districts for three consecutive months of which one 
must be July te be selected by the local civil authorities; snagging to 
be abolished. 


exlviii 


327. The Secretary to the Government of the North-West Provin- 
ces* observed :—* The wanton destruction of 
fish does no doubt exist to some extent, but, in 
the Liewtenant-Governor’s opinion, it would be 
quite impossible to check it without introducing much greater evils, such 
as, the opportunities of extortion, and their interference with the habits 
of the people; and the irritation that would be the result of any attempt 
to doso would be serious. At the same time the annual recurrence of the 
rainy season forms a sort of close season for the protection of the fish : 
the supply of fish is not proved to be decreasing to any material extent, 
and altogether His Honor considers that there is no sufficient ground 
for any special action on the part of the legislature.” 

328. The Commissioner of the Meerut Division remarked :—*T think 
it may safely be concluded that the propor- 
tion of the population, who live by fishing as 
a trade, is not large; the proportion of per- 
sons who have no other occupation than fishing as a means of livelihood 
is small, but it is increased by others who resort to fishing at odd times, 
probably in times when they have nothing better to do; so far then as 
the fishermen class is concerned, I do not think there is much to fear of 
their efforts making any appreciable impression on the fish-supply. But 
there is a fear that, unless the reckless system of wholesale destruction is 
stopped, the fish-supply may become scant. There seem to be two main 
causes which lead to this wanton destruction of fish ; the first is by reason 
of the facilities afforded for doing so in the canals and rajbahars (irriga- 
tion works), and the second is the absence of any check in respect of 
rivers.” He continues that nets or gratings at the head of canals will be 
liable to be carried away in heavy floods, so proposes fish-ladders at each 
fall. “The main points for consideration would be(1) to prevent dam- 
ming streams for the purpose of catching fish; (2) a limit to the size of 
the mesh in nets; (3) a close season, say * * from 1st July to 1st October, 
seems to be essentially necessary, and catching fish within these dates should 
be prohibited. The close season need not apply to every kind of fish, but 
to those more generally used for food; * * the limit to the size of 
the mesh of nets would only stop the fry being caught, but the prohibi- 
tion to damming or diverting streams would also prevent the wholesale 
destruction which now takes place.? The Commissioner of Meerut 
reported (October 29th, 1868) that there is no doubt that the most 
wanton destruction of fish does take place, and that fish are disappearing 
from the sub-streams of the Ganges and Jumna, Where 20 or 80 years 
ago fish of 10 or 15 tbs could be caught, none are now to be seen except 
fry, and such fry the native fishermen net and snare in every way at all 
seasons, The Superintendent of Dehra Doon stated (January 29th, 
1872) that “ brecding-fish are destroyed in great aumbers, and small fry 
were, until lately, also largely captured. ‘The breeding-tish are destroyed 
in the commencement of the rains in every conceivable manner; they 
at that time run up small streams, and are there killed with sticks, 
caught in nets, in baskets, in temporary cruives, by hooks fastened in 
ereat numbers on to lines, and many other ways. Small fry are taken at 


Opinion of Government of 
N. W. Provinces. 


Opinions of European Officials 
in the Meerut Division. 


* These reports were received October 10th, 1872. 


exlix 


the end of the rains in baskets placed in fields at the outlets for irriga- 
tion water; in the cold weather small fry are caught in nets of all kinds 
having very small meshes. Streams are turned, the large fish taken out, 
and the small fry left to perish. Waters are poisoned byt which fish of all 
sizes and kinds are destroyed. I’ormerly nets with every size of mesh 
were used, but now, with consent of the land-owners, it has been limited 
to one and-a-half inches between each knot. I have found no difficulty 
in regulating the size of the mesh. In all streams or lakes, where there 
are large sorts of fish, no net with a mesh, less than that given above, 
should be allowed. In places where there are only small kinds, smaller 
meshes may be permitted, but very guardedly. No objection exists 
to prohibiting the sale of small fry in the bazars; it is quite easily 
earried out; neither are there objections to preventing the catching of fish 
in the hills for the first two months of the monsoon. ‘his, however, 
would be difficult in the Himalayas asthe streams are all in Native 
States. The Chiefs would, however, readily co-operate.” The same officer 
reported (December 1]th, 1871) that ‘ wasteful destruction of fish is 
carried on to a fearful extent; the following are the chief modes :—from 
March to the beginning of the rains, streams are dammed and turned. 
In this district the mountain torrents, when they burst from the hills, 
have three or four different beds, all of which are full during the rains, but 
afterwards only one; one year the stream is in one of these beds, 
another year another, and so on, ‘The poachers choose a spot where the 
stream and an old bed are in close proximity ; both have good pools 
in them; they fix nets right across the stream about a mile, or more, 
below this spot. First, nets with large meshes, and then nets with 
smaller meshes. ‘hese nets are kept down to the bottom with heavy 
stones. When the nets are all ready they dam up the stream, and open 
a water-way into the old bed; the force of the water soon euts a deep 
way for itself, and then the late bed of the stream is left dry, except 
in the deep holes; all fish that try to escape down are stopped by the 
nets. The poachers then take away all the fish they want, and leave 
the rest to perish gradually as the pools dry up. I have sometimes seen 
small fry lying dead, six and eight inches deep, in these holes. The 
poachers, in a day or two, do the same thing somewhere else lower down, 
and after a month or so, when the fish have become accustomed to the 
new bed, they commence at the top again, and return the stream into 
its late bed, catching all the fish in the new bed, &c. This used to be 
one of the most deadly modes of poaching; besides this, during the 
above period, they were in the habit of using nets of very small meshes, 
with which they caught the young fry of the big kinds of fish. In 
conjunction with the zemindars, | have puta stop to these two ways 
of poaching, and hence the number of small fry seen by Dr, Day ; if 
he had seen the Song in 1868, he would not have seen the quantities of 
small fry he alludes to, and if, when he did see them, he had had the 
river netted, he would have found a total absence of fish four or five 
years old.” [My report was in 1871, and as follows :— 'The Song River, 
one of the tributaries of the Ganges (not replenished from melted snow, or 
ice water), joins the main river a few miles above HWurdwar, and when 
examined (February) contained but little water, except every here and 
there, where deep pools existed. Owing to the clearness of the stream, 


cl 


I was enabled fo distinetly distinguish its fish, and I may safely assert 
that I uever saw so many yearlings in the plains of India in such a small 
volume of running water. In one pool I counted upwards of 20 mahaseer 
(last season’s) about 6 or 8 inches in length, and these were irrespective 
of numerous other species of the genera Labeo, Barbus, Rasbora, 
Burilius, and Belone. This was not merely in one spot, but all along the 
course of the stream, which I followed for upwards of 24 hours.” The 
foregoing enquiry and report were written by myself in entire ignorance 
of My. Ross’s most interesting: endeavours to stop poaching on that stream ; 
the papers furnished me at Allahabad clearly deemed poaching fish one of 
the vested rights of the people which ought not to be interfered with, 
and, whilst at the Song River, I expressed my surprise at its being so well 
stocked, and the reason given me there was, “that the fish were rarely 
molested, owing to the neighbouring rural population not eating them, 
and the small sale there was for fish in the sacred town of Hurdwar.” 
Tt is now clear that the reason is not due to the abstinence of the 
fishermen, but the rules of Mr. Ross and the zemindars. } This most 
interesting and instructive report continues:—‘ The mahaseers com- 
mence to run up about the end of March or beginning of April. 
Like salmon and some other kinds of fish, they push their way up as 
high as they can get; the consequence is, that in June and July, you 
will see ten and fifteen pound fish in little streams not more than a yard 
wide ; these are all heavy with spawn, and fall easy victims to poachers. 
Tn the hills in places where the streams run between narrow rocks, the 
natives fasten a series of strings with sharp strong barbed hooks every 
three inches; a vast number of fish are destroyed in this way. ‘The 
hill-men also frequently poison the rivers. In the plains, at the com- 
mencement of the rains, fish run up little streams and are easily 
caught. When the fish have run up and spawned, the young fry 
are caught in myriads at the outlet for irrigation water in rice- 
fields and elsewhere. All the above kinds of poaching can easily be 
checked; only four orders are necessary: (1) damming, turning, or 
poisoning streams never to be allowed; (2) weirs and fixed engines 
to be prohibited; (3) no fish to be caught between Ist July and 
Ist October; (4) no nets to be used with a mesh less than 13 
inches from knot to knot. To these might be added (5) no fry of 
fish to be sold, and no mahaseer under 8tb in weight. ‘These rules are 
quite sufficient to prevent the destruction of fish by men, and can 
be easily enforced; in fact, all the land-holders, through whose 
estates the streams run, would combine with Government in enforcing 
these rules. ‘The penal clause need not, at any rate for the present, be 
heavy. Rs. 50 or one week’s imprisonment might be fixed as the 
maximum punishment. I do not suppose it is within my province to 
animadvert on the wholesale destruction of fish caused by canals, and 
Dr. Day has pointed that out quite clearly.” The Codlector of 
Seharunpore “has no remarks to offer on the subject.” The Codlector of 
Meerut (Mebruary 22nd, 1872) observed that “there is no question 
that considerable damage is done to the young fish, by the indiscrimi- 
nate use of nets with extremely small meshes without any regard to the 
spawning season, and in the smaller streams by the practice, freely 
resorted to by the fishermen and others, of bunding up the streams, drying 


eli 


off the portion below, and then taking out the larger fish, while the smaller 
are left to perish. I do not think the establishment of a close season would 
meet with any opposition. At the spawning season fish are considered 
impure and scareely fit for food, and it is only the very poorest part of the 
population that makes use of fish at that season. There would be little 
difficulty in the introduction of a fixed close season, and this would greatly 
protect the fishing interests.* * I think a close season from 15th June to 
Ist November would give a fair time for spawning, and the growth of the 
young fry. ‘The mesh I would recommend should be one inch and a half- 
from knot to knot, or perhaps even two inches. * * Small rewards for 
crocodiles’ eegs would aid in the extermination of those reptiles, and this 
could be easily arranged for.” The Assistant Collector of Meerut reported 
that “as little fishing is carried on in the rains, the destruction of breed- 
ing-fish and fry is not very great. No doubt, there is considerable destruc- 
tion, for all fish, breeding or not, are, when caught, killed without distine- 
tion.” Difficulties would exist in regulating the minimum size of the mesh 
of nets, and is “opposed to Government doing anything, especially as regards 
fry, because the subordinate native officers and the police being high-caste 
men amongst the Hindu population, it would rest with persons, quite 
unacquainted with distinctions in classes of fish, to decide as to what is 
fry and what was not, while we may be sure that considerable oppression 
would be exercised.” The Collector of Mozuffurnuggur (March 29th, 
1872) reported—(1) that there is no limit to the size of mesh employed, but 
that nets having very small meshes are used mainly for fishing jhils and 
ponds, and nets with larger meshes for river-fishing; (2) that nature practi- 
cally provides a close season for fish during the monsoon ; (3) that the con- 
sumption of fish in the district is not excessive, and ‘consequently, the 
destruction of small fry does not appear to take place systematically. 
« Except occasionally, when fields are flooded in the rains, there does not 
seem anywhere, or at any time, to be any wholesale destruction of small 
fry ;” sees no practical difficulty in regulating the minimum size of the 
meshes of nets, or prescribing a close season, but does not consider such 
necessary in his district. 
329. The Officiating Commissioner of Rohileund observes,—< I 
te ; regret if is a subject to which I have never 
in ode European Officials turned my attention, and that my own views 
, would be worth perhaps but little, but I 
must state that whatever small degree of evil there may be existing 
from the present mode of catching fish, it is infinitesimal as compared 
with the greater evil of instituting at present any remedial measures. 
Any legal enactments prohibiting fishing at certain seasons, or the use 
of nets with meshes under a certain size, and the measures and means by 
which the law would have to be enforced, would be most annoying, 
irritating, and dangerous. The size and areas of water in the main 
streams of India are so great, that the amount of fish taken out is 
nothing as compared with the stock remaining, and they need no protec- 
tion. The inland streams and nallas, drainage lines, and tanks are 
generally liable to be dried up in the hot season; and unless we believe 
in the popular idea, that during such seasons the fish hide themselves 
deep in the mud, the catching and eating of the small fish, or ‘fry,’ 
as it is called, is only bringing to use an article of food otherwise to be 


elii 


lost. As stated before, for political reasons, I think the time has not 
arrived for interference, nor do I think any decrease of food-supply 
has been proved, which should call for repressive measures.” ‘The 
Collector of Budaon (Kebruary 23rd, 1872) reported,—‘* There is no doubt 
that fish of every age, and in any condition, are captured in this district 
in every season. I am not aware that there is any season especially 
selected for this purpose. ‘They are taken with drag-nets and casting- 
nets, in baskets, and by damming up the shallow beds of rivers, leaving: 
“a passage through which the fish must pass, when they are without 
difficulty caught. Ihave seen nets with meshes of 3-10ths of an inch 
between the knots, and I have no doubt smaller ones are used. I have 
seen baskets where the interval between the straws is not more than the 
thickness of cardboard.* * Very small fish are taken in the rains, and 
also at other seasons. Whenever water drains off the land or out of 
streams, the water-holes are emptied of all the fish they contam. Nets 
with meshes 8-10ths of an inch and baskets are used for fishing, and 
very small fishes are thus captured.” “ The classes who fish for profit 
are chiefly Kahars and Bhatiaras.” The markets are stated to be fairly 
supplied with fish, which is eaten by all except the higher castes of 
Hindus. The supply in the waters “is said to have decreased within 
the last few years”? ‘It appears to me that although complete protec- 
tion to fish could not be afforded in the breeding season, yet that suflicient 
protection might be afforded to ensure a future supply.” A close season 
is considered possible in the larger rivers, as fish ascend to deposit their 
spawn, and “ the size of the wesh might be restricted to 6-10ths or 8-10ths 
of an inch.’ But these measures, it is considered, would necessitate 
the keeping up of an establishment for the purpose. ‘The Officiating 
Collector of Shahjehanpur (February 24th, 1872) observed,—“ I have 
seen very small fry caught during and after the rains, by placing 
strips of sirkee or other similar matting across water-courses, and at out- 
lets of jbils. All fish of whatever size caught in the nets are used for 
food. The supply is less in the winter than other months.” ‘1f May, 
June, and July were made close months, the supply of fish would be 
likely to increase. Zemindars could usually put a stop to fishing in 
their villages, if they exerted themselves, but it would require a special 
law to enforce their duties.” The Collector, in 1868, stated “he is of 
opinion that an imposition of duty on fish would be the best course 
to protect them, and prevent any wanton destruction.” [Levying a 
duty or license on nets has apparently commenced to have this effect 
in the Panjab.] The Collector of Bijnour (1869) reported that a wanton 
destruction of fish is carried on to a certain extent in the Rivers Ram- 
gunga and Khoh, by means of stake-nets, stretching from bank to bank. 
He recommended licensing nets, and regulating the minimum mesh at 
14 inches between each knot. The Collector, in answer to the questions 
eirculated (March 2nd, 1872), answered, as to whether breeding-fish and 
very young ones are destroyed to any great extent,—*“ T cannot speak from 
my own experience, but from the reports furnished by the Tehsildars in an- 
swer to the questions put to them, I think there can be no doubt that fishing 
is carried on all the year round, and that all fish that are caught are used ; 
neither breeding-fish nor any young ones can escape.” ‘The mesh of nets is 
so small no fish can pass ; does “ not see how it would be possible to regulate 


cliii 


the size of the meshes, unless fishing without a license were forbidden; in 
that case nets might be examined and stamped before the license was 
granted.” Considers Government employés and the natives of India so 
ignorant as to the difference between fry and adult small fish, that the prohi- 
bition against selling fry in the bazars could not be enforced: The Collector 
of Moradabad (February 2 9th, 1872) reported,—fish of every sort are caught 
indiscriminately, especially in the rainy season. The smallest mesh of 
nets used is one quarter of an inch. “ If meshes of less than one inch from 
knot to knot are prohibited, other means will be sure to be adopted for cap- 
turing the very small sorts of fish.’ One inch from knot to knot might 
be adopted as the smallest measure experimentally ; but it is anticipated 
such would give great dissatisfaction, and not remedy the real evil much. 
Respecting what objections exist against prohibiting the sale of fry 
the bazar,— Practically impossible, except with a large establishment, 
to pick out the ‘fry’ of the better sorts of fish, and when caught, the fry 
may just as well be eaten as be thrown away.” The former Collector 
(1868) observed that wanton destruction of fish takes place in this dis- 
trict when fishermen go up in gangs to the rivers where they come out 
of the hills. And that damming a river, and diverting it from its bed, with 
a view of catching all the fish at one time for several Hata eed yards of 
the stream, should, without express Reason, be forbiddes. The Ofi- 
crating Collector of Bareilly (Mareh 2nd, 1872) stated that peeueeee 
and also fry, are largely destroyed on the waters subsiding after the rains, 
in streams, small rivers and water-courses by nets and traps, the meshes 
“not being large enough to admit a grain of mucea to pass through.” He 
continues, “I do not believe any restriction is necessary. I do not believe 
in the alleged destruction of fish to an extent which requires interference.” 
“ As far as my experience goes, and I have fished a good deal in the 
Himalayas, the hill-streams are too powerful to admit of the capture of 
fish in the two first months of the monsoon. Fish are slaughtered 
wholesale in the dry months.” 

330. The Commissioner of Kumaon (1869) replicd that in the 
smaller rivers all the fish that can be caught 
by any means are killed by the villagers du- 
ring the cold weather and summer. The 
Commissioner (February 27th, 1872) observed that ‘the Tharoos who 
live in the Turai spend much of their time in the rains in catching small 
fish, and would be very discontented if their fishing were inter faved with, 
I consider that it would be unwise and unnecessary “to stop the inhabitants 
of the Turai fishing inany way.” He continues—large rivers are too ex- 
tensive to suffer from any system of fishing. That up the small streams, 
spawning-fish ascend and are killed by the villagers, all of whom try 
to get what fish they can. That fish can only ascend during the rains, 
and that for the last thirty years, he has seen that any fish, large or small, 
that could be caught, has been caught, and that as the rains return, more 
fish ascend from the plains. “If the fish that come up to the hills 
are allowed to go down again, as I understand from Dr. Day’s report, they 
would do, I doi not pereeive how the hill people would be benefitted i 
allowing them to go, as they would only come up to the hills during the 
close season. I feel certain that every fish, large or small, however 
caught, is eaten—not one is wasted. And the villagers having from time 


Opinions of European Offi- 
cials in Kumaon. 


cliv 


immemoria! supplied themselyes with fish in any way they could, I 
would not recommend that this right [is it a rig¢ or a license, see para- 
graph 129; and is it abused or not so ?) and amusement be interfered 
with.” ‘Io carry out any rules, he considers that he should require a 
large police establishment, the subordinates of which would be beyond 
all control and of no use whatever, But that poisoning streams which 
is only done in very little ones should be prohibited, and could be easily 
carried out. The Officiating Senior Assistant Commissioner of Kumaon, 
Major Fisher, remarked (January 29th, 1872), that both breeding-fish and 
very young ones are destroyed in this district toa very great extent, so 
much so that the absence of them as an article of diet in the Almorah 
and Nynee ‘Tal markets, as compared with former years, is very notice- 
able, and it is a comparatively rare thing now to see good fish for break- 
fast, even at a Huropean table. The destruction of fish and their absence 
now from some of our large rivers, such as the Surjoo in the Eastern, 
and the Ramgunga in Western Kumaon, is equally noticeable. In parts 
of these rivers, where a good angler could take his six or eight fish of a day, 
averaging from 6 to 12 lbs. each, the same man would not now take 2, 
although the angler of to-day has many devices in the way of artificial 
baits, which the sportsman of former days had not.” There are three 
or four ways of destroying young and large fish: (1) by a heavily leaded 
cast-net, the fisherman wading waist-deep into the stream to employ it. 
(2) “By the use of a stout cord, thrown right across a stream ; to one 
end is attached a short stick for a man to hold, whilst the other 
end of the cord is held slackly by a man on the opposite bank. Then 
two men generally stand on commanding rocks, overlooking’ some deep 
pool where the current is not rapid. ‘The cord itself is armed with large 
iron hooks at intervals of two or three feet, being each of them about the 
size of one used in a patent weighing machine. The cord, thus armed, 
is kept about 18 inches or two feet, sometimes deeper, below the sur- 
face of the stream. Some men now go down below the pool, and with 
bamboos or poles stir up the fish from below, whilst, at the same time, 
the water from this process becomes muddy. ‘The half-blinded and 
frightened fish make for the deep water of the pool above, and as they 
pass over the cord, the man holding the stick, jerks the cord with great 
skill and strength, and many a fine fish is hooked by the gills, or the 
tail, or through the lower portion of the stomach: as to the Kumaon 
it is immaterial how, so long as the fish is landed. This process not only 
destroys large numbers of fish, but wounds and injures very many 
others which go away only todie. (3) By placing at intervals from three 
to four feet, on a weir used for irrigation purposes, conical-shaped baskets, 
the point of the cone being below, and the open mouth of the cone on 
a level with the weir. his device is chiefly successful at night. 
he baskets are generally placed in portions of the weir where the stream 
is strongest, and an unwary fish coming too close to the weir finds 
himself hurled into a basket from which it is quite impossible to 
escape. It is needless to point out how injurious this process 
of destruction is to the ascent of fish before the breeding season, 
and their descent when breeding is over; practically, it requires a very 
clever fish to go up for breeding purposes, and return to the point start- 
ed from uninjured, for it has to cross and re-cross several of these 


ely 


weirs both on its journey up and down stream, (4) A way of destroying 
fry, chiefly resorted to by boys, of damming up small streams, but not 
worth any detailed notice.” Otters, and alarge siluroid fish, ave also men- 
tioned as doing some little injury. “The seasons in which most fish are 
destroyed are during summer when the water is very clear and the 
river low, and again in the winter, after the monsoon has subsided, and 
the rivers are reduced to their ordinary level. he smallest-sized mesh 
of the nets employed in Kumaon are from half to three-fourths of an inch 
between knot and knot. They are chiefly used to eatch the small fry which 
swarm on both banks of a river during the hot months, and also to take fry 
which have been left in ravines running down to a river, or in stagnant 
pools when the river has subsided to its natural bed after the monsoon.” 
No difficulties are anticipated in prohibiting the sale of ‘ fry in the 
bazars of Kumaon, because I do not believe there is any class of the 
community in towns, dependent solely on this description of food, and, 
if I remember rightly, the practice is already prohibited in some muni- 
cipalities without causing public inconvenience. The advantage is 
that sales of fry being prohibited, the supply, and with it the destrue- 
tion of fry, will at once cease in all streams within marketable distance 
of bazars.” Fence months, it is suggested, should extend from 1st 
April to lst July. The question of preseriptive rights is thus alluded to : 
“the prescriptive rights of the people will possibly require legislative 
action, but it is quite time the ‘common-sense principle’ was declared 
once for all, that no people in the world, other than savages who do 
whatever pleases them, have a prescriptive right to do anything which 
destroys or diminishes a spontaneous source of food. The same prin- 
ciple has been applied in the use of water and timber: why should it 
not be applied to so important an article as human food? If eompen- 
sation must be given, then letit be; it only shows what the State is 
obliged to be responsible for, by too strict a respect for these so-called 
‘ prescriptive rights ;’ the people themselves will be the eventual gainers, 
and on these grounds alone the legislature should take the matter in 
hand at once. Prescriptive right to do wrong things, or injudiciously 
exterminate a natural source of food-supply, has only existed, because, 
until now, there has not been a Government strong or civilized enough 
to control it. Thus ‘suttee, ‘thuggee, ‘human sacrifices? were all 
prescriptive rights in their way, and had, moreover, a certain amount 
of legal sanction, and yet, because they involved loss of human life, 
they were very rightly swept away, and so can this right of wanton 
destruction of human food be.” He proposes (1) a close season from 
Ist April to 31st July, in each year, for all fishing other than rods; (2) 
the minimum size of the mesh of nets to be 14 inches between knot 
and knot, and the prohibition of the sale of fry in the bazars; (3) that 
the forest patrols or special police enforce a close season ; (4) that fixed 
traps at weirs, and cords with hooks attached, as above described, be 
prohibited ; (5) that a system of licenses be established to pay for a 
conservancy establishment. The Officiating Senior Assistant Commis- 
sioner, Gurhwal (December 23rd, 1871), reported that almost all classes 
use fish as food when procurable. ‘The wholesale destruction of fish 
and their fry commences in these bills. The rivers and streams here 
are the breeding-grounds of the mahaseer, kalonce or kala-banj, and 


elvi 


other fish which ascend them in the rains to spawn. Not only are 
large fish destroyed on their upward and downward route, but the fry 
are caught wherever they are to be seen. Moreover, the rivers are so 
dammed up by weirs made on purpose to catch fish, that they cannot 
always ascend to their spawning-grounds, and fall an easy prey to the 
people, who are on the watch for them. There are several modes of 
catching fish ; the principal are netting ; by weirs with one exit, at which 
a wicker basket or trawl is fixed; and by snagging, or as it is called the 
‘raksha;’ fishing with rod and line is rarely practised. Netting is 
earried on at all times of the year, but chiefly during floods, when the 
water is dirty, and the fish come to the edge to feed, or when the water 
is very low indeed. Weirs are erected as soon as the monsoon begins to 
cease, and they remain in existence till carried away by the first floods 
in the rains. They are placed usually at the tail of each pool, and there 
is almost always one at the Junction of two rivers, thus entirely pre- 
venting fish running up till the weir is carried away by a flood. 
Snageging is, in my opinion, by far the most uselessly destructive method. 
It is carried on as follows:—Two men, one on either bank of the 
stream, hold a long and strong line between them. ‘To this are attached 
several large hooks, between each of which are fastened flat pieces of 
stick, so placed as to keep the hooks with the point upwards. The hooks 
are allowed to sink to the bottom, and when a fish, working his way up 
stream, comes over the hooks, the man on the higher bank jerks the 
line, and very frequently transfixes the fish. Of course, many fish must 
get a maimed ; but 1 have seen numbers, amongst them mahaseer of 
15 to 20 Ibs. weight, caught im one pool in this manner. All villagers 
ieee along the larger rivers pursue this method during the cold 
season when the water is clear, and very few large fish can escape them. 
Were it not for the damage done by maiming fish, it would not be so ob- 
jectionable, as what are caught are eaten ; but as it is, I think it a perni- 
cious plan, and one which almost completely clears the fish out of the 
deep pools where they rest during the cold season.” Some villages have 
purchased the right to catch fish thus, but they must be few. Large 
quantities of fry” and small fish are said to be destroyed in the numerous 
small streams, and interference might create dissatisfaction. “ That the 
number of fish is decreasing is well known and acknowledged, so 
much so, that the people living high up one of our rivers, an affluent 
of the Aleknunda, complained to me that owing to the number of 
weirs, they found that very few fish can find their way up as far 
as their villages. Being a fisherman myself, I too can testify that 
in some rivers where there used to be first-rate rod-fishing, it has 
ereatly deteriorated in the last few years, while the size of the 
fish has also decreased.” The following are Captain Garstin’s 
propositions: (1) that no weirs be allowed at the junctions of 
rivers; (2) that every weir should have in the deep stream an 
escape, Which should never be blocked up by nets or wicker baskets ; 
(3) that no weirs should be allowed where the people have not a distinct 
recorded right permitting them to erect one; (4) that there shall be a 
close season from netting, during the months of July, August and 
September; (5) that snagging be prevented wherever the people have 
no recorded right allowing of it; (6) that a certain number of pools 


clvii 


in every river shall be held publie property, in which no means of 
catching fish, save by rod and line, should be practised. It may be 
urged that the first three points infringe on the rights of the people ; 
but, on the other hand, such rights must militate against the welfare of 
the ‘majority, and not only prevent the proper increase of fish, but also 
damage the rights of others living along the same stream, but higher 
up, by preventing fish reaching them. fx But a fishery is, in its nature, 
enjoyable wherever the fish have a free passage. The right of a ri- 
parian owner may be injured by the acts of other riparian owners, both 
above and below him, but more frequently by those beneath him, seeing 
that fish are in some way connected with, and come from the sea.” In 
India, the large rivers to which mahaseer resort during the dry season 
would stand in the place of the seain England, and their migrating 
up those hill-streams to breed is necessary to their due propagation. 
«Tf, therefore, one riparian owner fix a net or erect a weir which en- 
tirely obstructs the fish, he necessarily deprives the upper riparian 
owners from deriving from the water one of the uses to which they 

are entitled. Though one riparian owner may by fishing by net 
or rod at all hours, and, by means of servants and assistants, almost 
use up the fish as effectually as by keeping fixed nets, this kind 
of user could not properly be a cause of action, just as one owner, 
who has a large number of cattle, would not be liable to an action 
at the suit of another who has no cattle, and so takes no use of 
the water. But it is otherwise where a total obstruction occurs. Hence, 
even independently of any statute, any fixed apparatus in a river or 
stream, which prevents the fish going up to the other riparian owners, 
is a good cause of action at common law, as it deprives him of one of the 
natural riparian rights.’ Paterson, Mishery Laws of the United Kingdom, 

p. 43; also Lord Ellenborough gave the following judgment :— «Though 
twenty years’ acquiescence may bind parties whose private rights only 
are affected, yet the public have an interest in the suppression of public 
nuisances though of longer standing ;” and such he ruled weirs to be. 
Likewise, although the public have indulged in license from time im- 
memorial, it gives no right in fishing. ma license of fishing is distinet 

from the right of fishery, and is at most only a justification for what 
would BiRomvice be a trespass. <A license is revocable at will, and in 
order to be binding, even for an hour, must be granted by deed,” Pater- 
son l. e, p. 57.) The right of erecting weirs was not, I believe, carried 
on to the same extent in former days as now. ‘They were not then so re- 
gularly or so generally made, and were not of the same impassable na- 
ture as those now erected. Jor I have seen some which none of the 
fish inhabiting these rivers could possibly pass. Besides, where a mat- 
ter becomes one of public importance, as_ the preservation of fish is, 
surely the rights of private parties, especially when in the minority, 
ought to give way. In the hills, too, a fishing right does not bring 
in much pecuniary advantage, as fish are not sold to any great extent ; 

and by somewhat curtailing it, the only hardship inflicte d would be, 
that the possessors would not be able to destroy fish to the extent they 
now do, and yet would always be able to get sufficient for their wants, 
while an equal supply would be available through the whole course of the 
several rivers.” Considers it would be very difficult to regulate the size 


elviii 


of the mesh of nets, so would prohibit netting from July to September 
inclusive. Respecting the 6th proposition, “it is one that might be 
easily carried out, as there are numbers of pools on all rivers which be- 
long to no one, but which are netted and weired. Any such might be 
declared public property, and all fishing, except by rod and line, ‘prohi- 
bited.”” Levying licenses, it is considered, would not answer, as such 
would require a large establishment to see it carried out. Otters do not 
destroy fish in the ‘proportion man does, and offering sufficient rewards 
would be very expensive. “If rules for the preservation of fish are 
introduced, there must be punitive measures also, as without these no 
amount of rules will have any effect on the natives. The punishments, 
to he of any avail, should be heavy, as the difficulty in bringing home 
offences is so great that light punishments would have no effect.’ 
“The rivers in which rules are to be enforced should be publicly proclaimed, 

as some, such as the Aleknunda, Pindur, and other snow rivers, are of 
such a nature that fish cannot easily be destroyed. It is the warmer and 
shallow streams which are the spawning-beds, and where the greatest 
mischief is done. A small establishment might be necessary for patrol- 
ling, but these could be paid out of the fines. Even if Government 
had to pay them, considering the benefit that must eventually arise from 
the preservation of fish, the money would be well spent. In conclusion, 
I would add that I have not, owing to the nature of the district, been 
able to give statistics in support of my arguments; but having taken a 
considerable interest in the matter, and knowing the amount of unne- 
cessary destruction that is caused to fish, I feel sure that unless some 
measures are taken for their preservation in our hill-streams, the better 
kinds, which have already decreased in quantity, must soon become very 
scarce; and my opinion is not only based on personal observation, but 
on what I have been told by the people themselves.”” The Superintendent, 
Turai District (January 20th, 1872), observed—that the pergunnahs 
forming this district stretch along the foot of the Himalayas, having 
nowhere a greater width than 14 miles. They are traversed by streams 
which debouch from the hills; whilst, in the pergunnahs themselves, rise 
numerous springs, which, increasing in volume, finally, as nallas, fall 
(some in the Turai itself, and some in the country to the south) into 
these hill-streams. The streams from the hills are dry during the hot 
weather, and the discharge from the other rivulets is but small. The 
greater number of these smaller streams are used for irrigation, and for 
the cultivation of rice. This was formerly done by the erection of large 
earthen dams, which, backing up the waters for some distance, formed 
places favourable for fish. An escape permitting a free passage for fish 
generally existed. On sanitary grounds these bunds have been re- 
moved, and only dug-out channels are now permitted. The whole com- 
munity, except a few prohibited by caste, are consumers of fish, which 
are generally caught by the Deemur caste, but others, when at leisure, 

also employ themselves in this pursuit. Amongst the Bhoksas and 
Tharoors, the whole inhabitants of villages will go together at a time 
hunting for fish. With the exception of the “roh,” “sol,” and “kerril,” 
the fish spawn in Asarh, but these do so in Chait. The mahasecr are 
so few they are not worth taking into account. The three fish men- 
tioned are the only ones fii to eat according to Huropean taste. All 


clix 


these fish are said, during latter years, to have become scaree, but 
if is attributed to the removal of the dams. [lt is a very remark- 
able cireumstance that a reason is always found to account for a 
decrease of fish, and that reason is rarely put down as man; it is too 
little or too much rain ; but fishing-weirs totally impeding any passage 
to spawning-grounds, capturing breeding-fish, or destroying the fry are 
omitted from the category.) During the rains numerous small fish are 
eaught in the fields and goo/s. “I do not think it would be advisable 
as regards the Turai to impose any restrictions, and for the following 
reasons. The tract is excessively narrow (14 miles), and the fish found 
in it of little value, the result of any conservancy would be trifling ; 
[if 14 miles length of rivers existing between the hill where fish ascend to 
breed, and the plains to which they descend in the cold season, ought to be 
permitted to be poached by fixed weirs, if is difficult to understand why 
fish should be protected anywhere. Here is their road,—is such to be 
open or closed ?—should all narrow highways be blocked ?] the waters are 
insignificant; the removal of the earthen dams has, I believe, enabled the 
fish to pass to and fro, and any fishing in the Turai rivulets can have 
little effect on them.” He continues that small fish are the chief object 
of the fisherman’s labour, and were catching them prohibited, perhaps the 
agriculturists would migrate. 

331. The Commissioner of Benares—Replied (in 1869) that fish 
are taken at all times of the year, irrespective 
of the spawning season, which must seriously 
affect their increase.” In answer to the 
questions now circulated, the Commissioner (May 20th, 1872) reported 
the supply of fish may be said to be unlimited throughout large portions 
of the district, owing to extensive j/7/s ; considers the rainy season as 
practically a close one, whilst regulating the minimum size of the mesh 
of the nets, to be effectually carried out, would lead to the obvious evils 
of interference by untrustworthy subordinates, but the sale of the fry 
of fish might be stopped by municipalities in the bazars. The 
Magistrate of Goruckpur (February 28th) observed on the destruction 
and waste of fish,—‘‘ It is sufficient to remark that the natives catch 
fish all the year round, at all times, and in all places, without any 
regard to the spawning season and the mixture of the fry, to show that 
great destruction must be committed. Their greediness also in sparing 
nothing, however small, which can contribute towards a meal, is an 
equally strong evidence of waste. It is even said that the madlahs 
and kewats dig the spawn of fish out of the banks of rivers (see 
paragraph 166, p. xcii), and after preparing it in a certain manner, either 
consume it themselves, or offer it for sale. Small auxiliary waters are 
the chief scene of this destruction, and the chief agent is a dam, called 
chilwan, which is stretched across a stream, and eatehes all the fish, 
however small, which may descend, while at the same time it entirely 
interrupts their ascent. I have inspected two of these dams constructed 
in the Rohan Nuddi at Domingarh, and have carefully examined their 
construction and operation. The dam chi/wan resembles a screen 
made of common reed called surput; the reeds are so close together 
that the smallest fry can hardly get through, and the dam is farther 
plastered at its foot with mud and strengthened with matting, chataie, 


Opinions of European Officials 
in the Benares Division. 


élx 


so that no passage exists for anything. In midstream the screen opens 
into a long and narrow passage walled and floored with the same 
materials; and this terminates in a basket, named fotera, which is a 
hamper made of reeds, into which a small orifice in the side gives 
admittance to fish beneath the surface of the water, whilst the lid remains 
above the surface, and is opened from time to time for the removal of the 
spoil. As the water hardly finds its way through the interstices of the 
screen, it rushes in a strong current along the passage, carrying the fish 
with it, and a fall from the passage into the basket precludes all chance 
of escape. The months durimg which the greatest destruction of fry 
and small fish takes place are Sawan, Bhadon and Kunwar. A_ consider- 
able quantity is taken all over the surface of the inundated country, 
both by means of traps, and nets, called jheenguree, a casting-net, and 
eenliydree, one which is spread over the irrigated fields, and dragged 
along the ground. It is called eendiydree because it has small pieces of 
bone and brick attached to it, in order to attract the notice of the fish. 
The small size of the ordinary mesh in nets is another important feature 
in the progress of destruction. Being only a quarter of an inch or less 
between the knots, it suffers very few fry to escape. The tehsildar of the 
sudr tehsil remarks that there has been a continuous decrease in the 
supply of fish in this district for the last twenty years.” It is proposed 
(1) to regulate the minimum size of the mesh of nets; (2) that a close 
season be instituted extending over the breeding period, and whilst young fry 
are moving about ; (8) that the sale of fry be, as far as possible, prohibited ; 
(4) that the construction of fishing dams be checked or regulated ; if 
permitted, they should not be used during the breeding season, and never 
constructed of such close materials as at present; (5) that nets and 
dams be licensed ; (6) that rewards be given to informers; (7) that the 
destruction of spawn should be penal; (8) that a small foree of peons be 
entertained to see the regulations carried out. The Collector of Bustee 
(January 13th, 1872) reported,—“T believe, no doubt, here as well as in 
every other part of India, the fisheries are not used to the best advantage, 
and that if well-considered restrictive measures were introduced, the sunply 
of fish might be immensely increased.’ “Tish are killed, more or less, 
throughout the year, but the largest numbers are taken towards the end of 
the rainy season. As the waters fall, countless lakes or pools of all sizes are 
formed on the low land by the rivers. These, which were, during the 
floods, mere extensions of the streams, now become lakes with one narrow 
exit to the river. Across this nets are stretched, or a weir of grass 
constructed, and every fish that has wandered up becomes a certain prey, 
being either caught at the weir, or left exposed as the waters fall. The 
same process takes place on a smaller seale in every ficld that is under 
water. The exit is closed, and countless small fish are taken. The 
smaller streams, too, are dammed up, through their length, for irrigation 
purposes; and when no more water is required, a small opening is cut in 
the dam: a basket, or most frequently a grass sereen, is put in the opening, 
which prevents the very smallest fish “passing, and thus every one is 
killed. But it is useless to detail what may be seen in almost every 
district. During the rains it appears to be an instinet with every fish 
to ascend the stream, even when there is barely suflicient water to cover 
them, and having thus got into danger by resorting to the shallowest 


elxi 


waters, they are assailed in every possible way by nets of all kinds and 
of the very smallest mesh, and by fixed engines of the most deadly 
nature, which, when once set up, remain permanently, without even the 
weekly open time so strongly insisted on in England, and with the water- 
way often closed, not merely by a net, but by a screen of reeds placed 
so closely together that none but the very smallest fish could get 
through. In ‘this district which is low, and very swampy, the numbers 
can be renewed every rain from the rivers, but 1 have often wondered how 
any fish of the smallest kind could remain in phils such as I have seen 
in Oudh. There are numbers there, often miles from a river, which 
I have seen dragged with the smallest meshed nets, so as to take appa- 
rently every fish two inches long; then emptied of their water in Feb- 
ruary for irrigation, and yet after the bed has lain dry from February 
to June, there are again next year apparently as many fish as ever. 
Poisoning: of the water is said to be another means of destr uction, but I 
have never known it done intentionally. I remember hearing in the 
Tlumeerpur District that it occurs naturally every year. The “Bela ‘Tal 
at Jeitpur is formed by an embankment across a low valley, and 
the course of a small hill-stream lies through it. During the hot 
weather this stream becomes almost dry, only retaining water in holes 
in the midst of the jungle. These holes become full of dead leaves, 
and with the first burst of the rains, the putrid contents are swept 
down into the lake. The consequence, I was told on the spot, is, that 
numbers of fish are perfectly stupefied and float on the top of the 
water, an easy prey to any one who will take them.” [This is a very 
interesting instance of destruction of fish which at these seasons may be 
occasioned by one of the three following causes—(1) mud in waters, (2) the 
action of infusions of dead leaves or fruit, due apparently either to simple 
putrescence, (3) or else to the leaves or fr uit having an inherent poisonous 
character.] ‘There can be no doubt that the supply is said, in many 
places, to be falling off, though this is not the case here as yet, ‘and that 
if a proper remedy can be found, it might be largely increased.” As to 
close seasons they should vary in different localities; if would do great 
good, and during April and May fishing should be prohibited. There 
would be great difficulty in regulating the size of the mesh of nets, or to 
decide upon what are fry, were their sale prohibited. Mr. Hobart reported 
of this district (see para. 334)—“ In Bustee, and I believe in Goruckpur, 
manorial rights exist in fisheries, in the innumerable tanks, j/i/s and rivers 
there are very valuable, while cases of dispute about them are of daily 
occurrence. ‘There, there is undoubtedly a most wanton destruction of 
fish. I remember the Koana used to overflow its banks yearly, and 
millions of fish used to come into the quiet waters of the lagoons lying 
near the stream. ‘There was a system of staking the mouths of those 
lagoons, when the water fell in the river at the end of the rains, as the 
fish tried to get away. Except the very large fish, which leaped the 
artificial barrier (and if was more than four feet above the water), the 
rest of the fish were slaughtered in tens of thousands, and an incaleu- 
lable waste occurred. Had the fish been gradually killed and sold, the 
plan has its advantages; as it is, it requires restriction very badly. 
Again, in that same river, especially in the remote parts, there is a 
tiap under every bridge that spans it, where fish are caught and 


d 


clxii 


slaughtered in numbers. I have never heard of poisoning being used 
as 2 means to capture fish there, but I remember seeing the stream 
poisoned naturally. At the end of the cold season some rain had 
fallen, and had washed the forest leaves into the water, which turned 
from this, or other cause, to a dull red colour. The fish sickened 
and died in thousands. On the up-stream side of each of the 
bridges and traps I have mentioned, you could see millions of fish 
eager to get down past the obstruction, and escape from the poisoned 
water. Ina hundred yards or so, the river was a mass of living heads. 
The fish sickened and died in a day or two, and birds of prey came from 
all parts to devour them. I saw this myself and heard that it was not of 
unfrequent occurrence, and that the dead fish were so numerous on these 
occasions that they were carted off as manure. This is certainly a 
crying evil and demands a remedy. * * Legislation is called for in 
Bustee.” The Officiating Collector of Bustee (April 4th, 1872) remarked :— 
“Tt is during and immediately after the rains that a very large number 
of small fish are taken. ‘The whole country becomes a swamp during 
the rains, and when the waters subside, every field that has been flooded 
becomes the scene of slaughter. Most of the fields here are surrounded 
with a high bank, to keep up the water, if necessary, for the rice, and 
the cut at the lower corner of this is obstructed by a basket or grass 
screen ; this effectually prevents the escape of any fish, and as the water 
runs off, they are left exposed.” ‘ There can be no doubt that the mesh 
used is as small as can conveniently be made. There is hardly a method 
of fishing which is not practised, except, indeed, fixed engines in river- 
beds. These could not be permanently employed to any great extent, 
for the yearly floods would sweep them away.” Nets of all sizes and 
shapes are used in the rivers, but the greater part of the fishing is carried 
on in the lakes and shallows formed by the overflow of the rivers. 
Where the waters are shallow and drying up, bunds are erected and fixed 
traps placed, as in the outlets to rice-fields ; nets and all kinds of devices 
are employed, and finally the remains of the water are baled out ; thus 
nothing escapes. In smaller pools water is baled out into a channel ; 
a screen is placed there; the most minute fish are unable to get away. 
Should lakes communicate with large rivers, the channels are embanked, 
and as the water subsides every fish is taken. ‘The only method, not 
practised to any extent, is poisoning the water, and this indeed could 
hardly be carried out effectively here, for it requires a running stream 
to spread the poison through the pools, and shallows below, where the 
fish may be picked up.” Considers too great difficulties exist to regu- 
late the size of the mesh of nets, and would give rise to extortion ; the 
same difficulty would be in the way of prohibiting the sale of the fry 
of fish in bazars. The Collector of Mirzapur (February 12th, 1872) 
observed :— My own opinion is, that if the Government resolve on 
interfering with the present practice of fishing, that interference should 
be very limited in its extent, and confined to such large rivers as the 
Ganges, Jumna, &e., which pass through civilised and rich countries, 
the inhabitants of which will be better able to appreciate the motives 
of Government. It will be unfortunate if any further measures of an 
unpopular character are introduced this year on the top of the income 
and acreage taxes, the commutation of jaghirs, and the census, and I am 


elxili 


quite sure that however limited the restriction on fishing may be, if will 
be looked on with disfavour and dissatisfaction, and the taachiner y which 
will have to be used to restrain fishermen will not be the least burden- 
some feature of the measure. Supervisors and a host of chuprassies will 
have to be let loose about the country, who by their rapacity and 
oppressiveness will cause a measure of usefulness and ultimate profit 
to be hateful to the fishermen, and indirectly to the consumers of fish. 
If it is objected that the measure can be carried out by the existing 
Police force and Tehsil establishinents, as probably it can be, then every 
fisherman in the district will be under the eye and dependent on the 
favour of the Police or Revenue establishments. And the result is plain 
to see—not a fisherman would be in favour with these officials, unless 
the tables of the latter were freely supplied with fish, &e. The fact is, 
in this part of the country, there is enough fish for all who want it, and 
to spare, and there is no need whatever for any change of practice, and 
I strongly deprecate any interference whatever” [With such strong 
opinions of reprobating action in a question which he admits may 
“cause a measure of usefulness and ultimate profit,” it is to be regretted 
more reasons are not adduced to show if any regulations are needed, 
and if so, what such ought to be. The following notes, however, are 
forwarded, which do not seem to prove that the fisheries are well cared 
for in this district. ] The Assistant Collector, whilst repeating the above 
objections, observes:—“‘In this district breediag-fish and very young 
ones are undoubtedly destroyed indiscriminately to a very great extent. 
In the Ganges and other rivers, in tanks, ponds, flooded lands, &c., 
principally during and after the rainy season, by nets of all sorts, by 
rods, by traps, by draining off water, and so stranding them, or lading 
them out, and in some places even by poison. ‘Che meshes of some of 
the nets used are no larger than a small pea.” If the minimum size 
of the mesh of nets is regulated, such should only be in force for the two 
or three months following the breeding season, but “ the people concerned 
will look upon legislation on this subject as a new interference with, and 
an unfair restriction of, their rights.” That no objections exist against 
prohibiting the sale of fry i in the bazars, which would be easily put in 
force, at least in the principal bazars. ‘The Officiating Collector of’ Bena- 
res (January 11th, 1872) observed :—“ Although it is doubtless true that 
both breeding-fish and very small fry are extensively caught, the result 
of enquiries instituted by me does not prove that there has been any 
observable diminution in the supply of fish in the city of Benares 
during the last few years.” Hindus, except Baishnus and Jains, use 
fish as food, as do also the Mahomedans, with this reservation that the 
Shias reject the scaleless forms. <A belief appears to exist that during 
the hot weather and rains fish are not so wholesome as during the cold 
months. ‘ Amongst the Brahmins, Lam informed that about 25 per cent. 
eat fish, while amongst the rest of the eae aa 75 per cent. may 
safely be put down as fish-eating.’” The larger kinds of fish are sun- 
dried and salted at certain seasons, and are almost wholly sold to 
Bengalis. About 50 maunds of fish per diem are consumed in the 
district, except in April and May, when the supply is largest. ‘ (1) 
Breck fish are extensively destroyed in this district, also very young 
ones, but the latter only in the rivers und streams. (2) From the 


clxiv 


months of March to June, breeding-fish full of roe are extensively caught 
by means of the nets in ordinary use. From July to September, young 
fry are caught, but they are not specially fished for in this district; in- 
deed, in ¢alabs belonging to private parties, Iam informed that special 
care is taken not to destroy the fry at this season, but that frequently these 
talabs ave replenished with young fry caught in the rivers. (3) The 
smallest size of mesh used is so small as to arrest the most diminutive fry.” 
Tf the minimum size of the mesh employed is fixed, complaints are 
anticipated, but no objections are known against prohibiting the sale 
of fryin the bazars. he Collector of Ghazeepur (February 9th, 1872), 
Leing only new to the district, considered it better to forward a memo- 
randum submitted by Wr. Joseph Smith, Deputy Collector, who reported 
as regarding whether there is any great destruction of breeding-fish 
and fry? ‘I believe this question must be answered in the affirmative. 
I cannot say that the destruction is greater or less than in any other 
district, but I have seen very young fish destroyed in very large num- 
bers. Ihave seen baskets-full of fry carried past the Gara Bazar on 
many occasions, containing very small fish, an inch or 13 inches long, 
and have little doubt a good proportion of these would be absolutely 
wasted from the want of purchasers or consumers. What were left 
would be thrown out as refuse; it is stated that fish are reeommended 
as a manure for vines. As for breeding-fish, I donot think the slightest 
attention is paid to the season in which they are caught. A native fisher- 
man would not hesitate to catch fish in whatever condition it was, 
provided he could sell it or eat it.” They are taken “in every 
manner, wherever possible, and at all times. I have seen hundreds 
caught with a small hand-net on the banks of the Ganges in front of 
my own house. Many basket-nets are used in irrigation channels and 
the outlets of 722s, &c.” Difficulties are considered to exist in regulat- 
ing the minimum size of the mesh of nets, due to the “ prying it would 
entail into the houses of those who kept nets, and the untrustworthy 
character of the subordinate native agency through which it would 
have to be done. It would open another door to bribery, which it would 
be impossible altogether to prevent, and hard to detect and check. 
I would have no net less than 1} inches between knot and knot. Pro- 
hibiting the sale of fry in bazars would be an interference with trade, 
as there must be a demand to cause a supply ; but this objection loses its 
weight in this case, where a valuable source of good wholesome food 
is being destroyed wantonly, or at least becoming scarce. Close seasons, 
it is considered, could not be effectually carried out.” ‘There is no 
doubt crocodiles destroy large quantities of fish, and might themselves 
be destroyed with very little trouble. A small reward would cause the 
production of numbers of eges, and a larger one would result in the 
destruction of many of the mature reptiles.” As regards who eat fish ? 
‘With two exceptions I can hear of no class or race of the inhabitants 
of this district that does not use fish as food. Brahmins, Rajputs, and 
all classes are allowed to eat it, that is, they may if they like, and 
would not be turned out of caste for sodoing. The two exceptions are 
(1) Bhaguts, and similar persons who are under a vow; and (2) Agur- 
wala Baniahs. I was surprised to hear that these latter are prohibited 
from eating fish, and must confess 1 never heard it before, and 1 cannot 


elxv 


discover any satisfactory reason for this prohibition; the only one given 
is, that it has been the custom from all time. I am assured, however, 
that an Agurwala Baniah would be turned out of caste for eating fish, 
while a Brahmin would not be. “The Collector of Azimgurh (May 
13th, 1872) observed that at his “ request Dr. Wood, Civil Surgeon of 
Azimgurh, has drawn up a very full and interesting memo. on the 
subject which T enclose.” (I omit transcriptions from it, as it will 
be referred to.) “Much of the water-supply is diverted for irrigation, 
or otherwise dries up by evaporation, and it is then that the principal 
destruction of fish and fry ensues. But it appears to me_ that 
this destruction is unavoidable from the nature of the case, and that 
unless we are prepared to prohibit irrigation from these streams and ponds 
when the water is low, a proposition which could not be seriously enter- 
tained ; ” &e. (neither has it ever been proposed, that I am aware of, any 
more than the existence of fixed engines for the destruction of the fry of 
fish, at every outlet in flooded fields, has been advanced as necessary for 
purposes of irrigation.] He considers it would neither be just nor 
expedient for Government to interfere with present customs, whilst 
rewards for crocodiles would only result in the expenditure of a con- 
siderable sum of money. Is “totally averse from all interference in 
other parts of the district.” Any measure would necessitate establish- 
ments which, “it is to be feared, would be mere engines of oppression and 
extortion. Further, the adoption of protective or prohibitive measures 
would everywhere give rise to general misconception and misapprehen- 
sion of the views of Government, and foster those feelings of discontent 
which the taxation of recent years has undoubtedly engendered.” The 
memo., drawn up at the request of the Collector by the Civil Surgeon of 
Azimgurh, is very discursive, but the following are a synopsis of his 
replies. As to whether breeding-fish or very young ones are destroyed 
to any great extent? Of “those fish spawned and matured iu the 
district, that is, those found in 7/z/s and their offshoots, * * when the rains 
cease, the temporary streams gradually lessen and dry, and then it is the 
destruction of fry takes place. Then the fishermen most exert them- 
selves, and by the employment of nets, and they often of a most minute 
mesh, catch wholesale fairly grown fish and fry alike. There is no doubt 
that by such practice much waste is caused.” He goes oa to define this 
waste that if the fish were permitted to grow, more food would be avail- 
able ; still he does not think this waste, because they are actually consumed. 

“ Damming is said to be the favourite method of fish, or rather perhaps 
fry, killing. Very common and very fatal is the construction of small 
dams and embankments into which the water is first led, and then 
drained off, leaving the fish ; * * these are generally fry, high 
and dry, an easy prey to the village children, in these cases very frequently 
the depredators. These fish, however, are also used as food, and seen never 
to glut the market.” In large rivers during the rains, netting is stated 
to be impracticable ; that subsequently the mesh is “4 inches from knot 
to knot.” “ When these rivers overflow their banks, and that is no 
rare occurrence, then considerable loss of fry and fish life results, as the 
water, retreating, leaves them stranded on the higher ground; but even 
these are not actually lost or wasted, as the lower caste people collect and 
consume this, thus so easily obtainable, staple of food.’ “ With respect 


elxvi 


to the fishing in the Gogra, special conservative customs prevail. From 
May to September is regarded as a close season, and all fishing by nets 
is abandoned, it may be because impracticable.” [If this gentleman’s 
statements were thus tested, I fear that he would soon ascertain some 
error must have occurred, viz., fishing in the Gogra to be prohibited from 
May to September, and when such is permitted, all nets to have a mesh 
of 4 inches between each knot. He holds, if fry are eaten, capturing 
them is not waste, although “the fry and fish by any and every way 
obtained are all consumed, and are not in excess of the need of the 
people ;” if so, it must be “waste” to destroy so much young life. What 
would be considered of such anargument as this—“a nation of savages, 
who possess large herds of cattle and live on animal food, find it 
becoming scarce, yet they eat all their young lambs and infantile calves.” 
Would common sense not think such waste? The only analogy I can see 
to such arguments as are adduced, would be what an Andamanese might 
bring forward, as they cut down trees to obtain the fruit, regardless of 
next year’s supply. Are we to take them as our model ? 

332. he Commissioner of Jhansi (May 3rd, 1872) observed—that 
the district of Jalom possesses no lakes, 
and the only river is the Jumna. In the 
Lullutpur district the only streams which 
contain fish of any size are the Betwa, Sujad, Sujnam and Jumnee, 
and their beds are, as arule, too rocky to admit of the use of large 
nets ; indeed, these rivers appear to be but little fished—the Dheemurs 
and very lowest classes alone living on the produce. ‘There is little, 
if any, wasteful destruction ; the real enemies of the fish are the croco- 
diles, otters, and fresh-water sharks which abound in the largest and 
deepest pools. At present no rules for the preservation of fish are 
necessary : the population is scanty and scattered. Great numbers of fish 
are undoubtedly killed during the spawning season in the small streams 
and feeders to the lakes when they should not be disturbed. It might 
prove advantageous elsewhere to prohibit river-fishing from June to 
October as suggested by Mr. Sturt, but it is not necessary in Bundlecund 
where fish cannot be said to form the staple food of any elass of the 
people, save the Dheemurs, and they are not a numerous body. Thi 
Deputy Commissioner of Jalom (May 7th, 1872) reported :—“ Breeding- 
fish and very young ones are indiscriminately caught, and very young 
ones destroyed to a great extent. his destruction goes on at all 
seasons by netting, weirs, &c. Meshes of different sizes are used, bul 
the usual mesh is abouta quarterof an inch.” The difficulty in regula- 
ting the minimum size is that such © would revolutionise all ideas of nativi 
fishermen on the subject, and meet, therefore, with much opposition.” Thi 
Deputy Commissioner of Lullutpur (December 27th, 1871) remarked,— 
“All the information I have been able to collect tends to show that 
fish is not an article of diet sought for or used at all generally }y 
the inhabitants of the district; that where it is so used, it is amongst 
the lowest classes, such as Chumars, Dheemurs, &e.” “The rive) 
Betwa and its tributaries, viz., the Jumnee, Sujnam and Sujad are ou: 
fish-containing rivers. In all but the last, there are large quantities o| 
mahaseer of all sizes, but these, I may say, are literally never caught 
unless it be a dozen or so yearly by European officers with rod and line 


Opinions of European Officials 
in the Jhansi Division. 


elxvii 


and perhaps an equal number shot by the thakoors.” In the dry season, 
as the rivers become low, fish in the pools sustain injury from crocodiles, 
otters, &e. The Assistant Commissioner observed in a memorandum : 
“The river-fish enjoy comparative safety from the Dheemurs (fishermen) 
whilst they are in the deep pools of the big rivers, but are a prey to 
crocodiles, otters, &e. During the rains they run up the tributaries to 
spawn, and a great number meet with destruction on their return down 
to their permanent haunts, not only by nets, but other contrivances 
by which they are shut up in small pools of the tributaries, and 
subsequently destroyed wholesale by the drying up of the pools, 
netting, or even poisoning them. The Jakes in this district have not 
been allowed hitherto to run dry, and the only destruction committed 
on fish is in the rainy season, when they run up the feeders of the 
lakes, and go down the escape-weirs, when of course none of these 
can escape destruction one way or the other. Tons of the smaller 
description of fish are killed during the rains when they try to escape 
out of the lake, but their preservation, I think, is not of much 
consequence.” For the river-fish, a close season, from June 15th to 
October Ist, is proposed, when net-fishing should be prohibited ; also in 
the rocky pools of the smaller rivers to which they resort for breeding 
purposes. During the rest of the year, the minimum size of the mesh 
of nets might be limited to 14 inches between each knot. The following 
is a list of the principal fish found in the rivers and lakes of Bundle- 
cund: “ Mahaseer” (Barbus tor), “ Kursowur” (Labeo calbasu), “Bissar” 
(Cirrhina mrigala), “Rahoo” (Cirrhina rohita), “ Bawus” (Catla 
Buchanani), “ Koorsa” or “ Khoorsee” (Labeo curchius), “ Sinia” or 
“Phubs” (Surpoothee, Beng.) The above not living on their kind. 
“Sour” or “Gujal” in Bengal, “Sourlee” (Ophiocephalus), ‘ Pareen” 
(Vallago attu,) commonly known as the river shark, “'Tengra” a siluroid 
(probably (Aacrones aor, but “'Tengra” is a common term for a siluroid) ; 
“Tambur? (Rita), “Galur” or “ Golalee” (Barilius), “ Papta” 
(Callichrous), “ Butala” (a carp), “ Buchooa” (Pseudeutropius.) The 
foregoing are said to live on their kind. 

333. The Oficiating Commissioner of AVahabad (August 7th, 
1872) reported :—* All castes eat fish except 
Brahmins, Banias, and a few of the Tha- 
koors. Shiahs reject scaleless fish, as prohibited 
in the Koran, but it is not a popular food, and appears to be sought for 
chiefly by the poor, as it is cheaper than any other kind of animal 
food. There are none who practice fishing exclusively as a calling.” ‘The 
supply is fairly equal to the demand.” ‘There is no close time, and 
no size or condition of fish is spared; the spawning-fish and the 
smallest fry are alike caught; there are nets used with meshes small 
enough to retain the smallest.” ‘Every imaginable kind of net, 
trap, and snare is used. Waging war against such fish-destroying animals 
as crocodiles appears to me absurd. It would be equally, or more 
advisable, to proseribe frogs and paddy-birds which eat the spawn and 
young fry, and probably destroy far more fish than the crocodile; and 
further, I have no doubt at all but that a general destruction of 
crocodiles would directly frustrate the end hoped for by their destruction. 
‘Their very presence in numbers, it being given that they live on fish, 


Opinions of the European Offi- 
cers in the Allahabad Division. 


elxviii 


shows that the supply of fish is abundant, which is all that any one 
requires, and Nature in these matters, if left alone, keeps the balance 
even, and resents interference. [Are irrigation weirs and canals which 
destroy fish wholesale, as at present constructed, to be deemed natural 
causes ? If not, why is inactivity reeommended?} It is presumed the 
crocodiles consume alike the rapacious kinds of fish, and those that are 
not rapacious ; if, then, they are destroyed, the rapacious fish lose a great 
enemy, and their increase being unchecked, they must prevail against 
those kinds that are not rapacious, and this latter class happens to in- 
clude mahuseer, ruhoo, mullet, and the choicest kinds of the river pro- 
duce. The crocodiles had better be left alone.” [The remark that it appears 
absurd to kill crocodiles requires attention. Some reporters are opposed 
to it, because of their usefulness as river scavengers, or the cost which 
would be entailed by offering rewards for their bemg killed, but 
this is the first time that their destruction has been deprecated on the 
ground that they assist in the conservation of fish, because they kill 
the rapacious as well as the non-rapacious sorts, and that if they 
did not do so, the former would rapidly preponderate. One little 
fact is here overlooked, viz., that both classes of fish are equally 
used as food, and no reason exists why man should not equally 
capture either, and thus empley as food what now goes to nourish 
crocodiles. Also, surely if it would be absurd to kill crocodiles that de- 
stroy mature fish, it would be equally so to wage war with frogs and 
paddy-birds, as it cannot be supposed that they discriminate the spawn, 
whilst they are said to probably destroy far more fish than the croco- 
diles—thus the absurdity would be increased. Really, here poor Nature 
also is rather unfairly treated, if she resents interference in killing noxious 
animals, why are not tigers left alone to keep the balance between man, 
cattle, and the soil from which they derive their food? Why do human 
beings object to poisonous snakes assisting in such laudable undertak- 
ings? In fact, epidemic diseases are natural causes or effects, and as yet 
it has not been generally ruled that they should be permitted to hold their 
sway, to keep the balance even. Lastly, the assertion, that the mahaseer 
is not a rapacious fish, does not coincide with the views of fishermen, as 
live bait are generally most killing in the hands of the sportsman.] 
Interference “is not required ; it would not be understood ; it would be 
costly and meddlesome, do harm, and no good at all’? “T think his 
(the Collector of Allahabad) inference has escaped the observation 
of those officials who have suggested inquiries into these subjects, 
that if you enlarge the mesh of the nets, so as to allow small fry to 
escape, the young of the rapacious kinds and their victims both escape 
to live on each other, so they may as well be caught young.” [Really 
to carry such an argument to extreme limits, it might equally be urged 
to poison all the waters ; then all the rapacious fish will be destroyed ; 
of course the destruction of the others would be overlooked by such 
advisers.] “If any legislation is required anywhere, it can only be 
near the sources of our rivers, where weirs are constructed, but even 
there a weir can do but little harm, and in no river have we more than 
one large weir, or are likely to have.” [Tirst, the facts here stated are 
erroneous; secondly, the argument founded thereon do not appear more 
correct than the facts. Weirs are of two kinds, irrigation and fishing ones ; 


celxix 


taking the Jumna as an instance, and I could adduce more, it possesses 
the Okla one below Delhi, and the Karra one higher up for the Kastern 
Jumna canal, and a third for the Western. If fishing ones are alluded to, 
I would refer to the reports of officers in the hill ranges, and fishing-weirs 
are more numerous in many rivers than here stated. That these weirs can 
do but little harm, I also refer to the reports from local officers who have 
watched their effects. My personal opinion is in accordance with that 
of the British law, that fishing-weirs are a public nuisance.) The Col- 
lector of Jompur (20th March 1872) observed :—“ This district is traversed 
by the Goomtee and Sair, and it is from these rivers chiefly that the 
supply of fish is drawn.” “The supply of fish rarely exceeds the demand, 
and often, especially in the dry season, falls far short of it.” “ Fishermen 
assert that of late years the supply of fish has decreased.” ‘The cost of 
fish has undoubtedly increased.” The breeding season is that “when - 
most fish are taken; both breeding and very young ones are captured 
without limit or reserve in the streams, and during the rains in the 
open fields.” Tanks are stocked with fry obtained at this period. A 
close season might be imposed, and the months of Jeth and Asarh 
would be the most appropriate. The Offictating Collector of Futtehpur 
(March 22nd, 1872) reported that breeding-fish and very small ones 
are caught to a great extent, by nets and hooks, in yAz/s, tanks and 
rivers during the rains; the smallest size mesh of the nets being 
almost 4 of an inch; no regular fishing class exists. The Collector 
of Allahabad (April 8th, 1872) remarked that ‘“ there is no doubt 
that destruction of fish of all sizes and at all seasons of the year takes 
place, especially in the Ganges and Jumna, not only by fishermen, but 
any persons who can get hold of a hand-net. This is particularly prac- 
tised after a flood, when it is by no means uncommon to see small fry 
being captured by traps, hand-nets, &e., in the small rivulets from 
which they are trying to escape into the river on abatement of the 
floods.” The smallest mesh employ ed is said to be 4 of an inch, and 
that there would be no difficulty in regulating it at 14 inches. ‘The chief 
destructors of small fry are crocodiles and fish of prey. [When I 
was at this town at the commencement of February 1870, a deficiency 
of fish was complained of, and as I went daily to the markets, I think 
J may personally agree that the complaint was well founded. ‘The fisher- 
men asserted that the supply had decreased of late years and the de- 
mand inereased, whilst the same views seemed to be held by the vendors 
in the market. ~ At the height of the monsoon, or the end of July and 
the commencement of August, I was likewise at the place, and found 
a varying amount of fish being brought to market, spent fish were being 
sold, also young fry as fine as a straw, of species which attain a hundred 
or more pounds in weight. Thousands of young fish were being daily 
captured, whilst the poverty of the river, as giving a sufficient supply, 
was being complained of. The cause was obvious, and the remedy is 
as clear.) The Officiating Collector of Hunipur (February 6th, 1872) 
replied that “ breeding-fish and very young ones are not destroyed to any 
great extent in this district. What fish are taken are caught in the 
Jumna and Betwa Rivers, and in tanks. The smallest size of mesh em- 
ployed is so small that a grain of gram cannot pass through it. There 
would be little difficulty in regulating its minimum size, as there are 


elxx 


none who make a living solely by fishing, consequently there would 
be little objection raised.’ “The destruction of crocodiles’ eggs might 
be secured by the offer of a suitable reward.” Whatever regulations 
it may be found necessary to introduce in other districts could, of 
course, be introduced here; but there is not in this district such a 
wanton desecration (? destruction) of fish as to diminish the annual 
supply, or endanger a natural source of cheap food for posterity.” 
The Collector of Banda (August 2nd, 1872) observed that “ fish abound 
in the district: the fish market in the town of Banda itself is over- 
stocked with fish of all kinds during the rains, but the supply is 
deficient during the other seasons of the year; * * the breeding-fish and 
the young fish are destroyed in large quantities in the xadlas, streams 
and rivers; the extent is variously estimated, and may be said to vary 
from 4rd to 4 in the rivers and perennial streams, and from 4 to 3rd in 
the other streams and zadlas.” he smallest mesh used is }th of an inch 
from knot to knot. Would not recommend any action in future, either 
as regards the mesh of nets, the sale of fry in the bazars, or the de- 
struction of fish during the breeding season. The Officiating Collector 
of Cawnpore (April 25th, 1872) replied: “T have the honour to observe 
that, as fir as my knowledge goes, I am unable to corroborate the im- 
pression that the fish of the rivers in the parts of India Tam acquainted 
with, are decreasing in quantity. The arguments for the probability of 
such being the case, derived from the analogy of a decrease in certain 
kinds of fish in Hnelish rivers, are not generally applicable to the con- 
dition of things in India. In the ordinary consumption of fish as food, 
only an inappreciable part of the myriads which come to maturity every 
year is destroyed. * * ‘The State has on its hands as much as it can well 
undertake, in carrying through public measures which are not supported 
by the public opinion of the country. I would suggest that any proceed- 
ing so unpopular, as the prevention of fishing, might with advantage 
be postponed, until the minds of the people are in a more settled con- 
dition than is the case now.” 

334. he Commissioner of the Agra Division (in 1869) says that 
he attributes the opinions expressed by the 
district officers rather to their imperfect know- 
ledge of the subject than to any ascertained 
data, and observes upon the great destruction of fry which takes place 
in the vicinity of large towns. In answer to the questions circulated, 
the Commissioner (February 23rd, 1572) replied that there is “ no reason to 
apprehend that any wholesale destruction of fish goes on in these parts. 
A close time might no doubt be introduced by law for the protection of 
fish during the breeding season, but it does not appear to me that it 
would be easy to carry out such a measure, or that there is any compen- 
sating’ object to be gained. * * For the rest, it is a useful maxim—de 
minimis non curat dexe—rminute legislation is unbefitting our position in this 
country, and more likely to expose our Government to ridicule than to 
lead to any results of important benefits to the people; * * it is in the 
highest degree undesirable that the public mind should be disturbed by 
gratuitous interference on the part of an alien administration, enforced 
by not very trustworthy agency.”” The Collector of Furruckabad reported 
(February 13th, 1872) that “the principal season for catching: fish is 


Opinions of the European 
Officials in the Agra Division. 


elxxi 


from the end of the rains to February or March. They are caught also in 
the hot weather in favourable places, and in the rains when practicable, 
but the water is mostly too heavy then for any serious damage to breed- 
ing-fishes. Their fry are largely caught as the waters subside after the 
runs. It is acommon thing to see men and boys scooping up the 
muddy water from the drying pools in the hollows of their hands, and 
letting it run through again, whilst the fry remain in their palms. The 
fry and small fish are also caught with small meshed nets, and with 
coop-shaped basket or hanchas.’ The supply is considered to remain 
the same. Fish-ladders to irrigation weirs and tanks, into which they 
could retire as the canals are dried, are considered the most necessary 
measures proposed for preserving fish. ‘ Any effective measures for re- 
ducing the enormous numbers of crocodiles in our rivers would do much 
more, than any restriction on fishing, to increase the quantity of fish in 
them. The destruction of crocodiles’ eggs could no doubt be extensively 
effected by the offer of an adequate reward. But any such scheme, to 
he of use, would have to be carried out not only in these provinces, but 
all down the lengths of the rivers which traverse them ; otherwise, so 
fast as the crocodiles were destroyed here, others would travel up and take 
their places from below.” Close seasons and regulating the minimum 
size of the mesh of nets are considered impracticable, as they could not 
be effectually enforced. The Officiating Collector of Etawah (February 
16th, 1872) observed, that ‘no doubt breeding-fish and very young ones 
are destroyed to a large extent in all places where there is water and 
they can be got at. Nets are largely employed, but they are also killed 
with sticks in the shallow water, and even caught with the hand: some 
kinds are shot. The smallest sized mesh of the nets used here is 4rd of 
an inch square. Great difficulties, if is eonsidered, would militate against 
regulating the minimum size of the meshes of nets, or prohibiting the 
sale of the fry of fish in the bazars.” Were close seasons decided upon, 
from June to August are suggested as the most appropriate. The onl 

preventive measure that could be enforced without much difficulty is, 
I think, the prohibition of all weirs in the smaller rivers and streams.” 
«TF Government will give a reward for crocodiles’ eggs, there is no doubt 
that plenty of eggs would be brought in: but otters are quite as formid- 
able to fish as crocodiles, and there is also an animal ealled ‘stis’ or ‘stis- 
mat’ (porpoise) which preys on fish, and these seem to require as much 
attention as crocodiles.” The Collector of Agra (February 13th, 1872) 
replied, that he had no personal knowledge on the subject, and therefore 
expressed no opinion. fr, Adams (in 1869) reported, respecting Agra, 
that in his “opinion a wanton destruction of fish does take place. In 
the cool of the early morning, when the fry swim about the banks of the 
river, aclass of boys are in the habit of dredging for prawns and 
shrimps, and then great quantities of fry are thrown into baskets.” 
The Assistant Collectors memo. on the subject was enclosed. He observed 
that the Agra market, he believes, is supplied with fish all the year 
round. The Collector of Muttra (February 13th, 1872) reported :— 
“ T cannot but think that the destruction of fish, through cap- 
ture of breeding-fish or fry, bears a very small proportion to the 
injury caused in this part of India by eanals. I have seen much 
of the Ganges and Jumna canals that run through Meerut, and 


elxxii 


I know that in both, quantities of fish are annually destroyed when the 
canals are allowed to run off. I have watched the first rush of water 
let in, and have been astonished at the shoals of fish brought down by 
it. One instance I recollect. I was at the Mussoorie fall on the 
Ganges canal in the Meerut district, when I saw hundreds of mahaseer 
come down; they were all carried over the fall, as they had been over a 
dozen higher up between that point and Hurdwar, not one of which 
could by any possibility have got back again up the canal. Sucha 
constantly recurring drain on the supply of fish in the head-waters has 
naturally produced a great diminution in the numbers of the species 
of fish, and as it is the one most generally taken by the Kuropeans, the 
loss is more apparent. But I have little doubt that this injury to other 
descriptions of fish is equally great. There are only two ways to 
prevent this injury : the first and best would be by opposing some obstacle 
at the head of the several canals to prevent the ingress of fish, or if 
this is impossible, then to construct ladders at the different falls to 
enable the fish to re-ascend the canals.” {I would here point out that 
this alone will not be sufficient. All destruction of fish should be totally 
prohibited during the time the canals are closed, because fish only migrate 
upwards at certain periods, and these may not coincide with the closure 
of the canals; as the water becomes lower, the ladders will be useless 
as no water will pass over them, and the fish be retained in the deep 
holes, consequently they will need protection at that time. The fish- 
ladders will be eminently useful to permit fish migrating for breeding 
purposes, and so continue their species. Mr. Watson’s most interesting 
report distinctly shows how fish are now carried over impossible ascents ; 
fixed engines in small water-courses act in the same way when breed- 
ing-fishes are seeking shallow spots wherein to deposit their spawn, and 
for this purpose push their way into irrigated fields, &e.] He continues— 
“ Tf either of these plans were adopted, I have no doubt that the fish- 
supply, so far asit is injured by the canals, would soon regain its former 
condition. Ihave never seen the system of poisoning waters carried 
out, but there can be no doubt that it is a most pernicious one, and ought 
to be declared illegal.” The destruction of crocodiles is not approved of, 
first, because they are the scavengers of the rivers, fesocadiles of the 
genus Crocodilus, doubtless, are also scavengers besides destroying fish, 
but the true fish-eating crocodile, Gavialis Gangeticus, and which is found 
in the Indus and all its affluents, the Ganges and Jumna and their 
feeders, also in the Brahmaputra and Mahanuddi, &c., entirely lives on fish, 
and is never a scavenger ;] secondly, because of the difficulty. ‘ In fine, 
I would advocate fence months, a regulated size of mesh according 
to license, with removal of all fixed engines, and prohibition of poison- 
ing.’ The Deputy Collector of Etah (February 6th, 1872) replied, that 
there is little or no fishing carried on in this district, but he gives a very 
interesting account of Bustee (see para. 331). 
335. The answers from the Native Officials, as a rule, are vague, 
ate Oat enone incomplete, or not sent: most of those re- 
mobicomplct! ceived have been collated, in doing which 
more pains would have improved them. As 
a sample, I give the following. In answer to the question—are the markets 
fully supplied with fish, or could more be sold?—one Collector condenses 


elxxiii 
the replies of the Tehsildars into “ yes.” 
be omitted. 

336. In the Meerut Division, the answers of the Tehsildars in the 
Doon are thus given :—There are no people 
who subsist on fishing as a sole occupation, 
but Kahars and Myras engage in it when not 
otherwise employed. The markets are fairly supplied, but the size of 
the fish brought is yearly decreasing. ‘The average price of fish 
is 14, and of mutton 24 annasa seer. All classes eat fish occasionally, 
but none depend upon it as food: a great decrease has occurred within 
the last 6 or 8 years. Nets with minute meshes were used, but for the 
last two years 14 inches between the knots has only been allowed. Fish 
are trapped in irrigated rice-fields by cultivators for their own consump- 
tion. The Deputy Collector of Bulundshulun condenses the native reports, 
and adds the information he has personally collected. Breeding-fish 
and their young are destroyed here as elsewhere, only inasmuch as 
they are not discriminated from other fish. Waters are not poisoned, 
neither is much fry destroyed, because the consumption of fish is but 
limited, as few depend upon it as a principal source of food. “ The 
spontaneous fish which appears in the tanks and pools is caught and 
eaten by the poorer classes, but apparently with no great eagerness.” 
The rainy season is the most prolific of fish in the pools, and the smallest 
mesh of the nets used is } of an inch between the knots. The natives 
generally recommend that the minimum size of the mesh of nets should 
be equal toa rupee. He gives the replies of Tehsildars as follows :—There 
are not above 12 or 15 families who subsist on fishing, but about 2,000 
Kahars, Mullahs, Aberias, who also pursue other avocations, likewise do so. 
More than two-thirds of the population, or three lacs of persons, have no 
religious scruples to eating fish, the supply of which in the waters has 
remained stationary of late years. ‘The smallest size of the mesh of nets 
is somewhat less than 14 inches from knot to knot.” [Just previously, 
from personal observation, he stated the size to be 4 of an inch between 
the knots.] The amount of fish consumed yearly in the district is 
computed at more than 2,000 maunds. The ZeAsildars of Allygurh 
report that there are 89 Malhaia caste fishermen in the district who do 
not follow other occupations, whilst there are many others who do. The 
local markets are not fully supplied with fish, the price of the larger sorts 
averaging 14, and of small 1 anna the seer. T’irst-sort mutton fetches 2, 
and second sort 1-9 a seer. A little over half the population, or 458,000, 
belong to castes who do not object to fish as diet, the supply of which 
in the waters is considered to have remained stationary. Small ones are 
not taken in any quantity ; the smallest size of the mesh of the nets being 
4rd of aninch. Fish are not trapped during the rains in irrigated fields. 
The Tehsildars of Meerut observe that in Baghput there are no exclusive 
fishermen ; in Haupur 20; in Meerut about 100, but 40 of these have 
other occupations, and only fish during the cold season ; in Gazeeabad 20, 
but some of these are not solely fishermen ; in Mowana none; in Sirdhana 
about 50, who occasionally fish. ‘Their castes are (1) Mussulmen, 
particularly of the Belooch division ; (2) Kahars, who are constantly 
dabbling with water in getting Joriyas (matting materials), planting 
singharas, &c.; (3) Kolis ; (4) Kathicks. The supply of fish is equal to the 


Thus, much will have to 


Replies of Native Officials in 
the Meerut Division. 


elxxiv 


demand, large ones obtaining 2 or 14, and small ones 1 anna a seer. 
Bazar mutton of the first sort fetches 2, and second sort 14 or 1 annaa 
seer, ‘The proportion of fish-eaters is not clearly defined. The amount of 
fish in the waters has continued stationary except in the Ganges, where a 
slight decrease is reported, and considered due to the irrigation canal. 
Daring the rains fish are usually considered unwholesome. The smallest 
mesh of the nets is given at Sth of an inch between the knots. ish are 
taken in irrigated fields during the rains. One mode of capturing fish 
is erecting a bund or embankment across a stream or pond, leaving only 
a single small opening where a net is placed. ‘The fishermen with “sticks 
beat the water; the frightened fish make for the opening, where they are 
captured. 

837. In the Rohileund Division, from Budaon, no replies have been 

2 oe reecived to the questions for the ‘Tehsildars, 

, Answers of Native Officials 1) the Moradubad Collectorate, 6 Tehsildars 
in Rohileund, , : 

: have sent in replies which have been con- 
densed. The number of persons who are strictly fishermen by trade are 
about 5,000 ; these men also work as bearers, &e. Besides these, there are 
hundreds of other men, women, and children, who in the rains either 
employ or amuse themselves in catching fish. he fishermen are mostly 
Hindus, but there are a few Mahomedans. The supply of fish in the 
markets has fallen off since 1857, but during the last two years has 
slightly risen a little, due to better rainy seasons. During the rains fish 
costs about half that of the flesh of sheep and goats, whilst in the cold 
and hot season the price of the two is much the same. It is estimated 
that about }$ of the people eat fish, nearly all the Mahomedans, and all 
the lower castes of Hindus. Amongst the Brahmins, Kunojias only eat 
fish generally. Baniahs say they do not, but they do at times. The 
amount of fish in the waters is said to be much less during the last 
12 or 14 years than formerly ; very small ones are taken in quantities 
during the rains. } of an inch between the knots of the meshes is given 
as the minimum size employed. Fish are not trapped in the irrigated 
fields. he local fishermen do not ply their trade in the Ganges, but 
drag the back streams and pools left by the rain floods. In the Baredl/y 
Collectorate, the Tehsildars compute the fishermen at about 12,109; they 
have other occupations likewise; they are Kahars, Buttiaras, Cheereemar, 
Kulbooteea, Gooreea, and Pasee. About 48,050 maunds of fish are 
believed to be consumed during the year, ‘'he amount in the waters is 
stated to be stationary ; very small ones are captured during the rains 
with cane-nets having minute meshes, and by other contrivances. The 
meshes are not sufficiently large to permit a grain of mucca to pass 
through. Tish are trapped in the irrigated fields during the rains. 
Wish in the villages are commonly bartered for eran in certain: proportions. 
In the Shahjehanpur Collectorate, the ehsildars report that Kahars 
amongst the Hindus, and Buttiaras amongst the Mahomedans, are the 
fishing castes, and live a good deal on their fishing. All other classes except 
Khutrees, Agurwala Banias, Brahmins with the exception of Kunojias, 
habitually eat fish with other food, the annual consumption of which is 
set down at between 80 and 40,000 maunds. The largest amount of 
fish are taken from August to December, in less numbers during 
April and May, and occasionally during the remainder of the 


elxxv 


year. The kinds of -nets generally used are as follows :—ghoonowa, 
a common east-net, with a mesh one-third of an inch, made of cotton 
thread ; d4ukhkowa, a larger kind, with a mesh of one-half inch, and 
constructed of hemp string; pundi, a drag-net for small fish, made of 
cotton thread, with a mesh to one-third of an inch; ; ghaseela, a larger 
sort, of hemp, and meshes of one inch; judeea, a net, with meshes of 
one- third of an inch, is stretched between tivo bamboos: and drageed 
along by two men; judha, a large drag-net, with equally small meshes, 
made partly of cotton, and partly of hemp ; ; kurhera, a still larger 
one, with meshes of one inch; drzhore, used in nallas; it is made of 
cotton thread, and has meshes one-third of an inch and less; ¢uppar, 
isa net fixed at the bottom of a bamboo cane frame, which the fisher- 
man uses in shallow water, its mesh is one-third of an inch; hoorcha, 
a conical basket open at both ends. In the Bijnour Collectorate, the 
Tehsildars report that there are about 12 or 1,300 fishermen, all of whom 
pursue other occupations as well. There are (1) Mussulman Kahars, also 
(2) Hindu Kahars, (3) Buttiaras, (4) Joolahas, (5) Mullahs, (6) Sir- 
khooles, a wandering gipsy tribe. ‘The supply in the local markets is 
insufficient, more fish could be sold: it is eaten from between 50 to 60 
per cent. of the people, viz., all Mussulmen, and all Hindus except 
Brahmins, Banias, Sonars, carpenters, black-smiths, Bishnoees, and 
Goojurs. About 2,700 maunds of fish are computed to be yearly consumed ; 
the amount in the waters has decreased of late years: small ones are 
taken during the rains by nets, damming streams, and letting the water 
carefully off so as not to permit the escape of any, or should an opening be 
left for the passage of the water, a net is fixed across it; lastly, 
by digging holes close to the edge oF a stream, and filling {hem with 
rotton ‘singharas, the smell of which attracts the fish, and they jump in. 
The minimum- -sized mesh employ ved equals that of the holes in an attah 
(flour) sieve. Fish are trapped in the irrigated fields during the rains. 
338. In the Benares Division, the “Tehsildars of Goruckpur report 
that three-fourths of the population eat fish, 
and some of the castes make it the chief item 
of their diet ; none avoid it entirely except 
the Agurwallas and Khutrees, and the class of persons called Bhagats or 
Gs epatniners’” who entirely abstain from animal food. The sect of 
Vaishnavars are all “ abstainers,” and so are several castes belonging to 
the Shivas. The poorest classes cat small fish instead of meal or flour 
of any kind. Itis calculated that 118,096 maunds of fish are yearly 
consumed in this district. Searcely any class of people are solely fisher- 
men, and even they are also boatmen or agriculturists, but a large num- 
ber of castes employ themselves init more or less. One Tehsildar reports 
the supply in the markets as equalling the demand, but five others 
state deficiency to exist. The Tehsildars of Bustee ieerte the fishermen 
follow other occupations as well. Men in almost every village catch 
Age more or less, according to their opportunities. They also cultivate 
land near the waters which become exposed as the floods subside, or else 
take a lease of the water produce. Where, as at Bukhra, the lake is of 
very large extent, some members of the family will be entirely occupied 
in fishing, or in gathering the reeds, whilst others devote themselves to 
the fields on the shore. In other vases, cultivation may be the primary, 


Answers of Native Officials 
in the Benares Division. 


elxxvi 


and fishing only the subsidiary, occupation. ‘Two Tehsildars estimate 
the fishermen at 4,500; the others give no answers. All the fish brought 
to market are sold, so “it may fairly be presumed that more could be.” 
The percentage of fish-eaters is given at from 75 to 90 per cent. of the 
population. The minimum size of the mesh is stated at “about the size 
into which a finger could pass.” One Tehsildar, however, limits this to 
“ the little finger of a child ten years old.’ Damming is extensively 
employed (see para. 3831), as is also the use of every form of fixed engine. 
“Where the bottom is too weedy to be netted with effect, and there is 
no clear spot where a net can be drawn, but the depth is not great, and 
the water clear, ‘spearing’ is much practised. The weapon is an ordinary 
bamboo éathie, split into fifteen or twenty pieces, each of which is tipped 
with iron, ‘hese are bound together again, and the centre one being 
thickened by string wound round it, the others stand out and form a 
bundle of spears, having a radius of eight or ten inches or more. ‘lhe 
men are expert enough with these to be almost certain of hitting a 
fair-sized fish at 12 or 13 feet off, and if hit, it can hardly escape, so that 
numbers are killed by this means, the waters being regularly beaten by a 
line of five or six canoes, each with one man _ paddling or poling, 
and another standing in front with his spear.” In the Benares Col- 
lectorate, the ZeAs¢ddars report about 450 fishermen, who live almost, if not 
solely, on their earnings as such; the number of Mullahs is about $,000 ; 
but the majority have other occupations. Mullahs and Kahars are the 
fishing caste ; many Mahomedeas and Rajputs, however, engage in fishing, 
though seldom as the sole means of earning a living. ‘The supply in 
the city of Benares is, and has been for some time back, quite equal to the 
demand ;” [when I was at Benares, the supply was unequal to the 
demand, and very small fish were being exposed for sale]; large fish 
obtaining from two to four, and small from one to one-and-half annas a 
secr; about 75 per cent. of the people are given as fish-eaters; very small 
fish are extensively caught during the rainy season in nets and traps, 
the mesh being as small as that ina purse. They are also taken in the 
paddy-fields during the rains by means of a grating made of thatching- 
grass stalks, termed pakra; and also towards the close of the rains by 
damming up the outlets for the water, they are caught with the hand by 
the people wading in the fields. The d/sari is a fine meshed lave-net. ‘The 
khawai is a long conical bag used in small streams at \the commence- 
ment and end of the rains while there is still a current; the mouth of 
the net is kept open by stakes, and the space between the banks blocked 
up with bamboo tatties ; the force of the current drives the fish into the 
bag, and on account of its long nose and the pressure of the water they 
cannot get back. The pasha is a grating made of the stalks of 
thatching-erass, in the shape of a sloping plane. It is placed at an 
opening in the side of a tank or in a dam, or thrown acrossa nadla ; all the 
water is made to flow through this opening by stopping up every other 
outlet. The fish coming down with the flow of water are carried on to 
the grating and left there dry, as the water passes through to underneath.” 
The chop is a conical basket open at both ends, and is much used by 
fishermen in shallow jAi/s and tanks. In the Ghazecpur Collectorate the 
sie Tehsildars give the following replies. Four return about 19,660 
fishermen, but they have other occupations as well; the markets wre well 


elxx vii 


supplied in four, insufficiently in one, whilst in the last it is said to be 
sufficiently so in October and March until June, but in the other months 
not so. In four tehsils 75 per cent. of the people eat fish, in one 50 per 
cent., and in one 80 per cent. Three of the Tehsildars assert fish have 
decreased “owing to the indiscriminate destruction of young fish ;” 
one that they are stationary, and two that an increase is apparent 
“owing to the copious rains of last year :” all report very small fish to be 
captured, and the minimum size of the mesh is given at 4 an inch. 
Every Tehsildar states fish are trapped in the irrigated fields during the 
rains. In the Mirzapur Collectorate, the Tehsildars’ replies have been 
collated. There are said to be over 100 fishermen in the district, who 
have no other occupation. Two Tehsildars consider the markets well 
supplied with fish, one that the demand is much greater than the supply ; 
two-thirds of the people eat fish. All the Tehsildars consider the quantity 
has been much below the average for the last few years, but that, owing 
to the abundant rain-fall in 1871, it is recovering again. Very small 
fish are trapped in quantities during the rains: they are also poisoned. 
In the Azimgurh Collectorate, six Tehsildars reportas follows :—there are 
about 4,295 fishermen, all of whom appear to have other occupations also. 
In four of the tehsils the supply of fish in the markets is said to be 
sufficient, in the other two not to be so; 80 per cent. of the population 
may eat fish, but only from five to ten per cent. do so. ‘The amount in 
the waters is given as stationary by three, and “increased last year” by 
floods in three; previous to which the Tebsildar of Nizamabad states 
“the number had somewhat diminished.” Very small fish are taken in 
numbers during the rains, by weirs and other fixed engines; nets with very 
minute meshes are reported to be employed. Five who have answered 
state that the fish are trapped in irrigated fields during the rains. The 
same sorts of nets and traps are employed as adverted to in other districts, 
the names, however, of some being different. 

339. In the Jhansi Division, in the Jalom Collectorate, the replies 
to the answers from Zehsi/dars are thus given : 
The fishermen likewise follow other occupa- 
tions; the Calpee market alone is sufficiently 
supplied with fish, which is not in much demand, except amongst the 
lower orders; ‘‘impossible to say if fish have increased, decreased, or 
remained stationary of late years: there are no statistics on the subject.” 
Very small fish are taken during the rains in irrigated fields and 
elsewhere. 

340. In the Allahabad Division, and Banda Collectorate, ‘ the 

mE ec ca eee information gleaned from the Zehsi/dars and 
ie altakabad eure cals” others is as follows: there are about 2,000 

a ivision. . . . ® 

fishermen in the district, but they, almost with- 

out exception, pursue other occupations. The fishing castes are Kahars, 
Kewuts, Passies and Ghags.” ‘Iwo bazars are plentifully supplied during 
the rainy season; more might be sold at other seasons if obtainable. 
About 50 per cent. of the people of the district have no objection to 
eating fish when they can procure it. Some report a decrease in the 
amount in the waters—none an increase: large quantities of little ones 
are taken during the rains; the smallest mesh employed is }th of an inch 
hetween the knots, but even cloths are used. Weirs, and stake-nets 


Answers of Tehsildars in 
Jhansi. 


Mm 


elxxviil 


spanning streams exist; netting and spearing are also employed. In 
the Fulterpur Collectorate, the Tehsiddars report that there are no regular 
fishermen, but labourers, when at leisure, employ themselves at it; the 
markets are not fully supplied with fish: about two-thirds of the popula- 
tion eat it. During the last two years, and due to heavy rains, the fish 
have increased; large quantities of small ones are taken in the monsoon 
months, the minimum size of the mesh of nets being $rd of aninch. In the 
LTurripur Collectorate, the Zehsildars reply that there are no persons who 
make fishing their sole trade; the local markets are seldom supplied with 
fish ; more could undoubtedly be sold; the proportion of people who eat it 
‘© is small on account of deficient supply, but with the exception of 
Brahmins, Banias and some Thakoors, all others are not prohibited by 
caste from eating fish? The amount in the waters has continued 
stationary of late years; small ones are taken in any quantity during the 
rains, but are not trapped in irrigated fields. 

841. In the dgra Division, and the Ltawah Collectorate, the Tehsil- 
dars report that there may be 10,000 persons 
who more or less regularly catch fish when 
they have an opportunity: they are Mullahs, 
Kahars and Lodhees. Sometimes the markets are well supplied with fish ; at 
other times they are not so: three-fourths of the people eat it. A decrease 
of fish is reported in the Jumna, due to the irrigation works near Delhi. 
Very small ones are captured during the rains by hands, in cloths, with 
sticks, and by nets; they are also taken in the fields during the rains. In 
the Agra Collectorate, the ZvAsi/dars observe that there is no class who 
exclusively follow the ocupation of fishermen; there is no market for 
fish except in Agra city; people eat what they capture. In the Jluttra 
Collectorate, the Yedsildars report that there are 141 fishermen in the 
district, termed ‘‘ Machooa” or “ Mulliah :” the first restricting themselves 
to this calling, the latter having other occupations as well. The supply 
is deficient in the cold season, but equals the demand in the hot weather, 
especially just after the rains. It is eaten by but few of the people “ who, 
in this district, are, as a general rule, bigotted Hindus; the greater portion 
are either forbidden to eat fish, or, though permitted by their caste rules 
to do so, refrain from such diet through regard to the prejudices of the 
majority of their neighbours. In Brindabun, where very large numbers 
of Bengalees congregate, who are notoriously fish-eaters, they to such 
an extent give up the diet that, as far as I can discover, no fish is sold 
there, openly at all events. Out of the whole population of the district, 
perhaps one-fifth are permitted to eat fish; the rest are prohibited.” 
The supply in the waters is said to remain stationary. Small fish are 
taken during the rains, the smallest mesh of the nets being given as 
“about the length of a barleycorn.” 


Replies of Native Officials in 
the Agra Division. 


clxxix 


BENGAL. 


342. The districts under this Government are of an exceedingly 

wide extent and diversified character; por- 

Province of Bengal. tions being densely, others sparsely, populated. 

A large tract lies in the Delta of the Ganges ; 

some others are hilly, with ranges of a more or less wild character. 

Excepting Orissa and a few isolated portions, I have not as yet had an 

opportunity of personally examining the fisheries, and this is the more 

to be regretted, as the returns are amongst the most incomplete that 
have been received. 

343. The main rivers are the Brahmaputra to the east, taking its 

course through Assam, receiving many af- 

Main rivers of Bengal. fluents from the Himalayas, and finally fall- 

ing into the Ganges, which last river, in its 

numerous sub-divisions, descends through the centre of the province. 

On the extreme west is Orissa, a district about 200 miles long, and 

situated between the ghAts and the sea; it is intersected by a large 

number of streams crossing it on their passage from the hilly country to 

the Bay of Bengal. These are generally large water-courses, torrents 

during the rains, but nearly dry, sandy beds in the dry season, ‘The most 
westerly of the larger of the rivers is the Mahanuddi. 

344, What proportion of the general population would eat fish could 
they obtain it? In Burdwan the amount is 
set down at about 95 per cent., in Hooghly 
90 per cent., and these are all the answers 
to this question circulated to the native officials of the extensive 
province of Bengal. The Commissioner of Rajshahye, however, reports 
that in his division fish are largely consumed by all classes of people. From 
Assam and Orissa no replies at all have been received, but in the latter 
province, from personal investigations made in 1869, I was given to 
understand that, with the exception of religious mendicants, and those 
who have taken a vow that neither themselves nor their descendants 
shall eat fish, all classes join in its consumption. However, there may 
be, and probably are, some other exceptions, still the average given in 
the Hooghly and Burdwan of from 90 to 95 per cent. being permitted to 
eat it, also probably obtains in Orissa. In Assam I see it is stated 
that most, of the people will eat it. Thus it may fairly be concluded 
that at the very least three-fourths of the population may be set down as 
not prohibited by religious scruples from consuming fish, 

845. How are the local markets supplied with fish? Again, there 
is the same want of native returns, which 
are much more likely to be correct than such 
from Europeans, who rarely visit the native 
bazars. In Burdwan Division, the native report is that the supply is not 
equal to the demand, and if more were brought to the market, they would 
find a ready sale. In Hooghly, the markets are stated “to be fairly 
supplied; the fishermen, however, try to keep up the market priee by 


Fish largely eaten in the 
province. 


Local markets insufficiently 
supplied, 


celxxx 


limiting the supply.” This answer is composed of two distinct state- 
ments :—(1) the latter part of which gives the supply as limited, and as a 
cause, fishermen combining to do so to keep up the market price. Here 
the fact of limited supply may be accepted but not “the cause,” for how 
would it be possible in a single division, possessing 3,000 fishermen, for 
all these people to combine together, doubtless the supply is unequal 
to the demand, due to deficiency of fish; (2) that to the markets being 
“fairly supplied” may be added “ occasionally.” Certainly throughout 
Orissa, except at such seasois as sea-fish are obtainable, whether from 
the coast or due to their migrating up rivers, the supply in localities I 
visited was stated to be unequal to the demand. The only observation 
from Assam (see para. 360) gives a scarcity of fish as existing. It 
may be concluded that the fish-supply in the markets of Bengal, except 
at certain seasons, is unequal to the demand, and when equal, is due to 
the extensive capture of breeding and young fish. 
846. Have fish increased, decreased, or remuined stationary ? The 
Commissioner of the Rajshahye Division 
Fish haye decreased. considers the amount has fallen off to what 
it was 20 years ago. In Orissa, this was 
the general complaint when I visited it. In the Burdwan Division, a 
diversity of opinion exists amongst the native officials, some considering 
it to be stationary, others that it has decreased; it is also said to be 
stationary in Hooghly. In Assam, a decrease appears to exist. The 
returns are manifestly most imperfect, but no one speaks of an increase, 
several of a decrease—a complaint which I have found universal in 
localities I have visited ; consequently I believe that such is gencral. 
347. The fishermen, or people who fish, consist of three classes ;— 
(1) regular fishermen who are exclusively 
‘The fishermen. employed as such ; (2) the wives of the men 
of some castes who fish whilst their husbands 
pursue other occupations; (8) the general population. Thus in Burdwan, 
out of 20,000 people computed as capturers of fish, one-third are stated to be 
pretty exclusively employed as such; in Hooghly, there are considered 
to be 3,000 fishermen by trade. 
848. Are breediug-fish destroyed? In Midnapur, they are to a 
great extent; in Burdwan, they are largely 
Breeding-fish destroyed. taken, but not wastefully destroyed, the 
distinction drawn being because they are 
eaten; in Hooghly, to a considerable extent in paddy-fields, &c. 
in Darjeeling, to a great extent ; in Julpigoree, not to such an extent as 
to endanger supply ; in Goalpara, that there is a wanton and ruthless 
destruction of them, whilst certainly this occurs all through Orissa. 
In short, every one who has answered this question agrees that breeding- 
fish are destroyed to a greater or lesser extent. 
849. Are the fry of fish destroyed? They are in Midnapur; 
only taken in Burdwan; captured to a con- 
Fry wastefully destroyed. — siderable extent in Hooghly; the same at 
Darjeeling, Goalpara, and through the Raj- 
shahye Division ; not to such an amount as to endanger supply at Julpi- 
goree, whilst in Orissa such is most ruthless. The native officials of 
Burdwan state that during tie rains small fish are taken by traps and 


elxxxi 


nets with minute meshes, and the same is also reported from Tlooghly. 
The observation of the Commissioner of the Rajshahye Division is doubt- 
less applicable to the whole province,—“ there can be no doubt that the 
destruction of small fry must be enormous, not only in rivers, but in 
every paddy-field of Bengal.” 
350. Fry are not wastefully destroyed, state two of the re- 
porters,—(1) because they are eaten; (2) be- 
Stocking ponds with fry. cause they are only taken to stock ponds with, 
and not as food. rst, whether killing fry 
of fish as an article of consumption is waste, or a beneficent arrangement 
of nature to limit a superabundance of food in localities where the supply 
does not equal the demand ?—is such a matter of opinion that arguments 
seem uncalled for. Second/y, as regards young fish in the Burdwan District 
not being captured for food, the modes employed contradict this, as well as 
the numerous fishermen engaged in the trade, even did the native officials 
not distinctly observe that a considerable amount of small fish are trapped 
in the irrigated fields, * * and this species of fish is consumed. Next, 
itis urged that only those which die in transit to ponds, whither they are 
being taken, are sold or used as food, is so utterly opposed to the habits of 
the natives that it cannot be seriously entertained. Lastly, as regards 
stocking ponds with the fry of valuable sorts of fish during the monsoon 
months, This is extensively practised in Orissa, Bengal, and the North- 
Western Provinces, and without detailing each local plan, I may as well 
here give a brief summary of the modes employed. ‘Tanks whieh are 
yearly stocked with fish belong either to private parties who purchase 
the young fish wherewith to stock them, or else to fishermen who rent 
these pieces of water, and themselves stock them with fish. The species 
taken for this purpose are the more valuable sorts of carps, as the Catla, 
various Ladeos and Cirrhinas, all of which are asserted not to breed there, 
so it is simply done for a supply of food, and never for breeding pur- 
poses. Some of these tanks are perennial, others yearly dry up, whilst 
those which do not communicate with rivers are best suited for this 
purpose. Sometimes heavy freshes or rains occur after ponds have been 
stocked, and as the surplus water flows off, these young fish are carried 
with it, and this may occasion the necessity of re-stocking two or three 
times in one year. At Cuttack the fishermen having collected the fish, 
sort out the desired species, and the rate at which they were disposed of 
for stocking purposes was one rupee an earthen pot or Aandi-full, and 
this was computed to hold from two to four hundred small fishes. At 
Balasur some of the owners of private tanks permitted me to net them 
in order to examine their contents, the fish being subsequently returned 
to the water ; here the cost of the young fish was the same as at Cuttack, 
but each Aandi was computed to hold only 200 fry, and less trouble was 
taken in selecting the species. Near Allahabad the young fish I found 
were sometimes kept a week or so before being sold ; thus those which 
had been injured or were sickly died off. Small fry of some of the carps 
judiciously placed in ponds about June attain about ten inches in 
length by the succeeding January, and it is at this period that netting 
the stock-ponds usually commences ; some owners do it every two or three 
months, others only once a year. In ponds that yearly dry up, as they 
begin to get very shallow, they have adam thrown across the middle, 


elxxxii . 
and the water is laded out, so that all the contained fish are taken. The 
amount of fry used as stock-fish for ponds is utterly insignificant to the 
quantity taken ; because, if too many are placed in a tank, unable to obtain 
sufficient nourishment, they become lean and useless as food, One would 
naturally wish to agree with the Collector of Burdwan that “ the fry of 
large fish are not sold in the markets as an article of food ; self-interest 
teaches the parties not to doso,” but, unfortunately, facts are opposed to this 
being correct as applied to the natives of India, except where some con- 
tractor holds the fishing of a district, and prevents such destructive waste. 

3851. The modes of fishing pursued are various, as netting, trapping, 

Modes OF Baiting. Minivan damming, poisoning, &e. First, as regards 
size of mesh of nets, Fixea é¢3, some are fixed, asin rivers or tanks ; 
traps. Damming and poisoning others are not so, whilst every possible device 
waters. is employed; therefore, it will be simply ne- 
cessary to advert to the smaillest size of the mesh of the nets which are 
used. To this seven answers from Europeans are given—one says they 
are minute; one, gisth of an inch; one, §th of an inch; one, 3th; one, 
the size of a grain of mustard seed; one, as a grain of rice, and one, as 
mosquito curtain net. Of the two native replies—one gives it as the 
size of a grain of mustard seed, the other as a small pea. These meshes 
alone entirely disprove the comfortable theory that the fry are only being 
used to stock ponds with, for what would be the value of fish whose 
bodies were the size of a mosquito curtain net or a grain of mustard 
seed for this purpose? Next, are nets made of split bamboo (see page 
elxxxix) ; such are very destructive, having the interstices between each 
piece of weod of which it is formed th of an inch or less. Then there 
are fixed engines, as weirs which cross small streams and hill-water- 
courses having a trap at the only opening and which takes every fish. 
Also fixed traps are placed in every outlet of all irrigated fields 
through which the water is straimed, capturing breeding-fish and their 
fry. Damming has been adverted to. Poisoning is likewise carried on 
certainly through the Orissa hills, at Goalpara, and in Assam, Other 
plans are recorded by the various reporting officers. 

352. I think the following must be conceded :—(1) that the major- 
ity of the people are not prohibited by reli- 
gious scruples from eating fish; (2) that the 
supply in the local markets is unequal to the demand; (3) that the 
amount in the waters has decreased ; (4) that breeding-fish are univer- 
sally captured; (5) and their fry destroyed wholesale; (6) that nets 
with minute meshes are used ; (7) that weirs of a most destructive ehar- 
acter are employed; (8) that trapping fish in irrigated fields is univer- 
sal; and (9) poisoning waters locally carried on, 

853. ‘The consideration now arises—what are the remedies proposed ? 
These may generally be summed up under 
the plan of do-nothing till things become 
worse, and leave to others to remedy to-morrow the want of forethought 
which is permitting such waste to-day. 

354. In the Burdwan Livision, the Collector of Midnapur reports 

Butdwan Dihion Ree oe that breeding-fish and very young ones are 
European Officials, destroyed to a great extent, especially during 

the rains, as every rill from paddy-fields is 


Conclusions, 


Remedies proposed. 


elxxxiil 


made to pass over or through fine reeds or strong nets, the smallest 
size of the latter which is used being 4th of an inch in diameter. No diffi- 
culties exist in regulating the size of the mesh of nets, but there will be 
in enforcing the regulation. No objections militate against prohibiting 
the sale of the fry of fish in the bazars; the Jocal manager should be 
made personally responsible. ‘Lhe Collector of Burdwan observes that 
breeding-fish are largely captured for consumption, but do not seem to be 
wastefully destroyed. ‘ Very young ones of important sorts are taken 
during the rainy season in the shoals of rivers, and are thrown into 
tanks for preservation. They are seldom, if ever, used as an article of 
food. This fishing gives ample occupation to a great number of fisher- 
men in the River Bhagiruttee, the Damuda, Delkissar, and in the 
internal rivers and channels within the district, and sometimes becomes 
the subject of cross-rights and disputes. Breeding-fish are captured in 
the months of April, May, and June, and the fry of important species, 
such as ruhu (/adeo), mirgah, catla, ealbeinse, &c., are taken during the 
rains with a view to their transfer to tanks, where they are reared. It 
is generally believed that large fish cannot spawn in tanks.” The 
smallest size mesh of the nets would only permit a grain of mustard 
seed to pass through, and that with difficulty, but attempting to regulate 
such will ereate much discontent. ‘“ Admitting, however, they are 
wastefully destroyed, it is obvious that these young fry are produced in 
such multitudes as to outlive these perils in a sufficient number to arrive 
at maturity, and by depositing their ova in time to prevent the species 
from perishing. It is, therefore, clear that the continual waste is far less 
than the continual re-production. [I question this, and hold a contrary 
opinion, believing that the previous facts have not been proved, especially 
as, were the observations here made literally correct, fish should increase, 
whereas reports go to show that the reverse is occurring]. I would 
allow the existing system to remain undisturbed. In the event, how- 
ever, of the restriction to the sizes of the meshes of nets being determined 
upon, I would fix the smallest size at 4rd of an inch. As a rule, the fry 
of large fish are not sold in the markets as an article of food. Self- 
interest teaches the parties not to do so, inasmuch as the fry sold for 
rearing generally fetch 20 times as much value as when sold for food. 
It is only when the young ones die, on being taken from one place to 
another for transportation, that they are brought to market for sale as 
food. The sale of fry as stock-fish cannot be well prohibited on any 
account. [The Collector has apparently been imposed upon by some 
interested individual in regard to the materials from which this report 
has been drawn up. The following are his data ;—(1) breeding-fish are 
destroyed; (2) fry are merely caught for stocking ponds, and (3) never 
sold as food unless they die during transportation ; (4) whilst numerous 
persons find occupation during the rains in capturing fry ; (1) must be 
conceded, but that it is not wasteful may be questioned ; (2) is shown 
not to be the ease by the reply he forwards from his native subordinate, 
who asserts that “ during the rains a considerable amount of small fish 
are trapped in the irrigated fields. 23 * This species of fish 
is consumed by the middle and lower classes of people, and is sold mucb 
cheaper than the large fish.” Tish captured in traps are rarely adapted 
for stocking ponds with; for this purpose they are taken in nets as I 


elxxxiv 


have alluded to (para. 850). If numerous fishermen find employment 
in capturing small fish, ib stands to reason thatit cannot be only for the 
purpose of stocking ponds with, but must be for sale as food, in fact, a 
wasteful destruction of fry]. The Collector of Hooghly replies that 
breeding-fish and very young’ ones are destroyed in his district to a con- 
siderable extent in paddy-fields and swamps in the rainy season by means 
of ghoonee or wicker traps, ara, one of a different shape, dar7, a weir 
for closing openings in the low tanks round paddy-fields, in front of 
these traps are placed: soora-jalee, a sort of small net, as well as by 
ordinary nets and angling. They are also sometimes baled out of the 
water in pots, caught in ordinary sheets—dhootees worn by the people— 
in fact, anyhow ; the fry are very numerous, and the people very skilful ; 
the smallest size mesh of nets employed is about y!;th of an inch square, 
but it would be impossible to regulate such, but if it were, would sugyest 
halfaninch. “ Fry are sold at the beginning of the rains for supplying 
tanks. Many tanks quite or nearly dry up in February, The fish not 
previously caught by ordinary casting-nets or the red are taken by the 
hand, 60 or 70 people going into the water together. In June fresh 
fry is purchased and thrown in. It would be bad, therefore, to prohibit 
the sale altogether. No organization can prevent the consumption of 
fry in the rains when the whole country is covered with water, and 
the water is swarming with fish.” 

355. The Officiating Commissioner of the Coock Behar Division 
observes —“ considering that the subject of 
pisciculture is a new one, on which informa- 
tion has for the first time been called for, I 
think the reports of district officers contain all the information that 
could be reasonably expected to be obtained; if enquiries are proseeuted 
and district officers’ attention directed to the subject, more valuable 
information may hereafter be gained from them.” The Deputy Commis- 
sioner of Darjeeling yeports that “breeding and very young fish are 
destroyed to a great extent in this district. Fish with eggs in India 
as in England is considered a delicacy. They are caught between 
Choitro and Bhadro in the Terai, and from March to May in the hills, 
by means of nets, bamboo cages, and by turning off water.’ The 
smallest sized mesh used is not much larger than that of mosquito 
curtains; in the Terai it is said to be the size of a grain of rice; in the 
hills it is larger; interference would occasion much dissatisfaction. “ It 
would entail a great deal of enquiry, with its attendant corruption and 
extortion. Natives consulted deprecate any interference. What is required 
is to conserve the fish in particular places, and to teach the people that 
it is for their own interest to allow the young fish to escape.” [How 
would it be possible to adequately preserve fish in certain pools in rivers, 
when standing weirs are permitted to exist above and below these spots ? 
weirs also that have neither close times nor gaps, and in which the 
interstices are so minute as even to prohibit the passage of fry. It 
would end in failure, and the lesson to be taught to the native would be 
the folly of permitting certain individuals to obstruct the rivers for their 
own greed, and to the general decrease of the supply of food). 
The same objection exists against prohibiting the sale of the fry of 
fish in the bazars. The Deputy Commissioner of Julpigoree replies 


Cooch Behar Division. Opinion 
of European Officials. 


elxxxv 


that breeding-fish and very young ones are not destroyed to such an 
extent as to endanger supply; the smallest sized mesh used “ being: 
of the size of a minnow net, and interference would be as un- 
popular as it is unnecessary.” The sale of the fry of fish in the 
bazar is but small, and he “does not advocate any prohibition which 
would be unpopular with the people.” [If utility should be subservient 
to popularity, then certainly measures of economic moment as regards 
fish might probably have to give way to wasteful destruction, see 
para. 349]. He likewise observes that, were “a glossary published, 
giving the native, as well as the scientific, and, where there is any, the 
common English name of the fish of India, it would greatly facilitate 
enquiries which district officers may make.” The Deputy Commissioner 
of Goalpara replies that “ there is a wanton and ruthless destruction of 
breeding-fish and young ones. They are not so much destroyed at the 
weirs as in pools, streams, and in fields. The country being adjacent to 
the hills, during the rains it is overflowed. At this time the non-migra- 
tory fish resort to paddy-fields and small streams for breeding, and the 
people use all sorts of contrivances for catching them and the fry. The 
most common method is by nets, baskets, harpoons ; traps being also used ; 
many weirs do not exist, but the nets are so skilfully made of small 
meshes that few escape, and they never let any fish, however young, 
loose again. Poison is sometimes used, which destroys fish in large num- 
bers. Angling, sifting water through a cloth, and baling the water from 
pools are also resorted to. The destruction commences in the rains, and 
continues till the water dries up.” The smallest size mesh of nets 
employed is about 4th of an inch; if regulated, the trade of small fish will 
be interfered with. Thinks ‘some penal provision should be made to 
prevent the capture and sale of the fry of large fish.” Does not anti- 
cipate any objection will be raised‘in prohibiting the capture of fish in 
the hilly part of his district during the early part of the monsoon. The 
Deputy Commissioner of the Garo Hills states,—“ I cannot, I am sorry to 
say, give you much information regarding the fish in these rivers, 
though in some of them fish of many kinds are abundant. I have 
never made the fish a subject of my study, and I really do not know the 
names of the various descriptions.” 

356. The Commissioner of the Rajshahye Division reports— there 
are no sea-fish, unless the Gangetic porpoise 
and hilsa are considered to come under that 
head.” [The _hilsa certainly is a migratory 
sea-fish, ascending the rivers to breed, but not so the porpoise, which 
does not belong to the order of fishes, but isa mammal appertaining to the 
whales. The sea-fish which ascend above tidal influence will be alluded 
to amongst the list of fishes frequenting the fresh waters, and which is 
appended]. “Fish is largely consumed by the inhabitants of this 
division, both Hindu and Mahomedan, high and low, rich and poor; in 
fact, with a large part of the population it is the principal animal food 
consumed. Hindu widows of higher classes and Jains who have emi- 
grated from the North-West, however, abstain from fish on account of 
religious scruples, but the number of both of these is very small in 
this division. Fish is hardly ever salted in this division for home con- 
sumption, nor is it salted to any great extent for export, except in Pubna, 


Opinion of the Commissioner 
of Rajshahye Division. 


elxxxvi 


where hilsa fish is said to be salted for export to Caleutta. The practice 
of drying or preserving fish is not resorted to, to any great extent, either 
for home consumption or for trade, though some of the lower classes 
dry it in the sun in small quantities for home consumption. Some salted 
and dried fish is imported to the division, especially to Rungpur and 
Dinagepur, from Dacca and Mymensing. Except in Pubna, where there 
is a large trade in hilsa fish, there is no extensive fish trade to distant 
places in any districts in the division. The fish caught is almost wholly 
locally consumed, though it is not unfrequently the case that, in the 
cold season, the fish is carried to distant Aauts and markets for sale at 
some distance from the rivers. The supply of fish has fallen off to what 
it was some twenty years ago. This is attributed to the destruction of 
the fry and the young fish, and to the silting up of small rivers and 
bheels. The supply having fallen off, and the demand being great, 
owing to increase of population, its price has also, as a matter of course, 
nearly doubled to what it was before. People possessing tanks are 
generally in the habit of rearing up fish, but not for sale as a trade; the 
fish thus reared are either consumed, or given away to those who ask for 
them. ‘There can be no doubt that the destruction of small fry must 
be enormous, not only in rivers, but in every paddy-field in Bengal ; 
but I cannot say that I see any way to any feasible suggestions for the 
prevention of fish-catching in the rainy season all over Bengal.” It 
is suggested, close seasons might be applied to rivers for certain species 
of fish, and something might be done “in the way of prohibiting the 
use of nets of less than a certain width of mesh in rivers; but how the 
bamboo contrivances for fish-catching, which are in use in every paddy- 
field, are to be put astop to, Ido not see, nor doI think it would 
be a wise measure to attempt to do so.” 

857. The Commissioner of Orissa (June 20th, 1872) replied,—*< I 
don’t believe the weirs affect the fish ; there 
are no migratory fish to my knowledge, 
except the hilsa, requiring to pass the weirs, and hilsa arrive after the 
freshes, when there is plenty of water, and the weirs can be passed 
without difficulty. Ordinary river-fish remain in the deep pools durmg 
the dry season; there is never sufficient water in the rivers to permit 
fish to migrate, except during freshes, and then the weirs offer little or 
no obstruction. Hilsa do not remain throughout the year in the rivers, 
at any rate not in fresh water; they arrive in July, or in end of June, 
with the first flood, and come up from the sea. In the dry season 
there are no hilsa in the river, and in the floods I have no doubt 
they get over the weirs. I have seen hilsa caught nearly 100 
miles above the weirs, and this proves that they can, and do, get 
over.” The above reply, it is observed, “made regarding the weirs 
is considered by the Lieutenant-Goyernor to be satisfactory.” It 
was not accompanied by answers from any of the district officers ; 
however, as they rephed in 1868-1869, I fill up the gap from those 
reports. The Officiating Collector enquired about the fisheries, “and the 
fishermen neither knew nor eared anything about the habits of these 
creatures, which afford food to so large a proportion of the population of 
Orissa, and no satisfactory statement could be compiled from their 
accounts.” He came to the conclusion that there was no immediate 


Orissa, Opinions of Europeans, 


elxxxvil 


necessity for taking active steps; at the same time he admitted injury 
must eventually ensue, The Officiating Collector, Mr. Armstrong, how- 
ever, continues,—“ I venture, with much diffidence, to dissent from 
Mr. MecPherson’s opinion, and would earnestly urge the necessity of 
immediate action in this matter. I think that if effectual measures 
of remedy be not now taken, every one interested in the prosperity 
of this district will regret it afterwards. I am certain a wholesale 
destruction of fine fish of full growth is day by day going on at the 
Mahanuddi weirs, and what is worse than this, the young fry perish in 
numbers beyond calculation.” He also remarked upon the great de- 
struction so easily carried on by the clumsiest contrivances below the 
weirs. Mr. Levinge, the Chief Engineer of these irrigation works, 
observing upon the obstruction caused by these same weirs, says,— 
“the real injury to the fisheries is probably caused by the wholesale 
slaughter of fish by the natives whilst thus temporarily stopped, 
and I think it would be quite proper if an Act were passed, render- 
ing it illegal to haul a net or otherwise destroy fish within a distance 
of half a mile below a weir during the season at which fish migrate.” 
Mr. Fouracres, in charge of the Naraje weir, observed,—“ the fish are 
certainly stopped for about eight months of the year.” Mr. McMillan, 
Executive Engineer in charge of the Jobra or great Mahanuddi weir, 
reported,—-“ to a certain extent the weirs have enabled the fishermen to 
catch more fish than they did before during the dry weather. * * Below 
the weir the fish are taken, as it were, wholesale, and great destruction 
takes place”? I will here mention that the weirs on the Mahanuddi 
and its branches are the following, proceeding down-stream from Na- 
raje, which is 674 miles from the sea, where the river divides into two 
portions: the one termed the Kajuri, passing Cuttack on one side, de- 
scends to the sea; the other division, under the name of the Mahanuddi, 
runs past the other side of the town en route to the ocean. It having 
been found that too large an amount of water was running to waste 
down the Kajuri, besides causing extensive injuries, due to the river 
flooding the country, a bund or weir was thrown across it a little 
below its head, so as to direct more water into the Mahanuddi branch 
of the main stream: this of course decreased the supply in the Kajuri 
to the same amount as it increased it in the Mahanuddi branch. A 
mile below Cuttack another weir termed the Jobra, 60 miles from the 
sea and 6,400 feet long and 124 feet high, was constructed across the 
Mahannddi, thus deepening the river on that side of the town and for 
some distance up-stream, whilst near this second weir the river gives 
off a third or the Baropa branch, which also has a weir across its head. 
From personal investigation I most unhesitatingly deny that breeding- 
fish ever pass up the narrow under-sluices of these weirs, but those in 
the centre of the Jobra and Midnapur weirs, from 45 to 50 feet wide 
when open, can cause but little impediment to the ascent of fish; it is a 
wide open gap than which nothing can be better. But it is whilst the 
fish are waiting for them to be opened, and at such times as they are 
obstructed at these weirs, that their slaughter goes on; likewise in the 
dry months, when the spent ones and their fry are endeavouring to 
return to the sea, and all the waterway is closed against them, that 
injury is caused. ‘The destruction of large fish when in season would 


elxxxviil 


of course be useful as food, but unfortunately everything is taken from 
fry 4th of an inch in length. Crocodiles congregate in large numbers 
at this place, where abundance of food is obtainable without trouble. 
Sharks, saw-fishes, beg tis, tortoises, and turtles revel in these pools below 
the weirs, and as soon as the water shallows sufficiently, nets and every 
device that man can command are brought to bear on the finny 
tribes. Whilst the Commissioner observed— I don’t believe the weirs 
affect the fish,’—what say the fishermen? They asserted, when I was 
there, that fish of all sorts were decreasing, and that those detained in 
the pool below the Jobra weir were being slaughtered in numbers. One 
zemindar observed that he had two small pieces of water, the first in 
the Kajuri river three miles below Cuttack, but owing to the irrigation 
works having diminished the supply of water, his fishery has been 
ruined. A fisherman of the Kajuri also complained of the decrease of 
fish in that river, but observed as some compensation that their price 
has largely increased. J examined the main stream of the Mahanuddi 
river above the weirs and higher up than where it first divides, and the 
following were some of the results arrived at. At Davacota, about one 
mile above the sub-division of the river at Naraje, were seven fishermen ; 
they complained that since the construction of the weirs the fish had 
much decreased, large ones being then almost entirely absent from the 
river. At Daspore, still higher up, in ten hauls of a large drag-net 
nothing was obtained, and the fishermen stated their intention of leaving 
this part of the country and migrating to below the weirs, where they 
believed fish to be more abundant. At Kundapur, the fishermen com- 
plained of a great decrease of fish; at Ustia and Subunnapur were 
the same reports, and it was observed that the diminution had com- 
menced since the erection of the weirs. At Banki, the highest point 
I examined, the Tehsildar remarked that it was very evident that since 
the construction of the weirs, fish had become much scarcer; in fact, 
that a few years since two pice a seer was about the cost of what was 
then charged six pice for, whilst the fishermen observed on the great 
decrease of sea-fish which used to ascend thus far. But it is useless con- 
tinuing extracts from my report of 1869; but I will now turn to another 
great plan of destroying the fish in Orissa, and here again I shall 
give independent testimony when available. ddr. Levinge observed,— 
“the objectionable practice of the natives catching large basketsful 
of the small fish or fry is doubtless more destructive than anything 
else; * * fish when very young are destroyed in incalculable numbers, 
not so much at the weirs as in all the small pools, streams, and paddy- 
fields throughout the country: were it not for this wholesale destruction 
of the young fry on their migration to the main rivers in October and 
November, I believe the numbers of the fish in the rivers of this part 
of India would be much greater. They are caught when the waters 
are let out of tanks and jAz/s and paddy-fields in small baskets and in 
nets of very small meshes.” Ar. Fouracres also remarked,—“I_ think 
that the fish are destroyed to a great extent when young, for the 
reason that the nets employed are almost in every case with very small 
meshes.” Without continuing extracts of opinions, which are nearly 
all similar, I may mention that the most serious injury was, and no 
doubt is still, being effected in this district by the use of fixed engines 


elxxxix 


for capturing breeding-fish and their fry. Drag-nets and cast-nets of 
different sizes, also purse-nets and lave-nets, are employed, and nearly 
all the other forms mentioned as existing in the former reports, con- 
sequently they do not call for recapitulation here. Drag-nets for the rainy 
season have a mesh of $th of an inch and even less between the knots: 
as the floods subside and the fishermen are able to wade up to their 
waists, the force of the current now becoming less and the fry a little 
larger, ths of an inch is the usual distance ; as the river begins to clear, 
yoths of an inch is the average size ; and when the waters are clean, 1,'gth 
inches between each knot comes into play. The reason of this is obvious : 
the young fry move about with the first freshes, and then the minute 
meshed nets can kill them; but it is not until the cold season that the 
water is clear, the fry have grown, and very fine meshes are generally 
inapplicable. I say ‘ generally inapplicable,” for it is the rule that fish 
breed during the rains, but some do so likewise at other periods of the 
year. But these are not the finest nets used: a purse-net fixed to a 
wooden hoop, having meshes $ an inch in circumference or 4th of an inch 
between each knot, is employed to capture the fry up every little channel, 
and a lave-net with as minute meshes is likewise used for the same 
purpose. Even these, however, are not the most destructive practices in 
vogue in Orissa; rattan or basket-work is brought into play ; one form 
is termed a salwua or putti; ib consists of very fine split bamboos 
bound together by means of grass; the interstices between each piece 
being equal to #th of aninch or less. This puééi is about five feet high, 
and is in the shape of a regular wall-net. It is taken to a tank and 
placed in the water in a V form, whilst fishermen on either side 
extend themselves outwards, and, by beating the water, drive the fish 
into the enclosure: the two ends are now brought together, and the 
fish penned into a small space: the sides are advanced nearer and 
nearer until they almost touch, and the fish are removed by a hand-net, 
or the hand alone. Weirs are used in the larger streams, and traps in 
every irrigated field ; one of these last is of a horn shape ; itis constructed 
of basket-work, with the interstices, between the substances of which 
it is made so fine that even the smallest fry are captured. This is 
placed at most outlets or in small channels during the floods; and, as 
all the water must go through it, every fish is taken. When not of a 
sufficient size to entirely fill a channel, it is supplemented by bamboo 
walls, extended laterally on either side. Another is shaped like a shoe, 
but the principle is identical. Damming is extensively practised ; as the 
rivers commence drying up, earthen bunds are raised along its bed, 
parallel with the course of the stream, but narrowing towards its lower 
end. Fish are driven in, the ends are stopped, and every one is taken. 
In the same way, when tanks begin to dry up, one portion is bunded 
off from the rest, the water Jaded out over the bund, and all contained 
fish destroyed. Lieutenant Kittoe, in his account of a journey through 
the forests of Orissa, describes the weirs employed in the hill-streams 
there, and which resemble those described by H.S. Thomas, Esq., in 
Canara. What are the effects of these “ free industries ?””—and in givingr 
the results of what I saw, it should be mentioned that the following 
refers not only to the Orissa, but part of the Midnapur District. Mr. 
Toynbee at Bhudruk reported,— all that come to the nets are destroyed, 


cCxe 


whether young or old, great or small. The nets are made with the 
express object of letting none escape.’ The Assistant Magistrate at 
Balasur also remarked,— all that come to the net are consumed.” In 
the Brahmini River no irrigation weir exists. I commenced my enquiries 
on it twelve miles from Denkkenal, the Rajah of which place kindly giving 
me assistance, as did also Mr. Faulkner of the Irrigation Department. 
The paucity of fish was very apparent: this, I was informed, had been 
going on for the last seven or ten years, and had occasioned a great 
falling-off of the productivencss of the fisheries, whilst the size of the 
mesh of the nets had visibly decreased during this period. About 30 
miles below this portion of the Brahmini I again examined the river. 
I obtained the assistance of 25 fishermen, who employed long nets ; the 
flank one had a mesh of two inches in circumference; the centre ones of 
4 inches; their depth was about six feet. In the first haul three siluroid 
fishes (/2év) were captured, of an average weight of 14 ounces; subse- 
quently nothing could be taken. Asking the reason which had caused 
this paucity of fish, the fishermen observed that there had been a 
gradual decrease of true fresh-water fishes for some years, so much so 
that for the last three seasons this portion of the river had not been 
fished at all. This decrease was attributed to the destruction of the 
fry of the fish in the rainy season, which they accused the Gokar caste 
of effecting, they being Keots. I next turned my attention to the 
Gokar fishermen, and obtained the services of eight. They brought a 
putti with them made of fine split bamboos as already described. 
I saw 500 fish taken at the first haul at a tank, amongst them were 
the young of the ruhu, barkur, mrigala, and other species, the largest 
of which they considered about four months old. They replied that, by 
means of fixed engines or nets, they captured large quantities of fish 
during the rainy season. They also remarked that the quantity of fish 
of all sizes have much decreased during the last ten years, but asserted 
their present mode of capturing them had existed from time immemorial. 
The Byturni River was low, and its fisheries were said to be but slightly 
better than those of the Brahmini and its branches. In the Salundi the 
amount of fish was but trifling, and were said to have much decreased 
of late years. At Balasur, the Borabolung is tidal, and no decrease of 
fish was reported ; but there were not many tanks or jAi/s in its vicinity ; 
consequently the destruction of small fish during the monsoon months 
was not so great as on the edges of the Mahanuddi and Brahmini 
Rivers. In taking a survey of the fisheries of the foregoing district, 
I cannot help drawing attention to the great richness in the number 
of species, as I collected 114 distinct sorts: notwithstanding this, there 
was a general poverty of the rivers in furnishing food to the population 
at large. Whether rivers, with or without weirs, were examined, a 
general absence of large fisheries was very apparent, except during the 
monsoon months, when fish ascend from the sea to deposit their eggs or 
prey upon their neighbours. Doubtless weirs act deleteriously by imped- 
ing the ascent of fish and so assisting in their destruction, as well as by 
preventing the descent of the young to the sea; but a yearly and general 
slaughter, carried on by every conceivable means and throughout the 
whole country during the rainy or breeding season, is probably the chief 
cause of the injury. 


excl 


358. The replies of the native officials of Bengal have mostly 

: been omitted, whilst those Teent are unfor- 

ae of Native Officials tunately more in the gross than in detail ; 
however, I give them as received. 

859. The Tehszldars of Birgocn “reply that the number of fisher- 

Opinions of Native Officials. ™°? is about 20,000, one-third of whom are 


pretty exclusively employed as such; the 
others follow different occupations as well. The fishermen castes are— 


1, Koibarta, 2, Keot, 8, Malo, 4, Tiyur, 5, Jelia, 6, Bagdi, 7, Dulia, 
and 8, Bauri. Nos. 1 to 5 live chiefly on fishing; 6 to 8 ply the double 
occupation of fishermen and palki-bearers, the males following the latter, 
the females the former pursuit: most of them also till the land. Some 
men of superior caste angle as a means of recreation. ‘The supply of fish 
is not equal to the demand ; if more were brought to the market, they 
would find a ready sale; the quality is decidedly bad. The amount 
from the Damuda and other rivers towards the centre of the district is 
decidedly limited. The chief supply may be taken from tanks, the water 
in which has of late years become bad and poisonous, so much so as 
to kill the fish. The average price of large fish is 3 annas, of small fish 
(chuna) from 14 to 2 annas per seer of 60 tolas. Virst class bazar mutton 
realizes 5 annas, and second sort 3 annas, a seer of the same weight. 
All classes of people, excepting widows of high-caste Brahmins, Boidus 
and Kaits, join in the consumption of fish ; probably 95 per cent. are fish- 
eaters. As to whether the fish in the waters have increased, decreased, 
or remained stationary of late years, a great diversity of opinion exists, 
some alleging that the fresh-water fish have decreased, others that the 
supply has remained stationary, During the rains small fish are taken 
by means of ghoonee and by small nets of fine texture: communications 
are now opened between the rivers and é/ee/s (swamps), and the small 
fish are introduced into the latter. At this season the fry of large fish 
are also caught in large quantities, by nets called disal and fhina, 
in the shoals of the Damuda and the Bhagirutti, with a view to their 
being transferred and reared in tanks. ‘The smallest meshes employed 
will not permit a mustard seed to pass. During the rains, a consider- 
able amount of small fish, chuna, are trapped in the irrigated fields 
by means of ghoonee, barh, ara, and hand-nets termed chaukni. 
This species of fish is consumed by the middle and lower classes of 
people, and is sold much cheaper than the large fish. The forms 
of fishing reported are, by nets both large and small; Jirties, a 
trap made of split bamboos and placed against a current; palues, 
made of split bamboos and resembling a conical shaped basket ; ang- 
ling and harpooning ; Aoary and shikti: the first is made of branches 
of trees and thorns tied together and placed in the river where the 
current is not strong, small fish take shelter therein, and are taken by 
means of shiktz or chaukni nets. ‘The names of the other nets, &c., 
are—bar or maha-jal, a large drag-net. Binti-jal, a net fixed to posts 
in the middle of a river where the water is deep; dara-jal resembles 
bar, but is used only in tanks; thapla, a cast-net. For taking small 
fish there are the following :—S/inti-ja/, resembling ‘Aapla, but with 
smaller meshes ; ganti-jad, stretched across a tank, and the little fish 
become entangled by their heads; j/e/a-jal, a lave-net; chakni-jal, a 


excii 


purse-net attached to a circular frame; chadi-jal, a net attached to a 
pyramidal frame-work of two bamboos, which, crossing one another at the 
summit at right angles, are bent down into a pyramidal form at the 
base of which the net is affixed. The traps are as follows :—g/oonee, 
very common; ara, aishta, polu, and bark are also bamboo traps. 
In the Hooghly Collectorate, the Tehsildars report perhaps 3,000 fisher- 
men by profession, but all classes catch small fish: the castes are Man- 
nah, Patoo, Mullik, Bang, Koormee, Teor, Jellya, Mulla, Pode, Noda, 
Barrik, Santra, Khora, Mal, &c., but the Jellya are the true fishing 
caste. The markets are fairly supplied; the fishermen, however, try to 
keep up the market price by limiting the supply. Nine-tenths of the 
population eat fish, the amount of which in the waters is station- 
ary. Very small fish are taken during the rains both for eating and 
stocking ponds; the smallest sized mesh of nets employed is such as peas 
can go through. Fish are trapped in the irrigated fields during the rains. 
The following traps are used :—ghoonee, ara, and aishta; also eleven 
forms of weirs. 

360. From Assam no returns have been received; the following 
appeared in the columns of the Hnglishman of 
July 5th, 1871, respecting this division ;— 
“There is a system of wholesate poisoning and trapping fish, which aims 
at the destruction and extermination of the species.” The writer goes 
on to describe how some pools are poisoned, others dammed, and the fish 
harpooned ; how streams are embanked, and wicker traps employed, with 
a scarcity as the result. 


Observations from Assam. 


exciil 


BRITISH BURMA. 


361. The provinces of British Burma, which have been acquired 
in the first and second Burmésé campaigns, 
were first placed under a Chief Commissioner 
in 1860-61, by amalgamating Arrdcan to the 
north, Pegu in the centre, and Tenasserim to the south, whith territory 
extends nearly a thousand miles along the eastern side of the Bay of 
Bengal, and reaching to where, zoologically speaking, Wallace defines 
the Malay Archipelago to commence, from its northern boundary the 
Naf estuary at 20° 50’ north latitude, to the Pakchan stream in the 
south at about the 10° of north latitude. The whole aggregates about 
90,070 square miles, with a population of about 26 to the square mile. 
362. The fresh-water fisheries in British Burma are of consider- 
Dest able value, as will be seen by the revenue 
- The mode of disposing of returns, as upwards of 540,000 rupees a year 
resh-water fisheries under na- 6 neater 
Aeee lek are received from the licensing the use of 
nets and farming out the tank and smaller 
river fisheries. Major Sladen having obtained for me from Mandalay 
a statement of how the fisheries under the King of Burma are managed, 
I insert it in this place. It has been the practice in Upper Burma to 
annually collect revenue from the fisheries of lakes and ponds, the 
amount in eacn case being assessed by the local officials; but should the 
Revenue Minister mistrust the statement, he sends a Deputy to exa- 
mine and decide. In villages where there are “ amhoodans” or hereditary 
slaves of the Government, whose necks and hands are tattooed, they 
and the headman of the village only, and to the exclusion of everybody 
else, are entitled to become the lessee of any fisheries which may exist. 
In the absence of “ amhoodans,” the headman becomes the renter: should 
there be both, they have the fisheries on alternate years. ‘The sub-lessee 
works from October to April, and fisheries are formally made over in the 
presence of a witness, care being taken that the rent is duly paid. 
Sub-lessees often allow other fishermen to net their waters, the original 
owner receiving two-thirds of the captures. The former sovereigns 
used to permit the queens, concubines, princes, princesses, ministers, and 
members of the Royal Dancing Company to enjoy the revenue from the 
fisheries, but the present king has appropriated them and pays the 
foregoing persons monthly salaries instead. Some sub-lessees pay direct 
to the Royal Collectors, others through the heads of villages and town- 
ships. [In case no lessee comes forward, the inhabitants round a lake 
or tank have to provide the annual revenue, for which the headman is 
responsible. If fishermen wish to carry on their employment in the 
river, leave has to be obtained, and a defined tract is let out to each, 
others being prohibited from interfering. Lately, at the instigation of 
the Buddist priests or Poongees, an order has been issued, prohibiting, 
under pain of imprisonment and other penalties, any one fishing within 
the limits of the Royal City of Mandalay ; also in some lakes, ponds, 
and even a portion of the Irrawaddi River, which are deemed to be 


Tho provinces of which Bri- 
tish Burma is composed. 


a” 


exciv 


under holy keeping. In some districts, as Pegu, it was stated that some 
of the fisheries prior to British rule were in the possession of certain 
persons or hereditary Een Thoogyees, who paid a fixed annual rent, and 
kept their overseers and employed coolies, but no one could fish without 
their permission, for which a small annual sum was charged. Irrespective 
of the direct revenue, large indirect sums had to be given as gratuities. 
It appears to me that the statements in Pegu are in reality good proof 
that the plan which now exists in Upper Burma was also the rule 
there prior to 1852, when the country was annexed. The Een Gay- 
gyea Lake fishery appears to have possessed a far-famed celebrity for 
a long period of time, traders coming from great distances in the month 
of June to invest in fresh, salted, dried, or smoked fish for disposal in 
distant markets, According to O’Riley, “ owing to the profits realized 
on this trade, the competition for the purchase of the fish at the lake 
became so great, that it was not unusual to make advances several sea- 
sons previous to the completion of the contract. So valuable a source 
of revenue to the Burmese Government as this fishing appeared was 
not allowed to escape easily ; accordingly the sum of 60 viss of silver, or 
about 6,000 ticals, each equal to Rs. 1-6, or Ks. 8,237-8 annually, was 
exacted as a Royal tax from the hereditary Chief of the lake.” 

363. There are two principal descriptions of fisheries, namely, 
those in the rivers, and those in tanks or 
“eengs,” which are due to the inundated state 
of the country during the rains, either augmenting the size of those 
existing, or turning large tracts of country into enormous expanses of 
water, In Arracan the amount of fresh-water is insignificant in com- 
parison with what exists in the other two Commissionerships, and which 
call for a more detailed notice. 

364, The principal rivers of British Burma are the Irrawaddi 

Principal rivers in British 0d Salween, which have Alpine sources, and 
Burma, some with Alpine the Pegu, an affluent of the first, which is 
sources. destitute of such an origin, as it takes its 
vise in the Pegu hills or “ Yomas,” as they are termed, and which divide 
the Pegu District from the Tenasserim, wherein is the Sittoung or Poung- 
loung River. The Irrawaddi has various affluents, and in its course 
divides and sub-divides into many branches, becoming comparatively 
shallow during the dry season of the year, but an impetuous torrent in 
the rains, flooding the surrounding country, turning plains into lakes, 
and uncultivated tracts into vast fishing districts. The most northern 
portion of the Irrawaddi, where I commenced my investigations, was at 
Mandalay, the present capital of Native or Upper Burma. In this 
State the river, as a rule, did not appear to have any large amount of 
contiguous tanks suitable for fish-breeding, which would be filled as the 
river overflows; consequently most of it is carried on in the stream and 
small creeks along its course, As the Irrawaddi commences to pass the 
frontier, the natural tanks and sub-divisions of the river increase, and 
the fisheries become augmented; in fact, below Prome the country of 
Pegu may be looked upon as one large delta formed by this river, and 
entirely distinct from the comparatively dry condition of Upper Burma, 
which the south-west monsoon very slightly affects, and where the 
river possesses high banks. In, or prior to, the June or south-west 


Rivers and tank fisheries. 


CXCV 


monsoon, this river commences to rise, owing to its Alpine origin, and 
due to the melting of the snow in the mountains, from which it takes its 
source. Thus, although the yearly rain-fall in Rangoon is probably about 
110 inches or more, the amount decreases as the north is approached—at 
Meanoung being above 50, at Prome below 50, at Thyetmyo, our frontier 
station, only 20, whilst at Pachan, in Upper Burma, 1 was informed 
that if was only about 2 inches. Thus, the south-west monsoon does 
not fill this river in Upper Burma, which would be a serious drawback 
to fish-breeding, especially for the shad which ascend from the sea for 
this purpose; but fortunately this period is concomitant with that of the 
greatest heat at its snowy source, which keeps the river in full flood 
above where the south-west monsoon reaches, and thus renders it suit- 
able for the ascent and spawning of marine and other fishes in its 
higher reaches. The Sittoung or Poungloung River rises in the hills 25 
miles north of Yemethen and about 130 from Tounghoo. It mostly 
flows in a southerly direction through the middle of the district, but its 
tortuous course has been not inaptly compared to the writhings of a 
wounded snake ; it frequently deviates to almost every point of the com- 
pass within a distance of a few miles. The Salween arises somewhere in the 
Province of Yunam in China ; receiving many aflluents as it passes through 
the Shan States, it passes in a southerly direction towards Moulmein ; it 
is divided from the last-named river by a range of hills, and receives near 
its termination the Gynne, from a north-easterly or easterly direction. 
This river is connected by creeks with the Sittoung, and that again with 
the Pegu River, which is an affluent of the Irrawaddi through its Hleing 
or Maimakhat branch, which is given off near Prome, and runs direct, 
through that district to the town of Rangoon and so on to the sea. It 
does not again join the main stream directly, with which, however, it 
has several connecting erecks and channels. 

365. ‘The tanks or ‘ eengs” are principally due to the yearly inunda- 
tions of theso rivers, which inerease the 
size of those existing, or form vast ex- 
panses of water in large tracts of the country, and these, or small 
water-courses and tanks or channels in paddy-fields, are great, places for 
fish to breed in, (see para. 46—dhunds in Sind), These watery tracts 
are mainly of two sorts, those which are perennial, and those which yearly 
dry up; the latter, provided free ingress to, and egress from, them is per- 
mitted to breeding and young fish, will scarcely require any measures 
being adopted for their care after all communication with the running 
water is naturally cut off, as [shall subsequently allude to. More especially 
in the Pegu District are many plains, which become vast sheets of water in 
the rainy season, but which it is unnecessary to enumerate. At Rangoon 
are the so-called Royal Lakes, originally a marsh, deepened and bunded 
by a native governor some 40 years since. There are many marshes 
useful for fishing stations during the rains. Certain lakes termed “ Bayme” 
are deemed to possess a sacred character, so are not fished; also, as a 
rule, all waters within the enclosure of a “ Kyoung,” or Buddist monastery. 

366. The races of British Burma may be referred, according 

to the late Chief Commissioner, to four great 
SERGE ULMER families—the Talaing or Mon, the Burman, 


the Karen, and the Shan or 'Tais. As Buddists they profess a horror 


Tanks or “ eengs.” 


CXxevi 


of taking the lives of the lower animals, but being exceedingly partial 
to a fish diet, they console their consciences, whilst indulging in it, with 
the idea that the deaths of these creatures will be laid in a future state 
to the fault of the fishermen by whom they were captured. Even their 
« Poongees ” or priests who eat fish, adorn the approaches to their temples 
with illustrations, showing what will be the award to fishermen in eternity. 
Tn some of these interesting representations are large fires being stirred 
up by devils, whilst other demons or “ Beloos” are dragging one or more 
fishermen in a net towards these roaring furnaces, helping each on by 
means of striking fish-spears into them from behind, and hauling them 
forwards by hooks and lines towards the place of punishment. 
367. In districts where large rivers exist, the Burmese are from 
necessity boatmen and of choice fishermen. 
Burmese generally boatmen his has an important bearing upon the 
and fishermen. a x a 
fisheries, as the capture of the finny tribes 
is not in the hands of a certain limited class of people. 
368. As to the proportion of the general population who eat fish, it 
Bur ache may be concluded that all do so, as the 
urmans are a is. -eating race, . ce ons 
exceptions are too trivial to be worth noticing. 
869. How are the local markets supplied with fish ? Itis unfortunate 
that the answers sent in in 1869, or replies 
ace markets generally sup- + the question circulated last year, have, in 
plied with fish. er 3 ? ; 
the majority of instances, not been forwarded, 
so only general replies are available for examination. It would appear 
that, as a rule, they are well supplied, but in the Amherst District, they are 
stated to be insufficiently so. Out of ten returns, three assert the markets 
to be fully supplied, one fairly so, and in six insufliciently so, but some of 
these localities are near the sea-coast, and the supply partly depends on 
the tides. 
370. Have the fish increased, decreased, or remained stationary ? 
: This question is responded to by only ten 
seas Bakjinjehe waters saute officials, five oF whom ot that the 
amount in the waters remains stationary, 
whilst the other five report a decrease. When in Burma, the impression 
prevailed at Prome that fish were decreasing. At Henzada, the fisher- 
men held the same opinion, and considered the decrease due to the small 
meshed nets which were being used. Around Pegu they were also 
asserted to be diminishing; the same is now reported from Shwégyen 
and Amherst. 
371. ds to whose the fisheries are? As arule, they appear to have 
Fee always been Royalties in Lower Burma, as 
Lees Goverhmentimypro; they stili are in the Native State, and may 
: : be considered Government property, although 
certain private or communal rights may co-exist. Rules were framed 
by a former Chief Commissioner, in order that the renting system might 
cause the least possible amount of hardship to the people, so the general 
public were permitted to take whatever fish they pleased anywhere for 
home consumption, but not for sale ; only the lessee could sell fish. Be- 
sides this, certain localities were set aside as free fisheries, and, so far as 1 
could ascertain, any one might now use fixed traps (except in certain 
leased localities) free of tax. ‘This I believe to be the origin of the 


exevil 


present assumed deterioration of these fisheries ; the rules are not regu- 
larly carried out: thus, amongst. the untaxed nets at Thyetmyo are 
recorded sorts 400 cubits long, &e., which it is impossible can be employ- 
ed simply to take fish for home consumption. Again, below Prome I 
examined a boat in which two men had been fishing for home consump- 
tion, who had as many fry of fish in it as they could carry, perhaps 
150lbs. weight. In fact, the philanthropic plans allowed are most grossly 
abused, and these free fisheries and unlimited fishing ought to be subject 
to regulations. 
372. Are breeding-fish or fry destroyed? I cannot see how two 
: opinions can exist upon this subject ; every 
mipsee and: fry. gene reporter (except General Fy tche) agrees that 
they are, and my own observation (see para- 
graph 374) led to the same result. Fixed traps and engines, weirs com- 
pletely barring streams, damming up and lading out waters, nets with 
meshes so fine that scarcely more than water can pass, and the interstices 
of traps still more minute, are freely used: even poisoning the waters is 
carried on, as will be detailed. 
373. he Secretary to the Chief Commissioner of British Burma, 
Opinion of the Chief Com- General Fytche, reported (August 3rd, 1868)— 
missioner that fish are carefully I have the honor, by direction of the Chief 
preserved throughout British Commissioner, to acknowledge the receipt of 
FIO yours No. 3006, dated July 16th, and in 
reply to state that there is a tax upon nets and fisheries in British 
Burma, that fish are carefully preserved, and that no wanton destruction 
takes place within the province.” 
374. Having been directed, in 1869, to proceed to Burma and inves- 
~ tigate into the state of its fisheries, the fol- 
Personal opinion that a lowing are some of the conclusions I came to, 
wasteful destruction of fish oc- 1 
curs throughout British Burma. deduced from personal observation, as to 
whether a “wasteful” destruction of fish 
occurs in the province, and I considered that it did, and to a great 
extent. This was being effected by two ways—fixed engines and small 
meshed nets. Fixed engines were of two main descriptions: (1) large 
weirs, ‘‘ Tsays,” or bunds crossing whole rivers, and with the interstices 
between the pieces of bamboo of which they were formed, or of those 
in the eruives or other moveable traps, so fine that only water could pass 
through. Some of these, viz., bunding, I shall allude to further on (para- 
eraph 884). No regulation whatever existed ; streams were simply let out, 
and the native fishermen permitted to capture everything they were able, 
in any way they pleased. Weirs had been left standing for years, not 
only taking every fish ascending or descending, but impeding naviga- 
tion, &e. Every villager who liked might fix a weir where he wished, 
and at each creek within high-water mark, these weirs were placed so 
that fish passed over these bamboo fences to their best feeding-grounds 
as the flood-tide made, but as it ebbed they were left floundering in the 
mud due to this weir standing as an insuperable obstacle to their return- 
ing to the river. The same process was permitted where large tracts of 
lands were yearly inundated from the river ; fish passed into these places, 
hut weirs were fixed to prevent even the smallest fry ever obtaining 
an exit into the river, the bamboo weir being too fine in its texture 


exevili 


even to permit them to pass. (2) Secondly, traps of innumerable 
descriptions and miniature weirs were permitted in every small stream, 
irrigation channel or water-way to entrap breeding-fish ascending or 
descending, and so finely constructed that even the fry could not pass. 
This destructive mode of fishing was said to have been the subject of a 
tax by the native Government, but made free about 1863. If ever there 
was a mode of fishing employed calculated to ruin fisheries, it is this 
kadone, so properly prohibited in Great Britain. I found agricultur- 
ists with as many as 60 and 80 traps in their possession, and working 
them daily at every small water-way where ingress or egress for fish 
could occur. ‘These traps were termed fya, whether in the shape 
of a horn or a shoe, and were extensively employed in paddy-fields. 
Weirs in streams sometimes had a platform, sionsin, thus constructed : 
a bamboo fence was fixed entirely across a stream or water-way, reach- 
ing some feet above its surface, except in one spot, where it was cut 
down either to the level of the water or three or four inches above it. 
Thus, a fence entirely bars the stream, except where the free gap exists. 
Now a platform is constructed of fine bamboo, having raised bamboo 
walls on three sides, and this platform just fits the gap already described. 
Tn the dry season, as October, when the fish, which have bred, and their 
fry are descending, this platform is fixed below the opening; in the rainy 
season, as they are ascending, it is fixed above it. This platform touches 
the water, or nearly so, at the gap, and here its wall is absent, so that fish 
reaching a weir which has only a gap in its middle jump at that spot, 
but only to fall on the platform. In some places weirs are not permitted 
to go quite across rivers, because such impedes navigation, and this 
open spot, as far as the river’s bank, is studded with reeds, which makes a 
noise as the water passes through them, thus frightening the fish to the 
opposite side where the weir witha gap exists; they jump at the lowest 
part, and are safe on the Ahonsin. Odcoasionally a ¢sanda is construct- 
ed: a number of stakes are driven into the bed of a river ina V shape, 
the apex of which is a rattan net that is raised every few minutes by 
means of ropes running over drums and worked on a stage erected for 
the purpose. Another very common mode of capturing fish by the aid 
of a tank is as follows: should one exist near a paddy-field, or some 
water-course well stocked with fish, or up which they proceed to deposit 
their spawn, it is just what is desired, and the time of year for working: 
it is the rainy season. A shallow channel is cut from the tank, leading 
into an enlarged space about three feet deep—a stew, in short ; from this 
the channel is continued into the paddy-field or place where the breed- 
ing-fish are known to be. In this outer channel, or just external to the 
stew, is a small weir permitting fish to go up, but preventing their return. 
Water from the tank is made to flow down the new channel through the 
stew, and so on to the fishes’ haunts. Breeding-fish finding this nice 
stream press up it, pass the weir, but become prisoners in the stew, from 
whence they are removed next morning by a hand-net. Traps in the 
form of long: conical baskets or cages were also used in rivers, and other 
contrivances were everywhere employed to take both breeding-fishes 
and fry; and observing this being carried on with impunity, founded onc 
of my reasons for believing the Chief Commissioner had been mistaken 01 
misinformed when stating that fish were carefully preserved in the province 


excix 


375. Secondly, moveable engines. These, again, are of two sorts: 

: ‘ (1) those constructed of bamboo, rattan, 

ebovenble Sehing eee ae reed, or some such substances; (2) those in 

Maa the form of nets. Rattan or bamboo nets, 
gyan, have each piece fixed to its neighbour 

by grass or fibre in the place of string, the interstices being of various 
sizes, from ;';th of an inch to 1 inch. Yindoons, or a species of lave-net, 
of an elongated triangular shape, made of closely woven bamboos and 
affixed to a long pole, is employed to clean out all small water-courses 
of the fry of fish; if is pushed along them and raised every now and 
then, asit usually is as wide as these channels; fry are easily captured 
thus. Another and larger form is dragged by bullocks or pushed by men 
through the haunts of the fry ; it lets none escape ; for, asit goes through 
the muddy water, the weeds, &c., choke up all the interstices, so not the 
smallest fish can pass. There are other descriptions, but the principle is 
identical not to allow anything, except water, to pass. (2) Those in the 
form of nets are also variously constructed, but it is in the free fisheries 
more especially, that I witnessed the most minutely meshed nets em- 
ployed. Mek-kwoon or limbet is a form of net which has very small 
meshes; it is about 12 feet long, having a bamboo along either end, 
whilst one side is attached to a boat, so that it can be lifted like a board 
affixed by a hinge. The boat is moored broadside on, in an appropriate 
situation, the fish, mostly fry, are frightened to above where it is placed, and 
all the fisherman has to do is to raise the net, when the fish fall into thé 
boat. Purse-nets are used, fixed or moveable, in the small water-courses. 
I went the whole length of that portion of the Irrawaddi which is in 
British territory, either in steamer or country boat, up the Pegu River to 
the town of that name, across by boat to Sittoung, and down again to 
Moulmein. Wherever I went I found small meshed nets being em- 
ployed by the villagers to obtain fish for their own consumption, and 
as they had no interest in the leased fisheries, whilst fry are most easily 
captured, these they were destroying wherever they had the chance. 
Near Rangoon, nets, 30 feet long, were being dragged along the sides of 
the Irrawaddi in the haunts of the fry, the mesh of which was 43,ths of an 
inch in circumference. I counted 15 such in use at one time and on one 
bank of the river between Rangoon and the sea. Nothing escapes 
them, nothing is returned to the river, and thus excessive injury must 
be caused. At Prome I saw two women fishing with a short drag-net, the 
meshes of which were ;8,ths of an inch in circumference. I took some 20 
of the young of the “ Nga-hoothans,” Labeo calbasu, out and weighed 
them; they just turned the scale at 4 an ounce, whilst in a few months more 
each individual fish should weigh, if alive and well, $ a pound. The same 
long drag-nets as observed at Rangoon were being used all along the British 
portion of the Irrawaddi; also numerous other forms of fine meshed 
nets and minutely woven baskets. But not only here were the fry 
being destroyed wholesale by those who were permitted to fish without 
payment, but also in every other portion of Burma which I visited ; 
and this is a second reason why I consider that, even if the Chief 
Commissioner was correct in stating that no wanton destruction takes 
place in the province, he must have admitted a wasteful one, bad he 
time to investigate the subject. 7: 


cc 


376. But it may be pointed out what is the reason that some of 
the Burmese fisheries are still pretty fully 
stocked, even if some decrease is reported, 
especially as throughout that province the 
same rules obtain. I am unable to give the Muropean authorities credit 
for anything that has been done. I could not ascertain that young fish, 
except in some leased fisheries, or religious tanks, were preserved at all. 
I saw those good-natured thoughtless Burmans only regarding to-day’s 
wants, and in fact, preservation was due.to a sparse population, large 
swamps and vast inundated tracts of country, as well as the impetuosity 
of the current in the main rivers. Assuming the census returns to be 
correct, the demands for fish must have been yearly becoming greater, 
for, with an augmented fish-eating population, an increased supply must 
be a self-evident necessity. This has probably been met by additional 
methods of capture. Weirs, not permitted by the Burmese, seem to 
have been allowed by the British, until every outlet is now choked 
by them, and the fish fry are captured by the whole population. Now, 
the increased supply must have been derived from fisheries previously 
insufficiently worked, or else due to their being now overworked, 
leaving future years to suffer from diminished supply, consequent upon 
the immature fish being taken to meet present demands. In most places 
it was said that the supply was decreasing ; anyhow, the fisheries 
were being fully worked, and in an economic point of view, I proposed 
the following measures as deserving of consideration, 

377. Idonot intend making any remarks upon the mode of 
letting Burmese fisheries, except a proposi- 
tion “that fish should be considered the 
roperty of the people, and Government 
should remit all rents on fisheries.’ The absolute giving up of fisheries 
to the people—I think the reports from Bombay, Madras, Mysore, and 
elsewhere distinctly show—eventuates in their annihilation, unless 
rules for the preservation of the fish from unnecessary and wasteful 
destruction are passed and strictly carried out. Where everybody 
observes that all his neighbours are permitted to capture fish as they 
like, it is very improbable that he will be exceedingly particular not 
to kill the young, as a Burmese fisherman, who fully admitted that 
were the destruction of fry prohibited, such in time must work good, 
but he remarked he was a yearly tenant and got all he could, whilst 
if harm is really being done, he supposed Government would have in- 
terfered. Thus, restrictions would be necessary, and water-bailiffs an 
indispensable portion of the scheme; whereas, if all waters, except re- 
served ones, were let, the lessees would have an interest in preserving 
the immature fish. Likewise a prevalent belief seems to obtain to 
let the fisheries ‘as cheaply as possible,’ and for the good “of the 
consumer.” Nothing can bea greater fallacy ; the lessee does not sell his 
spoil below market rate because he obtains his fishery cheaply, any more 
than the farmer will take less than the market rate for his rice be- 
cause he lives on an untaxed farm, ‘The difference goes into the pocket 
of the lessee, not into that of the consumer. .'lo benefit the consumer, 
the fish should be protected, so that the largest possible amount is 
obtained from the water, and that is the only true way in which 


Reasons fisheries are not 
more depopulated. 


Letting fisheries cheaply not 
of any use to fish-consumers. 


cel 


the general public will be benefitted, for, as the supply augments, prices 
will fall. However, as the native official at Akyab pithily remarks, 
“more could be sold, but if more were brought to market, the price would 
fall, and then perhaps it would not pay the fisherman.” Looking at both 
sides of the question, one naturally considers—are the fish simply for the 
good or gain of the fisherman, or to be employed in the most advantageous 
manner for the benefit of the people at large? 
378. Asatemporary measure, and solely in order to meet strong 
local objections, I would not propose to 
Present propositions as tem- carry out at once measures that are certainly 
porary measure to obviate local oe i : 
aijections! very desirable, but to work by degrees, In 
this way I feel sure that eventually the local 
officers will see the necessity or advantage of conservancy being fully 
established everywhere, except in tanks which yearly dry up, and after 
all watery communication with flowing streams has been naturally 
cut off. I would, therefore, propose as a commencement that (1) no 
fixed engines of any description be permitted either in rivers, streams, 
tanks, irrigated fields, or water-courses, unless such are leased fisheries, 
whilst it would be very advisable to insist upon | inch between the 
interstices of all substances forming such. These would have to be dealt 
with at a future date, as the fish commence to inerease; (2) that a 
mesh of 1 inch between knot and knot be the minimum size permitted 
in any nets employed in free fisheries or along the banks of any river; 
(8) nets and weirs for the capture of prawns might be exempted, pro- 
vided the latter did not extend above 30 feet in length, such distance 
not being more than one quarter of the breadth of the river, at low 
water, at the place where they are being used; (4) that poisoning of 
waters to obtain fish be strictly prohibited. 
379. The answers to the questions on Burmese fisheries, circulated 
at my request by General Fytche in 1869, 
have not as yet been received (September 
1872), which is to be regretted. 
380. The Chief Commissioner of British Burma (Mr. Eden) 
proposed (April 4th, 1872) that in future, 
when leasing fisheries, “ no lessee of a lake 
fishery, nor any person licensed to use nets 
and traps in rivers, shall use a net having a mesh of less than 4 inches 
in circumference, that is, 1 inch from knot to knot, nor any weir having 
less than 1 inch between the bamboos, rattan, reed, or other substance 
of which such weir is composed. Provided that this shall not apply to 
the use of weirs of not more than 380 feet in length, or } the breadth 
of the stream or river in which they are placed, whichever may be 
the shorter, where such weirs are used solely for the purpose of catching 
prawns.” Dams to be prohibited. Subsequently (July 19th, 1872) the 
Officiating Secretary to the Chief Commissioner observed,— the report of 
the Committee of experienced officers to the effect that the prohibition 
contained in sections 18 and 19 (above) of the provisional rules would 
necessitate the entertainment of an expensive establishment of inspect- 
ors, and that a considerable loss of revenue would be occasioned thereby, 
seemed to the Chief Commissioner sufficient grounds for modifying 
these sections.” ‘Che Committee observed, first, as regards the minimum 


Answers to questions circula- 
ted in 1869 not yet received. 


Proposals of Chief Commis- 
sioner. 


ecii 


size of the mesh of nets and the distances between the substances 
forming weirs :—“ There are in inland lakes and rivers upwards of a 
dozen kinds of fish (these are generally the most numerous and plentiful) 
that would pass through nets and weirs of that size, and would be lost to 
the fishermen. These small fish are used in the manufacture of ngapee.” 
Tf not taken by man, it issuggested they will be by water-fowl, and a great 
loss of fish and revenue must result. ‘They proposed as follows :—‘ The 
use of weirs across all streams and channels not included in fisheries is strictly 
prohibited, provided that this shall not apply to weirs of not more than 
80 feet in length, or } of the breadth of the stream or river in which 
they are placed, whichever may be the shorter, when such weirs are used 
solely for the purpose of catching prawns.” * * “ Several fisheries in the 
provinee, if the use of dams is prohibited, cannot be worked. The 
Committee are quite aware that the use of dams is often injurious 
to paddy crops, in so far that at present streams get gradually filled 
up by them, and in consequence crops are inundated.” They pro- 
posed that, in exceptional cases, they should be allowed, but not 
to be erected prior to January Ist, and to be removed by April 15th in 
each year. The Government of India (August 6th, 1872) decided with 
reference to a mesh of 4 inches in circumference :—“‘ His Excellency 
the Governor General in Council is disposed to doubt whether this is 
not too small, and whether a mesh of 1} inches from knot to knot, or 
5 inches in circumference, would not be preferable.’ The Officiating 
Secretary to the Chief Commissioner (August 29th, 1872) observed :— 
“The Chief Commissioner agrees in the views expressed by the Commis- 
sioner of the Tenasserim Division, who has given the subject great attention, 
and has personally discussed the question of the size of the mesh 
frequently with Mr. Eden. There is, I am to say, no occasion in the 
present condition of the population to take any such measures for the 
preservation of fish as will involve serious interference with the people. 
It is impossible to have establishments to prevent the people taking fish 
fry in the creeks and paddy-fields, and if they were not caught, they 
would be eaten by birds, or die as the waters recede. The supply of fish 
throughout the country is ample, and indeed in the Tenasserim Division 
this year, fish is so cheap as to make the fisheries unremunerative. The 
great article of consumption in Burma is ngapee, which is made from 
young fish mixed with other fish. The Chief Commissioner had this 
year ordered that the meshes of nets should be not less than 1 inch, 
and the consequence was such unwillingness to buy the fisheries that 
the rule had to be altered.” 

881. The Commissioner of dArakan, Colonel J. F. J, Stevenson, 
(July 22nd, 1872,) remarks, that in the 
report from the Deputy Commissioner ~ 
of Akyab, he has revised the original text 
in three or four passages and also given marginal notes. The 
Deputy Commissioner of Akyab observes that “breeding-fish are de- 
stroyed to some extent. Very young ones are also caught for 
consumption. Shrimps are taken from October-to May, the greater 
portion of which is used in making ngapee.” [It will be borne 
in mind that we have no ‘eeng’ (tank) fisheries in Arakan; no 
leased fisheries whatever, only a tax on nets.” J. F. J. S.J 


Arakan. Opinion of European 
Officials. 


ecili 


The above fish ave caught by nets and traps in the sea, rivers, 
creeks, streams, jhi/s, ponds, and tanks throughout the year. In 
the rainy season, during the months of June and July, small fish 
are caught in the fields. ‘The smallest. mesh employed is about 4 
an inch square, but the net by which shrimps are taken is roughly 
woven like cloth, the holes of which are about j;/,th of an inch 
in size. The meshes of nets might be regulated without difficulty, 
according to the description of fish it is desired to take. The 
ordinary size is from 4 to 8 inches from knot to knot. Prawn 
nets are not adapted to catch large fish. Screens made of split 
bamboo, fastened close together, are also used along the banks. 
[<I believe, as said above, that alterations can easily be intro- 
duced. I am not aware that there is any economic necessity for 
it in Arakan, though on general principles it may undoubtedly be 
desirable.”—J. F. J. S]. As to whether any objections exist against 
prohibiting the sale of the fry of fishes in the bazars, he continues :— 
“Prohibition seems to be absolutely necessary. But the fry of 
fish is of course sold in considerable quantities in the bazars, and 
is eaten cooked and made into ngapee.” [It is, of course, 
as I have above remarked, probable that unnecessary destruction 
results.”—J, F. J. S.J. There are no objections against prohibiting 
the capture of fish in hilly regions during the first two months 
of the monsoon when they are breeding. [1 cannot say; not 
so, I think, as to Arakan.”—J. F. J. S.J. The Deputy Commissioner 
in Ramree (July 17th, 1872) observes that the fresh-water fisheries 
in the district are very insignificant. There are no lakes or ponds, 
and but four small rivers, in which fresh-water fish are found. Breed- 
ing-fish and very young ones are not destroyed to any great extent, 
as the fishing is limited, but to a considerable extent when com- 
pared with the amount of such fishing; the breeding ones in November 
and December by nets, the young ones by making dams and baling out 
the water; by bamboo scoops, placing bushes in the stream, and when 
the small fish have got among them, surrounding them with cloths or 
very fine nets, at all times of the year. The smallest mesh employed 
is 4.an inch from knot to knot, but coarse cloth is often used for the 
smallest nets. No practical difficulty exists in regulating the minimum 
size; one inch between the knots is proposed. No objections against 
prohibiting the sale of fry in the bazars, or forbidding fishing for two 
months in the hilly regions, when the fish go there for breeding pur- 
poses. The Officiating Deputy Commissioner of Sandoway (July 11th, 
1872) reports that breeding-fish and very young ones are destroyed in 
his district by the use of small meshed nets. ‘The young fry are usually 
taken during August and September in the paddy-fields and small 
creeks with traps made of bamboo. They are not caught in large 
quantities, and in this district are rarely sold. The smallest meshed 
nets upon which a tax is paid are 24 inches square, but the nets which 
are free of tax, and generally used by the people to supply their own 
wants, have a mesh which is Ath of an inch square. ‘There is no objection 
whatever to regulating the minimum size, which it is proposed should 
be #th of an inch between each knot, whilst fry might be prohibited 
being sold in the bazars. 


eciv 


882. The Deputy Commissioner of Thyetmyo (July 29th, 1872) 
observed that he fully replied to the ques- 
tions circulated in 1869 [the answers to 
which the Chief Commissioner never forward- 
ed], and that he believes that report contained the whole of the informa- 
tion now applied for with regard to the entire Prome District, of which 
Thyetmyo then formed a part. No great destruction of breeding-fish, 
except the shad, occurs, judging from the fish in the bazars. ‘“ Very 
young fish, I fear, are destroyed in great numbers during the rainy sea- 
son. At this period of the year they leave the river, and ascend any 
little stream or backwater they can find, and here they fall an easy prey 
to men, women, and children, who pursue them with all sorts of contri- 
vances, Which, though generally very simple, are very killing. Two 
women, for instance, holding a sheet between them, will in half an hour 
or so collect a few pounds of small fry. The smallest mesh of the nets 
in use is $ an inch each side. The greatest objection to regulating the 
size of the mesh would be, that if the size of mesh is decreased (?) there 
would be a diminution of the Government revenue.” For the fisheries 
one inch between each knot is recommended. If fry are allowed to be 
caught, they may as well be eaten; therefore there would be no use 
prohibiting their sale. 

883. The Commissioner of the Tenasserim Division, (July 15th, 
1872) reported that breeding-fish and very 
young ones are destroyed in his district to 
a great extent by nets, weirs, hooks, basket- 
traps, dameng, traps in streams and rivers, and in other different ways 
in rented fisheries. They are caught at all seasons of the year, and in 
inland fisheries from January to April. There is no restriction as to the 
size of the mesh of nets employed, and there would be many difficulties 
in regulating such, the chief of which is, that fish, both large and small, 
are mixed up to form the compost called ngapee. Without the small fish 
the bulk of the large fish caught would be small, and the value of the 
fisheries very much reduced. Deprecates any rule fixing the mmimum 
size of meshes, but would leave the people to use nets as they found them 
best suited for their work. Fry not sold in the bazars would be turned 
into ngapee, so any prohibitory order against its sale would be of little 
use. ‘In my opinion, generally in this province, the rivers and creeks 
are so large and numerous, and the space of country covered by inun- 
dation every year so vast, that there is yet ample breeding-ground for 
fish without imposing any strict rules as to preservation of fish and 
their fry. As population, however, increases, and as embankments are 
raised to confine the present spill-water of the rivers within narrower 
bounds, then it may be necessary to assist Nature by causing less 
destruction of the fry; but I am sure that, as, yet, generally the 
supply is enormous, the breeding-grounds are extensive, and there is no 
need of any great interference to preserve the stock. ‘To give the large 
breeding-fish and their fry free ingress and egress to the inundated 
plains from the rivers, the use of ¢svys or bamboo traps across streams 
not rented as fisheries has been prohibited. This is all that is required 
at present. As time goes on, other restrictions can be made as they 
were found to be necessary.” [If prohibiting “ the use of bamboo traps 


Opinion of Deputy Commis- 
sioner of Thyetmyo. 


Opinion of European Officials 
of the Tenasserim Division. 


ccv 


across the streams not rented as fisheries” is necessary, it is difficult 
to see why permitting their entirely blocking rented streams can be 
anything but injurious, especially as they only allow water to pass, 
stopping every fish. Likewise at present fixed traps, nets, &c., 
prevent migrating breeding-fish from freely obtaining ingress to, or 
egress from, the inundated plains, and the mesh is so small that the 
most minute fry are entrapped; surely these ought to be prohibited or 
subject to some regulation as to the size of the mesh which is employed. 
This mode of fishing is entirely illegal in Great Britain.) The Deputy 
Commissioner, Amherst District (July 11th, 1872) replies that the answers 
of four of his most experienced native officials (myo-okes) are unanimous 
in saying that the supply of fish brought to the bazars is not equal to the 
demand. Breeding-fish and fry are destroyed to a very great extent 
in the district, most so ‘at the commencement of the rains, when 
breeding-fishes migrate to spawn: in this condition the fish are said 
by the Burmans to be utterly reckless as regards capture, and passively 
allow themselves to be taken in very great numbers. Those fish which 
escape this critical period spawn in shallow water, from which, generally 
speaking, the small fry have little chance of returning to the larger 
streams. Another cause of wholesale destruction is the practice of 
unrestricted fishing, that is to say, the indiscriminate use of traps, 
nets, and dams, by which fish of every kind are caught, with 
regard only to present wants rather than the probability of future 
seareity.” The smallest mesh of nets used is 4 an inch between 
each knot; the difficulty in regulating it would depend upon the 
nature of the regulations themselves. Any sudden restriction upon 
the present means of supply would cause great inconvenience, and 
temporary misery, perhaps, to the poorer classes, because the staple food 
of a whole people would for a time be sensibly diminished, and the 
revenues would temporarily deteriorate ; the smaller kinds of fish in tanks, 
jhils, and paddy-fields would become a prey to birds instead of food for 
man. [This, of course, only refers to those pieces of water which are not 
perennial, in which, after all communication between them and the rivers 
has ceased, they gradually dry up, and the fish, unless taken by man, 
would die or be eaten by the lower animals]. “The supply in the bazars 
now is unequal to the demand; regulations would decrease the present 
supply, although they would eventually increase it. If possible, would 
prohibit the capture of the fry of those species which grow to a large size, 
especially of the “Nga-yans” [ Ophiocephalus striatus] ; and if their posses- 
sion or sale under acertain weight and size were declared penal, some 
stop might be put to its indiscriminate capture, and the result would be 
a great increase in the present food-supply.” [This course I do not think 
could be carried out; itis true that this is a most valuable fish and 
attains 3 feet or more in length, whilst the young are killed in 
numbers as small fry, but the practical difficulty would be as follows :— 
There are several species of Ophiocephalus, termed thus, with one or two 
words added to show which is meant. Generally “Nga-yan” was the large 
Ophiocephalus striatus, but near Henzada it was termed “Nga-yan-pa-nan.” 
The Ophiocephalus punctatus, which closely resembles the last species, 
excepting that, though very broad, it rarely, if ever, exceeds a foot in 
length, at this place was termed “ Nga yan-thin-ohn,” whilst the perhaps 


eevi 


lesser Ophiocephalus gachua was known as “ Nga-yan-goun-doh,” and the 
possessor of one of these smaller species might be considered as 
having obtained the young of the larger sort. It appears to be a more 
practical plan to forbid fixed traps and nets, and poisoning water at first, 
and then, as fish augment, to see if any regulation, affecting the minimum 
size of the mesh of the nets which might be employed, would not he 
feasible. Perhaps, at first, passing regulations on those used in the 
free fisheries might be tried, prior to doing so in the rented fish furms. } 
Major Sladen appends the names in Burmese of the following fish with 
remarks :— Fish which become large, but are not captured when young, 
owing, it is said, to their keeping to the deeper portions of the rivers :— 
‘Nga-bat? [Wallago attu); ‘Nga-gyin’ [Cirrhina mrigala] ; ‘Nga-tan’ 
[ Gagata typus] ;‘Kah-thamyin’ [ Psewdeutropius taakree] ; ‘Kah-thaboung’ 
{ Lutropiichthys vacha] ; ‘Kah-kooran? ‘Nga-ywe’ [Saccobranchus fossilis] ; 
‘Nga-young’ [Arius Burmanicus|. The following fish are caught indis- 
criminately, large and small, but they never attain to over 5ibs.:—‘Nea- 
hpannua’ [ #guula ruconius| ; Nga-pyéma’ [ dnadas scandens]; ‘Kah-kadit: 
‘Nga-khoomma’ [Barbus stigma]; ‘Nga-khoo’ [Clarias magur]; ‘Nga- 
kyay’ [Datnioides polota] ; ‘Nga-nuthan’ [Callichrous macrophthalmus] ; 
‘Nga Tsin-bya’ [? Pedlona Sladoni]; ‘Nga Tsin-yeing’ [Perilampus atpar|.* 
The Deputy Commissioner of the Tavoy District reports that breeding-fish 
and very young ones are destroyed to a considerable extent, the former 
being captured in the beginning of the rains, about May or June, when 
they ascend the tidal streams to deposit their spawn ; they are caught by 
damming up the stream with bamboo screens (weirs), leaving a passage 
in the middle of the stream, where basket traps with enclosures (cruives) 
are laid to catch them. Some also use casting-nets called oon at the 
mouth of the streams. Large fish as well as young ones are caught in a 
similar way during the three months, commencing in September, about 
the close of the rainy season, but on a much larger scale by an arrange- 
ment called ¢shaz when all fish, large and small, descending the stream, 
are captured. [[These are the fish which have completed their spawning, 
and the young which are attempting to pass to the deeper parts of the 
rivers. } The smallest mesh used is §th of an inch; there may be some 
difficulty in regulating it, as it may affect the capture of prawns and 
shrimps employed for the manufacture of ngapee; still, if the present 
small mesh be permitted, immature fish will be taken. “The only way 
to get over the difficulty will be by appointing fishery inspectors, whose 
duty it will be to see that rules decided on are not evaded. These rules 
should prescribe what nets, screens (weirs), and traps (cruives), are legal, 
and in what month and in what places they may be used. To issue 
orders without informing them will be useless: every one, from the 
“Thoogyee’ (fishery lessee) downwards, is too much interested in obtaining 
the fish to care about the way in which they are caught.” Would per- 
mit the meshes to be, as at present in use, under proper restrictions. 
“The capture of fish in streams should be prohibited during May and June, 
when the fish ascend the streams for spawning, and again during three 
months from September, when they descend to the river with the fry ; 


* The scientific names have been added by myself from information I obtained in 
Burma, but I have not received specimens of the above, so some errors may exist. 


cevil 


and, further, the taking of fish by baling out pools and ponds should be 
prohibited. The use of damoos should also be prohibited: these are 
screens (weirs), the rods of which are placed very close, and when the tide 
is high and the fish are feeding amongst the bushes and grass on the 
side of the tidal creek, those screens are so placed as to enclose a large 
tract. When the tide falls, all the fish left are naturally caught. The 
large are taken by the fishermen, but the small are left to die. ‘The space 
between the rods of Zamoos allowed should never be less than 1 inch. 
Here also an inspector would be required to see the order is not evaded.” 
The Denuty Commissioner of Shwégyen (July 13th, 1872) remarked that 
“‘breeding-fish get out of the deep rivers and ponds at the very com- 
mencement of the rains, and force themselves up the runs of water flow- 
ing towards the freshly covered plains. Many are caught in screen traps 
made of split bamboo or reeds stretched across the small creeks and runs. 
The young fish (four months old) are caught by the same contrivance on 
their way back to the deep water in October.’ The smallest mesh used 
is about 4.an inch. In reeds or bamboo screens (weirs), the interstices 
are frequently under a } of an inch. “The only difficulty against 
regulating the size of the mesh isa pecuniary one as regards rents. There 
would be a little more trouble in making the lessees of fisheries use 
screens of a certain space between the rods, but only at first, and public 
and religious feeling amongst the Buddist population would certainly be 
in favor of letting small fish escape, but there would necessarily be some 
loss of revenue.” Does not know of any objection against prohibiting 
the sale of fry in the bazar. “It appears to me that there is not much 
known upon the subject of the fresh-water fishes of Burma and their 
habits. As books of reference are not available, I would suggest that 
the head-quarters of each district be supplied with some comprehensive 
work on Indian fishes.” [None exists ; the late Dr. Jerdon’s manuals did 
not extend to this class of animals, and without native names and illus- 
trations, works simply giving descriptions would be of little, if any, use. ] 
“ Officers will then be able to turn their attention to the subject. 
The breeding times and the habits of different species might be 
learnt by enquiring of the fishermen, that is, as far as they 
themselves know. A few of the smaller kinds which are supposed 
at present to be distinct species, but which may be only the fry, should 
be transferred to an enclosed piece of water to see what they would 
come to. ‘There are many fish supposed to be adults, as ‘Nga-khoo’ 
[Clarias magur]; one species of ‘ Nga-yan’ [Ophiocephalus gachua or 
punclatus|—see my observations near the commencement of this para- 
graph under the head of the Amherst District] ; ‘Nga-gyee’ [Saccobran- 
chus fossilis| ; ‘Nga-hpan-ma’ [Mola Atkinsonit] ; ‘ Khoan-ma?’ [ Barbus 
stigma], &c., which would pass through in bamboo screens, the interstices 
of which are an inch apart, and before absolutely prohibiting their use, 
closer enquiries and more knowledge of the subject is necessary to show 
at what seasons such may be used, and at what times they should be 
prohibited.” [With the exception of the ‘Khoan-ma,’ Bardus stigma, 
adult of all the other fish would be stopped by a one-inched mesh 
between the knots, calculating that the fullest stretch would be 14 inches, 
some due to their width, others to their depth or their spines. Even 
large ones of the last species would be unable to pass.] “ Generally the 


ceviill 


closing of water-courses to fish ascending in the month of May should 
be prohibited, and the use of close screens until after November.” The 
Deputy Commissioner of Mergui (August 3rd, 1872) reported “ that the 
fishing in his district is all sea-fishing, and it is not known where the 
fish breed, &c.” [This will stand over for the report on the marine 
fish and fisheries.}” The Deputy Commissioner of Tounghoo (June 24th, 
1872) observed “ that all fish caught are killed, both breeding and young 
ones.” Fish breed in June and July, in which latter month the 
country becomes inundated, and the fry enter the small creeks, and 
thence find their way to the paddy-fields, and are caught by the culti- 
vators. The ‘Nga-yan’ [Ophiocephalus striatus} is, I believe, the 
only large fish which, when very young, leaves the rivers and is found 
in the paddy-fields. The people use ‘ yethai,’ a bamboo frame-work, 
with a mat bottom, dragged sometimes by buffaloes and sometimes 
pushed by a man; no fish, let the size be ever so small, can escape. 
These instruments are used in the paddy-fields and swampy ground 
during the monsoon generally.” Sees no reason for altering the mesh 
of nets or fence months in hilly districts. 

384. The Commissioner of Pegu (March 27th, 1872) reported upon 
“the damming up of certain creeks in the 
Pegu township with bunds, by the fishermen 
renting the same, to the impeding of their 
free navigation and the flooding of the neighbouring lands. The 
Principal Revenue Settlement Officer, in the course of his season’s work, 
observed the same evil which has been brought to notice by the 
Assistant Engineer in charge of the Pegu and Iwantay roads.” 
[Respecting this bunding of streams by fishermen, I observed on my 
report on the fisheries of that province in October 2nd, 1869, “ but the 
other form of bunding tanks, or rather bunding streams into tanks, is 
most destructive, for it must be.remembered that in Burma there is no 
necessity to conserve water asin India; on the contrary, they have 
generally too much. An earthen dam or bund is thrown across a stream, 
which, of course, causes the water to collect above it: next, smaller ones 
are erected parallel with the course of the stream, or cutting off a portion 
of it from the main channel. The water is laded out, the whole of 
the fish captured, and this is continued portion by portion, till not 
a fish is left. The injury is not prospective, it is now going on, and 
thus in one fishery alone the rents have sunk, owing to decrease of fish, 
as follows: Rs. 700 to 500, and this year to Rs. 200. Itisa lazy, 
destructive, and iniquitous mode of fishing, doing injury to the river, for its 
bed silts up behind this bund, and thus the neighbouring paddy-fields 
suffer in times of floods, as well as positively destroying the fisheries ; 
all this bunding of streams should be absolutely prohibited ; the renters 
can employ bamboo weirs;” para. 16. “In making an earthen bund, 
two rows of strong stakes, 6 feet apart, are driven in across the stream, 
the interval is filled in with grass and clayey mud. When all the fish 
have been destroyed above this by lading out the water, they leave it and 
raise another bund lower down the stream. ‘The old stakes and banks 
are never removed, but remain to be an obstruction to navigation, and 
floating trees, which often permanently remain; sometimes the bunds 
give way, a great volume of water suddenly rushes down, and fortunate 


Opinions on bunding streams 
for fishing purposes. 


ecix 
for any bridges in its course, if they are not injured or carried away,” 
para. 57. “ That _bunding rivers for fishing purposes be absolutely pro- 
hibited,” para. 60.] The Deputy Commissioner of Rangoon (March 22nd, 
1872) stated,—“ I have reason to believe that the damming up of the 
water does inundate the country round Pegu, and I fear a similar 
result is felt in other parts of the district. There is much land in the 
Syriam township kept uncultivated for the personal benefit of a few 
fishermen.” The Senior Revenue Settlement Officer (March 21st, 1872) 
reported that in the Rangoon District, in some tidal streams, certain 
large fishery dams exist, which appear to be productive of great evils. 
“The dams are permanent structures. The fishery-holders also put up, 
within the limits of their fisheries, numerous small dams termed baling- 
out dams, while creeks not claimed by the fishery Jessees fall to the share 
of the villagers, who forthwith choke them up in all directions with 
small dams. These, it is true, are broken down in the rains, but stakes 
and dédris remain, which contribute more or less to impede the flow of 
the water. The principal dams have been in existence some years; one, 
indeed, is said to have been erected in the time of the Burmese rule, but 
more probably was about the time of the last war, when the affairs of the 
country Were in some confusion, for from enquiries made, it appears that 
under the Burmese Government dams were not allowed in any of the 
main streams; they cause the channels to silt up, hinder the passage of 
boats, and land is rendered diflicult of access. Owing to the above causes, 
it has to be assessed at a much lower rate than it would be under other 
conditions. Cropsare frequently destroyed by floods owing to the obstrue- 
tions to the flow of water, and revenue is lost through this conversion 
of extensive tracts of land into swampy wastes, which, prior to the con- 
struction of the dams, were well cultivated. The loss of revenue, which 
the removal of the dams might at first sight seem to threaten, may 
be provided against if the neighbouring pond fisheries, and all places 
suitable for the formation of such fisheries, be assessed for terms of 
years, as the opening of the main streams will enhance their value, and 
low spots unfitted for cultivation, and now unremunerative, may be 
readily turned to a very profitable account, as fisheries, and even in the first 
year of the removal of the dams, no loss of revenue need be incurred.” 
[The Deputy Commissioner of the District was directed_to see to their 
removal before the rains, and prior to the new settlement. ] 

385. The following are the native reports, including the modes 
Olsenralons suport thenintiv of fishing in the fresh waters, showing which 

official reports. nets are taxed and which untaxed. 
386. In the Akyad District, the native official reports that out of 
a , ‘ a population of 268,000 persons, 1,982 took 
Ae of native official of out licenses for fishing in the district this 
year ; some work as fishermen entirely, others 
also follow other occupations. They are composed of Mussulmen termed 
“ Judiahs,” Madrassees, and natives of Chittagong, Arakan, and Burma. 
The markets are fairly supplied with fish : during spring-tides the most are 
taken from the sea, and the least during the neaps. ‘ More could be sold, 
but if more were brought to market, the price would fall, and then per- 
haps it would not pay the fishermen. The whole population cat fish, the 
supply of which is stationary. Very small fish are taken in the 

0 


ccex 


fields, lakes, ponds, or gids, and everywhere by nets and traps, and 
by emptying water from the hollows during the rains. This practice 
might be stopped with advantage.” The following are the éaved 
nets used in the fresh and back waters of this district :—(1) Hmyaw- 
paik, each piece 60 feet long and 18 deep, witha mesh from 1 to 4 
inches square ; these are drift-nets; (2) Ayee-downg, very similar to the 
last; (3) Laigwenpaik, 60 feet long, 15 deep, with meshes of 3 or 
4 inches square, and are fixed in shallow parts of rivers and across 
streams; (4) Mga-tha-louk-paik—these are cast-nets employed from a 
boat, and used for the purpose of taking the shad as ‘they ascend the 
rivers for breeding purposes; (5) Ngin-paik, 60 x18 feet, 2 to 3 
inches square in the mesh, and used from boats; (6) Patk-gyee, 75 to 120 
feet long, and about 38 feet deep at the mouth, with meshes from } 
an inch to 6 inches square ; these are fixed in the shallow parts of the 
bay and in rivers; (7) Paik-tsoon-kyoo, from 30 to 386 feet long, and 
about the same depth at the mouth, with a mesh from 4 an inch to 
4 inches square; sometimes they are used as fixtures, at other times 
dragged in the streams and creeks ; (8) Zsein-paik, in one set of six traps 
(cruives), 374 feet long and 9 to 12 wide at the opening, and composed 
of split bamboo fastened close together ; these bamboo traps are fastened 
to posts fixed in the rivers and creeks; (9) Zshway-paik-gyee or Paik- 
htouk-gyee, from 1,200 to 2,400 feet long, 18 deep, and meshes of 2 or 3 
inches square ; they are drag-nets ; (10) Zshway-paik-galay are also drag- 
nets, 120 x 6 feet, with meshes 1 or 2 inches square; (11) Yim-dwin-pait, 
stationary nets in the rivers, about 380 feet square bagnets, and 4 to 4 
inches square in the meshes. Irrespective of the foregoing taxed nets, the 
untaxed contrivances for capturing fish are rods and lines, traps and small 
nets in fields, and also in shallow streams by means of bamboo weirs. 
887. Inthe Ramree District, the native official reports that there 
Piece sales Spiren Breas ihef Tae about 50 fishermen, including those who 
Tae use bamboo scoops; the greater portion of 
the cultivators likewise use these scoops 
during the rains. The markets are fully supplied, but the amount of 
fish in the water has slightly decreased. Very small fish are taken in 
considerable quantities, in comparison with the extent of the fresh waters, 
by making dams, with bamboo traps and scoops; the minimum mesh 
employed is 4 an inch, but a coarse cloth is used for small nets. Bushes 
are also placed in side streams, and when fish have taken refuge in them, 
they are surrounded by nets. 
388. In the Sandoway District, the three ative officials reply 
wheter hey eae that very few of the fishermen make fishing 
eens native officials of their sole occupation, there being no local 
markets ; fishing is only carried on to supply 
personal requirements ; however, the price of fish is given at from 8 to 
24 Ibs. weight the rupee. The whole population eat fish, the amount of 
which is believed to have remained stationary. Very small fish are 
taken, as the river rises during the rains, by men and women along the 
banks of the streams ; one-sixth of an inch square is the smallest size ol 
the mesh of the nets that is employed. Tish are also trapped to a small 
extent in irrigated fields during the rains. Nets, traps, and weirs are 
used for inland fishing. 


eexi 


389. In the Thyetmyo District, one native official answers as 
we A ; follows :—That there are 137 resident fisher- 
_ Opinion of native official of But hap 1 fornararil 
Thyetmyo. men, bu many others come down temporarily 
from Upper Burma; as a rule, the fishermen 
do not follow any other occupation. The local markets are generally 
fully supplied: now and then the fishermen take a holiday, and then no 
fish at all is to be had. The supply of fish has always been equal to the 
demand. Fish are trapped in the irrigated fields to a small extent. 
The tawed nets in use are as follows:—(1) Hmaw, 240 X8 cubits, 
and an 8-inched mesh [several of the sizes of meshes given, being 
erroneous, are omitted], it is floated down a river; (2) Let-matan-paik, 
2508 cubits, with a mesh of 1 inch, one end is affixed to a sand- 
bank, and the other is carried out into the stream and brought round to 
the sand-bank ; (3) Patk-woon-bo0, 800 X35 cubits, with a mesh of 1 
inch, drifted down the river by the aid of two boats and hauled on to the 
bank; (4) Kwoon-gee-paik or Mek-kwoon-paik are casting nets ; (5) Patk- 
lot, or Hna-loon-queng is similar to No. 2, but is only made in Upper 
Burma; (6) Hmyaw-aing-dan, 25 * 10 cubits, used in backwaters close 
to the river’s bank, one end is fastened to the shore at the head of the 
backwater, and the other end anchored out in the stream; (7) /tet- 
gweng, 25 X 25 eubits, and a mesh of $ an inch, this is like the Chinese 
dip-net, and said to be very destructive to the young shad. The untaxed 
nets ave given as follows :—(1) Nga-tsein-paik, 50 x 1 eubit, with a mesh 
of 1 inch, it is pulled along in shallow waters during the dry season near 
the shore; (2) Oo-tscin-paik, 604 cubits, with a mesh of an inch 
used as the foregoing; (8) Rong-ma, a casting net; (4) Park-byoo, 
80 x8 eubits, having a mesh of 8 inches, worked like No, | of the taxed 
nets; (5) Let-pyit-kwon, 7X7 cubits, with a mesh of three-fourths of 
an inch, pulled along in shallow water; (6) Khyee-kwon, 400 x7 cubits, 
and a mesh of 2 inches, these nets are worked like the last, and are now 
and then brought down from Upper Burma; (7) Awon-neng, 6X7 cubits, 
with a mesh of 4 inches between each knot [?], a casting-net; (8) Daing- 
won, a prawn-net ; (9) Gaw, anet let down to the bottom of the stream 
and baited; (10) Doo-khyoon, a float-net used in large rivers to capture 
ascending fish during the dry season. 

390. From the Amherst District, the answer of four Myo-okes have 
Pane terrae ee been received : they report that, the great 
Pec eanar ie native olcrals Ot majority of the fishermen are cultivators, and 
very few solely employed in this occupation. 

The markets are stated not to be fully supplied in any of the districts : 
the whole of the population eat fish. ‘The amount in the waters is con- 
sidered to have remained stationary in two, and to be decreasing yearly in 
the remaining two. Small fish are caught in the fields and creeks during 
the rains by means of dams, famans, and traps, yeen and yethar, 
and other contrivances. The smallest mesh employed is 4 an inch in 
the hand nets. Fish are trapped in the fields during the rains, and 
caught by means of hmyone, yeen, koondoung, and yethai, &e. 
The names only of the implements employed in fishing is given. 
[Poisoning of waters is also resorted to during the dry season in this 
district, as will be observed from the following report furnished by JZ. 
JW. Inglis, Exceutive tngincer of the Amherst Division, in 1869 :— 


cexii 


“ Tn the Amherst District, about six or eight miles from the sea, it has 
been frequently brought to my notice, and I have also observed, the prac- 
tice prevails extensively of poisoning the water of the streams for the 
purpose of obtaining the fish. The process adopted is as follows :— 
Pools formed in the streams by some natural obstructions are chosen for 
carrying out this iniquitous mode of capturing fish. Different methods 
are pursued. In one the bark of the Bunboay tree is floated on the 
surface of the water for a short space of time, when the fish come to 
the surface intoxicated, and are easily removed by the hand. The reason 
for removing the bark so quickly from the water is, that the fish might 
not become unwholesome, because too much of this substance causes the 
flesh of the fish to act deleteriously on the health of the person who 
eats it. The other modes are similar. The bark of the Kyee, or the 
leaves and root of the Hong, or the fruit of the Bongalong, are used. 
I have seen considerable quantities of fish obtained in the above manner. 
They would measure 2 feet down to the minutest size. In fact, these 
substances appear to intoxicate every fish which may be in the pools at 
the time they are used ; the time of the year this is adopted is the dry 
season, when I have large numbers of workmen employed in the con- 
struction of the Yeh road, many of whom are rendered sick, due to the 
state of the water, as well as eating fish which has been procured in the 
manner described.” } 
391. In the Yavoy District, answers have been received from one 
+ I : native official, who observes that four-fifths 
T Opinion of native official of oF the fishermen are likewise engaged in 
avoy. . 
other occupations. The local markets are 
only sufficiently supplied with fish at certain seasons, which is eaten 
without exception by every one in the district. The amount in the 
water has decreased during the last five or six years; the fry are 
captured in large quantities during the latter end of the rains in 
the months of September, October, and November; they are taken 
in ¢shais, a building constructed in the middle of the streams with 
bamboo screens or weirs placed across the stream, leaving the part, 
where the building is, open, in which a sloping tray, about 20 yards long, 
is placed, one end touching the ground, and the other above water, with 
wall-like screens on each side of the tray: over this is placed another 
moveable tray or lift, which, when the fish are drivenin by the current, 
is tilted up, and they are caught, or baled out and put into baskets kept 
in the water. The smallest sized mesh of nets is §ths of an inch. Fish 
are trapped in the irrigated fields during the rains in a few places, by 
laying screens and bamboo basket traps in the water-courses when the 
water recedes from the fields: this is generally done by lads for home 
consumption only. The following are the fishing implements em- 
loyed :— 
ee 1.—Tshway-paik-gyee (see Akyab, No, 6); mesh §ths of an inch. 
2.—Tshway-paik-galay (see Akyab, No. 10) ; mesh §ths of an inch. 
3.—Hmyaw-paik-galay, a viver net floated ; mesh 24 inches. 
4,—Tsanda-gyee, a place built in the river or at its mouth, 
where fish are caught on a large scale, worked by eight men : 
there is 4 an inch between the bamboos of which the screens 
are made, 


eexill 


5.—Tsanda-glay, similar, but smaller, and built in the narrow part 
of the river, worked by four men: } of an inch between the 
bamboos. 
6.—Iimyoon and Khaya. The first is a cylindrical bamboo basket, 
from 3 to 6 feet in length, and from 1 to 2 feet in diameter, 
with a trap-door at both ends, in which fish are caught; it 
is used in the streams, The latter is a long cone-shaped 
basket, held under water in a strong tide; the fish gets in 
and is jammed at the sharp ends ; when the tide recedes the 
basket is pulled up by means of a rope: §ths of an inch 
between each piece of bamboo. 
7.—IIisay is the same as ¢sanda, but constructed in tidal streams. 
8.—Kwoon, a casting-net. 
9.—Tsoung, a conical basket, open at both ends; the lower one is 
put down over fish in shallow water, and the fisherman 
removes the game from above: } of an inch between the 
bamboos. 
392. From the Shwégyen District, one native official reports that 
most of the fishermen engage in other occu- 
pations : the local markets are fully supplied ; 
the price has not risen, “but there seems to 
e a general impression that fish are decreasing. This is what the fish- 
‘rmen say ; there is no means of testing it.” Numbers of small bright 
‘ilvery fish, termed ‘ Shoay-hmong,” or gold-dust fish, are found, after 
he first week’s rains, ascending some of the rivers in prodigious shoals, 
'hey swim close to the banks, avoiding the deep water and current, and 
ire caught in great quantities by women and children with pieces of 
nosquito netting or cloth. These have all the characters, to the casual 
‘bserver, of fish-fry, but the Burmese say they grow no larger. The 
smallest sized mesh of nets is 4 an inch and a 4 of an inch between 
vamboos, or even less. Fish are taken in the inundated fields. The 
ames of fishing implements are given. 
393. Replies from the Mergui District have been given by four 
Thoogyees and Myo-okes, but as their answers 
Replies from Mergui. refer to the sea fisheries, they will be included 
in that report. 


Opinion of native official of 
shwégyen. 


CCX1V 


MADRAS. 
(Supplementary Report). 


894. The Acting Collector of Bellary (7th September 1872) ob- 
serves—Dbreeding-fish and fry are destroyed in 
the tanks, but if not taken, they would only 
die when the water dries up. The smallest 
size of mesh in use appears to be one through which a quill ean just 
be passed: it could only be regulated in leased waters, a proceeding he 
does not consider necessary, and as regulations are not recommended, 
“fry will still be caught, and when caught, it must be sold.” The Co/- 
lector (see page Ixxix) stated, as regards letting the fisheries of this 
Collectorate, that it is not probable that any persons will be found to 
bid for them. They have been put up to auction this year and realized 
672 rupees. The Sub-Collector contradicts all the others who assert 
breeding-fish and young ones are destroyed, but gives the minimum 
size of the mesh of nets at ;5th or g4th of an inch; replies +s to whal 
difficulties there are against regulating it— “none much. The Polic: 
would be always able to get fish for nothing, by the threat of charging 
fishermen with fishing with an improper net.” Prohibiting the sal 
of fry in the bazars would be useless, as they would be sold just a 
much, though more privately; whilst were a close season declared foi 
two months during the monsoon in hilly districts, such might “ caus 
the wild tribes to starve during the breeding season.” The Hea 
Assistant Collector veplies—all fish are caught irrespective of their siz 
and condition: by nets and basket-traps chiefly, and in the tank: 
when the waters are low. The minimum mesh in use is given at 
probably 3 an inch in diameter, and as to regulating such, “it will bi 
as easy a matter as the prohibition of illicit arrack-stills, and I do not 
think that much hardship would ensue:” one inch between the knot; 
of each mesh is proposed. 

395. The Acting Collector of Trichinopoly reports (10th August! 
1872) that fishermen spare no fish, howeve: 
small; a tremendous destruction takes plac: 
below the irrigation weirs where their asceut 
is arrested, and in the pools of the river as they subside, also in tank 
that are rented out. One-eighth of an inch is given as the smallest siz 
mesh employed, which ought to be regulated as tending to increase thi 
fish population, and thus secure a good supply to the market ; five ineh« 
in circumference is proposed. 

396. The dAeting Collector of the Kistna (29th August 1872 
observes that fish are caught wherever found 
and in every possible way ; hence breedin;: 
ones and fry can hardly eseape. The smalle: 
mesh will hardly permit a grain of red gram to pass, but great diflicul 
ties would exist in regulating it, or prohibiting the sale of the fi 


Opinions of European Officials 
in the Bellary Collectorate. 


Opinion of the Acting Col- 
lector of Trichinopoly. 


Opinion of European Officials 
in the Kistna District. 


CCxXV 


of fish. Is not satisfied that a diminution of fish has been proved, or 
that if it exists, such can have been caused by destroying the breeding 
ones and their fry ; therefore sees no necessity for legislation, but if 
decided that something is to be done, a short close season would be the 
least objectionable and unpopular form if would take. The JZead 
Assistant Collector replies that it has been shown that “fish of all ages 
and sizes, clean or otherwise, are taken at all seasons,’ whilst as to 
regulating the minimum size of the mesh of nets he sees “no difficulty. 
The fishermen are all known; and their nets can be inspected when 
being used or being dried.” He ventures, “ however, to express an 
opinion that a case for the legislature interfering with the capture 
and sale of fish has not becn made out. Salmon decreased in British rivers 
from two main causes—(1) the pollution by manufactories, (2) from 
the inereased demand. [ ‘This opinion is correet, yet incorrect, except 
that (1) the pollution of rivers was one of the causes of decrease 
of fish, but (2} the inereased demand can hardly be given as_ the 
only other, unless that such led, due to the baneful absence of 
proper regulations, to every poaching practice being resorted to; each 
owner of a fishery “sought to do what he liked with his own part of 
the river, and often selfishly resorted to weirs, dams and fixed engines, 
with the view of driving every living inhabitant of the waters into 
his own net, regardless of the impoverishment of his neighbour.” 
«The decay of the fisheries having then beconie conspicuous, if was 
necessary for the legislature to intervene on the ground of public policy, 
and with an eye to the benefit of all parties, to restrain the suicidal 


policy of the riparian owners, making it no longer possible for each 
to do what seemed good in his own eyes.”  Fixed_ engines were 


considered the chief cause of this injury in many places.} The Acting 
Sub-Collector (24th April 1872) reported that breeding-fish and very 
young ones are destroyed to a great extent. The fishermen catch them 
at all times and in any way they can, but most of all in the hot 
season, when the Kistna is fordable in many places. “In riding 
through fishing villages on the coast, I have often seen numerous 
large heaps of fish of the very smallest size. I have no doubt but 
that the villagers mainly live on them in some seasons, and sell their 
larger fish. If small fish are caught in such quantity on the coast, I 
see no reason to doubt but that the same thing goes on in the 
fresh waters.” In Guntur the salesmen considered the markets fully 
supplied. [The Tehsildar, p. xev, reported the markets as very 
insufficiently supplied, and _re-states it now: also that the amount in 
the waters had decreased. ] No wasteful destruction of fish occurs, 
except the use of the young as food. ‘1t is not used at all as manure, 
or only to a very small extent.” 
397. The Collector of South Canara (September 9th, 1872) re- 
Reply from the Collector of plied that the first six questions have been 
South Canara, and his draft answered (see paragraphs 167 and 168.) Vor- 
Fishery Act. tunately the use of nets is practically prevented 
during the first two months of the monsoon, owing to the violence of the 
floods. The process of spawning is also spread over many months out 
of the twelve, and angling is impracticable at some of the periods in 
question, as mahaseer, at any rate, will not take a bait when the water 


Cexvi 


is coloured. ‘The following is the draft Fishery Act proposed by Mr. 
H. 8. Thomas in 1870 :— 


Whereas it is expedient to provide for the improvement of the 
fisheries in the Madras Presidency, it is hereby enacted as follows :-— 


PRELIMINARY. 


1. Short Title—This Act may be cited for all purposes as the 
Madras Fishery Act, 1870. 

2. Application of Act—This Act shall apply to all places subject 
te the authority of the Madras Government, provided that it shall be 
lawful for the Governor in Council, by notification published in the 
Fort St. George Gazette, to exempt any place from the operation of 
this Act. 

3. Commencement of Act.—This Act shall come into operation 

on the day of ove thousand eight hundred and 
seventy . 
4. Definition of terms.—In this Act, unless there is something 
inconsistent in the context, the words and expressions hereinafter 
mentioned, shall have respectively the meanings hereby assigned to them ; 
that is to say— 

“Tidal waters” shall include the sea, and all rivers, creeks, streams, 

canals, and other water as far as the tide flows and re-flows. 

“ Tnland waters” shall mean all waters that are not tidal waters, 

“ Dams” shall mean all weirs, anicuts, and other fixed obstructions 
used for the purpose of damming up running water. 

“ Fishing weir” shall include any artificial structure fixed across 
the whole or any part of a river for the purpose of catching or 
facilitating the catching of fish. 

“ Fixed engine” shall include stake nets, anchored nets, basket 
traps and all fixed implements or engines for catching or for 
facilitating the catching of fish. 

5. Penalty on mixing poisonous substances in waters.—Kve ry person 
who has poisonous substances in his possession, or who causes or know- 
ingly permits to flow, or puts or knowingly permits to be put into any 
waters containing fish, or into any tributaries thereof, any liquid or 
solid matter to such an extent as to cause the waters to stupefy or kill 
fish, shall incur the following penalties; that is to say— 

1. Upon the first conviction a penalty not exceeding: fifty rupees. 
II. Upon the second conviction a penalty not exceeding one 
hundred rupees, and a further penalty not exceeding twenty 
rupees for every day during which such offence is continued. 

III. Upon a third or any subsequent conviction a penalty not 
exceeding two hundred rupees, and a further penalty not 
exceeding two hundred rupees a day for every day on which 
such offence is repeated or continued, commencing from the 
date of third conviction. 

6. But no person shall be subject to the foregoing penalties if he 
satisfy the Court before whom he is tried that the poisonous substances 
in his possession were intended for some legal purpose. 

7. And no person shall be subject to the foregoing penalties if he 
prove to the satisfuction of the Court before whom he is tried that he has 


eexvil 


used the best practicable means within a reasonable cost to render harmless 
the liquid or solid matter so permitted to flow or to be put into waters. . 

8. And no person shall be subject to the foregoing penalties if ie 
prove to the satisfaction of the Court before whom he is tried that the 
poisoning complained of existed before the passing of this Act; that 
the cost of rendering it harmless would exceed one hundred rupees, or 
would exceed a reasonable tax on his means; and that he has, prior to 
the date of the complaint, applied to the Collector of the District for the 
aid of Government. 

9. In the event of the Collector being applied to for Government 
aid, he shall cause the poisoning to be rendered harmless, and shall proceed 
in accordance with the provisions of Act of (the Arbi- 
tration Act) to apportion the share of the expense thereof to be borne by the 
applicant and the sum to be paid him for any damage done to his property. 

10. If the Collector considers that the applicant has no claim 
under section 8 on the assistance of Government, he shall give notice 
to the applicant that, unless he himself renders the subject of the com- 
plaint harmless within one month or other longer period fixed by the 
Collector, a complaint will be lodged against him under section 5. 

11. Penalty on destroying Roe.—No person shall do the following 
things, or any of them, that is to say— 

I. Buy, sell, or expose for sale, or have in his possession, 
any spawned roe. 
II. Wilfully disturb any place in which fish have spawned. 

And any person acting in contravention of this section shall, for 
each offence, incur a penalty not exceeding twenty rupees, and shall 
forfeit all roe found in his possession; but this section shall not 
apply to any person who uses or has in his possession roe for artificial 
propagation or other scientific purposes, or gives any reason satis. 
factory to the Court by whom he is tried for having the same in his 
possession. 

12. Penalty on using certain nets—No person shall take or attempt 
to take any fish, except shrimps or prawns, with any net having a mesh 
of less than the following dimensions, that is to say, in the inland 
waters of less than half an inch in extension from knot to knot (the 
measurement to be made on each side of the square, or tio inches 
measured round each mesh when wet; or in the tidal waters of less 
than three inches measured round each mesh when wet); and any 
person acting in contravention of this section shall forfeit all nets 
and tackle used by him in so doing, and shall, for each offence, incur 
a penalty not exceeding rupees fifty ; and the placing two or more nets 
behind or near to each other in such manner as to practically diminish 
the mesh of the nets used, or the covering the nets used with canvas, 
or {he using any other artifice so as to evade the provisions of this 
section with respect to the mesh of nets, shall be deemed to be an 
act in contravention of this section. 

13. Penally on placing or fixing fixed engines—No fishing weir 
or fixed engine of any description shall be placed or used for catching 
fish in any inland water ; and for the purposes of this section any water 
flowing to, through, or from irrigated fields shall be included in the term 
inland water ; 


eexviil 


(2) and no fixed engine of any description shall be placed in tidal 
waters between sunset on Saturday and sunrise on Monday : provided 
that it shall be lawful for the Governor in Council, by notification made 
in the Mort St. George Gazette, to exempt any tidal water from the 
operation of this clause ; 

(3) and no fixed engine other than fixed nets of legal meshes shall, 
for the purpose of catching fish, be set on or near the banks of, or 
between high and low water marks of, any tidal waters ; 

(4) and any engine placed or used in contravention of this section 
may be taken possession of or destroyed; and any engine so placed or used, 
and any fish taken by such engine, shall be forfeited, and in addition 
thereto, the owner of any engine placed or used in contravention of this 
section shall, for each day of so placing or using the same, incur a 
penalty not exceeding one hundred rupees. 

14, When fish or the young of fish are led aside out of a main 
stream by means of any artificial channel used for irrigation, or for the 
purpose of supplying towns with water, or for supplying any navigable 
canal, the revenue authorities shall determine whether it is necessary to 
place and maintain gratings before such diversions of water, or to make 
and maintain a free passage therefrom to the main stream, in what man- 
ner the same shall be done, and by whom, and at whose cost, in whole 
or part; and after the expiration of a period of six months from the 
commencement of this Act, any person or persons failing to put a grat- 
ing or gratings, or to make a free passage in cases where they are 
required to do so by this section, shall incur a penalty not exceeding fifty 
rupees for every day after the expiration of such period of six months, 
during which he fails to comply with the provisions of this section ; and 
any such person failing so to maintain the same shall incur a penalty not 
exceeding ten rupees for every day during which such failure continues : 
provided always that no such grating shall be so placed as to interfere 
with the passage of boats on any navigable canal. 

15. Penalty on netting near dams.—No person shall catch or 
attempt to catch, except by rod and line, any fish within one hundred 
yards of any dam ; and if any person acts in contravention of this provi- 
sion, he shall incur a penalty not exceeding twenty rupees for each offence, 
shall forfeit all fish caught in contravention of this section, and all nets 
or other instruments used or placed for catching the same. 

16. Penalty on taking undersized jish.—No person shall wilfully 
take, destroy, injure, buy, sell, or expose for sale, or have in his posses- 
sion any fish declared, by notification of the Governor in Council in the 
Fort St. George Gazette, to be under-sized fish. 

17. Power to make bye-laws—YVor the better application of 
this Act, it shall be lawful for the Governor in Council to make 
from time to time, by notification in the Fort St. George Gazette, any 
bye-law not repugnant to the tenor of this Act. 

18. Power to impose taxes.—Vrom the date of the commencement 
of this Act, it shall be lawful to collect the following dues from all persons 
fishing in waters which are the property of Government :—For every drag 
or wall net (&c., &e., as in paragraph 189 of the report) not more than 
nine rupees per annum (and so on as in paragraph 139 of the report), the 
rates only being trebled. 


CCXix 


19. Recovery of arrears.—All taxes imposed under this Act shall be 
recoverable, whether by the Government or by renters under Government, 
or by suvh sub-renters as may be thereto authorized by the Collector in a 
notification in the District Gazette, in the same manner as arrears of 
land revenue. 

20, Penalty for litigiousness and imposition.—Every person resist- 
ing the recovery of a lawful demand of tax (or interest thereon), or 
vexatiously and litigiously applying to a Magistrate to stay the recovery 
thereof, and every person wilfully making an unlawful demand, shall incur 
a penalty of fifty rupees. 


398. In the Bellary Collectorate, fifteen tehsildars (sce paragraph 173) 
compute the fishermen at 7,880, but they 
also have other occupations: in one tehsil 
fish are stated to be sold in abundance, but 
in all the others the supply is insuflicient and more could be disposed of, 
the fish-eating class being set down at 66 per cent. of the people, The 
amount in the waters is universally considered to have decreased, due 
to the deficiency of rain, for the last ten or fifteen years. During the 
monsoon months, small fish are taken in the jungle streams and nallas by 
placing thread and basket nets concavely against the running water. 
The following are the minimum size of the mesh of nets which are stated 
to be employed :—One, “as big as a broomstick 3’ one, “as broad as the ring- 
finger ;” three, as wide “asa 2-anna piece ;” one, “as big as half the ring- 
finger ;” one, the “size of a dholl or pigeon pea;” two, “as hig as lamp- 
oil seeds ;” two, as small as the circumference of a bodkin; two at éth of 
an inch ; oneat 4th of an inch; and one at less than 7'gth of an inch between 
the knots. Fish are said to be trapped in the irrigated fields by three 
of the reporters. Amongst the various modes of fishing in the Collecto- 
rate are the following :—Jdapola, a drag-net used by two men in tanks ; 
isara-vala, a casting-net; galam, baited hook: in nadlas and channels 
small banks of earth and sand are thrown across running water, leaving a 
gap, wherein a net is fixed: poison is said to be employed in Alur. 
Basket nets—fixed nets placed over-night across streams and removed of a 
morning, and in the irrigation streams nets are likewise fixed. 

399. In the Zrichinopoly Collectorate, five tehsildars reply (see para- 
graph 175) as before, except that the popula- 
tion numbers about 1,149,801 persons, out of 
: whom 407,068, or upwards of one-third, eat 
fish. All the native officials now report that the amount in waters has 
decreased of late years (previously one stated they had increased) : the 
use of small meshed nets is universally reported ; the minimum size of the 
mesh is given thus :—One, the “size of the little finger ;”’ one, the “size of 
a quill ;” one, about the “ size of a tamarind stone;” one, 3th and one, 4th 
of an inch, In one talooka only, are fish said to be trapped. 

400. In the Kistna Collectorate, the Deputy Collector observes, as 
regards prohibiting the sale of fry in the 
bazar, that any attempt “would be useless. 
The best way prohibition ean, I think, be 
effected would be by preventing them from being caught in the first 
instance by regulating the meshes of the nets employed, and by renting 
out the fisheries with the requisite prohibitory conditions on the subject.” 


Bellary Collectorate : opinion 
of the native officials. 


Trichinopoly Collectorate : 
replies of native officials. 


Kistna Collectorate: replies 
of the native officials. 


CCXX 


The Tehsiddars report as in paragraph 171. The one of Bezwada gives the 
fish-eating population at 70 per cent. of the whole: the minimum size of 
the mesh of the nets which he previously observed would “ admit one fin- 
ger,” he now states “is just large enough to contain a cholum seed.” 
The’ Tehsitdar of Patnad now alters his opinion respecting the amount 
of fish in the waters, which, instead of being “stationary,” he now asserts 
have “decreased,” The Zehsiddar of Vinukonda gives the minimum 
size of the mesh of nets as equal “to the size of the end of the little 
finger.” The Tehsitdar of Vissanapet observes—the fishermen have other 
occupations ; the markets are not supplied ; more fish could be sold ; about 
80 per cent. of the people eat it, whilst the amount in the waters has 
decreased: half an inch is the minimum sized mesh used: fish traps, 
snares, and dams are employed; nets are likewise fixed across channels 
for fishing purposes. The Ledsiddar of Bapatla states that the markets 
are supphed; about 80 per cent. of the people eat fish, the amount of 
which in the waters has decreased ; that small ones are captured during the 
rains, whilst the minimum size of the mesh employed is “just large 
enough to hold a Bengal gram seed.” Waters are dammed, and im- 
plements fixed in the current going through a gap where they are taken. 
In Bunder, the fish-eating community is given at 70 per cent.; the 
amount of fish in the waters has decreased ; small ones are captured dur- 
ing the rains; the minimum size of the mesh of the nets is given 
as “just large enough to hold a Bengal gram seed” (previously he 
gave it at quarter of an inch). In Sattenapally, about 75 per cent. 
of the people are stated to eat fish, which are “decreasing every 
year, because the fish in the Kistna River that pass over the 
weir cannot return:’” the smallest mesh used “is of the circumfer- 
ence of a grain of Bengal gram’? The Tehsildar of Gudewada 
considers the amount of fish in the waters to be stationary; 80 per 
cent. of the people eat fish; numbers of small ones are taken during: 
the rains: the minimum size of the mesh of nets equals that of a 2-anna 
piece. 
401. In the South Canara Collectorate, the following are the re- 
aon ehiCanava Calle Ora toe eb eee from the native officials :-—The Tehsil- 
plies of Tehsildars. ‘ dar of Udipi reports the number of fishermen 
at 1,110; they do not live solely by fishing ; 
they are mostly of the Moger caste; but in one place people of the 
Karvi caste also follow the same calling. The local markets are sup- 
plied; 68 per cent, of the people eat fish; quantities of small ones were 
formerly destroyed by poison. This is now stopped; “ people, therefore, 
say that the number of fish in such rivers and streams has greatly 
increased of late and is still increasing,” but such fish are taken in fresh- 
water streams and paddy-fields; also by fixed traps and weirs: the mini- 
mum size of the meshes of nets employed is §th ofaninch. The Tedsiddar of 
Uppinangadi observes that the fisherman have other occupations ; every- 
one catches what he requires, and about 40 per cent. are computed to 
eat it; the amount in the waters is said to be increased ; numerous small 
fish are trapped in water-courses; the minimum size of the mesh of 
the nets is jth of an inch; fish are extensively trapped in paddy-fields. 
The Tehsildar of Mangalur’s answers, as applicable to the sea or fresh- 
water fisheries, cannot be accurately sub-divided. The Tehsiddar of 


CeXxxi 


Cundapur considers that out of 2,000 fishermen 500 are solely thus 
engaged ; they consist of Karu, Moger, Dalji, Karvi, Gabith or Upparear, 
and Boyee. About 85 per cent. of the people eat fish ; the minimum size 
of the mesh of nets ‘is that of a green gram, say {th of aninch from 
knot to knot.” Small fish are trapped in paddy-fields. The Zehsiddar 
of Cassergode’s replies refer mostly to the sea fisheries. 


eexxii 


BRITISH BURMATL. 
(Supplementary Report.) (1) 


402. The Officiating Assistant Secretary to the Chief Commissioner 
(October 12th, 1872) observes ‘that the 
more the Chief Commissioner enquires into 
the matter, the more satisfied he is that any 
attempt to prohibit the capture of small fish would be as impolitic as it 
is unnecessary”—[an opinion opposed to what he gave April 4th, 1872 
(see p. eci) and July 19th, 1872.)} 
403. The Commissioner of Pegu (September 25th, 1872) forwards 
“2 4 _ extracts from the opinions of those serving: 
paneer eee ones ep under him. The Deputy Commissioner of 
Rangoon replies that “there is no doubt that 
in some parts of the district large numbers of breeding-fish are destroyed. 
This is done at the commencement of the rains, when they go up small 
streams, and where the water is clear and shallow, for the purpose of 
spawning: they are at this time easily caught and destroyed, so much so, 
that the instruments which many persons use are common sticks: very 
many young’ fish, too, are no doubt caught where they can be, but this 1s 
done chiefly in the small streams which are not rented out, and in the 
small fisheries. It is the practice in this district in large fisheries to 
set apart a portion of the fishery for the young fish which may be caught 
or which pass through the screens, and some of the large fish which are 
caught are also put into this for purposes of breeding.” TI do not think 
there would be any great difficulty in regulating the size of the mesh. If 
once the order were given, people would be afraid to use nets with 
meshes smaller than the regulated size, as the fact could be so easily 
proved. Iam not prepared to say what size of mesh would be advisable, 
nor am I much in favor of regulating the size. I think that if such a 
regulation were made, a large number of persons who catch a few fish for 
their own consumption, and do no harm, would be debarred from doing 
so.” [It is most remarkable that poaching the fry of fish should be 
held to do no harm if people do not pay for the right, whilst this paragraph 
ends as follows, showing the loss that such acts must entail on fisheries :]— 
“T think that those who work them are quite aware of the advantages 
to be gained by not destroying the small fish, and would protect them 
where the fisheries are leased for a term of years.” “ As far as this district 
is concerned, I would certainly prohibit the capture of breeding-fish, Nga- 
vit, as they are called : their haunts are well known, and ¢he right to catch 
these only is rented out in some parts separate from the fishery itself, which 
is worked at a different season.” (Tow the fishermen must be astonished 
at such short-sighted policy. This is the period probably adverted to 


Final opinion of the Chief 
Commissioner of British Burma. 


(1) Only received October 23rd, 1872. Replies to questions circulated in 1869 not yet 
come to hand. 


ecexxiil 


by the Burmese Government when fishing is stopped.] Besides the 
fishermen, “ there are many who, in the parts of the district: where the 
fisheries are worked in the dry season, cultivate lands during the rains.” 
The Deputy Commissioner of Bassein reports, that “except the hilsa 
breeding-fish are not destroyed ; [this is erroneous, as I have personally 
witnessed it to a great extent] but young fish are captured to a consider- 
able extent by traps in the paddy-fields, and in low-lying grounds 
after the floods have subsided.” The minimum sized mesh used is 4rds 
of an inch, and the chief difficulty in regulating such is the small varieties 
of fish which would thus escape, whilst a fine sized mesh is more expen- 
sive than a large sized one. No objections exist to prohibiting the sale 
of fry in the bazars. “It is very easy to say that itis objectionable to 
have the young of fish destroyed, a matter which is universally admitted, 
nor do the fishermen who have a permanent interest destroy the young 
fish, for they are probably far better acquainted with the habits, breeding 
season, and of the varieties of fish they catch than more scientific 
observers, and are not so blind to their own interest as to commit 
such suicidal acts.” [As regards the foregoing, “scientific observers” 
may not be more competent to give opinions than “ Burmese fisher- 
men,’ but surely they may be permitted to report upon what they see, 
and how they think. Destroying fry is denounced by this official to 
be a suicidal act in leased fisheries, but he would permit such unchecked 
in paddy-fields and in his district by cultivators. Scientific enquirers 
may have their doubts as to the practical wisdom of such a distinction, 
and not be prepared to believe that destruction of fry wholesale in paddy- 
fields does no injury, whilst killing the same in leased fisheries is a 
suicidal act! In fact, they may perceive a wasteful destruction, not 
far removed from folly, and which perhaps has escaped the notice of 
“non-scientific local observers”. ] “The young fish are, however, destroyed 
by cultivators in their. own paddy-fields, but it is questionable whether 
the prohibition of this, with the exactions and prosecutions for the breach 
of the prohibitions, would not entail greater evils than allowing it.” 
The Deputy Collector of Myanoung observes that “ breeding-fish and very 
young ones are captured in considerable numbers by means of weirs 
and traps, the size of the mesh or intervals between the bamboos con- 
stituting the trap being so small as to preclude the exit of any fishes 
however minute:’ “baby fish are destroyed in numbers along the 
banks of the various streams, where they take refuge from the current.” 
In branches of main streams, which are filled only in the floods, all fishes 
are totally destroyed on the waters falling ; but the proportion must be 
but small to those that escape. ['Tradition, always to be received with 
ereat caution, and the opinion of the oldest inhabitant, which is generally 
more or less liable to errors of recollection, as with such “all times are 
good when old,” are adduced _to prove the fact that the fisheries have not 
diminished in productiveness ] whilst “the Burmese themselves, on being 
asked whether they considered the system hitherto in foree in Burma had 
the effect, of diminishing to a serious extent the fish food of the province, 
seemed quite surprised that such a question should be asked.” [Doubtless 
they would have been still more astonished had they been asked whether the 
present slaughter of young fish in all unleased fisheries and irrigated 


CCXXIV 


land was a beneficial or suicidal act. It is, however, stated they were asked 
if it had diminished to a serious extent the fish food; then by the 
interrogatory a diminution seems almost conceded, whilst an increase of 
population is admitted.) But it is continued—*“that fish are now as 
plentiful as ever they were known to be.’ ‘The smallest interval 
between the stakes of a weir “was just sufficient to let the water flow 
through, and of course precluded the exit of fish.” If a net, it was of 
“ suflicient size to admit the nail of the little finger of a man’s hand.” If 
minute meshed nets were prevented, any regulation “ would possibly 
deprive the poor man, who occasionally gets afew fish for home consump- 
tion, of his dinner.’ So he “recommends that the people be left to use 
their own nets in their own fashion.” If any rules are enforced respecting 
fry, “it should be imposed on the catchers of fish, and not on the bazar 
sellers, chiefly women, who would be unable to comprehend or carry 
out such a rule.’ The Deputy Collector of Prome, whose opinions are 
so mixed up with the replies of the Myo-okes that some given amongst 
the latter have been referred to this place instead, observes that 
especially about Padoung breeding-fish and fry are destroyed. Young 
fish are also caught in Shway-Lay, but there are very few fisheries there ; 
“Wish are taken indiscriminately, and numerous breeding and young 
fish must be destroyed. They are taken all the year round in the rivers, 
and during the rains in the inland or pond fisheries.” _Is averse to legisla- 
tion on the minimum size of the mesh of the net which is employed, and 
there would be difficulties in prohibiting the sale of the fry of fish. The 
bazar is not fully supplied ; more fish could be sold at Padoung ; the price 
is Rs. 45 a viss for large, and Rs. 25 a viss for small fish; at Shwé-doung 
1s. 385 per 100 viss for the former, and Rs. 15 for the latter: during the 
cold season it is cheaper, but the relative proportions continue. He 
observes that fish are said to have increased, and “I think that I can 
confidently assert that, notwithstanding the wanton destruction of young 
fish, of which Dr. Day saw reason to complain, but which, with all 
respect, I venture to assert, does not take place, &.” [Really, this is a very 
remarkable statement : an official, who, I believe, was not in the place, 
most distinctly denies the statements I made of the destruction of young 
fish occurring in my presence at Prome when there in 1869, the sorts of 
which I pointed out, and a few of the very specimens are now in 
my possession or in the Imperial Museum at Calcutta. He asserts this, 
although I showed the captures on the spot to Colonel Stoddart and 
more than one official who were then there, whilst the same destructive 
proceeding his own answers prove even now to be going on in the paddy- 
fields and banks of the streams in or near that place. And the next 
answer is from a contiguous official, who makes, in other words, exactly 
the same statement as I did, and the accuracy of which is strictly 
correct. } “ Very small fish are taken during the rains in the rice-fields by 
means of traps called ¢sowug, made of bamboo slips, plaited and 
tied together in the shape of a basket, the spaces being as small as the 
spaces between the bamboos of a chick almost. ‘This is carried by the 
hand, and is suddenly put into the water with the mouth downwards, 
and pressed down, and the fish caught inside its walls is then collected. 
Another trap employed for taking small fish on the banks of the streams 
and in the paddy-fields is called yeh-thai, which is made of plaited 


CCXXV 


hamboos like a mat, and is shaped somewhat like a shovel.” He goes on 
to describe a lave-net, and remarks upon the /eng-da?, one of the very 
nets I complained of, and which in his own words “consists of a very 
fine meshed net, with two bamboos fastened along each end. It is 
worked by two men, who take each one end of the bamboo; in fact, it 
is first taken out at right angles from the bank; the man holding the 
outer end makes a curve until his bamboo touches the bank * * and the 
small fish swept up and confined between the bank and the net are 
caught.’ He also deseribes the Chinese dip-net, which he states is a 
fine net, capturing “any small fish that have been swimming over.” 
The Deputy Collector of Thyetmyo, in addition to his former report, 
observes,— Very young fish, I fear, are destroyed in great numbers 
during the rainy season; at this period of the year, they leave the 
river and ascend any little stream or backwater they can find, and 
here they fall an easy prey to men, women and children, who 
pursue them with all sorts of contrivances, which, though generally 
very simple, are very killing. ‘Two women, for instance, holding a sheet 
between them, will, in half an hour or so, colleet a few pounds of small 
fry.” Were the size of the mesh regulated, one inch is proposed as the 
minimum. 

404. The replies of the AZyo-okes or native officials are thus given:— 
The Myo-okes of Rangoon state thatas arule 
fish, sufficient for one’s daily requirements, 
ean always be obtained in the market, but 
there is a difficulty at times in purchasing large quantities, especially 
at those seasons of the year in which the fisheries are not being worked.” 
“Opinions differ very much as to whether fish have inereased or decreased 
of late years. The last rainy season was an unusually favourable one, 
and fish were more plentiful than they had been for years. But I 
think the general opinion is that fish are not so plentiful as they 
were some years ago hefore we took the country.” As regards the 
modes of fishine—one i is by putting up bunds and leaving one opening 
through which “the fish pass and jump into a kind of tray placed to 
receive them; or by erecting a large thick screen, and having another 
immoveable one, which is dragged towards the stationary one until 
the fish are enclosed in such a small space as to be easily caught by 
bunding off different portions and draining away the water; also by 
putting up large screens to prevent the fish escaping, and catching them 
with nets. The Myo-okes of Prome reply that by far the larger number 
of fishermen follow other occupations as well. More fish would be sold 
in the bazar were it provided: the amount in the waters is said to be 
increasing. The Metra Assistant Commissioner of Pantanaw replies—the 
number of fishermen as given by the Myo-okes is 791, and they do not 
pursue any other occupation ; they are Taleins and Karens. Whe local 
markets are fully supplied. Large fish sell at Rs. 15° per 100 viss, 
and small at Rs. 7. Fish have slightly increased of late years, 
considering the rate at which fish was sold last year (see answer from 
Rangoon, that it was an unusually favourable one), I may safely say 
that the quantity is dependant more on the rise of the waters: if 
the catching of Nga-Zit or fish with spawn is prevented, it will no 
doubt lead to the inerease of fish. The minimum interspace in weirs 


pP 


Pegu Commissionership. Re- 
plies of native officials, 


CCXXVi 


or between the knots of meshes of nets is ,',thof aninch, Fish are 
trapped in the irrigated fields for home consumption by the cultivators. 
The modes of fishing enumerated are the same as previously recorded. 
The Extra Assistant Commissioner of Myoung Mya reports that the fisher- 
men generally carry on petty trades during the rains, The amount of 
fish in the waters remains stationary ; some are trapped and otherwise cap- 
tured in irrigated ficlds. The Batra Assistant Commissioner of Theegwen 
observes that fish are sold at the fisheries, as there is no proper market: 
those “ obtained in my township sometimes equals former years and some- 
times less, but never more.” The Bvtra Assistant Commissioner of Tsabai 
Yoon reports that the fishermen also engage in trade. ‘The fish in 
the bazar is neither scarce nor plentiful. I think there is a slight 
increase in the quantity of fish this year than the previous five or six years.’ 
“Tn using the gyan, the fishes are put into a place called sha-yai-bouk, 
whence they are removed to another place termed win, whence they 
are taken to the market.” The Eetra Assistant Commissioner of Yay-gyec 
observes that out of 768 fishermen in his district 500 exclusively follow 
this occupation, and 200 employ themselves thus for home consumption. 
As to the bazar supply of fish, it is “not plentiful every month ; scaree 
in August and September.” Small fish obtain half the price per viss that 
large ones do: the amount in the waters “is rather limited to what 
it was years ago.” Fish are trapped in the irrigated fields. The Letra 
Assistant Commissioner of Lay-myet-hna replies. that the bazars are well 
supplied during the dry weather, but not so in the rains. Of late years 
the amount in the waters has decreased : they are trapped in irrigated 
fields. The Eetra Assistant Commissioner of Shwé-loung veports that 
“there is no bazar in my township. The fish are carried about and 
sold in quantities merely sufficient for the people. During the last 
year fish was carried about and sold sometimes in sufficient quantities, 
sometimes more, sometimes less.” Small fish are taken during the rains, 
and traps are employed in the fields. 


CCXXVii 


BENGAL. 
(Supplementary Report, received November 5th, 1872.) 


405. The Agent to the Governor General, North-Eastern Frontier, 
Opinions of European Officials @@ Commissioner of Assam observes (October, 
in North-East Bengal, and 9th, 1872) that he is ‘not sufliciently well 
Assn: informed on the subject to have any tempta- 
tion to be discursive about it,” and has to “ deplore the absence of the 
tastes which, either as sportsman or naturalist, would have led me to 
bestow some attention on the numerous varieties of fishes that are to 
be found in Assam.””? No doubt a very unnecessary destruction of fresh- 
water fish goes on at present in Assam; but, on the whole, it may be 
doubted whether such is a wasteful one, in the sense of injuriously affect- 
ing the supply available for legitimate consumption. He observes that 
“T should be slow to believe that there were fewer fish anywhere in 
Assam now than there used to be, unless it were demonstrated to me 
that the actual take of fish anywhere over the same area of water with 
the same engines and the same skill was less than it used to be; and 
then, unless the same fact could be proved as to many localities in differ- 
ent parts of Assam, I would not allow the extension of an inference of 
diminished fish-supply to the whole province.” Crocodiles (termed 
alligators) during the dry season are in extraordinary numbers ; 
the natives assert they have increased, and, as a consequence, that fish 
have decreased, the Commissioner, considering just the contrary 
must be the true solution, continuing —“ at all events, I have little 
doubt but that the number of fishes destroyed by the crocodiles on the 
Brahmaputra is beyond all proportion greater than what is destroyed 
by man, and it would seem, therefore, that the first duty of a system of 
fish conservancy for that river would be the killing of the crocodiles.” 
Breeding-fish and their fry and those in all conditions are destroyed by 
the Assamese by every engine and contrivance that they can command. 
Owing to a sparse population and a large amount of water, it is sur- 
mised that the destruction caused by village populations must be but a, 
small proportion to the whole, consequently that there is not any emer- 
gent necessity for attending to the conservancy of its fish, but poisoning 
the waters is objected to. Dr. Day will, perhaps, pardon me for sug- 
gesting to his objections that the onus proband? is with him, and not 
with those who differ from him, for his is the affirmative proposition, 
viz., that the supply of fish has diminished, and it is for him to prove it, 
by showing that the fishermen have improved in their means of capture, 
have changed their times of fishing, and that the fish-eating population 
has inereased, or in any other way.” [llere I must dissent from the 
statements advaneed. first, no onus probandi lies with me, beeause I 
have not wished to prove anything, but impartially carry out an inves- 
tigation given me by the Government of India, whilst the most satis- 
factory conclusion would have been that, due to the eare of the fisheries 
by officers in civil employ, they were not deteriorating.  Secgndly, 


eeXxxVili 


I would suggest that I could give no, opinion respecting Assam until 
after the receipt of the present reports (as I have never been in the pro- 
vince), and have to observe from such the state of the fisheries until T am 
able personally to proceed there.} The Deputy Commissioner of Durrung 
(October 9th, 1872) observes—there is good reason to suppose that the 
supply of fish is falling off. Tish has become of late years much dearer, 
the fisheries are falling in value, and many of the Dome fishermen are, 
in consequence, I believe, taking to agricultural pursuits. With, per- 
haps, the exception of some Marwari merchants and some sepoys, fish 
would be consumed by all classes in this district could they get it, but, 
as it is, the supply by no means equals the demand. Fish is neither 
salted, dried, nor exported, but some is imported. Tish are neither put 
in tanks nor reared, but on the contrary all means are employed for 
their destruction and that of their spawn. Hverything from a weir to 
a basket is used, and the meshes of nets are so small that no fry can 
eseape. The fish never have rest, and must decrease in numbers. The 
only measure for conservation possible would be regulating the smallest 
size of the meshes permitted. The prevention of the destruction of the 
fry in the fields is a more serious consideration, as the people for years 
have procured daily meals from them, and to suddenly withdraw the pri- 
vilege, even although it would be doubtless much to their eventual 
advantage, might cause discontent and trouble. “ In case of the enact- 
ment of fishery Jaws (and, if the supply of fish is to be kept up, they 
are most necessary), I am of opinion that they should not come in force 
all at once, but be tried first in one district and then in another, and 
even then but partially, going further and further as the people become 
more accustomed to them. ‘he nets and the regular fishermen might 
be first commenced with, and when the latter were quieted, and the cry 
(which would be certain to arise) that Government was going to puta 
tax on fish got over, other sections of the law might be put in force.” 
The Deputy Commissioner of Nowgong replies :—~ My own originally 
acquired knowledge on the subject of fishes is most limited, my study 
and attention during my Indian career having been devoted principally 
to ponies, goats, and cats; but from intelligent natives I have been able 
to glean the following information.” ‘There is no reason to suppose that 
the supply of fish is falling off; it is largely consumed by all classes, 
except Hindu Marwari traders or kyahs, who entirely eschew fish. The 
upper classes of Hindus do not preserve, dry, or salt fish at all ; but hill 
tribes, as the Mikirs, Lalungs, and Cacharies, dry it ; also low-easte Hindus, 
as Domes and Charals, as well as Mahomedans. Dried fish is said to be 
largely exported to Panimur on the borders of the Naga hills district, 
where a ready sale is found for it. Tish are neither privately bred nor 
put into tanks in the district. “Ido not think that any measures for 
conservation of fish seem to be necessary or called for.” The Deputy 
Commissioner of Seebsagur observes,—‘ the supply of fish is not, in my 
opinion, falling off; not only is every stream well stocked with fish, but 
at this season of the year, the drains alongside of roads, paddy-fields 
and ponds all contain an ample supply of fish, and are regularly fished by 
the people. ‘The Assamese of all classes eat fish, and the consumption 
is, therefore, very great, and the wholesale destruction which is always 
going on of the small fry would lead one to suppose the sapply would 


CCXXIX 


fail, but the River Brahmaputra appears to be sufficient to keep up an 
ample supply for the numerous streams which communicate with it. 
Although the people are such large consumers of fish, they do not dry 
or preserve if, nor is there any trade carried on in fish with distant 
places. ‘The Nagas, when they come down in the cold weather, purchase 
or barter cotton for fish, which they dry before taking back to their 
hills, Nothing whatever is done in the way of breeding fish or stock- 
ing tanks, and the only thing, in the way of conservation that is 
necessary, is to prevent as much as possible the wholesale destruction of 
fish in small streams, which have run up to spawn. What with dams, 
traps, baskets and nets, which the villagers use, very few fish escape to 
the larger streams. But, even with this wholesale destruction, the supply 
of fish appears abundant, and if this destruction were only partially 
checked, there would be no fear of the supply running short.” The 
Assistant Commissioner, Golaghat, reports:—“ I cannot say that I see at 
present any signs of the fish-supply falling off; but looking at the reck- 
less way in which the young fry are destroyed, it is but reasonable to 
suppose that, could this habit be checked, the supply would become more 
plentiful. Many of the river fish, some of which attain a large size, 
come annually up the smaller streams and deposit their spawn, and the 
young ones of these are during the rains dispersed over the surface of the 
country in rice-fields, swamps, drains and ditches. These endeavour sub- 
sequently to make their way to the large rivers, but the dangers that 
beset them on the road are more numerous than those which Bunyan’s 
Pilgrim had to encounter. In the shallow waters in the rice-fields, 
women and children may be seen in crowds fishing with baskets called 
jekai, through the interstices of which a tadpole could not pass. 
Those that escape this danger, and, following the flow of the water, 
arrive at one of the innumerable little bunds separating the various 
paddy-fields, find their further progess barred by funnel-shaped bamboo 
traps called khoka, chapa, ov ghunee, through which the water is 
made to pass, but whose outlets are so small that only the most minute 
fish can get through. Escaping to the smaller water-courses, their dan- 
gers seem to increase. The Assamese divide the channel into sections 
by erecting bunds, and from one of these they proceed to bale out all the 
water, capturing every fish, large and small: they then bund off another 
portion and do likewise. ‘The fish that finally arrive at the smaller 
rivers find their exit barred by weirs, which will let nothing pass; and 
not content with this, the Assamese will sometimes resort to poison, 
employing for this purpose the fruit of a tree called ‘ Konibehee.’ 
Nearly the entire population consume fish; the only method of pre- 
serving it being drying it, and this is only done by Mahomedans and 
the hill tribes.” “ Although fish may be occasionally put into tanks, 
it can hardly be said that they are reared, for within a few months the 
water in the tank is sure to be carefully baled out and all its inmates 
destroyed, the net result being the capture of (say) a thousand fish, 
weighing in the aggregate a couple of pounds.” The Assistant Commis- 
sioner of Jorehat observes that “the numerous streams which run 
through the country are well stocked with fish, as are the numerous dhee/s 
and swamps. In the rainy season fish are to be found in every puddle 
and paddy-field. * * The supply of fish is at present amply suflicient, 


CCXxx 


and, so far as T can ascertain, it is not falling off appreciably. The 
Brahmaputra, which is never properly fished, is a preserve from which a 
supply is constantly forthcoming to stock the other waters which com- 
municate with it. Fish is used as an article of diet by all classes of the 
Assamese, and the consumption is therefore great. The only professional 
fishermen are Domes, who use boats and nets of large size on the 
Brahmaputra and the Jarger streams and éheels, and who regularly 
sell what they catch. Villagers, however, of all classes fish for them- 
selves with baskets, hand-nets and the hook, and also set traps in the 
streams. In the rainy season numbers of people are continually to be 
seen at work catching fish in some way or other for their own consump- 
tion.” They do not preserve it in any way, but use it fresh, or very often 
half putrid. Fish are not privately bred, nor is any attempt made to 
stock waters artificially. The only thing in the way of conservation 
that I see necessary is to prevent, as far as possible, the wholesale de- 
struction of fish that have run up small streams to spawn, and of their fry. 
The villagers, if left to themselves, are very fond of damming streams at 
the end of the rains, when fish, large and small, are running down; this 
they do in such a way that scarcely anything can escape the traps set in 
the dam. As long asa fair number of young fish are spared, the supply is 
not likely to fall off, especially of the better kinds of fish, which, 
so to speak, have their head-quarters in the Brahmaputra.” The 
Depuly Commissioner of the Khasi Hills states that in most of the rivers 
which drain the high Jands, small-scaled and scaleless fishes are found, 
but not plentifully. Again, in the rivers near the plains, at the lower 
levels, below the water-falls, the fish are in abundance ; they ean be seen 
swimming about in the clear deep pools, and at the foot of the hills. 
During the dry season, when the rivers are low, a very large quantity 
of fish, some of them weighing as much as five or six seers, are caught 
by throwing dams and weirs across the shallows. There are very few 
tanks in the hills, and in such as exist the fish are very scarce.’ Sun- 
dried fish is a staple for food with the hill people. Tish have not 
diminished. 

406. The Officiating Collector of Tipperah (October 18th, 1872) 
; observes that “ breeding-fish are undoubtedly 
destroyed to some extent, as are very young 
fish, but with respect to these a very sensible 
practice prevails, Every one who has even a very small tank will put 
young fish into it for the purpose of creating a fishery. It is said that 
the greater portion of young fish caught, is disposed of this way.” 
[The native officials of this Collectorate report ‘very small fish are 
sold by weight,’ and again that the minimum sizeof the mesh of 
nets is j!yth of an inch, and very small fry are trapped.] “TI understand 
that to the north of the district, where fish is far more plentiful than 
here or in the south, the destruction of breeding-fish is not considered 
very injurious.” They are only caught in rivers by means of nets and 
a bamboo snare ealled parou, which is baited with shells and insects ; 
the chief months are between May and August. Young: fish are also 
caught in rivers, by means of small-meshed nets, from August to Octo- 
ber inclusive. The minimum size of the meshes of nets used is from 
roth to jth of an inch square, and it would be impossible to regulate 


Opinion of the Collector of 
Tipperah, 


CCxxxi 


such, being opposed to publie prejudice, and due to the irritation it would 
cause, although it is our duty to keep up the fish-supply if it can be done. 
As to prohibiting the sale of the fry of fish in the bazars, such could only 
be carried out at head-quarters, and it would “ interfere with the sensible 
practice of storing tanks.” [I would here suggest that the fry of fish 
sold dead in the bazars would hardly be adapted for this purpose, whilst 
live fry for such a use need not be subjected to regulations.) “I am 
told that natives, when recovering from sickness, eat the young fry as 
being more delicate in flavour.” [This is curious conjoined with the 
statements made elsewhere in India. In the Panj&b, in the Multan 
Division, it is a popular belief that fish used as food during the rains 
occasion sickness (p. xxi): in the Central Provinces (p. exxi) that fish 
eaten at such seasons are the reputed originators of disease.) “I 
think that the supply is falling off,.but very little, if at all, though 
in the south of the district there is much more difficulty in procuring 
fish than in the north.’ Fish are consumed by all classes, except 
widows of respectable Hindus, and by a man here and there, who 
objects to eat animal food on principle. The upper and middle classes 
eat fresh fish, the poorer dried fish; some is dried in the north, 
but salted in the south of the division. ‘ During the cold season 
live fish are exported to Calcutta, though this trade is said to have 
fallen off owing to the opening of the Eastern Bengal Railway. Dried 
and salted fish are exported to Chittagong in considerable numbers.” 
Young fish that have been reared in tanks are eaten on great occasions 
in the family, as marriage feasts, saradhs, &e. “I do not think that con- 
servation is absolutely necessary here: it would be very difficult ‘to 
enforce, aud would cause a very great deal of discontent, while it seems. 
hardly sufficiently justified by necessity. That is to say, I would not, 
interfere with net or trap fishing, but I think I would prohibit the use 
of fixed engines, such as bamboo screens and fences in the bed of any 
river, hal, or water channel. Such a mode of catching fish might fairly 
be put down, while the obstructions are a serious nuisance to passing 
boats.” 

407. The Officiating Commissioner of Dacca (October 4th, 1872) 
replies: — Hast Bengal, of which this division 
forms: the chief part, is noted for large sup- 
plies of fish. In Dacca, Sylhet, and Cachar, 
the supply is supposed to be falling off, but not to such an extent as to 
interfere with the ordinary consumption of the people. The causes of 
this diminution are alleged to be exsiccation of dheels, tanks, and other 
water-courses, reckless destruction of the fry of fish, passing and 
re-passing of steamers, which are said to drive the river fish to distant 
quarters, &e. In Backergunge, Mymensing, and Furreedpore, no dimi- 
nution is reported or supposed to exist.” Tifteen-sixteenths of the 
population may be set down as fish consumers. Fish is salted or 
dried for home consumption or export, and largely exported to Caleutta 
and elsewhere by rail or boats. ‘Everybody in this district, after 
digging a tank, puts in small fish and fry of various species to be reared, 
and in every district the number of such tanks is innumerable. Fish 
is, besides, to be found in abundance in the several rivers, canals, dhrels 
and other water-courses wilh which every district. abounds. Under 


Opinion of European Officials 
of Dacea, and Dr, Bose. 


CexxXx ii 


these circumstances it does not seem necessary that any measures need be 
taken for the conservation of fish in this division. On this subject, I 
beg to submit a very exhaustive and carefully drawn-up report from 
Dr. Bose, Civil Surgeon of Furreedpore.” [The report alluded to doubt- 
less is very creditable, but hardly in accordance with the zoological 
knowledge of the present half century. Fortunately, however, the 
native names of most of the fishes are given, by which a few may be 
recognised ; a few more by Hamilton Buchanan’s designations, but from 
whence species of the Cod family, Gadide, could have been procured, it 
is difficult to understand, as the little sea and estuary Bregmaceros is its 
only representative in India. Others of the Latin terms perhaps have 
been derived from a dictionary, but certainly not from any zoological 
work, whilst the last two, excluding the eels, are a Zews, quite an unknown 
genus in Hindustan, and “a very common fish of the fresh-water, which 
seldom reaches a foot,’ Lacerta scineus is stated to be its scientific 
name, terms, however, each of which is that of a genus amongst lizards, 
forms the bases of family designations of reptiles, but becomes un- 
known amongst fishes!] Dr. Bose, Civil Surgeon of Furreedpore, 
after his list of fish, continues—“ the supply is not diminishing: here. 
Tcan speak from a personal local experience of upwards of fifteen years, 
and certainly during this time I have never noticed such falling off. 
On the other hand, the markets always appeared fully as well supplied 
and sometimes as glutted as ever.” All classes consume fish, and even 
many voishnabs and widows, who usually abstain from it elsewhere. 
Hilsa are said to be largely salted for Calcutta and other markets ; no 
other fish are preserved, but oil is sometimes taken from this fish as well. 
Tanks are few, but are generally kept well stocked with fish. In this 
district, which is annually inundated during the rains, “ and where, by the 
latter means, nature, as it were, by a preconcerted arrangement, undertakes 
to carry on the breeding of fish on a large scale herself, any artificial 
culture by the hand of man would appear to me to be almost wnneces- 
sary or superfluous,’ &e. In short, he considers that the inundations 
occur during the spawning time of fishes, whilst these watery districts are 
the nurseries for the fry, and admirably adapted for supplying them with 
food. ‘ Inundations, therefore, far from being a source of great evil, 
ought to be looked upon as the most beneficent provision in the economy 
of nature for the breeding and preservation of fish ; and such being 
the case, where these obtain, any other protective measures, which cannot 
but be of a molecular or liliputian character compared to these gigantic 
natural operations to the same end, would seem to be hardly called for, or 
possibly needed.” Ignoring how the breeding-fish and fry are destroyed, 
he considers such destruction as not to be compared with what would 
accrue were there no inundations or localities where proper pasture could be 
found by these baby fishes. Breeding-fish are only accidentally caught, 
and the fry to some extent as inundations recede ; but as they are not 
wantonly so, it is useless to enumerate the machines. If fry were not 
permitted to be sold, “ the effect would be simply to interfere with the 
food-supply of the people without in the slightest manner helping the 
_ cause of pisciculture.” The answers given by the Collectors and others are 
tabulated. In Dacca breeding-fish and very young ones are destroyed to 
a great extent, indiscriminately, in all rivers, jhee/s, water-courses, &c., 


CCXXXiil 


and at all seasons. The minimum mesh of nets is stated to be the size of 
a grain of gram, interference with which would be unpopular. {In the 
five districts this one answer is given in the lump, whilst the Commis- 
sioner observes “ nor is it necessary :” whether this is the opinion of 
each of the reporters is left to conjecture.] Were the sale of the fry of 
fish prohibited, a very large amount of food would be taken from the people. 
The castes of fishermen are Jalooa, Koebarta, Teor, and Mallow. The local 
markets are generally fully supplied, and fish is eaten, by fifteen-sixteenths 
of the population: the amount in the waters has decreased by 
one-fourth from some unknown causes; very young ones are trapped 
during the rains in irrigated fields; snares are likewise employed. In 
Lurreedpore, breeding-fish and young ones are said not to be destroyed to 
any great extent, but some are taken by the hand and various fish traps. 
‘The minimum size of the mesh of the nets equals a grain of gram, 
interference with which would be extremely unpopular (see remarks above), 
whilst prohibiting the sale of fry would interfere with the food-supply of 
the people. In Backergunge, breeding-fish and very young ones are not 
destroyed to any great extent; the minimum size of the mesh of the nets 
equals a grain of gram, interference with which would be extremely 
unpopular (see remarks above), whilst prohibiting the sale of fry is not 
necessary. In Mymensing, breeding-fish and very young ones are destroyed 
to a very great extent, which destruction continually goes on in all parts 
of the district. The minimum size of the mesh of the nets equals a grain 
of gram; interference with such would be extremely unpopular (see re- 
marks above). Prohibiting the sale of the fry of fish in the bazars 
“ would be a vexatious and altogether unnecessary interference. It would 
lead to great abuses and oppression, and the prohibition would be directed 
against an evil which is altogether imaginary, as there is not the least 
reason to suppose that the sale of the fry of fish has exercised, or 
can exercise, any injurious effect upon the fish-supply.” In Sy/het, 
breeding-fish and young ones are destroyed to a great extent, and in 
all parts of the district continually. The minimum size of the mesh 
of the nets equals a grain of gram; interference with such would 
be extremely unpopular (see remarks above). No objections exist against 
prohibiting the sale of the fry of fish in the bazars. 
408. The Commissioner of Chota Nagpore (October 4th, 1872) 
forwards replies. The Deputy Commissioner of 
Opinions of European JJazareebaugh (July 23rd, 1872) observes that 
ge in Chota Nog- «there are only three rivers in this district in 
which fish can be caught, v2z., the Barrakur, the 
Damoodah, and the Soobunrekha.”’ During the rains these rivers are 
too much flooded to be fished, but as they subside, fish are left in the 
pools, and are then either netted or taken by angling. As a matter of 
course, the supply of fish is greater just after the break-up of the rains, 
and gradually falls off as the pools dry up during the hot weather, and 
their contents have been almost entirely, if not quite, emptied. The 
supply of fish is confined to the vicinity of these pools, and consequently 
is not a common article of diet amongst the people of the district. 
Vish are never dried or salted ; neither are the tanks stocked with young, 
nor are any privately bred. Basket traps are used which will retain the 
smallest fry ; some tanks near temples, which are perennial, are never 


CCXXxiv 


netted. “Without interfering with the rights of private property, 
1 cannot suggest any measures, therefore, for the conservation of fish, 
although I am sure that, if a considerably larger supply could be 
obtained, it would be eagerly sought for as an article of consumption 
throughout the district.” As the rains subside zad/as and streams are 
bunded and emptied of water; thus many small fish are taken ; this is 
generally carried out from February to April inclusive. There would be 
difficulties in carrying out any order regulating the minimum size of 
the mesh of nets, as the only people who use nets are the Mullahs, “a very 
poor tribe who could not pay a fine, if inflicted ; while to confiscate their 
nets would only drive them to commit theft and robbery to keep body 
and soul together.” Fry are not sold in the bazars; “it would be 
impossible to prevent the villagers catching and eating the fry them- 
selves, if so inclined. The nature of the country is against forming 
any hope of improving the supply of fish, so as to make it an 
article of consumption in this district.” The Deputy Commissioner of 
Singbhoom (August 6th, 1872) remarks that. “all fish are caught 
and disposed of indiscriminately, without letting go either the 
breeders or the very young iish. Annually, when the rivers are at 
their lowest depth, and the pools are low, or in April and May, 
crowds of persons gather to catch all the fish im these pools, and all is 
fish that comes to the net with this district people. The tanks are about 
this time also very low, and are treated in the same way.” The smallest 
mesh of the nets, ‘I fancy, would admit the little finger ;” the difli- 
culties against regulating it “ would be those that, in civilized society, 
are considered and felt as interference with private actions of individuals.” 
The fry of fish are not sold in the bazars. Fish are not captured 
during the first two months of the monsoon, but just before it: there 
are few fishermen, and they have other occupations; their castes are 
Keot or Mullah, Ghooneah, Ghasi, and Dome. The local markets are not 
fully supplied with fish ; the supply is not equal to the demand. ‘The 
price per seer of fish and mutton is the same: the entire district com- 
munity eat fish: “reports state that at the annual captures, less quantity 
is now obtained than before. A large quantity of small fish are not 
taken during the rains; the minimum sized mesh of the nets would 
admit the little finger. Fish are trapped in the fields during the rains 
with ghoogees. The modes of fishing are: (1) trapping by ghoogecs, 
polois, ghoonees, and jimrees; (2) netting by chargonah, geera- 
jal, theld-jdl, and gentoi-jal, (3) rod and line, dungsee.” In a 
second letter (August 7th, 1872), the same officer observes—‘ the 
supply of fish is not equal to the demand, but the supply at the present 
time is far greater than formerly. Fish, as a rule, is consumed when- 
ever got, and by all classes of people. The quantity is never so much 
as to need preserving, but, as a matter of taste, it is consumed both salted 
and fresh. There is no fish trade to distant places from this district. 
Tn a very few instanees fish are privately bred and reared in tanks. I do 
not consider that conservation of fish is of that importance as to call 
forth any measures, or to form a question of the day in Singbhoom.” 
The Deputy Commissioner of Maunbhoom (June 28th, 1872) replies 
that the nets in use are (i) phandi ; (2) ganti (large); (8) ganti (small) ; 
(4) wash; (5) doura ; (6) chap ; (7) chuna. “Those numbered 3 and 7 


CCXXXV 


have the meshes so small that nothing whatever ean eseape them, and, 
as fishing gocs on all the year round, immense numbers of small fish are 
destroyed long before they ean come to maturity.” The fishing cates 
are Kewuts, Ghoonas, Matas, Bagtees, and Harees: the supply of fish 
is very limited, except in the immediate vicinity of large rivers and a 
few reservoirs, but it is not at all adequate to meet the wants of the 
people: in some parts of the district the use of fish is almost unknown, 
and there are no waters to propagate them. ‘In other parts, if fishing 
were prohibited during the breeding season, and the use of net with 
meshes below a certain size forbidden, there is no doubt the supply of 
fish would increase, and much good be done by adding to the quantity 
of this very valuable description of food, which would thus be made 
available to the people at large.” Fish is not largely consumed by the 
people of this district, simply from the fact of its not being obtainable 
in sufficient quantities, and none, either salted or dried, is ever imported, 
whilst exportation is, of course, quite out of the question. The stocking 
of tanks and reservoirs with young fish is common, and is rendered 
necessary by the majority of the tanks and reservoirs running dry, 
or so nearly dry, in the hot season, that all the fish are caught and 
consumed, when a fresh batch has to be introduced in order to ensure a 
further supply, but, beyond this, nothing is done for the purpose of 
conserving it.” 

409. The Officiating Commissioner of the Chittagong Division 
(October 5th, 1872) forwards a single 
report from the Collector of Noakhally, 
who remarks that ‘ breeding-fish and 
very young ones are destroyed, but not to a great extent, in this district. 
The young ones are destroyed by the villagers in *//as, rivers, tanks, 
ditches, and paddy-fields during the rainy season.” The smallest size 
mesh of the net used is one quarter of an inch; discontent would be 
caused by regulating such. Fry of fish are not sold in the bazar, but 
there would be difficulties preventing people catching it for their own 
use. A close season would cause great inconvenience, and perhaps sick- 
ness, whilst it would be almost impossible to enforce. There are 6,310 
fishermen in the district, more than two-thirds of whom earn their 
livelihood entirely by fishing. Nearly all villagers fish for their own 
use; the Hindu fishing castes are JAliah, Das, and JhAlo: the 
Mahomedans, Myforash. The local markets are not fully supplied 
with fish; more might be sold; it is consumed to a large extent by 
about fifteen-sixteenths of the population, in fact by all classes, even 
by Hindu widows. Small fish are taken in large quantities during 
the rains; they are caught with nets, hooks, Aoohas, open baskets, 
and chdis, cages. Fish are trapped during the rains in inundated 
fields. Spearing is one form of fishing which is employed. There 
is no reason to suppose that the supply of fish is falling off: it is 
neither salted nor dried, but some is imported from Sylhet and 
Chittagong; none is exported; tanks are stocked with fish. “In 
the dry season fish die largely, owing to the water becoming 
hot and very shallow: the only measure adopted by the people for.the 
protection of fish is to puta shade over a part of the tank. It would 
be well if some measures were adopted to deepen the tanks to a certain 


Opinions of European Officials of 
Chittagong. 


eexxxvi 


depth, of at least five cubits of water, in the dry season.” [[ See similar 
propositions in Dharwar, p. lii, and South Canara, p. xcii, where 
even a precedent will be found, although the originator wasa native ruler. } 
The fishermen of Noakhally are said not to be very expert in their 
calling. The Collector of Chittagong observes—fish, both fresh and dried, is 
largely used by all classes of the population with the exception of a 
few Hindu religious mendicants (Boiragis). Fish is often dried ;_hilsa is 
salted ; none is exported except sharks’ fins to Rangoon, Dried fish is 
imported from Sylhet and Dacca. To the north fish are reared in tanks— 
not so to the south. No special measures of conservation are considered 
necessary. 


CCOXXXVii 


FISH AS FOOD, OR THE REPUTED ORIGIN OF DISEASE. 


410. The following notes on fish as food (exclusive of the remarks 
in the commencement of this report) or 
medicine, as a cause of sickness or the oeca- 
sion of accidents, have been collected during 
the last few years (see Indian Medical Gazette, January and February 
1871). In investigating the effects of a fish diet upon the population 
of a district, it becomes necessary first to take into consideration the 
condition of the people generally, or very erroneous conclusions may 
be arrived at. Thus, during the Burmese war of 1852-53, the Indian 
native army suffered severely from scabies and low forms of skin 
disease, due, it was commonly asserted, to their eating fish conjoined 
with their poor diet. The European troops had a scorbutie taint, a 
result, i was argued, of an insuflicient supply of vegetables. On the 
Malabar or western coast of India, leprosy, intestinal worms, and 
severe skin affections are considered to be consequent upon a fish diet. 
An important primary consideration should be—what was the condition 
of the people? Was not impoverished blood, possibly arising from some 
other cause, the true origin of these various diseases? In olden times we 
read of leprosy, so common in Europe, being attributed to the consumption 
of salt pork or fish in an unwholesome state. 
411. It has been asserted that the Asiatic conquerors of India 
: j . have all been consumers of a more nourishing 
TeTA arene ain food than rice, and that “it may be safely 
could they obtain it, now pre- argued that, if the people had been fed upon 
vented by the depopulated state the simple diet of the inhabitants of the 
of the fisheries—-agood cause for Jains, their conquests would never have 
more care of them to be taken z a = 
aE occurred. The physical powers and moral 
courage, necessary to the achievements of feats 
of valour and conquest, have never yet been found in a people who, 
like the degenerate races in the lowlands, live on grain deficient in 
nitrogen, and eschew animal food.” If this is admitted, how great 
must be the moral responsibility of legislators, who, living amongst a 
population such as exists throughout India, more than half of whom would 
consume fish could they procure it, have permitted the depopulation of the 
fresh-water fisheries, and allowed the destruction of so great a source for the 
supply of animal food. Now that it clearly appears millions would eat fish 
could they obtain it, surely the re-population and future protection of these 
fisheries will be considered an important subject for consideration as a 
means of supplying loss of physical powers and nervous energy. 
412. Amongst the different races of the Indian Empire, fish as food 
Poe el etd ge ran hepa ame held in various kinds of estimation. 
which fish is held by the differ. Commencing at Sind in the extreme west, 
ent. races inhabiting the where the population are chiefly Mahomedans, 
Indian Empire. this diet is almost universally esteemed ; even 
the siluroids are eaten, so long as they have large gill openings: in 
fact, it is the Shias amongst this race who, following the Koran, appear 


General observations on a fish 
diet, 


CCXXXVIii 
to reject the sealeless fishes. In the Panjab, fish (exeept by Brahmins 
and a few others) is almost equally relished, as will be seen on turning: to 
-the returns from that Administration; but as we examine to the south- 
wards, as Delhi and the upper part of the North-Western Provinces, the 
Brahmins, high-caste Hindus, and even the Mussulmen who reside amongst 
them in rural districts, are less addicted to its use, and mostly refuse it 
entirely, unless they happen to be living on the banks of a large fishing 
river, as the Jumna. Still in all these districts, unless from some peculiar 
local cause, 50 per cent. of the urban population may be fairly reckoned as 
not prohibited by their religion from eating fish. In Lower Bengal it is 
largely consumed, whilst in Madras, Mysore, Haidarabad and Bombay a 
very great proportion of the people would eat it could they obtain it; general- 
ly the Brahmins, Vysias, Nairs in Malabar, and Jains appear to reject it. 
In the Central Provinces, from 50 to 95 per cent. are reported as consumers 
of fish. In hilly districts, fish is almost uniformly eaten when it can 
be procured, whilst in the extreme east no Burman would consider his 
meal complete, were it deficient in the odoriferous xga-pee. The 
Andamanese may be said to principally exist on fresh fish, pork, tortoises 
or turtles, for vegetables are consumed to a very inconsiderable extent, 
so long as they can procure animal food. 

418. Of the foregoing races, an important question is—are any 
peculiarities noticeable amongst those who 
eat fish, and those who reject it as food? 
When one takes into consideration the wealth 
or the poverty of these various people, and the differences in climate, 
T do not think that amongst the Hindu races much distinction can be 
drawn. We may certainly find such, however, if we compare, for instance, 
the people of Malabar with the Panjabese or Burmese, but this mode 
of comparison is useless. The state of the intermediate people and 
climate must be looked at, and, when this is done, I cannot perceive 
much differences between the Nairs of Malabar who reject all fish and 
flesh and the people of Orissa and Lower Bengal who eat the finny 
tribes. A great and marked change may be observed in Malabar in those 
who have turned from Hinduism to Mahomedanism, but this generally 
occurs amongst the fishermen castes, who do not reject animal food. On 
the other hand, the soil slaves of Malabar are about the most degraded 
race, except the Naidis, wild in the jungles, whilst they all consume 
fish. The Black Jews, who are in Malabar merely the converted 
people of the country, or their pure or semi-Jewish descendants, 
do not appear to be superior to the surrounding population. Neither is 
any marked difference observable between the native Christian and Hindu, 
which might not fairly be attributed to greater wealth and a superior 
mode of lhving. The Burmese certainly have greater physical powers 
to the natives of India, than whom they consume more fish, but the 
diminutive Andamanese are very deficient in these qualities, although 
the finny tribes form the chief constituent of their diet. 

414. It has been asserted that a fish diet has some effect on pro- 
creation, and that fish-eating tribes are un- 

Wasa fish dict any relation- ysually prolific, concerning which Dr. Pareira 
SNe powers (On Diet, p. 282) remarks:— There is, 1] 
think, suflicient evidence to prove that ichthy- 


General effects of a fish diet 
on the natives of the East. 


CCXXXIX 


ophagous people are not more prolifie than others. In Greenland and 
amongst the Esquimaux, says Forster, where the natives live chiefly on 
fish, seals, and oily animal substances, the women seldom bear children 
oftener than three or four times. Five or six births are reckoned a very 
extraordinary instance. The Passerais, whom we saw, had not above 
two or three children belonging to each family, though their common 
food consisted of mussels, fish and seal flesh. The New Zealanders 
absolutely feed on fish, and yet no more than three or four children are 
found in the most prolific families.’ Amongst the Andamanese, whose 
chief diet may be said to be fresh fish and pork, it is very rare to find 
so many as three children in one family; and as they do not indulge in 
such early marriages as the natives of India, that reason cannot 
be adduced to account for their paucity of offspring. In Burma, it is 
sometimes advanced that the chief reason why the Burmese are not more 
prolific is because they consume so much fish, and they cannot be con- 
sidered, in comparison with other Asiatic nations, as given to very early 
marriages. The least prolific races I have personally seen appear to be 
the Nairs of Malabar, the Burmese, and the Andamanese ; the first never 
touch fish, but their ladies are espoused to the whole of their own and 
the males of any superior caste. The Burmese wives are faithful to one 
husband so long as he lives in the neighbourhood, or is only tem- 
porarily absent. The Andamanese are reputed to be very particular 
in only having one, and not changing him so long as they are 
both alive. The Nairs and Burmese are well off and have good 
domiciles; the Andamanese live more like wild beasts in the jungles 
than human beings, are destitute of clothes and houses, and are 
alternately feasting and pinched with hunger as food is common or 
the reverse. 
415, For the natives of the plains of Asia it appears very question- 
Iria dletipecbanlyaucee euik: able whether fresh fish is not more suitable, 
able to tho inhabitants of tho a8 food, than the flesh of sheep, pigs and 
plains of Asia than that of poultry. Anyhow, in certain situations, as the 
mammals. Malabar Coast, the Andaman Islands, and 
Burma, where sheep deteriorate so rapidly, healthy indigenous 
fresh fish must be more suitable, as diet for natives, than the 
exotic sheep. In Europe, mutton appears to be superior to 
fish ; thus, during Lent, persons who change from meat to fish are asserted 
to complain of debility, which may be due to a sudden alteration in their 
diet. Jockeys, however, when ‘ wasting’? themselves, are said to take 
lish instead of meat. But fish-eating people in many parts of the 
world are models of strength, and a fish diet can hardly be asserted 
as conducing to the deterioration of the physique of races. Opinions, 
however, are divided as to the nutritious qualities of fish in northern 
climates. Leenwenhoek (Se/ect Works, 7., p. 154) observes :—* At 
a town in my neighbourhood, where the people get their living by 
fishing, and feed principally on fish, especially when they are on the 
sea, the men are very robust and healthy even to a great age. * * It 
is also my opinion that a fish dict is more wholesome than flesh, parti- 
cularly to those persons who do not use much exercise, because fish 
is more easily comminuted and digested in the stomach and bowels 
than flesh.” 


eexl 


416. <A great deal has been written and said about the natives of 
Tasee teh ok much mors India preferring small fish to large ones; 
value, weight for weight, than therefore the destruction of fry ought not to 
small ones, which putrefy rapid- be put a stop to, or the poorer classes might 
ly. suffer. There is no exception throughout the 
British possessions in India and Burma where small fresh-water fishes 
obtain so great a value as large ones, taking weight for weight—one 
maund of large fish realising from 380 to 50 and sometimes 100 per 
cent. above what a maund of small fish does. 'The latter have to be sold 
quickly, because, being usually immature, decomposition sets in rapidly. 
417. Wish as food is employed in many waysin Asia, which it is 
unnecessary to specify in detail. Fish roes are 
: either salted or dried. Coarse isinglass is 
prepared from various marine forms, and exported to China from Bombay : 
towards the Arabian Sea mostly from the percoid forms: in Malabar 
chiefly from the siluroids: and at the mouths of the Ganges and down 
the Burmese coasts from both siluroids, polynemi and other genera. 
Salt and dried fish is largely consumed in the Madras and Bombay Presi- 
dencies; also in Sind; but far mland, where the Hindu element is strong, 
it does not find such a ready sale. Oils of two kinds are obtained—the 
“* medicinal” from the livers of sharks and other chondropterygious or earti- 
lavinous fishes: and the “ simple” from either marine or fresh-water species. 
418. Fish employed as food may act injuriously on the system, 
Tishucontan. ainaymoredsion oecasioning poisonous symptoms, and this 
poisonous symptoms more or lTespective of their flesh being diseased or 
less severe, and due to several undergoing putrefactive changes. There may 
TSE be gastro-intestinal irritation, or great ner- 
vous depression, with coldness of the body and extremities. Vish may 
occasion indigestible or poisonous symptoms if eaten, which may be due 
to their age: thus some, which are eatable when young, have been found 
to set up irritable or poisonous effects as they become large, as Caranx 
fallax, a orse mackerel, which it is illegal to sell in some places should it 
weigh above 2¢lbs. Sometimes these results are attributed to the breeding 
season ; thus, on the Indus, in the Central Provinces, and elsewhere such 
causes have been adduced by local observers in the foregoing reports, and in 
Europe it has been observed that the eggs and milt act as great irritants. 
Occasionally some fish in Europe have been found to be unwholesome just 
before the breeding season, and they have been considered unfit for food. 
But this is not the case in all ; thus the mackerel and other marine fishes 
are extensively eaten at this season, and in Asia the shad, Clupea palasah, 
and the mangoe fish, Polynemus paradiseus, are excellent up to the period 
they have deposited their eggs, after which they become thin, flabby and 
positively unwholesome. Thus the unwholesomeness of kelts, or female 
salmon, which have spswned, but not yet gone to the sea so as to have 
recovered and become fit for food, has been known from ancient times. 
Dr. Gerard Boate, Docter of Medicine to the State in Ireland, observed 
(1645)—“ of the leprosie, which in former times used to be very common, 
especially in the province of Munster, which was filled with hospitals 
expressly built for to receive and keep the leprous persons. ‘This horvi- 
ble and loathsome disease was caused through the fault and foul gluttony 
of the inhabitants, in the unwholesome devouring of foul salmons 


Fish as food. 


cexli 


when they are out of season, which is after they have cast their spawn, 
upon which they do not only grow very weak and flabbie, but so 
unwholesome as it would loathe any man to see them. Nevertheless, the 
Irish, a nation extremely barbarous in all parts of their life, did use to 
take them in that very season, and by that means that horrible disease 
came to beso common amongst them. But the English, having once 
gotten the command of the whole country into their hand, made very 
severe laws against the taking of salmons in that unwholesome season, 
and saw them carefully observed, whereby hindering these barbarians 
against their will to feed on that poisonous meat ; they were the cause that 
that woeful sickness, which used so mightily to reign amongst them, 
hath in time been almost abolished.’ It seems doubtful, however, 
whether it is not in India more amongst fish which deposit their eggs at 
one period, as the hilsa, than amongst those who do so more gradually, as 
the barbels, that the spent condition is most seen in. Although I have 
heard of mahaseer in this condition, I have not personally witnessed 
them, and, as they do not deposit all their eggs in one batch, they rarely 
become very Jean and flabby, unless ill from some other cause likewise. 
Fish may also be unwholesome, due to their having been kept until par- 
tial decomposition has set in, or to some substance the fish has swallowed, 
or to the food which ithas eaten. Thus eels often feed upon yery foul 
food, and their flesh has been known to occasion very dangerous symptoms ; 
thusin France, near Orleans, cramps and diarrhcea attacked a whole family 
who had partaken of some which had been captured from a stagnant 
eastle ditch in the vicinity. Irritation may likewise be occasioned by 
swallowing fish bones or scales, whilst some persons possess a peculiar 
idiosynerasy rendering fish unsuited for their digestive powers. ‘ There 
can be no form of animal food,” observes St. Jules Cyr, “ more objec- 
tionable than decomposed or putrid fish, and this is especially seen in a 
season when diarrhaa is prevalent.” In India and Burma, where fish in 
this condition is rather freely consumed throughout the hot season, it does 
not appear to be proved that semi-putrid fish is more injurious than 
meat in the same condition, if so much so. During the monsoon months, 
when the atmostphere is moist, semi-salted fish absorb moisture, and, 
in Malabar at least, not unfrequently appears to occasion or assist in the 
production of dysentery and diarrhcea, whilst in Burma such results do 
not seem to be attributed to mga-pee. However, eating fish during the 
monsoon months often sets upsymptoms of indigestion, and even more 
serious attacks to some persons, due either fo partaking of spent fish, or 
else of the immature, which, having commenced to putrefy, set up:derange- 
ment of digestive system. 
419. It would fill up too much space to detail all the most whole- 
d ¢ some species of Indian fresh-water or ma- 
oan aniae ina Oy Hoy, Vine fishes, but a few general remarks may 
Those having accessory breath- be made upon their general digestibility, pre- 
ing organs, whether of this mising that certain local peculiarities may 
ee oneauee esteem: exist, altering theother wise excellent character 
of a fish. Amongst the dcanthopterygian or 
spiny-rayed families, all that are found in the fresh-waters appear to be 
adapted for food, without occasioning deleterious effects. Religious 
prejudices may militate against the employment of some species, but not 


q 


eexlii 


sanitary reasons, unless the last may have been due to any substances 
swallowed by the fish. Thus at one time the gouramy, Osphromenus olfax, 
taken from a tank in the Mauritius, was found unfit for human food, when 
it was discovered that they had been consuming the filth from below a 
latrino which opened into it. Hamilton Buchanan observed of the 
estuary and marine fish, Sealophagus argus, that it is “easy of digestion and 
excellent flavour, but after death it becomes soft and strongly tasted.” This 
fish, however, is as foul a_ feeder as the last, and is consequently generally 
rejected as food. The Indian mackerel, Scomber kanagurta, taints very 
rapidly after death, and not unfrequently sets up gastric irritation, whilst 
the mullets, Augilide, ave usually unwholesome, unless eaten when quite 
fresh. The fishes with accessory breathing organs or cavities are those as 
a rule most esteemed as nourishing by the natives, whether acanthop- 
terygians or siluroids ; thus convalescents in some parts mostly esteem the 
coie, or climbing perch, or the siluroid magur, Clarias magur ; next 
perhaps the singi, Saccobranchus fossilis ; whilst the spiny-rayed family 
of ophiocephalus likewise hold a high place. In short, it is these fami- 
lies so peculiar to the tropics which are found to be the most wholesome 
and invigorating. Munier, nearly a century since, informed Sonnerat that 
fishes of the marine genus Scarus, commonly known as “ parrot fishes,” 
owing to their brilliant colours and bill-like teeth, were not eaten in Bour- 
bon and the Mauritius between December and April, owing to their 
unwholesomeness, due, it was supposed, to their consuming large quantities 
of coral polype. Commerson makes much the same remarks, and observes 
that it @naws the coral. It has also been said that fishes which consume 
the medussw, commonly termed “ Portuguese men-of-war,” the Stephan- 
onia, appear to be rendered vafit for human food, probably consequent 
upon their acrid qualities. However, fish are found to be poisonous where 
these polypes abound ; and in other localities where they are also numer- 
ous, as the Andaman Islands, the fish appear to be eaten with safety. 
Dr. Hill (Pro., Scien. Asso., Trinidad, 1868) observes the Formigas consti- 
tute a very warren or vivarium of all kinds of fishes, and the fishes 
there are poisonous. The sea is very shallow, covered with coral reefs, 
and these again by sea-cucumbers, star-fishes, sea-urchins and sponges. 
420. Regarding the Sidwride or scaleless fishes as food, rather 
diverse opinions are held. The Jews were 
directed in Leviticus, chap. xi, that 
“whatsoever hath no fins, nor scales in the 
waters, that shall be an abomination unto you.” They were only permit- 
ted to eat “ whatsoever hath fins and scales in the waters, in the seas 
and in the rivers,” and this law is likewise generally, but not invariably, 
observed by the Mahomedans. It is well known that persons of neither 
of the foregoing religions are to eat the blood whichis the life, so they 
cut the throats of all animals before death, in order to permit it to escape. 
In Sind, however, the Mahomedans have a tradition that the prophet 
did this for them in regard to fish, because they die so rapidly after 
they are removed from the water, and they point to the gill-opening in 
proof of this having been done, consequently they eat all siluroids which 
possess well developed gill-openings. In the last paragraph it was observed 
that the Clarias and Saccobranchus are much esteemed in India for convale- 
scents, whilst the Burmese have likewise a great partiality for them in their 


The silurida or scaleless fishes 
asfoo d, 


cexliii 


nga-pee. Some of the larger species of Macrones and Arius which are 
found in fresh waters are not esteemed, as they consume ordure whenever 
procurable: perhaps it may be considered questionable whether cholera 
may not be spread by this agency, if the fish are eaten before being 
thoroughly cleaned or cooked. This family of fishes, with the exceptions 
noted, does not appear to be very wholesome, being, as a rule, rather rich, 
or else hard and indigestible. heir flavour is likewise gonerally insipid, 
still the Aor, Macrones aor, in some localities is excellent, whilst the 
absence of bones renders the operation of eating it, not a service of 
danger, as in many Asiatic fresh-water fishes. 
421. The carps, Cyprinidae, which abound in the waters of the 
ee ee plains of India, are all more or less useful 
Sea taneeie cee mY as food, although differing widely in their 
gastronomic value. But as the mountain 
regions are approached the value of some as food becomes impeached, 
at least when eaten by strangers, although generally to the residents, 
and perhaps many of the visitants, no deleterious effects are produced. 
Dr. McClelland observed of a mountain barbel, Oreinus progastus, that 
“this species is said by the natives of Assam to cause swimming in the 
head, and temporary loss of reason for several days, without any 
particular derangement of the stomach, It is_the most herbivorous of 
the barbels,” [a statement open to doubt J “and, like some of the 
gudgeons, tends rapidly to decay after death, and in the abdominal cavity 
a copious oily secretion is found,” [in common with other Indian carps 
before the breeding season and after they have recovered from such, ] 
“ which is probably the cause of its bad effects. * * * Mr, Griffith 
was informed by the fishermen that, if eaten, it occasions all the symptoms 
of drunkenness, which coincides with what I have myself heard regarding 
its effects.” (Trans-Asiatic Society, Bengal, xix, page 344.) The late 
Dr. Jerdon informed me that be had witnessed these symptoms amongst 
his own servants, produced from eating some species of mountain fishes. 
When in the Chumba State in the Himalayas, I found another mountain 
barbel, Oreinus sinuatus, very common, but the natives asserted that it 
never occasioned uncomfortable symptoms, although they were consumed 
by every class of the community. Some European residents, and others 
who were visitors, likewise eat them with impunity ; however, one of my 
native servants who tried one declined a second attempt, as he was 
unwell for 24 hours subsequently. Low down the Ravi, and in some of 
the other Panjab rivers, I have heard of deleterious effects being occasioned 
from partaking of these fishes. Certainly at Chumba the fish were netted 
and not captured by means of poisoning the water. 
422. Amongst the Clupeida, or herring family, which abound in 
Herring family : members of the Indian seas, some being visitants to the 
it occasionally or always poison- fresh-waters for breeding purposes, and a 
ous. few entirely residing there; several marine 
forms have been reputed as poisonous, which in some instances appears 
to be due to the food which they have eaten. Engraulis boelama, a small 
anchovy, has been aceused by Dussumier of occasioning death in a few 
hours, if dressed without its head and intestines having been first 
removed ; they abound, however, at the Andamans, where they are largely 
eaten, and there is no record in that settlement of any individual having 


eexliv 


suffered deleteriously from the effects of eating them. They are mostly 
consumed in a dry state ; certainly neither their heads nor intestines are 
removed. Along the Malabar Coast of India and in Ceylon, eating 
sardines, either the Clupea Neohowii or C. melanura, hasbeen thought to 
occasion poisonous symptoms, but both species abound in the Anda- 
mans and are eaten with impurity; still I have personally witnessed 
many cases of vomiting and purging resembling cholera, especially 
about the month of October, and which could only be traced to the 
fact that some unwholesome fish had been the cause. The Clupea 
venenosa was found to be poisonous at the Seychelles by Dussumier, 
but Colonel Playfair at Zanzibar considered that they “do not appear 
to possess any such property; on the contrary they form no incon- 
siderable part of the daily food of the lower orders.” (dlosa venenosa, 
Fish, Zanzibar, p. 122.) Dr. Cantor observed, when remarking upon 
the Clupea perforata, that it is found in the Straits, where it is 
termed a sardine, and most common from June to August. Some 
specimens procured by Mr. Lewis “ were accompanied by the following 
account of a phenomenon witnessed by that gentleman during his 
official residence at Bencoolen. In 1822, great numbers of what 
was supposed to be this identical species presented the appearance 
of having red eyes. Many natives, after having eaten these fishes, 
were suddenly attacked with violent vomiting, which, in cases where 
remedies were not immediately applied, was known within an hour 
to terminate fatally. At the same time, such of these fishes with the 
ordinary silver eyes were, as formerly, eaten with impunity.’ This 
phenomenon re-occurred the two succeeding years, and he considered 
it probable that the poisonous fishes were shoals of C. venenosa. Any of 
the foregoing would appear to be poisonous from some local or accidental 
cause, as the abundance of food which may suit them but renders 
their flesh poisonous; but in the West Indies, the Clupea thrissa is 
stated to be inherently so. The Clupea humeralis is so poisonous at 
the Antilles, due to feeding on the Physalia, that it occasionally causes 
death in a few minutes; even the common herring, Clupea harengus, 
is sometimes very irritating when eaten, in the North Sea, conse- 
quent on living on some minute red worm .which are occasionally 
abundant there. The Indian shad, Clupea palasah, when in season, 
is somewhat rich, and the Burmans do not eat it during sickness, 
or should they be suffering at the time from skin affections, or have 
suffered from such during the few preceding months, as they aflirm 
it will aggravate it when present, and reproduce it if only recently 
recovered from. 
423. Amongst the eels, Muraenide, none appear to be reputed 
ke Me unwholesome, still there is no reason they 
should not become so in India as in Europe 
(see para. 418). The appearance of some is considered repulsive, whilst 
Jews and Mahomedans reject them. . 
424. In the Selerodermatous family, species of the Balistes are 
aa ccsa bel Gann oalon ncaa eaten by the Andamanese, but none of the 
ati. Sere Ostracions, so far as I can ascertain, are em- 


ployed as food, It is curious that the 
Ostracion cornutum and the Balistes vetula are said to be very poisonous 


eexly 


of Bourbon and the Mauritius. The frog or puff fishes, Te¢rodons, are 
generally reputed to be poisonous, and are rejected as an article of dict 
by the people of India, but they are highly relished by the Andamanese, 
and the native doctors in Malabar use them as medicine in phthisical 
eases. In Burma, where the large yellow Xenopterus naritus is found 
in all the branches of the Irawaddi, the natives bait for them with small 
fish, and consider their flesh as good for eating. However, at the Cape of 
Good Hope a spotted Zeérodon has caused so many deaths, that the officers 
of all ships anchoring there are warned against their being used as food, 
In the Nile, one species is reputed to be very poisonous if eaten. In 
Japan is found a sort which is used for the purpose of effecting suicide, 
whilst an edict exists in the army of that country, declaring that, should 
any soldier die from eating it, his son is prohibited from entering the 
military service. 

425. Sharks, saw-fishes, rays and skates, with the exception of the 
torpedo, are esteemed as food by many of the 
Madrassees and the Seedees in Bombay. In 
Bengal, however, they are rejected by all but the very poorest, some 
of whom even will refuse them. 

426. Many diseases have been attributed to the effects of a fish 

: ; diet. In Bergen, ‘fish is perhaps more 
aaa attributed to a fish Joroely used as an acticle of diet than in any 
other part of the world. * * * There 

are two large hospitals devoted exclusively to the treatment of patients 
suffering from a peculiar form of disease, brought on by eating badly 
cured fish: the disease is a mixture of leprosy and clephantiasis.” (Lancet, 
July 1866, p. 83). “ A scorbutie taint is considered to ensue in some 
portions of Kurope from a fish diet. Leprosy in the south of Spain 
is ascribed to this cause.” Amongst the Norwegians, phthisis is 
common and also struma. “Of fresh meat the Norwegians, get but 
little, and their fish and milk are often used in a state of partial decom- 
position instead of fresh. * * * ‘Their constitution could rally and 
get well on a regimen under which an Englishman would sink.” (A/edical 
Times and Gazette, July 1869). Examining the foregoing statements, one 
observes that if is not a good fish diet which is accused of producing 
leprosy, elephantiasis, scurvy and skin diseases, but fish consumed ina state 
of putrefaction or badly cured; but even this may be open to argument. 
Natives in some portions of Asia consider that eating fish predisposes to 
cholera, and many object on that account to its use during epidemics 
of that malady (sce ante-paragraph 420 on the Sidurid@). Leprosy is a 
well-marked disease, and has been attributed to an unwholesome fish diet. 
Leprosy is by no means unfrequent in the Panjab, North-West Provinces, 
and other districts far inland, amongst people who resolutely refuse ever 
to eat salt-fish however prepared. ‘The only way in which they consume 
putrid fish is purchasing the fry during the rainy months, which, prior to 
being cooked, generally is in a more or less putrid condition. But if we 
go a little further to the east, we find the Burmese race, who most 
assuredly are a fish-consuming one (see para, 866) and prefer their 
odoriferous naga-yee to fresh fish. In my travels through Burma, I 
never sawa single instance of leprosy amongst the indigenous population, 
nor a case of those congenital malformation of the fingers and toes, so 


Cartilaginous fishes as food. 


eexlvi 


common in Tndia amongst the natives horn with a leprous taint. In fact, 
it has been frequently remarked that this disease does not exist amongst 
the Burmese. The same remark applies to the fish-and-animal-food- 
eating Andamanese ; whilst on the other hand it is as common in India 
amongst inland classes who do not eat fish, as those who do so. As 
Sante Elephantiasis Arabum, there does not appear to be any stronger 
reason for attributing its origin to a fish diet, than there is in regard to 
E. Grecorum, or the true leprosy. Hamilton Buchanan observed that 
this disease, in some parts of India, is attributed by the natives to eating 
a carp, Labeo curchius, and taking large draughts of fresh milk on the 
same day. 
427. Skin diseases of a low character and inveterate itch have 
weer been considered to be occasioned by this form 
Skin diseases and scurvy at- . . . 
tribated carauunaidennace of diet; this seems in many cases to be 
thought so, because very poor persons residing 
along the sea coast, and are unable to procure proper sustenance, con- 
sume the refuse of the fish taken, which are either given them gra- 
tuitously as worthless, or disposed of at a very cheap rate. ‘This, 
however, can scarcely be assumed as the sole cause of the low forms of 
disease (excluding dysenteric diarrhoea, occasionally passing into 
dysentery) from which these people suffer, which in reality are due 
to privations, though doubtless badly-cured fish may aggravate diseases, 
or render the individual more susceptible to the attacks of maladies 
indigenous to the locality. In the badly nourished, itch or other 
skin affections, when contracted, are generally severe, and in sea-port 
towns are mostly perceived amongst the poverty-stricken, who consume 
the refuse of fish in lieu of more wholesome food, which they are 
unable to purchase. Scurvy has by some been partly attributed to a 
fish diet. Dr. Gamack, reporting on the Convict Settlement at the 
Andamans in 1860, observed —“a very limited quantity of fresh meat 
and fish has been occasionally procurable by the convicts generally, 
but for the sick the supply has been more liberal, and in the scurvy 
eases was found of the greatest benefit.” 
428. Fish wounds, or those occasioned by their spines, are by no 
? means uncommon. ‘They may set up poison- 
ene cont “pine ous symptoms, due to their having a distinetly 
poisonous character, or severe irritation 
caused by the jagged nature of the injury inflicted. Severe inflamma~- 
tion, terminating in stiffened joints, have frequently resulted in Europe 
from wounds caused by the spines of the weever, Zrachinus vipera. 
In some cases of injuries caused by siluroids, skates, and ray fishes, one 
can scarcely resist believing that some species have the power of secre- 
ting a direct poison, as the symptoms are often too severe to be attribut- 
able to simple inflammation. We perceive some snakes, however, with 
venomous, others with innocuous, saliva, and it is an interesting question 
whether the mucous secretions of fishes may not partake of either one 
or the other of these qualities. Dr. Gtinther apparently has discovered 
a poison gland in a fish brought from Guatemala, the Thalassophiyne 
veticulata, the secretion from which seems to arise in the mucous 
system. The effects of some of these injuries from fish spines are 
doubtless entirely due to the extent of the inflicted wound, ‘Thus, at 


eexlvi 


Cochin, a man was brought to one of my hospitals with gangrene of 
the fore-arm, occasioned by a ray-fish having wound its tail around it, 
and dragged its armed spine through the muscles down to the bones. 
Accidents from spines of fishes, especially of the siluroid and ray 
families, are exceedingly common in the East. In both France and 
Spain, police regulations require that all spines on fish, which inflict 
injurious wounds, should be removed prior to their being brought to 
market. In Orissa, the serrated spine at the base of the tail “of the 
ray-fish is believed to cause fatal wounds. Fishermen invariably remove 
it, and usually break off the dorsal and pectoral spines from all siluroids. 

429. Dr. Jerdon (Madras Journal, Literature and Science, 1849) 
mentioned that wounds from the spiny rays 
of the Polyacanthus cupanus occasion severe 
pain for afew hours. But it may be generally 
considered that injuries from these hard rays of most of the Acanthop- 
terygian fishes may induce irritation, and even inflammation, lasting for 
an uncertain time. This irritation may be due to acrid mucus, 
normally secreted, or rendered irritable, due to excitement in the fish. 
The severity of the injury will be increased or diminished in accordance 
with the state of the health of the injured person at the time of the 
receipt of the injury. 


Wounds from spiny rays of 
fishes. 


eexlviii 


_FRESH-WATER FISHES OF INDIA. 


430. The fresh-water fishes are divisible into those which are 
strictly so, and marine ones which ascend 
above tidal influence for breeding or preda- 
ceous purposes. ‘The following list enu- 
merates those at present known and described, with their geographical 
range, their native names (the pronunciation of the latter in accordance 
with the English language), and the size they attain to :— 


Sub-class—TELEOSTEI. 


Fishes having an osseous skeleton, completely separated 
vertebrae, and the posterior extremity of the vertebral 
column either bony or armed with bony plates. Bulb 
of aorta simple, with a pair of valves at its origin. 
Branchize free. 


The fresh-water fishes of In- 
dia. 


Order —ACANTHOPTERYGII. 


A portion of the dorsal, anal, and ventral fin-rays unarticulated, forming 
spines. Air-vessel, when present, completely closed, not having a 
pneumatic duct. 


Family—PERciIDm, Cuv. 


Percoidei, pt., Cuvier: Percida, pt., and Theraponida, pt., Richardson. 


Branchiostegals from five to seven: pseudobranchiz, as a rule, present. orm of body 
generally oblong. Eyes lateral. All or some of the opercles (except in Apsilus) 
serrated or armed. Mouth in front of snout, having a lateral cleft, occasionally 
situated on the lower side. A barbel on the lower jaw in Pogonoperca. Teeth 
villiform or conical in the jaws, canines occasionally present, the vomer and 
generally the palatines armed with teeth. Anterior portion of dorsal fin spinous : 
ventrals thoracic, each having one spine and five rays. Scales ctenoid. Lateral 
line, when present, continuous, except in some species of Ambassis. Air-vessel 
usually present, and, when so, simple. Pyloric appendages in varying numbers. 


Genus—Larus, Cuv. § Val. 


Branchiostegals seven: pseudobranchia. Pre-orbital and shoulder 
bone serrated: pre-opercle with strong spines at its angle, and denticulated 
along its horizontal limb: opercle spinate. Teeth villiform on jaws, vomer 
and palatine bones: tongue smooth, First dorsal fin with seven or eight, 
anal with three spines: caudal rounded, Scales of moderate size. Cacat 
pylori few. 

1. Lates caleavifer, Bloch. This marine, predaceous fish ascends 
all the large rivers of India and Burma. Dangara, Sindee: Nuddee meen 
or Naiv meen, Malyalim: Painnee meen, Tamil: Pandu kopah or Pandu 
meenu, Telugu: Durruah, Ooriah: Begti, Bengal: Cock-up of Huro- 
peans. D. 7-8/77!y72, A- 93g, L. 1. 52-60, L. tr. 7/12, Cae. pyl. 38. Of a 
grey colour. It attains several feet in length. 


eexlix 


Genus—AMBASSIS, Commerson. 


Chanda, Hamilton Buchanan ; Bogoda, pt., Bleeker. 

Branchiostegals six. Body compressed, more or less diaphanous. 
Lower limb of pre-opercle with a double denticulated edge: opercle without 
a prominent spine. Villiform teeth on the jaws and palate, generally no 
canines. Two dorsal fins, the first with seven, the anal with three spines: 
a recumbent spine directed forwards in front of the base of the dorsal fin. 
Scales of moderate or small size, frequently deciduous. Lateral line 
complete, interrupted or absent. 


2. Ambassis nalua, Ham. Buch., B. vi. D. Tics A. aaa L. 1. 30. 
Lateral line continuous. Lower Bengal to a few inches in length. 
3. Ambassis ranga, Ham. Buch, Chandee, Ooriah and Beng. B. vi. 


D. Tear A. ib L. 1. 58, Found in Bengal and Madras to a few 
inches in length. 
4. Ambassis baculis, Ham. Buch. Kung-gi, Panj.; Nga-koun-ma or 


Noga-zin-zat, Burm. B. vi. D. 1 liste AS 7 Seales minute. Found 
throughout India and Burma, very similar to the last. 


&. Ambassis Thomassi, Day. Mullu-chert, Mal. B. vi. D. Tits A. 3 
L. 1. 38, L. tr. 6/13. Western Coast of India. 

6. Ambassis nama, Ham. Buch. Mucknee and Ched-du-ah, Panjab ; 
Pud-du and Put-to-lah, Sindee: Ak-ku-rati, Telugu: Buck-ra aud Pom- 


pi-ah, North-West Provinces; Cart-kana, Ooriah. B. vi. D. Tit» A. ie 
Lateral line absent. A small fresh-water fish found throughout India. 
7. Ambassis lala, Ham. Buch. Pee-dah, Sind; Chandee, North- 


West Provinces; Daal chandee, Ooriah. B. vi. D. Tits A. i. Scales 
minute: lateral line absent. Orange with four or five vertical bands, 
first dorsal nearly black. Found throughout the continent of India 
except Madras. Only attains a few inches in length. 


Family—PRristTIPOMATIDH. 


Percoidei, pt., Scienoidet, pt., Sparoide, pt., et Menides, pt., Cuv. : 
Theraponida, pt.. Hamulonide, pt., Sparide, pt., et Menides, pti, 
Richardson. 


Branchiostegals from five to seven. Pscudobranchix, usually well developed. Body 
oblong, compressed. Eyes of medium size, lateral. Mouth moderately or very 
protractile, placed in front of the snout, and with a lateral cleft, Muciferous 
system of the head rudimentary or slightly developed. Pre-opercle serrated or 
entire, barbels absent. Teeth in villiform bands, with conical canines in some 

enera, but neither molars nor cutting ones in the jaws: palate usually edentu- 
ous. A single dorsal fin, the spinous and soft portion being of about equal 
extent, the first containing strong spines, or continuous with the soft: anal 
mostly with three spines, its soft portion similar to that of the dorsal: lower 
pectoral rays branched: ventrals thoracic with one spine and five rays. Scales 
finely ctenoid or cycloid, extending over the body and head; cheeks not cuirassed. 
Lateral line continuous. Air-vessel present, more or less simple. Stomach czcal. 
Pyloric appendages few, or in moderate numbers. 


Genus—THERAPON, Cuv. 
Datnia, Cuv. and Val.: Pelates, Cuv. 


Branchiostegals six. Hyes of moderate size. Opercle with spines: pre- 
opercle serrated, Teeth villiform in both jaws, the outer being sometimes 


eel 


the larger: deciduous ones on the vomer and palatines. Scales of 
moderate size. Air-vessel divided by a coustriction. Pylorie appendages 
tn moderate numbers. 

8. Therapon servus, Bloch. B. vi. D. 10-11/;1,, A. %, L. 1. 80, 
LL. tr. 12/27. Silvery, with three longitudinal dark bands having a 
slight convexity downwards. Is found in some of the larger rivers as the 
Hooghly, occasionally above tidal influence. It attains to twelve or 
thirteen inches in length. 


Genus—DarnorwkEs, Bleeker. 


Branchiostegals six. Pseudobranchia. Body somewhat elevated. Eyes 
of moderate size. Inter-mavillaries very protractile. Pre-opercle serrated ; 
opercle with short spines. One dorsal fin, with a deep notch, having 
twelve stout spines, anal with three. Caudal rounded. Scales rather small. 
Air-vessel simple. Pyloric appendages few. 

9. Datnoides polota, Ham. Buch. Nga-kya, Burm, B. vi. D. 
gifs A. $, L. 1. 48, L. r. 70, L. tr. 12/25, Cze. pyl. 5. Brown, 
with six or seven narrow black vertical bands on the body, and others 
radiating from the orbit. Is found throughout the lower portions of 
the Ganges and Irrawaddi, ascending above tidal reach: it attains 
about 12 inches in length. 


Family—Sci1mnipm, Cuv. 


Branchiostegals seven. Pseudobranchiw sometimes concealed. Body compressed and 
rather elongate. Eyes lateral, of moderate or small size. Mouth in front of or 
below snout. Cheeks unarmed: opercles sometimes weakly armed. Muciferous 
system on the head well developed. Teeth in villiform bands: canines present 
in some genera, but neither cutting nor molar ones in the jaws : palate edentulous. 
Two dorsal fins, the second much more developed than the first, or than the anal: 
spines of first dorsal usually feeble: anal with two spines: pectoral rays 
branched: ventrals thoracic, having one spine and five rays. Scales ctenoid. 
Lateral line complete, often continued on to the caudal fin. Stomach eweal. 
Pyloric appendages generally few. Air-vessel, when present, as arule, with 
branching or clongated appendages. 


Genus—SCIENA, Cuv. 


Johnius, Bloch: Corvina, pt., Cuv.: Leiostomus, pt., Cuv. & Val. : 
Homoprion, Holb. 1 

Pseudobranchia. Body oblong. Eyes of moderate size, and the inter-or- 
bital space rather broad and slightly convee. Snout rounded ; the upper jaw 
longer than the lower, or both equal. Cleft of mouth horizontal or slightly 
oblique. Barbels absent. The outer row of teeth generally the largest : 
canines absent. Air-vessel present, Pyloric appendages few, or in moderate 
numbers. 

This genus has, been subdivided artificially, in accordance to the 
length of the second anal spine, as follows :—(1) weak and about half 
the length of the first ray, Sciena : (2) moderately strong and nearly two- 
thirds as long as the first ray, Johnius: (3) very strong and about 
equalling the first ray in length, Corvina. 

10. Sciena evilor, Ham.: Buch, Vella ketchellee, Tam.: Botahi and 
Puttheri-ki, Oorviah: Nga-pok-thin, Burm. B. vii. D. 10/,4,, A. 7, Cxe. 


ecli 


ryl. 7-9. Silvery. Ascends all the large rivers of Tndia and Burma for 
breeding purposes: it attains about 12 inches in length, 


Family—S QuaMiIrvinnes, Cuv. 
Chetodontida, pt., Richardson. 


Branchiostegals six or seven: psendobranchim well developed. Body elevated and 
compressed. Eyes lateral and of moderate size. Mouth generally small, with a 
lateral cleft, and situated in front of the snout. Teeth villiform or setiform, 
neither incisors nor canines: in most of the genera the palate is edentulous. Soft 
portion of the dorsal fin more developed than the spinous, sometimes considerably, 
more rarely slightly so: anal with three or four spines, its soft portion similar 
to that of the dorsal: lower pectoral rays branched: ventrals thoracic, with ono 
spine and five rays. Scales cycloid or very finely ctenoid ; they extend more 
or less over the vertical fins, but occasionally are absent from the spinous portion. 
Air-vessel present, generally simple. Intestines usually much convoluted: stomach 
excal. Pyloric appendages in moderate numbers. 


Genus—ToxoTes Cuvier. 


‘Branchiostegals seven : pseudobranchia. Body oblong, compressed, 
back depressed. yes of moderate size. Snout rather produced ; lower jaw 
the longer. Villiform teeth on jaws, vomer, and palatine bones. A single 
dorsal fin, having five strong spines situated in the posterior half of the 
back : anal with three spines. Scales cycloid, of moderate or rather small 
size, some are extended to over the soft portions of the vertical fins. Air- 
vessel simple. Pylorie appendages in moderate numbers. 


11. Towotes jacutator, Pallas. D. 7 AG Pit L. I. 28, Cee, 
pyl. 7-9. Greenish brown, with broad dark bands or blotches. Attains 
about a foot in length. Found in and above tidal influence in the large 
rivers of Bengal and Burma. 

12. Tovotes microlepis, Blyth. Nga-kya-ma Burmese. D. 7%, A. 
vy, L. 1. 42, Cee. pyl. 8. Golden, with two to four large black oblong 
blotches or stripes along its sides, Found in Burma along with the last, 
attaining about the same size. 


Family—Caraneivn, Giinther, 


Scomberotdee, pt., et Squamipinnes, pt., Cuv.: Scombrisida, pt., 
Richardson, 


Lranchiostegals usually seven, sometimes Jess: pseudobranchim as a rule present, 
absent in Lichia and Trachynotus. Body oblong or elevated, and generally com- 
pressed. Eyes lateral, sometimes large. Infra-orbital bones do not articulate 
with the pre-opercle. Gill-openings wide. Dentition exceedingly varied. The spinous 
dorsal of less extent than the soft, sometimes even being rudimentary ; it is either 
continuous with, or distinct from, the soft portion: the posterior portion of the 
dorsal and anal sometimes consisting of detached finlets. The soft dorsal and 
the anal may be of nearly equal extent, or the latter much the most developed. 
Ventrals, when present, thoracic, but they may be rudimentary or absent. Scales 
small, sometimes absent. <Air-vessel present. Pylorie appendages usually in 
large numbers, whilst some genera have but few. 


Genus—ZQUULA, Cuv. 


Branchiostegals from four to five : pseudobranchia. Body elevated 
and strongly compressed. dyes lateral. Mouth very protiactite. Lower 


eclii 


edge of pre-opercle serrated. Minute teeth on jaws ; palate edentulous. <A 
single dorsal fin, having less spines (8-10) than rays (15-17) : anal with 
three spines and less rays thar the soft dorsal (13-14) : ventrals thoracic. 
Scales small, cycloid, and generally deciduous. Lateral line unarmed, 
usually complete, but in some species terminating below the end of the dorsal 
jin. Air-vessel ending posteriorly in two horns. Pyloric appendages few. 
13. Equula runconius, Ham. Buch. Tunka-chandee, Ooriah: Nga- 


hpee-ma, Burm. D. cca A. 3,, L. 1. 68. Silvery, with short greyish 
bands descending from the back. This small fish is found in the large 
rivers of Lower Bengal and Burma. 


Fanily—M vaiLin a”, Richardson. 
Mugiloidei, Bleeker. 


Branchiostegals from four to six: pseudobranchiwe. Form of body oblong, compressed, 
and the antorior portion and head may be depressed. Eyes lateral, with or 
without adipose lids. Gill-openings wide: gills four. Opercles unarmed. Mouth 
narrow or of moderate width. ‘Teeth very fine, sometimes absent. Anterior portion 
of dorsal fins consisting of four stiff spines: anal slightly longer than the second 
dorsal. Ventrals abdominal, suspended from an elongated shoulder bone; it 
consists of one spine and five rays. Scales cycloid, rarely ctenoid. Lateral line 
absent. Pyloric appendages generally few. 


Genus—Mvetr, Artedi. 


Branchiostegals from four to six: pseudobranchia. Hyes with or with- 
out an adipose lid. Anterior edge of lower jaw sharp. Teeth, when present, 
minute. Pyloric appendages generally few (2-10). Upper portion of 
stomach very muscular. 

14. Mugil cascasia, Ham. Buch. Cuck-se or Buah, Panj.: D. 4/5, 
A. %, L. 1. 82, L. tr. 16. Silvery: uncovered space on chin, eye, base of 
pectoral, and centre of base of caudal gamboge yellow. This small 
mullet is found in the upper parts of the Ganges and Jumna, also in 
the Indus. 

15. Mugil corsula, Ham. Buch. Hurd-wah-re, Panj.: Ka-kun-da, 
Ooriah ; Corsula and In-ge-lee, Beng.; Undala, Hind : Nga-zea, Burm, 
D. 4/3, A. 3, L. 1. 50, L. tr. 15. Ascends all the large rivers east of the 
Kistna far above tidal influence; it attains a foot in length. 

16. Mugil Hamiltonii, Day. D. 4/5, A.3, L. 1. 44, L. tr. 18. Scales 
ctenoid. Found throughout the large rivers of Burma to nearly 5 inches 
in length. 

Family—GoBiipm. 


Fseudobranchie present, sometimes rudimentary. Body generally elongated. Eyes 
lateral, occasionally prominent. he infra-orbital ring of bones does not articulate 
with the pre-operele. Gill-opening varying from extremely narrow to wide. Gill 
membranes attached to the isthmus: four gills. ‘Teeth of various characters, 
canines sometimes present. A single dorsal fin, sometimes divided into two 
portions; the spines are flexible, and this part of the fin is not so developed as 
the soft : anal similar to the soft dorsal: ventrals sometimes united so as to form 
a disc. Scales and lateral line present or absent. Air-vessel generally absent, 
Pyloric appendages, if present, few. 


Genus—Gostus, Artedi. 


Branchiostegals five, pseudobranchia, Body low and elongated.  Gill- 
openings of moderate width, Opercles unarmed. Teeth in several rows in 


ecliii 


the jaws ; canines sometimes present. Anterior dorsal fin with from five to 
sive flenible spines : the posterior more developed and of the same character 
as the knal: ventrals united, forming a disc, which is not attached to the 
abdomen ; each has one spine and five rays. Scales present or absent and 
either cycloid or ctenoid. Lateral line absent. Air-vessel when present gene- 
rally small. Pyloric appendages usually absent. 

17. Gobius giuris, Ham. Buch. Goo-loo-wah and Boul-la, Panj.: 
Gooloo, Sind and N. W. Prov.: Kurddn, Mal.: Oolooway, Tam. : 7's ikidundu 
Tel.: Gulah, Ooriah: Nga-tha-boh, Burm.: Poo-dah, And. D. 6a! aA. ays 
L. 1. 26-84. Blotched and spotted with rusty brown. Found in all pieces 
of fresh water throughout the plains of India, Burma, the Andamans, 
and oceasionally within tidal influence. It attains a foot and a half in 
length. 

Sie: Gobius nunus, Ham. Buch. D.6/5 (?) A. 7. Greenish, with six 
black belts. A small goby, found in the lower portions of the Ganges 
and Irvawaddi Rivers, but ascending above tidal influence. 

19. Gobius Malabaricus, Day. D.6/,5, A. 11, L.1.50,L. tr. 10. 
Brown with a black crescentic white edged mark on the first dorsal 
fin. It is found in Malabar and Madras, and is only a small species. 

Gobius neglectus, Jerdon. D. 6/11, A. 10-11, L. 1. ea 50. A mo- 
derately sized goby, found along the bases of the Western Ghats, 


Genus—LEuctenoaosius, Gill. 


Branchiostegals six. Body elongated. Eyes not prominent. Gill. 
openings rather narrow, not extending to the lower surface of the -head. 
Teeth in one row in the upper jaw, in several rows in the lower: no ca- 
nines: palate edentulous. Inferior pharyngeal bones of an elongated tri- 
angular shape, having a median longitudinal suture. Two dorsal fins—the 
first with six flexible spines : ventrals united, not adherent to the abdomen. 

20. LEuctenogobius striatus, Day. Coondallum oolooway, 'Tam.: 
Mahturi, if young Naolli, Ooriah : Nga-ka-tha-po, Burm. D. 6/;'5, A. 11, 
L. 1. 54, L. tr. 20. Buff coloured ais some vertical bands. Found 
throughout the lower districts of Madras, Bengal, and Burma, attaining 
6 inches in length. 


Genus—PERIOPHTHALMUS, Bl.-Schn. 


Branchiostegals five: pseudobranchiea rudimentary. Body sub- 
cylindrical. yes placed close together, very prominent, and the outer 
eyelid well developed. Gill-openings rather narrow. Teeth in both jaws 
vertical and conical. Two dorsal fins—the first with a varying number of 
Jlevible spines: ventrals united in their lower two-thirds : base of pectoral 
muscular: caudal with its tower edge obliquely truncated. Air-vessel 
absent. Scales, small or of moderate size, clenoid, covering body and base 
of pectoral fin, 

21. Periophthalmus Schlosseri, Pall. Nga-pyan, Burm. D.7/},A 
14. Colours, with blue spots on the bo: dy ; fins banded with varying colours. 
Mouths of large rivers in India and Burma, ascending above {dal 
influence ; rarely exceeds 3 inches in length. 


ecliv 


Genus—ELEOTRIS, Gronov. 


Philypnus, Cuy. and Val.; Bostrichthys, Dum.; Culius, Butis, Valen- 
ciennea, Belobranchus, and FEleotrioides, Bleeker; Lemus, Giinther. 
Branchiostegals from four to six, occasionally terminating anteriorly in a 
spine: pscudobranchia present. Gill-openings of moderate width. Body 
subcylindrical, scaly, Head oblong. Eyes lateral, not prominent, and of 
moderate size, Teeth small, present or absent on the vomer. Two dorsal 
Jins, the anterior with few (5-8) spines, and these sometimes filamentous : 
‘base of pectoral slightly muscular: ventrals placed close together, but not 
united.  Air-vessel large, Anal papille distinct, Pylorie appendages 
generally absent, 

22. Eleotris fusca, Bl. Poollan, Mal.: Cul-coondallum and Mus- 
soorie,Tam.: Kalawishi and Bundi-balah-kera, Ooviah ; Kyouk-ka-tha-bho, 
Burm. D, 6/3, A. $, L. 1. 68, L. tr. 16. Of a dark colour, Found 
throughout the lower districts of India and Burma, also at the Anda- 
mans, It does not attain a span in length, 


Familyj—Nanvivm, Giinther, 
Pseudochromides et Menoides, pt., Mill. and Trosch. 


Branchiostegals from five to six: pseudobranchiw present in marine genera, but 
sometimes hidden or absent in some of those of the fresh-water. Body oblong 
and compressed. Teeth feeble, but dentition more or less complete. Dorsal fin 
single; the spinous portion most developed, or of nearly equal extent to the soft: 
anal with three spines, and its soft portion resembling that of the dorsal: ventrals 
thoracic, with one spine and four or five rays. Scales ctenoid, covering the body. 
Lateral jine interrupted, or absent. No superbranchial organ. Air-vessel present. 
Pyloric appendages few or absent. 


Genus—Bani3, Bleeker. 


Branchiostegals six: pseudobranchia absent. Gills four. Eyes la- 
teral. Mouth protractile. None of the bones of the head armed. Teeth 
on jaws, vomer, and palatines ; none on the tongue, A single dorsal fin, 
the spinous portion being of much greater extent than the soft: anal with 
three spines, its rayed portion similar to that of the dorsal. Scales 
ctenoid, and of moderate size. Lateral line interrupted or absent. Air- 
vessel large and simple. Pyloric appendages absent. 

23, Badis Buchanani, Bleecker. Kala-poo-ti-ah and Chi-ri, 
Panj.: Bundei, Ooriah.: Pin-lay-nga-ba-mah and Nga-mee-loung, Burm. 
B. vi. D. “837, A. &, L. 1. 80, L. tr. $, Cee. pyl. o. Lateral line 
interrupted. Purplish black, banded. This small fish appears to be 
pretty generally distributed through India and Burma, except in 
Madras. 

24. Badis davio, Ham. Buch. B.vi. D. }, A. 7, L. 1. 26. 
Lateral line absent. Colours and size as in the last species. Gangetic 
Provinces and the Wynaad. 


Genus—Nanbvus, Cuv. and Val. 


Bedula, Gray ; Pristolepis, Jerdon. 
Branchiostegals six: pseudobranchie absent (Brputa), or present 
(Prisroturis). yes lateral. Body vblong, compressed. Mouth very or 


ceclv 


moderately protractile. Opercle with two spines : pre-opercle more or less 
serrated: preorbital entire. Teeth villiform in jaws, vomer, and palatines, 
and (in N. marginatus) tubercular on base of the tongue. A single dorsal 
Jin, the spinous portion being of slightly greater extent than the soft: 
anal with three spines. Scales ctenoid and of moderate size. Lateral line 
interrupted, Air-vessel large and simple. Pyloric appendages absent. 

25. Nandus marmoratus, Cuv. and Val. Gud-ha, Hool-sa, and Mus- 
soas-sah, Panj.: Mootaharee, Mal.: Septi, Vel.: Vaad-hul, Wind,: Latha 
and Gud-ha, Beng.: Budusi, Ooviah: Nga-weh-ma, Burm. B. vi. D. 


was, A, 5, L. 1. 46-57. No pseudobranchie. Throughout the fresh- 


waters of India (Sind?) and Burma, attaining 6 inches in length. 

26. Nandus marginatus, Jerdon. Chiitichi, Mal. B. vi. D. 14, A. 
$, L. 1. 25, L. tr. 4. Pseudobranchiw present. Western Ghits, at- 
taining 4 inches in length. 


Genus—Cartorra, Bleeker. 


Branchiostegals six: pseudobranchia absent. Eyes lateral. Mouth 
protractile, Opercle with two flat spines: pre-opercle and pre-orbital ser- 
rated. Teeth villiform on jaws, vomer, palatines and the tongue. A single 
dorsal fin, the spinous portion being of slightly less extent than the soft: 
anal with three spines. Scales ctenoid, of rather a large size. Lateral 
line interrupted. Pyloric appendages two. 

27. Catopra nandioides, Bleeker. B. vi. D. =~ A.§, L. 1. 27, 


15-16, . 
L. tr. ap Cee. Pyl. 2. Greenish. Burmese rivers and ponds, to 8 inches 


in length. 


Family—LaBynintuict, Cuv. 


Anabantida, pt., Richardson ; Spirobranchida, pt., Swainsoh ; Osphro- 
menoidei, Bleeker. 

Branchiostegals from four to six: pseudobranchis rudimentary or absent. Gills four. 
Body compressed, oblong, or elevated. Eyes lateral. Gill-openings rather narrow ; 
the membranes united below the isthmus. Above the third or upper portion of 
the first branchial arch, exists a cavity in which is contained an elaborate apparatus 
consisting of thin laminw of bone covered by a vascular mucous membrane, 
and which is employed for respiratory purposes. Number of dorsal and anal 
spines variable: ventrals thoracic. Scales ctenoid and of moderate size. Lateral 
line interrupted or absent. Air-vessel present or absent. Pyloric appendages few 
or absent. 


Genus—ANABAS, Cuvier. 


Branchiostegals six: pseudobranchie absent.  Branchial arches with 
toothed tubercles. Mouth rather small. Opercles and pre-orbital serrated, 
Teeth villiform in jaws, and on the anterior and posterior eatremity of the 
vomer ; none on the palatines. Dorsal fin single, the spinous portion of greater 
extent than the soft: anal spines numerous, less than those of the dorsal. 
Scales rather large, ctenoid. Lateral line interrupted. <Air-vessel bifid pos- 
leriorly, with cither extremity produced. Pylorie appendages few or absent, 

28, Anabas scandens, Dald. Climbing perch of Europeans. Undee- 
collee, Mal.: Pauni-eyri, Tamil: Coz, Bengallee and Ooriah: Nga-byays- 
ma, Burm.: Kavaya or hkawhy-ya, Singalese. B. vi. D. Sy A. 
9-10 


gap L. |. 28-32, L. tr. 5/9-10. Estuaries and fresh-waters of India and 


eclvi 


Burma, but most numerous in situations but little removed from tidal in- 
fluence. Attains to 8 inches in length. 


Genus—POLYACANTHUS, Cuv. and Val. 


Branchiostegals sia: pseudobranchie glandular or absent. Body 
oblong, compressed. Mouth small and but little protractile. Opercles spine- 
less. Teeth small and fixed in the jaws ; palate edentulous. Dorsal fin 
single, the spinous portion of much greater extent than the soft: the anal of 
a similar character: ventral with one spine and five well developed rays, some 
of which are usually elongate. Scales rather large, ctenoid. Lateral line 
interrupted, partially or even entirely absent. Air-vessel simple. Pylorie 
appendages few. 

29. Polyacanthus cupanus, Cuv, and Val. Punnum, Tam. B. vi. 


D. 4 A. ere Li. 1. 29-82, LL. tr. Hs Greenish, fins barred, with a dark 


spot at the base of the caudal, and the prolonged ventral ray scarlet. 
Found in ditches, irrigated fields, and shallow fresh and brackish waters, 
but slightly above tidal influence, both on the Coromandel and Malabar 
sides of the Madras Presidency. It rarely exceeds 3 inches in length. 


Genus—OsPHrournus, Comm. * 


Trichopus, Lacép. 


Branchiostegals six. Body moderately elevated, compressed. Operele 
spineless : opercular pieces finely serrated in the immature. Mouth small, 
protractile. Teeth in jaws fine and fixed ; palate edentulous. A single 
dorsal fin, its spinous portion sometimes in excess, but usually less in ea- 
tent than its soft part: anal spines in varying numbers. Outer ventral ray 
long, filiform ; the remainder mostly rudimentary. Scales of moderate size, 
cltenoid, Laterad line interrupted or absent, Air-vessel present. Pyloric 
appendages two. 

5-6 


30. Osphromenus nobilis, McClell. D. 73, A. 5, L. 1. 28-30. 
Lateral line absent ‘Two white bands along the sides, and a third 
along the base of the anal fin. A small fish, found in the north and 
north-east portions of Bengal. 


Genus—TricHoGa4sTER, Bl. Schn. 


Trichopodus, Ham. Buch. ; Colisa, Cuv. and Val. 

Branchiostegals five. Branchial arches with toothed tubercles. Oper- 
cle spineless: pre-opercle serrated, as is also usually the pre-orbital. Mouth 
small and but little protractile. Teeth small, fixed in the jaws; palate 
edentulous. A single dorsal fin, the spinous of much greater extent than 
the soft: anal spines similar, but the rayed portion more developed : ventrat 
jin consisting of one long filiform ray. Scales of moderate size, ctenoid. 
Air-vessel bifid posteriorly, the two ends being prolonged. Pyloric appendages 
ew. 

7 31. Trichogaster fasciatus, B\. Schn. Kun-gee, Panj.: Pich-ru, Sind : 
Kussuah and Coilia, Ooriah: Ponundi, Tel.: Nga-pin-thick-kouk and Nqa- 


phyin-thaleb, Burm. B. vi. D. “eis A. gaz U.1.30-31, Greenish, banded, 


and some of the fins red-spotted. This little fish extends throughout 


eclvii 


the course of large rivers in India and Burma, except Southern and 
Western Madras. 

382. Trichogaster latius, Ham. Buch. Kung-gec, Panj. B. vi. D. 'S, 
A. 4§. Banded, owing to every scale being half light-blue and hale 
scarlet ; fins spotted with red. Panjab and Lower Bengal, in the Jumna 
and Ganges. 

83. Trichogaster chuna, Nam. Buch. B. vi. D. 14, A. 49. Caudal 
fin shghtly emarginate. A broad black lateral band. A small species 


found near Caleutta, 


Family—OrnioceruaLtipm, Blecker. 


Labyrinthici, pt., Cuv. 


Branchiostegals five: pseudobranchiw absent. Gills four. Body elongated, sub- 
cylindrical anteriorly, head depressed, and superiorly covered by  shield-like 
scales. yes lateral. Gill-openings wide, the membranes of the two sides being 
connected beneath the isthmus. A cavity exists, which is above and accessory 
to the true gill-cavity for the purpose of retaining or receiving air, a super- 
branchial organ is not developed, but some thin bony laminz are present.  Villi- 
form teeth on jaws, vomer, and palate, sometimes with conical ones intermingled. 
One long spineless dorsal} and a similarly constructed, though shorter, anal. 
Ventrals thoracic (Ophiocephalus) or absent (Channa) ; when present consisting 
of six rays, the outer of which is unbranched and articulated at its extremity. 
Scales of large, moderate, or small size. Lateral line abruptly curved or almost 
interrupted. Air-vessel present. Pyloric appendages few. 


Genus—OrmiocerHALus, Bloch. 


As defined in the family. Ventral fins present. Pyloric appendages 
(wo. 

34. Ophiocephalus marulius, Ham. Buch, Kub-rak, Sawl, and Dowlah, 
Panj.: Choaree verarl and Cooravoo, Mal.: Phool-verarl, Vam.: Phool- 
murl, Wind.: Hoovina-murl, Can.: Poola chapa, Tel. : Nga-yan-dyne, Burm. 
B. v. D. 49-55, A. 33-36, L. 1. 59-64. Orange, with vertical bands and 
white spots. Found throughout the fresh-waters, especially the larger 
rivers of India and Burma, attaining as much as 4 feet in length. 

35.* Ophiocephalus barca, Ham. Buch. Bora and Burra chang, 
Butan. B.v. D. 50-52, A. 35-36, L. 1.62. Dark violet, dotted all 
over with black. Calcutta, North-Eastern Bengal, and Butan, attaining 
3 feet in length. 

36. Ophiocephalus diplogramme, Day. Kuch-hi, Mal. and Canarese. 
D. 43, A. 27, L. 1.112. Two horizontal black lateral bands. Western 
Coast of India, attaining a foot and a half in length. 

387. Ophiocephalus striatus, Lacép. Chota Sawl and Carrodah, Pan). : 
Char-koor, Sind: Murl and Morrul, Wind.: Verart and Wrahl, Mal. : 
Verarlu and Curroopoo verarl, Tamil: Sowarah, Tel.: Sola, Ooriah : 
Koochinda murl, Can. : Lolla, Sing.: Nga-yan or Nga-yan-pa-nan, Burm. 
B. v. D. 37-48, A 22-26, L. 1. 51-57. Grey above, whitish beneath, 
striated with black. Found throughout the fresh, preferring the stagnant, 
waters of the plains of India and Burma, attaining 3 feet or more 
in length. 

38. Ophiocephalus Stewartiz, Playfair. Brownish black above, lighter 
helow, some black spots on the body. B. v. D. 39-40, A. 27, L. 1. 50. 


\ssam, attaining at least 10 inches in length. 
ms 


eelviil 


89, Ophiocephalus gachua, Ham. Buch. Chub-bu, Dow-lah, and 
Do-ah-ra, Panj.: Dheri dhok, Wind. ; Koravu, Mal.: Para korava, Tam. : 
Mar korava, Can.: Chenga or Chayung, Ooriah: Nga-yan-goun-doh, 
Burm.: Chad-dah, Andamanese. B. v. D. 82-34, A. 21-28, L. 1. 40-45. 
Greenish, pectoral barred, the other fins with orange edgings. ound 
throughout the fresh-waters of India, Burma, and the Andamans, attain- 
ing a foot in length. 

40, Ophiocephatus punctatus, Bloch. Gra-e, Dowlah, or Dul-lown-ga, 
Panj.: Dhug-gu or Muk-koor, Sind': Gur-hi-e, N. W. Prov.: Phoot 
Dhok, Hind.: Korava, Tam. and Can.: Gorissa, Ooriah: Nga-yan- 
thin-ohn, Burm. B. v. D. 29-82, A. 21, L. 1. 40. Dirty green, banded 
and sometimes with numerous black dots over the body. All fresh-waters 
of India and Burma, attaining a foot in length. 


Family—RuyNcHOBDELLIDm, Bleeker, 
Scomberorder, pt., Cuv. & Val.: Mastacembelide, Giinther. 


Branchiostegals six: pseudobranchiw absent. Gill-opening a slit on side of head: 
gills four. Body elongated, eel-shaped. Humeral arch not suspended from the 
skull. Lower jaw long, but without much power of motion. A single long 
dorsal fin, its anterior portion consisting of free spines: anal with three spines 
anterior to it: soft dorsal and anal of similar extent: ventral fins absent. Air- 
vessel present. Pyloric appendages two. 


Genus-—RHYNCHOBDELLA, Bl, Schn. 


Mastacemblus, Gronovy. 

Branchiostegals six. Cleft of mouth narrow: a long and fleshy 
snout, inferiorly concave and transversely striated. Minute leeth on jaws 
and vomer. Dorsal and anal not continuous with the caudal fin. Scales 
small, eycloid. Lateral line present. Aur-vessel elongated. 

41. LRhynehobdella aculeata, Bloch. Aral,'Tam. : Bommiday, Tel. : 
Gritt, Ooriah; Nga-maway-doh-naga, Burm. D., 16-20/48-54, A. 
8/44-52. Brownish marbled; a row of from 8 to 9 black ocelli, having: 
buff edges, along the base of the soft dorsal. Throughout the deltas 
of large Indian and Burmese rivers, but appears to be absent from the 
northern portions of the Panjab and the Malabar Coast. It attains 
about 12 inches in length, 


Genus—MASTACEMBLUS, Gronov. 


Branchiostegals siv. Cleft of mouth narrow: a long and fleshy 
appendage to the snout, which is not transversely striated inferiorly : 
pre-opercle generally with spinous teeth at its angle. Teethin jaws minute. 
Dorsal and anal fins distinet from, or confluent with, the caudal, Seales 
small, cycloid. Lateral line present. Air-vessel elongated. 

42. Mastacemblus Aleppensis, Bl. Schn. D. 32-35/80, A. 3/80. 
Bootan, said to attain 18 inches in length. 

43. Mastacemblus zebrinus, Blyth. Nga-maway-doh-wettoung, Burm. 
D, 29/52, A. 3/56. Yellow with vertical black bands. ound through- 
out Burma, 

44, Mastacemblus wnicolor, Cuv. and Val. D. 33-34/80-84, 
A, 3/75-S1. Found in the upper portions of the Irrawaddi. 

45. Mastacemblus pancalus, Ham, Buch,  Chen-da-la, Giirchee, 
and Gro-age, Panj.: Ju-gar, N. W. Prov.: Par-pa-raal, Vel.i Tur: 


eclix 


and Bah-ru, Ooriah. D, 24-26/30-40, A. 3/31-44. Throughout India, 
attaining 6 inches in length. 

46. Mastacemblus armatus, Lacép. Bakm and Gro-age, Panj. and 
Sind: Shaa-ta-rah, Tam.: Mudi-bom-mi-day, Tel.: Bahm and Bummi, 
Ooriah and Beng.: Nga-maway-doh-aga, Burm. D. 35-89/74-87, 
A. 3/79-87, Marbled and striped, sometimes with round spots. Found 
throughout India and Burma, even on the Himalayas, attaining 2 
feet and upwards in length. 

47. Mastacemblus Guentheri, Day. D. 27-28/60-64, A. 3/62-64. 
Horizontal limb of pre-opercle serrated. Marbled. Malabar, attaining 
about seven inches in length. 


Family—C unomipes, ALiiller. 


Branchiostegals five or six: pseudobranchie absent. Gills four. Body oblong or 
elevated. Teeth in jaws small, none on the palate: inferior pharyngeal bones 
triangular, having a median suture. Dorsal fin single, the spinous portion 
usually of greater extent than the soft : anal with three or more spines, its rayed 
part similar to that of the dorsal. Ventrals thoracic, with one spine and five rays. 
Scales generally ctenoid. Lateral line more or less interrupted. Air-vessel 
present. Pyloric appendages, when present, in small numbers. 


Genus—Lrropxus, Cuv. § Val. 


Branchiostegals six. Body elevated and compressed. Nyes lateral. 
Cleft of mouth short. Teeth in two rows in the jaws, compressed and 
lobate. A single dorsal, the spinous portion being of greater extent than 
the rayed : anal spines more numerous or of about equal extent to the rays. 
Scales ctenoid and of moderate size. Lateral line interrupted, or abruptly 
ceasing. Air-vessel present. Pyloric appendages absent. 

48. LEtroplus Suratensis, Bl. Karssar, Tam.: Pitul-kas, Wind. : 
Cashi-mara, Tel,: Cun-dah-la, Ooriah. D. 181%, A, 213° TL. 1. 45, 


14-157 12-11 
L. tr. 21. Green or purple, with eight vertical bands. Malabar and 
Coromandel Coast, attaining a foot in length. 
49. troplus maculatus, Bl. Pul-lut-tay, Mal. D. 48, A. 1%, L. 1. 
35, L. tr. 21. Canary yellow, with seventeen horizontal rows of golden 
spots, and three dark blotches along the middle of the side. Found 
throughout Madras and Malabar, attaining about three inches in length. 


Order—A NACANTHIQI. 


All the rays of the vertical and ventral fins articulated, the latter, when 
present, being jugular and thoracic. Air-vessel, if existing, not hayv- 
ing a pneumatic duct. 


Sub-Order—A NACANTHINI-PLEURONECTOIDET, 
Structure of head, unsymmetrical on the two sides. 
Family—Purvurnonectipe, Mem. 


Heterosomata, Bonaparte. 


Pseudobranchix well developed. Gills four. Body strongly compressed, flattened, with 
one of its sides coloured, the other being more rarely spotted. Both eyes (except 
in the very young) placed on the superior or coloured surface. The two sides of 
the head not equally developed, one continuing almost rudimentary. A single 
long dorsal and anal fin. Air-vessel absent. 


eclx 


Genus—S¥NaPtuRA, Cantor. 


Achiroides, Blecker: A?’sopia, Euryglossa, and Lurypleura, Kaup. 

Branchiostegals six. Lyes on the right * side, the upper in advance 
of thelower. Cleft of mouth narrow, twisted round to the left side. Minute 
teeth only on the left side : palate edentulous. One of the nostrils on the blind 
side dilated in some species, not so in others, whilst amongst the latter both 
pectorals may be present, the right being somewhat the longer. Some have the 
nasal tube small or simple (Synaptura), or bifid (Luryglossa). Secondly, 
the left pectoral may be longer than the right (Anisochirus). Thirdly, the 
left pectoral may be rudimentary (Alsopia). Fourthly, both pectorals 
may be absent ( Achiroides). The vertical jins are confluent. Scales small 
and clenoid. Lateral line straight. 

50. Synaptura pan, Ham. Buch. Nga-la-chan, Burm. D. 59, A. 
45, L. 1.75. This species of sole is found in the Ganges and Burmese 
rivers high above tidal influence. 


Order—PHYSOSTOMI, Miller. 


All the fin rays articulated, except the first in the dorsal and pectoral, 
which are frequently more or less ossified. Ventral fins, when pre- 
sent, abdominal and spineless. Air-vessel, if existing, having a 
pneumatic duct, 


Family—Sitiuriva. 


Margin of the upper jaw formed by the inter-maxillaries; the maxilla rudimentary 
often constituting the base of a barbel: no sub-opercle. The rayed or adipose 
dorsal fins may be present or absent. Skin scaleless, and either smooth or covered 
with osseous plates. Air-vessel, when present, either free in the abdominal cavity, 
(Siluring) or more or less enclosed in bone (Amblyceping) ; it communicates with 
the organs of hearing by means of the auditory bones. 


Sub-Family—S1LURIN B. 


Air-yessel not enclosed in bone. 


Genus—AxYsis, Bleeker. 


Body rather elongated: dorsal profile nearly horizontal: neck not ele- 
vated. Head depressed, covered superiorly with soft skin. Kyes small, sub- 
cutaneous, Mouth terminal, transverse: jaws of unequal length.  Nostrils 
somewhat remote from one another. Gill-openings wide. Barbels eight, 
their bases slightly dilated. .Villiform teeth in the jaws: none on the 
palate. First dorsal fin having a spine enveloped in skin, and five or sii 
rays: adipose dorsal low: pectoral horizontal, with a spine enclosed in 
skin: ventral with six rays, entirely behind the dorsal: caudal forked : anual 
of moderate length (9-11 rays). Air-vessed not enclosed in bone. Skin 
smooth or tubercular. 

61. Akysis Kurzii, Day. D. 4/0, A. 11. Brown. Pegu hills, only 
attaining a small size. 


* Nore.—Tho terms right or dextral, and left or sinistral, aro thus employed in these flut fishos 
The specimen is placed with its tail towards tho observer, the dorsal fin upwards, the anal dowoward 
and the coloured side is the one referred to, 


eelxi 


Genus—LErerunistrs Mull. § Trosch. 

ITara, Blyth. 

Head somewhat depressed, osseous superiorly. Gill-openings narrow, 
‘he membrane being confluent with the skin of the isthmus. Mouth small, 
‘erminal. Barbels eight, the maxillary ones with broad bases. Villiform 
(ceth in the jaws, and in a band on the palate. First dorsal fin arising 
anterior to the ventrals, having an osscous serrated spine, and Jive or six 
branched rays : adipose dorsal of moderate extent: ventral with six rays 5 
anal of moderate length (10 vays) : caudal forked. Air-vessel not enclosed 
2 bone. 

52. Frethistes hara, Ham. Buch. Nga-kyouk-pa, Burm. D. 2/0, 
A. 10. Brown banded. In the large rivers of Orissa, Bengal, Assam, 
and Burma, attaining 24 inches in length. 

53, Hrethistes conta, Wam. Buch. Nga-thit-to and Nga-kouk-thwa, 
Burm. D. 3/0, A. 10. Lower Bengal and Burma, attaining 4 inches 
in length. 

54. Erethistes Jerdoni, Day. D. 2/0, A. 10. Another small 
species from Sylhet. 

55, Lirethistes elongata, Day. D. 3/0, A. 10. From the Naga 
Hills, 


Genus—Macnrones. Dumeril. 


Bagrus, pt., Cuv. & Val.: Mypselobagrus, Hemibagrus, Pseudobagrus, 
and Aspidobagrus, Bleeker : Batasio, Blyth. 


Branchiostegals from about six to twelve. Uyes with free circular 
margins. A separate inter-neural shield on the nape (Macrones), or no 
such shield (Hemibagrus). Mouth terminal, transverse : upper jaw generally 
‘he longer. Barbets eight, one nasal, one maxillary, and two mandibu- 
lar pairs. Villiform teeth in the jaws, and in a more or less uninterrupted 
curved band on the palate. Virst dorsal fin with one spine, and from five 
fo seven rays: adipose dorsal of varying length: pectoral spine 
serrated: anal short or of moderate length: ventral with six rays: caudal 
forked. Air-vessel of moderate or large size, attached to the under 
surface of the bodies of the anterior vertebra. 


a. With a separate inter-neural shield on the nape. 


66. Macrones aor, Nam. Buch. Seng-ga-la and Sang-go-ah, Panj. : 
Sing-ha-ree, Sind and N. W. Provinees: Cumdoo kellettee, Tam. : Muti 
jella, Vel.: Alli or Addi, Ooriah: Nga-joung, Burm. D. 4/0, A. 18. 
Maxillary barbels extend to the end of the caudal fin. Adipose dorsal 
with a black spot at its posterior extremity. This large cat-fish is 
found throughout the plains of India and Burma, attaining several feet 
in length. 

57. Macrones Lamarri, Cuv. and Val. Teng-ga-ra, Panj. D. 3/0, 
A. 12. Maxillary barbels extend to the end of the first dorsal fin. A 
black spot at the posterior end of the adipose dorsal. Found in the upper 
portions of the Ganges and Jumna, attaining several feet in length. 

58. Macrones affinis, Blyth. D. 7/0, A. 12. Maxillary barbels do 
not pass the eye. Body with cross bands. A small species from the 
‘Penasserim Provinces, 


eelxii 


2. No separate inter-neural shield on the nape. 


59. Macrones chryseus, Day. Manjit yéte, Mal.: Pila kuturnee, 
Hind. D. 4/0, A. 27. Barbels scarcely longer than the head. This and 
the following species have no separate inter-neural shield on the nape. 
Body golden, a black blotch behind the opercles, Western Coast of 
India, attaining upwards of a foot in length. 

60. Macrones batasio, Ham. Buch. D. 4/0, A. 16. Barbels 
shorter than the head; diaphanous, River Tista, attaining three inches 
in length. 

61. Macrones gulio, Ham, Buch. Nuna tengara, Beng. D. 3/0, 
A. 14, Maxillary barbels reach anal fin: adipose dorsal short. Brown- 
ish. Mouths of large Indian and Burmese rivers, ascending above tidal 
reach, attaining eight inches in length. 

62. Macrones tengana, Ham. Buch. Dum-sah, Panj. D. 3/0, 
A.14. Maxillary barbels reach to middle or end of pectoral: adipose 
dorsal short. Golden with longitudinal stripes. Assam and Panjab, up 
to.8 inches in length. 

63. Dacrones carcio, Ham. Buch. Ka-gur and Kut-tah-rah, N. W. 
Provinces: Ten-ga-ra, Beng.: Kel-lel-tee, Tam.: Sakwella, Tel.: Bi- 
kun-ti-a, Ooviah: Nga-zin-yine, Burm. D. 7/0, A. 12-14. Maxillary 
barbels reach the caudal fin. Dorsal spine serrated on both sides: adi- 
pose fin short. Banded and having a shoulder mark. India, Ceylon, 
and Burma, to a few inches in length. 

64. Macrones corsula,Ham. Buch. Punjah-guggah, Ooriah : Nga-ike, 
Burm. D. 4/0, A. 11. Maxillary barbels reach anal fin; adipose dorsal 
of moderate length. Rrownish, with vertical rows of fine spots. Orissa, 
Lower Bengal, and Burma, attaining a foot or more in length. 

65. Macrones punctatus, Jerdon. Psetta kelletee, Tam. D. 3/0, 
A. 11. Maxillary barbels reach the base of the ventral fins: adipose 
dorsal of moderate length. About ten round, black spots along the 
lateral line. Bowany River in Madras, attaining 18 inches in length. 

66. Macrones cavasius, Ham, Buch. Cut-taak kug-ger, Panj.: Vella 
kellettee and Cutta, Tam.: Muti jella, Tel.: Guntea, Ooriah : Nga-zin- 
zine, Burm. D. 4/0, A. 11. Maxillary barbels reach the base of the 
caudal fin. Dorsal spine entire: adipose fin long. Silvery. India and 
Burma, to upwards of a foot in length. 

67. Macrones nangra, Ham. Buch. D. 3/0, A. 10-11. Maxillary 
barbels reach the vent. Dorsal spine entire: adipose fin short. Mud 
coloured, with three vertical greenish bands. Ganges and Jumna, to 
about 2 inches in length. 

68. Macrones (?) botius, Ham. Buch. D. 3/0, A. 11. Barbels 
shorter than the head. Dorsal spine entire. Brown. Northern Bengal 
to 6 inches in length. vee 

69. Macrones leucophasis, Blyth. D.+/0,A.11. Maxillary barbels 
reach the end of anal fin. Dorsal spine posteriorly serrated : adipose fin 
prolonged. Black, with some white spots. Burma. 

0. Macrones vittatus, Bloch. D. +/0, A. 8-10. Maxillary barbels 
reach the middle of the ventral fin; dorsal spine serrated on both sides. 
Malabar and Coromandel Coast. 


celxiil 


71. Macrones Malabaricus. D.+/0, A.10. Maxillary barbels reaclt 
the middle of the ventral fin: dorsal spine short and entire: pectoral 
serrated on both sides. A round black shoulder mark. Malabar. 

72. Macrones oculatus,Cuv.and Val. Cuaree, Mal. D.4/0, A. 11. 
Eye large. Maxillary barbels reach the caudal fin. Occipital process 
extends to the base of the dorsal fin. Dorsal spine serrated on both sides : 
adipose fin short. Uniform, with two indistinct, lateral, longitudinal 
bands. Southern India and Malabar. 

73.  Macrones tengara, Ham. Buch. D. 4/0, A.10. Zing-ga-rah and 
Karaal, Panj.: Mulleer and Kug-ger, Sind... Maxillary barbels reach the 
caudal. Dorsal spine entire: adipose fin long. Longitudinal bands and 
a dark shoulder mark. Upper portions of Jumna and Ganges, Panjab 
and Sind, to 6 inches in length. 

74.  Macrones keletius, Bleecker. D. $/0, A. 9. Maxillary barbels 
reach the base of anal fin. Dorsal spine entire: adipose fin short. Greyish, 
with two light longitudinal bands. Jumna and Ganges, also Panjab, not 
attaining a large size. 

75. Macrones (?) cavia, Ham. Buch. Kanya teng-gara, Vind. 
D. 4/0, A. 9. Maxillary barbels as long as the head. Dorsal spine 
entire: adipose fin short. Brownish, with two transverse bands across 
the tail. Northern Bengal, attaining 6 inches in length. 


Genus—kiTA, Bleeker. 

Gogrius, Day. 

Branchiostegals eight. Hyelids without free circular margins. Mouth 
transverse: upper jaw the longer. Nostrils on either side contiguous, but 
the pair on one side widely separated from that on the other. Barbels 
six, a minute pair at the posterior nostrils, a maxillary and one mandibular 
pair. Granular or molar-form teeth on the palate. Rayed dorsal fin, 
with one spine and six rays: the adipose and the anal of moderate lengths: 
ventral with six or eight rays: caudal forked. Air-vessel large, not 
enclosed in bone, whilst it may possess posterior elongations. 

%6. Rita ritoides, Cuv. & Val. D. 2/0, A. 12. Humeral process 
about as long as the head. Air-vessel with posterior horn-like prolong- 
ations. Gangetic Provinces, Panjab, Sind and Burma, attaining a 
foot in length. 

77. kita pavimentata, Val. D. 2/0, A. 12. Humeral process 
about half as long as the head. Deccan and Bombay. 

78. Rita kuturnee, Sykes. D. 2/0, A. 12. Humeral process two- 
thirds as long as the head. Air-vessel without posterior prolongations. 
Deccan. 


79. Rita (?) rama, Ham. Buch. D. $/0, A. 15. Assam. 


Genus—Artvs, Cuv. & Fal. 


Seiades, sp., et Ariodes, Mull. & ‘Trosch.: Hexanematichthys, 
Guitinga, Hemiarius, Cephalocassis, Netuma, et Pseudarius, Bleeker. 

Branchiostegals from five to six, Head osseous superiorly or covered 
with very thin skin, Dyes with free orbital margins. Mouth anterior : 
upper jaw generally the longer. Anterior and posterior nostrils placed 
close together, the latter being provided with a valve. Barbels six, one 
maxillary and two mandibular pairs. Teeth in the jaws villiform, always 


eelxiv 


palatine, and sometimes vomerine ones, these may be villiform or granular. 
Pirst dorsal with one spine and seven rays: the adipose of moderate 
length or short: pectoral spine strong and serrated: ventral with six rays, 
situated behind the vertical from the posterior margin of the jirst dorsal 
jin: caudal forked or emarginate. Air-vessel not enclosed in bone. 


80, Arius gagora, Ham. Buch. Nga-youn and Nga-yeh, Burm. 
D. 4/0, A.18-19. Teeth, palatine, molar form. Silvery. Seas of India 
and Burma, ascending large rivers above tidal influence, and attaining 
about a foot in length. 


81. Arius Burmanicus, Day. Nga-young, Burm. D. 4/0, A. 20-22, 
Maxillary barbels reach the base of the pectoral fin. Teeth in palate 
villiform, in two widely set patches. Colours purplish above, silvery 
below. Rivers of Burma. 


8&2, Arius sona,Ham. Buch. D.4/0, A. 16-17. Maxillary barbels 
reach the end of the head. Teeth in palate villiform, in two triangular 
patches, almost confluent with the vomerine ones. Brownish, becoming 
white below. Ascends large Indian and Burmese rivers, often above tidal 
influence. 


Genus—Pane@astus, Cuv. 5 Val. 


Pseudopangasius, pt., Bleeker. 


Branchiostegals from about six to twelve. Gill-membranes over-lap 
the isthmus, but are more or less separate from it. Lyes with free orbital 
margins, Upper jaw the longer. Anterior nostrils patent and situated 
in front of snout. Barbels four, slender, one maxillary, and at some 
distance behind the symphysis, one mandibular pair, Teeth villiform in the 
jaws, intermixed with conical ones : they are also present in the vomer and 
palate, the continuity of these two last being usually interrupted. A short 
Jjirst dorsal, with a spine and seven rays situated anterior to the ventrals : 
adipose fin short: anal long, not confluent with the caudal, which latter is 
Jorked: ventrals with six rays. Air-vessel (in P. Buchanani) thick, 
elongated, extending from the anterior vertebre to opposite the posterior 
end of the anal fin, it has a slight contraction between its anterior and 
posterior two-thirds. 

83. Pangasius Buchanani, Cuv. and Val. Jellum, Ooriah. D. }/0, 
A. 31-84, Large rivers and estuaries of India and Burma, attaining 
four feet or more in length. 


Genus—Psrvuprurrorivs, Bleeker. 


Schilbeichthys, Bleeker. 

Branchiostegals from six to ten. Body elongated and compressed. 
Abdominal profile more convex than that of the back. Hyes large, generally 
having broad adipose lids, situated behind and slightly below the angle of 
the mouth, often partly on the lower surface of the head. Head covered 
with soft skin. Mouth anterior ; upper jaw generally the longer. Nostrils 
putent, transverse, the posterior being nearer to one another than they are 
to the anterior ones. Barbels eight, one pair at the posterior nostrils, one 
manillary, and two mandibular pairs, these last arising on a transverse line 
close to the hind margin of the lower lip, Teeth villiform in the jaws, 


ecelxy 


vomer, and palate, Dorsal fin short, with one spine, and six or seven rays 3 
a very small adipose dorsal, which may be absorbed inthe adult (Schilbeich- 
thys): pectoral with a serrated spine; anal long, terminating at some distance 
from a forked caudal: ventral with six, or it may have eight rays. Air- 
vessel heart-shaped, and closely attached to the anterior vertebra. 

84. Pseudeutropius atherinoides, Bl. Put-tul and Chel-lee, Panj.: 
Ah-hee, Sind.: Put-tah-re, N. W. Prov.: Akku jella, Tel.: Battuli 


and Bo-potass?, Ooriah. D. =0/0, A. 86-42. Maxillary barbels reach base of 
anal fin. Three or four longitudinal lateral bands. Throughout the 
fresh-waters of the plains of India and Burma, attaining about four 
inches in length. 

- 85. Pseudeutropius goongwaree, Sykes. Nga-myenoke-hpa, Burm. 
D. 3/0, A. 43-54. Maxillary barbels reach anal fin. Silvery. Deccan, 
Bengal and Burma, attaining 10 inches in length. 

86. Pseudeutropius taakrec, Sykes. Salava jella, Tel.: Nga-zin-sap 


and Nga-myin, Burm. D. 53/0, A. 51. Maxillary barbels reach the anal 
fin. Silvery. Deccan and the Kistna River, also Orissa and Burma, 
attaining a foot in length. 

87. Pseudeutropius acutirostris, Day. D. 3/0, A.46. The maxillary 
barbels reach the anal fin. Silvery ; a black spot on occiput, and a black 
base to the dorsal fin. Rivers of Burma, mostly in their lower portions. 
It attains four inches in length. 

88. Pseudeutropius murius, Ham. Buch. Ke-raad, Panj.: Motus?, 
Beng.: Butechua, Hind.: Muri-vacha, Ooriah. D. 2/0, A. 89-43. 
Maxillary barbels reach the base of the anal fin. Silvery. Panjab, Gan- 
getie Provinces, and Orissa, attaining eight inches or more in length. 

89, Pseudeutropius Sykesii, Jerdon. Nak hellettee, Tam. OD. 3/0, 
A. 85-37. Southern Madras and Malabar, to six inches or more in 
length. 

” 90. Pseudeutropius garua, Ham. Buch. Punia buchua, Ooriah: 
Pultosi, Beng.: Buchua, Beng.: Dhon-ga-nu, Sind.: Buchua, Chel-lee 
and Ka-raad, Panj. D. 4, A. 29-36. Maxillary barbels reach the ventral 
fin. Adipose dorsal fin becomes absorbed in the adult. Silvery. Larger 
rivers of India, except Southern Madras, Malabar and Burma, attaining 
a foot or more in Jength. 


Genus—CaLLicnrovus, Ham. Buch. 


Kryptopterus, Kryptopterichthys, Micronema, Phalacronotus, Hemisilurus, 
Silurodes, Pseudosilurus and Silurichthys, Bleeker : Pterocryptis, pt., Peters. 
Gill-membranes overlap the isthmus, but are more or less separated 

from it. Head covered with skin. Eyes behind and slightly below the 
cleft of the mouth, lateral, or sometimes partly on the inferior surface of 
the head; lids without free orbital margins. Cleft of mouth oblique; lower 
jaw the longer. Nostrils remote from one another. Barbels four or two, one 
maxillary, and some distance behind the symphysis, one mandibular pair, 
the latter may be rudimentary or absent. Teeth villiform in the jaws in an 
uninterrupted band (Silurodes, Bleeker) or interrupted one (Callichrous, 
Bleeker) ox the vomer, none on the palatines. Dorsal fin spineless, short, 
rudimentary, or absent ; when present, anterior to the ventrals : no adipose fin: 


eelxvi 


pectoral with a serrated or entire spine (sometimes apparently due to sex) : 
anal long continuous with ov terminating close to the caudal, the latter 
forked or emarginate : ventrals with ten or less rays. dir-vessel in the 
abdominal cavity not enclosed in bone. 


a. Vomerine teeth in an uninterrupted band. 


91. Callichrous Gangeticus, Peters. D.2,A.75. Your barbels, the 
maxillary hardly reach the anal. Vomerine teeth in this species in an 
uninterrupted band. Anal confluent with caudal. Stated to have been 
obtained from the Ganges. 


b. Vomerine teeth in an interrupted band. > 


92. Callichrous macrophthalmus, Blyth. Nga-noo-than and Nga- 
myin-bouk, Burm. D.4,A. 74-76. Byes, diameter 3rd of length of head. 
Four barbels, the maxillary reaching to the middle of the length of the 
fish. Vomerine teeth in this, and all the succeeding species, in an 
interrupted band. Anal not confluent with the caudal; pectoral spine 
strongly serrated internally in its last half. A round black blotch above 
the posterior third of the pectoral fin. Irrawaddi and all its branches. 

93. Callichrous pabo, Ham. Buch. D. 5, A. 73. Four barbels, 
the maxillary scarcely reaching beyond the eye. Anal not confluent 
with the caudal; pectoral spine serrated internally. Assam. 

94. Callichrous checkra, Ham. Buch. Dim-mon, Sind: Chelah- 
wahlah,Tam.: Pob-tah, Ooviah. D.4,A.73. Four barbels, the maxillary 
reaching the end of the pectoral spine. Anal not confluent with the 
caudal; pectoral spine serrated internally, Sind, Bombay Presidency, 
Central Provinces, Mysore, and portions of Madras and Bengal. 

95. Callichrous nigrescens, Day. D. 5, A. 66-71. Four barbels, 
the maxillary reach the posterior edge of the orbit. Anal not conflu- 
ent with the caudal; pectoral spine entire. Finely dotted with black 
points. Rivers of Burma. 

96. Callichrous notatus, Day. D. 4, A. 65-78. Four barbels, the 
maxillary reach to the middle of the length of the fish. Anal not 
confluent with the caudal; pectoral spine serrated internally near its end. 
A round black spot above the middle of the pectoral fin. Burmese 
rivers, to four inches in length. 

97. Callichrous bimaculatus, Bl. Pob-tah, Puf-ta, Goong-wah, 
and Pallu, Panj.: Goong-wah-ree and Puf-ta, N. W. Prov. 
D. 4, A. 57-66. Four barbels, the maxillary reach the middle of the 
fish. Anal not confluent with the caudal; pectoral spine internally 
denticulated near its end. A round black spot above the middle of the 
pectoral fin. ‘Throughout India and Burma. 

98. Callichrous latovittatus, Playfair, D. 4, A. 56-58. Tour barbels 
(stated erroneously only to have two), the maxillary reaching to the end 
of the pectoral fin. Anal not confluent with the caudal; pectoral spine 
strongly denticulated internally. Cachar, to 43 inches in length. 

99. Callichrous pabda, Ham. Buch. D.4, A. 54. Four barbels, 
the maxillary reaching to the second third of the anal fin. Anal not 
confluent with the caudal; pectoral spine smooth, A black blotch 
behind the gill-opening. Ganges. 


eelxvii 


100. Callichrous Fgertonii, Day. Pul-wu-ah and Pallu, Panj.: 
Pah-ba-noon, Sind. D. 4, A. 52-54. Four barbels, the maxillary 
extend slightly beyond the base of the pectoral fin. Anal not con- 
fluent with the caudal; pectoral spine denticulated internally. Nu- 
merous brownish blotches cover the body, and a large black one exists 
over the posterior half of the pectoral fin. Panjab and Sind. 

101. Callichrous anastomus, Cuv. and Val. D. 4, A. 52-54. Four 
barbels, the maxillary reach the anal fin. Anal not confluent with the 
caudal ; pectoral spine serrated internally. A round black spot behind 
the gill-opening. Hooghly. 


Genus—WaxLtaao, Bleeker. 


Branchiostegals from fifteen to twenty-one. Body elongated and 
compressed, the dorsal profile straight. yes above the level of’ the angle 
of the mouth. Lead covered with skin. Cleft of mouth deep.  Snout 
rather produced: lower jaw slightly the longer. Barbels four, one 
mavillary and one mandibular pair. Teeth numerous and cardiform in 
both jaws, and in an oblique patch on either side of the vomer: none on 
the palatines. A short, spineless dorsal, situated above, or slightly before 
the ventrals : no adipose fin: anal long, terminating near the caudal, 
which last consists of two rounded lobes: ventrals with from eight to 
eleven rays. Air-vessel heart-shaned, not enclosed in bone. 

102. Wallago attu, Bl. Bo-al-le and Mud-lee, Panj.: Po-i-kee and 
Mul-lee, Sind : Vah-lah and Wah-lah, Tam.: Va-la-ga, Vel. : Bo-al-lee 
Ooriah; Vga-dat, Burm. D. 5, A. 86-93. Found throughout the Indian 
Empire, attaining several fect in length; it is esteemed as good eatine 
but is very voracious, and not a cleanly feeder. Sometimes this field 
is termed a fresh-water shark by Europeans. 


Genus—OLYRA, McClelland. 
Branchiosteus, Gill. 


Dorsal profile nearly horizontal. Body low and elongate. Tead 
depressed, superiorly covered with soft skin. Gill-openings wide. Tyes 
small. Mouth terminal and transverse: jaws of about equal length, or 
the lower the longer. Nostrils remote from one another. Light barbels 
one to posterior nostril, Villiform teeth in the jaws and on the palate. 
First dorsal spineless, and having six or eight rays: adipose fin long 
and low: anal of moderate extent (15 to 23 rays). Ventrals inserted 
below the dorsal and having six rays. Caudal rounded or lanceolate. 
Skin smooth. Air-vessel not enclosed in bone, 

103. Olyra longieaudata, McClelland. D. 7/0, A. 28. Jaws of 
equal length. Caudallanceolate. Khasya Hills. ‘This, and the following 
of the genus, are all small fish. 2 

104. Olyra Burmanica, Day. D. 8/0, A. 16. Jaws of equal 
length. Caudal lanceolate. Pegu Hills. 

105. Olyra loticeps, McClelland. D. 6/0, A. 15. Lower jaw the 
longer. Caudal rounded. Khasya Hills. 


Genus—SiLvurvs, Artedi. 
Dorsal profile nearly horizontal ; neck not elevated. Head covered 


with skin ; eyes situated above the level of the angle of the mouth, Gape 


eelxviil 


of mouth transverse. Nostrils remote from one another. Barbels six 
(Silurus, Bleeker) , or four (Parasilurus, Blecker), one pair being maxillary, 
and one or two pairs mandibular, Teeth cardiform or villiform in the 
jaws, in one or two transverse bands on the vomer, none on the palatines. 
One very short and spineless first dorsal fin, but no adipose one: anal 
terminates close to, but is not continuous with the caudal: ventral 
situated posterior to the dorsal, and consisting of eight or more rays. 
Air-vessel in the abdominal cavity, not enclosed in bone. 

106. Silurus Wynaadensis, Day. D. 5, A. 58-62. Six barbels. 
Leaden colour. Wynaad. 

107. Silurus Cochinsinensis, Cuv. & Val. D. 4, A. 62. Dark 
coloured. Darjecling, Akyab, Tenasserim Provinces to Cochin China. 


Genus—CuHaca, Cuv. § Val. 


Head very large, broad and depressed. Gill-membranes confluent, 
with the skin of a broad isthmus, and the gill-opening somewhat contract- 
ed ; eyes minute. Gape of mouth very wide, lowerjaw prominent. Barbels 
six, small, Teeth villiform in both jaws, none on the palate. Two rayed 
dorsal fins, the first with one spine and three or four rays, the second con- 
Jluent with the caudal: two rayed anal fins, the first with from eight 
to ten rays, the second longer (8 0.12) and confluent with the caudal: 
ventral with six rays: air-vessel in the abdominal cavity, not enclosed 
in bone. 

108. Chaea lophioides, Cuv. & Val. D. 3/25, A. 10/12. Some 
short tentacles on head and body. Ganges. Dr. Giinther states there 
is a stuffed specimen in the British Museum of this fish from Nepal, 
presented by Mr. Iodgson: it is also found in Calcutta. 

109. Chaca Bankanensis, Blecker. D. 2 /22-24, A. 9/11-12. No 
tentacles ; head and body granular. Assam and Burma, 

110. Chaca Buchanani, Ginther. D. 3/18, A. 8/8. Head and 
body with short tentacles ; a ring of them around the eye. 


Sub-Family—A MBLYCEPINA. 


Air-vessel more or less enclosed in bone. 


Genus—CLARIAS, Gronov. 


Macropteronotus, Lacép. 

Form of body elongated and compressed. Gill-membranes separated 
by adeep notch ; a dendritic accessory branchial apparatus is attached to 
the convex side of the second and fourth branchial arches, and is received 
into a recess behind the place of the usual gill-cavity. Eyes small, the lids 
having a free circular margin. Superior and lateral portions of the head 
osseous, and covered with very thin skin. Gape of mouth moderate, an- 
terior, and transverse, its cleft small. Barbels eight, one nasal, one 
maxillary and two mandibular pairs. Villiform teeth in the jaws, and 
a similar or granular band across the vomer. Dorsal fin spineless 
and with an elongated base, extending from the neck to the caudal, with 
which it may be continuous: no adipose fin: ventrals with six rays: pectoral 
with a spine. Air-vessel small, transverse, entirely enclosed in a bony cavity, 

Sormed across the body wud lateral processes of the anterior vertebra. 


eclLxix 


111. Clarias jagur, Tam. Buch. D. 53, A.50. Maxillary barbels 
slightly longer than the head, vertical fins united. Buchanan does not, 
mention where this species resides, as yet I have not found it; attains 14 
feet in length. 

112. Clarias magur, Ham. Buch. Kug-ga, Panj.: Ala-gur, Beng. : 
Nga-khoo, Burm. D. 64-70, A. 50-53. Maxillary barbels reach nearly 
to the end of the pectoral fin; vertical fins not united; dirty brown 
colour. Tresh-waters of the plains of India and Burma; attaining 18 
inches in length, and as food considered very nourishing. 


Genus—SACCOBRANCHUS, Cuv. and Val. 


HHeteropneustes, Miiller. 


Branchiostegals seven. orm of body elongated and compressed. Gill- 
membranes separated by a deep notch : gill-cavity with an accessory poste 
rior sac, which extends backwards on either side of the neural spines, 
amongst the muscles of the abdominal and part of the caudal regions. Eyes 
small, the lids having a free circular margin. Superior and lateral portions 
of the head osseous, and covered with very thin skin. Gape of mouth mode- 
rate, anterior, transverse, the cleft small. Barbels eight. Villiform teeth 
in the jaws, and vomer. Dorsal fin spineless and short: adipose absent: 
ventral under the dorsal: anal long, confluent with, or separated by a notch 
Jrom the caudal. Air-vessel placed transversely (in the form of ‘two lobes 
connected by a tube) across the body of an anterior vertebra, where it is 
entirely enclosed in bone: a duct passes forwards from either sides, unites and 
is continued into the pharyna. 

113. Saccobranchus fossitis, Bloch. Sin-gee and Noor-i-e, Panj. : 
To-har, Sind: Thar-tee, 'Tam.: Mar-pu, Tel.: Sin-gee, Ooriah, Beng., 
and in North-West Provinces; Bichu ka mutchee, Hind.: Noga-gyce 
and Nga-kyee, Burm. D. 6-7, A. 60-79. Maxillary barbels reach the 
middle of pectoral or even commencement of the ventral fins. Leaden, 
sometimes with two longitudinal yellow baads. Throughout the fresh- 
waters of India and Burma. 


Genus—SinuNpDIA, Cuv. aud Val. 


Branchiostegals eleven to twelve. Body elongated and compressed. 
Head covered with soft skin. Kyes lateral, having a free circular orbital 
margin. Mouth wide, lower jaw the longer. Nostrils wide apart, the an- 
terior pair being in front of the snout, patent, and external to the posterior 
par. Teeth inthe jaws, and in a crescentic villiform band on the palate. 
First dorsal fin with one spine and seven rays, the adipose short; anal 
long: ventral with six rays: caudal forked, Air-vessel lying across the 
body of an anterior vertebra where there is agroove for its reception, and an 
osscous process from either side of the vertebra to protect its lateral edges. 

11}. Silundia Gangetica, Cuv. and Val. Si-lond, Panj.; Watl-la-he 
kel-le-tee (slippery siluroid) and Poo-nat-tce, Tam.: Wan-jou, Vel. : Jil-lung 
and Si-/ond, Ooriah and Beng. D.+/0, A. 40-46. Barbels short. Silvery, 
fins stained with grey. Estuaries and large rivers of India and Burma; 
attaining 6 fect or more in length, and is sometimes termed a shark, 


eclxx 


Genus—ArxLrA, Cuv. and Fal, 


Body elongated and compressed. Head covered with thin skin, Eyes 
nearly or quite behind the angle of the mouth, and with adipose lids. 
Upper jaw slightly the longer. Nostrils on either side approximating to 
one another, the anterior being in front of the snout. Barbels eight—one 
nasal pair, also one maxillary, the two mandibular pairs arise in a 
transverse line behind the symphysis. Villiform teeth in the jaws, and in 
two minute patches on the vomer. A small adipose dorsal fin: ventral 
with siz rays, anal elongated, terminating at a short distance from the 
caudal which latter is forked. Air-vessel, a transverse tube passing across 
the body of an anterior vertebra, and more or less enclosed in bone. 

115. Ailia Bengalensis, Gray. Pufta, Panj.: Mun-glee-ah-nee, 
Sind: Bounce-putti, Ooriah. D.0., A. 60-72. The barbels extend to 
nearly the middle of the length of the fish. Silvery, some of the fins 
frequently stained with grey at their edges. This small, but well-flavoured 
fish is found throughout all the large rivers of India and Burma, exclud- 
ing those of Madras and Bombay. It attains about 7 inches in length. 


Genus—Arucuruys, Day. 


Differs from Ailia, being destitute of ventral fins. 

116. Ailiichthys punctata, Day. Put-tas-si and Put-tu-ah, Panj. 
D. 0, A. 76-82. Barbels extend to the middle of the length of the fish. 
Silvery ; upper surface of the head nearly black ; a large black spot at the 
base of the caudal fin. Upper portions of the Jumna, the Indus and 
its affluents. It attains at least 4 inches in length. 


Genus—Evrrorionruyrs, Bleeker. 


Branchiostegals eleven. Body and head compressed ; nape slightly 
elevated. Branchiostegal aperture wide, its membranes not being confluent 
with the skin of the isthmus. Head covered by skin. Eyes situated above 
the angle of the mouth, and having broad adipose lids. Cleft of mouth 
deep, the lower jaw slightly the longer. Nostrils wide. Barbels eight, 
one nasal, one maxillary, and two mandibular pairs. Teeth in the upper 
jaw sharp, and in a wide band, also in a broad band on the vomer and 
palatines. First dorsal fin short, with a spine and seven rays: adipose 
dorsal also short : ventral with six rays, and situated below the first 
dorsal: anal having an elongated base, but terminating some distance from 
the caudal, which latter fin is deeply forked. Air-vessel narrow, tubiform, 
passing transversely across the body of an anterior vertebra, and ald but 
its central portion received into a bony capsule. 

117. FEutropiichthys vacha, Ham. Buch. Chel-lee, Sind.: Buchua 
and Nandi-buchua, Ooviah: Nee-much, N.-W.Prov.: Nga-myen-kouban, 
and katha-boung, Burm. D. 4/0, A. 47-50.  Barbels about as long as 
the head. Silvery, greyish along the back. Rivers of India and Burma, 
attaining upwards of a foot in length. 


Genus—Sisor, Ham. Buch. 


Branchiostegals four. Gill-openings narrow and chiefly lateral. Oper- 
cles moveable, Llead and trunk rather broad and depressed. Eyes small. 


eelxxi 


Head osseous and rough in places. A longitudinal row of bony plates 
along the median line of the back. Mouth small, transverse, inferior. 
Nostrils round, close together, but separated by a valve. Barbels, one pair 
of maxillary and several of mandibular. Teeth absent. A single short 
dorsal fin, without a distinct spine: ventral with seven rays: anal short: 
caudal with the upper ray prolonged. Air-vessel enclosed in a bony 
capsule. 

118. Sisor rabdophorus, Wam. Buch. K%r-ri-dee, Sind. D. 4, A. 6. 
Maxillary barbels reach base of pectoral spine: a species of flap from 
lower lip with a moderately long barbel on either side, and two more 
intermediate but shorter ones: between these flaps are several short 
barbels on a transverse line across the chin, and several more minute 
ones on the isthmus. Blackish above, lighter below. Upper portions 
of Ganges, Jumna, and Indus with its affluents, attaining several feet 
in length. 

Genus—Gaaara, Bleeker. 

Callomystar, Giinther. 


Branchiostegals about six. Gill-openings of moderate width, the 
membrane being confluent with the skin of the isthmus: thorax destitute 
of plaits. Superior surface of the head with rather rough ridges, and 
covered by very thin skin. Lyes subcutaneous. Mouth below the snout, 
small and transverse. Nostrils close together, rounded, the posterior being 
provided with a small barbel. Barbels eight, the maxillary slightly 
osseous, and having a broad basal membrane : the two pairs of mandibular 
ones in a transverse row just behind the lower lip. Small teeth in both 
Jaws ; none on the palate. Lirst dorsal having one strong spine and six 
rays: adipose fin of moderate length: ventral with six rays, situated entirely 
posterior to the dorsal: caudal deeply forked. Air-vessel in two portions, 
and enclosed in bony capsules formed from the bodies of an anterior vertebra : 
these lateral portions, which are globular, communicate with one another. 

119. Gagata typus, Bleecker. Puttah-chettah, Oorviah. D. 3/0, A. 
15. Maxillary barbels reach a little beyond the root of the pectoral. 
Dull grey; the outer two-thirds of the pectoral, dorsal and anal fins 
black ; caudal white. Istuaries and large rivers of Lower Bengal and 
Burma, attaining about a foot in length. 


Genus—Hnrurrruetopvs, Bleeker. 

Branchiostegals fire or six. Gill-openings infero-lateral, the mem- 
branes attached to the isthmus. Upper surface of the head osseous. Eyes 
subcutaneous. Upper jaw the longer. Nostrils approximating, the posterior 
being provided with a valve or even with a barbel. Barbels six or eight: 
if six, consisting of one maxillary and two mandibular pairs: if eight, 
likewise a nasal pair. Villiform teeth in the jaws: palate edentulous. 
Lirst dorsal with one spine and six or seven rays: adipose fin short, or 
of moderate length: pectoral spine strong: anal without an elongated base : 
ventral with six rays, situated posteriorly to the dorsal: caudal forked. 
Air-vessel divided into two lobes and enclosed in bone. 

a. With eight barbels. 


120. LHemipimelodus itchkeea, Sykes. D. }/0, A. 18. Fight bar- 
bels, a short nasal pair. Yellowish bronze, three dark blotches on the 


eclxxii 


head, and four irregular black bands descending from the back as low 
as the lateral line: a black edging to caudal fin, and a similar mark 
on either lobe: dorsal fin also with a dark mark. Deccan, to a few 
inches in length. 

6. With six barbels. 

121. Hemipimelodus cenia, Ham. Buch. Pud-du-ah, Chet-wu-ah, 
and Kud-la, Panj.: Ce-ni-a, Sind.: Jungla and Ce-ni-a, Beng.: Nga- 
nan~joung, Burm. D, Gl A. 18. Six barbels, no nasal pair; otherwise 
resembles the last species, excepting that its air-vessel is smaller. Large 
rivers of India (excluding most of Madras) and Burma. It attains 
5 inches in length. 

22, Hemipimelodus viridescens, Ham. Buch.  Hud-dah, N. 
W. Prov. D. 3/0. A. 11. Greenish brown, with two light 
green bands: a dark mark on the dorsal fin, and each lobe of the caudal 
with a similar blotch. Jumna River. It is only a small species. 


Genus—Baaartivs, Bleeker. 


Branchiostegals twelve. Gill-membranes with their posterior mar- 
gins free: thorax without any plaits on skin. Superior surface of the head 
osseous. Fyes small. Mouth anterior: lower jaw the longer. Nostrils close 
together, divided by a barbel, which belongs to the posterior one. Barbels 
eight—one nasal, one maxillary, and two mandibular pairs. Teeth in the 
jaws cardiform and of unequal size. First dorsal fin in advance of the 
ventral, having one spine and six rays: adipose fin rather short: ventral 
with six rays: anal of moderate extent: caudal deeply forked, Air-vessel 
small, consisting of two rounded portions, situated on either side of the 
body of an anterior vertebra, and partially enclosed in bone. 

123. Bagarius Yarrellit, Sykes. Goonch, Panj.: Rahti-jella, Tel.: 
Sah-lun, Ooriah. D. 2/0, A. 18-15. Yellowish, with large irregular 
brown or black markings and cross bands; a black base to the fins; 
all have likewise a black band, except the adipose dorsal. Large rivers 
of India, extending to Java. It descends to the estuaries, and attains 
6 feet or more in length. 


Genus—Psrvprouenrts, Blyth. 


Body somewhat elongate. Head depressed. Gill-openings small, not 
extending to the lower surface of the head. An adhesive apparatus, 
formed of transverse folds of skin, situated between the bases of the pec- 
toral fins, and on the thorax, Head covered superiorly with soft skin. yes 
small, on the upper surface of the head. Mouth small, inferior. Nostrils 
on either side close together and divided by a barbel. LBarbels eight, the 
maxillary pair having broad bases. Teeth villiform in the jaws, none on 
the palate. Dorsal fin with one spine and six rays: the adipose one of 
moderate extent : pectorals horizontal, spine finely serrated: ventral with 
six rays, and situated under the dorsal: caudal forked. Air-vessel in two 
rounded lateral portions, entirely enclosed in bone. 

124. Pseudecheneis sulcatus, McClelland. D. 3/0, A.11. Blackish, 
with some large irregular yellowish blotches (of ground colour) : fins 
yellow with black bands. Rivers below Darjecling and the Khasya Mills. 
It attains at least 54 inches in length. 


eelxxill 


Genus—Gryerosternum, McClelland. 


Glyptothorax, pt., Blyth. 

Branchiostegals about ten. Gill-opening wide; gill-membranes separat~- 
ed by, and confluent with, the isthmus. An adhesive apparatus formed of 
longitudinal plaits of skin, situated between the bases of the pectoral fins 
on the thorax, which frequently become indistinct in old individuals. 
Head more or less depressed, and generally covered with soft skin. Eyes 
small, subcutaneous. Mouth inferior. Barbels eight, the maxillary ones 
having very broad bases. Teeth in the jaws villiform, palate edentulous. 
Dorsal with one spine and six rays: adipose jin rather short: pectorals 
horizontal: ventral situated posterior to the dorsal and having six rays: 
anal rather short: sometimes the pectoral and ventral rays are plaited in- 
Jeriorly. Air-vessel in two rounded lateral portions, enclosed in bony 
capsules. 

125, Glyptosternum striatum, McClelland. Now-u and Nah-he, if 
small Jup-pah, Panj. D. 3/0, A. 9-11. Breadth of head nearly equals 
its length. Maxillary barbels extend beyond the root of the pectoral. 
Lips not fringed. Occipital process three times as long as_ broad. 
Caudal peduncle nearly twice as long as high. Dorsal spine more than 
half as long as the head. In the young, the outer pectoral and ventral 
rays are plaited inferiorly. Brown, fins yellow stained with black. 
Rivers on and along the bases of the Himalayas. 

126. Glyptosternum lonah, Sykes. D. 2/0, A. 11-12. Breadth 
of head nearly or quite equal to its length. Maxillary barbels extend to 
the end of the head. Lips not fringed. Occipital process nearly four 
times as long as broad. Caudal peduncle twice as long as high. Fin 
rays not plaited. Dorsal spine not quite half as long as the head. 
Yellowish brown, banded with blackish, fins yellow. Dorsal, caudal, 
and anal with black bands. Deccan, attaining at least 6 inches in 
length. 
” 197. Glyptosternum trilineatum, Blyth. D. 2/0, A. 13. Breadth 
of head about equals its length. Maxillary barbels reach to the end of 
the head. Lips not fringed. Occipital process nearly three times as 
long as broad. Caudal peduncle twice as long as high. Vins rays not 
plaited inferiorly. Dorsal spine rather above half the length of the 
head. Chestnut brown, with three light longitudinal bands. Burma 
and Nepal (?), attaining 12 inches or more in length. 

128. Glyptosternum telchitta, Ham. Buch. Til-di-ah, Panj. and 
N. W. Prov.: Go-a-che-rah, Beng. D. 2/0, A. 11. Head longer 
than broad. Maxillary barbels extend to the posterior edge of 
the orbit. Lips roughened, but not fringed. Occipital process three 
times as long as broad. Caudal peduncle twice as long as high. Fin 
rays not plaited inferiorly. Dorsal spine two-thirds as long as_ the 
head. Blackish-brown, fins yellow with black bands. Caudal black, 
with a yellow edge. From the Panjab through Bengal and Behar, 
attaining 5 or 6 inches in length. 

129. Glyptosternum Dekkanense, Giinther. D. 3/0, A. 11. The 
breadth of the head equals its post-nasal length. Maxillary barbels 
extend to the base of the pectoral. Lips smooth. Occipital process 
from five to six times longer than broad. Caudal pedunele about twice 

s 


eclxxiv 


as long as high. Fin rays not plaited inferiorly. Dorsal spine half as 
long as the head. Blackish, fins yellowish. Dorsal, caudal, and anal 
banded with black. Jumna, near where it emerges from the Sewaliks, 
said to be found in the Deccan. Attains 6 inches in length. 

130. Glyptosternum modestum, Day. D. 3/0, A. 9. The breadth 
of the head equals its length. Maxillary barbels nearly as long as the 
head. Lips not fringed. Occipital process slightly longer than broad 
at its base. Caudal peduncle two-thirds as high as long. Tin rays not 
plaited inferiorly. Dorsal spine half as long as the head. Uniform brown, 
Upper portions of Jumna and rivers near Simla. It attains 3 inches 
in length. 

Genus—Ausriycers, Blyth. 


Branchiostegals twelve. Gill-opening wide ; gill-membranes not con- 
Jluent with the skin of the isthmus. No thoracic adhesive surface. Head 
covered with soft skin. Eyes small, subcutaneous. Mouth broad, anterior. 
Barbels eight. Teeth in jaws villiform: palate edentulous. First dorsal 
fin enveloped in skin, and having one spine and six rays: pectoral with a 
short concealed spine: ventrals inserted behind the vertical from the pos- 
terior margin of the dorsal, and having six rays : anal rather short : caudal 
forked. Lateral line absent. <Air-vessel almost wholly enclosed in a bony 
capsule, 

131. Amblyceps mangois, Ham. Buch. Soock-se, Bil-li, and Su-daal 
Panj. D. 3/0, A. 11-12. Head as wide as long. Maxillary barbels 
reach the end of the pectoral spine. Occipital process rudimentary. 
Caudal peduncle as deep as long. Olive brown, with a dark line com- 
mencing opposite the opercles, and dividing into two, one proceeding to 
the centre of the caudal, the inferior to the base of the anal. Jumna, 
from its source to Ghazipur on the Ganges, likewise the Kangra valley 
and hills. It attains 4 inches in length. 

182. Amblyceps cacutiens, Blyth. D. 4/0, A. 9. Caudal said to 
be more sharply forked than in the preceding species. No bands. Burma. 


Genus—LEyxosromua, Blyth. 


Gill-openings narrow. Eyes small, Head depressed, covered supe- 
riorly with soft skin. No thoracic adhesive apparatus. Mouth inferior, with 
the lips reflected around tt, and mostly covered with glands. Bartels 
eight or siv: when the latter, either one mandibular, or the maxillary pair 
are absent. Teeth in the jaws in a single or double row: palate edentu- 
lous.. Dorsal fin with a slender or rudimentary spine and six rays ; 
adipose fin long: pectorals horizontal: ventrals with six rays: caudal cut 
square, emarginate or forked. Air-vessel in two lateral lobes, both of which 
are enclosed in bone. 

183. Hvostoma Blythii, Day. D. 3/0, A. 7. Head as wide as long. 
Six barbels, the maxilla being destitute of any, but terminating in a 
fleshy appendage. Yellowish brown. Rivers below Darjeeling, to above 
3 inches in length. 

184. Hvostoma labiatum, McClelland. D. 2/0, A. 6. Eight bar- 
bels, the maxillary extend to the pectoral fin. Lips broad, having a 
median and lateral lobe on either side with a barbel between. Colour 
uniform. Mishni Mountain, East Assam. 


eelxxv 


185. Fvostoma Berdmorei, Blyth. D. 3/0, A. 6. Hight barbels. 
Snout pointed. Caudal forked. Tenasserim Provinces. 


Family—S cOMBRESOCIDE, 


Pharyngognathi malacopterygii, Muller, 


Pseudobranchiew concealed, glandular. Margin of upper jaw formed mesially by 
the inter-maxillaries: laterally by the maxillaries. Barbels present or absent. 
Lower pharyngeals united into a single bone. Dorsal fin rayed, with or with- 
out finlets posterior to it, and situated opposite the anal and in the caudal portion 
of the vertebral column, no adipose dorsal. Body scaled: usually a keeled row 
along either side of the free portion of the tail. Air-vessel generally present: 
sometimes cellular, and destitute of a pneumatic duct. Stomach and intestines in 
one straight tube, without division, and not having any pyloric appendages, 


Genus—Brronr, Cuv. 


Branchiostegals rather numerous. Body elongated, sub-cylindrical, 
or compressed. Gill-openings wide. Eyes lateral. The jaws prolonged 
into a long beak, the upper being formed of the inter-maxillaries. Hine 
teeth or rugosities in both jaws, with a single row of long, widely set 
conical ones. No finlets posterior to dorsal fin; caudal usually forked. 
Scales small. Lateral line on free portion of tait, with or without a keel. 

186. Belonecancila, am. Buch. Kung-gah, Co-wa, Sou-ah and Ka- 
haan, Panj.: Gon-gi-turi, Ooriah : Nga-oh-poung-yoh, Nga-phou-yo, Burm. 
B. x. D. 16-17, A. 16-17. Lateral line not keeled. Four or five dark 
blotches between the bases of the pectoral and anal fins. Throughout 
the waters of the plains of India and Burma. 


Genus—Hemiramrnovs, Cuv. 


Hyporhamphus, Enleptorhamphus, Zenarchopterus, and Oxyporham- 
phus, Gill: Dermatogenys, (K. and v. Hass.) Peters: Hemiramphodon, 
Bleeker. 

Branchiostegals rather numerous. Body sub-cylindrical and elongated. 
Fiyes lateral. Upper jaw, which is formed of the inter-mavillaries, is moré 
or less triangular and short, whilst the lower jaw is elongated far beyond 
the upper, which prolongation is not so apparent in the immature. Teeth 
villiform in both jaws. No finlets posterior tothe dorsal fin: pectoral may 
or may not be prolonged: caudal mostly forked or emarginate, sometimes 
rounded. Scales of moderate or large size. Air-vessel large, sometime 
cellular. Dorsal and anal rays may be modified. Some viviparous. 

187. Hemiramphus amblyurus, Bleeker. Nga-phoung-yo, Burm. D. 
138-14, A. 10-12, L. 1.48. Viviparous. An indistinct silvery lateral band. 
Mouths of the Ganges and other large rivers of Bengal and Burma, 
extending its range to above tidal influence. 


Family—C yp rinodDONTIpE. 


Branchiostegals from four to six: pseudobranchie absent. Eyes lateral: margin 
of upper jaw formed entirely by the inter-maxillaries. Barbels absent. Teeth 
in both jaws, likewise in the superior and inferior pharyngeal bones. One 
spineless dorsal situated in the posterior half of the body. Stomach without 
cul-de-sac. No pyloric appendages. Air-vessel simple, destitute of connectiorw 
with the auditory bones. 


eclxxvi 


This family has been sub-divided into those with the mandibles 
united and intestines short, C. carnivore ; and those with the mandibles 
disunited and intestines long, C. dimnophage. 


Genus—Cyprinovon, Lacép. 
Lebias, Cuv.: Aphanius, Nardo.: Aficromugil, Gulia. 


Gape of mouth small: mandible short, with the bones on either side 
united. Teeth of moderate size, ina single row, and each being notched. 
The origin of the dorsal jin anterior to that of the anal, whilst it is largest 
in the male sex. Scales rather large. Colouration of sexes often different. 
Intestines rather short. 

138. Cyprinodon Stolickanus, Day. D. 9, A. 9, L. 1. 27, L. tr. 8. 
This small species is found in the waters of Cutch. 


Genus—Harrocuitus, McClelland. 


Aplocheilus, McClelland: Panchax, Cuy. and Val: Zygonectes, Agas- 
siz: Micristius, Gall. 

Branchiostegals from four to six. Body rather elongated: sides 
compressed: upper surface of head broad aud depressed. Upper jaw 
protractile. Mandibular bones united at the symphysis. Teeth villiform, 
in a narrow band on both jaws and sometimes on the vomer. Dorsal fin 
short, commencing behind the origin of the anal, which latter has an 
elongated base. Scales of medium size. Lateral line absent. Intestines 
of moderate length. 

189. Haplochilus argenteus, Day. D.6, A. 14, L.1. 27, L. tr. 
11. Found near Madras, attaining 14 inches in length. 

140. Haplochilus lineatus, Cuv. and Val. D. 8-9, A. 15-16, I. 1. 
82-34, L. tr. 9. An emerald green spot on each scale; eight or ten ver- 
tical black bands on the body. Fins tipped with red. Attains 4: inches 
in length, and is found in Coorg and Malabar. 

141. Haplochilus melastigmus, McClelland. D.7, A. 22, L. 1. 29, 
L. tr. 18. Found near Caleutta and Burma. 

142. Haplochilus panchax, Yam. Buch. Kanakuri, Ooriah: Nga- 
cha-loom, Akyab: Cho-to-dah, Andamanese. D. 8-9, A. 15-16, L. 1. 
82-34. A dark mark at the base of the dorsal fin. Bengal and the 
Andamans, attaining 5 inches in length. 

148. Haplochilus rubrostigma, Jerdon. D. 8, A. 14-15. Numerous 
brilliant blue spots on the body, alternating with rusty red ones along 
the sides. Madras and Sind hills. This is a small species. 


Family—CyPrinipm. 


Branchiostegals three: pseudobranchiw generally present. Body oblong or elongated : 
abdomen usually rounded, but if compressed or cutting destitute of ossicles. Margin 
of the upper jaw formed by the inter-maxillaries. Opercles in four pieces. Mouth 
toothless, but from one to three rows of tecth in the inferior pharyngeal 
bones, which latter are strong, free and parallel to the branehial arches. A single- 
rayed dorsal fin. Head scaleless: body scaled or scaleless, never covered by 
osseous plates. No cul de sac to the stomach, nor pyloric appendages. Air-vessel, 
if present, large: it may be divided by a constriction into an anterior and posterior 
portion, neither of which are enclosed in bone (Cyprininz): or into two lateral 
portious, partially or entirely enclosed in a bony capsule (Cobitidinw): or absent 
(Homalopterine).- 


ecelxxvii 


Sub-Family—C y PRINING. 


Air-vessel present, not enclosed in bone. 
A. Abdomen rounded, not cutting. 


Genus—Psttoruyncuus, McClelland, 


Back somewhat elevated. Head moderately depressed. Snout more or 
less spatulate. Mouth small, transverse, inferior. Lips entire, not con- 
tinuous, reflected from off both jaws, and studded with glands. Barbels 
absent. Dorsal fin with few rays, commencing opposite the ventrals: 
pectorals horizontal, with their outer rays simple and unbranched: anal 
short. Scales of moderate size, none on the chest. Lateral tine complete, 
continued direct to the centre of the base of the caudal jin. 

144. Psilorhynchus balitora, Ham. Buch. D. 9-10, A. 7, L. 1. 33. 
patie brown, irregularly marked with black. North-East Bengal and 

ssam. 

145. Psilorhynchus sucatio, Ham. Buch. D. 9, A. 7. Snout much 
produced. Greenish, with scattered dots. North-East Bengal. 


Genus—Mayoa, Day. 


Body anteriorly depressed, posteriorly compressed: snout rounded and 
smooth. Barbels four, two on the snout, and one at each angle of the 
mouth. Hyes lateral. Mouth small, transverse, on the inferior surface of 
the head, and surrounded by a large sucker formed of both lips, which are 
thick, and have a free posterior edge. Pectorals and ventrals horizontal : 
dorsal without an osseous ray, and commencing somewhat in advance of 
the ventrals. Pharyngeal teeth hooked, in three rows, 5, 3, 1/1, 3, 5. 
Scales of moderate size, none on the chest. Lateral line continued direct to 
the centre of the base of the caudal fin. 

146. Mayoa modesta, Day. D.8, A.6,L.1. 35, L. tr. 44/14. Green- 
ish brown; a blotch below dorsal fin and another at the base of the caudal. 
Probably from the Himalayas, to 34 inches in length. 


Genus—Drscoawaruvs, Heckel. 


Garra, Ham. Buch. : Platycara, McClell.: Discognathicthys et Lis- 
sorhynchus, Bleeker. 

Body elongated, sub-cylindrical. Mouth transverse, semi-circular and 
inferior : upper and lower lips continuous: no lateral lobes to snout, which 
projects beyond the mouth. A suctorial dise on the chin, formed by the 
lower lip: upper lip fringed. Barbels four (Garra), or one pair only at 
each angle of the mouth (Discognathus). Pharyngeal teeth hooked, in three 
closely approximating rows, 2, 4, 5/5, 4, 2. Dorsal fin with few rays, 
commencing slightly in advance of the ventrals, its base scaleless. 
pectorals horizontal : anal short. Scales of moderate size, no enlarged anal 
scales. Lateral line continued to the centre of the base of the caudal 
jin. Gill-rakers few, short, and widely set. A ir-vessel small, 

147. Discognathus lamta, Ham. Buch. Vho-gu-ru and Koor-ka, 
Panj.: Cul-korava, (stone ophiocephalus), Tam.: Pandit pakke, Can. : 
Ko-rafi-kaoli, Wind. (Mysore) : Putter-chettah, N. W. Prov.: Choak-si, 
Beng. D. 11, A.7, L. 1. 33-86. Four barbels: a dark spot behind 


ec] xXviil 


the gill-opening, and generally a band along the side. Throughout India 
to Burma, attaining 6 inches in length. 


Genus—Oreinvs, McClelland. 


‘ Schizothorax, Sect. A., Heckel; Schizopyge, sp. Heckel. 

Snout rounded. Mouth inferior and transverse: mandibles short, broad, 
and flat, loosely joined together at the symphysis : margin of the lower jaw 
having a thick horny covering, thickest internally, and a thick fringed lower 
lip, which has a free posterior edge forming a sucker. Barbels four, 
Pharyngeal teeth pointed, hooked, 5, 3, 2/2, 3,5. Dorsal fin rather short, 
with a strong, osseous, serrated ray, and arising opposite the ventrals : anat 
short. Scales very small, the vent and base of the anal fin ina sheath, 
covered by enlarged tiled scales. Lateral line passing to the centre of the 
base of the caudal fin. 

148. Oreinus progastus, McClelland. Adoee, Assam. D. 12, A. 7. 

149. Ovreinus sinuatus, Teckel. Gool-goolli, and Saul, Pan). 
D. 10-12, A. 7-8, L. 1. 105. Silvery and spotted : sometimes a few 
of these latter are red, and it is termed a “ trout.” by some Europeans. 
Found in the Himalayas and rivers aloug their bases, attaining 2 feet 
or more in length. 

Genus—Scuizoruorax, Heckel. 


Racoma, sp. McClelland: Schizopyge, sp. Heckel: Opistocheilus, pt. 
Bleeker. 

Snout conically rounded, and laterally somewhat compressed. Mouth 
arched and autero-inferior : mandible neither broad, flattened, nor with a 
sharp margin, its edge sometimes having a thin, deciduous, horny covering. 
Barbels four. Pharyngeal teeth pointed, hooked, 5, 3, 2/2, 3,5. Dorsal 
jin rather short, with a strong, serrated osseous ray, and arising opposite 
the ventrals : anal short. Scales very small, the vent and base of the anal 
jin in a@ sheath covered by an enlarged tiled row. Lateral line passing 
to the centre of the base of the caudal fin. 

150, Schizothorax Hodgsonii, Giinther. Din-na-wah, N. W. Prov- 
inces. D. 11, A. 7, L.1. 155. Himalayas and head of the Ganges, 
attaining at least 18 inches in length. 


Genus—Lapno, Cuv. 


Rohita, pt., Cuv. and Val.: Vylognathus, Heckel: Hypselobarbus, 
Diplocheilus, Diplocheilichthys, Lobocheilus, ohitichthys, Morulius, 
Schismatorhynchus et Gobionichthys, Bleeker. 

Body elliptical, or moderately elongated. Snout rounded, gene- 
rally projecting beyond the mouth, and covered with tubercles, and some- 
times having a lateral lobe or projection: mouth sometimes anterior, but 
mostly inferior, transverse and demi-oval. Lips thick, covering the jaws, 
one or both having an inner transverse fold: a soft horny covering, with 
a sharp margin on the inner edge of one or both lips. Barbels small, 
Jour or two; if only one pair they belong to the mavilla, should there he 
a second they are on the snout. Pharyngeal teeth hooked, and in three 
rows, 5, 4, 2/2, 4,5. Dorsal fin elongated or of moderate length, destitute 
of any osseous ray, and arising anterior to the commencement of the 


celxxix 


ventrals: anal short. Scales large, moderate, or of small size. Lateral 
line running direct to the centre of the base of the caudal fin. Gill- 
rakers short. 

151. Labeo nandina, Wam. Buch. Wandin, Bengal: Nga-ohn-doh, 
Nga-ne-pyah, and Nga-yin-pounsa, Burm. D. 24-26, A. 7. I. 1. 41-44, 
LL. tr. 74/8. Four barbels. Bengal, Assam, and Burma, attaining three 
feet in length. 

152. Labeo fimbriatus, Bl. Ven-cundee, Tam.: Ruchu, and 
Ganda-menu, Tel.: Bahrum, Ooriah. D. 20-21, L. 1. 44-47, L. tr. he 
Four barbels. Southern India, to the Decean and Orissa. 

153. Labeo nancar, Ham. Buch. D. 20, A. 8. Four barbels. 
Obtained from small rivers in the Gorakhpur district. 

154.  Labeo calbasu, Ham. Buch. Kala-deinse, and Di, Panj. : 
Di-hee, Sind: Nulla ganda-menu, Tel.: Kala-beinse, Kunda, and 
Kug-ge-ra, Beng. : Kala-beinse, Ooviah: Nga-nek-pya, Nga-noo-than, and 
Nga-ong-tong, Burm. YD. 16-18, A. 7, L. 1. 40-44, L. tr. 74/9. Four 
barbels. Throughout the fresh-waters of India and Burma, attaining 
four feet in length. 

155. Labeo curchius, Ham. Buch. Cour-sa, Panj.: Cir-re-oh, Sind : 
Mo-soo, Vel.: Cur-sua, Ooviah: Kurchi and Goni, Beng.: Cursa and 
Coolloose, Hind.: Courie, Assam: Nga-pay, 'Tavoy: Nga-dane and Nga- 
hoo, Burm. D. 16-17, A. 7, L. 1. 64-80, L. tr. “. Found throughout 
India (except the lower parts of Madras) and Burma. It attains nearly 
five feet in length. 

156. Labeo kontius, Jerdon. Currumunnee-cundéc, Tam. D. 16, 
A. 8, L. 1. 38-40, L. tr. 9/8. Barbels four. Cauvery river and its 
affluents. 

157. Labeo nigrescens, Day. D. 16, A. 7, L. 1. 36, L. tr. 6/7, Four 
barbels. Hach scale with a black spot at its base. South Canara, attain- 
ing 18 inches in length. 

158. Labeo Dussumiert, Cuy. and Val. Toolee, Mal. D. — A. 3, 
L. |. 53-55, L. tr. ©. Fourbarbels. Attains upwards of a foot in length, 
and is found in Malabar and Ceylon. 

159. Labeo rohita, Wam. Buch. Luhu, Panj., Beng., and Ooriah ; 
Dum-bra, Sind: Nga-myit-chin and Nga-myit-tsan-nee, Burm. D. i» 
A.3, L.1. 41, L. tr. Four barbels, the rostral sometimes absent. 
Throughout India, except Madras and Burma, attaining three feet or 
more in length. 

160. Labeo morala, Ham. Buch. Morala, Beng. D. 13-14, A. 3, 
L.1. 81. Four barbels. Ganges, attaining 6 inches in length. 

161. Labeo Nashii, Day. D. 14, A. 3, Dleesde Tas tr: 7. No 
barbels. A black lateral band. River at Fraserpett, the foot of tue 
Coorg Hills, 

162. Labeo ricnorhynchus, McClelland. Nepura, Assam.: Grd, 
Panj.: Kul-ka-batta, Beng. D. 18, A. 7, L. 1. 41-44, L. tr. 8/9. One 
pair of maxillary barbels. Himalayas and Sind Hills; also in some of 
the rivers of the plains in Bengal, as the Sone. This will probably 
turn out to be identical with Ladbeo diplostomus, Heckel, whose name 
has the priority. 


eclxxx 


163. Labeo faleatus, Gray and Hard. Boolla, Hind. D. 13, A. 7, 
L. J. 43, L. tr. 84/74. One pair of maxillary barbels. Bengal, Assam 
and Sikkim, attaining three feet in length. 

164. Labeo pangusia, Ham, Buch. Lo-annee, Beng. D. 18, A. 7, 
L.1. 40, L. tr. 74/7. One pair of maxillary barbels. Bengal and 
Cachar, to eight inches in length. 

165, Labeo boggut, Sykes. May prove to be the same as Ladeo 
striolatus, Giinther. Kolees, Mah. D. 12, A. 7, L. 1. 60-65, L tr. 12/14. 
One pair of maxillary barbels. Central India, Deccan and Cutel. 

166. Labeo bicolor, McClelland. Gid-dah, Panj.: Thah-ree, Sind. : 
Mohaylee and Gaywah, N. W. Provinces. D. 12, A. 7, L. 1. 43, L. tr. 
84/74. One pair of maxillary barbels. Himalayas and Sind Hills, as 
well as contiguous districts in the plains, attaining two feet and upwards 
in length. 

167. Labeo ariza, Ham. Buch. Coal-arinza-cundee, Tam.: Ariza, 
Tel.: Ban-gum-batta, Beng.: Morah, Panj.: Nga-loo, Burm. D. 12, 
A. 7, L. 1. 88-40, L. tr. 73/7. One pair of maxillary barbels. Rivers 
of India and Burma, 

168. Labeo boga, Ham. Buch. Kyouk-nya-loo, Burm. D. 12, A. 
7, L. 1. 40-42, L. tr. , One pair of maxillary barbels. Fresh-waters 
of India and Burma. 

169. Labeo mullya, Sykes. D. 11, A. 8. Deccan, to 6 inches in 
length. 

170. Labeo nukta, Sykes. D. 11, A. 7, L. 1, 38, L. tr. 8/9. One 
pair of maxillary barbels. Puna and other localities in the Bombay 
Presidency. 

Genus—OSTEOCHILUS, Giinther. 


Rohita, sp. Cuv. & Val. 


Mouth of moderate width, directed more or less downwards: snout 
oblusely rounded : lips thickened, continuous, fringed, or crenulated, but the 
lower is reflected from off the mandible, leaving it uneovered in the form 
of a sharp and hard transverse prominence. No tubercle inside the 
symphysis of lower jaw. Barbels four or two. Pharyngeal teeth generally 
5, 4, 2/2, 4, 5. Dorsal fin without osseous ray, having a moderate number 
of branched ones (10 to about 20), commencing in advance of the ventrals : 
anal rays few. Scales of moderate or small size. Lateral line passing 
to the centre of the base of the caudal fin, Gill-rakers short. 

171. Osteochilus rostellatus, Cuv. and Val. Nga-lah, Burm. D. 
20, A. 8, L. 1. 55, L. tr. 9/10. Four barbels; uniform colour. Irrawadi 
and Salwein Rivers in Burma, to two feet in length. 

172. Osteochilus Neilli, Day. D. 7%, A. 7, L. 1. 34, L. tr. 53/64. 
Four barbels: two dark marks on the body. Sittoung and Billing in 
Burma, up to 6 inches in length, 

173. Osteochilns cephalus, Cuy. and Val. D. 16, A. 9, L. 1. 36. 
One pair of burbels. Pegu, to 1 foot in length. 


Genus—CirrHina, Cuv. & Val., pt. 


Dangila, sp. Cuv. & Val.: Cyrene, sp. Heckel: Mfvigala, sp. Bleeker : 
Crossochilus pt., Giinther, 


eelxxxi 


Snout depressed or obtusely rounded, with the soft coverings extremely 
thin. Mouth broad, transverse. Upper lip fringed or entire. Lower jaw 
rather sharp, without any, or with a thin lip, generally destitute of any 
horny covering, but having a small tubercle above the mandibular symphysis. 
Barbels small, four, two, or none. Dorsal fin rather short, moderate or 
long, without any osseous ray, commencing in advance of the ventrals: anal 
jin short and without any row of tiled scales. Pharyngeal teeth 5, 4, 2/2, 
4, 5, or 5, 8, 2/2, 38, 5. Scales of large, moderate or small size. Lateral 
line continuous, passing to the centre of the base of the caudal fin. rill- 
rakers short. 

174. Cirrhina Kuhli, Cuv. & Val. D. 28, A. 7, L. 1. 39-40, L. tr. 
7/9. Four barbels: upper lip fringed. Moulmein and Tavoy. 

175. Cirrhina Berdmorei, Blyth. D. 26, A. 7, L. 1. 31, L. tr. 
6/2 Four barbels: upper lip fringed. 'Tenasserim Provinces. 

176. Cirrhina Leschenaultit, Cuv. & Val. Ven cundee, Tam.: 
Aruzu, Tel. D. a A. 8, L. 1. 42-44, L. tr. 9/9. Four barbels, 
upper lip entire. Southern India, and as far East as Orissa, attaining at 
least 14 foot in length. 

177. Cirrhina mrigala, Ham. Buch. Mirrgah and Mrigah, Panj., 
Beng., and Ooriah: also Naim, North-Western Provinces: Mor-ah-hee, 
Sind: Nga-kyin and Nga-gyein, Burm. Two barbels: upper lip entire. 
Throughout the fresh-waters of India (except Madras) and Burma, 
attaining three feet or more in length. 

178. Cirrhina Sindensis, Day. D. 18, A. 7, L. 1. 43, L. tr. 8/8. 
Two maxillary barbels. Sind Iills, to eight inches in length. 

179. Cirrhina anisura, McClell. D. 12-18, A. 7, L. 1. 38, L. tr. 
74/104. No barbels: upper lip entire. Bengal and Assam. 

180. Cirrhina dyochetla, McClell. Goreah, Assam. D. 13, A. 8, 
L. 1. 42, L. tr. 8/8. No barbels: upper lip entire. Assam, to two feet and 
upwards in length. 

181. Cirrhina dero, Ham. Buch. Dhengro, Assam. D. 12-13, A. 
7, L. 1. 39, L. tr. 74/7. Two rostral barbels: upper lip entire. Assam, 
Bengal, Sind and Cutch. 

182. Cirrhina sada, Ham. Buch. D. 13, A. 7. Four barbels: 
upper lip fringed. Assam. 

188. Cirrhina gohama, Ham. Buch. Behrah and Tellarree, Panj.: 
Curru, Sind.: Kala-batta, Beng. D. 10-11, A. 7, L. 1. 38-40, L. tr. 
6/6. Two rostral barbels: upper lip fringed. Throughout India, except 
Madras, both on the hills and in the plains, attaining eight inches 
in leneth. 

184. Cirrhina latia, Ham. Buch. D. 11, A. 7, L. 1. 39, L. tr. 
54/64. Four barbels: upper lip fringed. Northern Bengal, Nepal and 
Assam: it appears to be a small species. 

185. Cirrhina rostrata, Giinther. D. 11, A. 7, L. 1. 38, L. tr. 54/7. 
Two rostral barbels. Cossye River. 

186. Cirrhina bata, Ham. Buch. Dunguda-porah and Dommarci- 
batta, Ooriah: Gootellah, Hind. D. 11-12, A 7, L. 1. 36-88, L. tr. 
6h One pair of maxillary barbels: upper lip fringed. Lower 
Bengal and Orissa, attaining two feet in length. 

187. Cirrhina mosario, Ham. Buch. Herilwa, Assam. D. 10, A. 

7, L. 1.37. No barbels: lower lip fringed. Assam, to six inches in length. 


eelxxxii 


188. Cirrhina reba, Ham. Buch. Soon-nee, Panj., and Sind: 
Felemose and Chittahri, Vel.; Chetchwa-porah, Ooviah: Batla, Beng. : 
ftewah, Wind. D. 11-12, A. 8, L. 1. 35-38, L. tr. 7/7. One pair 
of short rostral barbels: upper lip fringed or entire. Throughout India, 
attaining a foot in length. 

189. Currhina isura, McClell. D. 10, A. 7., Li. 1. 36, L. tr. 43/54. 
One pair of rostral barbels:; upper lip deeply fimbriated. Hooghly at 
Calcutta. 

Genus—Soapuiovon, Heckel. 


Capoéta, sp. Chondrostoma, sp. Cuv. and Val: Dillonia, Gymnosto- 
mus, sp. Heckel. 

Snout rounded. Mouth transverse, inferior, with the mandibular edge 
nearly straight and sharp: the mandibles angularly bent inwards. A 
horny layer inside the lower jaw, which is not covered by lip: no lower 
labial fold. Barbels four, two, or absent. Pharyngeal teeth compressed, 
truncated, 5 or 4, 3, 2/2, 3, 4 or 5. Dorsal fin of moderate extent (up 
to about 10 branched rays), its last undivided ray being osseous, aud ser- 
vated or entire, or else tt ts articulated: anal rather short. Scales large, 
of moderate or small size, and sometimes irregularly disposed. Lateral line 
passing to the centre of the base of the caudal fin, 

190. Scaphiodon Watsoni, Day. D. 18, A. 7, L. 1. 33, L. tr. 6/6. 
Two barbels: an osseous serrated dorsal ray. Scales regularly arranged, 
Sind fills. 

191. Scaphiodon irregularis, Day. D.13, A. 7, Ti. 1. 36, L. tr. 9/9. 
Two barbels: an osseous serrated dorsal ray. Scales irregularly arranged. 
Sind Hills. 

Genus—Carassius, Nilsson. 


Snout obtuse, rounded. Mouth anterior, arched, and rather narrow: 
lips thin. Barbels absent. Pharyngeal teeth compressed, in a single row, 
4/4. Dorsal fin long, commencing opposite the ventrats, and having ils 
last undivided ray osseous and serrated: last undivided anal ray normally 
serrated. Scales of moderate size. Lateral line complete, passing to the 
centre of the base of the caudal fin. 

192. Carassius auratus, inn, D. 19-21, A. 8, L. 1. 27-29, L. tr. 
64/10. I here place the gold-carp on the authority of the British 
Museum Catalogue, wherein it is stated that three adult specimens have 
been received from India through Mr. Masters. I strongly doubt 
whether this fish exists wild in India or British Burma. Dr. Wright 
informs me that it has been introduced into the ponds in Nepal. Sykes’ 
species, C. awhta (No. 170), is a Labeo. 


Genus—Sxrurprorus, Bleecker. 


Snout thick and prominent. Mouth wide, transverse, slightly curved, 
inferior, having a knob at the symphysis. Inter-maxillaries more or less 
adherent to the maxilla, and but slight powers of motion exist in the upper 
jaw. Barbels absent. Pharyngeal teeth (in 8. modestus) 4, 3, 2/2, 3, 4. 
Dorsal fin long, its last undivided ray strong, osseous, and either serrated 
or entire: anal rather short. Scales large. Lateral line passing to the 
centre of the base of the caudal jin. 


eclxxxili 


193. Semiplotus modestus, Day. D. 2b, A. 9, L. 1. 32-34, L. tr. 
74/74. Last undivided dorsal ray osseous and serrated. fills above 
Akyab. 

194. Semiplotus McClellandi, Bleeker. D. 28, A. 9, L. 1.27, L. 
tr. 6/5. Last undivided dorsal ray osseous and entire. Assam, 


Genus—Carra, Cuv. § Val. 
Gibelion, Heckel: IHypselobarbus, Blecker. 


Head broad: snout with very thin integuments : upper lip absent: the 
lower moderately thick, having a continuous free posterior margin. The 
lower jaw with a moveable articulation at the symphysis, but destitute of 
any prominent tubercle. yes with free orbital margins. Barbels absent. 
Pharyngeal teeth plough-shaped, 5, 3, 2/2, 3,5. Dorsal fin with rather 
an elongated base, destitute of osseous ray, and commencing somewhat in 
advance of the ventral: anal short: caudal forked. Scales of moderate 
size, no tiled ones along the base of the anal fin. Lateral line complete, 
continued to the centre of the base of the caudal fin. Gill-rakers long, 
rather strong, and moderately wide apart in the adult, but fine and closely 
set in the immature. 

195. Catla Buchanani, Cuv. and Val. Bo-assa, Mind., and Cutla, 
Panj. : Zay-lee, Sind: Catla, Beng. : Bar-kur, Ooriah : Nga-thaing, Burm, 
D. 17-18, A. 8, L. 1. 40-43, L. tr. 74/9. Throughout the fresh- 
waters of India and Burma, so far as the Pegu River: is not found in 
the southern and western portions of Madras. It attains several feet’ in 
length, and is excellent eating. 


Genus—Mora, Heckel. 


Thynnichthys, pt., Bleeker : Amblypharyngodon, pt., Bleeker: Bra- 
chy gramma, pt. Day. 

Pseudobranchia present. Head compressed, integuments over snout 
thin: upper lip absent ; only a short labial fold on the side of the mandi- 
ble. Mouth rather wide, antero-lateral, with the lower jaw somewhat 
prominent. Eyes in the middle of the depth of the head, and without any 
adipose membrane. Barbels absent. Pharyngeal teeth molar-form, close 
together, 5, 3 or 4, 2 or 3/2 or 3,4 0r 3, 5: or 5 or 3, 2 or 3 or 4, 2 
or 1/1 or 2, 4 or 3 or 2,3 or 5. Dorsal fin short, without osseous ray, 
commencing nearly opposite the ventrals: anal short. Scales small. 
Lateral line complete, running to the centre of the base of the caudal fin 
(Thynnichthys) : or incomplete (Amblypharyngodon). Intestinal tract 
narrow, with numerous convolutions. Gill-rakers very short or absent, 

196. Mola harengula, Cuv. and Val. Ka/a-tala and Ahku-chappak, 
Tel. D. 9, A. 8, L. rv. 120, L. tr. 22/25. Lateral line complete. Found 
in the Godaveri and Kistna Rivers, attaining upwards of a foot in 
length. 

07. Mola Buchanani, Blyth. Talla-maya, Tel.: Morara, Ooriah : 
Moah, Assam: Mukni, Panj.: Nga-beh-byoo and Nga-zen-zap, Burm. D. 
10, A. 7, L. 1. 55-75, L. tr. 25/28. Lateral line incomplete. Fresh- 
waters of India and Burma, to four inches in length. 

198, Mola melettinus, Cuv. & Val. Wumboo, Mal.: Oolaree, Tam. : 
Kali-korafi, Wind.: Paraga, Can.: Muckni, Panj. D, 9-10, A, 7-8, L. 1. 


eelxxxiv 


50-57. Lateral line incomplete. Panjéb, Sind, Southern India, and 
the Malabar Coast, rarely attaining four inches in length. 

199. Mola Athinsonii, Blyth. Nga-pan-ma, Burm. D.8,A.7, L. 
1.55, L. tr. 11/11. Lateral line incomplete. Burma; attaining six 
inches in Jength. 


Genus—Baravs, Cuv. § Val. 


Puntius, pt., Ham. Buch, : Labeobarbus, et Varicorhinus, pt., Riippel : 
Systomus, pt., MeClell.: Capoéta, sp. Cuv. & Val.: Pseudobarbus, Bielz. : 
Luciobarbus, Heckel: Cheilobarbus, sp. Smith: Balantiocheilus, Hemibar- 
bus, Cyclocheilichthys, Siaja, Anematichthys, Hypselobarbus, Gonopro- 
klopterus, Gnathopogon, Hampala, sp. Bleeker: Hnteromius, sp. Cope. 

Mouth arched. Eyes without adipose lids. Jaws closely invested by 
lips, which may have leathery lobes, but no inner fold, nor horny covering. 
Barbels four (Barbodes), or two (Capoéta): or none (Puntius). 
Pharyngeal teeth 5 or A, 8 or 2, 2 or 28/3 or 2, 2 or 8, 4 or 5. Dorsal 
jin rather short, its last undivided ray being either ossified and serrated 
or entire, or articulated and not osseous: it commences nearly opposite 
the ventrals: anal rather short, in some species its second ray ossified. 
Scales large, of moderate or small size. Lateral line complete or incom- 
plete; when the former, continued to opposite the centre of the base of 
the caudal fin, 

1. With four barbels (Barbodes.) 


a. Last undivided dorsal ray, osseous and serrated. 


200. Barbus chagunio, Ham. Buch. Jerruah, Beng. : Chagun?, Behar. 
D. 11, A. 8, L. 1. 44-47, L. tr. 11/11. Pores on head and snout. 
India, exclusive of Madras, attaining a foot and a half in length. 

201. Barbus immaculatus. McClell. D. 11, A. 8, L.1. 32-33, L. 
tr. 6/6. No pores on snout. Throughout Bengal, North-West 
Provinces, Assam and Sikkim. 

202. Barbus sarana, Ham. Buch. Jundoori, Panj.: Pohk-pree and 
Kun-nah-nee, Sind: Munduttee, Mal.; Puagella, Vam.: Giddi kaoli, Durhie 
and Potah, Hind.: Gid-pakke, Can.: Kannaku, Tel.: Sarana, Ooriah and 
Beng.: Nga-khon-mah-gyee and Nga-chong, Burm. D. 11-12, A. 8, L. 
1. 29-31, L. tr. 53/53. Fresh-waters throughout India and Burma; 
it attains upwards of 2 feet in length. 

208. Barbus pinnauratus, Day. TD. 11, A. 8, L. 1. 27-29, L. 
tr. 6/5. A black lateral blotch. Sind, portions of Bombay, Malabar, and 
in the Kistna River, up to 5 inches in length. 

204. Basbus goniosoma, Bleeker. D.11, A. 7, L. 1.24, L. tr. 
43/44. Mergui in Burmah, up to 6 inches in length. 

205. Barbus roseipinnis, Cuv.& Val. D. 11, A. 7, L. 1.22. Fins 
red. Pondicherry, to 44 inches in length. 

206. Barbus rodactylus, McClell. D. 10. Lower Assam, to 5 
inches in length. 

6. Last undivided dorsal ray, osseous and entire. 


207. Barbus dubius, Day. D. 18. A.7, 1.1.42, L, tr. 9/7. Bowany 
River at the foot of the Neilgherry Hills. 

208. Barbus Mysorensis, Jerdon. Coatee cundee, Tam. D. 13, A. 
7-8, L. 1. 40, L. tr. 7/7. Rivers along the bases of the Wynaad 
and Neilgherry Hills, up to several feet in length. 


eelxxxv 


209. Barbus Carnaticus, Jerdon. Poaree cundee, Saal cundece and 
Shellee,Vam.: Giddi kaoli, Hind.: Grd-pakke, Can. D. 12, A. 7-8, L. 1. 
30-32, L. tr. 5/5. Rivers along the bases of the Wynaad and Neilgherry 
ranges of hills, attaining to 25lbs in weight. 

210. Barbus Jerdoni, Day. D. 12, A. 8, L. 1.28, L. tr. 6/4. Rivers 
of South Canara. 

211. Barbus hevxastichus, McClell. Loeburxa and Bokar, Assam. 
D. 12-13, A. 7-8, L. 1. 24-27. Rivers on and around the [imalayas, 
and also in Assam, attaining 24 feet in length. 

212. Barbus mosal, Ham. Buch. Burapatra, Assam. D. 12, A. 
WO, Mus lee b=eis Ma. ths sis. No lobed lip. Mountain streams and 


rivers along the bases of the eastern range of the Himalyas, also Canara, 
attaining 3 feet or more in length. 

213. Barbus tor, Wam. Buch, Kukkiah, Panj.: Kurreah, Sind: 
Poo-meen-cundee, Tam. : Naharm, Hind. : Makaseer, by Europeans. D. 12, 
A. 7, L. 1. 23-27. Lips lobed. Throughout the hill ranges of India and 
rivers around their bases, extending their migrations to long distances, 
attaining several feet in length. 

214. Barbus sophore, Ham. Buch. D.12, A. 7, L. 1. 25, L. tr. 
34/44. Khasya Hills. 

215. Barbus Neilli, Day. D. 18, A. 8, L. 1. 24-16, L. tr. 44/4. 
Kurnool in Madras, stated to attain to 60lbs. weight. 

216. Barbus compressus, Day. D.12, A. 8, L. 1. 22, L.tr.4/5. A 
specimen in the Calcutta Museum, its locality doubtful, perhaps Cash- 
mere, 

217. Barbus Himalayanus, Day. Chit-rah-too, Panj. D.11, A. 7, 
L. 1. 82-34, L. tr. 54/6. Ussun and Girri Rivers near Simla on the 
Himalayas, 

218. Barbus microprogon, Cuv.& Val. D. 10, A. 8, L. 1. 38, L. 
tr. 44/5. Stated to be from Mysore, 

219. Barbus chilinoides, McClell. D. aa AC doe elinlees 2-35. 
L. tr. 54/5. Himalayas and Ganges, to 8 inches in length. 

220. Barbus Stracheyi, Day. D.11, A.7, L. 1. 28, L. tr. 34/5. 
Akyab and Moulmein, growing to a large size. 

ec. no osseous dorsal ray. 

221. Barbus pulchellus, Day. D. 13, A. 9, L. 1. 30, L. tr. 6/54. 
Upper half of body dark coloured. South Canara in inland streams, 
attaining at least 18 inches in length. 

222. Barbus Stevensonii, Day. D. 12, A. 8,L. 1. 27, L. tr. 44/5. 
Akyab. 

"993. Barbus Blythii, Day. D. 12, A. 8, L. 1. 22, L. tr. 4/5. 
Tenasserim Provinces, to 2 inches in length. 

224. Barbus melanampya, Day. D. 11, A.7, L.1. 20, L. tr. 84/34. 
Red, with three vertical black bands. Western Ghats and Neilgherries, 
up to 3 inches in length. 

2. With two barbels (Capoéta). 
a. With osseous serrated dorsal ray. 


225. Barbus hampal, Giinther. D,12, A. 8, L. 1. 26, L. tr. 5/5 
Tavoy, up to 9 inches in length. 


ecelxxxvi 


b. Osseous dorsal ray entire. 


226. Barbus dorsalis, Jerdon. DY. 11-12, A. 8, L. 1. 24, L. tr. 44/4 
Tambi kaoli, Hind.: Saal cundee, Tam.: Mar-pakke, Can. Southern 
India, extending to the Malabar Coast and Ceylon, not attaining a large 
size. 

227. Barbus chola, Ham. Buch. Karoon, Tam.: Kerrundi, Beng. : 
Pittha kerrundi, “bitter earp,’ Ooriah: Chaddu paddaka, Tel.: Kateha 
karawa, Wind.: Nga-khon-ma and Nga-lowar, Burmese. D. 11, A. 7, 
L. 1. 26, L. tr. 53/5. India and Burma generally, except the Panjab 
and Sind. It attains 5 inches in length. 

28. Barbus amphibius, Cuv. & Val. D. 10-11, A. 7, L. 1. 23, 
L. tr. 44/4. From Poona down the coast of Canara. 

229. Barbus parrah, Day. Parrah perlee, Mal.: Katcha karawa, 
Hind. D. 11, A. 8, L. 1. 25, L, tr. 5/4. Malabar, Mysore and Madras, 
to 6 inches in length. 

230, Barbus titius, Ham. Buch. Tit pungti, Beng.: Pet-toh-ee, 
Sind: Borajalee, Assam. D. 10, A. 7, L. 1. 25. Two black spots. 
Throughout India, except its more southern portions. 

231. Barbus thermalis, Cuv. & Val. D. 11, A. 8, L. I. 25, 
L, tr. 54/54. Mysore, Cachar and Ceylon, to 3 inches in length. 

282. Barbus lepidus, Day. D. 11, A.7, L. 1. 21, L. tr. 5/3. Some 
of dorsal rays elongated. From Canara down the Western Coast along 
the base of the Neilgherries, also in Ceylon, attaining 6 inches in length. 


ce. No osseous dorsal ray. 


233. Barbus kolus, Sykes. Nilisu, Tel. D. 12-18, A. 8, L. 1. 
40-42, L. tr. 10/8. Deccan and throughout the Kistna River, attaining 
upwards of a foot in length, 

234. Barbus curmuca, Ham, Buch. D. 11, A. 8. Southern India, 
to 3 feet in length. 

235. Barbus Denisonii, Day. D. 10-11, A. 8, L. 1. 28, L. tr. 44/34. 
Body longitudinally banded. Hill ranges of Travancore, to 6 inches in 
length. 

: 236. Barbus arulius, Jerdon. D. 11, A. 7, L. 1. 23, L. tr. 5/34. 
Body vertically banded. Wynaad and Neilgherry Hills, as well as the 
rivers at their bases. 

237. Barbus Puckelli, Day. D. 9, A. 8, L.1. 24, L. tr. 4/3. 
Mysore, up to 3 inches in length. 


3. No barbels (Puntius). 
a. With osseous serrated dorsal ray. 


238. Barbus apogon, Cuv. & Val. Nga-ta-zee and Nga-lay-toun, 
Burm. D. 12, A. 8, L. 1. 36, L. tr. 8/7. Burma. 

239, Barbus ambassis, Day. Bunkuai, Ooriah. D. 11, A. 7, 
L. 1. 36, incomplete. Bengal, Orissa and Madras, attaining about 3 inches 
in length. 

240. Barbus conchonius, Ham. Buch. Kunchon pungti, Beng. 
D. 11, A. 7, L. 1. 26, incomplete, L. tr. 54/63. A black spot on side 
over anal fin. North-West Provinces, Behar and Lower Bengal, attain- 
ing 5 inches in length. 


eelxxxvii 


241. Barbus gelius, Wam. Buch. Cutturpoh, Ooriah: Geli pungti, 
Beng. D. 11, A. 3/5, L. 1. 25, incomplete, L. tr. 9. A black band over 
tail: a spot across bases of the first 6 dorsal rays, another over base of 
anal. Bengal and Orissa, to 2 inches in length. 

242. Barbus ticto, Ham. Buch. Kaoli and Kotree, Wind. D. 11, 
L. 1. 28, incomplete. Throughout India, except the Malabar Coast. 
It rarely exceeds 4: inches in length. 

243. Barbus punctatus, Day. Putter periee, Mal. D. 11, A. 7, 
L. 1. 28, complete, L. tr. 6/4. Two black spots, one below commencement 
of lateral line, the other near its termination, Malabar, attaining to 
3 inches in length. 

244. Barbus phutunio, Nam. Buch. Kaudji kerundi, Ooriah: Phutunt 
pungti, Beng. D. 10-11, A. 8, L. 1. 20-23, incomplete, L. tr. 8-10. 
Four vertical black bands on a brown body, and a dark one down the 
centre of dorsal fin. Bengal, Orissa and Ceylon, up to 3 inches in 
length. 

245. Barbus guganio, Ham. Buch. Gugan?, Beng. D.10, A. 7, 
L. 1. incomplete. Gangetic Provinces and Assam. 

246. Barbus Stoliczkanus, Day. D. 10, A. 7. L. 1. 25, complete, 
L. tr. 5/6. Two black marks on lateral line, Eastern Burma. 

247. Barbus pyrrhopterus, McClelland. D. 9, A. 7, L. 1. 22-24, 
complete, L. tr. 43/44. A dark spot near posterior end of lateral line. 
Upper Assam. 


b. Osseous dorsal ray entire. 


248. Barbus stigma, Cuv. & Val. Po-ti-ah, Chiddu and Paandra, 
Panj.: Katcha karawa and Pottiah, Hind.: Katch-karawa, Can.: 
Chadu perigi, Vel.: Pattiah-kerundi, Ooriah: Nga-khoon-ma, Burm. 
D. 11, A. 8, L. 1. 25, L. tr. 5/4. A dark spot near posterior end of 
lateral line, another across the base of middle dorsal rays. Found 
throughout India and Burma, attains 5 inches in length. ; 

249. Barbus chrysopterus, McClelland. Pot-ti-ah and Door-kak, 
Panj.; Durru, Sind: Bo-ah-re, North;West Provinces. D. 11, A. fp 
L. 1. 23, complete L. tr. 5/5. Fins black tipped. Assam, North-West 
Provinces, Panjéb and Sind. 

250. Barbus unimaculatus, Blyth. D. 11, A. 7, L. 1. 24, in- 
complete, L. tr. 44/43. A black mark at base of each dorsal ray. 
A number of fry from the Tenasserim Provinces are in the Caleutita 
Museum. 

251. Barbus filamentosus, Cuv. & Val. D. 8, A. 7, L. 1. 2), 
complete L. tr. 5/3. Branched dorsal rays elongated. Southern India 
and the Western Coast, attaining 6 inches in length. 

252. Barbus terio, Ham. Buch. Doordah, Panj.: Kakatchia 
kerundi, Ooriah: Teri pungtt, Beng. D. 11, L. 1. incomplete. A black 
mark at side of anal fin, a second under posterior end of dorsal. Panjab, 
Gangetic Provinces and Orissa, attaining 3 or 4 inches in length. 

253. Barbus Duvaucelli, Cuv. & Val. D. 10, A. 7, L. 1. 27, 
complete. Bengal. 

254. Barbus Waagneri, Day. D. 10-11, A. 7, L. 1. 28-24, 
incomplete, L. tr. 4/7. One black spot. Salt range. 


eclxxxviil 


e. Without osseous dorsal ray. 
255. Barbus Punjaubensis, Day. D. 11, A. 5, L. 1. 43, incomplete. 


Lahor, attaining 2 inches in length. 

256. Barbus cosuatis, Ham. Buch. Koswati, Beng. D. 11, A.7, 
L. 1. 22, incomplete, L. tr. 6. Gangetic Provinces and Lower Bengal, 
also Bombay, attaining 3 inches in length. 

257. Barbus vittatus, Day. Kaoli, Hind. D. 10, A. 7, L.1. 20-22, 
incomplete, L. tr. 4/3. Four black spots on side and a black streak down 
the dorsal fin. Mysore, Western Coast, and Cutch, attaining about 
2 inches in length. 

258. Barbus presbyter, Cuv. & Val. D.11, A.7, L.1. 26, L. tr. 6/2. 
Bombay. 

259. Barbus puntio, Ham. Buch, D.11, A. 7, L.1. 23, incomplete, 
L. tr. 4/4. A black spot encircles the free portion of the tail. Bengal 
and British Burma, attaining about 3 inches in length, 


Genus—Nvunrra, Cuv. & Val. 
Esomus, Swainson. 


Pseudobranchiea present. Mouth narrow, directed obliquely upwards, 
sub-orbitals broad. Barbels four, the rostral shorter than the maxillary 
pair. Pharyngeal teeth, crooked, pointed 5/5. Dorsal fin without osseous 
ray, and with few branched ones, it is inserted posterior to the ventral but 
not to over the anal, the latter having but few or a moderate number of 
branched rays. Seales of moderate size. Lateral line, when present, 
passing to the lower half of the buse of the caudal fin. Gill-rakers short. 

260. Nuria albolineata, Blyth. D. 9, A.138, L. 1. 31, incomplete. 
A silvery lateral band. Moulmein. 

261. Nuviadanrica, Ham. Buch. Chid-diil-lu, Panj.: Soom-a-rah, 
Mola, and Mah-wa, North-West Provinces: Danrica and Jonga, Beng. : 
Kurriah dahwiee, Wind.: Nga-zin-byoon, Burm. D.8, A. 8, L. 1. 30-34, 
complete, L. tr. 956. A black lateral band. Throughout India, Ceylon, 
and Burma, attaining 5 inches in length. 

262. Nuria Malabarica, Day. D.9, A.7, L.r. 32, L.tr.7. Lateral 
line absent. A silvery band along the sides, which occasionally has a narrow 
black edge superiorly. ‘The coast districts of India, Burma, and also the 
Nicobars, attaining 8 inches in length. 


Genus—Raspora, Bleeker. 


Leuciseus, sp. Cuv. & Val. 


Pseudobranchiea present. Eyes with free orbital margins. Cleft of 
mouth oblique, lower jaw slightly prominent, having one central and on 
either side a lateral prominence, fitting into corresponding depressions in the 
upper jaw. Barbels two (rostral) or none. Pharyngeal teeth 5, 3 or 4, 
2/2, 4 or 8, 5. Dorsal fin without osseous ray, and but few branched 
ones, inserted posterior to the origin of the ventral, but not extending to over 
the anal, which latter is short. Scales large or of moderate size. Laterat 
line concave, continued lo the lower half of the caudal fin, Gill-rakers 
short, lanceolate. 


eclxxxix 


a. With a pair of barbels. 

263. Rasboraelanga, Mam. Buch. Dahwiee, Wind. D.9, A. 7-8 
L. 1. 40-42, L. tr. 7/6. One pair of rostral barbels. Gangetic Provinces, 
Assam, and Burma, attaining 8 inches in length. 

b. Without barbels. 

264. Rasbora daniconius, Ham. Buch. file-lo-ah, Chin-do-lah 
Raan-haal-le and Charl, Panj.: Mile-lo-ah, North-West Provinees : 
Kokanutchee, Mal.: Jilo, Ooriah: Danikoni and Angjani, Beng.: Nga-doung- 
zee, and Nga-nauch-youn, Burm. D. 9. A. 7, L. 1. 30-32. No barbels, 
mostly a black lateral stripe. Throughout India, Ceylon and Burma, 
attaining 5 inches in length. 

265. Rasbora Neilgherriensis, Day. Ovaree cundec, Tamil. D. 9, 
A.7, L. 1. 34, L. tr. 64/5. A light lateral band. Rivers on or contiguous 
to the Neilgherry Hills; it attains 8 inches in length. 

266. Rasbora Buchanani, Bleeker. VD. 9, A. 7, L, 1. 26-29. No 
lateral band. Gangetic Provinces, Mysore, Madras and Burma. 


Genus—AspPripoParta (Heckel), Blecker. 
Morara, Bleeker. 


Mouth small, inferior: lower jaw having a sharp crescentic 
edge, destitute of lip. Sub-orbital ring of bones, of moderate width or broad. 
Pharyngeal teeth 4, 4, 2/2, 4, 4. Dorsal fin without osseous and with very 
Jew branched rays, commencing opposite to or behind the origin of the ven- 
trals, but not extending to above the anal, which latter has a moderate 
number (10 to 12) of rays. Scales of medium size. Lateral line con- 
cave and passing along the lower half of the base of the caudal fin. 

267. Aspidoparia morar, Nam. Buch. Pa-o-char, Chitwa, Panj.: 
Kareer-ee, Sind : Chippuah and Chel-lu-ah, North-West Provinces: Am/ee, 
Dee. : Morari and Morar, Beng. : Bayi, Ooviah : Nga-hpyen-boo, and Yen- 
boung-ca, Burm.. D. 25, A. 11-12, L. 1. 38-42, L. tr. 54/5, Continent of 
India (except the Western Coast and to the south of the Kistna River), 
Assam and Burma, attaining 6 inches or even more in length. 

268. Aspidoparia jaya, Ham. Buch. Pah-ru-ah, N. W. Prov.: 
Chola, Assam. D. 12, A 10, L. 1. 58, L. tr. 7/10. Upper portions 
of Gangetic Provinces in the plains, and Assam. 

Genus—Rouren, Sykes. 

Osteobrama, Heckel: Smiliogaster (7), Blecker. 

Body compressed and elevated. Pseudohranchia present. Mouth 
anterior: lips thin. Barbels absent. Pharyngeal tecth 6 or 5 or 4, 4 or 
3, 2 or 3/3, or 2, 3 or 4, 4 or 5 or 6. Dorsal fin short, having its last 
undivided ray osseous and serrated, and commencing opposite the interspace 
between the bases of the ventral and anal fins, the latter of which has 
many rays. Scales small. Lateral line passing nearly to the centre of 
the base of the caudal fin. Gill-rakers short. 

269. MRohteecotio, Ham. Buch. Goord-ha, Duh-riee, and Put-too, 
Panj.: Duh-riee, Sind: Goord-ha, Chen-da-lah, Muck-nee, N. W. Pro- 
vinces ; Koti, Beng.: Nga-hpan-ma, Burm. D. 11-12, A. 29-32, L. 1. 
(ly Tae itr wi Continent of India and Burma. 


t 


CCxe 


270. Rohktee Alfrediana,Cuv.and Val. Goonta, Beng. D. 10-11, 
A. 31-36, L. 1. 42-60, L. tr. ih. Lower Bengal, Assam and Burma, 
to 6 inches or more in length. 

271. Rohktee Vigorsii, Sykes. Gollund, Ooriah: Khira,Tel. D.11, 
A. 25-26, L. 1. 75, L. tr. 18/19. Deccan, Kistna and Mahanuddee 
Rivers, attaining 8 inches in length. 

272. Rohtee microlepis, Blyth. Nga-hpeh-oung and Nga-net-pya, 
Burm. D. 11-12, A. 21, L. J. 71-78, L. tr. 18/22. The Godaveri 
River, also throughout Burma ; it attains 15 inches and more in length. 

278. Rohtee Ogilbii, Sykes. D. 11,A. 16, L. 1. 55, L. tr. 13/11. 
Deccan, and Kistna River, to 6 inches or more in length. 


Genus—Baritius—(H. B.) Bleeker. 


Opsarius, sp. McClelland: Pachystomus, sp. Heckel: Chedrus, 
(Swains.) Bleeker; Opsaridium, Peters: Pteropsarion, sp. Schacra, sp. et. 
Bola, sp. Giinther. 

Pseudobranchia present. Mouth anterior, sometimes oblique, and 
having a moderate or deep cleft: lower jaw with a knob above the sym- 
physis, and a corresponding depression in the upper jaw for its reception. 
Sub-orbital ring of bones generally broad, more especially the third, 
which may even extend entirely behind the vertical from the posterior 
edge of the orbit. Barbels four (Pachystomus, “ Heckel,’ Bleeker) or 
two (Bendilisis, Bleeker), or none ( Barilius, Ham. Buch.) Pharyn- 
geal teeth hooked, 5,3 or 4, 2 or 1/1, or 2, 4 or 3, 5: or else 5, 2 or 4/4 or 
2,5. Dorsal fin without osseous ray, of moderate length, inserted posterior 
to the ventrals, sometimes extending to above the anal, which latter has a 
somewhat elongated base. Scales of moderate or small size. Lateral line 
concave continued on to the middle or lower half of the caudal, or incom- 
plete or absent. Gill-rakers very short or absent. 


1. With four barbels (Pachystomus). 


274. Barilius rerio, Ham. Buch. Poncha geraldi, Ooriah. D. 9, 
A.15, L. 1. 26-28, L. tr. 6. Blue horizontal bands. Gangetic Provinces, 
Orissa and Madras, to two inches in length. 

275. Barilius piscatorius, MecClell. Charl and Lo-har-ree, Panj. 
D. 9, A. 18-14, L. 1. 42, L. tr. 8/4. Ten vertical bars. Panjab and 
rivers in the Sub-Himalayan range: Nepal, and Sikkim, also the Gangetic 
Provinces, attaining 5 inches in length. 

276. Barilius radiolatus, Ginther. D. 10, A. 12, L. 1. 56, L. tr. 
5/6. Central India. 

277. Barilius modestus, Day. D.9, A. 12-13, L. 1. 48, L. tr. 

3/44. Back dark, sides silvery. Panjab, to 4 inches in length. 

278. Barilius Bleekeri, Day. D.9, A. 12-13, L. 1. 43, L. tr. 
74/53. Seven vertical bars. Sub-Himalayan range in the Panjab, up 
to 3 inches in length. 

279. Barilius shacra, Ham. Buch. Giirka, Panj. D.9, A. 10, 
L. 1. 53, L. tr. 11/9. Twelve vertical bars. Jumna, Gangetic Provinces, 
and Assam, also Behar, not attaining above 5 inches in length. 

280. Barilius bendelisis, Ham. Buch. D.9, A. 11, L. 1. 43, L. tr. 
8/4. Short vertical bars. Mysore and Southern India, to 44 inches in 
length. 


eexel 


281. Barilius cocsa, Nam. Buch. Pah-tahk, Pul-wah-re, Kun-nul, 
Dahrah, and Bur-re-ah, Panj.: IKhoksa, Beng.: Johra, Mah. WD. 9-10, 
A. 9-10, L. 1. 42, L. tr, Ste, Vertical bars, Continent of India, especially 
on and near mountain ranges; not recorded from the Malabar Coast or 
Sind. It attains 6 inches in length. 


2. With two barbels (Bendilisis). 


282 Barilius vagra, Wam. Buch. D. 9, A. 18-14, L. 1. 42-45, 
L. tr. 64/44. Indistinct vertical bars. Gangetic Provinces, to 5 inches 
in length. 

283. Barilius barila, Ham. Buch. Gilland and Caedra, Beng. : 
Persee, Hind. D.9, A. 13, L. 1. 43-46, L. tr. 64/5. Fourteen or fifteen 
vertical bars. Sind, Gangetic Provinces and Orissa, attaining 4 inches 
in length. 

284. Barilius nigrofasciatus, Day. D. 9, A.13, L.1. 30, L. tr. 7. 
Dark lateral bands. Pegu and Salwein Rivers. Does not appear to attain 
an inch in length. 


3. Without barbels (Barilius). 
285. Barilius Bakeri, Day. D.18, A. 16-17, L. 1. 38, L. tr. 9/4. 


A row of large spots. Hill ranges of Travancore to six inches in 
length. 

286. Barilius Canarensis, Jerdon. D. 12, A. 15, L. 1. 38, L. tr: 
9/4. ‘Two rows of spots. Canara, attaining 6 inches in length. 

287. Barilius gatensis,Cuy.and Val. Aart cundee, “river carp,” 
Tam. D. 10-11, A. 15-16, L.1. 40, L. tr. 8/5. With fifteen vertical 
bars. Western Ghats, Neilgherry Hills, and rivers around their bases. 

288. Barilius tileo, Ham. Buch. T%/ei, Assam. D. 10, A. 14, L. 1. 
05 da. tr: 14/5. ‘Two rows of spots. Eastern portion of the Himalayan 
range and rivers in Assam, attaining 8 inches in length. 

289. Barilius papillatus, Day. D. 10, A. 13-14, L. 1. 39, L. tr. 
Tash. From seven to nine vertical bands. Orissa and neighbouring 
provinces in Bengal, attaining 3 inches in length. 

290. Barilius bola, Ham. Buch. Gool-dah, Panj. and N. W. 
Prov.: Buggarah, Wind.: Korang, Assam: Bola, Beng.: Bugguak, 
Ooriah. D. 10, A. 18, L. 1. 88, L. tr. 25. Two rows of blotches. 
Panjab, North-West Provinces, Bengal, Orissa and Assam, attaining 
a foot in length. 

291. Barilius guttatus, Day. Nga-la-wah, Burm. D.9, A. 14, 
L. 1. 44, L. tr. 9/5. Two rows of spots. Irrawaddi River, to 7 inches 
in length. 

292. Barilius barna, Ham. Buch. Balisundree, Assam: Bahri, 
Ooriah. D. 9, A. 18, L. 1. 42, L. tr. 82. Nine vertical bands. Gangetic 


Provinees, Assam and Orissa, attaining t inches or more in length. 

293. Barilius borelio, Ham. Buch. Boreli and Soli, Beng. D. 9, 
A. 11, L.1. 39, L. tr. 7/7. Silvery. Gangetic Provinces, to. 4 saches 
in length. 

294. Barilius hoalius, Wam. Buch. IWayah, Beng. D.9, A. 10. 
Uniform. Rivers of Northern Bengal, to 6 inches in length. 


eexcil 


Genus—Danto, Ham. Buch. sp. 
Perilampus, sp. McClell,: Paradanio, et Devario, Bleeker. 


Body compressed. Pseudobranchie@ present. Mouth narrow, directed 
obliquely upwards. Sub-orbitals broad. Barbels four, or two, or none: not 
invariably constant in species. Pharyngeal teeth hooked, 5, 3, 2/2, 3, 5. 
Dorsal fin with a moderately elongated base: its posterior rays being opposite 
to the anal, which is long. Scales of moderate size. Lateral line concave, 
passing to the lower half of the caudal fin. Gill-rakers short. 

295. Danio devario, Ham. Buch. Khan-ge, Maal-le, Pur-van-dah, 
Panj.: Chay-la-ree, Lower Sind: Da-bah and Duh-ri-e, N.-W. Prov.: 
Debari, Beng.: Bonkuaso, Ooriah. D. 15-17, A. 17-19, L. 1. 41, 
L. tr. 11/5. No barbels. Throughout India, except the Panjab and 
south of the Kistna; it attains 4 inches in length. 

296. Danio spinosus, Day. D. 15-16, A. 20, L. 1. 52, L. tr. 15/4. 
No barbels, or only a short rostral pair.. One or two spines on edge of 
orbit. Pegu: to 4 inches in length. 

297. Danio aurolineatus, Day. D. 14, A. 18, L. 1. 34-40, L. tr. 
8/4. One pair of rostral barbels. South Malabar, to 8 inches in length. 

298. Danio lineolatus, Blyth. D. 13, A. 17, L. 1. 33, L. tr. 73/3. 
Rostral and maxillary barbels. Sikkim and Darjeeling. 

299. Danio dangila, Ham. Buch. D. 12-13, A. 17-18, L. 1. 38, 
L. tr. 7/44. ‘lwo pairs of long barbels. Darjeeling, Bengal, and Behar, 
attaining 5 or 6 inches in length. 

300. Danio chrysops, Cuv. and Val. D, 18, A. 20, L. 1. 45. No 
barbels. Bengal. 

301. Danio, Neilgherriensis, Day. CowlieTam. D, 12-18, A. 138-14, 
L. 1. 35, L. tr.&%. Rostral and sometimes maxillary barbels. Livers on 
Neilgherry Thlls, to 84 mehes in length. 

302. Danio osteographus, McClelland. D. 13, A. 16-17, L. 1. 
85-87, L. tr. 74/3. Rostral and usually maxillary barbels. India and 
Ceylon, to 6 inches in length. 

303. Danio equipinnatus, McClelland. D. 12, A. 14-16, L. 1. 
82-34, L. tr. 7/33.  Rostral and maxillary barbels. Base of Garrow 
Hills, Assam. 

B. A portion or the whole of the abdominal edge cutting. 


Genus—PrritauPvs, McClelland. 

Paradanio, sp. Day: Cuchius et Eustira, Giinther. 

Pseudobranchie present. Body oblong, compressed, with a cutting 
abdominal edge. Mouth obliquely directed upwards.  Barbels absent. 
Pharyngeal tecth hooked, and in three rows, 5, 4 or 2,2 or 1/1 or 2, 2 
or 4, 5. Dorsal fin rather short, without any osseous ray, and commencing 
opposite or behind the origin of the anal, which last has many rays. Scales 
of moderate size. Lateral line concave, passing to the lower half of the 
base of the caudal fin. 

304. Perilampus atpar, Ham. Buch. lor-ri-ak, Panj.: Bi-dak, 
Sind.: Bonkuaso, Ooviah: Kachhi, Beng. : Nga-man-dan, Ya-paw-nga, pod 
Nga-phyin-gyan, Burm. D. 9. A. 22-24, L. 1. 55, L. tr. 11/4. Greenish 
with a silvery lateral band. Throughout India and Burma, attaining 
4 inches in length. 


eexciil 


3805. Perilampus laubuca, Ham. Buch. Coon-che-li-e, North- 
West Provinces: Dunnahrah, Wind.: Laynbuka and Vankena, Beng. : 
Bankoe, Ooriah: Nga-me-loung, Burm. OD. 11, A. 19-22, L. 1. 34, 
L. tr. 7/5. A black mark above base of pectoral fin. Gangetic Pro- 
vinees, Orissa and Burma, attaining 3 inches in length. 


Genus—Curta, Ham. Buch. 


Oxygaster, v. Hass.: Leucisceus, sp. Cuv. & Val.: Laubuca, Macro- 
chirichthys et Paralaubuca, Blecker. 


Body ‘rather elongated and compressed: abdominal edge cutting. 
Pseudobranchia present. Mouth directed somewhat upwards, with the 
lower jaw prominent, and generally having a knob above the symphysis. 
Barbels absent. Pharyngeal teeth hooked, slender, and in 2 or 3 rows. 
Dorsal fin short, without any osseous ray, situated principally or entirely 
opposite the anal, which latter has an elongated base: pectorals long: 
caudal forked. Scales of moderate or small size. Lateral line concave. 

806. Chela Sladoni, Day. D. 10, A. 21, L. 1. 68, L. tr. 10/8. 
The Irrawaddi River. 

307. Chela argentea, Day. D. 9-10, A. 17-18, L. 1. 43-45, L. 
63/3. Bowany and Cauvery Rivers in Madvas. to 6 inches in ere: 

308. Chela bacaila, UWam. Buch. Pur-rund, Panj.:  Cun- da lah, 
Vounche, and Phar-ba-dan, Sind: Chel-liah and Char, North-West 
Provinces: Jellahri, Ooviah. D. 9, A. 14-15, L. L. 90-110. Throughout 
India except Malabar, attaining 6 inches in length. 

309. Chela novacula, Val. 1.9, A,17, L. iL 60, L. tr. 15/3. India. 

310. Chela flavipinnis, Jerdon. D. ona 17-19, L. 1. Gds luis sbrs 
9/5. Cauvery and its branches. 

311. Chela untrahi, Day. Untrahi, Ooriah. D. 9, A. 20, L. 1. 52, 
L. tr. 7/5. Mahannddee, to 5 inches in length. 

312. Chela phulo, Ham. Buch. Bung-ha-charl, Panj.: Muk-ha, 
Sind: Pdul-chela, Beng.: Dunnahree, Wind. D. 9, A. 20, L. 1. 87, 
L. tr. 12/6. India, extending downwards to the Kistna River; it attains 
4 inches in length. 

313. Chela sardinella, Cuv. & Val. Nga-hkoon-nyat, Burm. D. 9, 
A, 21, L.1,.48, L. tr. 74/4. Irrawaddi River, attaining 6 inches in length. 

31h. Chela Panjubensis, Day. Took, Panj. D.9, A. 17, L. 1. ca. 
110, L. tr. 12/9. Ravi River in the Panjab. 

315. Chela alkootee, Sykes. D.10, A. 10. Deccan, to 1 inch in 
length. 

” 316. Chela jorah, Sykes. D. 10, A. 11. Beema River near Pairgaon 
in the Deccan. 

317. Chela teekanee, Sykes. D. 10, A. 14. Beema River, attaining 
224 inches in length. 

318. Chela gora, Wam. Buch. Boun-chi and Kundul, Panj. : 
Phar-ri-e, Sind: Chel-li-ah, North West-Provinces: Chel-hul, Hind. : 
Gora chela; Beng. : Hum-catchari, Ooriah. D. 10, A. 15, L. 1. 140-160. 
Panjab, Gangetic Provinces, Assam, Orissa and Sind, attaining 8 inches 
in leneth. 

319. Chela clupeoides, Bloch. Netteli, Tam. D. 9-10, A. 14-15, 
L. 1. 80, L. tr. 183/64. South of the Kistna River, attaining 6 inches 
in length. 


cCexciv 


Sub- Fanily—Homarorruntna, Me Clelland. 


(Air-vessel absent). 

Pseudobranchiw absent. Branchial aperture vertical and narrow. Body elongated 
and anteriorly depressed, having a broad smooth abdomen. Snout prominent, before 
the mouth, which latter is small, transverse, central, inferior, and with fleshy 
lips. Barbels present. Pharyn,zeal teeth in a single vow, conical. Pectoral and 
ventral fins horizontal, forming half discs. Body scaled. Air-vessel absent. 


Genus—HoMaALorptera, v. Hass. 

Balitora, Gray: Platycara, McClell. 

Head and anterior part of body depressed : snout more or less spatu- 
late. Mouth small, inferior, with two pairs of rostral barbels, and one at 
either angle of the mouth. Pharyngeal teeth small (from 5 to 15), and in 
one row. Pectoral and ventral fins with many rays, the outer of which are 
simple: dorsal short, situated opposite to the ventral: anal likewise short. 

320. Homaloptera Brucei, Gray and Hard. Cul cundee, stone carp, 
Tam. D.11,. A. 7. L. 1.70. Brown, blotched with darker. This fish is 
found in the rivers of the Wynaad, attaining at least 34 inches in length. 

321. Homaloptera maculata, Gray and Hard. D. 11, A. 7. L.1. 
70, L. tr. 10/7. Found in the Tastern Himalayas, from about. 
Darjeeling, through Bootan, Assam and the Khasya Hills. 


Sub- Family—C onitipina&. 
Air-vessel present, partially, or entirely enclosed in a bony capsule conghina. 


Pseudobranchie absent. Body elongated, oblong, compressed or cylindrical, but not de- 
pressed. Eye* with or without an erectile spine near the orbit. Snout and lips 
fleshy. Mouth small, inferior, and furnished with from six to twelve barbels. 
Pharyngeal teeth few andin one row. Vertical fins spineless; dorsal with a varying 
number of rays (8-30): anal with few (7-8): ventrals absent in one genus. Scales 
small and cycloid when present, usually immersed in mucus. Lateral line single, 
sometimes incomplete or absent. Air-vessel present, entirely or partially enclosed 
in a bony capsule. 


A. With an erectile spine near the orbit. 
Genus—APua, Blyth. 


Body elongated and compressed. A small, erectile, bifid, sub-orbital 
spine. Hight barbels—one rostral, one maxillary, and two mandibular pairs. 
Dorsal jin in the posterior third of the body, but anterior to the anal: 
ventral fins absent. 

322. Apua fusca, Blyth. D.8, A. 8. Pegu. 


Genus—ACANTHOPHTHALMUS, v. Hass. 


Body elongated and compressed. A small erectile, bifid, sub-orbital 
spine. Six barbels—one rostral, and two maxillary pairs. Dorsal fin situated 
an the posterior third of the body, anterior to the anal, but behind the ventrals. 

823. Acanthophthalmus pangia, Ham. Buch. Pangya, Beng. : Nga- 
tha-lay-doh, Burm. D. 8, A. 7. Light cinnamon colour. North-East 
Bengal and northern portions of Burma. 


Genus—ACcanTHOPSIS, v. Hass. 
Prostheacanthus, Blyth. 
Body very elongated. Snout long and compressed. Barbels eight, two 


being mandibular. A small bifid, erectile spine situated in advance of the 
orbit. Dorsal fin opposite to the ventrals: caudal forked. 


CCXCV 


324. Acanthopsis choirorrhynchus, Bleeker. Nga-tha-lay-doh, Burm. 
D. 12, A. 8. Upper portions of the Irrawaddi. 


Genus—CoBi7is, Artledi. 
Somileptes, Bleeker. 


Body elongated and compressed : dorsal profile nearly horizontal. Six 
barbels, on the snout and upper jaw. A small, erectile, bifid, sub-orbital 
spine. Dorsal fin inserted opposite to the ventral: caudal truncated or 
rounded. 

325, Cobitis gongota, Ham. Buch. D. 10, A. 8. Barbels short. 
Assam. 

326.  Cobitis guntea, Ham. Buch. Kondaturi,and Gup-kari, Ooriah : 
Nga-tha-lay-doh, Burm. D. 8-9, A. 7. Barbels long. From Orissa, 
through Bengal and Burma, also in the Bombay Presidency, attaining 4 
inches in length. 


Genus—LEPIDOCEPHALICHTHYS, Bleeker. 
Platacanthus, Day. 


Body elongated and moderately compressed. Hight barbels, two of which 
belong to the mandible. A large, erectile, bifid, sub-orbital spine. Dorsal 
Jin short, commencing opposite or nearly so to the ventral: the internal ray of 
the pectoral fin may be modified into a flat osseous spine: caudal truncated or 
slightly emarginate. 

327. Lepidocephalichthys thermalis, Cuv. and Val. Assaree, Tam. : 
Jubbi cowri, Ooriah: Balu, Hind. D. 9, A. 7. Dorsal slightly in 
advance of ventral. Southern India, the Malabar Coast and Ceylon. 

328, Lepidocephalichthys balgara, Ham. Buch. Jubdi cowri, Ooriah, 
D. 8, A. 7. Dorsal not in advance of ventral. India generally. 


Genus—Borta, Gray. 
Hymenophysa, McClelland. 


Body oblong, compressed, with the dorsal profile more or less conver. 
Eyes with a free circular eyelid: a bifid, erectile, sub-orbital spine. Barbels 
six to eight : when six, all are on the snout and upper jaw: if eight, the extra 
pair are on the mandible. Dorsal fin commences anterior to the root of the 
ventral : caudal forked. Air-vessel in two divisions, the anterior being 
partially enclosed in a bony capsule, whilst the posterior portion is free in 
the abdominal cavity. 

829. Botia nebulosa, Blyth. D.15,A.7. Barbelssix. Darjeeling. 

330. Botia dario, Ham. Buch. Sahinga, Panj.: Buetea. Hind. : 
Shee-uharo, Sind. D. 13, A. 8. Barbels eight. Generally throughout 
the rivers of India, except those of Madras: even in the Sind Hills. 

331. Botia hymenophysa, Bleeker. Nga-tha-lay-doh and Shoay- 
zagay, Burm. D. 11-15, A. 8. Barbels six. Upper portions of the 
Trrawaddi. 

332. Botia Almorhe, Gray. D.12,A.8. Barbelseight. Almorah, 
The Revd. W. Carleton informs that he has also procured it from a 
stream at Kalka, 40 miles from Simla, 

333. Botia rostrata, Giinther. D. 12, A. 8. Barbels eight. 


Bengal and Assam. 


cexevi 


834. Botia Berdmorei, Blyth. D.12,A.7. Barbels eight. Tenas- 
serim Provinces. 


835. Botia histrionica, Blyth. D.10, A. 7. Barbels eight. Pegu. 


Genus—JERDONTA, Day. 

Platacanthus, sp. Day. 

Body elongated and moderately compressed. Eight barbels, two of 
which are mandibulur. A free, erectile, bifid, sub-orbital spine. Dorsal fin 
long (27 branched rays), commencing before the ventrals: the internal ray 
of the pectoral fin modified into a flat osseous spine: caudal slightly 
emarginate. 


336, Jerdonia maculata, Day. D. 30, A.9. Madras, 
B. No erectile spine near the orbit. 


Genus—NEMACHEILUS, v. Hass. 


Acoura et Acourus, Swain.: Acanthocobitis, Peters. 


Body elongated. Dorsal profile nearly horizontal. Barbels eight or 
sia: when the former, the extra pair belong to the posterior nostrils: none on 
the mandibles. No spine on the head. Dorsal fin of moderate length, or 
short, situated opposite the ventrals. 


a. With eight barbels. 
37. Nemacheilus Kvezardi, Day. D. 17, A. 7. Greenish, with 


small dark blotches. Poona. 
b. With six barbels. 

338. Nemacheilus pavonaceus, McClelland. D 15-17, A. 7. Body 
with cross bands: caudal emarginate, with rounded angles. Assam 
and Tenasserim Provinces. 

339. Nemacheilus botia, Ham. Buch. Bil-turi, Assam: Soon-da-lee, 
Panj.: Gool-lu-ah, North-West Provinces. D, 14, A. 7. Body irregu- 
larly blotched. Caudal emarginate. Throughout India, except its most 
southern portion. 

340, Nemacheilus Riipelli, Sykes. D. 12-18, A. 8. Short bars on 
body. Caudal emarginate. Poona. 

341, Nemacheilus moreh, Sykes. D. 12, A. 7. Caudal wedge- 
shaped. Deccan. 

342. Nemacheilus monoceros, McClelland. D. 12, A. 6. Caudal 
rounded. Assam. ’ 

343, Nemacheilus aureus, Day. D.12, A. 7. Body blotched. 
Caudal and dorsal fins barred. Caudal forked. Jubbulpur in the Central 
Provinces. 

S44. Nemacheilus rupicola, McClelland. Larreah, Gur-dun, and 
Chi-tal, Panj. D. 10-11, A. 7. Eleven to seventeen brown bands wider 
than the ground colour, Caudal forked. Himalayas, and from the Pan- 
jab through the North-Western Provinces, Bengal and Assam, attaining 
34 inches length. 

345, Nemacheilus semiarmatus, Day. D. 11, A. 7. Irregular spots 
and bars on body and fins. Caudal forked. Rivers along the base of the 
southern slopes of the Neilgherry Hills in Madras. 


ceexevil 


346. Nemacheilus zonalternans, Blyth. D. 11, A. 7. Ten or eleven 
vertical bands, with intermediate ones superiorly. Caudal entire. 
'Tenasserim. Provinces. 

347. Nemacheilus zonata, McClelland. D. 10,A.6. Tleven to thir- 
teen dark zones encirele the body, not half the width of the ground colour. 
Caudal forked. Upper Assam, Bengal and North-West Provinces. 

348. Nemacheilus subfuseus, McClelland. D. 10, A. 7, ‘Ten brown 
zones encircle the body, wider than the ground colour. Caudal forked. 
Upper Assam and Burma. 

849. Nemacheilus sinuatus, Day. D. 10-11, A. 7. Vertical brown 
bands, with shorter intermediate ones. Dorsal and caudal barred, the 
latter fin cut square. Wynaad and Sind Mills. 

350. Nemacheilus chlorosoma, McClelland. Wattara, Tel. D. 9, A. 
7. A spotted dark line along middle of body. Caudal square. Kistna 
River and Upper Assam. 

351. Nemacheilus phoxocheila, McClelland (?). D.11,A. 7. Assam. 

352. Nemacheilus serpentarius, Day. D. 10, A.7, U1. 64. A dark 
band from eye to dorsal fin. Some specimens in the Calcutta Museum. 

358. Nemacheilus striatus, Day. Cul-trum and Cul-nakura, Tam. 
D. 10, A. 7. Numerous yellow bands. Caudalslightly forked. Wynaad, 
attaining 34 inches in length. 

354. Nemacheilus mugah, Day. Mugah, Beng. D. 9, A. 7-8. 
Fifteen brown bands, one-third as wide as the ground colour. Caudal 
forked. Midnapur, to 2 inches in length. 

355. Nemacheilus notostigma, Bleeker (?). D.10, A. 7-8. Blotched. 
Candal forked. Cauvery River above Trichinopoly, also (?) Ceylon. 

356. Nemacheilus montanus, McClelland. Saant-aland Laal mutehe, 
Panj. D. 9-10, A. 7. Twelve vertical brown bands. Caudal forked. 
Himalayas. 

357. Nemacheilus spilopterus, Cuv. and Val. D. 9, A. 7. Eleven to 
fifteen irregular bands. Caudal slightly emarginate. Himalayas and 
Assam. 

358. Nemacheilus savona, Wam. Buch. Savon-khorka, Beng. D. 
10-11, A. 7. Ten to twelve very narrow white bands. Caudal slightly 
emarginate. Bengal. 

359. Nemacheilus Beavani, Giinther. D. 10, A. 7. Dark bands 
wider than interspaces. Caudal forked. Cossye River, to 2 inches in 
length. 

” 360. Nemacheilns Denisonii, Day. D, 10-11, A. 7. Nine to twelve 
yellowish zones. Caudal forked. Neilgherry and Coorg Hills, and rivers 
along their bases. 

361. Nemacheilus triangularis, Day. D. 10, A. 7. Seven black- 
edged bands. Caudal emarginate. Travancore Hills. 

362. Nemacheilus Griffithii, Giinther. D. 10, A. 7. Marbled. 
Caudal emarginate. Probably from Assam. 

363. Nemacheilus corica, Ham. Buch. Khorika, Beng. : Chould-hi 
and Vaal-la-nah, Panj. D.10, A. 7. About thirteen blotches along 
the side. Caudal forked. Panjéb, North-East Bengal and Assam. 

364. Nemacheilus Guentheri, Day. D. 10,A. 7. Reticulated with 
brown. Caudal lobed. Rivers along the southern slopes of the Neil- 
gherry Hills in Madras. 


eexevill 


365, Nemacheilus Blythii, Day. D.9, A. 7. Brownish. Caudal 
forked. ‘Two specimens in the Calcutta Museum. 

366. Nemacheilus Butanensis, McClelland. D. 9, A. 7. Caudal 
rounded. Bootan, to 5 inches in length. 

367. Nemacheilus rubripinnis, Jerdon, D. 8,A.7. Nine vertical 
bars. Caudal emarginate. Malabar. 

368. Nemacheilus turio, Ham. Buch. D.8 (10?), A. 7. Blotched. 
Caudal emarginate. Assam. 

369. Nemacheilus guttatus, McClelland, D. 8, Blotched. Caudal 
entire. Upper Assam. 


Genus—Misaurnus, Lacép. 

Cobitichthys, Bleeker. 

Body elongated and compressed. No sub-orbital spine. Ten or twelve 
barbels, four being on the mandible. Dorsal fin arising opposite the ventrals. 
Caudal rounded. 

370. Misguraus lateralis, Giinther. D. 10, A. 8. Barbels ten. 
Body longitudinally banded, a black spot on base of caudal. Attains 
above 3 inches in length. Bengal. 


Family—C LuPEIDm, Cuv. 


Gill-openings usually very wide. Pseudobranchiw large (except in Megalops). 
Abdomen compressed into a serrated edge or else smooth. Opercular pieces four, 
Margin of the upper jaw formed mesially by the inter-maxillaries, laterally by 
the maxillaries, which are composed of three pieces, these are sometimes moveable. 
Barbels absent. Dorsal fin with a few or moderate number of rays, no adipose 
fin ; anal sometimes with an elongated base. Scales on body, none on the head. 
Stomach with a blind sac. Pyloric appendages numerous. Air-vessel more or 
less simple. 


A. Abdomen with a compressed, serrated edge. 
Genus—CLueeEa, sp. Artedi. 


Sardinella, Harengula, Rogenia, Clupeonia, Spratella, Kowala, Me- 
letta, et Alausa, Val.: Clupalosa, Bleeker: Alausella, Pomolobus, Opis- 
thonema, Brevoortia, Gill: Sardinia, Poey. 

Body compressed: the serrature of the abdomen extending forwards 
into the thoracic region. Upper jaw not projecting beyond the lower. Teeth, 
when present, deciduous and rudimentary. Dorsal fin situated opposite 
the ventral: anal of moderate or long eatent: caudal forked. Scales large, 
of moderate and more rarely of small size. 

371. Clupea variegata, Day. Nga-la-bee, Burm. D. 15, A. 29, 
L. 1. 90. Anterior scales irregularly, posterior regularly arranged. 
A dark humeral spot. A row of about 18 bars across the back. Dorsal 
with a black band in the lower portion of its posterior half: caudal 
black-tipped. Trrawaddi and its branches, up to 7 inches in length. 

372, Clupea chapra, Nam. Buch, Sou-e and Hilsa, Panj.: Pul-loo- 
ree, Chu-chee, Sind. WD. 15, A. 21-22, L. 1. 80. Scales regularly ar- 
ranged, except over the abdomen. A dark humeral spot. Livers and 
tanks in their vicinity throughout India as low as the Kistna. It attains 
6 or 7 inches in length. 

373,  Clupea palasah, Cuy. and Val. Pudia throughout the Indus 
Oolum, Tam.: Pulasa, Vel.: Hilsa and Ilisha, Ooriah and Beng. 


ceexeix 


Noga-tha-louk, Burm. : “sable fish” Trichinopoly. D. 18-19, A. 19, L. 1. 
45-49, L. tr. 17. This fish, a shad, ascends all the large rivers of India 
and Burma during the 8. W. or N. E. monsoons for breeding purposes. 


Genus—Corica, Ham. Buch. 
Clupeoides, Bleeker. 


Body oblong, moderately compressed. Abdominal serrature generally 
commences behind the ventral fins. Lower jaw longer than the upper. Teeth 
rudimentary and deciduous. Dorsal fin situated opposite the ventral: 
anal of moderate extent, its last rays may be detached. 

374. Coriea soborna, Ham. Buch. Cutwal-alise and Godhaee, 
Ooriah. D. 16, A. 1342, 1.1.40, L. tr. 9. Mahanuddee River, up to 2 
inches in length. 

Genus—PrLLon a, Cuv. § Val. 


Branchiostegals six. Body rather elongate and strongly compressed : 
thoracic and abdominal edges serrated. Mouth of moderate size: upper jaw 
generally emarginate and shorter than the lower. Fine teeth in the jaws, 
palatine and pterygoid bones, also on the tongue, but none on the vomer. 
Dorsal fin medial: ventrals small, inserted anterior to the dorsal: anal 
elongated. Scales large, or of moderate size, rarely small. 

375.  Pellona Sladeni, Day. Nga-zen-bya, Burm. D.13, A. 44, L. 1. 
48, L. tr. 10. Caudal black edged. Irrawaddi River, certainly above 
Mandalay, attaining 7 inches in length. 


Genus—ENGRAULIS, Cuv. 

Clupea, sp. et Stolephorus, Lacép.: Thrissa, Cuv. 

Branchiostegals short, rather numerous. Gill-openings wide, the 
membrane connecting them short, leaving the isthmus uncovered. Body 
oblong or elongated and compressed. Cleft of mouth lateral, snout conical as 
a rule, the upper, but as an exception the lower jaw may be the longer. Inter- 
maxillaries small, concealed: maxillaries of varying length, but always long, 
and with a membranous attachment to the cheeks. Teeth small, sometimes of 
unequal size, usually present on the jaws, vomer, palatine and pterygoid 
bones. The dorsal fin may be in advance of or posterior to the origin of the 
anal: the upper pectoral rays may or may not be prolonged: anal of mode- 
rate or great extent. Scales large or of moderate size. 

376. Engraulis purava, Wam. Buch. Pussa7, Ooriah. D. 13-14, A. 
43-50, L. 1. 46, L. tr. 12. This fish ascends tidal rivers, and frequently 
is found in fresh-water tanks to which inundations have extended. 

377. Engraulis taty, Ham. Buch. D. 13-15, A. 51-56, L. 1. 42-46, 
L. tr. 12. Found in the same localities as the last, but not so commonly. 

378. Engraulis telara, Ham. Buch. Tampara, Ooriah: Pencha, 
Beng.: Nga-hta-yawet, Burm. D. 13, A. 70-78, L. 1. 52-55, L, tr. 14. 
Found in the whole exent of the Ganges, Jumna, Brahmaputra, Maha- 
nuddee and Irrawaddi Rivers. 


Genus—CxHaAtorssus, Cuv. & Val. ' 


Branchiostegals from four to six. Body oval, short, deep, and moder- 
ately compressed, with a cutting serrated abdominal edge. Eyes with lateral 
adipose lids. Snout overhanging a narrow transverse mouth. The superior 
combs of the first branchial arches unite with those of the opposite side 


ecce 


forming two angles, one pointing forwards, the other backwards, the fourth 
branchial arch having an accessory respiratory organ. Teeth absent. A 
single-rayed dorsal fin, having the posterior ray prolonged in some species: 
ventrals in front of or below dorsal fin : anal posterior to the dorsal, elongated : 
caudal forked. 

379, Chatoéssus modestus, Day. D. 16, A. 28, L.1. 47, L. tr. 17. 
Last dorsal ray not prolonged. Uniform colour. Scales regularly ar- 
ranged. Irrawaddi and its branches, to 53 inches in length. 

380. Chatoéssus manmina, Nam. Buch. Mackundi, Ooviah. D. 14, 
A. 21-24, L. 1. 58-60, L. tr. 22. Large rivers and tanks of Assam, 
Orissa and Gangetic Provinces, attaining 8 inches in length. 


B. Abdomen without a serrated edge. 


Genus—Mnre@artors, (Commers), Lacép. 


Branchiostegals numerous: pseudobranchia absent. Body oblong, 
compressed. Abdomen rounded.  Snout obtusely conical. Mouth anterior, 
lower jaw prominent. A narrow osseous lamella adherent to the symphysis 
of the mandibles, covering the intermediate part, between the two bones. 
Gill-membranes separated. Villiform teeth on the jaws, vomer, palatine and 
pterygoid bones, likewise on the tongue and on the base of the skull. A 
single dorsal opposite the ventrals. 

381,  Megalops eyprinoides, Brouss. Cunnay, Mal, : Punnikowu and 
Naharm, Ooriah : Nga-tan-youet, Burm. D. 18-20, A. 24-27, L. 1. 37-42, 
L. tr 6/6. Throughout tanks along the coasts of India and Burma. 


Family—N ororrvEeripe. 


Pseudobranchie absent. Body compressed. Tail prolonged, tapering. Margin of the 
upper jaw formed by the inter-maxillaries mesially, and the maxillaries laterally. 
Barbels absent. Opercular apparatus incomplete. A parieto-mastoid cavity on 
either side, leading into the interior of the skull. A single-rayed dorsal fin, 
belonging to the caudal portion of the vertebral column : anal very long. Head 
and body scaled. Stomach without blind sac: two pyloric appendages. Air- 
vessel present, and divided in its interior, The ova fall into the cavity of the 
abdomen before exclusion. 


Genus—Noroprrrvs, (Lacép.), Cuv. & Val. 


Mystus, sp. Wam. Buch. 


Branchiostegals from three to nine. Gill-membranes partly united. 
Snout obtuse, conver. Muciferous channels on head well developed. Cleft 
of mouth lateral, not deep. Maxilla formed of a single bone, and articulated 
to the inter-maaillary. Lower margin of pre-opercle serrated, likewise some of 
the other bones of the head. Sub-opercle absent. Teeth in both jaws of 
irregular sizes, also on vomer, palatines, pterygoid, and sphenoid bones, and 
in two rows on the tongue. A dorsal in present (Notopterus), or absent 
(Xenomystus) : anal fin long, wnited to the caudal. Ventrals, when present, 
rudimentary and united together. Scales small. Abdomen serrated along 
its margin. Lateral line distinct. Muciferous channels on head well 
developed. Air-vessel sub-divided internally, and ending in front in two 
horns, the anterior of which is in immediate connection with the auditory 
organs : posteriorly it ends in two branches divided from one another by the 
hemal spines. Intestines short. Cacal pylori long. 


ecci 


382. Notopterus kapirat, Bonn. Moh, But,and Pur-ri, Panj.: Moh, 
N.W. Prov. : Ambutan-wahlah, “ Barber’s knife,’ Tam.: Wallak tattah, 
Mysore: Pudi, “a slice,” Ooriah: Nga-hpeh, and Nga-phe, Burm. D. 9, 
A. 100-108, L. x. 225. Throughout the fresh-waters of India and Burma, 
attaining 2 feet or more in length. 

383,  Notopterus chitala, Ham. Buch. Gundun, Sind: Chitul, 
Ooriah : Chitala, Beng. D. 8-10, A. 110-125, L. 1.180. Upper pro- 
file of head concave. Rivers and tanks of Sind, Lower Bengal, and 
Orissa, attaining several feet in length. 


Family—SyYMBRANCHIDE. 
Symbranchii, Miiller. 


Gill-openings confluent into a single slit, which is situated on the abdominal surface. 
Body clongated. Margin of the upper jaw formed by the inter-maxillaries, the 
maxillaries being internal and parallel to them. Barbels absent. Vertical fins 
as mere folds of the skin, and no paired ones. Scales, if present, minute. Vent 
far posterior to the head. Air-vessel absent. Ribs present. Stomach destitute of 
blind sac. No pyloric appendages. Ovaries with ovi-ducts. 


Genus—AMPHIPNOUS, Miller. 


Pneumabranchus, McClelland. 


Gill-membranes almost entirely adherent to the isthmus. Three branchial 
arches having rudimentary lamina, and with narrow slits between them. 
An air-sac communicates with the gill-cavity. Palatine teeth in a single row. 
Scales on body small, longitudinally arranged. 

384. Amphipnous cuchia. Wam. Buch. Cuchia, Ooriah and Beng. : 
Nga-sheen, Burm. Found in the Lower Provinces of Bengal, Orissa, 
Burma, and along the coast, attaining 2 feet or more in length. 


Family—SymBrancuvs, Bloch. 


Unibranchapertura, Lacép.: Ophisternon, McClelland: Tetrabranchus, 
Bleeker. ~ 
Gill-membranes not adherent to the isthmus. Four branchial arches with the gills well 
developed: no air-sac accessory to the gill-cavity. Palatine teeth ina band 
Scales absent. 
385. Symbranchus Bengalensis, McClelland. Lower Provinces of 
Bengal, and coast districts of India. 


Family—M ur @NIDR. 


Body elongated, cylindrical or band shaped. Margin of the upper jaw formed anteriorly 
by the inter-maxillaries, which are more or less coalescent with the vomer and 
ethmoid, whilst laterally the sides of the jaw are formed by the maxillaries 
Vertical fins, when present, confluent or separated by a projecting tail: no ventrals. 
Scales rudimentary or absent. Vent far posterior to the head. Stomach with a blind 
sac. No pyloric appendages. Ovaries destitute of ovi-ducts. 


Genus—ANGUILLA, Cuv. 


Murena, sp. Artedi: Torpolepis, pt., McClelland. 


Gill-openings narrow, situated near the base of the pectoral fins. Upper 
aw not projecting beyond the lower. Teeth small, in bands. Dorsal fin 


cecil 


commences at some distance from the head: pectorals present. Scales small 
and imbedded in the skin. 

386. Anguilla labiata, Peters. Pa-lug-dah, Andam. Fresh-waters 
of Andaman Islands, 

387. Anguilla Bengalensis, Gray. Generally distributed through- 
out India, attaininga large size. 

388. Anguilla bicolor, McClelland. Lower Provinces of Bengal, 
Orissa, and Madras. 

389, Anguilla virescens, Peters. Jee-tah-dah, Andam. Fresh- 
waters of Andaman Islands. 


Order—LOPHOBRANCHII, Cuv. 


Fishes possessed of a dermal, segmental skeleton, with the opercular pieces 
reduced to a single plate. Gill-opening small. Muscular system 
very slightly developed. Gills composed of small rounded tufts 
attached to the branchial arches. Snout produced. Mouth ter- 
minal and small. Teeth absent. Air-vessel stated to be destitute 
of a pneumatic duct. 

“Tn most of the species the males perform the function of hatching 
the eggs, which for that purpose are deposited, up to the time of the 
evolution of the young, either between the ventrals (Sodenostomus), or 
in tail pouches (Hippocampus), or in pouches on the breast and belly 
(Doryrhamphus), or in rows on the breast and belly (Nerophis), and are 
thus carried about by the fish. The egg-pouches may be compared to 
birds’ nests, or to the skin-fold in which the wandering Penguin (dpée- 
nodytes Patagonicus) transports its eggs: and remind one of the Mar- 
supials amongst the mammals,”—Kaup. 


Family—SYNGNATHIDE. 


Gill-oponings round, small, and situated at the posterior-superior angle of the gill-cover. 
A single dorsal fin: ventrals and occasionally one or more of the other fins 
absent. 


Genus—ICHTHYOCAMPOUS, Kaup. 


The edges of the concave back and tail are continuous, and are con- 
tinued, although sometimes very indistinctly, to the caudal fin. Dorsal fin 
opposite or nearly so to the vent: pectorals and caudal present. Egg-pouch 
in the males on the tail, having a cutaneous covering. 

390. Ichthyocampus carce, Ham. Buch. D. 23-26. Rings 15-16 
+8-40. This pipe-fish ascends rivers of Malabar and Bengal ; it 
attains 5 inches in length. 


Genus—DoryicuTuys, Kaup. 


Doryrhamphus,Charoichthys, et Microphis, Kaup.: Belonichthys, Peters. 


Ridges well developed on the body. Humeral bones firmly united. 
Dorsal fin of moderate extent or long, situated opposite the vent. Lateral 
line interrupted or continued to the lower edge of the tail. 

391. Doryichthys cunculus, Ham. Buch, Kunnur-dant, “Crocodile’s 
tovth,” Ooriah. D. 50. Rings 17-18 + 25-27. Found ascending the 
rivers of Malabar and Bengal. 


eceili 


892. Doryichthys Bleekeri, Day. D. 41-45, Rings 20+23. Malabar, 
ascending rivers. 


Order—P LECTOGNATHT, 


Fishes with the bones of the head completely ossified, whilst those in the 
remainder of the body are incompletely so: vertebra few. Gill- 
openings narrow, situated in front of the pectoral fins: gills pectinate. 
Head generally large. Mouth narrow: the bones of the upper jaw 
mostly united, sometimes produced into the form of a beak. Teeth 
may be distinct in the jaws, or absent. There may be a single soft 
dorsal appertaining to the caudal portion of the vertebral column and 
situated opposite the anal: in some a rudimentary spinous dorsal is 
also present: ventrals, when existing, being in the form of spines. 
Skin smooth, with rough scales, or ossified in the form of plates or 
spines. Air-vessel destitute of a pneumatic duct. 


Family—GYMNODONTIDS. 


Bones of upper and lower jaw form a beak, having a cutting edge, and covered 
with a layer of ivory-like substance, in which a median suture may be present 
or absent. A soft dorsal, caudal, and anal exist, but no spinous dorsal : pectorals 
present : ventrals absent. 


Genus—XENOPTERUS, Bibron. 


Chonerinus, Bleeker. 


Jaws divided by a median suture. Nostrils funnel-shaped, having 
Jringed margins. Dorsal and anal fins long. Body more or less covered 
with fine dermal spines having a double or treble root. They are able to 
inflate their bodies with air, and float on the water, abdomen uppermost. 

393. Xenopterus naritus, Richardson. D. 25-26, A. 238-25. Of a 
yellow colour. Found throughout the Burmese rivers far above tidal 
influence. It attains a considerable size, and is used as food, 


Genus—TrETRODON, Linn. 


Back: broad or compressed into a ridge. Jaws divided by a median 
suture. When a conspicuous nasal organ ewists, there may be two on 
either side in a papilla (Tetraodon, Blecker) : or only a single tubular 
nasal opening on either side (Crayracion, Bleeker): or an imperforate 
nasal cavity with a fringed margin (body spiny) (Chetonodon, Miiller): 
ora simple round nasal cavity (body smooth) (Monotretus, Bib.) ; or 
two imperforate nasal tentacles on either side (Arothron, Miill.) : 
or if invisible, and back is compressed into a keel (Anosmius, Peters). 
Dorsal and anal fins short. Body wholly or partially covered by fine 
dermal spines, which, however, may be entirely absent. There may be a 
more or less distinct fold along the lower part of the tail (if nasal organs 
are very distinct) (Gastrophysus, Miiller) : if there is no such fold (but 
distinct nasal organs and spiny body) (Cheilichthys, Miiller) : or should the 
fold be absent and the skin smooth (Liosaccus, Giinther). 

394. Tetrodon cuteutia, Ham. Buch. Teepah-benki, Ooriah. A 
simple round nasal cavity. Body smooth. Brownish lines forming a 
net-work on the sides of the body, whilst a large black ocellus margined 


ecciv 


with white exists on the side. Mouths of the Ganges, Irrawaddi, and 
other large rivers, ascending far above tidal influence. 

395. Tetrodon fluviatilis, Ham. Buch. ‘Two imperforate nasal 
tentacles on either side. Body nearly smooth. Superiorly greenish- 
yellow,with vermiculated blackish lines, becoming white below : there 
are also irregular black spots and blotches. Large rivers of India and 
Burma, far above tidal influence. 

396. Tetrodon patoca, Nam. Buch, Bheng-pulli, Ooviah: Nga-boo- 
din, Burm. An imperforate nasal cavity with a fringed marein. Body 
spiny. Light brown above with whitish spots, becoming: silvery below. 
Large rivers of India and Burma, far above tidal reach. 


Sub-clasx—CHONDROPTERYGII. 


Skeleton cartilaginous: no cranial sutures. Rarely a single 
eill-opening, as the gills by their outer edges are attached 
to the skin, and there exists an intervening gill-opening 
between each: no gill-cover. Three series of valves at 
the bulbus arteriosus. Optic nerves although united 
do not decussate. Body with vertical and paired fins, 
the posterior pair abdominal : caudal with an upper 
lobe, which is elongated. Intestines witha spiral valve. 
Male sex with prehensile organs attached to the vertical 
fins. Ovaries containing large ova which are fertilised, 
and in some likewise developed internally. Embryo with 
external deciduous gills. No air-vessel. 


Order—PLAGIOSTOMAT A. 


Body more or less cylindrical, or depressed : the trunk may or may not 
pass into the tail. Irom five to seven gill-openings, which may be 
lateral or inferior. Jaws distinct from the skull. 


Sub-Order—SELACHOIDET, Ok SHARKS. 


Body more or less cylindrical, gradually merging into the tail. 
Gill-openings lateral. 
Lamily—C Arncu Antipas. 


The snout may be produced longitudinally (Carchaviinz or true sharks): or laterally 
(Zygenina or hammer-headed sharks). Spiracles absent or present Lye with 
a nictitating membrane. Asmall pit may or may not exist above the root of the 
tail, and a second behind the angle of the mouth may be present or absent. Mouth 
erescentic, inferior. Teeth may be erect or oblique, with a single cusp, hav- 
ing sharp, smooth, or serrated edges: or they may be small, the cusps being 
obsolete: or with one in the centre, or one or two lateral ones: or even obtuse. 
The first dorsal fin, destitute of a spine, is placed opposite the interspace between 
the pectoral and ventral: anal fin present. 


Genus—Carncuarias, Miill. and Henle. 


No spiracles. A pit above the root of the caudil fin. Snout longi- 
tudinally produced. Mouth crescentic : the labial fold or grovve rarely 


CcCCV 


extends beyond the angle of the mouth. Teeth with a sharp triangular cusp, 
sometimes dilated. the first dorsal fin, destitute of a spine, rs placed 
opposite the interspace between the pectoral and ventral: caudal with a 
distinct lower lobe. 

397. Carcharias Gangeticus, Miill. and Henle. Teeth 22. Of a 
grey colour. This savage ground-shark ascends all the large rivers of 
India and to above tidal influence; it attains 5 feet in length. 


Sub-Order—BATOIDEI, OR RAYS. 


Body depressed. forming, due to largely developed pectoral 
fins, a more or less flat disc, and having a thin and 
slender tail. Spiracles present. Gill-openings in five 
pairs, inferior. Dorsal fin, when present, on the tail : 
anal absent. 

Family—Pristipm. 


Snout much produced, flattened, and having a saw-like appearance, due to large teeth 
existing along its lateral edges. 


Genus—PrisTis, Latham. 


Body elongate and depressed. Gill-opcnings inferior and of moderate 
width. Spiracles wide and posterior to the eye, which latter has no nic- 
titating membrane. Nosirils inefrior, without tentacles. Teeth minute, 
Dorsal fins spineless : the first quite or nearly opposite to the ventrals: front 
edge of pectoral free. 

398. Pristis cuspidatus, Tatham. Mahanuddi and Irrawaddi 
Rivers, ascending far above tidal influence. 


Family—T ry aontpm. 


Body flattened and dise-shaped, with a long and slender tail. Pectoral fins are conti- 
nued forwards anteriorly and laterally to the end of the snout. No lateral longi- 
tudinal folds to the tail. Vertical fins, if present, in the form of a serrated spine. 


Genus—TRyYGoNn, Adanson. 


Nasal valves coalesce and form a triangular flap. Teeth flattened. 
Pectorals continued forwards to the lateral edge of the snout. Tail long, 
whip-like, either destitute of any fin, or with cutaneous folds, which do 
not extend its entire length: armed superiorly with one or two serrated, 
lanceolate spines. Body smooth or tuberculated. ; 

399. Trygon uarnak, Forsk. Sankush, Ooriah. Ascends rivers, 
often above tidal influence. 

400. Trygon sephen, Forsk. This species is also frequently captured 
above the influence of the tides. 


ecevi 


ON PRESERVING SPECIMENS OF FISH. 


431. The best mode of preparing specimens of fish for scientific 
: : urposes is in spirit,* having the following 
Ao a, making” jpreparnbicns, of Tavantases over stuffing—that they are 
more adapted for examination, are carried 
with greater ease, and are less subject to injury whilst en route. 

432. Tor preserving fish in spirit, the following five considerations 
should be attended to—(1) the spirit; (2) 
the receptacles for the specimens; (3) the 
selecting and preparing the fish; (4) the treatment of the specimens 
as regards how they are to be placed in spirit, their labelling, and their 
packing ; (5) what fish there are for which this process is unsuited. 


Preserving fish in spirit. 


1st.—The spirit—tI prefer the methylated alcohol, it being unsuit- 
ed for drinking, and consequently less chance of being tamper- 
ed with. But bazar arrack, or any spirit which will burn on 
the application of fire, and be entirely consumed, is of sufficient 
strength for the preservation of fish. On this spirit becoming 
too impure for use, it can be re-distilled. 

2nd.—The receptacle for the specimens,—Vhese for collectors (in con- 
tradistinction to the glass jars or bottles required in muse- 
ums) are of two kinds:—tins with screw lids, and glazed 
earthenware jars with cork bung, each having its advantages 
and disadvantages. Zin cans are made at Calcutta of any size, 
fitting wooden collecting boxes. The following I have found 
useful :—a strong iron-bound wooden box, with a lid having 
hinges and a hasp for a padlock, 16 inches high, 14 broad, 
and 12 wide (inside measure), receiving two cans which aceurate- 
ly fit it. Each of these cans has an opening into which is 
soldered a brass female screw of 4 inches in diameter; a 
moveable top screws into this orifice (cost about Rs. 30). The 
disadvantage of the cans are that no means of evaporation 
existing, the spirit is liable to become much heated during the 
hot weather, to the great injury of the specimens whilst travel- 
ling. The advantages are that there is no leakage, whilst each 
tin, if so desired, can be singly earried by a cooly without any 
chance of breakage. The glazed earthenware jars with cork 
bung are very well adapted for specimens, and spirit keeps 
much cooler in them than in tin cans. The disadvantages are 
that the bungs may leak, or the jars become broken; they 
require bladdering, and also painting or varnishing over the 
bladder to render them secure. Swmadd bottles well wrapped up 
mm rag are exceedingly useful, put inside tins or jars for the 


* I omit weak solutions of carbolic acid, as we have yet to ascertain what 
proportions will be most suitable for them to stand the rough usage of Indian transit, 
as well as how long they will keep. 


ecevil 


purpose of protecting small specimens, or small perforated tin 
boxes would answer the same purpose. 

Srd.—Choosing and preparing the specimens.—Vish necd not be 
above 6 or 8 inches in length, unless of an eel-like shape, 
when they should be twice that length; care must be taken 
to obtain them fresh; a long slit should be made up their ab- 
domens, the intestines, except the air-bladder, removed, and 
the abdominal cavity well washed out. If it is desired to 
preserve the intestines, they should be carefully and gently 
smeared over with a thin layer of arsenical paste. Sharks, 
rays, and skates should never be less than 10 inches in length 
excluding the tail, whilst larger ones should be skinned, care 
being taken not to injure the jaws or the teeth. 

4th.—The treatment of the specimen after it has been prepared. 
The first thing to be done to every specimen, whilst moving 
about, is to attach a distinguishing mark to it. This may be 
accomplished by appending a piece of tin having a number 
seratched upon it, or a bit of parchment on which one has been 
inscribed in indelible ink (or even in common dark ink if allowed 
to thoroughly dry previous to being put in the spirit). The 
locality where taken, and the native name when procurable, 
should be invariably recorded. The specimens may now be 
placed inside the first or soaking jar, or tin can full of spirit, 
being careful that the fish should not fill up above half of the 
receptacle in hot weather, or two-thirds in the cold season. 
Here they may be left to soak for six or cight days, and then 
be removed, washed, and placed in a second or intermediate jar 
of clean spirit, from whence they may be finally removed after 
ten days’ soaking. Hach must now (about 16 or 18 days after 
capture, according to their size) be rolled up securely in rag, and 
packed tightly in a case of fresh spirit. In rolling specimens 
up in rag, no two should touch each other. Unless thus 
secured, their fins will be destroyed when marching, their scales 
rubbed off, and most probably they will be irretrievably ruined. 
‘he spirit in the first and second Jars can be used several times 
over for the first process in fish-soaking ; when it becomes 
cloudy and dirty, it should be re-distilled. 

5th.—The specimens for which this process is unsuited are the larger 
fish, as it is presumed the collector will not carry a cask of 
spirits in order to secure them. Large sharks, rays, and skates 
it is intended to keep, should be skinned and preserved by 
means of arsenical soap, and well svaked in turpentine. The 
mode of skinning fish is too well known to require detailing 
here, 


Finis. 


This preservation photocopy was made 
at BookLab, Inc. in compliance with copyright law. 
The paper meets the requirements of ANSI/NISO 
Z39.48-1992 (Permanence of Paper) 


Austin 1995 


2. pale pee — al 
ony ee) =, SD 
—— ‘ ——- ‘. ae ey Ai 


+(ns @@ antl) So" > OF. ben, 
ee 
“@ 
Res = 


a 


viii 


00802 8821 


ay 


: